OCIAL DEVELOPMENT PAPERS A ENV ' ON 1 E N A-A '.YAN S CiY A ', L UST A; N AB LE ' V F LO PM E N-r NET WORK Paper Number 34 22373 November 1999 Social Assessment for the Turkey Forest Sector Review AyUe Kudat with B. Bfilent Ozbilgin, Nezih Kuleyin, Ismet Yalqzn, and Ozta, Ayhan THE WORLD BANK Social Development Papers Paper Number 34 November 1999 Social Assessment for the Turkey Forest Sector Review AyUe Kudat with B. Bulent Ozbilgin, Nezih Kuleyin, Ismet Yalpn, and OztaU Ayhan This publication was developed and produced by the Social Development Family of the World Bank. The Environment, Rural Development, and Social Development Families are part of the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Network. The Social Development Family is made up of World Bank staff working on social issues. Papers in the Social Development series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are published informally and circulated to encourage discussion and comment within the development community. Copies of this paper are available from: Social Development The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Fax: 202-522-3247 E-mail: sdpublications@worldbank.org Contents Acknowledgments iii Executive Summary 1 Introduction 1 Social Assessment 1 Recommendations 8 Community-Based Pilot Projects 11 1. Introduction 14 2. Social Assessment 16 Objectives and Methodology of the SA 16 Key Findings of the Stakeholder Workshop 18 3. Background 20 Turkey's Forests 20 Legal and Institutional Framework 21 Forest Villages 24 4. Infrastructure in Forest Villages 34 Roads and Transport 34 Water and Irrigation 35 Education 37 Health Care 37 Electricity and Mass Media 39 Economic Conditions in Forest Villages 41 Income Levels and Dependency on the Forest 48 Types of Credit 66 Ownership and Use of Forest Resources 71 Other Stakeholder Perspectives 76 5. Recommendations 96 Poverty Reduction 96 i Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures 107 Annex 2. Ardditional Tables 124 Annex 3. Calculation of Value Contribution of Fuelwood in Forest Villages 135 ii Acknowledgments This report is the result of a collaborative effort report. Cristina Tumale-Habib desktopped the involving individuals from several organiza- document. Rural and Urban Development tions. Task manager Francois Wencelius and Foundation translated the final report into World Bank resident mission staff members Turkish. Nedret Durutan and Cuneyt Okan made sig- nificant contributions in designing and imple- We also gratefully acknowledge the collabo- menting the project successfully. ration of the local and headquarters staffs of the Ministry of Forestry, the staff of a large Special thanks are due to sociologist Oya number of local representatives of various Agikalm, who assisted during the initial phase ministries, local governments, the Agricultural of the project, and to sociologists Yuksel Vardar, Bank, private sector representatives, trades- Omer Kazanoglu, Buket Genc, and Yuksel men, merchants, craftsmen, members of non- Canturk, who helped conduct the fieldwork. governmental organizations (NGOs), hun- Can Adamoglu contributed to research and dreds of village headmen and members of the writing of the report. John W. Fraser Stewart, village councils, and thousands of men and Shelton H. Davis, Michael Cernea and Augusta women who spent hours with the social as- Molnar contributed valuable comments to the sessment team. . . Executive Summary Introduction tory. The condition of Turkey's forests, in terms of wood-stocking rates and productiv- In November 1996, the World Bank met ity, appears to have begun to improve. Less with the Government of Turkey Treasury, the information is available regarding the loss of State Planning Organization (SPO), and the biological diversity from Turkey's forests, of Ministry of Forestry (MOF) to discuss the which approximately 3,000 species of indig- possible content and priorities of the World enous flora hold major international signifi- Bank country assistance strategy (CAS) in cance. relation to agriculture, rural development, While outmigration tends to reduce pres- and the environment. During these discus- sure on forest resources, 9 million of Turkey's sions, the Turkish government expressed its poorest people continue to live on forest concerns about the need to safeguard the eco- lands. According to the official perspective, nomic, social, and environmental value of the encroachment of agricultural land use, Turkish forest resources, and to improve the unsustainable grazing, and the use of forest economic condition of the 9 million people products (primarily fuelwood) continue to living on forest lands. The government then present major threats to the forests. Accord- asked the World Bank to address these issues ing to the forest villagers' perspective, how- in the CAS and expressed its intention to con- ever, it is the forest fires that present the duct a forestry sector review with a view to- greatest threat to the forests. The analysis of ward identifying priority problems and the empirical data collected and systematic potential actions. The government also re- interviews of a broad range of stakeholders quested Bank technical assistance and finan- show, however, that factors associated with cial support in this area. It was decided that forest degradation are region- and commu- part of this support would include a social nity-specific, and require solutions with simi- assessment (SA). lar specificity. A large proportion of Turkey's rural population lives in or around forests and Social Assessment earns its living from forests or forest-related sectors. According to 1997 statistics, there are A social assessment (SA) consists of: more than 18,000 forest villages in Turkey. According to the government, invest- * Identifying key stakeholders and an ments in forest management, combined with appropriate institutional framework for outmigration from rural communities, has their participation in policies, projects, resulted in a reversal of the trend toward deg- and implementation radation of forest resources that has been * Evaluating the social impacts of existing prevalent throughout much of Turkey's his- policies on various stakeholder groups 1 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review and undertaking similar analyses for highest reliance on grazing were also sub- proposed policy changes stantially under-represented.2 Nevertheless, • Designing mitigating measures for poli- some data pertaining to other regions -and cies with adverse impacts collected by other teams dealing with issues * Identifying critical interventions to of biodiversity and grazing-were incorpo- sustain resources and improve the liveli- rated into the SA report to complement its hood of communities benefiting from results.3 them, including credits that were pro- vided by the Agricultural Bank and General Findings of the SA ORKOY (the department of the Ministry Forests, besides having vital protective, of Forestry in charge of providing credit environmental, and productive functions, to forest communities) also have great potential to contribute to eco- * Ensuring that proposed institutional and nomic growth in rural areas, but this poten- policy changes, as well as pilot projects, tial has been insufficiently realized when are acceptable to and appropriate for the considered from the perspective of forest vil- relevant low-income groups. lages. Ironically, in the past, forest communi- ties have followed a path out of poverty by In addition, the SA aims to assess the so- degrading the forests and opening them up cial constraints to and potential for the sus- for agriculture and livestock. Those who have tainable management of forest and pasture remained poor are those who are currently resources on forest land evaluate the impact highly reliant on forests because agricultural and effectiveness of past' and ongoing inter- land is not available. However, even commu- ventions to support forest village communi- nities with high reliance on forests derive ties and propose operational methodologies only a small portion of their household in- to involve these communities in the sustain- come from forest-related activities; therefore, able use and management of forest resources. they do not look at forests for support in re- The SA is based on systematic qualitative and ducing their poverty. quantitative methods and participatory pro- The widespread view of forests simply as cedures. Statistical sampling and survey pro- groups of trees rather than as integrated eco- cedures are explained in Annex 1. systems has hindered the full utilization of At the request of the task team leader for forest resources. The state utilized forests the Turkey Forestry Sector Review and as per primarily for their wood and did not share a discussion with the Ministry of Forestry, the revenues of forests with forest communi- empirical focus of the SA was confined to ties. Neither the forest flora nor its fauna only three regions of Turkey: the Mediterra- was effectively utilized; this situation con- nean, the Aegean, and the Black Sea. This was tinues despite emerging awareness of the justified on the grounds that these three re- developmental potential of forests. Exploring gions accounted for 60 percent of the total this potential, however, is not easy, and scat- number of people who live in forest commu- tered pilot efforts are unlikely to reduce the nities (Annex 1) and because limited re- poverty in communities that rely on forest sources were available to carry out the resources. empirical work required for the assessment. Currently, communities that are unable to As a result, it is likely that poorer communi- engage in agriculture or in raising livestock ties and populations were under-represented are forced to migrate rather than exploit for- in the SA. It is also evident on the basis of the est flora and fauna for income and employ- work separately carried out by the Bank on ment. Centralized forest policies limit the grazing resources and livestock management rights of local people, and exclusive state in forest lands that communities with the ownership of forests prevents community 2 Execzutive Summary participation. Excessive migration, combined investments should target these vulner- with the inability of communities to generate able communities, but with an awareness sustainable income from forest management, that there are major problems and con- has led to indifference toward forest develop- straints. These measures should assign ment. The continued monopoly of the state ownership and responsibility to commu- over forest resources and recent state-private nities in their design and implementation, sector partnerships in the management of but do so with specificity and with aware- forests have increased community distrust. ness that decades of poverty and The challenge is to: outmigration have substantially deprived these communities of their human re- * Continue promoting forest sustainability sources base. Appropriate technology and through measures that have already incentives for the evolution of nonwood proved effective products should be developed. Projects * Assist in the development of the poorest such as ecotourism, carpentry, and hunt- forest villages through integrated rural ing and sport fishing should be supported development interventions rather than by with flexible and efficiently managed merely relying on forest sector solutions small-scale credit programs. Communi- * Mainstream positive results of ties should be allowed to develop and biodiversity efforts already piloted and commercialize forest-based economic explore far more aggressively interven- activities. The roles of the state, the tions to enhance income potentials private sector, and citizens should be offered by the forest flora and fauna reexamined to ensure that the rights and * Ensure that wood and nonwood revenues responsibilities of each stakeholder group of forests are shared with forest commu- are allocated equitably. nities on a more equitable basis * The perspectives of other stakeholders are * Control threats to the forest that come different and cannot be detailed equally from outside forest communities, includ- in this report. The views of the local ing urban expansion. representatives of the MOF and OGM (the General Directorate of Forestry) and There are many stakeholders in the deci- those of ORKOY and the Agriculture sions and actions that affect the conservation Bank are summarized in the relevant of forest resources in Turkey. The interna- sections. It should suffice to say that the tional community, in some instances, feels as MOF is looking for approaches that much a stakeholder in many decisions as the would reduce state responsibilities and state, local communities, and civil society. As expenditures in forest management and a result, there are numerous problems and increase the roles of the communities and potential solutions, most of which require the private sector. ORKOY and the Agri- extensive public consultation for design and culture Bank are largely aware that implementation. small-scale credits that were offered to forest villagers were neither fully ad- * Because of the poverty focus of the SA, equate nor effective in reducing the many of its findings are summarized poverty of those most in need, but have from the perspective of the forest village helped reduce community destruction of communities and the poor villagers forests and enhance appreciation of forest within them. Forest communities are the sustainability. poorest of the poor, and the greater their * The media have an important role to play, reliance on forests, the poorer they are. but media representatives point to two Thus, poverty reduction policies and major constraints to their ability to do so. 3 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review First, many journalists have inadequate variations.5 Therefore, forest policies should training in environmental issues. Second, be developed with flexibility, taking regional with few exceptions, media owners and and community-specific variations into con- managers provide little support for what sideration. they believe to be "non-newsworthy" Forest communities are poorer than other environmental matters. There is, however, rural villages. An average of 64 decares of a need to train environmental journalists land is available per household in rural Tur- and to ensure that the Turkish public key, but the SA showed that only 25 decares becomes fully aware of the biodiversity of land are available per household in forest richness the country offers. villages.6 Forest villagers also have low rates * Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) of livestock ownership, resulting in lower have started to increase their activities income.7 Average annual household incomes with respect to environmental concerns, in the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Aegean but few of them are truly grassroots regions are $1,965, $1,837, and $2,647, respec- organizations. As a result, they have tively. By comparison, rural incomes in these contributed more to creating awareness of regions are $3,520, $3,506, and $3,795,8 re- conservation than to poverty reduction in spectively, and the national average annual forest communities. household income is $4,734 (all dollar * The range of the private sector that deals amounts are in U.S. dollars). with the forest sector is highly heteroge- Poverty increases for villagers as they rely neous. Those utilizing tree products for more on forest resources. Communities that their activities are primarily interested in can increase their agricultural productivity the price and reliability of supply. Those are able to break the cycle of poverty. Com- dealing with herbal, medicinal, and other munities for which agricultural land is scarce wild food products point to the potential are particularly poor. This situation can be for exports, but indicate that the low local improved by altering the system of forest prices of these products are major disin- resource ownership or by devising ecologi- centives for the villagers' willingness to cally sound innovative approaches for the supply them. At the other end of the integrated use of forest resources. private sector are family firms that travel Villagers cannot support themselves ex- from one region to the other contracting clusively with forest products. Only 10 per- their services to local offices of OGM for cent of forest village households are able to harvesting, reforestation, and erosion earn enough income from forest-related sec- control activities. tors to meet their needs. Nonetheless, com- munities that are completely dependent on Specific Findings and Recommendations forest resources and have no access to land Forest communities live in villages or suitable for cultivation can reduce their pov- mezras (communities smaller than villages). erty only by using the forest more efficiently. In recent years, the population of forest vil- Therefore, efforts to improve forest manage- lages has decreased because of poor local ment should initially target villages depen- economic conditions and the lure of larger dent on forests. incomes outside the village. This decrease in The MOF has a centralized structure. This population combined with government regu- limits the ability of local administrations to lation and the increasing awareness level of resolve problems through their own initia- communities in these areas have led to a re- tive. They are obliged to wait for decisions duction in the destruction of forests.4 Both from headquarters on even minor procure- the productivity of forests and the character- ment and resource allocation issues. As a re- istics of forest communities show regional sult, funds are often significantly delayed and 4 Executive Summary decisions are made by people who do not sources are not suitable for drinking, espe- possess adequate local knowledge. Expedit- cially in the Aegean and Mediterranean re- ing consultative and pilot efforts to guide the gions. Water problems are most severe during process of decentralization is, therefore, a key the summer season, when population in- priority. creases because of tourism and migrants re- turning to their native villages for vacation. Village Infrastructure Education seems to be the best-provided Forest villages suffer from poor basic in- government service in forest villages. Most frastructure such as transport and social ser- villages have schools and the teacher-student, vices. The household survey revealed the ratio is relatively high compared with that in most important priorities of people as pov- other parts of the country. However, inter- erty, health conditions, roads, and education, views with residents indicate that most teach- while the village headman survey ranked ers do not work continuously, experienced water scarcity as the most important prob- teachers are not appointed to forest villages, lem. Health problems are common in half of and the overall quality of education is low. these villages, with conditions being worse in Survey respondents ranked education second forest villages than in forest-neighboring vil- or third among their problems, along with a lages. The SA found that the incidence of lack of higher education institutes. This accel- health problems is proportional to the level of erates migration from forest villages to the poverty in these areas. cities, especially among the younger genera- Poor road quality and resulting social tion. Indeed, like poverty, lack of access to isolation are significant problems in forest good-quality education is a key determinant villages. One-third of village roads are still of permanent or seasonal outmigration from unpaved in Turkey. These conditions limit the forest communities. access of communities to markets and con- Based on the above description and addi- sumer products, especially in winter months. tional quantitative indicators, there appears Despite these conditions, many people travel to be adequate but unreliable physical infra- for daily or seasonal jobs outside their vil- structure in forest communities. Both villag- lages. This pattern is most common in the ers and administrators complain about the Black Sea region and helps reduce poverty poor quality of the maintenance of infrastruc- substantially. ture and the low level of services. Unreliabil- Electricity is available in all forest com- ity of services is the single most important munities. Among the survey participants, 82 issue to be addressed. Also, inadequate coop- percent have refrigerators, 33 percent have eration between the MOF and the Ministry of washing machines, and 13 percent have at Village Works limits the effectiveness of these least one transport vehicle in their house- "services." Long-lasting winters block many holds. Mass communication has reached all mountain villages with snow, increasing their communities, and ownership of radios and isolation. In summer, acute water shortages televisions is very high. There is greater expo- are felt strongly in forest villages, as villagers' sure to television than to radio. Few villagers, ability to transport water from the plains or however, listen to programs focusing on rural urban areas is limited. The complexity of the production. administrative structure that governs villag- Forest villages have serious problems ers' lives further sharpens their feelings of gaining access to irrigation and drinking wa- isolation. Although MOF and ORKOY pro- ter. Thirty-nine percent of forest villages men- vide a certain level of funding for housing, tioned water scarcity in the SA, with the infrastructure, and maintenance work to Mediterranean area having the highest com- these communities, these funds are inad- plaint rate (60 percent). Existing water re- equate to bring the necessary infrastructure 5 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey forest Sector Re'iew to the area and reduce villages' physical and nomic benefits of forests increase and these social isolation. benefits already received gain monetary The government is already taking steps to value, community perceptions of the value of expand the scope of the primary education forests may not change substantially. throughout the country.9 Forest villagers The single most important economic ben- complain about the unreliability and unavail- efit obtained from forests is energy for heat- ability of quality health services; therefore, ing and cooking. Twenty-eight percent of some degree of health sector centralizing may households in forest villages depend com- also be advisable. Centralization of these ser- pletely on only wood for heating and cook- vices, however, requires better transport and ing, and 57 percent use wood for heating but transport services infrastructure. As men- not for cooking. About 75 percent of house- tioned before, however, villagers interviewed holds shift to gas for cooking during summer. identified poor roads and inadequacy of ser- As incomes increase, communities start to vices as a third priority, after poverty and diversify their heating or cooking fuel health issues. The survey also could identify sources from wood to other alternatives. Ac- transport conditions and services as impor- cording to estimates based on the market tant problems for forest villages at the re- value of fuelwood, excluding labor and trans- gional level, although it cannot obtain portation, the SA calculated an index to mea- statistically representative results for trans- sure the economic benefit households derive port problems of subregional pockets. from forest fuel. Annual household savings amount to $192 for the Black Sea region, $55 Economic Benefits of the Forest for the Mediterranean region, and $91 for the The SA attempted to estimate the eco- Aegean region. However, because of the ad- nomic benefits that communities derive from ditional labor required for collecting and forests. To do so, it examined a range of ac- transporting this fuel, families that can afford tivities and found that people collect wood it prefer to pay more for the convenience of for heating and cooking; get timber for home other fuel sources, such as gas. As a result, building; graze their animals on the pasture not all forest communities fully utilize the lands in forest openings and on the degraded benefits that the state allows them under the forest areas; utilize leaves and shoots as win- law. Generally, the lower a villager's income, ter feed for their animals;'0 and use forests for the higher his reliance on the forest as a fishing, beekeeping and gathering and selling source of fuel. herbs. Villagers also work in forests as wage The forest administration allows villagers laborers, helping the state maintain and de- to collect shrubs and cut down old trees for velop these forest resources. All of these ac- heating. In each region, once the state com- tivities generate cash or in-kind income. pletes harvesting and maintenance activities, Forest communities may be deriving other it leaves it to the communities to collect the benefits from forests, but the SA focused on shrubs for cooking and heating. This is also a those benefits that are most significant and valuable service provided by villagers to the directly measurable. state; if communities did not gather the Economic dependence, whether in-kind shrubs, forest fires would be more frequent. or for cash, on forests is limited in forest vil- There is state funding for first-time house lages. Forest-related productive activities builders and a limited fund for reconstruc- such as beekeeping; fishing; spice, medicinal, tion. However, this funding is getting harder aromatic, and ornamental plant trading; and to obtain. Wood allocations to communities carpentry provide little cash income to forest from the MOF for home construction total villagers. However, they are important around $83.5 million, and allocations for sources of in-kind income. Unless direct eco- heating are $47.2 million in Turkey. This 6 Executizve Summany translates to an additional benefit of $78 of a "Forest Dependency Index" was calculated annual average income per forest community by aggregating the aforementioned depen- household. dencies. In the Black Sea region, a household Villagers also benefit by grazing their derives an annual benefit of around $349 livestock in pastures that belong to the MOF from forests. Most of this is in-kind income. and in forests, although this is illegal. Graz- Figures for the Mediterranean and Aegean ing their animals in forests allows villagers to regions are $274 and $285. This constitutes 18 save money that would otherwise be spent percent, 14 percent and 11 percent of total on animal feed."1 The SA estimates that the annual household income in these respective annual economic benefit that households regions. In other words, forest households in derive from this activity is $26 in the Black the Black Sea region derive 18 percent of their Sea region, $34 in the Mediterranean area, income (in-kind or in cash) from forests. and $30 in the Aegean region. Mediterranean Other regions are less dependent on forests and Aegean region villagers save more than for income. Black Sea communities because their grazing season is much longer. Institutional Issues Another important benefit of forests re- Policies governing land and forest re- lates to wage labor. According to SA findings, source ownership are currently being debated 38 percent of households provide wage labor- in Turkey. These unresolved institutional is- ers to the forest administration roughly eight sues create problems between the state and days per year. This brings an average annual communities. Although the concept of trans- cash income of $103 per household. If it is ferring ownership of forests to communities assumed that the village communities not is under discussion, concrete policies and included in the SA sample work the maxi- actions are lacking. Additionally, the land use mum period indicated by the sample (that is, practices of local municipalities present a use upper estimates), it is estimated that $66.5 significant threat to forests and must be regu- million is generated annually at the national lated. While the public debate over forest level. However, official figures show that in ownership has begun, further research on 1996 the MOF disbursed more than $200 mil- state, local government, and community rela- lion in wages. The difference can partly be tionships is needed. Social assessment can explained by labor done by migrant workers catalyze and advance this debate by provid- who travel from place to place. The SA also ing critical data on the condition of Turkey's found that while forest villagers live in ex- forests, forest villages and their residents. treme poverty and would greatly benefit The MOF's centralized system of staff and from the potential earnings of forest activi- management appointments aggravates the ties, it is the state that retains the majority of communication problems that exist between forest revenue. the state and citizens. The rapid turnover of There are groups of traders who come management and staff leads to a lack of fa- from outside of forest communities to trade miliarity with the local people and their tradi- in forest products such as sage tea, bay tions. Thus, public sector staff are often seen leaves, thyme, honey, and lumber. There is as insensitive to community needs. There is little competition between these traders, so also a lack of ecological expertise among em- communities are forced to sell their produce ployees that is exacerbated by inadequate cheaply. As a result, few villagers are inter- staff training and orientation on environmen- ested in developing forest resources for com- tal issues. mercial purposes. Politics plays an important role in the To estimate the total value of economic promotion of employees in the organizations benefits that villagers derive from the forest, responsible for forest management. This 7 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Reviezw shifts staff members' accountability from the residents through locally specific and institutions they work for to politicians and flexible policies. In communities that rely fuels distrust of the state and the agencies on forests, nonforest sources of income responsible for managing the forest sector. To provide the largest part of income; thus, eliminate this problem, management must poverty reduction interventions targeting make evaluations based on employees' per- forest communities must consist of an formance, not their political connections. integrated package of rural development While forest communities possess signifi- inputs. There are no easy solutions to cant knowledge about the animal and plant poverty reduction in forest communities resources of the forest, they lack information with limited agricultural potential; thus, and other resources to develop forest re- expectations should be modest. sources to their full potential and generate Among actions to be implemented by the sufficient income. Furthermore, the inad- MOF, priority should be given to the equate knowledge of the forest sector staff of preparation of local multipurpose forest MOF and OGM leads to insufficient support management plans so that sufficient focus to communities for the exploration of the full is placed on the nontimber resources of potential of the forest. It is therefore impor- forest regions. It is extremely difficult to tant to improve the understanding of forest escape poverty through traditional meth- ecology at all levels of society, including the ods of forest resource exploitation. state institutions dealing with forestry, uni- Hitherto, communities have been able to versities, and the public at large. reduce poverty only through the expan- Forest communities and the government sion of agriculture and livestock-raising have different priorities regarding forests. activities. Therefore, while recommending The government defines forest management that the forest reliant communities be policy without community consultation and assisted through improvements in their implements it using its own staff. State re- utilization of forest resources, we also sources are managed without mobilizing the want to urge that nontraditional, innova- energy and entrepreneurial capacity of the tive methods be found to alleviate people. State-community collaboration has poverty. It must also be recognized that born fruit in the past, and new opportunities there are ecological constraints for scaling should be explored. Ongoing state-private up economic activities based on forest sector cooperation in forest resource manage- resources.12 These constraints have ment (that is, contracting implementation of already led many forest villagers to several forestry works to private firms, in- migrate to other parts of Turkey. cluding forest inventory, management plan- * It must be recognized that the forests ning, road construction, reforestation, provide integrated resources and harvesting, transportation, and erosion con- should be considered holistically, in- trol activities) can provide good examples of cluding trees and other plants, animals, how responsibility can be shared among the water resources, and human resources. state, the private sector, and civil society. There is a need to modify the over- whelmingly heavy reliance on timber Recommendations resources. There is an enormous need to create Poverty Reduction public awareness of forest ecosystems * Forest villages are the poorest of the poor. and enhance the demand for nontimber Poverty-focused development programs resources forests offer, including recre- should target these villages and seek to ation. This requires the creation of not increase income opportunities for their only external demand but, equally impor- 8 Executive Summary tant, national and local demand for forest * Establish an interministerial commission products and services, bringing together headquarters and field * Accordingly, pilot projects for the staff of ministries of forestry, agriculture, integrated use of forest resources rural development, transport, environ- should be developed. Incentives should ment, and tourism. be created to guide community devel- * Recall that the poorest villages are often opment in forest areas to promote the most distant from urban centers and sustainable management and utilization that these areas are plagued by poor road of forest resources. This will require conditions and transport problems. Thus, multisectoral, integrated rural develop- consider a special focus on forest villages ment interventions in which the MOF in the context of the Bank dialogue on will have a key role to play. It will also rural roads improvements.13 require that an interministerial commis- * Consider the proposed Bank-financed sion consider the results of the Forest Social Investment Fund project to focus Sector Review, with a particular focus on meeting the infrastructure and other on poverty reduction and integrated development needs of forest rural development recommendation of communities. the SA and agreement upon a plan of * Carry out a feasibility study of horticul- action to enhance development focus on tural development promotion for forest forest communities. communities and flexible, long-term * A number of pilot projects are proposed development credit for horticulture in this report, and many of these are development. Simultaneously, carry out a already under way in several regions. study of current private sector experience There is a need to mainstream these pilots with commercial forestry14 investments and facilitate their implementation. and strengthen, if appropriate, credit and Currently, residents of wealthier villages extension support for these activities. are more able to use credits. More credit * Identify the potential for commercial should be made available to less-devel- production of indigenous herbs and oped villages to enable the creation of medicinal and ornamental plants, includ- new forest enterprises. However, it ing their farming in garden plots. Explore should be appreciated that the market more aggressively national and intema- mechanisms will continue to favor the tional markets for the promotion of a initiatives of those who are relatively broad range of plant species currently wealthy and of those communities that underutilized in Turkey. More important, are already better off. mobilize information campaigns and * As for agricultural activities, the small educational programs at all levels (includ- size and fragmentation of landholdings in ing basic education programs and TV forest villages prevents cultivation and programs) to enhance knowledge of these, economic growth. In areas where land is increase demand for them, and draw not suitable for agriculture, fruit planting attention to the conservation of the species. should be supported. Livestock raising * Organize a workshop to review the should be encouraged in forest villages, relevance of international experience on and the state should improve grasslands ecotourism for forest communities, based and encourage villagers to produce feed on extensive field visits by experts on for their livestock. these matters. Learn from the experience of the Silifke and MEDCITIES projects In terms of the specific actions required, with respect to issues and difficulties of the following may be considered: ecotourism development. 9 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review * Carry out a topical study to analyze the ment in the private sector and in multi- existing constraints to the promotion of purpose, integrated participatory forest sports tourism in forest communities. management. Based on this, define and implement an * New techniques to speed up forest action plan that would aim at changing inventory, land registration, and titling the mind-set, habits, and behavior of the activities should be put in place without residents of forest regions to enjoy the delay. The improvement of cadastre recreational opportunities offered by procedures in Turkey requires major forests in a sustainable manner. changes in the existing legal framework * Organize a workshop on microcredit to and falls outside the responsibilities of share public sector and civil society the MOF. This, in itself, is a major experiences with respect to credit facilities problem, since there is an enormous with a focus on agricultural and livestock pipeline of legislative actions that credit. Understand from current NGO require Parliamentary action and a new experience how best to support credit law requires over 18 months for consid- programs with information and market- eration. ing services and how this experience can * To improve procedures, the state's regula- be extended for biodiversity and tory and control functions should be ecotourism investments."5 strengthened and be made to focus more deliberately on various forms of urban Institutionalframework and enhanced encroachment. community involvement * The policies regarding the rotation and * It should be noted that the issue of "own- promotion of forest management officers ership of forests" is not merely an should be improved, standardized, and abstraction or a conservation measure, made transparent. Officials should be but rather the basis on which the ap- periodically rotated between field-based proach to the management of forests and administrative positions in a manner resources is defined and the revenues that allows sufficient exposure to different from these resources shared. areas of specialization. Prolonged tenure * It is widely observed that there is more of officials in one particular unit is a potential for forest protection and devel- widespread cause of organizational opment when ownership of forest stagnation, while excessive rotation products lies with the village. Even if prevents development of skills and government ownership of forest land is expertise. established and settled, arrangements * There is a need to finance accident insur- should be made regarding the distribu- ance for forest workers. This can be tion and use of forest resources. Local started with two-year life insurance authorities and communities should be packages. These packages can be pre- consulted whenever decisions are to be pared for two- to five-year periods by a made regarding allocation of forest lands private company. for tourism and other functions in the * Funding pilot projects and especially name of public use. scaling them up requires the availability * Capacity should be created in all institu- of effective credit facilities. On the basis of tions and greater environmental the social assessment, the following education efforts should be made. In this tentative recommendations can be made: context, university forestry departments a) Communities should be systemati- should be reorganized and their curricula cally informed of credit opportunities revised to prepare students for employ- available to them. 10 Executive Summary b) The success of forest-based business obtain sustainable benefits from the forest's ventures funded through small-scale diverse resources. While a handful of experts loans will depend on the identification of and some of the government staff may be feasible investments and technical assis- aware of Turkey's biodiversity resources, it is tance. clear that the knowledge is not widely c) Technical and management training shared. In a recent symposium organized by should be provided to develop forest the Environmental Protection Department of products into marketable goods. the Province of Ankara, the participants noted the lack of knowledge, even among the Community-Based Pilot Projects experts, of Turkey's biodiversity resources.16 Thus, civil society efforts to promote The SA points to a range of pilot projects biodiversity should be encouraged.17 appropriate for and acceptable to forest com- As noted by this symposium, there is little munities. Since forest characteristics and for- effort on behalf of the state to support the est resources vary among regions, projects species that naturally grow in Turkey's for- must be custom-tailored to regional charac- ests. Those that are utilized for food, tea, and teristics. However, it should be noted that a herbs; medicinal purposes; coloring; and or- wide range of innovative ideas have already namentation are all harvested directly from been explored by the private sector and resi- the forests, without adequate attention to dents of forest communities. Those that were their production. The mere existence of a na- viable under current market conditions mani- tional biodiversity strategy is thus insuffi- fest the same pattern of inequity as those out- cient; strategy goals should be widely lined by the SA; investments in better-off disseminated and the relevant actions should areas that are less exclusively reliant on forest be implemented. resources succeed and those in communities In the past, credits given by ORKOY and with high reliance on forest resources fail. the Agriculture Bank have usually provided Discussions with tourism companies, mer- small amounts of capital barely sufficient to chants dealing with forest products, and cover the start-up costs of subsistence base owners of furniture and carpentry workshops operations. In addition, such credits were all point to the difficulty of promoting sub- rarely complemented by extension services stantial investments in those remote forest and input and output marketing support. villages that have hitherto had difficulties in Thus, the returns to credit were minimal. A developing because of their high reliance on rather different strategy has been employed forest resources. Nevertheless, there is room by a number of NGO-supported activities, to explore the feasibility of new ideas while at such as those of the Anatolian Development the same time mainstreaming some of the Foundation and the Turkish Development existing pilot efforts. Pilot project proposals Foundation. Both have supported their small- on sport fishing, hunting, and ecotourism are scale credit programs with extensive informa- provided in the text. tion and marketing activities, thus ensuring high returns to capital investments of farm- Using Biodiversity to Increase Income ers. It is therefore advisable that a similar Turkey is one of the world's richest coun- strategy be employed and implemented, pos- tries in terms of biodiversity. Regional sibly with the support of NGOs. biodiversity in the country is closely related to climatic conditions. A national plan of ac- Notes tion for biodiversity protection has already been prepared; this should be implemented 1. Although doing so was not within its terms of expeditiously so that forest communities can reference, the SA also attempted to provide a 11 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey, Forest Sector Rviewz historical context to better understand how 8. DIE (State Statistical Institute). Rural house- various classifications of forest communities hold incomes include incomes of forest villag- emerged and how these communities have es. Should these be excluded, the income gap lost their access to resources. However, the SA between forest and nonforest communities team was unable to find any historical studies would widen further. of forest villages. Likewise, a breakdown of socioeconomic rural data by forest and non- 9. The forest sector SA points to the physical forest village communities was unavailable. availability of a primary school in each vil- Therefore, as appropriate, historical knowl- lage. However, focus group meetings and in- edge about villagers was reflected in the text. depth interviews consistently showed public dissatisfaction with the quality of schooling 2. The January 1998 draft report of C. deHaan on and high levels of teacher absenteeism. Aware this topic shows that most rangelands in Tur- of the widespread nature of this problem, in key are in the eastern and central parts of the its implementation of the new basic education country, with the three regions selected for the program, the MONE has decided to provide SA constituting only 18 percent of the range- services in central villages by busing children lands. This report also points out that degrad- from remote communities to a central facility. ed forest grazing lands of central and eastern Services in other sectors can likewise be im- Anatolia form the majority of degraded proved by new human settlement arrange- rangelands. Of all degraded forest rangelands, ments. the forest grazing areas of the Black Sea re- gion are still the most productive, especially 10. While this is a benefit to the communities, it in the higher rainfall areas of the eastern Black also helps maintain forests and reduce the Sea region. danger of forest fires. It would have cost the state a great deal if this function were to be 3. These external data are not representative of performed by the private sector. other regions in any sense nor are they large- scale or systematic; rather they are the results 11. According to the draft World Bank report on of discussions held by technical teams in sev- grazing resources and livestock management eral village communities. on forest lands, the total grazing area of the Ministry of Forestry-owned rangelands con- 4. Villagers believe that they are the true protec- tributes only 4 percent of the total feed re- tors of these areas. They also claim that specu- quirement of the Turkish cattle, sheep, and lative forces are organizing crimes such as goat population. "It is therefore a significant illegal tree cutting and forest fires, but the but not very important source of livestock government holds villagers responsible. feed," (deHaan, 1998: 6). More important, as has already been mentioned, the three regions 5. For example, there are 19.5 decares of agricul- identified for the SA's empirical focus under- tural land per household in the Black Sea represent community reliance on rangelands, region, 24 in the Mediterranean region, and 30 since only 18 percent of the country's range- in the Aegean regions. Differences in livestock lands are in these regions. ownership are also major. 12. This requires a richer, more permanent biodi- 6. Results of the 1997 SA and 1991 General Agri- versity than is available in many communi- culture Census. ties. For instance, in many of the Aegean vil- lages visited by the SA team, the beekeepers 7. In-forest village households own an average explained that in Turkey it has become practi- of 2.5 head of livestock and 5.1 ruminants cally impossible to practice beekeeping by (sheep and goats), while the national average staying in the region alone. Because of urban is 3.3 and 14.8 per household, respectively. encroachment and the loss of many different Forest villages are significantly poorer than types of trees, households that planned to the national average. practice beekeeping professionally (rather 12 Executive Summary than for subsistence purposes) had to have able to ensure that people investing in horticul- about 250 hives and had to take these all the ture and timber growing would have sufficient way to eastern Turkey during certain seasons. time to get a return on their investments. This meant that each owned a good-size truck and thus had substantial capital to start the 15. The MOF may also wish to prepare a small- business. scale pilot project for World Bank financing on ecotourism, combining cultural and natural 13. Such a project is being discussed with the heritage sites' development. government of Turkey for possible World Bank financing. 16. May 1998. 14. Several private investors in commercial affores- 17. Several journals, including one (Gezi) affiliat- tation were consulted in the context of the SA. ed with the National Geographic, publish These were satisfied with the support they had interesting articles on biodiversity. Yet, at $2 so far received and found their investments an issue, only few can buy these. NGOs lack potentially lucrative. They pointed out, howev- the resources to conduct effective campaigns. er, that longer-term credit should be made avail- There is therefore room for state support. 13 1. Introduction In November 1996, a World Bank team enous flora hold major international signifi- met with representatives of the Govern- cance. While outmigration tends to reduce ment of Turkey Treasury, the State Planning pressure on forest resources, 9 million of Organization (SPO), and the Ministry of Turkey's poorest people continue to live on Forestry (MOF) to discuss the possible con- forest lands. According to the official perspec- tent and priorities of the World Bank coun- tive, the encroachment of agricultural land try assistance strategy (CAS) in relation to use, unsustainable grazing, and the use of agriculture, rural development, and the forest products (primarily fuelwood) con- environment. During these discussions, the tinue to present major threats to the forests. Turkish government expressed its concerns According to the forest villagers' perspective, about the need to safeguard the economic, however, it is forest fires that present the social, and environmental value of Turkish highest threat to the forests. The analysis of forest resources, and improve the economic the empirical data collected and the system- condition of the 9 million people living on atic interviewing of a broad range of stake- forest lands. The government then asked holders show, however, that factors the Bank to address these issues in the CAS associated with forest degradation are region- and expressed its intention to conduct a and community-specific, requiring solutions forestry sector review with a view toward with similar specificity. identifying priority problems and potential Forests have the potential to contribute actions. The government also requested greatly to the sustainable agriculture and Bank technical assistance and financial sup- economic growth of rural areas. They en- port in this area. It was decided that part of hance soil fertility and increase crop and live- this support would include a social assess- stock yields, in addition to protecting soil and ment (SA). water resources. Forest-derived plants, fruits, According to the government, invest- insects, and wildlife contribute significantly ments in forest management, combined with to the nutritional requirements of rural popu- outmigration from rural communities, have lations. Worldwide, forest-derived income resulted in a reversal of the trend toward deg- from the sale of forest products serves as a radation of forest resources that has been significant source of income for many rural prevalent throughout much of Turkey's his- households. In many developing countries, tory. The condition of Turkey's forests, in small-scale rural wood-using industries are terms of wood-stocking rates and productiv- among the second or third most important, in ity, appears to have begun to improve. Less terms of employment potential and value information is available regarding the loss of added. Game, wildlife, hunting, sport fishing, biological diversity from Turkey's forests, in and ecotourism have also good potential for which approximately 3,000 species of indig- meeting needs and expectations of growing 14 urban populations while providing signifi- Sustabzabdilty. While seeking to generate cant incomes to rural populations. economic benefits from forest resources, The challenges faced by the world com- policymakers are increasingly aware of munity in addressing forestry issues are enor- the important role played by forests in mous, and progress in arresting the current preserving biodiversity and protecting trends of deforestation requires concerted critical watersheds. Especially in regions efforts by govemments and international with large and growing populations, organizations. State policies and programs participation is often the only viable way need to change the incentive and institutional to conserve forest areas for sustainable structures that lead to excessive deforestation use or for their intrinsic environmental and that restrict tree planting and forest man- values. agement practices by rural people. Equitable Rules and Incentives: Forestry The factors that must be considered in projects have the best chance of succeed- developing a sound forestry policy include: ing when the costs and responsibilities of each stakeholder are closely related to * Cooperationr In practice, one of the most rights and benefits. Arrangements for the compelling reasons for seeking the partici- sharing of costs, benefits, and manage- pation of forest users in the management ment responsibilities, as well as of forest resources has been the inability of mechanisms for resolving conflicts be- states to police forest areas effectively and tween groups, are most likely to motivate enforce their own rules of access and use participation if they are widely under- without local public support. When local stood and agreed upon by all communities and private companies share stakeholders through an open negotiating in the design, benefits, costs, and manage- process. Special measures may be needed ment responsibility of forest projects, they to ensure that women, indigenous have incentives to cooperate in enforcing groups, and landless households are not rules that they have themselves have excluded. agreed upon. * Appropriate Technology. Appropriate forest * PovertyAlleviation The majority of people management technologies provide impor- who occupy forest areas, or the agricul- tant incentives for participation. The tural fringes that surround them, are participation of local users is encouraged members of poor and vulnerable popula- by an annual flow of income from tions. Many are poor or landless people nontimber products such as agricultural who have migrated from other areas. intercrops, fodder or thatch grass, and Enabling these people to share in the commercially valuable seeds or leaves. benefits, as well as the management, of This can occur only in plantations with forestry development and commercializa- wider spacing and multitiered, more tion would help to alleviate their poverty diverse tree and shrub species than are and diversify their sources of income. found under conventional even-age * Forest Productivity. With the benefit of management. Technologies defined by the local knowledge and participation, the community on the basis of local knowl- value of nontimber forest products -for edge are often more effective in terms of food, fiber, medicines, oils, and gums - forest productivity and sustainability. can be more fully exploited. Likewise, Moreover, the entire community under- providing knowledge about potentials stands the management rules and has an offered by forest products will help incentive to monitor and enforce them. reduce the poverty that often character- izes forest communities. 15 2. Social Assessment This report is based on extensive meet- other teams dealing with issues of ings and focus groups with forest villagers; biodiversity and grazing were incorporated leaders of forest communities; village into the SA report to complement its results.2 women; representatives of the MOF, OGM (General Directorate of Forestry), General Objectives and Methodology of the SA Directorate of Reforestation and Erosion Con- trol, ORKOY (General Directorate of Forest- The SA is expected to contribute to the Village Relations); and regional forest design and implementation of forestry man- managers in 14 provinces (see Annex 1). The agement projects by identifying key stake- results summarized below are based on holders, defining potential conflicts among quantitative findings from 844 interviews them, establishing an institutional and policy conducted by seven teams in 112 randomly framework for stakeholder participation in selected villages in the Black Sea, Aegean, forest management, and proposing develop- and Mediterranean regions. ment (including policy and project) interven- At the request of the task team leader for tions. Additionally, the SA aims to assess the the Turkey Forestry Sector Review and as social constraints to and potential for the sus- per their discussion with the Ministry of tainable management of forest and pasture Forestry, the empirical focus of the SA was resources on forest land; evaluate the impact confined to only three regions of Turkey: the and effectiveness of past3 and ongoing inter- Mediterranean, the Aegean and the Black vention to support forest village communi- Sea. This was justified on the grounds that ties; and propose operational approaches and these three regions accounted for 60 percent methodologies to involve these communities of the total number of people who lived in in sustainable use and management of forest forest communities (Annex 1) and because resources. limited resources were available to carry out The SA had the following objectives: the empirical work required for the assess- ment. It is likely that as a result poorer com- Identify key stakeholders in Turkey's munities and populations were forestry sector and focus specifically on underrepresented in the SA. It is also evident the roles played by the poor in forest on the basis of the work separately carried management; describe how communities out by the Bank on grazing resources and benefit from timber production and how livestock management in forest lands that they participate in watershed protection communities with the highest reliance on and short rotation fuelwood production. grazing were also substantially Describe whether and how stakeholders underrepresented.' Nevertheless, data per- get involved in biodiversity and forest taining to other regions and collected by conservation. In particular, identify how 16 Social Assessment existing systems of forest and biodiversity pressures from the surrounding villages management aid or constrain improve- due to immigration, lack of clarity in ments in the livelihood of the poor. property rights, changes in access to Ensure that both governmental and alternative resources by women and men, nongovernmental institutions concerned and conflicts over forest resources. with forest management are consulted * Identify sources of local and traditional and that their roles are analyzed. Analyze knowledge about forest use and conser- the role of all key stakeholders (including vation. Clearly analyze the value that NGOs and donors) in forest-based communities attach to forest resources biodiversity and agroforestry and biodiversity. Assess how communi- development. ties may be more directly involved in the Identify major characteristics of commu- planning and management of conserva- nities, trends, and developments and tion efforts. analyze their impact on forest manage- * Identify existing patterns of community ment. In particular, focus on migration and private sector involvement in forest patterns and their impacts on the sustain- management and analyze how their roles ability of forest activities. Also, focus on can be enhanced. Find out whether the development of alternative income- different institutional arrangements, from generating activities and analyze their private contractual agreements to joint impact on the potential participation of public-private partnerships, are used. villagers in forest management. Identify regional patterns of development, includ- The SA is based on participatory, system- ing the development of land tenure, land atic, qualitative, and quantitative methodolo- ownership patterns, land values, human gies and procedures. Annex 1 provides values, education, and environmental details on SA survey design and on the ap- awareness, as well as the implications of plied statistical sampling procedures that these factors for forest and biodiversity were employed. The SA's empirical findings management. Establish the extent of were derived from several sets of data: deforestation and identify community motives, if any, behind the conversion of * Discussions with more than 600 commu- forest land and selective logging. Deter- nity representatives in focused groups mine the extent to which timber * Interviews with 10 governors harvesting and agricultural production * Interviews with 112 muhtars (village result in forest clearing. headmen) and village board members in * Identify the role of different social groups, the three regions sampled particularly women, in forest manage- * Discussions with 17 cooperative managers ment. Identify and consult with * Discussions with over 100 employees stakeholders to ensure that all important working in the forest sector issues are addressed. Undertake a gender- * Interviews with representatives of gov- specific analysis of existing policies and ernment institutions such as the Treasury, those under consideration for change. the State Planning Organization (SPO), Identify the roles and responsibilities of the Directorate of Forestry (OGM), and so different stakeholders and analyze the forth stakes involved in the reform of the forest * In-depth interviews with the staff of management system. ORKOY and the Agricultural Bank * Assess the impact on forest management * In-depth discussions with over 200 of social diversity and the competing representatives of private sector institu- needs of people in and around forests, tions dealing with forest products 17 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Reviezw (traders, merchants, carpenters, furniture nonforest sector agencies) coordination. factories, private timber harvesters) Participants suggested that the over- Interactive meetings in village coffee- whelmingly administrative focus of OGM houses with villagers, forest managers, staffing policies be shifted to field-based and forest security forces. implementation functions; public func- tions of the OGM be separated from Surveys were conducted in two stages. economic/production ones; all technical Surveys of village headmen were adminis- nonproduction services be privatized; tered in 112 villages, and household surveys financing of the public service functions were administered to 844 households in three of OGM be provided through the General regions. Additional participatory meetings Budget; and solutions be developed for were held in focus groups with village insufficient and unreliable funds. Work- women. Data gathering for the SA was ac- shop participants emphasized the need to complished in three stages: reduce the bureaucracy, accelerate privati- zation of various operations, review * A stakeholder seminar was convened. taxation, design systems of enhanced * Participatory qualitative data gathering professionalization of personnel, and was conducted in four regions and a improve public and citizen relationships. qualitative SA report was written and * There is insufficient public involvement shared within the Bank task team. and public pressure on the state to im- * In the final stage, all findings from survey prove institutions, policies, and work, focus group meetings, and stake- legislation. The meeting noted that forests holder meetings were compiled for are viewed as consisting primarily of quantitative analysis. trees rather than integrated ecosystems, and that the integral nature of public/ Key Findings of the Stakeholder private/citizen relationships is ignored. Workshop Given the lack of pressure for improve- ment from civil society, the necessary Stakeholder consultations strongly sup- changes in forest management were seen port the need for new approaches, policies, as unlikely to develop. Interestingly, and projects, and a modified legal framework public sector managers felt a strong need to ensure socially and environmentally sus- to obtain support from communities in tainable management of forest resources. The stressing the importance of the forest stakeholder workshop held on July 7,1997, sector to the rest of the state machinery; it aimed to obtain preliminary feedback on the was felt that with such support, the forestry sector review. Issues identified in- imposition of unjustifiable taxes and dues clude the following: on forest operations by the Treasury would be lifted and greater efficiency in * The existing legal framework is not forest management would be ensured. adequately implemented. Furthermore, * There is widespread misuse of forest this framework is insufficient to respond resources. Overgrazing and excessive to outstanding problems. Forestry laws fuelwood harvesting are believed to are frequently amended and difficult to deplete resources. It was also noted that enforce, and often contribute to existing other capacities of the forest (wildlife, problems rather than providing solutions. aromatic and medical plants, water * Overlapping authority and responsibility, resources) are neglected. Although there as well as excessive bureaucracy, limit is a clear lack of consensus in relation to inter- and intra-agency (including these issues, there is general agreement 18 Social Assessment that inefficiencies are related to a lack of rangelands. This report also points out that efficient policies for resource utilization degraded forest grazing lands of central and and conservation, as well as the lack of eastern Anatolia form the majority of degrad- participatory approaches. ed rangelands. Of all degraded forest range- There is unclear ownership; in many lands, the forest grazing areas of the Black Sea region are still the most productive, especially regrlons cdsrsuvm the higher rainfall areas of the eastern Black and in others state decisions are contested Sea region. by communities. Among the many sug- gestions proposed by the workshop 2. These external data are not representative of group were the completion of forest other regions nor are they large-scale or sys- cadastral plans, institutionalization of tematic; rather they are the results of discus- participation, development of credit sions held by technical teams in several vil- programs addressing alternative methods lage communities. for income generation, and the prepara- 3. Although doing so was not within its terms of tion of multipurpose forest management reference, the SA also attempted to provide a plans (as opposed to those focusing solely historical context to better understand how on tree cutting and harvesting). various classifications of forest communities emerged and how these communities have lost Notes their access to resources. However, the SA team was unable to find any historical studies of 1. The January 1998 draft report of C. deHaan forest villages. Likewise, a breakdown of socio- on this topic shows that most rangelands in economic rural data by forest and nonforest Turkey are in the eastern and central parts of village comnmunities was unavailable. There- the country, with the three regions selected for fore, as appropriate, historical perceptions of the SA constituting only 18 percent of the forest villagers were reflected in the text. 19 3. Background This section presents background data on forest land in Turkey are productive; the re- Turkey's forests, forest villages, and their maining 11.3 million hectares (56 percent) are residents. composed of less productive or unproductive damaged land and scrub (Table 1). Also, 46 Turkey's Forests percent of forest land is covered by dense coppice forest and 54 percent is covered by The geographic distribution of forests in high forest. High forest areas are 78 percent Turkey is affected by the climate, soil quality, coniferous, 14 percent deciduous, and 8 per- and geomorphologic structure of the country. cent mixed (Table 2). The total land area of Turkey is 77,056,192 Within the high forest area, 56 percent is hectares (1 hectare equals 10,000 square classified as productive and 43 percent is meters), of which total forest land constitutes classified as damaged. The volume of high 20,199,296 hectares, or about 26 percent. forest area is 813 million cubic meters, of About 8.9 million hectares (44 percent) of all which 73 percent is coniferous trees and 27 Table 1. Forest Types in Turkey Forest Type High forest Coppice Total Percentaae of (ha) forest (ha) (ha) forest land total land Productive 6,176,899 2,679,558 8,856,457 44 11 Unproductive 4,757,708 6,585,131 11,342,839 56 15 Total 10,934,607 9,264,689 20,199,296 100 26 Source: OGM, 1989. Table 2. Distribution of Forests by Management and Tree Type Forest High forest Coppice Amount Coniferous Deciduous Mixed Total forest Area (ha) 8,515,172 1,504,521 914,914 10,934,607 9,264,689 Volume (M3) 593,106,868 219,975,176 - 813,082,044 163,240,141 Increment (m3) 16,685,710 5,449,706 - 22,135,416 7,903,719 Annual allowable cut (M3) 12,115,378 4,704,500 - 16,819,878 7,946,743 Source: OGM, 1989. 20 Background percent deciduous trees. Three percent of and National Parks, Game, Hunting, and high forest area is viewed as increment, Wildlife -and one attached institution, the amounting to 22 million cubic meters. Sev- General Directorate of Forestry, or OGM. enteen million cubic meters of the incre- Other related institutions include consulting ment (76 percent) is defined as the and inspection units and auxiliary services "quantity planned for logging" (annual units. The regional organization is composed allowable cut, or AAC). AAC is higher for of 9 ministerial regional directorates and their deciduous trees (86 percent) than conifer- subunits, 11 research directorates, 8 forest soil ous trees (73 percent), according to the laboratory directorates, and 27 forestry re- OGM report on AAC (OGM, 1989). Coppice gional directorates and their subunits (forest forest land covers 46 percent of total forest district directorates and forest chief units). land. The total volume of it is calculated to Detailed information is presented in Figures be 163 million steres (1 stere equals 0.4 1, 2, and 3. tons). Seventy-two percent of this is planned for logging and 28 percent is re- Legal Framework served for tree planting. The increment cal- The sustainability of forests and the inter- culated for these areas - 7,903,719 steres - is action between forests and the public are ad- 0.5 percent less than the 7,946,743 steres dressed in the Constitution and a number of planned for logging to meet the need for other Turkish laws. fuelwood. To meet increased future de- mand for fuelwood, it is proposed that the * The Constitution states that the "protec- volume of trees in areas designated for log- tion of forests and the development of ging be expanded. forest villages is a responsibility of the Turkish Republic." Legal and Institutional Framework * The Ministry of Forestry was established on July 8,1991, by Decree No. 4112. Law The Role of the Ministry of Forestry No. 3800 for the establishment of the Law No. 3800 states that the MOF is re- Ministry of Forestry, which changed sponsible for the "protection, improvement several articles of this decree, was ac- and maintenance of forests, reforestation of cepted and published in the Official degraded forest areas, the prevention of ero- Journal on June 4,1992. sion, restoration of pastures within forests, * Forest Law No. 6831 deals with forest promotion and establishment of nurseries, crimes, decrees on forest cadastral sur- development of forest villages, improving the veys, forest border regulations, utilization relationship between forests and villagers, rights for forest village communities, production of raw timber material, designa- reforestation establishment, and utiliza- tion, establishment, management of national tion rights on degraded state forest lands. parks and other protected areas (such as na- * Law No. 6831, Article 2, defines the areas ture parks, nature reserves, natural monu- of land to be removed from legal classifi- ments, wildlife reserves), protection of cation as forests. Article 13 regulates the wildlife, regulation of hunting, and public resettlement of the forest villages that education on subjects related to its mandates." cannot be developed in their locations and stipulates that priority be given to Organizational Structure these villages in the development support The Ministry of Forestry is composed of provided from the fund established three core service units-the General Direc- according to Article 3 of this law. torates for Reforestation and Erosion Control; * Law No. 2924 for Supporting Develop- Forest and Village Relationships (ORKOY); ment of Forest Villagers deals with 21 SoczalAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Seclor Reviezw Figure 1. Central Organization of the Ministry of Forestry Erosion Control Coordinton Comn tte |Min"istyUdrertras||Udrertra of Media ard Public Relations| n e DeputyrseataefaLegal Core Servies Units| Consultinand Inspection Units | uiirServkce Units Attached Institution GenerW Directomto HoW of Re"arch,~~~~~~ Head of Persorwd| Generel Gened Diredorate Haad of Research _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Director _of Refbredatio and Planrin9 and Head of Forestry Erosion ConXtu Coordination Cornrittee Adminirastrtv and Ffaandal Issues iUgrde2micretary of Le Fal | R inalz P Gerne n r an ctord a r Issas a foRe onship s Hiad of Media |L Diiion. Genwa Directorate s Secretariat of =Nof National Parksa Defense Gmne, Hunting and Wild Life NainPrsDireciorate o _Figme 2: Ministry of Foreshy5 - Regional Organization | Regional Direfbrata | Directoratnofl Pekseh EnDlregnoraebofLgrat Planning and Coordinatb Directorate |Research and ProJects Chief Englheefing| -| Afftllon and Erosion Control Dlrscontoate| Afforestathn and Ersosn Conttu CheEniefg| -|Forest and Vhitaga Reabhonships Diractrat | Aflorestation and Eroslon Controt Eng;rheeing -| NdonalPark andWild Life Dlmtrate | 5 Foret and Vila1ge Restotnships Chilef nhen£| -|Administrative and Financlal Works Diretoab| Forest and VAllage Relationships Enginain National Parks and Wild LHe Chief Enginern N sational Parks and Witd Life Enginesrn -FNatbonal Parks Engineering| 2SeedIngs Engineering 22 Background resettlement and development support to * Regulation on support to forest village the forest village communities that do not development. have adequate living conditions and * Regulation on the establishment, renewal, development possibilities at their present and closure of Ministry of Forestry re- locations. gional branches. * National Reforestation Mobilization Law * Regulation on the duties of the Ministry No. 4122 deals with encouragement and of Forestry Central Organization. involvement of relevant public institu- * Forest Management Planning Regulation. tions and agencies, local communities, * Reforestation and Reforestation Fund individuals, and private agencies in Regulations. reforestation and reforestation activities * The other relevant legislation includes on state forest lands and nonforest state Tourism Encouragement Law No. 2634, (Treasury) and private lands. Environment Law No. 2872, Specially * National Parks Law No. 2873 deals with Protected Areas Decree No. 383, Land the establishment, planning, and manage- Cadastre Law No. 3402, Range Law, ment of national parks and other Hunting Law, Construction Law No. protected areas in the forests as well as 3194, and the regulations prepared for nonforest lands. their implementations. 'Various international conventions and There are a number of other regulations agreements signed and approved by the that pertain to forest management: government are expected to become increasingly important in the legal frame- Regulation on forest village development work for the forestry sector. funds. Figure 3: General Directorate of Forestry - Regional Organization i Regional Diret orate cDeputyoRenaDinal Direrorate |Core Servies Divsoa Directorates| | Forest Maintenance Directorate |-Y | qseeiees DivDiicokrt DirectoDrates 2 tniDnPoes ||ManagementDrdet an lkt~ D_ut lae Divisional Directorate Man age rent e AdminAsnrate tere an re hrlDrcort aagernt Director Works Dbision Procsurement DE2 DireoaeDrectorate Dir ertorate u MaruagemteriW lhtadMrketin Deputy - Lawyr l _ iiinl"iertrt e Mea n eme nt ==r la I D Me r a t oDirector Cadasftrl and Ownersrsp_ m Divisionael Directorate Core Services _ Auixiliary Unks Servies Units -CTvTT Cuitur DbiVoa Forest I D arectDrate l ManeDement Admir;istrative and Chief Fwnanrial Works _Forest Disasters Protedfion~ Division Chief Divisional Directorate Seyand Chf 23 SocalAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReview Forest Villages lages (38 percent). Among the 3,933 individu- als included in the SA survey, 55 percent are According to the ORKOY data available from the Black Sea region, 19 percent are at the time of the survey, 3,232,565 people live from the Aegean region, and 26 percent are in 7,363 in-forest villages, and another from the Mediterranean region (Annex 1, 5,114,619 live in 10,677 forest-neighboring Table 2). villages. This makes a total of 8,347,185 The majority of the forest population lives people living in 18,041 forest villages (Table in villages and small settlements (mezras),' 3). The population figures for the villages and there are no urban settlements in forests included in the SA are based on the 1990 Na- (Figure 4). In most areas, forest villages have tional Census (ORKOY, 1997). The total popu- shrunk because of extreme poverty and do lation of forest villages makes up 15 percent not pose a serious threat to forests. Addition- of Turkey's overall population and 48 percent ally, increases in nonfarm employment and of the population of all villages. Kastamonu state efforts to protect forests and raise public is the province with the highest number of awareness have contributed to a decrease in forest villages (964) under its administrative the threat presented by humans to forests.2 jurisdiction. The province that has the largest However, many places that were formerly forest village population is Samsun, with a categorized as forests have lost their forest population of 349,104. characteristics because of urbanization. Roughly 17 percent of forest villages are In forest villages, primary schools and located in coastal areas, 69 percent in mountain- mosques are the two most common institu- ous areas, and 14 percent on plateaus. Forest tions (both are found in more than 95 percent villages are classified according to their relative of villages). The distribution of these two location to forests as "in-forest" (41 percent) institutions does not show significant re- and "forest-neighboring" villages (59 percent). gional differences. Other common institu- The SA was conducted in the three re- tions in villages include village commons, gions (the Aegean, the Mediterranean, and health centers, and Kur'an classes. The distri- Black Sea) with the highest density of forests bution of these institutions, however, shows and forest villages. The total forest popula- regional variations (Table 4). tion in these regions is 5,420,493, which is The settlement patterns of forest commu- equivalent to 60 percent of the total forest nities vary substantially from region to village population in the country. (Annex 1, region. Likewise, patterns of income genera- Table 1). In these regions, the population of tion, access to infrastructure and services, forest-neighboring villages (62 percent) is reliance on forests, and so forth vary by re- greater than the population of in-forest vil- gion. Therefore, community specificity is cru- Table 3. Types of Villages in Turkey and their Populations Types of villages Villages PoIulation number percent number percent Out-of-forest villages 16,449 48 8,528,775 51 Forest villages 18,041 52 8,347,185 49 In-forest 7,364 41 3,232,566 39 Forest-neighboring 10,677 59 5,114,619 61 Total number of villages 34,490 100 16,875,960 100 Source: ORKOY, 1997, obtained from the 1990 national census. 24 Background Figure 4: Small Rural Settlements (Mezra) Connected to Villages 90 1 _ 60- o P1 70- SD2 '1_ - - . * No setlement #6' ____- _ |1-2setlfements 40- * 3-5 setarements 2L = = ______ 6-7 setlements 30- - 20- U -. _ _ _ _ _ 10' /Ljm_ I W .. I Bbck Sea Aeg-aa Meantenaiem, Source: Village Headman Survey Figure 5: Age Distribution by Region 25 - l_ | Sll _ S t Black Sea Aegean '2 [Mediterranean <14 15.24 25435 36-69 60 + agep Source: Household Survey cial in devising solutions to community prob- purposes is limited. For many communities, lems. While all the surveyed regions are the preservation of forests is essential for en- coastal, topographical differences and local vironmental reasons - the over-harvesting of traditional production systems result in im- trees can result in destructive flooding and portant differences in the ways that forest soil erosion - therefore residents have strong communities interact with resources. In most incentives to protect their forests. forest communities, forests merely supply subsistence wages for the very poor; income Demographics of Forest Villages generated through beekeeping and the har- The average population of forest villages vesting of wild plants for medical and other is 769, with regional variations (Table 5 and 25 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Reviezw Figure 5). For instance, average forest village and will be barely sufficient to sustain the population in the Black Sea region is 694 existing populations of these villages. people, while in the Aegean region and the As a result of relatively higher outmigration Mediterranean, it is 706 and 947, respectively. from forest communities, especially of working The average household size of villages in the age populations and school age children, the SA is 4.8 persons, with regional variations. elderly (persons older than 60) now make up 14 Households in the Black Sea region (5.2 mem- percent of the total forest village population. bers) are larger than those in the Aegean re- This trend significantly limits forest villages' gion (4.0) and the Mediterranean region (4.8). work force capabilities. The Black Sea region A large percentage of forest communities has the highest percentage (15 percent) of eld- have been shrinking. The official population erly persons, and the Mediterranean has the data available for the 112 communities cov- lowest percentage (10 percent). However, the ered by the SA clearly show that even with distribution of the aging population across conservation population growth estimates,3 households shows that more than half of all on average, communities should have had households (57 percent) do not include people about 32 percent increase in their popula- over the age of 60 (table 6). The regional distri- tions between 1975 and 1990. Instead, 55 (49 bution of age data shows that in the Mediterra- percent) of the forest communities were re- nean region, three out of four households have duced in their population size, 42 (38 per- cent) grew less than 32 percent and only 13 percent grew by more than 2 percent per Table 4. Village Institutions by Regional year.4 In real terms, only about 5 percent of Distribution the forest villages grew (Annex 2, Popula- Village institutions Percentages of villages tion Change Table). It is likely that this Black Sea Aegean Meditermnean trend will continue as forest villages fall further behind in income and wealth. It is Health care center 34 96 100 therefore the SA team's conclusion that Village room 62 92 63 forest communities will neither present a Religious class 27 25 27 serious threat to forests in the future nor Mosque 97 96 97 will they grow in size as a result of inte- grated development initiatives. Rather, these initiatives will continue to be modest Source: Village headman survey, 1997. Table 5. Age Structure (percentage of population) Regions Age Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Pop. SA Turkey Rural < 15 25 20 26 24 35 15-24 19 20 20 20 20 25 - 35 16 17 19 17 12 36 - 59 24 29 25 25 22 60 < 15 14 10 14 11 n = 2,170 753 1,010 3,933 15,156 Source: Turkey Population and Health Research, Hacettepe University, 1993; Population Studies Institute, Ankara, 1993; SASurvey, 1997. Note: Rural population includes in-forest and out-of-forest villages, but the SA includes only forest villages. These data were obtained from NEE. All other data in the table are from the SA. 26 Background members older than 60, compared with one out of two in the Black Sea region. This suggests Table 6. Distribution of Older People by Region that the patriarchal family structure is still Number of household Percentage of household prevalent in the Black Sea region, while it has Members over 60 Black Sea Aegean Mediter- been replaced by the modem nuclear family in ranean the Mediterranean region. More significantly, it o 45 63 72 shows higher dependency patterns in the Black 1 29 19 15 Sea region whereby families (who are poorer 2 25 17 12 than those in other regions) have a higher bur- den of the elderly. Total households 417 185 242 Migration Migration from rural to urban areas is as bed-and-breakfast facilities in tourism de- particularly visible in forest areas. Most mi- velopment. grants who move seasonally do so to provide The Mediterranean region has the least better education for their children, to work, to outmigration, followed by the Black Sea re- get married, or to obtain better health ser- gion. In the Aegean and Black Sea regions, vices for a sick member of the family. The SA the majority of outmigration has been done survey revealed that the major reasons for by people in the 10-30 age group. outmigration were work (15 percent), mar- It is also important to analyze migration riage (14 percent) and children's education trends in terms of their implications for em- (23 percent). Statistics on migration over the ployment of the people who migrate for work past 5 years (Figure 6) show that many mi- to other regions within the country. Sixty-one grated to metropolitan areas or to Europe for percent are from the Black Sea, 16 percent are better work opportunities. However, some from the Aegean, and 23 percent are from the return to their homes either for vacations or Mediterranean region. These migrants gener- to settle down once they have saved enough ally send a relatively small proportion of their money. As a result, homes are left behind earnings back to their villages, and thus re- relatively well maintained and can be utilized mittances do not constitute a large share of Figure 6: Number of People Who Have Migrated in the Past Five Years from Villages 80g 70 0 Black Sea 60> z z c' Aegean D Meditrranean 50- . _ 40- / F Ncbodly 1-8 PsqP4 10.80 opacp 35.90 pecpft 100 Source: Village Headman Survey 27 SocalAssessmentfor the TurkeyForest Sector Review household income. Migration from forest tor. Regional figures are 23 percent in the Black villages to other countries is also high. Sea region, 43 percent in the Aegean region, The Black Sea region has the highest num- and 57 percent in the Mediterranean region. In ber of people that migrate for daily or seasonal other words, poorer villages depend to a work. The rate of daily migration is 42 percent greater extent on wage work for the forest in all regions and 55 percent in the Black Sea administration and planting, maintaining, or region (Figure 7). Seasonal outmigration is harvesting trees. These villagers also have a especially high in the Black Sea and Aegean greater tendency to outmigrate for seasonal regions (Figure 8 and Table 7). Figure 9 illus- and permanent work because of their inability trates that a significant proportion (37 percent) to obtain sufficient income from work in for- of migrants formerly worked in the forest sec- ests to sustain their families (Figure 10). Figure 7: Out-migration for Daily Work i X0 0- ~~~~30t j ._ ~-~s 0 . tg j8 1tfft I i rumbr ofpq* mruflrd SourceVillage Headman Survey Figure 8: Out-migration for Seasonal Work -_ X~~ # L00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 bI rerdwofib Pe" mg Source: Village Headman Survey 28 Background Table 7. Seasonal Migration (percentage of villages) Number of people in the Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Total village who migrate seasonally Nobody 45 42 57 47 1-10 16 25 13 17 11 - 25 10 12 7 10 More than 25 29 21 23 26 Total number of villages 58 24 30 112 Source: Village headman survey, 1997 Figure 9: Migrants' Participation in the Forest Labor Force (in the past 3 years) 80 70= 60/ }40-/_ * _ Bkbck Sea Agea hb9ddtonanso 0 WoVked D Did not vYk Source: Household Survey Figure 10: Seasonal Migration and Development Level of the Village u~~~~~~~~~~~ Ln#s d-edp 4ihgies 50 45 40 03 5 2D~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 f 15< _ | ~~~~~~~~~~~rxuriberdf peoplb vuo cutrigrErt se4ot Source: Village Headman Survey 29 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review An examination of seasonal migration products in the vicinity of their own patterns shows that seasonal migration in less villages, but can now move to places developed villages is greater than that in more where they can sell their produce at developed villages. In other words, the poorer higher prices. Thus, this opportunity for a village, the higher its outmigration will be. seasonal migration, or rather geographi- Both in these poor villages where agricultural cal mobility, provides some forest production opportunities are low and in oth- communities added income. However, ers, the percentage of people who return their those households that can take advan- village for the harvest is low. While in most tage of such opportunities are few, villages return mnigration is rare, in others and especially in the poorer Black Sea villages. especially in the Black Sea, migrants return to Rather, their dependence on outside their communities. In the past five years, 60 traders who come to buy forest products percent of villages did not experience any re- often constitutes a disincentive to com- turn migration to their villages. Fifty-three munities to harvest these; often traders percent of those who left the Black Sea region, monopolize trade routes, thus minimiz- which has the highest level of outmigration, ing competition and severely depressing did not return over the last five years (Table 8). the prices of these products. The Mediterranean region had the second * Families that are involved in harvesting highest level of migrants that did not return to trees and gathering wood are also in- their villages (87 percent). volved in this interregional migration. Within the forest communities, several dis- They are hired seasonally by MOF or tinct types of seasonal migration trends occur: OGM, and they migrate in response to changing demand for their services. In In the last 10 years, improving land relatively better-off regions, such as the transportation has enabled villagers who Mediterranean, where residents have less have adapted to a migratory lifestyle to incentive to work for the forest adminis- increase their incomes. This has had a tration, hired family firms do most of the tremendous impact on the economic and harvesting and forestation work. These social structures of the communities. For families are from Eastern and South instance, forest villagers who are engaged Eastern regions and often camp up to in honey production can buy a truck and eight months in a region, contracted to take their hives from one region to an- care for a forest area covering several other to produce the best honey. Also, forest villages. Conflicts between these villagers are not confined to selling their migrants and resident communities are Table 8. Return of Migrants to Villages (percentage of villages) Number of people who have Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Total retumed in the past 5 years None 53 42 87 60 1 - 10 19 25 7 17 11 - 25 9 17 3 9 more than 25 19 17 3 14 Total number of villages 58 24 30 112 Source: Village headman survey, 1997 30 Background frequent, especially if the former attempt desire to try out new activities and interested to exploit forest flora or fauna that belong in engaging in more innovative, longer-term, to one of the communities. and higher-risk initiatives. When questioned, Employees of the MOF and OGM also 39 percent of women and 54 percent of men engage in seasonal migration. If living said they are interested in establishing a new conditions and access to social services business (Table 9). When we examine the type such as schools and health services are of business that forest villagers are most inter- not adequate in the areas where they are ested in, we see that livestock raising (40 per- appointed, these employees often main- cent), beekeeping (17 percent), and private tree tain two houses -one in their appointed planting are among the most desired activities. work area and another, in an area with On the whole, women have a strong tendency better infrastructure, where they and their to continue with the traditional livestock rais- families can live. ing activities, while men are keen to explore commercial afforestation, large-scale beekeep- Gender ing, trout farming, and other larger-scale, capi- Since most outmigrants are men, there is tal intensive, relatively more risky longer-term a disproportionately high female population investments. in forest villages. While, overall in Turkey, Although a large number of women are only 9 percent of household heads are female interested in establishing small-scale businesses (1990 Census), the SA found that 24 percent in forest communities, they are aware of the of families in forest villages have female limited access that they have to credit Table 10 heads. The following section presents se- presents information on household credit use; lected results of the household survey that 31 percent of the households included in the reveal a number of differences in the situation survey used credit, whereas 69 percent did not. of male and female heads of households. The Gender comparisons undertaken show that 33 gender difference in forest resource utiliza- percent of male-headed and 23 percent of fe- tion has largely disappeared over the past male-headed households used credits, and this decades. As more men work outside the vil- relationship is statistically significant at the lage, women take over timber harvesting and level of a = 0.05. It is, however, very important other traditional male activities. Wood is usu- to note that there were no instances where ally collected together by husband and wife; women had applied for and received credit in women do more of the gathering of plants their own names; they were merely reporting such as mushrooms, herbs, and flowers; and the fact that their households had benefited men do more of the beekeeping and fishing. from the credit. Given the traditional patterns One area where gender differences are that prevail in communities, it is likely that men marked has to do with entrepreneurial tenden- will continue to be the ones to deal with formal cies. Often, men are more articulate in their and informal credit institutions, although many Table 9. Willingness to Establish a Business (percentage of households) Female-headed household Male-headed household Total Willing 39 54 50 Not willing 56 40 44 Unsure 5 6 6 Total (n) 203 640 843 Source: Household survey, 1997. 31 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Reviezw Table 10. Credit Use for Household Members (percentage of households) Credit Use Female-headed household Male-headed household Total Took credit 27 33 31 Did not take credit 73 67 69 Total (n) 640 640 843 Source: Household survey, 1997. villagers report that as families get smaller and Table 11. Benefits Obtained from the Forest nuclear families replace extended families, a (percentage of villagers) more equitable decisionmaking process gradu- ally emerges. Female Male Total Yet another area where gender differences Obtain benefis 37 27 30 are visible relates to the perceived importance Does not obtain benefits 63 73 70 of forests. Women perceive that they obtain Total (n) 203 640 843 more benefits from the forest than men do, and as a result attach greater value to forests; Source: Household survey, 1997. the fact that women explore much of the forest flora, gather wood for cooking, and oversee a the study found that 31 percent of women large portion of grazing can readily explain and 27 percent of men stated low income as the gender differences in such a perception.5 their first priority. Thirteen percent of women Table 11 shows the perceived benefits obtained and 11 percent of men complained of water from forests by men and women who are problems, and 8 percent of women and 7 per- household heads; 37 percent of women be- cent of men stated health problems as their lieved that benefits from the forest were high priority. Both men and women believe that compared with only 27 percent of men, and their problems can be addressed by the state this is statistically significant. (39 percent). However, there is a remarkable While it would have been expected to tendency among women to take the solution find significant differences between male- of their problems into their own hands. While and female-headed households with respect only 33 percent of households headed by to perceived family and community prob- women rely on the state to bring about solu- lems, gender differences are less marked than tions to their problems, a much higher reli- regional and community-specific differences. ance (41 percent) is manifested by male heads On the whole, both types of households share of households. Clearly, women who were much in common in their assessment of prob- obliged to take charge of their households lems, but there is a slight tendency for learned to deal with the reality of coping on women who head households to perceive their own. The long years of difficulty they low household incomes, water resources con- have had in being treated on equal terms by straints, and health as more important than officials has also showed them the futility of men do. The major problems reported in for- relying on the state to solve their problems. est villages are low income (28 percent of households), irrigation and water (11 per- Notes cent), and health problems (7 percent). These priorities are the same for both genders. 1. These are small, independent communities, When responses were separated by gender, usually consisting of five to 15 households, 32 Background located outside of the village's general settle- 4. And much of the growth is attributable to ment area. Most forest villages (79 percent) do reclassification of settlements rather than net not have small settlements (mezra) nearby, population growth although there are regional variations in these patterns. There are also regional variations in 5. It is worth noting, however, that gender equal- the number of settlements that typically sur- ization in the use of forest resources is an round forest villages. For instance, in the Ae- emerging trend in the communities visited by gean region, 25 percent of villages have one or the SA team. As extended families are replaced two nearby settlements. by nuclear families and as the older genera- tions are left to do the grazing, the wood collec- 2. Villagers believe that they are the true protec- tion, and the exploration of the flora, men and tors of these areas. They claim that speculative women, husband and wife, tend often to go to forces are organizing crimes such as illegal the forest together and equally share these tree cutting and forest fires, but the govern- responsibilities. If there is any serious cutting ment holds the villagers responsible. People of trees other than collecting bushes, more than also indicate that forest is an important factor one person is needed to deal with the challenge in their ability to protect themselves from and bring the wood back home. natural disasters such as floods. 3. Assuming that the rural population increases only 2 percent per year. 33 4. Infrastructure in Forest Villages In terms of physical availability, forest vil- (Figure 11). The road quality follows a similar lages appear to have adequate access to infra- pattern and tendency; coastal villages have structure and social services. However, access to stabilized or asphalt roads, while villagers and local administrators voice many plateau villages either rely on dirt roads or complaints about the quality and condition of enjoy asphalt ones (Figure 12). roads and the availability and reliability of wa- It appears that the MOF takes little initia- ter and irrigation systems. These complaints tive in providing road infrastructure to forest focus not as much on the presence of infrastruc- villages; rather it focuses on paths to serve ture and services as on their year-round accessi- the forests. According to the village headman bility and reliability. Especially during the long survey, 86 percent of forest village roads are winters, roads leading to many forest villages constructed by the General Directorate of Vil- are closed. During the summer, water problems lage Services. OGM has constructed another 3 increase, particularly in villages within the for- percent of these roads, and state-citizen part- ests. Inadequate coordination among respon- nerships have been responsible for the con- sible government agencies worsens these struction of another 4 percent. Since it is not problems. The Ministry of Agriculture and Vil- OGM's responsibility to build roads for forest lage Works and the Ministry of Forestry each villages, it can be assumed that the roads it expect the other to service forest communities, built were for its own purposes. with the result that villages do not receive ad- Forest villages, on average, are 15 kilome- equate service from either ministry ters away from town centers. Most villagers do not have significant problems traveling to Roads and Transport the nearest town centers, although significant seasonal problems exist. Most villages are The most evident physical infrastructure between 11 and 20 kilometers' distance from problem in forest villages is the poor condi- urban centers, with substantial regional tion of roads and resulting transportation variation (figures 13 and 14). Seventy-five problems. One-third of roads in forest areas percent of villages are serviced by minibuses are still dirt roads, and this limits villagers' that travel to town centers when weather access to local markets to sell products and to conditions allow. The SA survey could iden- obtain production inputs. Among the forest tify transport conditions and services as im- villages, those in the Black Sea region have portant problems for forest villages at the the highest percentage of stabilized and dirt regional level. However, because of the sam- roads, with 70 and 60 percent respectively, pling procedures used, it cannot provide sta- whereas the majority of the asphalt roads tistically representative results for transport exist in the Mediterranean and Aegean re- problems at the subregional level. In other gions, with 54 and 30 percent respectively words, based on survey samples of some of 34 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 11: Road Quality by Region 40 20i 50 BbckSea Aegean MEditwfasne 11 StabilDd a Diload a Asphat Source: Village Headman Survey Figure 12: Road Quality and Village Type 530/ 40- 30 -/ ~20 C 0- CoastdAhig M.otiIn App pwmauges * Di~~d R) 1 StWiImI 0 Asphal Source: Village Headman Suvey the many communities in the three regions tingent on the Turkish government's demand studied, it would not be possible to identify for Bank assistance on the rural roads project, "poverty pockets" or "pockets with specific future Bank-financed and poverty-focused infrastructure needs." Nonetheless, since the transport investments may be directed to SA points to the perceived inadequacy and forest communities. unreliability of forest roads, it is advisable to include a study on rural transport availability Water and Irrigation and feasibility in the proposed World Bank Social Investment Fund project in Turkey. In Forest villages have serious problems addition to the Social Investment Fund, con- with the availability of drinking and irriga- 35 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Revieow Figure 13: Distance of Villages to the Closest Urban Center (percent of villages) 21 30 km. Mo flh~ 31 kmI. -5 km . 7% St-20 19% lbf 40% Source: Village Headman Survey Figure 14: Distance of Villages to the Closest Urban Center (by region) 30K Km 21-30 Km l Bbck Sea 1120 Km _ * t:1_ "e 610 Km 1b Km 0% 20% 40% 60% a0% 10% Po-S.t ofNihges Source: Village Headman Survey tion water. Most of the existing water and 60 percent of those in the Mediterra- sources in the Mediterranean and Aegean nean region, have significant water prob- regions do not yield water suitable for lems. With regard to drinking water, 41 drinking. This causes problems, especially percent of villages in the Black Sea region, in the summer, when water demand in- 18 percent in the Aegean region, and 18 creases because of tourism. While house- percent in the Mediterranean region have holds see their major problems as poverty, potable water resources. Irrigation water is health, and transport, village headmen in- available only in 21 percent of the Black Sea dicate that the lack of water resources is the communities, in 15 percent of the Aegean most pressing problem of these communi- region, and in 17 percent of the Mediterra- ties; 39 percent of forest villages in Turkey, nean regions. 36 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Education Table 12. Distribution of Schools, Teachers, As noted earlier, primary schools and and Students per Village mosques are available in most villages, yet the quality of the secular education provided Black Sea Aegean Mediter- leaves much to be desired. The proportion of villages with primary schools is 100 percent Pnmary schools 1 1 1 in the Mediterranean region, 95 percent in the Teachers 3 3 4 Students 47 51 85 Aegean region, and 93 percent in the Black Student-teacher ratio 17:1 18:1 24:1 Sea region (Table 12). The villagers say that although teachers are appointed, absenteeism Source: Village headman survey, 1997 is high and children of all ages are educated together in multigrade classes. Because teacher training for multigrade education is level, thereby increasing outmigration. This inadequate, the quality of the education that situation is so critical that nearly every house- children received is low. Although teacher- hold mentioned education as one of the most student ratios are generally low compared pressing problems of the village. with national averages, teacher absenteeism In order to enhance the quality of educa- makes these ratios meaningless. The Mediter- tion, soon after the SA was completed in Oc- ranean region has the highest number of tober 1997, the Ministry of National teachers per school (4) and the higher stu- Education introduced a new system of basic dent-teacher ratio (24 to 1), but in all regions education whereby compulsory education is community differences are large. One-quarter extended from five to eight years and in re- of students (26 percent) attending primary mote rural areas, one central school will be school in forest villages attend schools of 31 designated to serve a cluster of 10 or so to 70 students, and approximately one-fifth smaller villages. attend schools with 16 to 30 students (Annex 2, Table 5). In the Black Sea region, 71 percent Health Care of students go to schools with only 1 to 15 students. In these villages, 30 percent of sec- Health services are among the most impor- ondary students attend schools composed of tant infrastructure issues in forest villages, 6 to 10 students, and 29 percent attend with nearly half of all villagers having health schools of 1 to 5 students. problems. Health problems are higher in in- The Black Sea region is particularly disad- forest villages than in forest-neighboring vil- vantaged with respect to community access to lages. The highest incidence of health good quality education. Because of the small problems is in coastal villages (51 percent), village populations resulting from and the lowest is in plateau villages (44 per- outmigration, teacher-student ratios are high, cent). Over a third of forest communities have especially in poor villages.' Although one health care centers (35 percent), but regional might think that this would result in high variations are substantial; 34 percent of forest quality basic education for students in this villages in the Black Sea region, 25 percent in region, interviews with residents indicate that the Aegean region, and 43 percent in the Medi- teacher quality is poor and their attendance is terranean region have health care centers. infrequent; as a result, the overall level of edu- While centers may exist, they are often empty cation is low.2 Furthermore, since there are no or inadequately staffed. There is a direct corre- middle or high schools in villages, students lation between income level and the incidence are forced to leave their communities to con- of health problems at both the community and tinue their education beyond the primary the household level (Figure 15). Geographic 37 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 15: Relationship Between Health Status and Income Levels of Households Health problems l 50 .-300 N Household income from 49 ----- - sales in market 48 0: t0 t:: ^ :- :; .; - 250 d - 47 . it 46 ._ 0 0 +. 0)|; .. E. . , ...... - 200 1 j46~- -E e 45 150 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~100 i 4'L 0 00__ *i _ .3, 41 41 -+- 0 v-v--l ti 0 0 s il0i 0f ------ 40 J 0 Black Sea hMditerranean Aegean Source: Household Survey Figure 16: Health Problems by Region 30- ,- _ _ 20- I Bbck Sao Aegean Mediteffaneem U F-_.t p.bn Storrch and ddigegtn - Aitvils * Br_M ng pFvhlr Source: Household Survy variations are also important; 28 percent of The most common conditions reported are coastal villages, 33 percent of mountain vil- rheumatism (20 percent), heart disease (14 lages, and 50 percent of plateau villages have percent), digestive system problems (10 per- health care centers. More in-forest villages cent), and respiratory problems (8 percent) have health care centers (39 percent) than for- (Figure 16). In the Aegean region, heart disease est-neighboring villages (29 percent). is the most common condition (27 percent), 38 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 17: Radio and TV Use and Interest in Forestry Programs 35 40- 30 25 10 0 Sbkd Sea Aeg- Meea U Fkdio o ° FoRasu Fr Source: Household Survey Figure 18: Type of Media Program Prefef ted - by Region 35- ?_ 30- / _^ l *- -- - 3 25- /_ - _ 20- e_/[I| ,15- -K 5- v- i |lr/l| - Skbck Sea Aeg- hAdoM _i a dAgjcuu*Lwestocx = url FWng aForesy * Other Source: Household Survey whereas in the Black Sea region, because of and 13 percent own transport vehicles. Both weather conditions, rheumatism t24 percent) television and radio owner-ship rates are very is the most common health -problem. high, with television being more popular than the radio.' The proportion of households that Electricity and Mass Media listen to the radio is 53 percent. Broken down by region, the ratio is 55 percent in the Black Most forest villages have electricity. Sea region, 55 percent in the Aegean region, Eighty-two percent of households have refrig- and 48 percent in the Mediterranean region. erators, 33 percent have washing machines, The proportion of households that watch tele- 39 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 19: Interest in Media Programs on Forestry and Desire to Establish Own Forestry Business 60 40 10 0 Bbck See Aegean Meditearneen VVatchingfoiestryprograrns m Warttoha%eownforestbuness Source: Household Survey Figure 20: Types of Forest Business People are Interested 0 Bbck Sea Aegea dbn * Bee faising ° Nushwom a Foest pltshaffbs Source: Household Survey vision is high (77 percent overall). Regionally, popular are about agriculture and livestock the rates are 77 percent in the Black Sea, 82 raising (Figure 18), followed by forestry-re- percent in the Aegean, and 74 percent in the lated programs. There is some evidence that Mediterranean region. exposure to these types of programs increases Figure 17 presents the regional distribu- interest in entrepreneurial activities in the tion of radio listeners and television watch- forest (Figure 19). Villagers name beekeeping, ers. The figure shows that in all three regions, mushroom cultivation, and forest plant har- there are 20 percent fewer radio listeners than vesting as the forest-related businesses they television watchers. This figure also shows most want to pursue. Beekeeping is the most that the rate for watching television programs desired business in the Mediterranean region on forestry is low and parallels the rate for (84 percent), while harvesting mushrooms (20 listening to radio. Forest communities rarely percent) and forest herbs (13 percent) are benefit from the media in terms of broaden- most popular in the Black Sea region (Figure ing their understanding of production activi- 20). Thus, although television and radio own- ties. Among the few educational programs ership rates are high and the mass media that are available on television, the most reach forest communities, the lack of local 40 Infrastructure in Forest Villages programming (or even local newspapers) lagers as shown by the factor analysis of the hinders the presentation of custom-tailored SA data. outreach programs to increase knowledge of Land distribution shows significant re- credit availability, new technologies, or other gional variations. Land size and ownership in productive opportunities for forest villages. the surveyed villages are similar, and all are significantly below the country average of 64 Economic Conditions in Forest Villages decares (1 decare equals 1,000 square meters). The surveys show that land ownership per Forest villages are poorer than other Turk- household in the Aegean region is around 28 ish villages. The most important indicators of decares, 24 in the Mediterranean, and 20 in their poverty levels are far below national the Black Sea (Annex 2, Table 6). Therefore, averages. Average land ownership in forest the amount of land available in forest villages villages is significantly lower than the na- is around 30 percent of the national average tional average of 64 decares per household. in the Black Sea region, 38 percent in the Regional averages for forest villages are 20 Mediterranean, and 44 percent in the Aegean decares in the Black Sea region, 24 decares in region. the Mediterranean region, and 28 decares in Fragmentation of land is significant, espe- the Aegean region. Livestock ownership is cially when small units are involved. For in- also very low. stance, approximately half of the rural The most important sources of income in population (47 percent) own less than 10 forest villages are farming, livestock raising, donums (about a quarter of an acre) of land. and horticulture. Families earn one-third of Inequities in land ownership are also an issue their income from farming and another third in these villages. For example, while nearly from raising livestock (Table 13). Only 8 per- one-fourth of the population own less than 5 cent of villagers earn their living by working decares of land each, 3 percent own more than in forest-related sectors. 90 decares each (Figure 21). When this analysis is applied to individual provinces, the largest Land Ownership landholdings can be as much as 600 percent There is limited land available for forest larger than the smallest ones (Annex 2, Table villagers. Average land holdings are far 7). In Artvin, the average landholding is smaller than those in other parts of the coun- around 10 decares per household compared to try. There are also large differences among 65 decares in Trabzon. This demonstrates the regions: villagers in the Aegean region have very large inequalities in land ownership that the most land and those in the Black Sea re- exist, even within each region. gion have the least. Land ownership is the There is an inverse relation between the most important indicator of income for vil- level of land ownership and the fragmentation Table 13. Sources of Income (percentage of households) Region Grain Vegetables Fruits Industrial Income from Livestock Income from Number plants livestock forest work of hhs Mediterranean 21 1 34 4 18 11 11 244 Aegean 13 0 35 20 20 6 5 185 Black Sea 21 10 11 1 33 18 6 437 Source: household survey, 1997. 41 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 21: Size of Land - by Region * Bbdk See X ~~~DA 45 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 O 1-10ha 1140 ha. P bbXth30 ha. Source: Household Survey of landholdings. For example, in the Black Sea small ones. Those with larger holdings create region, where land ownership is the most lim- efficient cycles because of the size and diver- ited of the surveyed regions, each family's land- sity of their landholdings: they grow their holdings were fragmented into six pieces. In the own grains, feed them to their own animals, Mediterranean region, holdings are larger and and generate more income to invest in pro- are fragmented into three pieces on average. duction improvements. Household size and topo-graphical features The size of landholdings is also a signifi- play an important role in the fragmentation of cant factor for activities that do not need landholding in the Black Sea region and influ- much land, such as beekeeping. Poultry ence the level of poverty in the region. farming, which is even less widely spread Land ownership directly affects house- among forest villagers than beekeeping, does holds' ability to generate income from agri- not reflect the same relationship to land hold- cultural activities such as beekeeping, ings (Table 17). ORKOY has tried to promote livestock raising, and crop production. For poultry farming in forest areas, but difficul- example, large landowners profit consider- ties of marketing and the risks associated ably from the sale of agricultural products with this type of farming resulted in most (Table 14). These people also own more live- households' keeping a limited number of stock than other villagers (Tables 15 and 16). poultry, primarily for household consump- For example, only 55 percent of villagers tion. Ownership of agricultural land and of owning 10 decares of land or less own cattle. farming machinery are also positively related By contrast, 75 percent of villagers owning 30 (Table 18). For instance, only 15 percent of or more decares of land have cattle. As a re- families with less than 10 decares of land own sult, owners of large landholdings gain a sig- tractors, compared with 58 percent for house- nificant advantage in milk production over holds with more than 30 decares of land. 42 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Table 14. Landholding Size and Income from Cash Sales of Agricultural Produce (percentage of households) TL (millions) 1-5 da 6-14 da 15-30 da 31+ da Average 10- 50 41 37 22 16 26 51 -100 20 25 24 19 22 101 - 200 18 19 12 15 16 201-400 8 12 20 23 17 401 + 12 7 22 27 19 Total (n) 49 59 88 97 293 Note: TL stands for Turkish lira Source: Household survey, 1997 Table 15. Cattle Ownership and Land Size (percentage of households) 0-0 da 11-30 da 30+ da Average Does not own cattle 45 31 25 36 Own cattle 55 68 75 64 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 Source: Household survey, 1997 Table 16. Ownership of Sheep and Goats and Land Size (percentage of households) 0-10 da 11-30 da 30+ da Average Does not own sheep and goats 80 70 63 72 Own sheep and goats 22 30 37 28 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 Source: Household survey, 1997 Table 17. Beekeeping and Poultry Farming by Land Size (percentage of households) 0-10da 11-30da 30+ da Average Not engaged in beekeeping 95 89 85 91 Engaged in beekeeping 5 10 15 9 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 Does not have poultry 94 97 94 95 Has poultry 6 3 6 5 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 Source: Household survey, 1997 43 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Table 18. Tractor, Planting, and Harvest Machinery Ownership by Land Size (percentage of households) 0-10 da 11-30 da 30+ da Average No tractor 76 51 31 56 Owns one 15 36 58 33 Rents one 9 13 11 11 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 No planting 95 93 84 92 Owns one 2 3 12 5 Rents one 3 4 4 3 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 No harvest machinery 97 94 82 92 Owns one 1 3 11 4 Rents one 2 3 7 4 Total (n) 353 224 174 751 Source: Household survey, 1997 When the relationship between land own- in forest village population and helped ease ership and income is analyzed, it becomes tensions on forest resources. clear that land is the most important asset for both in-forest and forest-neighboring villag- Livestock Ownership ers. A multiple regression analysis among the Forest villagers own less livestock, on variables in the poverty index shows that average, than other rural people in Turkey. possession of land is the number one factor While most rural families, on average, own for the decrease of poverty among forest three cattle, more than half of forest villagers communities. This situation creates a vicious in the Aegean region have no cattle. Black Sea circle for villagers and for state poverty re- region villagers, on the other hand, raise duction policies. For instance, in the Black more cattle than villagers in other regions to Sea region, there is limited land ownership counter the disadvantages that stem from and even more limited potential for opening their smaller landholdings and the unsuit- up new areas for agriculture because of topo- ability of their land for farming. In the forest graphical conditions. As a result, poverty is villages included in the survey, forest villag- exacerbated by the profusion of forests and ers own far fewer sheep and goats than other the lack of agricultural land. villagers do. In Turkey, a rural family, on av- There seem to be two basic solutions to the erage, owns 15 small animals (sheep and issue of poverty in these regions. Either forests goats) as opposed to less than five in the for- will have to be used in different ways to in- est villages surveyed. Limited livestock own- crease their benefit to the population, or ership in these areas is strongly linked to people in these regions will be forced to mi- poverty,-most families who do not have grate out of forest villages in greater numbers. cattle are poor. This is an important factor The SA results show that people already seem when considering the potential pressure for- to have made this choice - migration is largely est communities may be expected to impose preferred in these areas. Some people choose on forests. Because these communities are far to migrate temporarily to pursue seasonal poorer than rural communities in general, employment, while others have migrated per- they own less livestock and exert little pres- manently. This, in turn, has caused a decrease sure on forests and pastures.4 44 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 22: Livestock Ownership 14 w 2 S,/ a Source: Household Survey Ownership of livestock is an important profitable to keep livestock. The small size of component of agricultural enterprises and is landholdings also limits farmers' ability to particularly important in the Black Sea re- produce feed, further restricting herd sizes. gion, where landholdings are small and land Again, this limits the potential threat forest is unsuitable for farming. The average num- communities may exert on forests and pas- ber of cattle in the Black Sea region is four per tures in the three regions covered by the SA. household, while it is one per household in both the Aegean and Mediterranean regions Ownership of Agricultural Machinery (Figure 22). Cattle ownership in forest vil- Tractor ownership is a symbol of status lages of the Black Sea region is close to the and wealth in Turkish villages.5 Tractors are national average of four per household, while the most basic agricultural machines, and residents of other regions own less than half most types of farming require their use. of the country average. Ownership of small However, an average tractor costs $10,000, livestock such as sheep and goats, on the and where inflation and interest rates are other hand, is highest in the Aegean region, very high, it is not easy for every farmer to with six per household. Figures are five per purchase one. On average, in Turkey, there household in both the Black Sea and the are 24 tractors per 100 rural households. Av- Mediterranean regions. erage tractor ownership in the Aegean re- Income from milk sales is an important gion is 32 tractors per 100 households, source of cash. Women, in particular, see this compared with 29 in the Mediterranean re- income as a means of easing their poverty. In gion and 22 in the Black Sea region. While order to secure this income, villagers use most the average number of tractors in the of the credit they receive for purchasing and Aegean and Mediterranean regions is higher maintaining livestock. However, credit is very than the national average, it is lower in the limited. Even if financial assistance were avail- Black Sea region because of the hilly terrain able, artificial feed for livestock is very expen- of this region. sive. Unless communities can grow a large Tractors, sowing and harvesting machin- portion of animal feed themselves, it is not ery, and other equipment are usually privi- 45 SociallAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review leges enjoyed by large landowners. Around 57 products is preferred (Table 19). Fruit and veg- percent of forest villagers neither own a tractor etable production supplies nearly one-third of nor are able to rent one. Even more unattain- the family income in the Aegean region; such able are sowing and harvesting machines, production plays a lesser role in the other re- which are unaffordable for 92 percent of forest gions. Some significant "industrial" agricul- villagers. The excessive fragmentation of land- tural products such as tobacco, cotton, and holdings and difficult geographical conditions beets are also produced in the Black Sea and are significant obstacles to agricultural mecha- Aegean regions. Non-agricultural activities are nization, especially in the Black Sea region. most common in the Black Sea region and This forces farmers to survive by literally us- consist mostly of jobs involving seasonal or ing their hands for cultivation. daily migration; 27 percent of families in the Black Sea region generate additional income in Patterns Of Agricultural Production this way, earning up to $420 per year (Table 20 Although livestock management is wide- and Figure 23). spread in forest communities, it is particularly The household survey and village head- prominent in the Mediterranean region. In the man survey revealed similar findings with Aegean region, grain cultivation is more com- regard to the relative importance of different mon, while in the Black Sea region, cultivation income sources. When asked to list the most of potatoes and other nongrain agricultural important sources of income, village head- Table 19. Employment Status of Villagers (percentage of households) Income source Black Sea Mediterranean Aegean Average Farming (excluding grain) 28 23 4 21 Livestock raising 31 40 25 32 Grain farming 5 3 21 8 Horticulture 12 17 33 18 Industrial plants 0 3 8 3 Working in the forest 5 7 8 6 Business related to forest 2 3 0 2 Nonagricultural business 17 3 0 10 Number of households 414 180 239 833 Source: Household survey, 1997 Table 20. Wage, Salary, and Pension Income (percentage of household income) Income source Black Sea Mediterranean Aegean Number of workers (per household) 31 30 13 Number of white collar workers (per household 15 6 4 Number of pensioners (per household) 66 7 22 Total (per household) 112 43 39 Percentage of households 27 18 21 Annual income (US$) 421 281 327 Monthly income (US$ 35 23 27 Source: Household survey, 1997 46 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 23: Types of Employment in Villages 100%S , 13 Nobi.gricullure business 0 Business abouit fo4est * hdiustiivaugetatin 601/6 - Is Fiuits aid vagetbles 50%- 0 Uvwsbck malsing __40YO / q _ U Faming 30%/ 20%' - Bbck Sea Meditenanean Aegeou Cwera Source: Household Survey men identified livestock management and fertilizers, animal feed, pesticides, and fuel to agriculture as the two most important activi- their members in the form of operational and ties (Table 21). Only 13 percent of forest com- agricultural machinery credits. Mechaniza- munities have a heavy reliance on tion credits are provided in cash, based on the forest-based income-generating activities. calculation of clients' needs according to the size of their landholdings and produce. Input Cooperative System credits, on the other hand, are given in-kind The cooperative system developed in to producers. These cooperatives obtain their Turkey during the 1960s, when agricultural operating resources from the Agriculture sales cooperatives were instituted to protect Bank in the form of loans and transfer these economic activities of producers, meet their loans to their clients -usually with a 2.5 per- production needs, and provide the necessary cent interest rate markup. conditions to fully realize the potential value Today, 41 percent of Black Sea villages, 50 of their produce. Their mandate providing percent of Aegean villages, and 43 percent of the means to solve agricultural production problems of their member and nonmember producers. They are also mandated to engage Table 21. Distribution of Income Sources in the direct purchase of subsidized agricul- in Villages (percentage of households) tural products from producers in the name of the state. Agriculture 73 Agricultural credit cooperatives, on the Nonagriculture 14 other hand, were founded to enhance coop- Work related to forest 13 Total number of villages 112 eration among producers by providing them with the means of supporting their busi- Source: Village headman survey, 1997 nesses. These cooperatives provide seeds, 47 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReview Mediterranean villages have cooperatives. gions (for instance, the Black Sea) and certain Twenty-nine percent of these are agricultural types of communities (mountainous), pov- development cooperatives and 26 percent are erty-focused interventions are not difficult to forest cooperatives. However, cooperatives localize, but sustainable income-generating vary in type across regions. For instance, for- activities are few and can only benefit a small est-related cooperatives constitute 46 percent number of people. Against claims that his- of cooperatives in the Black Sea region, while torically forest communities constituted a there were none in the forest villages sampled threat to forests, we can generate little empiri- in the Mediterranean region.6 Agricultural cal evidence. Given the income and demo- development cooperatives, on the other graphic trends summarized in this report as hand, constitute 17 percent of cooperatives in well as the generally high level of perceived the Black Sea region and make up 54 percent appreciation of forest resources that appear to in the Mediterranean region. Both types of be widespread among the forest communi- cooperatives are equally distributed in the ties, the SA provides little reason for concern Aegean region. The average number of mem- that such a threat would be present in the bers in a cooperative is 73 in the Aegean, 65 future. In the section to follow, we hope to be in the Mediterranean, and 50 in the Black Sea able to quantify the extent of community reli- region. The SA found that in 70 percent of ance on forests and point once more to the villages with an established cooperative sys- need of their residents to improve their living tem, villagers are willing to work in partner- standards. ship with each other. This number, however, The SA results show that the poorest of is smaller in developing villages (69 percent) the surveyed regions is the Black Sea and the than in developed villages (83 percent). wealthiest is the Aegean (Figure 24). Eco- nomically ranking regions in Turkey while Income Levels and Dependency taking all measurable indicators into consid- on the Forest eration is a difficult task. Determining eco- nomic prosperity levels is complex and Poverty involves the reduction of many variables to a One of the most important contributions select number of factors. This problem re- of the SA to an understanding of forest com- quires careful selection of variables and the munities relates to poverty. Whether we focus use of appropriate statistical methods for the on the communities or the households within analysis and interpretation of the data. them, forest communities fare much worse While it may be expected that the SA will than other rural communities in Turkey. The attempt to identify "poverty pockets," this land and livestock holdings of households cannot be done for two major reasons. First, are substantially below the national average, as already mentioned, at the request of the household incomes are about half the rural technical team, the SA's empirical focus was average, levels of education -as with other on three coastal regions that contained nearly human development indicators - are low, and two-thirds of Turkey's forest populations. outmigration is high. The greater the income While forest communities in all three regions dependency on forest-based resources, the are poorer than other rural communities in poorer are the communities. And perhaps the the respective regions, without a full cover- most important finding of the SA has to do age of all forest communities, it would be with the fact that a comprehensive solution difficult to identify "pockets" with any preci- for substantial improvements in incomes of sion. Secondly, even if the SA were to deal forest com-munities with little agricultural with all regions with forest cover, it still land is not easy to identify. Because the de- would have been based on a sample of com- pendency on forests is higher in certain re- munities, thus again excluding the possibility 48 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 24: Poverty Index 2,- 1.5 -- r Aegen avenge: 1136] 1, L!!!~~~~~~~~~~~~IMdieraen ~Avtrage-- 41 023 Black Seavlflag are ck Sea Aveage: 0.11V7 0o.5 -O'm number of villages Source: Household Survey of the identification of "poverty pockets" in a development is livestock ownership. Thus, precise manner.8 ownership of sheep, goats, and cattle, as well The SA used Basic Components as milk production, are also taken into ac- Analysis9 to interpret the concept of economic count. Another factor includes tractor owner- development. This method aims to generate a ship and the amount of loans received from single dimension variable for economic de- Ziraat Bank (a state-funded bank that assists velopment at the household level. The stan- rural development) and agricultural credit dard values obtained from the analysis are cooperatives. Total farm revenues from sales then used to rank villages, municipalities, are also considered. The number of days and regions. However, it is important to note worked in the forest was used as a proxy for that the sampling framework is designed to income obtained from the forest. Likewise, be representative only at a regional level, the number of people from each household rather than at the country or village level. working in nonagricultural businesses was Therefore, the ranking of municipalities is used as a proxy to estimate incomes from indicative, and the ranking based on the pov- such activities. erty index is only valid on a regional basis. Through the Basic Components Analysis, The factors constituting economic devel- the data set, which originally included 11 opment are essentially those that relate to variables, was reduced to four factors. The agricultural production. Therefore, the size of first factor consists of landholding size, milk landholdings and the volume of wheat pro- production, and the number of sheep and duction are selected as key indicators. An- goats. The second factor includes income other important component of economic generated from sales, loans obtained from the 49 Social Assessment for the Turkey Forest Sector Review banks and cooperatives, and cattle owner- at a significant disadvantage compared to ship. The third factor involves the number of other rural households. people working outside the village, and the fourth consists of the number of people Poverty Fund (FAK FUK FON) working in forests and the number of tractors An issue that should be discussed in the owned. In other words, the poverty index context of poverty is the assistance provided variable, constructed from the 11 variables by the state to villagers through the Poverty mentioned, is dependent on these four factors Fund (FAK FUK FON). This fund was estab- for each household. Once the index is created, lished as a social safety net to support vulner- it is possible to correlate it with other vari- able groups and the poorest of the poor. Not ables to see its relationship with them. surprisingly, forest communities comprise a The poverty index was used to group disproportionate share of the recipients of households into three categories: high-in- this assistance. According to the village head- come (with an average of 2.725), middle-in- man survey, the Black Sea region communi- come (average of 0.938), and low-income or ties, with 67 percent utilization of this special poor (average of -0.296). In the surveyed vil- fund, rank above the other regions. The usage lages, 84 percent of households are in the ratio in both the Aegean and Mediterranean low-income category, 10 percent in the regions is approximately 55 percent (Table middle-income, and 6 percent in the high- 26). Despite the low percentage of villages income category. These numbers clearly show using this fund in the Mediterranean region, that most forest villages suffer from poverty. the number of people benefiting from the Figure 24 ranks villages according to the pov- fund in a given village is well above average. erty index.10 The Aegean region is the most In more than 26 percent of villages, there are dynamic region, with an index of 0.136, fol- more than 11 households benefiting from this lowed by the Mediterranean region, with source of funding. 0.102. The Black Sea region is the poorest, It is interesting to note that while around with a poverty index of -0.1197 (Table 23). 60 percent of households in poor and middle- Analysis also indicates that the poorer a income forest villages use the FAK FUK FON, household or community is, the greater its nearly 67 percent of households in high-in- reliance on wood as a source of fuel energy. come villages also use the fund (Table 27). This The relationship between poverty and the use demonstrates that there is an unequal distribu- of gas for cooking is less clear. Poverty is par- tion of wealth within communities regardless ticularly pronounced in mountain villages of their aggregated economic status. While the (Table 24), where the amount of land for agri- fact that a large number of communities in culture and pasture is severely limited. forest areas have the benefit of this fund, it is From an economic productivity perspec- important to note that the income provided is tive, there are clear differences between poor far below a level sufficient to sustain a house- families and middle- and high-income fami- hold; rather, it would supplement the income lies. Table 25 presents the ownership of pro- of the poorest segments. duction factors in all rural areas of Turkey, in The number of migrants in a forest village rural farming households, and in forest vil- was correlated with the receipt of assistance lages. High-income forest households, on from the Poverty Fund (Annex 2, Tables 13 average, own more production factors than and 14). This analysis confirmed that the the Turkish rural average. Low-income forest communities whose residents cannot earn households, on the other hand, own plots of income from agriculture and are forced to land that are substantially smaller than the look elsewhere for work are among the poor- average. In terms of livestock ownership, est and are rightfully receiving assistance however, forest villages do not appear to be through the fund. 50 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Table 23. Poverty Indexes, by Region Poverty index Energy index Energy index Total number o (wood) (gas in tanks) households Aegean 0.136 0.38 1.42 185 Mediterranean 0.102 0.20 2.63 244 Black Sea -0.120 0.64 1.49 437 Note: Numerical values of the poverty index merely indicate ranking, not the poverty degree. Table 24. Poverty and Geographic Location (percentage of households) Poor Middle income High income Average Coastal 13 13 50 16 Mountain 74 61 50 69 Plateau 13 26 0 15 Number of households 709 87 47 843 Note: Household survey, 1997. Table 25. Average Production Factors per Household DIE Statistics SA Results Rural Farm h/holds SA Poor Middle- High- Turkey engaged average h/holds income income in farrning h/holds hlholds Land owned (da) 58 64 26 16 57 110 Number of cattle owned 3 4 2 2 3 6 Number of sheep and goats owned 12 16 5 13 15 67 Number of tractors owned 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.9 Source: State Statistical Office, 1994; and household survey, 1997 Table 26. Access to Poverty Fund by Region (percentage of villages) Number of people benefitting Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Average Nobody 33 46 47 39 1 - 5 31 29 13 26 6- 10 19 21 13 18 Morethan 11 17 4 27 17 Number of villages 58 24 30 112 Note: Village headman survey, 1997. 51 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review The distance of villages from urban areas palities is given in Annex 2, Table 16. The was also correlated with poverty. The SA Black Sea region also lags behind the other found that the number of villages receiving two regions in terms of per capita market assistance from the fund increased with dis- sales income ($196 in the Aegean, $173 in the tance from urban areas (Annex 2, Table 15). Mediterranean, and $45 in the Black Sea). Finally, 72 percent of the people who work These results indicate that villagers in the exclusively as forest wage laborers receive Black Sea region have very limited access to assistance from the FAK-FUK-FON. This is markets and subsistence agriculture is wide- indicative of the level of poverty of those spread. Production patterns in the Aegean who have no sources of income other than and Mediterranean regions also conform to wage labor in the forest. this general pattern. Sales Revenue Reliance on Wood The Mediterranean region is the most The most substantial benefit of the forest active region in agricultural production and to villagers is as a source of wood for heating sales, and the Black Sea region is the least and cooking. Twenty-eight percent of house- active in these areas. When respondents holds in forest villages depend entirely on were asked to estimate the income they ex- wood for heating and cooking, and 57 percent pected to receive from sales of agricultural are completely dependent on wood only for products, it was found that average house- heating but not for cooking. Sixty-four percent hold income was highest in the Mediterra- of families in the Black Sea region, 57 percent in nean region at $833 per year. The Aegean the Aegean region, and 52 percent in the Medi- region ranked second with $802, and the terranean region are completely dependent on Black Sea region reported an average annual forest wood for heating (Table 28). earning of $236 per household (Figure 25). Fourteen percent of villagers have com- The distribution of sales income in munici- pletely abandoned wood as tieir energy Table 27. Poverty and Poverty Fund Beneficiaries by Village Number of people Village Type benefifting Poor Middle-income High-income Average Nobody 39 43 33 39 1 - 5 23 35 25 269 6-10 17 13 33 18 More than 11 21 9 8 17 Number of villages 77 23 12 112 Note: Village headman survey, 1997. Table 28. Source of Energy for Heating (percentage of households) Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Average Completely from the forest 64 57 52 58 Forest and other sources 36 43 48 42 Total number of households 417 185 242 844 Source: Household survey, 1997. 52 Anfrastructure in Forest Vllages Figure 25: Annual Income from Sales of Products in Markets ~~~~~~. . ..... . . S ..... 3 1 *.1 -i - l - B6- " See 0 100 20o 3DO 400 6DO 6(O 700 800 )00 Lis cbbm Source: Household Survey Figure 26: Type of Fuel Use in Various Seasons -K Gas/ Wcod . _ <\ ~~~~~~~~~~cz Wood Gas r . __ s a Gas Soce: Household\Survey80 Gas f o , ad 75 pre ue o e wi0 E E E AW'; § XE I § g Source: Household Survey source for cooking, and 75 percent use wood mer when it is too hot to cook with a wood only seasonally. Some forest villagers have stove. While it is more convenient, this be- switched from wood to liquid gas for cooking havior results in households not using their and washing. Those families that can afford it wood quotas completely, and thus reduces have come to prefer the convenience of gas the value of the benefit that villagers obtain stored in tanks to using wood carried from from the forest. The use of heating fuel de- the forest to their houses, particularly in sum- pends on seasons, climate, and alternative 53 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sec/or Review heating methods (Figure 26). In winter, 25 of the amount used for heating. The wood percent of Black Sea region households use dependency coefficient is computed as the gas for heating, 33 percent in the Aegean re- sum of indexes for heating and cooking. gion, and 63 percent in the Mediterranean After these steps, the index indicating the region. In summer these rates drop to 41, 55, dependency of households on forest fuel is and 78 percent respectively. multiplied by the total consumption values The state gives a firewood entitlement to calculated for each region (25 steres times $14 forest villagers in all three regions, taking into for the Black Sea region and 12 steres for the account their relative climatic and socioeco- Aegean and Mediterranean). This calculation nomic conditions. In the Black Sea region, indicates that an average household in the where the winter is long and severe, house- Black Sea region receives an energy benefit of holds are given an entitlement of 25 steres (10 $192 from the forest annually. This value is $55 tons) per year; warmer regions get less."1 Nor- in the Mediterranean and $91 in the Aegean mally, the OGM's local staff shows each com- region. If the three regions are merged and a munity a certain part of the forest that they weighted average of their wood usage is calcu- can harvest each year. Furthermore, the forest lated while, at the same time, it is assumed (in administration allows villagers to collect un- the worst case scenario) that the usage of forests derbrush and cut down old trees for heating. outside these regions is similar to that in the This can also be considered a benefit to the Black Sea region, then it is found that in Turkey, forest and the state, because when under- a forest family derives an annual benefit of $150 brush and old trees are not collected, the like- from the forest. If the calculation is expanded to lihood of forest fires increases. This the whole of the country, the 8.4 million people arrangement benefits both sides. (1.7 million households) living in forests gain a Several assumptions were made in calcu- total annual benefit of $255 million.'3 lating the heating benefit obtained from the Official estimates indicate that an addi- forest by villagers.'2 The household survey tional amount, equal to or more than 100 per- asked villagers how much of their heating cent of state support to villagers, is cut down needs they obtained from the forest and the illegally. The SA results do not support this answers were categorized as "all," "more claim. Some villagers argue that illegal har- than half," and "less than half." The energy vesting is carried out or encouraged by gov- reliance index was then calculated by multi- eirnent officials themselves. The SA found in plying these categories by coefficients be- the three regions studied the illegal use of for- tween 0 and 1. (For instance, in the Black Sea est wood is common, but regionally specific, region, households that say "all" are assumed and that illegal cutting is unlikely to exceed to be using all of the 25 steres of wood pro- the state allocation or constitute a major por- vided to them under law by the state.) The tion of it. results of this calculation are then multiplied In forest villages, the state provides tim- by the percentage of months in the year dur- ber for first-time house builders as well as ing which heating is necessary. In other providing limited support for repair or recon- words, we assumed that if a household is struction. However, this support is getting completely dependent on wood, it will use all harder to obtain. Because of otmigration, of its allocation; if winters are unusually long, fewer homes are being constructed in many this allocation may not be enough and people forest villages, but the villagers regularly use will go into the forest to gather fallen small amounts of wood for repairs.4 MOF are branches or, occasionally, cut down trees ille- around $83.5 million, and allocations for gaily. Both of these possibilities are captured heating energy resources are $47.2 million. by the index. The amount of wood used for This translates to an average additional an- cooking in villages is assumed to be one-third nual benefit of $78 per household.', 54 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 27: Dependency on Wood and Gas in Tanks - by Region ___ ___ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-6 Mediteonsmi Ageae Buick Sea Source: Household Survey Poor villagers depend more on the forest As cash income from such sales increases, the as a source of energy than other groups do. poverty level decreases. Likewise, as income The correlation between the poverty index and from sales increases, dependence on forest energy dependency indexes (wood and gas wood for energy decreases. There is also a cor- indexes are separated) support this finding. relation between tractor ownership and level of The poverty index has a statistically significant income. Tractor owners are generally in the and inversely proportional relationship with upper-income segment of the community, and the energy reliance index. Therefore, as wealth they have almost no reliance on wood as a increases, dependence on wood for cooking source of energy in their households. and heating decreases. The index measuring The poverty index further demonstrates dependence on gas in tanks, on the other that remote villagers are poorer than residents hand, positively correlates with the poverty of villages close to town centers. Parallel to index. This reflects the fact that as wealth in- this finding, the level of dependence on wood creases, gas use also increases (Figure 27). declines and dependence on gas increases in If the regions are compared, it can be seen villages closer to town centers. In-forest vil- that reliance on wood is highest in the Black lages are poorer and more dependent on wood Sea region and lowest in the Mediterranean as a source of energy than forest-neighboring region (Figures 28 and 29). The relationship villages, where wood is supplemented by between dependence on wood and poverty in other sources of energy. the Black Sea region is statistically significant. Therefore, this dependency should be viewed Livestock Raising as a function of poverty, rather than climate.16 Forest villagers also benefit by grazing The positive relationship between poverty their livestock in pastures that belong to the and energy dependency on the forest is also MOF and in forests (although grazing in for- confirmed by examining the relationship be- ests is illegal). Grazing their animals in the tween income from the sale of agricultural and forest pastures allows villagers to save money livestock produce and household prosperity. that would otherwise be spent on animal feed. 55 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 28: Energy Needs Met from the Forest 0.6 0.5 _ _ _ _ ___ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ ~0.5 0.4__ '6 0.2 0.1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 SD 55 60 65 70 75 E0 85 90 95 100 pement o househoLs - Agean - Meditesanean -*-BbckSea Source: Household Survey Figure 29: Dependency on Gas for Cooking 1.6 .............. . -.. --.. ................................. ..................................................................... 14 4 ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .... .... .. . .. . .. .. . .. . 1.24 . / ~ ~~~~ A- A - I . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ ... . .. . . .. . . I 0.6 0.4 -2- I -- -------- 0O - --_ , 5 10 15 20 25 30 S5 40 45 SD 56 60 65 70 75 8D 85 90 95 10D pencert of househobs M emnean - -Ae BbdB Sea Source: Household Survey 56 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 30: Value of Livestock Feed Obtained from the Forest 50 45 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 40 35 * 30 -__ .._'' _ ,20. 15- 10- 5= 0- Tuekey'-wl Other 0 mgbona SWdc sea Msitei,wmean Aegean Source: Household Survey Outdoor grazing, however, is possible only high levels of outmigration, aging population during warmer seasons -during the winter, of communities, and limits on herd size19 all animals are housed and fed in shelters.17 play roles in reducing the potential human Therefore, local climatic conditions limit the damage to pastures and forests through over- utilization of the forest for grazing, and the grazing. Thus, based on those SA results that potential benefits of forest grazing vary from pertain to the Black Sea communities with region to region. Mediterranean and Aegean reliance on pastures, a positive future sce- region villagers for instance, can save more nario of reduced pressure on pastures and than Black Sea communities because their forests can be foreseen. grazing season is much longer. However, The SA determined the amount of feed farmers claim that grazing livestock in the that livestock consume during winter months forest is not a desirable option because pas- and assumed that when feeding outside of tures and artificial feed provide much higher the barn, livestock consume similar amounts nutritional content for their animals. Also, of food. During the summer, villagers can there is evidence for the Aegean region that supply 20 percent of their livestock's feed farmers, given their limited access to pas- requirements through open grazing.20 This tures, move their cattle out of their communi- amounts to an annual household savings of ties during winter and take them to other $26 in the Black Sea region, $34 in the Medi- areas; this too reduces the pressure on local terranean region, and $30 in the Aegean re- pastures.'8 Thus, where pastures could have gion.2 When these estimates are expanded to been utilized throughout the year, limited include all forest villages in Turkey, overall availability of pastures prevents the villagers savings amount to $46.3 million annually from doing so. Where pastures are easier to (Figure 30).22 The 1998 draft report of the reach, climatic conditions are a limiting fac- Bank on grazing resources and livestock tor. In the less developed parts of the country management on forest lands indicates that (where pasture lands are concentrated), while reliance on rangelands is higher in regions poverty forces the communities to pastures, outside the three selected for the SA surveys. 57 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 31: Total Salary Income for Work in Forests Tuicey-Overall Ofhw fgions M*edtaneann Blm* Sea 0 10 30 40 50 60 70 USD, millions Source: Household Survey The report also shows that communities no number and type of livestock that they longer agree to be constrained in their use of owned. Among the 417 households surveyed rangelands in forest areas and that the MOF in the Black Sea region, only one family "needs to change from a technology-based owned goats. In the Aegean region, only 35 institution to a people-focused development percent of households own livestock, and 9 organization. The current emphasis on pro- percent of them have goats, with an average duction and exclusive forest management by of 14 per household. In the Mediterranean the MOF precludes broad participation." The region, 16 percent of households have goats, silvi-pastoral management systems based on with an average of eight per family. There- participatory land use planning are proposed fore, the damage that goats are able to inflict so that "exclosure from grazing of degraded on the forest is likewise limited. areas for reforestation or erosion control would be combined with range improve- Wage Labor ments and of fodder production in the same Forest villagers do not fully benefit from area, and the total amount and quality of feed the wage employment opportunities of OGM would remain the same or is enhanced." and when they do benefit, they receive low In forest communities of the Black Sea, wages. Forests supply additional income to Aegean, and Mediterranean, goats inflict only some villagers through wages and salaries.3 a limited amount of damage on the forest. Nearly 38 percent of villagers earn around While there is a widespread belief that forest $103 annually by working in the forest as villagers keep goats and that they cause sig- much as eight days per year. There are no nificant damage to the forest, very few house- significant regional variations in these fig- holds actually own goats and goat ownership ures, and in all three regions, one out of four is limited to select regions and communities. villages has people working in the forest. The survey asked respondents to list the According to household surveys, the number 58 Infrastructure in Forest Villages of villagers working in the forest sector de- ably due to the labor performed by migrant clined in the Black Sea region compared with workers who travel from place to place (An- other parts of the country. nex 2, Tables 18 and 19) and may require fur- This is due to two related factors. First, ther study. Article 40 of the Forest Law No. migration rates are high in the Black Sea re- 6831 stipulates that in employment for har- gion and seasonal migration coincides with vesting, transportation, and other forestry times of the year when labor is needed for the activities, priority should be given to local periodic maintenance of the forest. Therefore, forest villagers and their cooperatives. Pres- there is a significant relationship between ently, a substantial majority (not less than 75 seasonal migration and paid labor in the for- percent) of harvesting and transport activities est; higher levels of seasonal migration result are carried out through forest village coop- in less participation in the casual forest labor eratives by forest villagers in Turkey. force. Second, household demographics in When we compare income from forest the region are distorted, mainly because labor with the poverty index, we find that young adults outmigrate to seek better in- poor villagers work more in the forest than comes, leaving mostly minors and the elderly middle- and high-income villagers do. In- in the village. As a result, forest communities come earned through work in the forest con- have gradually given up the benefit of casual stitutes 20 percent of total household income wage income from forests, and outsiders - (cash and in-kind) in the Mediterranean, 5 individuals or small family firms from other percent in the Black Sea, and 14 percent in the areas -have begun to gain greater access to Aegean region. Both permanent and seasonal wage labor in forests. migration occurs more frequently in less de- If MOF data from 1997 is used for wages, veloped villages than in developed ones, total income from forest-related activities in with the Black Sea region having the highest Turkey would be $202 million. If this amount outmigration rates. As a result, this region is divided equally among households, it does not have an adequate labor force to ef- would amount to an additional annual in- fectively work in the forest, and income from come of $121 per household. However, the forest work represents a relatively small pro- SA indicates that households devote only portion of overall household income. Reli- four to eight days annually to timber harvest- ance on long-term employment outside of ing and forest maintenance work (4.1 in the their villages prevents the poorest of the poor Black Sea, 8.3 in the Mediterranean, and 6.6 from fully benefiting from wage employment in the Aegean region). Therefore, the annual in the forest. Although labor force participa- incomes generated from this work are actu- tion in forestry is low in the Black Sea region, ally $53 in the Black Sea, $107 in the Mediter- those who do work do so for a large portion ranean, and $86 in the Aegean region. When of the year, and thus contribute a higher these numbers are aggregated, total annual amount to household income. income from wage labor in forests amounts to Beekeeping, fishing, spice trading, car- $20.6 million in the Black Sea, $11.1 million in pentry, and other such businesses are not the the Mediterranean, and $8.1 million in the main sources of income in forest villages. Aegean region (Figure 31). Again assuming Beekeeping, the most common of these activi- that households in other forest regions in ties, makes up 9 percent of forest-related Turkey work as long as those in the Mediter- businesses. The Black Sea region has the ranean and about 38 percent of forest families highest proportion of beekeeping, with 11 earn wage income from forests, we estimate a percent, and the Mediterranean region has total national income of $66.5 million per the lowest, with 5 percent. Difficulties in sell- year. The difference between the statistically ing their goods discourage communities from predicted output and actual output is prob- these engaging in these activities.24 One vil- 59 SoczalAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Revie'w lager observed: "We are in the hands of ciency. Although such businesses earn profits middlemen. Take thyme, for instance. Some- based partially on labor inputs from forest one came and offered TL 150,000 for a kilo. communities, the direct benefits to these com- Just imagine collecting a hundred kilo, which munities are limited. It is expected, however, is practically a small truck full of thyme, in that these benefits would substantially in- order to get less than $150. Who would do it? crease in the future through standing sale of No one is interested anymore." trees by bargaining directly with interested Another villager said: forest village communities and the tradition of production by villagers themselves (in- "Our village is known for its honey. stead of by OGM). According to a recently We were one of the richest communi- prepared amendment proposal in Forest Law ties in the Marmaris region. The rapid No. 6831,? if the villagers refuse standing increase in honey production, due to a sale (directly to them by bargaining or to in- shift in technology, has resulted in terested private contractors by free bidding) greater nomadism in the sector. In the implementation, the existing system will be past, each family had ten to fifteen continued under which all harvesting and hives and moved between the shore transportation implementations are con- and the mountains to optimize honey tracted to forest village cooperatives on piece- production. There were no trucks, so work payment basis and distributed by we would use boats to go along the cooperatives among the interested village shore to different communities. Since households. production technology has changed, The SA also attempted to identify the most families now work with three to causes and magnitude of daily and seasonal five hundred hives. Our trees and employment outside forest communities. To flowers are no longer sufficient. The calculate income generated from these activi- area is urbanizing and opening up to ties, it was assumed that villagers earn the tourism. Some families have their minimum wage. Based on this assumption, it own trucks while others hire them was found that 27 percent of households in and travel from Marmaris all the way the Black Sea region earn an average of $421 to Eastern Turkey. Often, the nomadic annually, 18 percent of households in the movement can last as long as nine to Mediterranean region earn $281, and 21 per- ten months of the year. Not only do cent of households in the Aegean region earn we face conflicts because we want to $327 from employment outside of their vil- prevent any trees from being cut lages. Thus, the dependence on out-of-village down (because honey from pine trees employment is higher in the Black Sea region, is a highly desirable product), but we largely because of villagers' inability to earn face conflicts with other communities adequate income from farm and forest em- who want to protect their own re- ployment in their own villages. sources. Thus, as we move from one part of Turkey to another, our difficul- In-kind Income ties multiply. We often end up having The Black Sea region suffers from low cash to buy a small piece of land in another incomes and is also the poorest region in terms region to justify transporting our of in-kind income levels. In-kind income was hives there." calculated by multiplying the quantity of self- produced products by the market prices ob- Additionally, the government has begun tained from the State Statistical Institute (DIE). to privatize processes such as felling, extrac- Since the initial quantity obtained from the tion, and log transportation to increase effi- survey includes products that were sold in 60 Infrastructure in Forest Villages markets, the sales income per household has been subtracted. The factors included in the Table 29. In-kind Income and Sales Income per calculation of in-kind income are the value of Household (US$) energy from fuel obtained from the forest, the Black Mediter- Aegean value of timber (which is cheaper than the Sea ranean market value offered to villagers), the value of animal feed (saved through forest grazing), In-kind income 959 449 1,233 and the sum of wages that are earned through Income from sales 236 833 800 work in the forest. Combined income 1,195 1,282 2,033 Based on these factors, annual in-kind Source: Household survey, 1997. household incomes were computed as $1,233 for the Aegean region, $449 for the Mediterra- nean region, and $959 for the Black Sea re- Table 30. Household Income gion (Table 29). The key finding that emerges (percentage of households) from these results is that sales income per household for the Black Sea region is signifi- Source of Black Mediter- Aegean Ave- cantly less than sales income in the Mediter- income Sea ranean rage ranean region. The factor that increases In-kind income 48 25 47 41 in-kind income in the Aegean region is the Sales income 12 45 30 29 Wood energy 10 3 4 5 production of "industrial" produce such as Grazing 1 2 1 1 olives. Total per capita income in the Aegean, Working in forest 3 6 3 4 Mediterranean, and Black Sea regions is $308, OGM wood subsidy 4 4 3 4 Mediterranean, ~~~~~~~~~Working outside $93, and $184, respectively. of village 22 15 12 16 Total (US$) 1,965 1,837 2,647 2,148 Total Benefit Source: Household survey, 1997. As part of the SA, a calculation was made of total household income for forest villages by aggregating wages, in-kind income, sales from the SA and information obtained from income, and the monetary equivalents of other State Statistical Office were compared. The forest benefits. The following box presents the State Statistical Office established the average methodology used in this calculation. annual household income in Turkey as The breakdown of total household in- $4,734.26 In the rural areas, which included come by income category and by region is forest villages as well as all other village com- presented in Table 30. munities, the annual household income was According to SA surveys that focused established as $3,594. Because some rural exclusively on forest villages, annual incomes families have nonagricultural incomes, the earned from the forest are $349 in the Black State Statistical Office estimated agricultural Sea region (18 percent of total income), $274 income to be $3,276. This figure pertained to in the Mediterranean region (14 percent), and all of Turkey, including the least developed $285 in the Aegean region (11 percent). There- eastern and southeastern regions. Farmer fore, the Black Sea region benefits more than households' incomes were higher on average other regions from forests. The survey also in the three regions covered by the SA. Ac- found that the Black Sea region has lower cording to the State Statistical Office, farming sales income, derives more of its energy from households each generate an annual income wood fuel, and generates more out-of-village of $3,520 in the Black Sea region, $3,506 in the income than the other regions. Mediterranean region, and $3,795 in the In order to compare household incomes Aegean region (Table 31). When the SA find- in forest and nonforest communities, data ings were compared with these broader farm 61 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Revziew Income Calculation Total income in-kind icme + sales lncome + value of timber used for heing and cooking + value of animal feed provided by grazing in forests + value of 0OGM timber subsidy + wage income derived from forest work + wage income frm working outside the village In-kind income: The total in-kind incore is calculated by multiplying the quantity of various agricultural products consumed by the household in a yr by the prices for those goods, as published by the State Statistical O .ffice Sales income: The value of the produce tha ta villager sellis in the market, using local prices and quartities sold. Wood ener The Ministry of Fothretmkesa timbr aloti villaersaingtothe region in which they live. A coefficient of 07Sisedto familiethat ertir entir inome from the forest and 0.25 to the ones that ear ls tan half o eir in there It is assumd that the amount of wood used f cooking Is oehirdof tatusedfor heating. The proponf the year iin which wood for heating is reqd is r ed by 11 motusing t Statistical Office's cimate data. To calculatethew e index, the amount o wood ired for cooking and heating wsm li bylhis seasonalwcoefMicient. Livestock feed equanc0 t asm tt kconusue the same amount of feed in stables and outside the stables, that anmalre fed straw and artificial feed, and that shep consure one-third the amoun th cexdo. ghpert consultatios, average monthly fd requirements for each tye flivso e a those months f the yer that livestock can be grazed instures,itwast rassumed that pasturescan provide 80 percent of these feed requirements Stateitl edata we to calculate the number of months ivestock can be ineach p . OGM sui it was assumed that each household is a recipient of timber allocations from OGM at subsidized prices. Forest wag : Calculatedbythe number ofdayswoed fr0OGM at the minimum wage. Income from working outide the Estimated number of days worked outside the village multiplied by mimumn wage. household incomes, it became clear that on the forest for income is very high in the households in forest areas were substantially Black Sea region compared with other poorer than rural households in general. regions. The income ranking that emerges from In-kind income, sales income, income the household survey is consistent with the from out-of-village work, wage income, and State Statistical Office survey results: the the wood energy income equivalent were Aegean region ranks first, the Black Sea sec- plotted on a two-dimensional plane (Figure ond, and the Mediterranean third.27 It is im- 32). As the values of the parameters on each portant to note that the level of dependence axis increase, the area of the diamond in- 62 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 32: Income Levels In-kind income from farming and Iiwstock 1400 4 1200 -Black Sea eoo - \ \ I Mediteranean -Aegean In-kind income fo Income from energy obtained from agricultre wood products Income from salaries from working outside the village Source: Household Survey Table 31. Household Income of Forest Villages in the SA Sample Income Turkey Black Sea Mediterranean Aegean (in US$) (rural) (farmer) All farming Forest All farming Forest All farming Forest Monthly income 299 273 293 163 292 146 316 214 Annual income 3,594 3,276 3,520 1,961 3,506 1,746 3,795 2,564 Source: State Statistical Office, 1994; and household survey, 1997 creases, and total income increases. The in- The Balance of Forest Benefits between come diamond graphically illustrates that the State and Forest Communities Black Sea communities are more dependent It is important to examine the budget of the on forests for their livelihood, that the Ministry of Forestry in order to analyze the Aegean and Mediterranean regions derive a share of forest benefits accrued to the state. Ac- larger amount of income from cash sales of cording to the 1997 MOF budget (Official Jour- agricultural produce, and that in-kind income nal, December 26,1996), TL 6.8 trillion (55 is much greater in the Aegean and Black Sea percent) of the MOF budget was allocated for regions than in the Mediterranean. staff expenses. Another 28 percent of the budget 63 SoczalAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Table 33. General Directorate of Forestry (OGM) Budget (US$ million) 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 % (1996) Investment expenses 31 35 13 29 44 7 Production expenses 189 217 118 199 223 37 Other expenses 279 345 187 233 250 42 Transfers 94 75 76 144 84 14 Total 594 672 395 605 601 100 Source: Dogru, M., 'Turkey Forestry Sector Review, Synthesis Report," World Bank, 1997. Table 32. Ministry of Forestry Budget (US$ million) 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 % (1996) General budget 48 105 60 81 79 9 Additional budget 127 129 68 77 93 11 OGM revolving capital 594 672 395 605 619 74 Ministry revolving capital 0 0 0 9 13 1 Reforestation fund 14 10 4 7 30 4 National parks 2 2.2 2 1 2 0 ORKOY 2 23 11 15 20 2 Total 807 942 540 795 839 100 Source: Dogru, M., "Turkey Forestry Sector Review, Synthesis Report," World Bank, 1997. was allocated for investments. OGM is not in- The monetary equivalent of forest ben- cluded in this budget because it has revolving efits derived by village communities amounts funds and is considered self-sufficient. OGM to $481 million, whereas the MOF budget is gains most of its earnings, and supports the $839 million (Table 32). State expenditures on majority of its budget, through timber sales. the few thousand employees working for the The OGM budget is allocated to invest- ministry amount to around $231 million, ments (7 percent), production costs (37 per- while the combined wage income of millions cent), expenses (42 percent) and transfers (14 of forest villagers is only $66.5 million. This percent). The payments to forest workers significant disparity clearly shows that forest constitute a major portion of production costs villagers do not derive as much benefit from (about 90 percent). Forest villagers are sup- forests as do the state and its employees. posed to be representing 75 percent of the OGM annually produces, on average, 6.5 work force benefiting from these salaries. million cubic meters of coniferous and de- However, the household survey data cannot ciduous lumber. This would generate ap- support this claim. The remainder consists of proximately $1 billion of revenue for OGM at seasonal workers and other people from out- the international market price of $155 per side the forest communities. While the ratio- cubic meter.28 However, 1996 income from nale for the category of production costs was sales of wood and other products was only to generate additional income for forest vil- $601 million, for which corresponding expen- lagers, it is now clear that they do not benefit ditures are shown in the budget (Table 33). from this social service as was intended. In When the $130 million that was given as addition to this problem, wages are low and wood subsidies to villagers is added to this often several months in arrears. figure, total income increases to $731 million. 64 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Therefore, there is a $278 million deficit in The SA showed that credit usage is posi- these calculations. This shortfall should be tively correlated to livestock raising and land further analyzed to see whether this differ- ownership. The poverty index established ence occurs because of product price differen- that 50 percent of high-income households tials or management and sales problems use credit compared with only 29 percent of within the organization.29 low-income households, demonstrating that The main direct benefit that forest villag- credit usage increases with income level. The ers receive from the forest is the wood they profile of credit recipients from the house- extract for heating and cooking and for which hold survey also indicates that usually they they use their own labor. Another direct ben- are better off than the nonrecipients in terms efit is wage income, which constitutes a rela- of their access to land and livestock, their tively small proportion of their total income. income levels, and the overall development As a result, from the point of view of forest of their villages. On average, the credit-recipi- villagers, the state receives the largest share ent households have annual agricultural sales of benefits from forests. Roughly 37 percent income of between TL 50 million and TL 400 of the OGM budget is allocated to wages for million. More than 73 percent of them have forest labor. However, only $66 million of the cattle, and 41 percent of them have more than $202 million in OGM labor expenses actually three cattle. They have better access to land benefits forest villagers directly. The remain- than those who did not receive credit; about der benefits people continuously employed 53 percent of them had more than 15 decares in this sector who travel throughout the of land as opposed to 41 percent of those who country during the year, and this remainder did not receive credit. The credit recipients may require further study. Middlemen ben- also have more small livestock than non- efit the most from this trade, and this causes recipients; 22 percent of them have between tensions between villagers and the state. five and 500 head of small livestock as op- posed to 12 percent of nonrecipients. Most Use of Agricultural Credit residents of less developed villages did not The Black Sea region is the largest recipi- obtain a credit (70 percent). However, in de- ent of agricultural credit, largely through veloped villages 51 percent of the residents loans from the Ziraat Bank (Agriculture received a credit. Bank). According to the SA results, 34 per- Despite their relative lack of access to cent of the forest villagers in the Black Sea credit, poorer households that received cred- region, 29 percent in the Aegean region, and its perceived that they received greater ben- 26 percent in the Mediterranean region took efits from credit than higher-income groups. agricultural credits. Annual household Of the villagers receiving Agriculture Bank credit usage is TL 25 million ($139) in the credit, 87 percent in the Black Sea region, 71 Black Sea region and TL 8.5 million ($50) in percent in the Aegean region, and 66 percent the Aegean and Mediterranean regions. in the Mediterranean region believed that These credits are used mostly to buy live- they were useful. Moreover, 75 percent of stock (81 percent). In the Black Sea region, low-income households, 91 percent of however, credits are used less for buying middle-income households, and 50 percent of livestock (54 percent) and more for buying high-income households found credits to be products such as fertilizers and seed (14 per- useful. The level of satisfaction with Agricul- cent) and for other general expenses (23 per- ture Bank credits and Agricultural Credit cent). Agricultural Credit Cooperative Cooperative credits was roughly the same. credits are likewise generally used for fertil- However, villagers from the Mediterranean izer (40 percent), seed, and so forth and for region were found to be more satisfied than general expenses (40 percent). others with these credits. 65 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Table 34. Source of Credit (percentage of credit users) Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Average Agriculture Bank 59 48 66 58 Agricultural credit cooperatives 23 48 20 28 ORKOY 4 2 5 4 Individuals (informal borrowing) 11 2 5 8 Number of households 140 54 64 258 Source: Household survey, 1997 Not everybody in the sampled villages group borrowing and collateral on real received credit from the same source. For estate. Usually, terms for these credits are instance, only about 55 percent of the credit determined according to the projected recipients indicated they received Agriculture cash flows. Bank credits. About 26 percent received credit from agricultural credit cooperatives, and only The table illustrates that the highest 4.9 percent of the respondents reported receiv- amount of support has been given to agricul- ing a credit from ORKOY (Table 34). tural sales cooperatives. Support to agricul- tural credit cooperatives follows this. The Types of Credit Agriculture Bank also attempts to provide support to a number of activities in forest Agriculture Bank Credits villages. With respect to these, the following The Agriculture Bank provides credits to activities are particularly important: farmers every year, usually with inflation- adjusted increments (Table 35). The Bank's * Livestock and Beekeeping: Beekeeping credits credit to the agriculture sector represents 99.9 are given to producers with at least 10 percent of the total credit available in the ag- hives or those who want to increase their riculture sector. Two main types of credit are capacity to that amount. Livestock credits provided by the Agriculture Bank: can be given to cattle breeders (for milking and meat production), sheep breeders, and * Short-term credits: These are expected to be goat breeders. The recipients of these used for paying for annual agricultural credits have to be able to show that they production inputs. These include seeds, have adequate space to keep at least 10 fertilizers, and pesticides. They can also be cattle or 15 small livestock. Feeder credits used for livestock production and feed. are given to those who have technical Usually, their maturity is less than one year. capabilities to support at least 10 cattle or * Long-term inveshnent credits.: These credits 50 small livestock. In addition to these, are given for capital purchasing activities credit may be available for various poul- such as new livestock, milking machinery, try-raising activities. and other agricultural machinery. The * Reforestation credits. This credit can be Agriculture Bank requires capital contri- given to individuals who undertake butions from receivers of these credits at reforestation activities on their own land, amounts varying with the type of busi- on land leased from the state for refores- ness and the total amount of the credit. tation for a certain time, or for cultivation The most common types of required of productive forests on state land. The guarantees are co-signing, followed by amounts are determined in the Office of 66 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Table 35. Agriculture Bank Credits by Activity (billions of TL) Activity 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Plant cultivation 1,494 2,217 3,483 5,336 7,847 18,912 Livestock production 1,278 1,865 2,892 5,157 8,140 28,816 Fertilizers 193 378 411 702 1,650 4,601 Fish production 52 69 67 80 135 532 Agricultural industry 113 92 84 71 63 66 Agricultural credit coop. 22,127 3,953 6,074 10,448 19,725 47,521 Agricultural sales coop. 7,896 10,380 26,790 29,326 59,579 141,166 Total 13,153 18,954 39,801 51,120 97,139 241,614 Source: Turkish Treasury. Table 36. Interest Rates of the Agriculture Bank Commercial Livestock Agricultural Crops Real Real Year interest rate credit credit production livestock agricultural of the Bank rate rate credit rate credit rate credit rate 1986 60 22 32 26 -3 7 1987 56 22 32 30 -8 2 1988 75 29 42 44 -15 -2 1989 85 38 46 72 -33 -25 1990 78 38 46 71 -32 -24 1991 82 38 46 50 -12 -4 1992 85 38 46 63 -24 -16 1993 85 38 46 62 -24 -16 1994 95 38 46 62 -101 -103 1995 95 43 50 50 -33 -26 1996 95 43 50 50 -42 -35 1997 95 59 70 70 -32 -21 Source: Agiculture Bank, Operations Reports. the General Directorate with a maximum practice has been stopped and rates have been term of 20 years. increased to approximately market rates. However, this caused farmer complaints and The Agriculture Bank also has other types lowered the demand for credit. of credits that are, at least on paper, available The bank also has other agricultural sup- to farmers. However, the Agriculture Bank port mechanisms to transfer subsidies to officials indicate that since the bank's re- farmers. It is reported, however, that the in- sources are not adequate, it cannot provide ternal bureaucracy of the bank sometimes credit for each activity that it is supposed to. causes delays in transfer of resources from As far as this bank is concerned, providing the center to the regions, which, in turn, credit to the farmers has been a counterpro- causes delays in granting credits. Table 36 ductive process; in the past, the Agriculture shows the interest rates of the Agriculture Bank obtained money from the market at mar- Bank over several years. ket rates, then turned around and provided Agriculture Bank credit repayment rates credit to farmers at lower rates. Recently, this are very high, because most producers roll 67 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Table 37. Budgeted and Actual Transfers to ORK§Y (millions of TL) Year Budgeted Transfer Actual Transfer Actual as percentage of budgeted transfer 1985 5,412 1,200 22.0 1986 7,104 1,300 18.0 1987 10,885 1,300 12.0 1988 20,706 1,350 7.0 1989 33,446 2,000 6.0 1990 63,925 2,500 3.6 1991 105, 217 2,500 2.3 1992 207,545 3,500 1.7 1993 398,710 5,000 1.3 1994 826,396 24,000 3.0 1995 1,341,978 - - 1996 3,558,506 800,000 22.4 1997 6,344,685 900,000 14.0 Source: ORKOY, 1998 ORKOY Credits, 1974-97 (in millions of 1997 TL) 9000000 8000000 It 7000000 6000000 5000000 4000000 3000000 2000000 1000000 0 over their credit into the next year -that is, their livelihood (for example, building or re- they repay their credit at the end of the year pairing houses, getting married, and so forth) and one week later they retake it. In the jar- without damaging the forest. Economic cred- gon of the Agriculture Bank this practice is its, on the other hand, are supposed to be used called "subscription credits." for production and mechanization purposes. Interest rates on ORKOY credits are in- ORKOY Credits dexed to the Agriculture Bank credits every Credits are categorized in two groups: year. Typically, the rate is calculated as 1/7 of socially oriented credits and economically the lowest rate applied by the Agriculture oriented credits. Socially oriented credits in- Bank. During 1997, the interest rate on clude money given to villagers for improving ORKOY credits was 7 percent. Credit repay- 68 Infrastructure in Forest Villages ment is high; 98 percent of the recipients have mechanisms. Moreover, ORKOY's resources paid back their credits. For credits that are have been depleted, and currently very few not repaid on time, fines are the same as the loans can be made available. Agriculture Bank fines. Delays, caused by and coupled with lack Issues with ORKOY Credits of adequate resources, disrupt the operation Despite official claims for the effective- of ORKOY's credit system. Usually, the most ness of ORKOY credits in protecting forests, important reason for these delays is the inad- the SA could not confirm clearly that ORKOY equate cash reserves of the company. More- credits are directly benefiting people living in over, since ORKOY is connected to the MOF, forest villages. Most forest villagers have in- there are long clearance procedures for each come levels half of those living in other vil- loan. Even small loans are sent to headquar- lages, and even when they have higher ters for review, resulting in long delays. Of- incomes, this is not due to better use of forest ten, by the time a loan becomes available to a resources but to nonforest-related activities. villager, the real costs of the proposed project ORKOY credits are mainly aimed at keeping have increased. In a country where monthly the damage to the forest by villagers at a inflation can run up to 8 percent, these delays minimum through providing incentives to cause a considerable decrease in purchasing people to engage in other activities. This ap- power of credit actually received by forest proach, coupled with the current budget and villagers. The SA found that in the Black Sea management problems of ORKOY, seriously region, the average delay in receiving hampers the effectiveness of these credits in ORKOY credits was about three months. improving the livelihoods of forest villagers. Formerly there were 17,900 forest villages Therefore, there are two important steps in in Turkey. However, according to the most increasing the effectiveness of ORKOY as a recent ORKOY records (March 1998), the means of improving the livelihoods of forest number of forest villages is 19,062, with a villagers as: population of 8,788,000 people. This increase is mainly caused by the reclassification of * To design a people-focused, community- forest villages, and as a result, more villages specific credit system tailored to raise the have been classified as forest villages. The resource and management problems of ORKOY are exacerbated because of the large "A very small scale beekeeping project number of client communities and house- today costs about TL 220 rnillion ($1,500). holds that they need to work with. But, it takes three to four months before we ORKOY managers argue that the serious get an approval from Ankara for a small loan. shortage of resources disrupts existing credit Since we have over 100 percent inflation, by shortage the time a villager gets this loan, he can no conditions and effective administration of longer go through with the project-he needs regulations. ORKOY resources are envisioned more money. The Agriculture Bank makes to be 0.1 percent of the General Budget of villagers pay for a project out of pocket and Turkey. However, because of other economi- then reimburses them, claiming that villagers cal choices and priority shifting, only a frac- would otherwise use the credits for tion of these resources are actually weddings. If a villager has enough money to transferred to the fund's budget every year invest in a project themselves, why would (Table 37). Managers also argue that recent they ask for a credit with high interest rates? regulations have shifted ORKOY's role This suggests that the credit system is not mainly to that of a technical unit while con- favorable to the people who need it most." necting local offices directly to regional direc- ORKOY official torates. This, in turn, affected the service 69 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review income levels of forest villagers. Such an farmers usually do not properly feed approach would be crucial in maximizing imported livestock, since adequate techni- forest villagers' ability to earn more cal assistance and feed credits are not substantial incomes from forests while provided on time and there are no mar- providing them with an incentive to kets for the sale of these animals. In protect these resources. Such an approach addition, even when some farmers can would also require effective extension obtain credit, instead of providing high- and marketing support to forest commu- quality feed to animals, they use the nities. credit for their own purposes and feed To provide the necessary funds to hay to the animals. In the end, these ORKOY to implement this new approach. animals cannot gain enough weight and Funds allocated to ORKOY show a are sold at significantly lower prices to decreasing trend, and forest-related credit butchers. programs cannot survive without ad- * The lack of trust, characteristic of rela- equate funding. Therefore, a change in tions between state officials and forest the credit approach, supported by an communities, is also evident with respect increase in the available funds, is neces- to loans and grants. State officials and sary for ORKOY to contribute more forest villagers have different views about effectively to the improvement of forest existing loan facilities. Villagers complain villagers' lives. that state officials will not approve loans until they receive proof of investment, Other Issues with Credit thus making it extremely difficult both to The following additional issues were take out a loan and to invest. State offi- identified with regard to credits, grants, and cials, on the other hand, report that this pilot projects: practice is absolutely necessary in order to guarantee effective use of available * Forest villagers are not fully aware of credit, as villagers often take out loans for credit opportunities and are dissatisfied agricultural or livestock development with the management of existing loan purposes and then use them to fund facilities. Villagers possess only partial unrelated activities such as weddings. awareness of the difference between * Loan types and terms are prescribed ORKOY loans and Agriculture Bank without consultation. Loan packages are loans. ORKOY loans are highly subsi- selected directly by MOF or ORKOY dized and therefore have low interest officials, with the rigid belief that "the rates. However, their availability is government knows what's best" for limited, and they are made available villagers. This lack of consultation and through sporadic lotteries rather than transparency results in the delivery of through a formal application process. loan programs that do not correspond to Villagers are particularly dissatisfied with villagers' needs and have, in fact, caused loans offered through the Agriculture village communities great financial loss. Bank, as they carry higher interest rates. One such example is the Agriculture Bank * Interviews with rural people create the loan promoting livestock imports. State impression that producers expect every- officials' poor selection of the kinds of thing from the state and are continuously livestock to be imported has resulted in looking for opportunities to receive "free" great financial loss and the ruin of many money from state resources. There are small-scale animal husbandry businesses. problems in the full and efficient utiliza- Livestock imported through this particu- tion of available credits. For instance, lar loan package have often been unable 70 Infrastructure in Forest Villages to survive because of the change in ing around national parks and hunting environment or have required unsustain- could simultaneously generate income able amounts of feeding. and protect forests (for more detail, see The management of loans and credits the section on community-based projects). arouses extreme suspicion among villag- * Until now, credits to the forest sector did ers. Most state loan packages have been not have an integral approach for supply designed with the aim of imposing of inputs, basic training, and marketing certain investments (such as imported assistance. These credits instead had a livestock) on villagers, rather than meet- focus on individual activities and, accord- ing their actual needs. State institutions ing to the people, had limited impact on providing loans now face the challenge of raising incomes or promoting agricultural regaining communities' trust. activities within forest villages. It is, * Despite these limitations, loans and however, important to employ an inte- cooperatives have played an important grated approach to credits in forest role in the implementation of some villages to increase the income-generating successful projects. In addition to the impact of such credits. One good example ORKOY loan program for sealing wax, a of the integrated credit approach in vast reservoir of knowledge and experi- Turkey is the credit scheme administered ence has been accumulated in other by an NGO, the Turkish Development sectors. For instance, in the eastern Black Foundation (TKV). Its experience with Sea region, fish farming has started, and poultry activities demonstrates that a in the Aegean and Mediterranean regions, credit system should not only provide beekeeping is rapidly spreading. How- cash and inputs but also provide services ever, while the beekeeping pilot project and assistance to debtors in marketing has been a success in many villages, their products. This education will not management difficulties have been only provide for better use of the money, pushing some beekeepers out of the it will also break the current understand- market. Others cannot attain an economi- ing of credit as free money. cally viable scale of business because of a lack of credit facilities. Many beekeepers Ownership and Use of Forest Resources who were interviewed stated that while the economically viable number of hives Forest Ownership is between 150 and 200, they are only able In this section, forest ownership is ana- to buy and maintain an average of 30 to lyzed from three perspectives: the history of 50 hives. forest ownership, an assessment of the cur- * There are many ways in which loans can rent situation, and a discussion of ongoing transform forest management problems ownership claims. into successful, forest-based business ventures. For example, in the eastern The History of Forest Ownership Black Sea region, forest villagers complain The first law relating to forests, No.3316, that wild boars are responsible for most was passed in 1937. This law classified forest forest damage. Villagers state that they lands into four categories: state forests, public would be willing to participate in the forests, foundation forests, and private for- development of hunting-oriented tour- ests. In 1945, in an attempt to protect and use ism, if only to protect their crops. The forest land more effectively, the government eastern Black Sea region also boasts some replaced this system with Law No. 4785, of the oldest trees on Earth. A pilot which placed all of Turkey's forests under ecotourism development project revolv- state ownership. The current law (No. 6831), 71 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review which was passed in 1956, redivided forest simplest level, communities find it unfair that lands into three categories of ownership: state in some regions state officials (in particular forests, public forests, and private forests. forest guards) are allocated three times as Currently, 99 percent of forests and their re- much timber as local villagers. They also feel sources are still owned by the state and are that it is unfair that villagers engaged in ille- under the control of the Treasury. The protec- gal tree cutting receive punishment, while the tion, preservation, and management of these same behavior by members of the local MOF areas are supervised by OGM. The remaining and OGM is ignored. 1 percent of forest land is owned by private individuals or institutions.30 Ownership Claims Ownership of forest land is one of the Assessment of the Current Situation most basic problems in forest areas. There aTe Forest resources can be divided into four several facets of this problem: main categories: land, trees, plants, and ani- mals. The state has assumed ownership of all * There are ongoing public discussions these resources, and this has led to conflicts concerning the status of all areas that are over the ownership and management of the covered by trees and classified as forests. forest. Ownership of forest lands has become Conflicts occur between villagers and the problematic largely because state acquisitions state when forest land is converted into have been based on frequently altered and agricultural land. somewhat arbitrary regulations. Public re- * Conflicts between villagers generally sentment, especially toward such practices as center on cultivated areas. Fourteen Article 2b (which removes land from the for- percent of villagers say that they have est regime), has been growing. There is a these conflicts. These conflicts occur growing realization within the MOF that the primarily in the Aegean region, where relevant legislative framework must be re- official cadastral survey work has been viewed and altered. completed. The state's assumed ownership results in * Urban encroachment into forest areas is a the unfair distribution of forest resources. major problem, especially around metro- There are many examples of this, but at the politan areas. The state is strengthening its ownership During the 1970s the Turklsh Develiopment of forests through an array of laws and regu- Foundation (TKV) started a poultry pro t in lations. Ownership is based on who has re- Tarsus, in the Mediterranean region.XTh4 sponsibility for the forest land and its fonation organized farmers and forest sptiiyfrte oetln n t voullagrtion produceed foult ,t onyske resources. In some regions, cadastral surveys villagers to produce poultry. It only asked aecmlt,btvilaeshv poe h people to have a piece of land that they can are complete, but villagers have opposed the use. The foundation gave the recipientsall the state's decisions. inputs for production and guarante to buy' Property registration is a great source of all produced poultry at an agreed pri eMinus conflict between forest villagers and the state input costs. This system imprd very in every village where it has been performed. rapidly. TKV, under the K -UR brtand, Forest inventories identifying the technical incrased its production capacity all over fte characteristics of forest property and cadas- country and now is the largest porty : t f tral surveys clarifying state and community po helps forest claims take an inordinate amount of time. communtiesb givingthm beeh an more;0t$t 0 C; Furthermore, completion of this process does Ili:mited leveL, X ? t 0 00 0 tt 0;90 not imply that ownership issues have been settled; property registration is carried out in 72 Infrastructure in Forest Villages an unparticipatory manner, results are not activities, 2 million acres of forest land have popularly accepted, and thus continued con- been converted to farm land, and 270,000 flict is common. Where no registration exists, acres of forest land have been settled between alleged organized crime groups are report- 1937 and 1995 (NEAP, 1997). edly attempting to take control of forest land. According to an article published in Presently, a great threat to forests comes Cumhuriyet (July 6, 1998: 2) by Professor from urbanization and urban settlements Abdi Ekizoglu, the pressure on forests is in- rather than from rural villages. There is a creasing and the sources of threats are diver- common perception that rural communities sifying. While until recently it was assumed pose the greatest threat to forests. However, that forest villagers constituted the major interviews with forest villagers, members of threat to forests, it is now recognized high environmental NGOs who live in small cities, rates of urbanization, rural-urban migration, members of local municipalities, local staff of and changing patterns of human settlements the MOF, and merchants and other private continuously increase urban demand for for- sector representatives who have provided est lands. Ekizoglu distinguished between information to the SA Teams have consis- two types of threats. First is the destruction of tently revealed that serious threats to forests forest lands and forest products as a result of come from residential, tourist, and urban illegal utilization. The second type of destruc- areas. They pointed out that in coastal areas, tion occurs within the existing legal frame- forests are cut down to make way for high- work that allows use of forest areas for other rises, hotels, restaurants, and other facilities, purposes. The first threat results in clearing including solid waste dumps. In and around forests for agricultural cultivation, in cutting major cities, forests are cut down to build trees, overgrazing, overharvesting of expensive villas. biodiversity resources, and so forth and is According to the preliminary results of often associated with the motivation of the the most recent census, Turkey is already ur- poor forest villagers to generate additional banized over 70 percent. It is estimated that income. While historically this may have in another few years urbanization will exceed been an important factor, the SA indicates 75 percent (Ministry of National Education). severe limitations to further expansion of Thus, urban expansion into forest areas has already taken a heavy toll. "In Istanbul alone, 12,000 hectares of land were excluded from Money and political influence destroy forests, the forest regime between 1973 and 1993, not poor villagers. There are forest mafias under Article 2b of the Forest Law which per- everywhere. Which villagers can have influ- mits lands no longer considered forest land ence over the authorities? It is the high ups that get forests given to them. For many years (typically after the effects of urban expansion) now there is the '49 year rental.' Higher ups to be taken out of the forest regime. Up to 81 receive or give permission to build high-rise percent of the settlement area of the city's hotels in forests, claiming that after 49 years, suburbs is founded on land previously classi- the state will get it back. First, the state will fied as forest land" (Erdonmez, 1995). The never get the land back. As a matter of fact, conversion of forested areas for marginal ag- everything the state owns is being sold and riculture (often on steep slopes) constitutes a privatized. Secondly, by that time, the forests major threat to Turkey's forest resources. will have long since disappeared. If any vil- These areas are often not suitable for cultiva- lager takes an extra 5 kilos of wood, just the tion and should be maintained as forest areas. branches that have fallen down already, they There are estimated to be 7,000 cases of forest are either fined heavily or sent to prison." clearing for new farm land and 2,200 cases of A villager illicit settlement per year. As a result of these _ 73 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review agricultural land in forest areas and a high deforestation, pollution, and the use of forests commitment of forest villagers to the protec- as trash dumps. For instance, the proposed tion of their resources. However, as noted by new landfills of Marmaris, and of the munici- Ekizoglu, new interest groups emerging in palities between Trabzon and Rize, are large urban areas encroach on these lands for con- areas within nearby forests. In many parts of struction purposes. the country, the stakeholders provide ex- Ekizoglu also notes that a major threat to amples where the local and central govern- forests evolves within a legal framework ments provide permits for construction and through various amendments (Nos. 1744, accelerate forest depletion. These all enforce 1896, 3302, and 3373) to Forest Law 6831. Ac- the opinion that forest lands have been losing cordingly, large segments of forest lands have their forest characteristics, and citizens have been legally taken out of the forest frame- been trying to obtain permits to construct on work and were made available for crop pro- these lands or use them in other ways31 duction, livestock management, and human (Bann, 1998: 42). Over 30,000 citizen disputes settlements. In Ankara and Istanbul prov- pertinent to this regulation exist.32 inces alone, during the period 1973-93, 12,000 The majority of urban populations inhab- hectares of forest lands have been lost. At the iting cleared forest land are quite new to their national level, some 400,000 hectares of forest settlements, especially in metropolitan areas. lands have been "legally" taken out of forest During the past decade, there have been pub- cover. Moreover, several articles of the said lic education efforts and these, coupled with law (Nos. 16,17, 18, and 115) and the Law of the increased level of overall education, Tourism Promotion (No. 2634) and the Min- helped enhanced citizen appreciation of for- ing Law (No. 3213) likewise encourage "le- ests. Despite the increasing level of apprecia- gal" destruction of forests. Environmental tion for forests throughout the country, hazards that results from these losses are particularly in cities, citizens' access to the many. As do the forest villagers consulted in forest has become increasingly difficult. Inter- the context of the SA, Ekizoglu notes floods estingly, in cities such as Ankara, citizen mo- (such as those recent ones in Karabuk, bilization has led to some replanting and Caycuma, Devrek, Adapazari, Aydin, and tree-intensive landscaping. During July 1998, Hatay). There is therefore a need to establish public campaigns were initiated to plant 3 consultative processes to modify the existing million trees in Istanbul. Programs that mobi- legal framework. lize residents of other cities in a similar man- Broad incentives given to the tourism ner can be beneficial. industry in the 1980s facilitated large-scale The Forestry Privatization Commission construction of tourist facilities on stretches under the Special Expertise Commission of the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts, put- Report for Forestry Sector (SPO, 1995) has ting pressure on coastal habitats, dunes, la- issued contradictory proposals on how to goons, forests, and agricultural land. Land solve the ownership problem in forests. For speculation and subsequent real estate devel- instance, in one of these proposals, the com- opment are also a problem in or near coastal mission stated, "Today, in our country, the regions, specifically the Aegean and the ownership of forests should stay with the Mediterranean. "Habitat fragmentation and state" while, in another it said that "it is im- destruction in many coastal areas has led to portant to take into account economic and the reduction, and in some cases extinction, social consequences of reforestation and of animal and plant species in terrestrial and maintenance activities which would be un- aquatic ecosystems." (Bann, 1998: 42). dertaken by village communities." It has Rapid urbanization is an obstacle to sus- also indicated that the "problems emerging tainable forestry development, because of from current rules and regulations should be 74 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 33: Flora in Different Regions _ egII - Mediteowien - Biack Sea Source: Household Survey Figure 34: Fauna in Different Regions X AAgSW / D~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Mediteew 30 - =i;' 0 Bbck Sz -a 20 15_ o0 ______ __L __-__-_- _ 15- 0- Source: Household Survey studied and private forestry should be en- cutting. Under this system, villagers have no couraged." sufficient incentive to protect the forest. The Under the current system of ownership, state also controls the use of forest plants. It the state has exclusive usage rights to the restricts the harvesting of certain flora either forest's resources and prohibits private groups because they are endangered or because they or individuals from using forest lands. This are monetarily valuable. Otherwise, the state results in villagers avoiding forests altogether does not pay sufficient attention to the forests' or else engaging in illegal grazing and tree diverse plant life. 75 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReview According to the SA, there is substantial Thus, the role of the academic and educa- awareness of biodiversity in forest villages. tional community is of critical importance, Indeed, villagers report that there are plants and there is need for the MOF to further pro- growing in forests that can be used for food mote this role. The roles that forest communi- and medicine (79 percent). Based on peoples' ties and various segments of the MOF and knowledge, the availability of these plants is OGM play are extensively discussed through- highest in the Black Sea region (90 percent), out the SA. Also of key importance are the followed by the Aegean region (87 percent) other stakeholders that are briefly discussed and the Mediterranean region (53 percent). below. Figure 33 presents the distribution of these plants across regions. Municipalities There is very little concern given to forest Municipalities have the right to earn prof- fauna. The village headman survey showed its from the sale of forest products. For in- that in 91 percent of forests, there are wild stance, they take a percentage from animals. The ratio in other regions is as fol- tree-cutting activities within their territory. lows: 95 percent in the Black Sea, 96 percent The borders of forest territories, however, in the Aegean, and 80 percent in the Mediter- cause problems between regions. Municipali- ranean region (Annex 2, Table 25). The most ties are demanding the right to use the forest common animals in these regions are wild land within their territory. Most municipali- boars and foxes (Figure 34). There is high ties have requested solid waste dumping ar- demand from villagers for the promotion of eas from the forest management, and the wild boar hunting so that the damage these management has directed them to certain animals cause to crops can be reduced. forest areas. Unsatisfactory field studies have created some problems in these solid waste Other Stakeholder Perspectives sites. For example, in Marmaris, the area des- ignated by the forest management for a solid A large number of stakeholders are in- waste site is in the middle of an area that was volved in forest management. The threat to recently reforested following a large forest forests concerns all the citizens, and the fire. In the eastern Black Sea region, the threats to biodiversity have global implica- dumping site that was approved for 12 mu- tions. The awareness of the critical impor- nicipalities is in the middle of a rare yellow tance of forests has substantially increased pine forest. Yet, municipal politics, the inter- over the past decades, but internalization of ests of those elected to service, and the imme- this awareness and its reflection in actual diate needs of the urban populations behavior of the citizens still requires im- compromise the long-term interests of the provement. Focused group discussions in citizens. The pressure exerted by contractors, forest communities provide a long list of ex- private suppliers of municipal services, coop- amples of how citizen behaviors need modifi- erative housing schemes, and the tourism cation. While modifying citizen behavior, sector all contribute to municipal encroach- there is need for the civil society to expert ment on forests. political pressure to ensure that the remain- ing forests are maintained, the benefits from Private Sector forest resources are equitably shared, and A wide range of private sector activities national parks are protected. In this regard, pertain to forests and the national parks. Tim- an important role has to be played by the ber companies; paper companies; carpenters; educational system at all levels, including at the furniture industry; transport companies; the basic educational level, and the environ- herbal tea producers; the package industry; mental curricula should be strengthened. merchants dealing with herbs and medicinal 76 Infrastructure in Forest Villages plants; small and large companies that rent * The villagers around tourist areas com- facilities in the national parks or get "legal" plain about the increase in construction of permission for other uses of these parks; fam- buildings and express their fear of being ily enterprises that manage fish farms, bee- forced to leave their lands. hives, and many other private initiatives all derive substantial income from forest re- There is also growing interest in commer- sources or from their conversion into other cial forestry. Currently, only 1 percent of for- uses. Many within the private sector have ests are owned by the private sector. much to gain from destruction of forests and Naturally, these owners are sensitive to the national parks; key among these are those revisions in the law pertaining to forest own- involved in house or hotel construction and ership, management, and usage. Existing peasants who demand the right to cultivate regulations allow private sector ownership of lands in the national parks. Others have forests conditional on reforestation efforts. much to gain from efficient and cost-effective Communities' right to ownership of private maintenance of forest resources; key among forests is made difficult because of con- these are the timber, furniture, and paper straints on the scale of operation. Although industries. Others have much to gain from the Ministry of Forestry is currently working increased tree harvesting; transport compa- on a system of private ownership, it is clear nies are among these. that the final formulation of such a regulatory Based on focus group discussions in for- system will require time and a great deal of est communities, a large list of perceived public debate. threats introduced by the private sector was compiled. These anecdotes illustrate some of Nongovernmental Organizations these threats: There are a large number of NGOs work- ing on environmental issues in Turkey. These * The solid waste disposal unit of a plant in include the Turkish Environmental Founda- the west Black Sea region is not function- tion, the Foundation for Environmental Pro- ing properly and is polluting the forests, tection, and TEMA. Some of these are especially the nearby streams. indigenous organizations focusing primarily * A steel production firm, owned by the on environmental issues. Others, such as the state, is located in the middle of a forest in Turkish Development Foundation, the the middle Black Sea region. Anatolian Development Foundation, and the * Another steel production factory has Foundation for Rural and Urban Develop- destroyed a forest. ment, have broader poverty reduction man- * Copper washing was done in one of the dates but promote awareness of rivers in a forest community of the Black environmental sustainability. Likewise, many Sea region, completely polluting the river. of the women's NGOs, those dealing with * Cyanide has been used for gold detection family issues, and a large number of profes- in the east Black Sea region, despite sional associations, also promote environ- public opposition. mental concerns, engage in tree-planting * Stewards working on intercity buses campaigns, advocate the protection of natural throw their trash into the forest on their parks, and so forth. Almost all of the interna- way from one city to another. tional environmental NGOs have chapters or * The communities around tourist sites branches in Turkey, and they too are active. complain of visitors vandalizing sites, Both the MOF and the Ministry of Environ- shouting and yelling when they get drunk ment closely collaborate with the civil society and firing their guns. They ask for help organizations. For instance, at the occasion of from OGM in dealing with these people. the Intemational Day to Combat against De- 77 Social Assessment for the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 35: Perceived Reasons for Reduction of Forest Land 40 -0 = =-3~~~~~~~5 _ -30 _ ~~~~~~~-25] - _ X ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~15 f 0~~~~~~~~~~~- Source: Village Headman Survey sertification (June 17,1998), the MOF inventory of civil society organizations so launched a joint campaign with TEMA to that a partnership strategy can be developed. mobilize citizens to plant 10- million oak trees There is also growing interest in private throughout Turkey. The MOF and its field contributions to forests. Many private compa- offices also facilitate tree-planting activities of nies or well-to-do individuals are obtaining other civil society organizations and the pri- the right to plant trees and having small for- vate sector by maintaining local seedling fa- ests dedicated to their names. As one drives cilities. While the civil society organizations, along major highways, such as the Ankara- including research and academic institutions, Istanbul highway, one can see a substantial have helped create awareness of forests, there increase in the number of road signs for "pri- is still an enormous potential for these orga- vate forests" established by the private sector. nizations to promote a better understanding During the past few years, private companies of national parks, coastal protection, have also made substantial contributions to biodiversity, ecotourism, and so on. There are NGOs in support of local or national cam- likewise opportunities for the World Bank to paigns for forest development and tree plant- work more closely with the civil society orga- ing, which also serve an important public nizations. In the context of its METAP and relations function for these companies. GEF activities, the World Bank has sponsored initiatives to support NGOs, including capac- Community Perceptions of Environmental ity building for environmental communica- Threats and Recommendations tions, participatory environmental planning Villagers are concerned about the sustain- and management, and so forth. Currently, a able use and preservation of forest resources. data bank is generated by the resident mis- One of their biggest concerns is the endanger- sion of the World Bank to create a systematic ing of forest trees. Figure 35 presents villag- 78 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 36: People's Proposals for Improvements in Forest Management* 14- 12- rf C M_ tem n 10- , l X D~~~~~~~~~Aegean 10 4 2 0 e 0 . , 0 0 2~ a 05 " '. 0 a, I 0 2 ~ ° .0 : s.~ m . g j Source: E E *For hosewho re sx of wha Zhywudlk oseipoe -0! IL ! 0 CO,~0 Z'C 0~~~~~~= Z,,** 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~ E w 0 Source: Household Survey *For those who are sure of what they would like to see improved ers' perceptions of the biggest threats to the maturity in 12 to 15 years. By the time villag- forest. The most frequently stated threats are ers see a return on their investment, the cur- forest fires and illegal cutting. Reforestation rency will have been devalued, making it programs are being initiated, but forest resto- difficult to repay credits.33 ration is a slow and gradual process, with Villagers have some knowledge of forest benefits accruing only in the long term. A flora because they have been collecting forest recent MOF report points out that it is not plants for a long time for food and medicinal financially feasible for villagers to make in- purposes. The most commonly used plants are vestments in the planting of trees, even fast- thyme, mushroom, linden tree, and garden growing varieties such as poplar, which reach sage. The level of usage differs regionally. The 79 SociedAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReview commercial development of these products commercial production of these species. How- can bring new income opportunities for villag- ever, many people expressed interest in learn- ers and decrease the pressure on forests. An- ing more about the potential use, production, nex 2, Table 26, provides an exhaustive list of and marketing of forest plants. indigenous plants sighted by the forest com- munities and their potential commercial use as State Relations with Communities far as the villagers know of it. There is a significant misunderstanding The SA attempted to solicit community between the public and the state. Members of suggestions foT more effective and sustain- local communities believe that they are con- able use of forests. Their recommendations stantly being manipulated by the state, while are listed in Figure 36 and Annex 2, Tables 28 the government feels that villagers are con- and 29. According to the surveys, communi- stantly subverting its authority and illegally ties believe that making sources of energy encroaching on forest lands. The reason un- other than wood and nonwood building ma- derlying these conflicting perspectives is the terials available would substantially help problem of ownership. The state assumes that protect forests. Likewise, they propose that it is the sole owner of forest resources. As a the MOF put far greater emphasis on refores- result, state officials consider village commu- tation than it has to date. nities to be a threat to forests' well-being and When villagers' proposals about the du- consider the government to be the sole pro- ties of state officers to protect forests (Annex tector of natural resources. This perception is 2, Table 29) are analyzed, 10 percent say that reflected in the existing laws. Many local the state should be doing a better job, 9 per- communities perceive that the state some- cent say that villagers should be educated, times cuts trees down unnecessarily, simply and 8 percent say that illegal cutting should to demonstrate that it owns the forest and has be prevented. In the Mediterranean region, 6 the authority to do what it pleases with it.34 percent say that officials should do their jobs People have begun to believe that the state properly, in the Black Sea region 5 percent say no longer treats communities fairly; certain that villagers should be educated, and 4 per- groups are perceived to be receiving preferen- cent say illegal cutting should be prevented. tial treatment. Communities firmly believe The SA also attempted to establish that if the ownership of forests was given back whether communities had any interest in ex- to them, they could more effectively manage ploring the potential economic uses of forest the forests. Forty-nine percent of households flora and fauna. Currently, only 8 percent of claim that the state does not allow them the households derive any income from activities freedom to fully explore forest resources in a such as beekeeping, but the SA revealed that sustainable manner. Also, about a third of for- many more villagers are interested in explor- est households state that their access to re- ing such activities. The percentage of house- sources is completely hindered. holds that are willing to establish small-scale People also perceive the forest manage- entrepreneurial forest activities is 51 percent. ment to be using the state resources at its dis- The regional distributions are 55 percent in the posal to pressure villagers. For instance, in Black Sea region, 56 percent in the Aegean one of the eastern Black Sea forest villages, region, and 40 percent in the Mediterranean the village headman told the SA team that region. The most popular activities for poten- when his community opposed an unsuitable tial small businesses are livestock manage- harvesting activity, the forest administrator ment, beekeeping, and reforestation. Villagers' threatened him with using all of his power to willingness to engage in business to explore overcome community opposition, including village flora was limited by their lack of suffi- limiting villagers' credits from the state- cient knowledge of marketing and possibly of owned Agricultural Bank. 80 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Forest-related operations are mostly lim- purposes. The ultimate responsibility for road ited to tree cutting and reforestation activities construction service lies with the Koy conducted by the forest management. How- Hizmetleri Genel Mudurlugu - KHGM (For- ever, forests are larger ecosystems comprising est Services General Directorate). much more than trees. The inadequacy of Communities also believe that the people information exchange between the forest who work in the forest sector do not pay at- management and villagers on biodiversity tention to their problems and cannot help causes frictions. For instance, there is con- them. Communities are skeptical about recent tinuous disagreement between forest villag- pilot implementations of standing sale of ers and the forest regional management in the wood by bidding and the revolving budget Black Sea region. Administrators state that mechanism of OGM. They think that OGM villagers collect rare forest products to sell in will harvest forests to generate more income, international markets. On the other hand, and they have some evidence to support this villagers feel that administrators lack knowl- claim. People are concerned about the con- edge about biodiversity and are failing in flicts of interest that will occur under the new their responsibility to pass information to system, in which the state is both the regula- communities. tor and the beneficiary of forests.36 There are ongoing problems in the relation Communities believe that their labor in between the forest administration and local forest harvesting is compensated well below communities because of the centralized struc- the average market standards. Villagers re- ture of the administration. For instance, wages ported that they receive TL 2.5 million per cubic for work in tree-cutting activities are almost meter for their wood-cutting activities, which, always in arrears because of the delays result- according to them, is significantly lower than ing from delays in earning revenues from the going market rate. While the state demands wood sales by OGM. In addition, the rapid that laborers hired by private contractors be turnover of management and staff results in a insured, it takes no action to insure the laborers lack of familiarity with the local people, their it contracts directly for its own tree harvesting traditions, and behavior patterns. By contrast, and forest management activities. Laborers and staff who work in a region for a long period of their wives and children all work without in- time begin forming informal relations with surance, and if they are injured, they have no communities and come to better understand right to compensation. their problems and concerns. Field trips showed that logging causes There is much community skepticism conflicts between villagers and forest man- about the state. For instance, communities agement. Although the villagers are not the believe that the state tolerates forest fires and legal owners of the forest land, they believe that political incentives and rent seeking play that they are the sole proprietors of the area, a major role in this behavior.35 Some villagers and they fight for their rights vigorously be- also complain that their own forest adminis- cause they are the ones who suffer most from trators do not allocate fuelwood fairly and events such as land erosion, floods, and land- that they give more wood to people from slides. When resistance to tree harvesting is their own political party. While state officials high in a village, forest management usually are confident that their road-clearing activi- hires neighboring villagers for harvesting ties benefit villagers by facilitating transpor- operations, thus hindering the opportunities tation, villagers report that these activities are for members of a community to earn wage not designed for their benefit, but rather to income. Neighboring villagers, on the other enable state exploitation of forests. In fact, hand, do not work responsibly in "other com- OGM's road-building responsibilities are munities," or at least this is the perception of limited to its own production and transport the communities that are directly associated 81 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 37: Reasons forForest-Related Legal Conflicts 12- UE Black Sea 8- .: ~ ~ ~~~~~ cz ~~Aegean 8 0 Medi6Brraneai 4- , -¢ 2 0 Source: Village Headman Survey with a specific forest area. This creates ani- found to occur more frequently in high-in- mosity between villages and in their relations come villages. with state officials. Forest villagers have begun to realize As previously stated, the laws and regula- their power and have started to involve tions governing the management of the forest themselves in all activities related to the for- sector are constantly changing, and this cre- est and forest management. Forests have be- ates public distrust of the state and its em- come an important issue of conflict and ployees. The Forest Engineers Association's ownership between these communities and research, for instance, indicates that forest the forest administration. Villagers have be- regulations were changed five times between gun to look for alternative solutions to their 1983 and 1987. This shows that almost every problems. Villagers in the middle Black Sea year, forest laws are modified. Cadastral sur- region said that they usually go to the capital veys have been completed in less than half of whenever there is a problem that they cannot forest villages, and the number of land con- handle. They add, though, that going to An- flicts is high even in those villages. Forty-two kara does not always guarantee a solution, percent of all villages have conflicts with the because one needs to have certain connec- state, including 10 percent of those where tions in the government to do business or else cadastral surveys are complete. The main one has to give "money under the table." reasons for conflicts are given in Figure 37. Forest villagers' problems do not go en- Six percent of forest households are currently tirely unattended; officials visit communities suing the Treasury. Twenty-three percent of for both enforcement and service purposes. these cases result from disagreements over At the local level, the state employees that title deeds. Old land titles are not accepted as villagers interact with most frequently are the valid, and this raises concerns and cynicism Gendarmes (policemen). The state officials among communities.37 Legal problems be- who visit forest villages most frequently are tween villagers and forest management were the kaymakam (local governor) and the vali 82 Infrastructure in Forest Villages Figure 38: Administrative Staff Visits to Villages (percent of villages) Gerdarmene Paiament mrenter 37% ) 25% LtI =g -- ------------ ~ ~ , .......... ........ Localgamarnor 26% Go0 12% Source: Village Headman Survey Figure 39: Administrative Staff Visits to Village (by region) 40 35 - Medilenaeean 30 25 10 Parlamnwt n-errber Governor Local gownomr Gerndamrnene Source: Village Headman Survey 83 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Figure 40: Official Visits to Villages (percent of villages) arat Bark Staff Vibge SerJces 6% AdMrnisnsban 14% Oter 18%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3/ Vetednadas_ 3_dnnisba 18%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~as Adrinisbaon 9% Agicutumlengi 16% Fot Engnee 18% Source: Village Headman Survey Figure 41: Official Visits to Villages-by Region k12 * Bbck Sea fl agean 0 Ubditenian Source: Village Headman Survey (municipal governor) (Figures 38 and 39). The managers, and 25 percent ORKOY experts percentage of regular visits from other forest (Figures 40 and 41). Officials to villages are: 92 percent forest Forest villagers' greatest expectation of guards, 90 percent veterinarians,38 78 percent the forest management is to help them in de- forest regional supervisors, 66 percent village veloping forest-based entrepreneurial activi- service experts, 43 percent forest regional ties. Fifty percent of survey respondents 84 Infrastructure in Forest Villages expressed their willingness to start such ac- by private enterprises. The report argues tivities (Figure 42). However, there is cur- that without the involvement of local rently inadequate institutional support and people in the management of protected ar- credit to promote such entrepreneurial eas in a manner resulting in tangible mon- activity. etary benefits, it is likely that illegal activities and overuse of protected re- National Parks sources will continue, and social conflicts The World Bank Forest Sector Review will increase. These conditions have led to draft document indicates that tourism man- a small number of recent initiatives by the agement is inadequate in the protected areas; government. However, the number of at some sites overcrowding is evident, and people benefiting from such initiatives is hotel and tourist facility expansion is exces- still limited, and there is still a large poten- sive. The Olympus Bey Mountains National tial for income generation activities. Park in Antalya presents a good example of As discussed in the July 1998 issue of touristic overexpansion. The original 64,900 Gezi, there are ongoing public debates con- hectares of the land area was reduced by cerning the "privatization" of national 28,000 hectares 10 years ago because of prob- parks. During previous years, the General lems with villagers and development pres- Directorate of National Parks and the Protec- sures. This reduction, in turn, resulted in the tion of Wildlife, installations, entrance ar- loss of important endemic species and sand rangements, restaurants, hotels, and rest dunes. Pressure still exists to exclude addi- houses in protected areas and national parks tional areas from the park. The park manage- were leased to the private sector for a term ment, on the other hand, argues that the of three years. This period has now been park's borders need to be expanded to pro- extended to 10 years. This new regulation is tect some endemic plants currently outside of one source of concern among the civil soci- the area. ety organizations, as this is seen as The sector review as supported by the SA "privatization." There is also a bill prepared process found that there has been little con- by the MOF to decentralize the management sultation with local communities in the estab- of national parks and to amend the relevant lishment and management of national parks legislation. At the outset, the transfer of na- and other protected areas. Problems include tional park management from the MOF to management plans being drawn up in An- civil society organizations (foundations) was kara, leading to conflicts with affected com- considered. Given the diverse and complex munities. In addition, establishment of a motivation structures of these organizations, protected area can affect local incomes; espe- this consideration was replaced with the cially if areas originally used for wood pro- concept of "local management committees" duction are brought under protection. When composed of the governors of the relevant this happens, local villagers lose employment provinces, persons identified by the gover- in forestry activities as well as subsidized nors, local governments, voluntary organi- wood allocation rights. Illegal activities such zations, and cooperatives. In addition, a as grazing, hunting, and collecting of non- "scientific" advisory committee is proposed wood forest products remain serious issues in to ensure that the protected areas are man- some areas. aged within international guidelines. There The protected areas provide few ben- is also a plan to test this participatory model efits to local populations. Facilities such as in the Valla Canyon of Kastamonu (which, guest houses, hotels, restaurants, and caf- however, does not have the status of a pro- eterias, and the collection of entrance fees, tected area). According to the proposed bill, are typically managed either by the state or these local committees will be trusted to 85 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Reviez manage or contract the management of vari- Stakeholder Views on Institutional ous elements of protected areas. There is, Issues however, concern among some civil society Local level staff of the MOF and OGM, organizations and the media that the trans- local administrators, village headmen, villag- fer of the right to use environmental re- ers, and private sector representatives con- sources would lead to further politicization sulted in the process of SA often perceive a of protection issues and would give the ap- high level of inefficiency in the organization pearance that the central government has of the state forest sector. Many local offices little concern with environmental protection. are viewed as overstaffed, and downsizing is The local demands on the use of pro- advocated by local managers of OGM. The tected areas are many and have so far re- Ministry of Forestry has three other general sulted in the destruction of many areas, such directorates that function separately from as the Menderes Delta. Often, local farmers OGM. This separation causes inefficiencies demand the right to cultivate these areas or and leads to conflicts between their staffs. simply do so illegally. Farmers also demand Managers both in Ankara and in the regions the right to utilize water resources that feed unanimously agree that too many individuals deltas and other protected areas for irriga- and groups are involved in forestry manage- tion and thus distort the water balance. Fish- ment and that the issue of multiple leader- erman, suffering from sharp reduction in ship needs to be addressed. Unlike other fish resources (caused by excessive use of management units, OGM works on the basis fertilizers and pesticides in irrigated farm- of a revolving fund principle, and its staff ing) demand the right to fish prematurely.39 members are particularly anxious to achieve The tourism sector demands greater rights greater organizational efficiency. to build hotels and other touristic installa- The separation of OGM from other direc- tions in the protected areas. Internal and torates of the ministry also causes concern foreign visitors demand more freedom to among forest communities. The presence of make fires, cook, picnic, and litter. The en- different local branches of OGM and MOF ergy sector demands the construction of ad- also causes duplication of effort and ineffi- ditional dams on rivers feeding into many of ciencies in dealing with community concerns. the protected areas. National and interna- "The state is throwing the ball from one office tional NGOs have other sets of expectations. to the other to make villagers' life miserable," Because many of the protected areas and says a member of a coffeehouse group. Vil- national parks combine cultural and ecologi- lagers are confused about the authorities and cal concerns, a large number of state institu- duties of various institutions. None of these tions, including the Ministry of Culture, the state offices inform the villagers except in Ministry of Environment, the MOF, the Min- regard to tree harvesting and reforestation istry of Tourism, the Ministry of Internal activities. They do not want to take the re- Affairs, and the DSI (the State Water Works), sponsibility of informing the community on are all stakeholders in their management. any forest-related issues. Whether the local representatives of these The MOF is viewed as having a highly state institutions would be able to act inde- centralized structure and as functioning in an pendently of their headquarters to allow inefficient and rigid manner. In addition, the efficient decisionmaking at the local level is local stakeholders argue that the MOF does yet to be seen. While the motivation of the not have an effective supervisory influence MOF to transfer the rights to manage these over its employees. It does not follow up with national resources to local consultative bod- their evaluation reports, and salary disburse- ies is commendable, there is insufficient pi- ments are made through different channels, lot experience to build on. contributing to existing problems. It is sug- 86 Infrastructure in Forest Villages gested by the stakeholders to reorganize the est areas. Infrastructures in forest-neighbor- ministry in a way that will allow it to decen- ing and in-forest villages are quite deficient, tralize more responsibilities to local units. especially in terms of the availability of However, while delegating some responsibili- health and education services. This situation ties to local units, management must realize creates a tendency in forest administration the importance of local capacity building.40 staff to move to towns and cities with better Local staff should be encouraged to work infrastructure. Although MOF has tried to more closely with communities. In this con- find solutions to these problems by providing text, the MOF may wish to familiarize its staff staff with state-sponsored housing, these ef- with the results of the SA and develop appro- forts have not succeeded. Lower-level staff priate organizational responses. Effective have more acute problems. One of the forest management skills must be developed in or- guards tried to explain the situation: "Guards der to change existing practices while estab- are completely dependent on the villagers. lishing trust among staff. Potential areas of They do not have phones or any kind of ve- improvement should be identified with the hicle to chase smugglers. They do not even participation of civil society organizations. have any transport animals in case their chil- Local stakeholders emphasize that it is dren get sick during the winter. Roads are important to increase the choices of local blocked during winter and this limits their management to solve local problems. There children's access to schools. All these factors appears to be a feeling among some that the push guards to leave for urban areas, but appointment of staff from other regions to they do not even have money for that." local forest administrations would not only Incentive and salary structures likewise contribute to the transfer of experience from require examination. Low wages put employ- one region to the other but would also en- ees under pressure against the politicians and hance transparency and accountability. Pro- wealthy people. Although the forest guards' ponents of this view advocate the advantages task, which is protecting the forest, is ex- of a staffing policy whereby "outsiders" to a tremely important, their wages are among the province would be preferred candidates for lowest within the organization. One of the recruitment. Given shortages of jobs in many forest management supervisors asks, "If you regions, many people defend an opposite give the responsibility of national wealth to view and emphasize the importance of local these poor people, how can you guarantee knowledge. While the state assumes, for ex- that they do not receive any bribes?" Another ample, that forest guards would impose pen- official says, "These guards who are protect- alties more firmly if they were not affiliated ing the national wealth are getting paid well with the relevant communities, villagers pro- below the wages of cleaning people in state vide ample examples of how social pressure offices." and community action are strong mecha- The economic conditions of the seasonal nisms for curbing illegal behavior. It would and nonpermanent OGM or MOF staff are be useful for the MOF to initiate a process of the worst. Since there are more seasonal internal consultations to obtain views of man- workers than are required, they can usually agers and staff at all levels on staff turnover work for only one month. This can lead to a and appointments and the establishment of situation in which, as one interviewee put it, alternative incentive systems to enhance in- "If a worker is fired and his friend is not, stitutional efficiency. then these friends become enemies." The Local staff also ask for solutions to their problems faced by qualified seasonal work- family-related problems. A great majority of ers (for example, forest engineers) relate pri- MOF employees face economic and social marily to their salaries and the uncertainty problems that force them to live outside for- of their status. 87 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Revie0w Personnel assignment is yet another issue "everybody should know a little bit of of concern. Personnel distribution is random everything." between the regions, and workload distribu- * Such education is too theoretical, and a tion among the employees is irrational. There practical focus is neglected in both formal has been an excess of employees in more de- and on-the-job training. veloped regions and a shortage in the rela- * The frequency and content of on-the-job tively more depressed areas. A local manager training is insufficient. points out that "in some regions 15 people are * The content of training is not adequate to doing work that can be done by three people, prepare students for real life. while some regions cannot find enough * The public relations aspects of the job, in people to work." In some of the regions that particular, are not adequately covered in have been visited by the SA team, the number these programs. of forest guards was less than required. In * Jobs are learned through trial and error; others, the cadastral commission could not staff members do not receive satisfactory work because of the inadequacy of staff, and instructions when they start working. potential employees were not willing to work * Local staff are particularly ill equipped to in these commissions because of low wages meet their professional challenge. and extensive fieldwork. These jobs require a working knowledge of topography, forestry, A broad range of concerns are shared by law, and public relations, and this made it staff members. They include the following: difficult to find qualified staff. Workloads are also an issue. It is said that * Local personnel have inadequate access the workload of local level forest managers to equipment and vehicles to perform (Orman Sefi) is demanding because of orga- their jobs.41 nizational inefficiencies and the lack of per- * The decisions for personnel changes are sonnel. These local managers point out that political. Personnel appointments at the they are responsible for more than 10,000 management level are frequent, and the hectares of forest, whereas the standard re- majority of staff believe that there are sponsibility is 5,000 hectares. This amount political considerations behind these can reach 45,000 hectares in some areas. As a changes. result of this workload, managers do not * More than half of the staff believe that have time for forest improvement projects they have adequate authority to protect and implementations that should be their real forests but that because of political pres- priority. Assistant forest managers, on the sures they cannot use their authority other hand, complain about the ambiguities effectively.42 in their job descriptions. As these problems * Local staff also believe that laws are compound, many young forest managers lose limiting their ability to catch smugglers. If their motivation. "I lost all my ideals in four a truck full of timber is in a parking lot, years," says one manager. staff members cannot arrest the smuggler. The local stakeholders also point out that "You can only arrest people that are the professional knowledge of personnel is stealing timber from a storage facility or very low, and training and mentoring oppor- are in a moving car," points out one tunities are severely limited. Most personnel manager. share similar views about the problems listed * The level of information available on the below: technical aspects of forest management problems is not sufficient,43 but there is a * Forestry education is too broad to create view among personnel that the solutions specialists. The common view is that required are political rather than technical. 88 Infrastructure in Forest Villages * Hierarchy is extensive in organizations sector employees and communities. This fric- under the responsibility of MOF, and this tion is particularly strong in situations where causes inefficiency. The complexity and OGM contracts harvesting operations on the rigidity of the hierarchy prevent the basis of competitive bids. development and implementation of new OGM managers claim that the fact that ideas by the staff. private firms are obliged to provide health or * Research and communication activities accident insurance to their workers implies do not meet current needs and do not that community-based cooperatives always provide locally relevant information; this have a cost advantage. Thus, they believe that results in community perspectives being community-based cooperatives have a clear left out. Research and communication advantage in obtaining OGM contracts. The staff employees of the ministry lack villagers claim, however, that in actual prac- sufficient knowledge about biodiversity. tice labor is contracted on a sole source basis They allow foreign researchers to analyze to informal family firms that often agree to forest flora in their regions but complain work for low wages. Forest communities thus about them when the researchers do not lose a source of employment that was once share the information they have gained. their monopoly. There is a common complaint at all levels OGM's efforts for privatization of its sev- of MOF management regarding payment obli- eral operations (for example, road construc- gations to institutions such as the Child Pro- tion, forest inventory and planning, and tection Agency and the Treasury, as well as standing sales) have resulted in cost savings federal taxes and Social Assistance Funds. for the public sector but have also caused With increasing emphasis on profit making problems. The reorganization of OGM as an and efficiency, local level OGM managers autonomous revolving fund has meant that complain that these obligations greatly in- each regional OGM district directorate in the crease product prices, thus hindering competi- field functions as a private enterprise, har- tiveness in international markets. They vesting and selling trees and paying its man- demand that OGM discontinue subsidizing agers and staff through operational the other departments of the MOF and the revenues. In many operations that have state at large. As a result, the tensions between failed to profit, there have been delays in certain public institutions are increasing. salary payments. In regions with high forest The staff of OGM were asked to evaluate productivity, on the other hand, salaries are the impact of privatization on the state, vil- received in a timely manner. About two years lagers, timber merchants and producers, and ago, low-priced imports from Russia caused a forests. Some of the key issues raised were drop in timber's market value. Prices for tim- the planning of a more rational work flow, ber became much lower than actual costs for anxiety over worker rights, and the defi- many OGM local operations. Currently, local ciency of state overdeforestation. The attitude prices compete well with import prices, and toward privatization depends on the specific increasing efficiency promises a healthy fu- factors involved. Some of these are: ture for the sector.44 Privatization efforts are said to have re- * The type of rights to be transferred (use of sulted in a greater focus on short-term profits forests) and gains. While many managers boast about * The groups that will receive these rights the profitability of their enterprises, villagers (foreigners or villagers) complain that young trees are being cut * The nature of privatization (planning, down solely for profit. These divergent per- protection, production, marketing, and ceptions heighten the friction between public management). 89 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review The perceived positive impacts of privati- 3. Eighty percent of the households in forest zation included the closure of inefficient units villages own televisions, whereas 71 percent of OGM, downsizing of personnel, increase have radios. in work discipline, performance-based incen- tives, enhanced work efficiency, reduced cor- 4. It has to be noted that a very small percentage rtives, eand increased wages. The perceived of Turkey's pastures are in the three regions ruption, and increased wages. The perceived covered by the SA. This may be one of the negative impacts of privatization include: reasons for limited livestock ownership. At the same time, only a small portion of the * More rapid depletion of natural resources pastures would have been threatened even if because of insufficient state control over livestock ownership were higher. the management of forests * Increased worker vulnerability resulting 5. Turkish villagers place a higher value on trac- from lack of social security rights tors than is justified by their economic impor- * Reduced living standards for workers tance, because in most places, tractors are still because of the lower wages paid in the considered status symbols rather than merely private sector. as farm machinery. In some cases, families without tractors cannot find girls for their sons to marry. Therefore, the number of trac- The willingness of personnel to work in tors in each region should be analyzed with private forest management companies was due consideration of this social factor. also explored. Two-thirds of personnel stated that with higher wages and shorter working 6. In fact, there are 56 forest cooperatives in hours, they would work for the private sec- three provinces of the region (Antalya, Mers- tor. For most, conditions of employment in in, and Adana) and at eight of them ORKOY the private sector were preferable to those supported various projects such as Procure- provided by the state, and the remaining ment of Harvesting Machinery and Training, group said that if there was no other alterna- Cold Storage Construction, and Food Process- tive, they would be willing to work for the private sector. They felt that government em- 7. Therefore, based on the SA results, we can ployment provided greater security. identify the Black Sea regions as particularly poor as compared to the others, and within the Black Sea region, we can draw attention to Notes inland, mountain communities away from large urban centers as being particularly in 1. The youth population in the eastern and mid- need. However, areas excluded from the sur- dle Black Sea regions is decreasing rapidly. vey coverage for the SA and in particular One villager from the middle Black Sea region eastern and central Anatolia and the eastern says, "I am 40 years old. In my younger days, Black Sea regions and, within them, commu- there were 35 students and three teachers in nities that are remote from major urban cen- the village primary school. Now, there are ters may be yet in greater need of support. only 9 students and one teacher. At most, in two years they will probably close the 8. During preparation of the SA, the results of school." the recent Living Standard Measurement Sur- veys were not available. It is expected that 2. Annex 2, Tables 2, 3, and 4 present the distri- these would provide some regional data. bution of schools and teachers across regions. However, no income/expenditure data are The number of villages surveyed that have a available in Turkey on a commnunity basis. school but no teacher is seven in the Black Sea Likewise, data for cluster of communities or region, five in the Aegean region and two in microregions are not available. There are the Mediterranean region. methodological tools that would allow esti- 90 Infrastructure in Forest Villages mation of such poverty pockets on the basis of 10. The SA results are consistent with the ranking indicators obtained from the SA, extrapolated from the 1996 "Socioeconomic Development nationally by using infrastructure availability Ranking" conducted by the State Planning data that can be collected on a provincial basis Organization, as well as the 1996 statistics on through various key ministries. This should the contribution of municipalities to gross only be done, however, when key develop- national product in which the Aegean and ment sector managers have an agreement to Mediterranean regions performed better than focus on poor forest communities and intend the Black Sea region (Annex 2, Table 12). to define integrated rural development pack- ages as per SA recommendations. 11. Normally, fuelwood allowance per forest vil- lage household is determined according to the 9. Basic Components Analysis is a multivariate number of household members and varies analytical method that enables the analyst to between 18 and 22 steres per year. However, examine variance and covariance structure in the Black Sea region, because of less favor- and to reduce the number of variables in a able weather conditions, households reported given data set through linear combinations receiving more than this amount. The SA, in of these variables. Basically, in this method, n its calculations, used the highest estimate for number of inter-dependent observations fuelwood consumption. with p number of variables are converted into linear and independent k (k<=p) num- 12. Two other estimates were tried in calculating ber of new variables. In a system made up of energy dependency, but they are neither pre- p variables for each n observation, the total sented in the report nor used in further calcu- variance of the system is expressed by the p lations. However, they are explained below variable. In other words, when a major part for additional information. of total variance can be explained by k (k<=p), the k component approximates and a) The logic used in the first estimate can be represents the p variable. In that case, p vari- summarized as follows: It is assumed that ables in n observations can be converted into forest village households obtain an annual k variables in n observations without any allowance of 50 steres of wood (equivalent significant loss in the total variance of the to 20 tons) per household in the Black Sea system. Here, the newly formed k variable is region and 25 steres in the Aegean and made up of linear combinations of original Mediterranean regions. OGD prices one variables under certain limitations. Basic stere of wood at $15, and based on the components are linear combinations of p quotas in each region, this allowance totals variables in n observations. Geometrically, $750 in the Black Sea region and $375 in however, basic components of p variables, the Aegean and Mediterranean regions per which make up the original coordinate axes, household (one stere of wood is TL 30,000, represent a new coordinate system in which which equates to one kilogram costing axes are revolved. Therefore, the new coordi- approximately 20 c as of July 1997). Total nate system, which is formed to show the amounts for each household do not in- direction of maximum variance and which clude any cutting or transportation costs. ensures independence through revolving the The figures are somewhat unrealistic, since axes, represents the correlation among vari- the market price of wood includes labor ables and is internally consistent. The prelim- and transport, which forest villagers do inary result of the Basic Components Analy- not pay. Nevertheless, using this unrealisti- sis should be to reduce p number of vari- cally high estimate, total benefits of forests ables, such as Xi, X2 X3 ......... X to fewer rep- to all forest villages are estimated to be resentative variables without losing any in- about $1,030 million per year. formation in the process, thereby obtaining the causal factors of changes in the original b) The second estimate is based on the local variables. After this step, the analysis focuses market price of wood. In calculating this on the reduced number of new variables. price, we began with the assumption that 91 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReview villagers cut trees from their own back- the wood harvested by the OGM and then yards, since they do not have forest direct- cutting trees illegally. ly around them. This market price does not include labor or transportation costs, 16. It should be noted once more that the regions since villagers are involved in both the excluded from the empirical coverage of the harvesting and the transporting of timber. SA are relatively poorer than the Mediterra- At the time of the survey, one tractorload nean and the Aegean. Therefore, when we of wood cost around TL 15 million. And projected from the SA findings to the rest of one ton of wood was valued at TL 2.5 Turkey, we have used the worst case scenario, million ($14). Again using the aforemen- that of the Black Sea, and assumed that cen- tioned prices, we calculated an additional tral, eastern, and southeastern village commu- benefit of forests through firewood and nities would be at least as poor as those in the energy of $347 per household in the Black Black Sea and thus use as much wood as the Sea region and $174 in the Mediterranean latter for energy. and Aegean regions. Based on these as- sumptions, all the forest villagers in Tur- 17. While this is a benefit to the communities, it key could collectively save $1,130 million. also helps maintain forests and reduce the However, villagers do not trade in such danger of forest fires. It would have cost the high amounts, so these results were also state a great deal if this function were to be unrealistically high. performed by the private sector. 13. Usually, the families that gain the most bene- 18. These rangelands are used under traditional fits from the forest are those that work on low-input and low-output systems, with forest maintenance crews and those that are local cattle and small ruminant breeds. The planting and harvesting. These families tend intensive production dairy systems, with to be poorer than the rest of the population exotic breeds, rely almost exclusively on and are highly dependent on the forest for the high-quality fodder and concentrate (grain major part of their livelihoods. and agro-industrial byproducts). Some rangelands are still used by nomadic pasto- 14. This allowance, as previously discussed, is ralists, who from the makies (short, bushlike available only to first-time house builders, trees) and Aegean rangelands in winter, most of whom are newlywed couples. move their stock (sheep and goats mainly) to the central and eastern rangelands in spring, 15. The issue of whether wood subsidies should and the alpine areas in the summer, followed continue or not is of key importance from the by the crop residue and stubble grazing in perspective of forest sector policies. Needless the autumn. Their importance is declining, to say, the wood subsidy that the communi- because of the crop and urban expansion, ties receive is important and is shown by the which makes their movements increasingly SA; it is far more important for the poor than difficult, and the changed lifestyle expecta- for other income groups. However, whether tions of the younger generation. An interest- this subsidy should take the form of a stan- ing aspect of nomadic pastoralism is the will- dard allocation to all resident households or ingness to pay by the nomads of a grazing be based on a different criterion is a consid- fee (US$ 0.30-0.50 per sheep per month) to eration. Consultation with communities forest villagers. This would imply a certain shows that the standard allocation is better acceptance of market principles for grazing, than having the villagers receive a share of which might facilitate the introduction of revenues of the community forests from the grazing fees for improved range-livestock OGM (and pay for the wood needed subse- systems (deHaan, 1998: 7). quently). This would not only ensure that only those in need actually go and get the 19. The poor own fewer animals throughout all wood they need, but would prevent the dan- regions, and those who have become richer ger of people first getting a cash payment for through livestock management are shifting 92 Infrastructure in Forest Villages away from pasture feeding to good-quality expenses on feed through the use of the forest staple feeding. for pasturing. 20. This estimate is based on informal interviews 22. The SA team made additional calculations with people living in forest villages and the assuming 40 percent of animal feeding is done assessment of the SA team according to in the forest. It was also assumed that grazing weather conditions. According to the draft is possible for six months in the Black Sea World Bank report on grazing resources and region and for eight months in the Aegean livestock management on forest lands, the and Mediterranean regions and that small total grazing area of the Ministry of Forestry- livestock consume one-third of the feed for owned rangelands contributes only 4 percent cattle. One head of cattle consumes $5.5 per of the total feed requirement of the Turkish day worth of feed; therefore, 40 percent of this cattle, sheep, and goat population. "It is there- is $2.2 per day. This amount was multiplied fore a significant but not very important by the number of animals each household has source of livestock feed," (deHaan, 1998: 6). and the period of grazing. According to these Grazing periods show regional variability; it calculations, the value of grazing in the Black is about six months in the Black Sea region Sea region is $37.5 million, in the Aegean and between seven and nine months in the $13.2 million, and in the Mediterranean $49.2 Aegean and Mediterranean regions. It also million, while it is $57.6 million in other re- needs to be kept in mind that the values used gions. Therefore, if 40 percent grazing in the in the SA include only grazing directly forest is assumed, the total value of grazing through the forest and do not include grazing from forests in Turkey is found to be $127.5 in rangelands around forests. Nonetheless, million. there are other estimates that place the value of forest grazing at significantly higher levels 23. Villagers who work in the forest for additional than the SA used. Around half of the state income are usually not from the poorest forest lands (around 10 million hectares) carry households. Even "rich" forest households are only degraded forest cover; low-density pro- only relatively well off and respond to forest ductive forests cover another area of 1.9 mil- wage employment opportunities when they lion hectares, and the great majority of these are available. No gender difference is visible; lands are utilized for grazing purposes by households headed by men and women work local communities, although the real extent of equally in the forest. The size of households is grazing is unclear. There are also around 1.5 likewise not a predictor of participation in the million hectares within forest pasture lands, labor force. However, households that are which are named as forest rangelands under reduced in size because of migration are less the responsibility of the MOF. However, as likely to participate. Villagers from in-forest indicated before, only 18 percent of the range- villages occupy most forest-related jobs in lands in Turkey are within the regions includ- these areas. ed in the sample. Large parts of the oak forest covering more than 1 million hectares in east- 24. The SA did not make any revenue estimates ern and southeastern Anatolia (which were from other nonwood forest products (such as not included in the sample) are also tradition- medicinal, aromatic, or spice plants) mainly ally utilized for feed production from leaves because the number of people engaging in and shoots of oak trees. such activities was too small in the villages included in the sample. However, in the draft 21. It is assumed that most villagers either pro- Forestry Sector Review, total revenue of forest duce their own straw or somehow get it free villagers from nonwood products was esti- of charge and produce the majority of their mated to be around $7.5 million per year animal feed. Clover and artificial feed can be (Bann, 1998). purchased at a market price. Villagers are assumed to be saving a moderate amount 25. The SA team was unable to identify any vil- during the summer season by reducing their lages where the villagers had knowledge of 93 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReviezo legal changes or practices of bargaining proce- villagers that have to be taken out of their dures. They clearly saw a trend whereby, after present areas (that is, because of serious threat the "privatization of OGM," there would be such as landslides or extreme degradation of less benefit to the village communities and a natural resources); allocated to village com- great deal more for OGM and for the private munities as common grazing lands; or sold to contractors and firms that would be engaged the inhabitants presently using them, and the for harvesting and transportation. revenues from such sales are transferred to the Forest Villagers Development Fund. 26. According to 1994 State Statistical Office data, annual household income in Turkey is 33. One can argue that not only costs will in- US$4,734 (TL 11,713,580), and annual house- crease but also wood prices and sales prices hold consumption is US$3,744 (TL 9,253,730). will increase. However, the timing of these increases is important, and usually increases 27. Although Mediterranean region villages gen- in costs are not immediately reflected in sales erally have a higher income because of tour- prices, resulting in a loss of money. ism and productive agricultural land, this is not the case in forest villages. Survey results 34. "State officials have been harvesting our for- and DIE statistics provide similar results. est nonstop for 14 years; where in the world is a forest able to survive such treatment? We 28. The revenue estimate for OGM is at the con- have tried time and again complain to forest- servative side because OGM usually has pric- ers and make them understand they are de- es higher than the international prices; foreign stroying the forest, but they tell us that 'their experts visiting Turkey have usually found men' know what is best" (a village headman). domestic wood prices to be higher than inter- national prices. 35. Even forest administrators complain about political interference in the way that they deal 29. To improve its management, OGM is piloting with illegal tree harvesting. One of the admin- various forms of public-private partnerships. istrators explains the situation: "When we For instance, one of the largest tree-processing catch someone in the process of illegal tree companies in Turkey is highly pleased with harvesting, that day we begin to get hundreds the new application of OGM. OGM opens of phone calls from bureaucrats, so that I can bidding for the right to log the forest. Then, not even continue working because of them. OGM's engineers mark the trees and the com- Now, when we catch someone, I just ignore pany hires contractors to do the cutting. This the calls until we finish all of the legal paper- process is beneficial to both sides. OGM re- work." ceives half of its money up front and the rest is paid three months later. Furthermore, tim- 36. According to a villager in the Black Sea re- ber companies use the trees more efficiently gion, OGM harvests trees simply to generate and more cost effectively. income for its budget. When we asked about the measures that they can take against this 30. Turkey Forestry Sector Review, Summary of destruction, he answers: "It is almost impossi- Turkish Key Literature, World Bank, 1997. ble to take measures because the regional forest manager places great pressure on us ... 31. Personal communication from the Ankara He talks with credit agencies and blocks my Association of Lawyers. credit. He is also friends with the county gov- ernor and the head of security, so basically, he 32. Under Article 2B, forest lands that scientifical- uses his entire legal network against us." ly and technically have lost their forest char- acter prior to December 31,1981, and are de- 37. In another village, called Ormanustu, in the termined to be suitable for agricultural, graz- Black Sea region, a villager complained ing, or human habitat may be taken out of the about the state's appropriation of his land. forest regime and used as settlement for forest According to his story, when the cadastral 94 Infrastructure in Forest VilIages officers came to town, they registered all the experienced forestry chief. As a result, even land which he had inherited from his father. staff such as lawyers who should have knowl- He explained the reason for this: "There is a edge and expertise are causing the State to law which was accepted a long time ago, lose most court cases. which says that if your land is adjacent to the forest and contains the same kind of plants 41. The need for equipment is very urgent. Forest as the forest, then your land is also consid- guards borrow equipment and vehicles from ered to be forest. Thus, you end up losing villagers to chase smugglers or to fight fires. your land. Now they are planning to register Even the number of communications devices our 'yaylas' (mountain pastures) as state such as citizens band is not sufficient in case property; they have already started the ca- of an incident. dastral work." 42. One of the interviewed managers stated that a 38. Veterinarian visits are different from those of group of timber merchants are in the smug- other officials. Villagers call veterinarians gling business and it is almost impossible to when their animals are sick, pay for their ser- put pressure on this group. They are well vices and compensate all of their expenses. organized, have connections, and possess Animals are the most important factor in equipment such as long-range CBs, guns, and these villagers' income so they use all of their fast cars. resources to maintain them. 43. Officers can even be proved incompetent be- 39. Young fish are caught and used in fish farms; cause of their lack of knowledge of laws and this practice endangers the species. regulations. Guards complain about people who become officers after only 15 days of 40. Employees made the following assessments training. about their work. "The job is learned basically by trial and error; nobody gets satisfactory 44. OGM's practice of storing timber at state instructions when they start working; every- storage sites causes great delays in market- body, particularly the young forestry chiefs, ing and sales. Time lapses in sales further feel resentful of on-the-job training ("refiklik") destabilize incomes and deteriorate trust at the local level under the supervision of an among employees. 95 5. Recommendations Poverty Reduction identification of forests with trees to a national and local ability to view forests Poverty reduction should be central to any as global and national wealth. effort to improve the forest sector in Turkey. * Among actions to be implemented by the MOF, priority should be given to consul- * Forest villages are the poorest of the poor. tations for the preparation of local Poverty-focused development programs, multipurpose forest management plans whether initiated by the MOF or by other so that sufficient focus can be placed on ministries, should target forest communi- the development of nontimber resources ties and seek to increase income of forest regions. Changes in ownership opportunities for villagers. Even among and management patterns should not be those communities that rely heavily on made prior to extensive piloting and forests, nonforest sources of income experimentation. Similarly, a careful provide the largest part of income; thus, assessment of local capacity should be poverty reduction interventions targeting made, and institutional arrangements can forest communities must consist of an be put in place to ensure adequate flow of integrated package of rural development scientific and international knowledge to inputs. local decisionmakers. The roles of the * Socioeconomic factors in forest villages MOF and OGM should be clearly defined differ from region to region and within in all decentralization efforts. In this regions. Therefore, it is important to context, it is important that communities develop locally specific and flexible participate in the preparation of local policies that increase the involvement of multipurpose forest management plans. villagers in forest-related production. The international experience and tech- * There is an enormous need to create niques developed for community action public awareness of forest ecosystems plan preparation should be taken into and enhance the demand for nontimber consideration. resources forests offer, including recre- * In doing so, it must be recognized that the ation. This requires the creation of not forests provide integrated resources and only external or foreign but also national should be considered holistically, includ- and local demand for forest products and ing flora, fauna, trees, water resources, services. The creation of incentives to and human resources. This should be guide community development in forest done by taking into account the availabil- areas to promote sustainable utilization of ity of human resources.' If local forest resources depends heavily on a communities are to participate more major public opinion shift away from effectively in forest management, the 96 Recommendations MOF should provide a well design relatively wealthy and of those communi- extension service. To do so, it should ties that are already better off. Those who upgrade the knowledge and skills of its can scale their production, those who can field staff. Indeed, there is as much need take their products to nearby markets to build capacity in forest communities as with greater ease, and those communities there is within the MOF's local staff. that outsiders (tourists, traders, officials) Accordingly, pilot projects for the inte- are more likely to visit will have a better grated use of forest resources should be chance of success in their business. developed. Incentives should be created * It is extremely difficult to escape poverty to guide community development in through traditional methods of forest forest areas to promote sustainable man- resource exploitation. Hitherto, communi- agement and utilization of forest ties have been able to reduce poverty only resources. This will require multisectoral, through the expansion of agriculture and integrated rural development interven- livestock raising activities. Communities tions in which the MOF will have a key that are unable to engage in these activi- coordinating role to play. The integrated ties become increasingly dependent on rural development approach would forest resources and, hence, less able to imply that infrastructure will be im- get out of poverty. Therefore, while proved; horticulture, agriculture, and recommending that these forest-reliant livestock activities will be strengthened; communities be assisted through im- ecotourism and sport tourism will be provements in their utilization of forest developed; a major shift away from resources, we also want to urge that logging to biodiversity conservation will nontraditional, innovative methods be be made; and the knowledge, informa- found to alleviate poverty. It must also be tion, promotion, and marketing support recognized that there are limited opportu- available to the communities will be nities for scaling up economic activities enhanced. This, in turn, requires that an based on forest resources in these villages. interministerial commission consider the For instance, while more villagers could results of the Forest Sector Review, with a become engaged in beekeeping, it is not particular focus on poverty reduction and possible to scale up beekeeping in most integrated rural development recommen- communities.2 These constraints have dation of the SA, and agree upon a plan already led many forest villagers to of action to enhance the development migrate to other parts of Turkey. focus on forest communities. * As for agricultural activities, the size and * A number of pilot projects are proposed segmentation of landholdings in forest in this report, and many of these are villages prevents cultivation and eco- already under way in several regions. nomic growth. Land consolidation efforts There is a need to mainstream these pilots should be expanded in these areas. In and facilitate their implementation and areas where land is not suitable for make credit opportunities more broadly agriculture, fruit planting should be available. Currently, residents of supported. Livestock raising should be wealthier villages are more able to use encouraged in forest villages, and the credits. More credit should be made state should improve grasslands and available to less developed villages to encourage villagers to produce feed for enable the creation of new forest enter- their livestock. prises. However, it should be appreciated that the market mechanisms will continue In terms of the specific actions required, to favor the initiatives of those who are the following may be considered: 97 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review 1) Establish an interministerial commission 7) Carry out a topical study to analyze the bringing together headquarters and field existing constraints to the promotion of staff of ministries of forestry, agriculture, sports tourism in forest communities. rural development, transport, environ- Based on this, define and implement an ment, and tourism. action plan that would aim at changing 2) Recall that the poorest villages are often the mind-set, habits, and behavior of the the most distant from urban centers and residents of forest regions so that they that these areas are plagued by poor road might enjoy the recreational opportunities conditions and transport problems. Thus, offered by forests in a sustainable manner. consider a special focus on forest villages 8) Organize a workshop on microcredit to in the context of the Bank dialogue on share public sector and civil society rural road improvements.3 experiences concerning credit facilities 3) Consider the proposed Bank-financed with a focus on agricultural and livestock Social Investment Fund project to focus on credit. Understand from current NGO meeting the infrastructure and other experience how best to support credit development needs of forest communities. programs with information and market- 4) Carry out a feasibility study of horticul- ing services and how this experience can tural development promotion for forest be extended for biodiversity and communities and flexible, long-term ecotourism investments.5 development credit for horticulture development. Simultaneously, carry out a Using Biodiversity to Increase Income study of current private sector experience Turkey is one of the world's richest coun- with commercial forestry4 investments tries in terms of biodiversity. Regional and strengthen, if appropriate, credit and biodiversity in the country is closely related extension support for these activities. to climatic conditions. A national plan of ac- 5) Identify potential for commercial produc- tion for biodiversity protection has already tion of indigenous herbs and medicinal been prepared; this should be implemented and ornamental plants, including their expeditiously so that forest communities can farming in garden plots. Explore more obtain sustainable benefits from the forest's aggressively national and international diverse resources. While a handful of experts markets for the promotion of a broad and some of the government staff may be range of plant species currently aware of Turkey's biodiversity resources, it is underutilized in Turkey. More important, clear that the knowledge is not widely mobilize information campaigns and shared. In a recent symposium organized by educational programs at all levels (includ- the Environmental Protection Department of ing basic education programs and TV the Province of Ankara, the participants programs) to enhance knowledge of noted the lack of knowledge, even among the these, increase demand for them, and experts, of Turkey's biodiversity resources. draw attention to the conservation of the As noted by Professor Tuna Ekim, a large species. number of Turkey's forest plant species do 6) Organize a workshop to review the not even have Turkish names (and thus are relevance of international experience with referred to by their foreign names) and are ecotourism for forest communities, based not known to the people and most experts. on extensive field visits by experts knowl- The knowledge of national biodiversity is edgeable on these matters. Learn from the also insufficiently covered within the higher experience of the Silifke and MEDCITIES educational curricula. with respect to issues and difficulties of As noted by this symposium, there is little ecotourism development. effort on behalf of the state to support the 98 Recommendations species that naturally grow in Turkey's for- thus ensuring high returns to the capital in- ests. Those that are utilized for food, tea, and vestments of farmers. It is therefore advisable herbs; medicinal purposes; coloring; and or- that a similar strategy be employed. To en- namentation are all harvested directly from sure that future credits provided achieve their the forests without adequate effort being de- intended results and support innovative voted to their production. The mere existence projects, such NGOs' experiences may be of a national biodiversity strategy is thus in- utilized. Especially in the fields of ecotourism sufficient; the strategy goals should be widely and biodiversity, such a strategy may be far disseminated and the relevant actions should more important than the availability of credit. be implemented. As part of a national biodiversity strategy, Institutional Framework and Enhanced the feasibility of establishing greenhouses to Community Involvement farm herbs and other marketable forest * Any changes to be initiated with respect projects should be explored, as some village to the state's exclusive right of ownership communities in the Mediterranean and and use of forests requires consideration Aegean regions have recommended. These of several key issues: communities are already in the habit of col- 1) Inefficiency of the existing system of lecting rose hips, thyme, and other herbs and forest resource utilization spices from the forest. However, training in 2) Conflicts of interests that appear to be technical and management skills is required inherent in the restructuring of OGM6 for effective marketing. Government officials' 3) Lack of a serious threat to forests tendency to assume responsibility for villag- posed by communities ers' production choices prevents the local 4) Difficulties in promoting sustainable knowledge from being translated into in- resource use that would arise without formed choices. This tendency should be community ownership transformed into conscious efforts to tap into 5) Difficulties of entrusting the manage- villagers' knowledge. Such efforts have the ment of forests and protected areas to potential not only to facilitate more effective local committees without substantial microcredit programs and use of forest re- local capacity building sources but also to reduce damage to forests 6) Advisability of changing environmen- and improve communications between the tal resources ownership and government and the local communities. management patterns without the As has been discussed in the section on benefit of serious pilot experiments. credits, in the past credits provided by * Ownership issues are complex, and the ORKOY and the Agricultural Bank have usu- alternative solutions currently being ally provided small amounts of capital barely debated focus more on state communities sufficient to cover the start-up costs of subsis- and state-private sector partnerships than tence base operations. In addition, such cred- on community-private sector partner- its were rarely complemented by extension ships. These latter mechanisms should be services and input and output marketing developed and publicly discussed. support. Thus, the returns to credit were * Participation helps diffuse tensions minimal. A rather different strategy has been between state and society. Opportunities employed by a number of NGO-supported for participation are broad and range activities, such as those of the Anatolian De- from specific decisions on forest resource velopment Foundation and the Turkish De- utilization at the community level to velopment Foundation. Both have supported issues of property rights, ownership, and their small-scale credit programs with exten- decentralization. These opportunities sive information and marketing activities, should be explored. In so doing, measures 99 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest SectorReview should be defined to strengthen the management of forest lands, national regulatory and control functions of the parks, and other protected areas, the MOF. roles, responsibilities, and benefits of local It should be noted that the issue of own- and national institutions and actors ership of forests is not merely an should be clearly defined so that costs of abstraction or a conservation measure, such management are born in a sustain- but rather the basis on which the ap- able manner and revenues are equitably proach to the management of forests shared. resources is defined and the revenues Frequent changes in forest legislation from these resources shared. Ultimately, it have caused concern among many stake- is the trees of the forests that both the holders. These changes have not been state and the people gain the most direct based on adequate prior consultation and benefit from. The state receives and keeps feedback. Several new draft laws are all timber revenues and "allows" the awaiting approval, and these deal with communities a small amount of subsi- issues of decentralization. There is need dized wood, primarily for cooking and for public, local debate on these before a heating. The labor of forest villages is new set of top-down decisions is made. explored inexpensively, and the logging * New techniques to speed up forest inven- and transportation contracts are given to tory, land registration, and titling the village cooperatives when the price of activities should be introduced without services they offer are competitive. Thus, delay. This is especially necessary if the the villagers merely receive a fair return management of forests is to be decentral- to their own labor, rather than sharing the ized. The improvement of cadastral revenues of the forests. The state main- procedures in Turkey requires major tains a similar position regarding wildlife changes in the existing legal framework and keeps a larger share of hunting and falls outside the responsibilities of the revenues for itself. The disincentives MOF. This, in itself, is a major problem, created for effective and sustainable use since there is an enormous pipeline of of forest resources as a result of these legislative actions that require parliamen- arrangements are listed in the SA. The tary action, and a new law requires more solution, however, requires a commitment than 18 months for consideration. Never- by the state to initiate consultations with theless, there is substantial international the communities and the identification of experience that can be reviewed should appropriate mechanisms for such consul- the relevant government bodies be inter- tation. If, on the other hand, local ested in speeding cadastral procedures in committees are trusted with the mainte- forest areas. nance and exploration of forests, serious * Capacity building for forest resources consideration should be given to issues of management is needed at all levels. A revenue sharing and taxation. comprehensive plan should thus be It is widely observed that there is more prepared to include public education potential for forest protection and devel- campaigns, basic and higher educational opment when ownership of forest levels, and in-service training. In this products lies with the village. Even if context, university forestry departments government ownership of forest land is should be reorganized and curricula maintained, arrangements should be revised to prepare students for employ- made regarding revenue sharing from the ment in the private sector. Students use of forest resources. In all proposed should all be trained not only in special- legislation concerning the centralized ized technical fields but also with respect 100 Recommendations to multipurpose, integrated participatory Funding pilot projects and especially forest management. Currently, the main scaling them up requires the availability goal of forestry department faculty and of effective credit facilities. Detailed curricula is to prepare students for future analyses of past and existing credit employment in the civil service of for- programs are currently being conducted. estry management. The curriculum is On the basis of the social assessment, the based largely on the perception that following tentative recommendations can forestry management consists mainly of be made: managing the cutting and planting of 1) Communities should be systemati- trees. Instruction should focus on the cally informed of credit opportunities integrated management of the forest by available to them. giving adequate attention to biodiversity, 2) The success of forest-based business protective and productive functions, and ventures funded through small-scale socioeconomic aspects. Instruction should loans will depend on the identifica- prepare the next generation of forestry tion of feasible investments and students for both private sector and state technical assistance. For instance, the participation. As this is done, the MOF successful development of hunting- should outsource its research and dis- oriented tourism in the eastern Black semination activities. Sea region depends on the availability VWhile the private sector provides some of loans and training for bed-and- insurance to the laborers it employs, the breakfast management. state does not have such a policy for the 3) Technical training and improved temporary workers it engages. Therefore, management skills are required to there is a need to finance accident insur- develop forest products into market- ance for forest workers. This can be able goods. Pilot projects must be started with short-term life insurance designed and implemented to de- packages. These packages can be pre- velop these valuable resources. Forest pared for two- to five-year periods by a villagers possess invaluable informa- private company. tion on regional plants, livestock, and As for the number of local staff of the agroforestry. However, if state officials MOF, the policies regarding the rotation nullify the ability of villagers to select and promotion of forest management what products they develop, this officers should be improved, standard- wealth of information cannot be ized, and made transparent. Officials translated into effective should be periodically rotated between decisionmaking. State officials must field-based and administrative positions devise ways to use villagers' know- in a manner that allows sufficient expo- ledge. This would not only ensure sure to different areas of specialization. more effective implementation of Prolonged tenure of officials in one credit programs, but also decrease the particular unit is a widespread cause of damage done to the forest and im- organizational stagnation, while excessive prove the relationship between forest rotation prevents development of skills villagers and the state. and expertise. Measures should also be taken to reduce the incentives for forest Community-based pilot projects employees to live outside of forests; this The SA points to a range of pilot projects can be done by improving payment appropriate for and acceptable to forest com- systems, infrastructure, and social ser- munities. Because forest characteristics and vices in the field areas. forest resources vary among regions, projects 101 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Revievw must to be custom-tailored to regional char- fishing, and a whole range of ecotourism ac- acteristics. It should be noted that a wide tivities are initiated. Indeed, there is growing range of innovative ideas have already been local interest in the use of national parks, and explored by the private sector and residents it may be fruitful to broaden this interest to of forest communities, and lessons can be other types of recreational tourism, provided learned from these. Perhaps one of the most that innovative public education and local important lessons has to do with poverty marketing strategies are developed. Initially, targeting. The innovative projects that were activities such as sport fishing, hunting, and viable under current market conditions mani- so forth need to be initiated in villages some- fest the same pattern of inequity as those out- what close to urban areas. Subsequently, de- lined by the SA; investments in better-off pending on the success of initial activities, it areas that are less exclusively reliant on forest might be possible to broaden these to more resources succeed, and those in communities remote areas. with high reliance on forest resources fail. Discussions with tourism companies, mer- Wild boar hunting chants dealing with forest products, and Although hunting and tourism based on owners of furniture and carpentry workshops hunting are practiced in parts of Turkey, the all point to the difficulty of promoting sub- scale of these activities is limited and the di- stantial investments in those remote forest rect benefits to the communities are negli- villages that have hitherto had difficulties in gible. Currently, there is little or no developing because of their high reliance on knowledge of such practices in communities forest resources. Nevertheless, there is room outside the areas where these have already to explore the feasibility of new ideas while at been promoted. Wild boars, wolves, foxes, the same time mainstreaming some of the and hyenas are available for hunting existing pilot efforts. The following pilot throughout the areas covered by the SA. Ac- projects were proposed by communities par- cording to data obtained in June 1998 from ticipating in the SA. the Directorate of National Parks and the Protection of Wild Life, the MOF charges $20 Tackle fishing or sport fishing for participation fees and $100 to hunters for In the river areas of the eastern Black Sea each wild boar hunted. The village adminis- region, tackle fishing can be promoted. The tration receives an additional $20. The total feasibility of doing so with the existing fish revenue obtained in 1997 from boar hunting species without destruction to the indigenous was $65,000, and some 377 hunters were aquatic biodiversity should be explored. In granted permits. In other words, no more than this context, there is an important promo- 500 wild boars were hunted in the country tional role for the state to play. Sports-based throughout the year. There is, however, high internal tourism activities are practically non- demand in, for instance, the Black Sea region, existent in Turkey (except for a small group for the promotion of wild boar hunting, pri- of people), yet fishing (as well as hiking, trek- marily because boars destroy crops there. king, rafting, and hunting) is an activity that Because the villagers cannot protect their can be promoted at a larger scale. Often, rec- land from these animals, they claim they reational tourism promotion targets foreign will do anything to support hunting of these tourists or higher-income residents of metro- animals by outsiders. politan areas. This results in a small and While it may appear that wild boar hunt- highly seasonal tourist flow to small locali- ing or hunting in general has already been ties. Therefore, it is important that promo- piloted, the facts on the ground do not point tional efforts to target the urban residents of to a scalable experience. Interest in hunting is forest communities in which hunting, sport low, promotional activities are ineffective, 102 Recommendations and the infrastructure and organization to out Anatolia, in eastern and southeastern broaden the scale of this activity are insuffi- Turkey, people have been reluctant to open cient. Clearly, Turkey has a great deal to learn their homes to tourists. The difficulties are from other country experiences, and this greater in forest villages, especially those in knowledge sharing can be facilitated by the remote areas, and in regions with high levels World Bank. Second, the incentive structures of rangeland and forest degradation: central should be modified in order for the commu- Anatolia and eastern and southeastern Tur- nities to have a motivation to support sports key. In these communities, the tourism season tourism. Currently, participation fees ($20) is short, and access to other touristic facilities, received from tourists are shared equally be- urban areas, and beaches is limited. In some tween the state and the village administra- areas, the dynamic, younger groups have tion, but the bulk of the revenues from already moved out of the communities, and hunting go to the state. Moreover, revenues the organization of a satisfactory level of received by the village administration7 do not food, water and sanitation, and other tourist provide a direct incentive for individual vil- services presents a special challenge. These lagers and households, and this situation, difficulties should not be underestimated, too, would need to be addressed. and the revenue expectations should be kept According to residents of forest villages, to a minimum. Having said this, the follow- wild boar hunting can be promoted in this ing integrated approach is important for the region without endangering the boars' exist- promotion of hunting, fishing, and ence because there are far too many wild ecotourism as well as bed-and-breakfast ac- boars; however, it will be difficult to create tivities in forest areas: incentives to ensure the sustainability of the game. That there is great demand for hunting It is crucial to promote ecotourism in of wild boar surprises many villagers as this forest areas in local and foreign media is "against their religion." Therefore, there is through a large scale-information and a need to provide information and communi- promotion campaign. This campaign cations support to wild boar hunting at the should include information on the facili- local level. This information should also focus ties in respective areas and the range of on how the development of hunting would activities that tourists can participate in. also increase demand for other goods and * Forest villagers need training concerning services to cater to the needs of both foreign the household-based infrastructure and and local tourists. service requirements of bed-and-breakfast tourism as well as the issues of sustain- Bed and-breakfastfacilities ability of flora and fauna. Any ecotourism Forest tourism activities create the need effort in forest regions has to involve for bed-and-breakfast facilities and other community participation from their start ecotourism investments. Although these do for success and sustainability. not require large investments, there is little * Investment in this sector should be incentive among both the people and the pri- encouraged. Especially since the Black vate sector to make the requisite investments. Sea region does not have an established It is highly unlikely that a substantial level of tourist base, it is important initially to ecotourism can be promoted in communities provide incentives to improve the existing with high reliance on forests. Bed-and-break- limited activities in the region through fast tourism has at least a 40-year tradition in targeted subsidies to "get the word out." Turkey, but its success has been restricted to An effective method of attracting tourists the coastal regions and a select number of into the area may be providing cross- towns. In major metropolitan areas, through- subsidies to the private sector. It should 103 SocialAssessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review be appreciated that attracting tourists to with such an ethic. While people are critical forest communities in noncoastal regions of others' use of natural parks and other envi- will present yet a greater challenge. One ronmental resources, they themselves do not important mechanism to overcome this behave in a way that promotes environmen- challenge is to focus on the young genera- tal sustainability. Therefore, they are less tion of Turks, appealing to their emerging likely to be able to concentrate on the intrin- environmental awareness and to their sic value of the specific ecosystem than on newly forming approach to recreation. facilities and services. Thus, there is a great In this context, the promotion of need to carry out public educational activities ecotourism activities should start in for the residents of forest communities in central villages (or small towns). Once supporting any ecotourism initiative. relatively more developed settlements It is also important not to exaggerate the become attractive to the tourists, expan- benefits of ecotourism. If ecotourism is to sion to more remote communities may be become a genuine reality, its income potential appropriate. will be modest from the perspective of the communities.8 If it is scaled up, it will tend Other ecotourism activities more to be an exercise in labeling and mar- Anatolia has many natural monuments, keting than in conservation. If insufficient mostly in the Aegean region (Annex 2, Table care is used, expropriation of virgin territo- 30). These monuments hold a significant po- ries can take the same shape as other tourist tential for tourism. It is possible to increase attractions in Turkey, catering largely to the the income levels of forest villages by devel- lifestyles of urbanized societies and the new oping tourism activities based on such monu- middle class. Without adequate consultation, ments. There is one community near these activities may threaten local cultures, Marmaris where such tourism is being pi- economies, and natural resources. SA consul- loted with success. A trail of monument trees tations reveal serious reservations on behalf mixed with cultural heritage sites that are of the communities as to how such activities also abundant in especially coastal areas is are to be promoted, except in cases where the also proposed in the Silifke region. A feasibil- wild boar threat to household economic sur- ity study of such an approach exists, and sev- vival is perceived as serious. eral consultative meetings bringing together Key issues to be addressed in designing national and international ecotourism agen- ecotourism pilot efforts and programs in- cies, the public at large, local government clude the following: representatives, and local environmental NGOs have been organized by the munici- * Determination of the nature of the role palities in the Silifke region with support local people can play and definition of from METAP (Mediterranean Environment specific activities that best lend them- Technical Assistance Program). selves to promotion through preparation There are, however, broad issues of and implementation of action plans with ecotourism development that require full the participation of local stakeholders consideration and consultation before specific * Identification of mechanisms (workshops, sites are promoted. Perhaps the most impor- outreach, routine information flows, and tant of those have to do with the promotion so forth) and agencies (especially NGOs) of positive environmental ethics and an ap- through which local people can acquire propriate set of behaviors to support it. Dur- the relevant skills (innkeeping, guiding, ing the SA team's visits to the forest villages crafts, and so on) and surrounding communities, it was evident * Consultative determination of potentially that there is little knowledge of and concern adverse impacts of tourism development 104 Recommendations in the specific subregions selected and the than half of all village communities sampled. preparation of mitigation action to avoid Moreover, in 60 percent of the cases, mi- these impacts as well as a joint determina- grants do not return to their village of origin. tion of an appropriate level of tourism Also, forest villages have a higher proportion activity between local communities and of older populations (as compared to rural tourism operators to ensure that the populations at large) and the levels of educa- tion are generally low. These combine into a ecosystem iS not damaged relatively modest human resources base that Establishing a system of regulation and would require substantial efforts to develop monitoring to ensure that local prefer- and especially so if innovative, unconven- ences are respected and that local people tional modes of development paths will be and businesses receive a sufficiently large pursued. share of income and employment oppor- tunities made available through 2 This requires a richer, permanent biodiversity ecotourism development. than is available in many communities. For instance, in many of the Aegean villages visit- There is much room for learning from the ed by the SA team, the bee producers ex- plained that it has become practically impos- experiences of other countries, especially sible to do beekeeping by staying in this re- with respect to ecotourism. Current private gion alone. Because of urban encroachment sector involvement in ecotourism in Turkey is and the loss of many different types of trees, low, and experience is limited.9 The Euro- households that planned to do beekeeping pean, U.S., Canadian, and Australian experi- commercially (rather than for subsistence ences with ecotourism, however, are diverse. purposes) had to have about 250 hives and Nonetheless, the experience of the U.S. Sierra had to take these all by way of eastern Turkey Club directly addresses the difficulties en- during certain seasons. This meant that they countered in improving the livelihood of for- owned a good-size truck and thus had sub- est villagers, especially as logging activities stantial capital to start the business. In other slow down. Therefore, the MOF may wish to words, the scale of investments required for SlOW down. Thnerefore, the MOF may wish to an economically viable beekeeping operation hold an international workshop to facilitate has substantially increased as a result of envi- the consideration of the relevance of interna- ronmental degradation. As a result, the poor tional experience for Turkey and to do so can no longer carry out this activity to im- through a strong involvement of the media so prove their incomes. that such experience can be more broadly shared by a range of stakeholders and the 3 Such a project is being discussed with the public at large. The MOF may also consider government of Turkey for possible World systematic dissemination of international Bank financing. conservation and biodiversity experience 4 Several private investors in commercial affor- through the public TV. estation were consulted in the context of the SA. These were satisfied with the support Notes they had so far received and found their in- vestments potentially lucrative. They pointed 1 Although there are difficulties in using the out, however, that longer-term credit should official population data over time, more than be made available to ensure that people in- half of the forest villages included in the SA vesting in horticulture and timber growing have actually shrunk in population between would have sufficient time to get a return on 1995 and 1990. The village headman surveys their investments. carried out as part of the SA also show that there was permanent outmigration and there 5 MOF may also wish to prepare a small-scale is regular seasonal outmigration from more pilot project for Bank financing on ecotour- 105 Soci Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sec/or Review ism, combining cultural and natural heritage are often overrated: locals usually carry out sites' development. low-paying services and produce inexpensive crafts, receiving irregular and seasonal in- 6 This conflict was brought to the attention of come. As with conventional tourism, most the SA team both by the local representatives money is made by airlines, tourist operators, of OGM, other local MOF staff, and the com- and so forth, who do not leave their earnings munities. It is said that OGM is now expected to the local communities. to sustain itself through its own operations. As a matter of fact, it is not only expected to 9 This was clearly seen in the context of the be self-sufficient but is also expected to pro- MEDCIMIES ecotourism workshops organized vide support to the MOF. OGM staff will be with support from METAP. paid, provided that they generate sufficient resources. There may, therefore, be pressure 10 As is shown by the SA, all forest communities on them to "overharvest." and nearly all households have access to TV, and televised programs, especially during 7 Koy Tuzel Kisiligi. winter months, are effective means of educat- ing the public. 8 Income potential from ecotourism is generally modest, and employment-related activities 106 Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures 1. Introduction Forest village communities social assessment and evaluation of the past support was made by a sample survey of forest village communities. Village general information and selected household information was obtained through personal interviews. This report provides detailed information on the survey population and its stratification, sample design, interviewer training and allocation, and data weighting procedures. 2. The Survey Population The survey population covers 3 main regions of the country which corresponds to the majority of the forestry activities and related forest communities. According to a recent report by ORKOY* (1997), a total of 5.42 million people (corresponds to the 59.56% of the total forest community population in the country) live in the villages of these 3 regions. Among these, 61.85% of the forest village population inhabits forest-neighboring villages and 38.15% of inhabits in-forest villages. A summary information about the forest village population by regions and sub-regions are given in Table 1. 3. Stratification of Population Several stratification variables are used on the target population. The explicit stratification variables are geographic sub-regions, location status of the villages, and population size group of villages. The population is divided into 3 regions and further divided into 5 more sub-regions. The second explicit stratification variable was the location status of the village which consisted in three levels namely, coast, mountain and plateau. The last explicit stratification variable was the population size group of villages in ranges of 500. In addition, another implicit stratification variable is also used at the sample selection stage. This was the type of forest village namely, in forest and forest-neighboring village. Table 1. Total population and proportion of forest villages By regions and subregions ORKOY (1997), The Number and the Population of Forest Villages in Provinces. Ministry of Forestry, General Directorate of Forest and Village Relations, Ankara. February 1997. 107 Social Assessmentfor the 7urkey Forest Sector Review Village Type REGIONS In Forest Forest- TOTAL Neighboring I. BLACKSEA 901096 1 883 613 2 784 709 0.32359 0.67641 0.51374 A-West 121819 615 335 737154 0.16526 0.83474 0.26471 B-Center 609 692 928 680 1538 372 0.39632 0.60368 0.55244 C-East 169 585 339 598 509 183 0.33305 0.66695 0.18285 II.AEGRAN 467 960 705 187 1 173 147 0.39889 0.60111 0.21643 III. MEDITERRANEAN 698 723 763 914 1462 637 0.47771 0.52229 0.26983 A-West 278 907 393 650 672 557 0.41470 0.58530 0.45982 B-East 419 816 370 264 790 080 0.53136 0.46864 0.49114 TOTAL 2 067 779 3 352 714 5 420 493 0.38147 0.61853 1.000000 The table provides information on the breakdown of the population and proportion of forest- neighboring villages (3.352 million) and in-forest villages (2.067 million) by sub-regions. A more detailed information of the target population is given in Appendix 1. 4. Sample Design 4.1. Sample Size Determination The following procedures are used to obtain the sample size. Total Population Size N = 5 420 493 Mean Household Size: H = 5.0 Total Household Size : N =N I H N = 5 420 493 / 5 = 1084 099 Households in the population The following levels are set by the researcher as; Level of statistical significance: a = 0.05 (5 percent) Tolerance level: E ta [se(Y)] = ±0.03 (±3 percent) Students t- statistic tI = 1.96 for a = 0.05 Estimated average proportion for selected survey variables: P = 0.285 Estimated element variance: xs2 =P(1-P) = (0.285)(0.715) = 0.203 108 Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures Temporary sample size: n* a_ x n2 -[aS E2 * (3.8416)(0.203) 0.7798448 866.494 0.0009 0.0009 Final sample size: (corrected by the population size) n 866.494 n= * - 1 6 = 865.8 = 866 Sample households The overall sampling fraction is: n 866 1 1 f = - = ~~= - N 1084099 1252 1250 4.2. Sample Selection andAllocation The sample design is based on probability selection methods. A stratified multistage element sampling design was constructed. For the sample selection and allocation into strata, a probability proportional to size (PPS) selection was used. For each strata (sub-region), sample allocations are based on the corresponding total population proportions which are given in Table 1. Within each strata, sample allocations are achieved by equal and unequal probability selection methods. For the sample design, following restrictions are taken into consideration for the previously stated stratification variables. (1). Allocation into sub-strata by PPS selection. (2). Allocation for the location status of villages by unequal probabilitv (twice as high for mountains). (3). Allocation for the population size group of villages by equal probabilitv. (4). Allocation for village type by equal probability. The selected sample districts by regions and location status of the village is given in Appendix 2. The number of selected sample villages and sample households are given in Tables 2 and 3. The total households, sample sizes and sampling fractions are given by sub-regions in Table 4. Number of sample villages and sample households by regions, provinces and location status are also given in Appendix 3. Finally, the selected sample villages and households by regions, provinces and population size groups of villages are present in Appendix 4. Table 2. Number of sample villages by regions and location status Number of LOCATION STATUS REGIONS Sample OF VILIAGES Villages Coast Mountain Plateau 109 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review I. BLACKSEA 58 15 28 15 A-WEST BLACKSEA 15 4 7 4 B-CENTERAL BLACKSEA 32 8 16 8 C-EAST BLACKSEA 11 3 5 3 II. AEGEAN 24 6 12 6 III. MEDITERRANEAN 30 8 14 8 A-WEST MEDITERRANEAN 14 4 6 4 B-EAST MEDITERRANEAN 16 4 8 4 TOTAL 112 29 54 29 Table 3. Number of sample households by regions and location status Number of LOCATION STATUS REGIONS Sample OF VILLAGES Household Coast Mountain s Plateau I. BLACKSEA 437 118 203 116 A-WEST BLACKSEA 120 34 53 33 B-CENTERAL BLACKSEA 232 60 113 59 C-EAST BLACKSEA 85 24 37 24 II. AEGEAN 185 45 94 46 III. MEDITERRANEAN 244 68 113 63 A-WEST MEDITERRANEAN 114 34 48 32 B-EAST MEDITERRANEAN 130 34 65 31 TOTAL 866 231 410 225 Table 4. Total Households, sample sizes and sampling fractions by regions Total Total Sample Sampling Household Size Fractions Regions Size (Nh) (nh) (fh) I. BLACKSEA 556 943 437 1/1274 A-WEST BLACKSEA 147 431 120 1/1229 B-CENTERAL BLACKSEA 307 675 232 1/1326 C-EAST BLACKSEA 101837 85 1/1198 II. AEGEAN 234 629 185 1/1268 III. MEDITERRANEAN 292 527 244 1/1199 A-WEST MEDITERRANEAN 134 511 114 1/1180 B-EAST MEDITERRANEAN 158 016 130 1/1215 TOTAL 1084 099 866 1/1252 Total sizes are: Sampling fractions of each strata: H H nh N = ,Nh and n = Enh fhNh h=1 h=1 4.3. Household Selection Procedures Within the selected villages, the sample households are determined by the following procedures. The number of sample households to be selected in each village is based on a scale which is developed by the research team. The scale simple weights the number of sample households by 110 Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures the corresponding total households of the village. For practical purposes, villages population is taken as a measure of total households. The constructed scale is given in Table 5 below. The following scale is constructed. Table 5. The sample household selection scale for villages Population Group No. of Sample Households of the Village to be Selected <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 The application of this scale for the selection of sample households in villages are given in Appendix 4. The selection of sample households in the villages are determined in the following manner. When the team arrives at the village, the team leader first inquires the availability of an existing list of households from the village head. If there are no ready list, they are instructed to make one. By the use of random numbers table, the team leader randomly selects required number of sample households and substitute households (about half) from the village list of households in the presence of the village head and village council members. The selected households are visited by the interviewers to achive a personnel (face to face) interview. In the meantime, the team leader conducts a personal interview with the village head about the village general information. 5. Interviewer Training and Allocation 5.1. Interviewer Training For the social survey, 22 interviewers are recruited and they are trained in two sessions. In the first session, they are trained in topics related to general concepts in survey research methods, response and nonresponse, random substitution techniques, use of random numbers table and random selections from a list. In the second session, the objectives of the survey, the contents and details of the village general information questionnaire and household questionnaire was examined. Later, a dress rehersal was made for the application of both questionnaires, during training. 5.2. Pretest Procedures A pretest of the constructed questionnaires was applied in a village nearby Ankara. The team of interviewers are taken to the village and they have observed the completion of the village general information questionnaire which is conducted with the village head. The interviewers also created a village household list and made random selection of households from this list. 111 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Later all the interviewers went out to the village to apply the household questionnaire to the selected households. They are also trained and practiced to obtain additional village general information as well as household information through a simplified version of a Focus Group Approach, within the village. The pretest also provided valuable information on other aspects of the survey field execution before hand. The timing issues related to transportation to the village, duration of listing of households, duration of the execution of both questionnaires, etc. This experience is reflected to the planning of the main survey field operation. After the completion of the pretest, all the completed questionnaires are collected back by the team of researches. A meeting was also organized with the interviewers after the pretest in order to discuss their experiences as well as their comments on the responses given to the questions and their comments on certain questions which did not work as it is. In the light of all this information, the survey research team examined the returned questionnaires and reconstructed certain questions. Some existing questions are removed and some new questions are also added to the final questionnaires. The two questionnaires are then finalized before taken to printing. 5.3. Interviewer and Workload Allocation The interviewer allocation was based on allocating a team (3 persons) of interviewers to each sub-region, except the central blacksea region where two teams are allocated to this region, because of the sample workload. The mean completion time of the household questionnaire was found to be 20 minutes. On the otherhand, the average number of sample households per village was estimated as 8.5 over the whole sample. The maximum duration of the fieldwork per team is estimated as 8 days. Finally, the total number of interviewers were 22 for the fieldwork. On the basis of the above restrictions, the daily workload allocation for each interviewer and for each team is determined. Considering the traveling distances between provinces and districts, the daily workload allocation for each team was determined as 2 to 3 villages per working day, on the average. 6. Data Weighting Procedures The overall selection probability (sampling fraction) of 1/1252 and variable sampling fractions of strata (sub-regions) indicates (Table 4) that the sample design is not self weighting. However, the variability between sampling fractions are around ±10 percent. For the sample based estimates, like means, proportions and stratum totals, the unweighted means can be used for each strata (sub-region) independently. For the sample means and proportions which goes over strata, with the sample weights (Wh = Nh / N) should be used. 112 Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures The sample mean: The sample proportion: H H XWY = WhXh Pw= YWhPh h=1 h For the estimation of population totals, the inverse of the sampling fractions (Table 4) should be used as an expansion factor (Fh) for each strata. The estimated population total will be, H X = N XW = F x= Fh Xh where Fh =Nh N h h As stated in Sections 4.3 and 5.1, a random substitution technique is applied to non-responding households in the field. However due to unusual circumstances, information on 22 households could not be obtained. The household response rate was: RR = 844 / 866 = 0. 9744. That is 97.4 % overall household response rate was established. 113 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Appendix 1. Total Population of Forest Villages by Sub-regions and Provinces Village Type PROVINCES In-forest Forest-neighboring Total Village Population Village Population Population I. BLACKSEA REGION A- WEST BIACKSEA REGION KOCAELY 16 507 63 070 79 577 SAKARYA 30 252 161821 192 073 BOLU 29186 192 269 221455 ZONGULDAK 45 874 198 175 244 049 TOTAL 121819 615 335 737154 B- CENTRAL BIACKSEA REGION KASTAMONU 102 826 139 743 242 569 CANKIRI 20 294 35 954 56 248 SYNOP 78 843 87 619 166 462 QORUM 67185 138 761 205 946 SAMSUN 144 437 205 932 350 369 AMASYA 27 299 83 004 110 303 TOKAT 124 818 96 724 221542 ORDU 43 990 140 943 184 933 TOTAL 609 692 928 680 1538 372 C- EAST BLACKSEA REGION GYRESUN 49 260 110 994 160 254 GUMUPHANE 22 471 37 014 59 485 TRABZON 13 624 98381 112 005 RYZE 12 566 32 573 45139 ARTVVN 71664 60 636 132300 TOTAL 169 585 339598 509183 REGION TOTAL 901 096 1883 613 2 784 709 II. AEGEAN REGION C,ANAKKALE 82 492 78 280 160 772 BALIKESYR 126 065 157 860 283 925 YZMYR 80 593 136 413 217 006 MANYSA 71550 120 607 192157 AYDIN 45 294 127957 173 251 DENYZLY 61966 84070 146 036 TOTAL 467 960 705 187 1173 147 REGION TOTAL 467 960 705 187 1173 147 III. MEDITERRANEAN REGION A- WEST MEDITERRANEAN REGION MUDLA 80 125 164 717 244 932 ANTALYA 153 790 101383 255 173 BURDUR 19 646 68111 87 757 ISPARTA 25 256 59 439 84 695 TOTAL 278 907 393 650 672 557 B- EAST MEDITERRANEAN REGION ¸gEL 108 523 82 729 191252 ADANA 131 013 118 120 249 133 HATAY 32 698 71123 103 821 G.ANTEP 30 970 30 727 61697 K.MARAP 116 612 67565 184177 TOTAL 419 816 370 264 790 080 REGION TOTAL 698 723 763 914 1462 637 GENERAL TOTAL 2 067 779 3 352 714 5 420 493 The table also provides provincial information about the population in forest and forest-neighboring villages. Appendix 2. Selected sample districts by regions and locations status. 114 Annex 1. Survey Design and Sampling Procedures Location States of Villages REGIONS COAST MOUNTAIN PLATEAU WEST BLACKSEA BOLU - BOLU - Merkez (4) SAKARYA - Merkez (4) Diuzce (4) BOLU - Kybryscyk (3) CENTRAL BLACKSEA KASTAMONU KASTAMONU - Devrekani(5) CANKIRI - Eldivan (4) - Kiire (4) KASTAMONU - Azdavay (5) CANKIRI - Paban6zii (4) KASTAMONU CANKIRI - Ilgaz (6) -¸Ynebolu (4) EAST BLACKSEA G'YRESUN - ARTVYN - Merkez (3) ARTVYN - Yusufeli (3) Dereli (3) TRABZON - Tonya (2) AEGEAN CANAKKALE- CANAKKALE - Can (6) BALIKESYR - Bigadic (6) Bayramic, (6) AYDIN - Sultanhisar (6) WEST ANTALYA - ANTALYA - Korkuteli (3) ISPARTA - Edridir (4) MEDITERRANEAN Manavgat (4) ISPARTA - Merkez (3) EAST YCQEL - ADANA - Kozan (4) ADANA - Yuireoir (4) MEDITERRANEAN Merkez (4) Y(;EL -Tarsus (4) 115 Appendix 3. Number of sample villages and households by regions, provinces and location status. Location Status of Villages REGIONS Coast Mountain Plateau TOTAL I-BLACKSEA REGION 1-West Blacksea Region BOLU 4 (34) 7 (53) 11(87) SAKARYA 4 (33) 4 (33) Total 4 (34) 7 (53) 4(33) 15 (120) 2- Center Blacksea Region KASTAMONU 8(60) 10(70) 18 (130) QANKIRI 6 (43) 8 (59) 14 (102) Total 8 (60) 16 (113) 8 (59) 32 (232) 3- East Blacksea Region ARTVYN 3 (22) 3 (24) 6 (46) GYRESUN 3 (24) 5 (39) TRABZON 2(15) Total 3 (24) 5(37) 3(24) 11(85) REGION TOTAL 15 (118) 28 (203) 15(116) 58 (437) I- AEGEAN REGION QANAKKALE 6 (45) 6 (46) 12 (91) BALIKESYR 6(46) 6(46) AYDIN 6(48) 6(48) REGION TOTAL 6 (45) 12 (94) 6 (46) 24 (185) llI-MEDITERRANEAN REGION 1. West Mediterranean Region ANTALYA 4 (34) 3(24) 7(58) ISPARTA 3(24) 4 (32) 7(56) Total 4(34) 6 (48) 4(32) 14 (114) 2- East Mediterranean Region YQEL 4 (34) 4 (31) 8 (65) ADANA 4 (34) 4 (31) 8 (65) Total 4 (34) 8 (65) 4 (31) 16 (130) REGION TOTAL 8 (68) 16 (113) 8 (62) 32 (244) GENERAL TOTAL 29 (231) 56 (410) 29 (225) 112 (866) Note: Number of selected sample villages are given as the first value in each cell o f the table. The values in brackets are the number of selected sample households. 116 Appendix 4. Selected sample villages and number of selected households by regions, provinces and population size group of villages WEST BLACKSEA CITY TOWN SELECTED SAMPLE POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF VILLAGES <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS BOLU DUZCE 1-Aydynpynar 1980 10 ___________ 2-Do6anly 1368 9 3-Fyndykly (IFV) 312 7 4-C,nardiizul (IFV) 729 8 +34 BOLU MERKEZ 1-Ericek (IFV) 344 7 2-Saclylar (IFV) 143 7 3-Dodancy 1064 9 4-Omerler 892 8 BOLU KIBRISCIK 1-Karak6y (IFV) 577 8 2-C,kerler (IFV) 360 7 3-Karaca6ren 179 7 +53 SAKARYA MERKEZ l-Dedirmendere (IFV) 1316 9 2-Yazyly 899 8 3-Abyrlar 394 7 4-Kemaliye 1137 9 +33 - TOTAL OF WEST BLACKSEA 120 .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 CENTERAL BLACK SEA CITY TOWN SELECTED SAMPLE POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF VILLAGES <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS KASTAMONU KURE l-Beyalan (IFV) 272 7 2-Y6dir (IFV) 556 8 3-Giilluice 319 7 4-Topcu 366 8 KASTAMONU 'NEBOLU i-qubuk (IFV) 147 7 2-Hamitk6y (IFV) 575 8 3-Akkonak 318 7 4-Kabalar 714 8 +60 KASTAMONU DEVREKANV 1-(Qonek;i (IFV) 189 7 2-PSnarzui (IFV) 202 7 3-Akmescit 301 7 4-Habebli 409 7 5-Sarpunalync 106 7 KASTAMONU AZDAVAY 1-Tabk6y (IFV) 305 7 2-Kyrmacy (IEV) 188 7 3-Gecen (IFV) 102 7 4-Samancy 327 7 5-Kayao6lu 222 7 CENTERAL BLACK SEA (CONTINUE) CITY TOWN SELECTED SAMPLE POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF VILLAGES <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS CANKIRI ILGAZ 1-Qatak (IFV) 745 8 2-Yenice (IFV) 138 7 3-Hacyhasan (IEV) 413 7 4-Biikuiik 187 7 5-Gaziler 324 7 6-Kuyupynar 227 7 +113 CANKIRI ELDYVAN 1-Akbulut 117 7 2-Qukur6z 181 7 3-G6lez 406 7 4-Sarayk6y 596 8 QANKIRI PABANOZT 1-Bakyrly 245 7 2-Bulyiikyakaly 671 8 3-Karaoren 745 8 4-Qaparkayy 334 7 +59 TOTAL OF CENTERAL BLACK SEA 232 . . R~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 5W EAST BLACK SEA CITY TOWVN SELECTED SAMPLE POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF VILILAGES NUTMBER OF VILLAGES <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS GVrRESUN DERELV~ 1-Kiimbet (IEV) 415 7 _______________ ~2-Yiice (1FV) 1282 9 _______________ ~3-Uzundere (IFV) 615 8 ___________ _ P+24 ARTVV~N MERKEZ 1-F~st'k1l (IFV) 194 7 _____________ ~~2-Varl~k (IFV) 388 7 _______________ ~3-Erenler (IFV) 575 8 o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~z _____________ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+22 TRABZON TONYA 1-QayS'ri~i(lFV) 800 8 ____________ ~~~2-Bi~inlik (IFV) 250 7 +15 ARTV' YUSUFELY~ 1-Narl~'k (IFV) 502 8 _____________ ~~2-Yarbab~ (IFV) 345 7 ______________ ~~3-Qevreli 1130 9 ______________ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+24 TOTAL OF EAST BIACKSEA 85 AEGEAN CITY TOWN SELECTED SAMPLE POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF NUMBER OF VILLAGES VILLAGES SELECTED <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 HOUSEHOLDS QANAKKALE BAYRAMi'Q 1-Daloba 388 7 2-Ahmetceeli (IFV) 417 7 3-Qaldady 247 7 4-Tuirkmenli 1231 9 5-Alakeci 500 8 6-Zeytinli 156 7 +45 (ANAKKALE QAN 1-Eskiyayla (IFV) 282 7 2-Yuvalar (IFV) 504 8 3-Bardakclar (IFV) 154 7 4-Kocayayla 1269 9 5-Buiyiuktepe 339 7 6-Qomakly 603 8 +46 AYDIN SULTANHYSAR 1-Eskihisar 1137 9 2-Kabaca (IFV) 322 7 3-Kavaklyk6y (IFV) 575 8 4-Malgacemir (IFV) 759 8 5-Demirhan (IFV) 770 8 6-'ncealan (IFV) 608 8 +48 BALIKESYiR BtGADI'( 1-Qaldere (IEV) 222 7 2-Hamidiye 1128 9 3-Qayiistiu 622 8 4-Yadcylar (IFV) 324 7 5-Meyvaly (IFV) 855 8 6-Davutga 144 7 +46 TOTAL OF AEGEAN 185 0 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ S F~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 WEST MEDITERRANEAN CITY TOWN SELECTED POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF SAMPLE <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 SELECTED VILLAGES HOUSEHOLDS ANTALYA MANAVGAT l-Oymapynar (IFV) 1961 1l0 2-Qardakk6y (IFV) 1061 9 3-Hatipler 645 8 4-Cevizler 317 7 +34 ANTALYA KORKUTELY 1-Giizle (IFV) 417 7 2-Derek6y (IFV) 946 8 3-Ymrahor 1452 9 ISPARTA MERKEZ 1-Direkli (IFV) 1393 9 2-Kblak6y (IFV) 623 8 3-GoIbaby 462 7 +48 ISPARTA EDR`YDYR -Akdodan (IFV) 613 8 2-Havutlu (IFV) 136 7 3-BalkSyry 1232 9 4-Mahmatlar 612 8 +32 TOTAL OF WEST MEDITERRANEAN 114 EAST MEDITERRANEAN CITY TOWN SELECTED POPULATION SIZE GROUP OF VILLAGES NUTMBER OF SAMPLE <500 500-999 1000-1499 1500-1999 SELECTED VILLAGES HOUSEHOLDS Y(GEL MERKEZ l-Evcili (IFV) 1671 10 2-Alada6 (IFV) 435 7 3-I6ddr 1271 9 4-Qopurlu 529 8 +34 ADANA KOZAN 1-Akdam (IFV) 1564 10 2-Baozii (IEV) 348 7 3-Ilyca 1114 9 4-Gandyk 770 8 -tQEL TARSUS 1-Belen (IFV) 793 8 2-Topakly (IEV) 443 7 3-Beylice (IFV) 1003 9 4-Qiftlikk6y 270 7 +65 ADANA YUJREDO'R l-Dutluca (IEV) 296 7 2-Mustafalar (IFV) 838 8 3-Karlyk 1458 9 4-Menekbe 214 7 +31 TOTAL OF EAST MEDITERRANEAN 130 GENERAL TOTAL 866 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t Cd Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Annex 2. Additional Tables Population percentage City Town Village 1975 1990 of change, ______ ______ __ __ ______ _____ _____ _____ ______ _____1975-90 3-Kara6ren 2028 745 -63.3 Kastamonu Yinebolu 1-Qubuk (IFV) 377 147 -61.0 3-Gecen (IFV) 245 102 -58.4 2-Havutlu (IFV) 290 136 -53.1 2-Kyplakdy (IFV) 1256 623 -50.4 4-Q,aparkayq 669 334 -50.1 6-Kuyupynar 430 227 -47.2 4-Sarayk6y 1112 596 -46.4 2-Kyrmacy (IFV) 343 188 -45.2 2-Qukuroz 313 181 -42.2 5-Gaziler 550 324 -41.1 Kastamonu Devrekany 1-Q6nekqi (IFV) 316 189 -40.2 3-Hacyhasan (IFV) 685 413 -39.7 Qankiri Pabanozu 1-Bakyrly 403 245 -39.2 2-Yarbapy (iFV) 565 345 -38.9 2-PynarozO (IFV) 330 202 -38.8 2-Alada6 (IFV) 706 435 -38.4 4-Ya6c9ar (IFV) 505 324 -35.8 3-Karacaoren 275 179 -34.9 2-Yenice (IFV) 208 138 -33.7 6-Davut9a 214 144 -32.7 Kastamonu Azdavay 1-Tapkoy (IFV) 452 305 -32.5 3-Bardak,clar (IFV) 227 154 -32.2 3-Golez 581 406 -30.1 Artvyn Merkez 1-FystykIy (IFV) 271 194 -28.4 4-Samanck 452 327 -27.7 3-Beylice (IFV) 1366 1003 -26.6 13-Erenler (IFV) 774 575 -25.7 124 Annex 2. Additional Tables Aydin Sultanhysar 1-Eskihisar 1445 1137 -21.3 3-Akmescit 381 301 -21.0 3-GOllOce 385 319 -17.1 3-Akkonak 383 318 -17.0 4-BOk9c,k 224 187 -16.5 4-Malgacemir (IFV) 907 759 -16.3 Qanakkale Qan 1-Eskiyayla (IFV) 334 282 -15.6 Bolu Merkez 1 -Ericek (I FV) 403 344 -14.6 5-Kayao6lu 259 222 -14.3 2-BoyOkyakaly 774 671 -13.3 4-Qiftlikk6y 308 270 -12.3 2-Topakly (IFV) 505 443 -12.3 2-Qokerler (IFV) 405 360 -11.1 6-Zeytinli 174 156 -10.3 Qanakkale Bayramyc 1-Daloba 428 388 -9.3 2-Ahmetceeli (IFV) 456 417 -8.6 2-Yddir (IFV) 600 556 -7.3 4-Topcu 393 366 -6.9 4-Kocayayla 1346 1269 -5.7 Qankiri Ilgaz 1-Catak (IFV) 789 745 -5.6 2-Variyk (IFV) 409 388 -5.1 isparta Erydy'r 1-Akdo6an (IFV) 634 613 -3.3 4-Habepli 421 409 -2.9 3-Qevreli 1154 1130 -2.1 2-Bi,inlik (IFV) 254 250 -1.6 6-Qomakly 610 603 -1.1 3-Uzundere (IFV) 621 615 -1.0 Artvyn Yusufely 1-Nariyk (IFV) 497 502 1.0 Kastamonu Kure 1-Beyalan (IFV) 268 272 1.5 2-YOce (IFV) 1257 1282 2.0 3-G6ibapy 452 462 2.2 Baiikesyr Bygady, 1-Q;aldere (IFV) 216 222 2.8 2-Yuvalar (IFV) 490 504 2.9 2-Sa,Iclyar (IFV) 137 143 4.4 Adana Kozan 1-Akdam (IFV) 1490 1564 5.0 2-Derekoy (iFV) 898 946 5.3 Isparta Merkez 1-Direkli (IFV) 1322 1393 5.4 Sakarya Merkez 1-De6irmendere (IFV) 1244 1316 5.8 4-TOrkmenli 1160 1231 6.1 4-Menekpe 201 214 6.5 2-Hamitkoy (IFV) 539 575 6.7 3-Kavaklykoy (IFV) 529 575 8.7 13-Hatipler 591 645 9.1 13-raida6g 224 247 10.3 125 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review 4-Omerler 803 892 11.1 5-Alakeci 441 500 13.4 Adana Yore69r 1-Dutiuca (IFV) 259 296 14.3 2-Hamidiye 979 1128 15.2 3-l Ica 962 1114 15.8 3-Kariyk 1258 1458 15.9 5-Demirhan (IFV) 661 770 16.5 3-4;ayustu 531 622 17.1 4-Qandyk 651 770 18.3 2-Ba86zO (IFV) 293 348 18.8 3-Apyrlar 331 394 19.0 4-Kemaliye 954 1137 19.2 2-Kabaca (IFV) 269 322 19.7 4-Q;ynardOzO (IFV) 608 729 19.9 6-Yncealan (IFV) 504 608 20.6 4-Mahmatlar 507 612 20.7 Antalya Manavgat 1-Oymapynar (IFV) 1576 1961 24.4 4-Kabalar 573 714 24.6 Gyresun Derely 1-KOmbet (IFV) 333 415 24.6 4-Cevizler 253 317 25.3 |Ycel Tarsus 1-Belen (IFV) 630 793 25.9 Bolu DOzce 1-Aydynpynar 1552 1980 27.6 ______________ X |5-BOyoktepe 263 339 28.9 3-18ddr 979 1271 29.8 |_______________ <2-Yazyl' 686 899 31.0 |_______________ |5-Meyvalk (IFV) 636 855 34.4 Trabzon Tonya 1-CayYri;i(IFV) 583 800 37.2 '|Yel Merkez 1-Evcili (IFV) 1203 1671 38.9 |3-Fyndykil (IFV) 219 312 42.5 3-'Yrmrahor 934 1452 55.5 3-Balkyry 791 1232 55.8 Bolu Kibriscik 1-Karak6y (IFV) 357 577 61.6 4-Qopurlu 323 529 63.8 2-Mustafalar (IFV) 426 838 96.7 ___________ ____3-Dodancq 528 1064 101.5 2-Do6anig 656 1368 108.5 126 Annex 2. Additional Tables Table 1. Village Institutions by Distance to Nearest Urban Center Distance to Number of institutions nearest urban Primary Health care Village Religious Mosques center (Km) schools centers chambers courses Don't know 4 1 2 1 5 1-5 8 = 1 7 4 7 = 6-10 21 7 14 8 20 11-20 42 = 14 = 30 13 43 _ 21-30 18 11 13 3 18 31-70 14 5 11 1 15 Number of institutions 107 39 77 30 108 Source: village headman survey, 1997. Table 2. Distribution of Cities with Schools but without Teachers Cities with schools but no teachers Number of schools Kastamonu (Black Sea) 2 ,Cankiri (Black Sea) 4 Bolu (Black Sea) 1 Canakkale (Aegean) 4 Aydin (Aegean) 1 Isparta (Mediterranean) 1 Icel (Mediterranean) 1 Total number of schools 14 Table 3. Distribution of Towns with Schools but without Teachers Towns with schools but no teachers Number of schools Azdavay (Kastamonu) 2 llgaz (Q,ankiri) 3 Sabanozu (Qankiri) 1 Bayramic (,anakkale) 2 Kibriscik (Bolu) 1 Can (Qanakkale) 2 Sultanhisar (Aydin) 1 Egridir (Isparta) 1 Tarsus (Icel) 1 Total number of schools 14 Source: village headman survey, 1997. 127 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Table 4. Distribution of Teachers and Students in Towns and Villages Communities with Number of students Number of students Number of teachers four-year Schools 1992-93 1996-97* 1996-97** Artvin Varlik 23 21 1 Fistikli 15 closed Erenler, Kusluca 11 13 _ Narlik 15 112 5 Yarbasi 10 17 1 Q;evreli, Meydan X _ 8 Cankiri Akbulut 30 closed 1 Cukuroz 100 60 0 Golez 60 40 2 Sarayk6y 0 Bakirli 0 Buyukyakali 100 60 4 Kara6ren 60 40 2 Caparkayi 100 70 2 Qanakkale Ahmet,eell 24 11 2 Qaldagi 30 closed 0 TOrkmenli closed closed 13 Alakeci 40 31 2 Zeytinli 12 closed 0 Esliyayla 17 closed 0 Yuvalar 53 42 2 Bardakcilar closed closed 0 Kocayayla closed closed 0 Buyuiktepe 20 closed 0 Qomakli 47 47 3 * Data from the Ministry of Education, 1997. ** Data from the Village Headman survey, 1997 Table 5. Distribution of Students by Region ercent) Number of students Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Average per school _ 1-15 26 17 7 18 16-30 24 25 12 25 31-70 21 33 30 27 71-100 15 12 28 16 101+ 14 12 23 14 Source: village headman survey, 1997. 128 Table 6. Household Survey Data by Regions Poverty Household Daily Land Cattle Ruminants Number of Sales of Forest Number of Index population migrating size tractors products workers households workers (Millions TL) Aegean 0.136 4.1 0.2 28 1.4 6.1 0.3 144 0.43 185 Mediterranean 0.102 4.8 0.1 24 1.4 4.7 0.3 150 0.57 244 BlackSea -0.120 5.2 0.1 20 3.6 4.9 0.2 42 0.24 437 Table 7. Household Survey Data by Town Poverty Household Daily Land size Cattle Ruminants Number of Sales of Forest index population migrating tractors products workers workers (millions TL) Adana 0.481 5.5 0.2 46 1.7 4.9 0.6 135 0.75 Antalya 0.149 4.8 0.1 21 1.0 5.4 0.4 138 0.21 Artvin -0.315 5.1 0.4 10 2.0 0.6 0.1 81 0.09 Aydin -0.272 4.6 0 30 1.3 0.8 0.3 183 0.84 Balikesir -0.035 4.8 0 18 1.2 5.2 0.5 182 0.30 Bolu -0.116 5.1 0 16 2.9 10.8 0.6 66 0.63 Canakkale 0.446 3.4 0.3 32 1.5 9.5 1 104 0.27 Cankiri 0.076 4.3 0.3 23 2.5 3.6 0.4 35 0.14 Giresun -0.727 7.4 0.1 18 4.4 17.3 0 0 0.24 Icel -0.286 4.7 0 19 1.0 4.8 0.3 128 1.02 Isparta 0.065 4.2 0.1 10 . 2.1 4 0.6 204 0.29 Kastamonu -0.173 5.2 0 16 5.7 1.9 0.3 11 0.00 Sakarya -0.015 6.3 0.2 25 2.8 0.3 0.5 99 0.03 Trabzon 0.314 6.0 0 65 5.2 4.9 0 14 0.21 Source: household survey, 1997. SocialAssessmentfor the 7Trkeyj Forest Sector Review Table 9. Forest Workers according to Location (percent) In-forest Forest- Average neighboring Working in forest 44 29 37 Not working in forest 56 71 63 Total number of households 493 351 844 Source: household survey, 1997. Table 10. Ownership Figures per Household Indicator Agricultural Survey Black Sea Mediterranean Aegean households average in Turkey Land size 64 26 20 30 24 Cattle 4 2 4 1.4 1 Ruminants 16 5 5 5 6 Tractor 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 Sales income (million TL) 96 42 150 264 Source: DIE, 1995. Table 11. Socioeconomic Growth Index and Poverty Index Towns Socioeconomic Poverty Index growth index (DPT) Giresun 45 -0.727 Artvin 46 -0.315 Icel 10 -0.286 Aydin 12 -0.272 Kastamonu 43 -0.173 Bolu 28 -0.116 Balikesir 13 -0.035 Sakarya 27 -0.015 Isparta 21 0.065 Cankiri 53 0.076 Antalya 7 0.149 Trabzon 34 0.314 Canakkale 20 0.446 Adana 9 0.481 Source: DPT data and household survey, 1997. 130 Annex 2. Additional Tables Table 12. General Economic Figures Rural Agricultural Share of Agricultural Population Population Agricultural production per Agricultural credit per (thousands) increase workers / capita production value rural rate Total (000 TL) - Turkey population (percent) Number of (percent) (000 TL) Workers Adana 24,548 3.5 14,556 2,082 23 49 Antalya 24,735 3.3 3,470 1,324 48 57 Artvin 12,983 0.4 1,167 196 -12 72 Aydin 22,114 2.3 1,068 881 21 63 Balikesir 26,884 3.2 1,227 1,012 13 61 Bolu 24,791 1.9 664 555 12 66 Canakkale 28,916 1.7 1,198 437 7 63 Cankiri 22,692 0.9 1,295 289 10 74 Giresun 10,676 0.7 24,055 489 -0.2 73 Icel 22,985 2.8 921 1,450 41 55 Isparta 14,348 0.7 1,229 472 25 54 Kastamonu 19,306 1.1 968 391 -12 77 Sakarya 15,329 1.4 546 735 22 62 Trabzon 7,848 0.9 485 789 2 69 Source: DPT, 1997. Table 13. Usage of Poverty Fund in Villages with respect to Seasonal Migration (percent) Number of users None 1-10 11-25 26+ Average 0 47 42 36 24 39 1-5 26 26 46 17 26 6-10 15 21 18 21 18 11+ 11 11 0 38 18 Number of villages 53 19 11 29 112 Source: village headman survey, 1997. Table 14. Usage of Poverty Fund in Villages with respect to Migration Number of users None 1-10 11-25 26+ Average None 52 16 30 19 39 1-5 16 58 40 19 26 6-10 18 16 10 25 18 11+ 13 10 20 37 17 Number of villages 67 19 10 16 112 Source: village headman survey, 1997. Table 15. Usage of Poverty Fund in Villages with respect to Distance to Towns Distance to town (kilometers) Poverty fu d users )er village | None 1-5 6-10 11+ Average 1-5 7 10 5 5 7 6-10 23 21 10 16 19 11-20 41 36 45 37 39 21-30 14 7 35 16 16 31-70 11 14 5 26 13 Number of villages 44 29 20 19 112 131 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Source: village headman survey, 1997. Table 16. Sales Income and Annual Income per person (Millions TL) Sales income Annual income Household size Adana 135 31 4.3 Antalya 138 30 4.7 Artvin 81 15 5.5 Aydin 183 43 4.2 Balikesir 182 36 5.1 Bolu 66 13 5.1 Canakkale 104 30 3.4 Cankiri 35 7 5.2 Giresun 0 0 4.8 Icel 128 17 7.4 Isparta 204 42 4.9 Kastamonu 11 2 4.8 Sakarya 99 16 6.3 Trabzon 14 2 6.0 Source: household survey, 1997. Table 18. Poverty and Forest Work (percent) Poor Middle- High- Average income income Working in forest 40 18 36 38 Not working in forest 60 82 64 62 Number of households 709 87 47 843 Source: household survey, 1997. Table 19. Migration and Forest Work(percent) Migrants Non-migrants Average Working in forest 36 39 37 Not working in forest 64 61 63 Number of households 500 344 844 Source: household survey, 1997. Table 20. Forest Work according to Seasonal Migration(percent) Migrants Non-migrants Average Working in forest 35 39 37 Not working in forest 65 61 63 Number of households 504 340 844 Source: household survey, 1997. 132 Annex 2. Additional Tables Table 25. Distribution of Wild Forest Animals Wild animals Aegean Percent Mediterranean Percent Black Sea Percent Bear 1 1 0 0 30 1 3 Jackal 1 2 12 5 4 7 3 Wild boar 22 23 17 14 51 22 Weasel 0 0 0 0 1 0 Deer I 1 1 1 5 2 Crow 0 0 1 1 0 0 Partridge 5 5 2 2 1 0 Porcupine 0 0 2 2 0 0 Wolf 3 3 4 3 41 18 Badger 5 5 2 2 1 0 Marten 3 3 1 1 2 1 Rabbit 11 11 11 9 24 10 Fox 22 23 18 15 32 14 Wild goat 0 0 0 0 3 1 Unknown 11 11 56 47 34 15 Total 96 100 120 100 232 100 Source: OGM, 1997. Table 27. Presence and Causes of Forest Destruction, by Regions Presence and causes Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Total No destruction 4 2 4 10 Illegal cut 29 6 9 44 Insufficient planting 8 0 0 8 Clear cutting 9 5 1 15 Forest fire 27 14 8 51 People cuts 2 1 0 3 Cutting for fuel wood 2 1 1 4 Forests are old 0 0 1 1 Forester cuts 5 1 0 6 Erosion 2 2 2 6 Population increase 0 0 2 2 Land clearing 1 3 3 7 Forest destruction 1 1 1 3 No income 1 0 1 2 No education 4 0 3 7 No forests 0 0 1 1 Derelict stand 1 0 0 1 Diseases 5 0 0 5 Natural disaster 1 0 1 2 Animals 1 1 2 4 Noidea 2 0 1 3 Source: village headman and household surveys, 1997. 133 Social Assessmentfor the Turkey Forest Sector Review Table 28. Precautions to Be Taken by Villagers to Protect Forests (perentl Precautions to betaken Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean Total No idea 6 6 4 16 Become conscious, warned 3 2 1 6 Must protect forest 12 5 9 26 Keep goats away 1 0 1 2 Stop forest fires 8 4 3 15 Should take part in fire control 0 1 1 2 Help in tree planting 3 1 2 6 Stop illegal cuts 4 1 2 7 Access to use forests 2 0 1 2 Nothing 2 0 1 3 Naturally protecting by people 7 1 1 9 State officials should help 1 0 1 2 Wild animals must be hunted 0 0 0 0 Let forests be in people's hand 0 0 0 0 They should not cut mistakenly 0 0 0 1 Others 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 49 22 29 100 Source: village headman and household surveys, 1997. Table 29. Precautions That Should Be Taken by Officials to protect forests Precautions to be taken Black Sea Aegean Mediterranean TOTAL No idea 10_9__ 27 Illegal cutting must be prevented 4 2 2 8 Title deed must be given to villagers _ _ _ _ 0 Keep goats away v_ _ _ 1 Villagers must be informed 4 2 3 9 Airplanes used to fight fires _ _ 0 0 0 Establish observatories 0 0 0 1 Improve forest roads 0 0 0 0 Create new employment 1 0 0 2 Give people forest products 1 0 1 2 Not to connive at forest destruction 5 1 2 8 Fire break bands must be made 1 0 0 1 Privatization 5 0 1 6 Officials must be honest 4 1 1 6 Officials must be helpful and 4 3 1 7 understanding_ Allocate some for needs 1 0 0 1 Cutting permit must be given to title deed 0 0 0 0 lands_ New legal acts 1 0 0 1 Do their jobs properly 3 2 6 10 Erosion control 0 0 0 0 Forestation 1 0 1 3 Regular tree felling 1 0 1 2 Others 1 0 0 1 TOTAL 49 22 29 100 Source: village headman and household surveys, 1997. 134 Annex 3. Calculation of Value Contribution of Fuelwood in Forest Villaqes Annex 3. Calculation of Value Contribution of Fuelwood in Forest Villages 1. Estimates for annual fuelwood consumption amounts by forest villagers If we try to estimate the volume of annual fuelwood consumption of forest village households by using percentages, we get the figures given in Table 1 below. Table 1. Estimates of Annual Fuelwood Consumption in Forest Villages Number of Households using only Other households Total consumption households wood meeting only part (40 percent) of energy needs from wood Region %- st/ total steres %- st/hh total steres per % st/h hh steres year h Black Sea 556,943 64 25 8,911,000 36 10 2,004,5 10,915,500 40 20 00 Aegean 234,629 57 12 1,604,860 43 5 504,452 2,109,310 8 9 Mediterranean 292_527 52 8 1,216,912 48 3.2 449,321 1,666,233 6 6 Subtotal 1,084,099 57 11 11,732,772 43 5.27 2,456,8 14,691,545 54 14 _ _ 79 Other regions 700,000* 57 25 9,975,000 43 10 3,010,0 12,985,000 46 18 Turkey total 1,784,099 57 12 21,707,772 43 4.8 5,968,7 27,675,545 100 15 _ _ _ ____ 73 _ * Taken from the SA report. - Taking total households as slightly over 1 .7 million. 2. Estimates about the Sources of Fuelwood Consumed by Forest Villagers a. The amount of fuelwood procured by villagers from OGM during 1997 Amount of wood procured according to Article 31* 4,581,552 steres (by tariff value in the forest) Amount of wood procured according to Article 32 245,289 " (by one-third of the cost price) Total amount of wood procured from the state (OGM): 4,826.841" 135 Social Assessmentfor the 7urkey Forest Sector Review While villagers collect small-diameter pieces of wood and debris according to Article 31, they mostly collect more than their allowance, and this is permitted by OGM. If we consider this amount to be around 25 percent of the legal allowance, then we should add another 1.2 million steres to the above figure, which becomes 6,000,000 steres. Total amount of fuelwood sold to villagers (by OGM) as market sale right (according to Article 34 of Forest Law No. 6831) was 2,152,484 steres in 1997. Of this amount, most is sold to the fiber and chipboard industry or to towns and a smaller part to other villagers. With an optimistic estimate we can assume that around 1 million steres of this amount is bought by other forest villagers. An optimistic estimate of the amount of fuelwood obtained from fruit trees, willows, and poplars is around 3 million steres per year. Then, sum of these amounts: procured from the state (OGM) 6,000,000 steres part of fuelwood bought from the state 1,000,000 steres as market sale right obtained from fruit, poplar, willow, and other. trees 3,000.000 steres TOTAL 10,000,000 steres 3. Estimate of fuelwood Obtained and Consumed by Villagers through Illicit Cutting The amount of wood obtained through other ways (such as illicit cutting) in 1997 can be estimated as follows: 27,675,545 - 10,000,000 = 17,675.545 stere (= 10.5 million m3). 7 7 million tons The worst thing about illicit cutting is that most of the wood obtained and used for energy in this way is obtained from good-quality trees, representing significant economic losses for the country. 4. Estimation of the Value of Fuelwood Obtained by Villagers from Forests We should consider that around half of the wood (3,000,000 steres) sold to villagers at tariff prices is not salable (that is, the sale price is less than harvesting and transportation costs) because it is small in diameter and low-quality. Therefore OGM should not consider a subsidy for this unsellable wood. Nevertheless, this unsellable wood should also be considered among the contribution of forests (not OGM) into the energy needs of village households, since the opportunity cost (cost of an alternative energy source) is higher for villagers. Calculation of the value of contribution of fuelwood as an energy source into forest village communities can be done according to the following method: Calculation based on the market value of fuelwood 136 Annex 3. Calculation of Value Contribution of Fuelwood in Forest Villages The average market value of fuelwood sold to villagers was around $15 per stere (at depot) in 1997. The cost of one stere can be estimated as $7 (cutting and transportation cost as the average of procured and illicitly cut wood). Then the total contribution of fuelwood bought from the state can be calculated as: (15 - 7) x 7,000,000 = $ 56.000.000 per year The quality and average value of illicitly cut wood is higher, and in these calculations it is modestly estimated as 1.5 times the procured fuelwood wood value. Accordingly its standing value is found as: (15-7) x 1.5 = $12 per stere. The total value of illicitly cut wood is estimated as 17,675,545 x 12 = $ 212,106,540/year. Finally, the total value of the contribution of forests is calculated by adding two figures given above and found as follows: 56,000,000 + 212,106,540 = $ 268,106,540 per year (1997). Breakdowns of this contribution by regions and by households in different regions are calculated based on the percentage values given under the total consumption column of Table 1 above, and provided in Table 2 below. Table 2. Total and Household Contributions Of Fuelwood as an Energy Source by Region Contribution in Contribution per Region the region (million $) household ($/hh) Black Sea 107.0 192 Aegean 21.4 91 Mediterranean 16.0 55 Subtotal 144.4 133 Other regions 122.8 175 Turkey total 267.2 150 137 SOC IA L D EVE LOPM ENT Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Fax: 202-522-3247 E-mail: sdpublications@worldbank.org 4'