WPS6209


Policy Research Working Paper                             6209




            How Firms Use Domestic
    and International Corporate Bond Markets
                                Juan Carlos Gozzi
                                   Ross Levine
                           Maria Soledad Martinez Peria
                               Sergio L. Schmukler




The World Bank
Development Research Group
Finance and Private Sector Development
and Macroeconomics and Growth Teams
September 2012
Policy Research Working Paper 6209


  Abstract
  This paper provides the first comprehensive                                        markets and higher financial integration, and even
  documentation of how firms use domestic and                                        when comparing issues conducted by the same firm in
  international corporate bond markets. Debt issues                                  different markets. These findings are consistent with the
  in domestic and international markets have different                               views that (1) frictions limit the ability of investors and
  characteristics, not explained by differences across firms                         firms to enter into certain contracts in certain markets,
  or countries. International issues tend to be larger, of                           (2) domestic and international markets provide distinct
  shorter maturity, denominated in foreign currency,                                 financial services and firms use them as complements,
  include more fixed rate contracts, and entail lower                                and (3) firms with access to domestic and international
  yields. These patterns remain when analyzing issues by                             markets enjoy advantages relative to those that rely solely
  firms from countries with more developed domestic                                  on domestic markets.




  This paper is a product of the Finance and Private Sector Development and the Macroeconomics and Growth Teams,
  Development Research Group. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and
  make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted
  on the Web at http://econ.worldbank.org. The authors may be contacted at: juan.c.gozzivaldez@frb.gov, ross_levine@haas.
  berkeley.edu, mmartinezperia@worldbank.org, sschmukler@worldbank.org.




          The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development
          issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the
          names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those
          of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and
          its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.


                                                        Produced by the Research Support Team
      How Firms Use Domestic and International Corporate Bond Markets


                       Juan Carlos Gozzi a                             Ross Levine b,c

                Maria Soledad Martinez Peria d                    Sergio L. Schmukler d,*




JEL Classification Codes: F36; G12; G15; G32
Keywords: bond markets; capital markets; domestic and international debt issues; financial
integration; globalization


a
 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve, b U.C. Berkeley, c NBER, d World Bank
*
 We are grateful to Francisco Ceballos, Julian Kozlowski, and Amin Mohseni for excellent research assistance. We
received very helpful comments from Yiorgos Allayannis, Vihang Errunza, Michael Gallmeyer, Karen Lewis, Edith
Liu, Luis Servén, and participants at the Darden School of Business, University of Virginia International Finance
Conference (Charlottesville, VA). We thank the World Bank Knowledge for Change Program (KCP) and the
Development Economics Vice-presidency for financial support. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions
expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, any other person associated with the Federal Reserve System, or the
World Bank.
E-mail addresses: juan.c.gozzivaldez@frb.gov, ross_levine@haas.berkeley.edu, mmartinezperia@worldbank.org,
sschmukler@worldbank.org.
1. Introduction

International financial integration has transformed corporate finance since the early 1990s. Firms

from both developed and developing countries increasingly raise capital through debt and equity

issues outside their domestic markets and list their securities in major financial centers. For

example, the total amount raised by firms through security issues in foreign markets grew more

than four-fold between 1991 and 2008, reaching about one trillion U.S. dollars at the end of the

period and accounting for almost 40 percent of the total amount raised in capital markets.

         In response, a large literature analyzes why firms issue securities in foreign markets,

focusing primarily on equity markets. According to one strand of this literature, firms list their

shares in foreign stock exchanges to circumvent regulations, poor accounting systems, taxes, and

illiquid markets that might discourage foreign investors from purchasing shares in local markets.

Other research examines whether firms internationalize to ―bond‖ themselves to a better

corporate governance framework or to exploit temporarily high prices for their securities during

‗‗hot‘‘ markets.1

         Research on the internationalization of equity markets, however, offers only a partial

perspective on financial integration. First, bond markets constitute a larger and more

internationalized source of capital for firms than equity markets. For example, over the period

from 1991 to 2008, bond issues accounted for almost 80 percent of all capital raised by firms

through bond and equity issues around the world and for more than 90 percent of all capital

raised by firms in markets outside their home country.
1
  For theoretical arguments that focus on barriers to foreign investor participation in local market as drivers of the
decision to list shares abroad see, for example, Black (1974), Solnik (1974), Stapleton and Subrahmanyam (1977),
Errunza and Losq (1985), Alexander et al. (1987), and Domowitz et al. (1998). Stulz (1999) and Coffee (2002)
argue that listing in foreign exchanges might allow firms to improve investor protection, while Errunza and Miller
(2000) and Henderson et al. (2006) highlight the role of market timing in the decision to issue shares abroad. For
empirical analyses of the motivations for cross-listings in foreign stock exchanges see, among many others, Pagano
et al. (2001), Pagano et al. (2002), Benos and Weisbach (2004), Doidge et al. (2004), and Gozzi et al. (2008).


                                                          2
        Second, analyzing the attributes of bonds provides unique insights into financial

integration and how firms use capital markets around the world. In contrast to equities, bonds

have easily observable attributes, such as maturity, currency denomination, rate type, and yield,

that can—and do—differ across markets. These traits provide the opportunity to assess whether

firms systematically issue securities with different characteristics in domestic and international

markets; whether any such differences simply reflect firm, industry, or country traits; and

whether differences in issue characteristics change as markets become more financially

integrated. Thus, studying bond markets not only incorporates a much larger and more

internationalized source of finance into the analyses, but also provides novel information about

the functioning of domestic and international bond markets.

        In this paper, we study corporate bonds and analyze whether firms use domestic and

international markets to issue different types of debt securities. We examine four non-price

features of debt issues in domestic and foreign markets—size, maturity, currency denomination,

and type of rate (i.e., fixed vs. floating)—that have received considerable attention from the

corporate finance literature, but not from the financial integration literature. We also analyze

differences in bond yields across markets, following a large literature that studies financial

integration by comparing rates of return across markets.2 Hence, this paper provides the first

comprehensive documentation of the major characteristics of bond issues in domestic and

international bond markets. Rather than testing or proposing specific theories, this paper

documents new patterns of issuance activity by bond attribute, relates these patterns to current



2
  Due to the difficulties associated with comparing yields across multiple currencies, we restrict our analysis of
yields to bonds denominated in U.S. dollars, which is the most common currency of denomination for bond issues in
our sample. Although this strategy makes for a more meaningful comparison of yields, it essentially restricts the
sample to U.S. corporations issuing bonds in the Eurobond and domestic U.S. markets


                                                        3
theories, and offers new challenges to those seeking to understand financial integration and

international corporate finance.

       To conduct our study, we construct and analyze a unique dataset that includes

information on major characteristics of 116,338 corporate bond issues in domestic and

international markets conducted by 13,920 firms from 99 countries. Our study covers the period

from 1991 to 2008, though all the results hold when we restrict the sample to the period from

1991 to 2006 to avoid any undue influence from the global financial crisis.

       The main finding of this paper is that debt issues in domestic and international bond

markets have different characteristics. In particular, international bond issues are larger, of

shorter maturity, tend to be denominated in foreign currency, and are more likely to involve

fixed interest rate contracts. These differences are not driven by differences between those firms

that raise debt abroad and those that issue securities at home. Indeed, we find that the differences

between bond issues at home and abroad remain after controlling for time-varying country-

specific factors and firm-level fixed effects, and when analyzing only those firms that actively

issue debt both in domestic and international markets. In other words, issues conducted abroad

by a given firm are different from those conducted in the domestic market by the same firm,

suggesting that domestic and international markets specialize in bonds with different features.

These findings hold for different cuts of the data and, importantly, for firms from developed

countries, which are more financially integrated and have more developed domestic financial

markets. Moreover, we find that issues abroad tend to entail lower yields than issues at home

denominated in the same currency, after conditioning on different bond characteristics, country-

year dummies, and firm-level fixed effects, and when analyzing firms that issue debt both at




                                                 4
home and abroad. Thus, our findings suggest that the same firm might face different borrowing

costs when issuing debt securities in different markets.

       The patterns documented in this paper provide suggestive and challenging information

about international corporate financing decisions. First, the finding that securities issued in

domestic and international markets differ in terms of their major characteristics, including yields,

suggests that regulations, transaction costs, information asymmetries, or other frictions might

limit the ability of investors and firms to enter into certain contracts in certain markets and to

fully compete away price differences across markets. Second, the finding that firms that issue

debt both abroad and at home tap these markets for different types of bond issues implies that

international markets act as complements, not substitutes, for domestic markets. If international

markets offered access to capital on overall better conditions than domestic markets, firms might

opt out of domestic markets once they met the criteria to access international markets. Third, our

findings suggest that firms that have access to international markets might enjoy advantages

relative to firms that can only access domestic markets because international firms can issue a

more diverse set of debt securities, potentially at lower costs. As a result, the process of financial

integration might create a wedge between internationalized firms and those that for different

reasons are not able to access foreign markets.

       This paper contributes to at least four interrelated bodies of research. One strand studies

corporate bond and equity issues around the world, focusing on the amount of capital raised and

the characteristics of firms that conduct those raisings. Henderson et al. (2006) show that

international debt issues are substantially more common than equity issues and highlight the role




                                                  5
of market timing considerations in issuance activity.3 Gozzi et al. (2010) show that firms

continue issuing securities at home after accessing international bond and equity markets.4 In the

present paper, we contribute to this literature by analyzing the characteristics of corporate bond

issues in domestic and international markets, showing that firms issue bonds with different

characteristics in different markets.

         A second strand of the research examines market segmentation and its implications for

capital market functioning and portfolio allocation.5 In a frictionless world, the location of where

firms issue securities is irrelevant. In practice, however, frictions might fully or partially segment

domestic markets from international ones (Japelli and Pagano, 2010). For example, regulations

and taxes might hinder the ability of investors to purchase securities outside their home market

(Lewis, 1999; Karolyi and Stulz, 2003; Cameron et al., 2007), and information asymmetries

between foreign and domestic investors might induce them to price similar assets differently

(Bae et al., 2008). In this context, investors with different preferences, investment horizons, and

abilities to diversify risk could dominate particular markets, so that securities with distinct traits

are offered in different locations (Kim and Stulz, 1988). Securities might also differ across

markets if market makers in different locations specialize in securities with particular

characteristics (Pagano and von Thadden, 2004). Consequently, bond attributes might be specific

to the geographic location and bond prices might not fully converge across markets. We

3
  The value of debt issues is not directly comparable to that of equity issues because equity issues have no maturity,
while debt issues must be repaid. Part of the proceeds from debt issues is typically used to repay maturing debt and,
therefore, only a fraction of debt issues can be considered new financing. Henderson et al. (2006) try to adjust the
data on debt issues to take this fact into account and conclude that, even with these adjustments, debt issues
constitute a much larger source of new capital than equity issues at the aggregate level.
4
  Black and Munro (2010) use unit record data for bond issuance by corporate residents of Australia; Hong Kong
SAR, China; Korea; Japan; and Singapore to analyze firms‘ decision to issue debt abroad, and Eidenmüller et al.
(2010) analyze the choice of issuer location in the European corporate debt market during the period 1980-2008.
5
  A broader literature studies the aggregate effects of financial integration on economic growth, investment, the cost
of capital, and financial development. See, among many others, Levine and Zervos (1998), Edison et al. (2002), and
Bekaert et al. (2005, 2006).


                                                          6
contribute to this literature by providing empirical evidence that the major characteristics of

bonds issues do in fact differ markedly across countries, which stresses the greater

dimensionality of the corporate financing decisions faced by firms with access to different

markets.

         Third, the research examines the determinants of non-price bond attributes, focusing

mostly on domestic markets. Several theories emphasize the roles of agency costs, asymmetric

information, signaling, and liquidity risk in shaping the maturity structure of corporate debt

(Myers, 1977; Flannery, 1986; Diamond, 1991, 1993).6 In particular, short-term debt can play a

disciplinary role as investors might deny further financing to the issuing firm, reducing problems

of moral hazard and adverse selection.7 To the extent that investors in international markets have

less information about firms than those in local markets, these arguments would tend to predict

that bond issues abroad will have shorter maturities than issues at home. This is what we find. In

terms of currency choice, research argues that firms might issue debt in foreign currencies to

hedge their exchange rate risk (Graham and Harvey, 2001; Allayannis et al., 2003) and exploit

temporary differences in interest rates across currencies (McBrady and Schill, 2007; Habib and

Joy, 2010). But, several factors could limit the ability of firms to issue foreign currency debt in

their domestic markets, including thin local markets for foreign currency bonds (Cohen, 2005

and regulatory restrictions (Lanoo, 1998). Consistent with these arguments, we find that issues

abroad tend to be denominated in foreign currency.8 Regarding the type of rate, the literature

argues that firms might choose the interest rate risk exposure of their debt to match that of their
6
  Empirical research, focusing mostly on U.S. firms, presents evidence broadly consistent with these theoretical
arguments (Mitchell, 1993; Barclay and Smith, 1995; Guedes and Opler, 1996; Berger et al., 2005).
7
  Similar arguments are mentioned in the international finance literature when discussing why governments issue
short-term debt (Rodrik and Velasco, 1999; Jeanne, 2009; Broner et al., 2011).
8
  Additional estimates we conducted indicate that issues abroad tend to be denominated in the local currency of the
market of issuance (e.g., foreign issues in the U.S. are mostly in U.S. dollars, foreign issues in Japan are mostly in
yens).


                                                          7
assets (Smith and Stulz, 1985; Froot et al., 1993) or they might try to time the market, issuing

floating rate debt when the yield curve is steep (Faulkender, 2005). Although we do not directly

test and compare these views, we do find that international bond issues have a higher fraction of

fixed rate contracts, which seems to suggest that investors in international markets have a lower

preference for interest rate risk. Taken together, these results indicate that firms issue very

different types of bonds across different markets.

         Fourth, the paper contributes to a large literature that studies financial integration using

price-based measures.9 This literature builds from the premise that under full financial

integration the law of one price should hold. That is, securities with identical cash flows should

command the same price irrespective of the market where they are issued, and thus the literature

interprets pricing differentials as evidence of market segmentation. A key empirical challenge to

this type of analysis involves identifying comparable assets across markets (Levy-Yeyati et al.,

2009; Japelli and Pagano, 2010). Our sample of corporate bond issues around the world helps

address this challenge, as many firms issue debt securities both at home and abroad, allowing us

to compare borrowing costs between issues conducted by the same firm in different markets.

         The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the data and presents

descriptive statistics. Section 3 characterizes the main non-price features of corporate bond

issues in domestic and international markets. Section 4 analyzes how firms that issue debt abroad

use domestic and international bond markets following their internationalization. Section 5

discusses whether differences between issues at home and abroad depend on the firms‘ country

9
  Several studies use stock market data to analyze market integration (see, among many others, Bekaert and Harvey,
1995; Soydemir, 2000; Masih and Masih, 2001; Scheicher, 2001; Carrieri et al., 2007). Other papers focus on the
(covered and uncovered) interest rate parity and the real interest rate parity conditions and analyze onshore-offshore
return differentials (see, for example, Meese and Rogoff, 1988; MacDonald and Nagayasu, 2000). Obstfeld and
Taylor (2003) and Kose et al. (2009) provide comprehensive overviews of the main operational measures of
financial integration.


                                                          8
of origin. Section 6 analyzes differences in yield spreads between bonds issues at home and

abroad. Section 7 concludes.



2. Data and Descriptive Statistics

To compare the major characteristics of corporate bond issues in international and domestic

markets and analyze how firms use these markets, we assemble a comprehensive dataset on

firms‘ public debt issues in capital markets around the world from 1991 through 2008.

        Our data on firms‘ debt issuance activity come from the SDC Platinum database from

Thomson Reuters, which provides transaction-level information on new bonds issued in public

capital markets with an original maturity of one year or more.10 Given that SDC does not collect

data on debt issues with a maturity of less than one year, our dataset does not include commercial

paper issues with such short-term maturities. Because our analysis focuses on corporate bond

issues, we exclude all public sector debt issues, comprising bonds issued by national, local, and

regional governments, government agencies, regional agencies, and multilateral organizations.

We also exclude debt issues by investment funds, investment companies, and real estate

investment trusts (REITs), as well as mortgage-backed securities and other asset-backed

securities.

        SDC provides data on several major characteristics of corporate bond issues, including

the amount raised, issue date, maturity date, currency denomination, credit rating, type of rate,

and yield at issue. SDC collects data on security issuances mostly from filings with local

regulatory agencies and exchanges. These data are augmented with data from other sources such

10
   SDC does not provide accurate data on the location of issuance of privately placed bonds. Thus, we cannot
classify these issues as domestic or international. We, therefore, exclude private placements from our sample.
According to SDC, private placements account for less than 18 percent of the total amount raised through corporate
bond issues in capital markets around the world during our sample period.


                                                        9
as offering circulars, prospectus, surveys of investment banks, brokers, and other financial

advisors, news sources, trade publications, and wires. While data for issues in the U.S. start in

the 1970s, coverage of other markets starts later, with most regional databases starting in 1991. 11

Therefore, we restrict our sample to the period 1991-2008.

        In additional, unreported analyses, we considered several subsets of these data.12 First, we

were concerned that including data for the onset of the recent global financial crisis might affect

the results. Consequently, we re-did all the analyses reported throughout the paper using data for

only the period 1991-2006 and obtained similar conclusions. Second, our sample includes bond

issues by both financial and non-financial firms. We include all firms in our analyses because we

want to provide a comprehensive view of bond markets around the world. Although a priori

financial and non-financial firms might differ in their use of domestic and international bond

markets, we obtained results similar to those reported throughout the paper when restricting the

sample to non-financial firms. Third, there are some firms that are very active in debt markets,

conducting many issues and capturing a significant fraction of the overall debt issuance activity.

Therefore, as an additional robustness check, we re-estimated all our regressions excluding the

top five percent of the firms in terms of the number of debt issues and obtained similar results.




11
   The SDC database is divided into twelve regional sub-databases covering different markets: Asian Pacific
Domestic (Hong Kong SAR, China; Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines; Singapore; Taiwan, China; and Thailand);
Australian/New Zealand Domestic (Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea); Canadian Domestic
(Canada); Continental European Domestic (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain,
Sweden, and Switzerland); Indian and Subcontinent (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka); International
(Eurobonds and other cross-border issues); Japanese Domestic (Japan); Korean Domestic (South Korea); Latin
American Domestic (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru,
Uruguay, and Venezuela); United States (United States); United Kingdom Domestic (United Kingdom); and Rest of
the World (countries not included in other SDC regional sub-databases, such as China). The academic version of
SDC to which we have access does not include the Canadian and Korean Domestic sub-databases. Therefore, we
exclude all Canadian and South Korean firms from our analysis.
12
   The results are available upon request.


                                                     10
        To classify debt issues as domestic or international, we use the main market in which the

bonds are issued and compare it to the issuing firm‘s nationality. 13,14 For offerings that take place

in more than one market, we consider issues in each market as separate issues. In the case of

subsidiaries, one could consider the nationality of the firm‘s parent company instead of its own

nationality for classifying issues as foreign or domestic. For instance, a debt issue by a U.S.

subsidiary of a British firm in the U.S. market could be classified as international, instead of

domestic as in our classification. Which approach provides a better criterion for classifying bond

issues depends on the degree of integration of financing decisions between firms and their

subsidiaries, among other factors. If financial decisions are highly integrated, considering firms‘

parent nationality might provide a more accurate classification of debt issuances. But if financing

decisions are relatively decentralized, considering subsidiaries‘ own nationality might be a better

criterion. Actual decision-making policies probably lie somewhere in between these two

extremes, with multinational firms possibly coordinating financing decisions with their

subsidiaries across several markets. All the results reported in the paper are obtained classifying

bond issues as foreign or domestic based on subsidiaries‘ nationality. In unreported robustness

tests, we classified issues by subsidiaries based on their parents‘ nationality and obtained results

similar to those reported throughout the paper.

        Our main analyses focus on four non-price features of corporate bond issues. First, we

analyze the size of bond issues, defined as the proceeds from the issue in U.S. dollars (at 2008


13
   Although bond trading takes place mostly over-the-counter (OTC), most bonds are listed in exchanges due to
regulatory requirements that preclude institutional investors from holding unlisted securities. SDC provides
information on the market where bonds are issued, including both formal exchanges and OTC markets.
14
   SDC classifies most Eurobonds as being listed on the Luxembourg exchange, although these securities trade
mostly OTC throughout Europe. This implies that Eurobond issues by firms from Luxembourg are classified as
domestic issues, even though they can trade in other European countries. However, the number of firms from
Luxembourg carrying out bond issuances at home according to SDC is relatively small. We re-did all our analyses
excluding these firms and obtained results similar to those reported throughout the paper.


                                                      11
prices). Second, we study the maturity of debt issues, defined as the number of years between the

date of issuance and the final maturity date. Third, we analyze the currency denomination of

bonds. For our regressions, we use a dummy variable that equals one if the bond is denominated

in a foreign currency and zero otherwise. We define a foreign currency as one that is different

from the currency of the issuing firm‘s home country. Finally, we analyze whether issues have a

floating or fixed rate, by using a dummy variable that equals one if the bond has a floating rate

and zero otherwise.

        In addition, we compare yields of bonds issued at home and abroad. Following the

literature, we measure the cost of debt using the yield spread at issue, defined as the difference

between the yield to maturity of a bond at the time of issuance and the yield to maturity of a risk-

free bond with the same maturity on the same date. As risk-free bonds, we use the constant

maturity U.S. Treasury security series obtained from the Federal Reserve Board. If there are no

Treasury securities with the same maturity as the corporate bond, we follow the literature and

compute the risk-free rate as a linear interpolation between the rates of the two Treasury bonds

with the closest maturity.15

        After eliminating issues with missing data on bond characteristics and outliers (i.e.,

observations in the top and bottom one percent), we are left with a sample of 116,338 corporate

bond issues by 13,920 firms from 99 economies covering the period 1991-2008. Appendix Table

1 lists the countries included in our dataset and their regional and income level classification.

        To illustrate the development and internationalization of corporate bond markets, Figure

1 displays the evolution of the aggregate amount raised by firms through debt issues in capital


15
   As mentioned above, for the comparison of yields across markets, we restrict the sample to U.S. dollar-
denominated bond issues. This explains why we only consider U.S. Treasury securities as risk free bonds to
calculate yield spreads.


                                                   12
markets over the period 1991-2008, differentiating between issues at home and abroad. The

figure shows that the aggregate amount raised by firms in bond markets around the world almost

doubled from 1991 to 2008, increasing from 635 billion to 1.1 trillion U.S. dollars (at 2008

prices). The increase is even steeper when excluding the global financial crisis, as the amount

raised in corporate debt markets peeked in 2006 at 1.8 trillion U.S. dollars (at 2008 prices).

Furthermore, the fraction of total debt issued abroad increased from about 34 percent in 1991 to

45 percent in 2006 and 38 percent in 2008, reflecting the collapse of global finance in 2008.

Overall, Figure 1 shows that bond markets have become larger and more internationalized since

the early 1990s.

       The statistics presented in Table 1 further emphasize that firms, both from developed and

developing countries, raise a substantial amount of resources through bond issues in international

markets. Over the period 1991-2008, firms raised 8.4 trillion U.S. dollars (at 2008 prices) in

international bond markets, representing 36.5 percent of all funds raised through the issuance of

debt in capital markets. Developing country firms are especially ―internationalized,‖ raising 45

percent of the total amount raised in bond markets during the period analyzed through issuances

abroad. U.S. firms are a notable exception to the substantial internationalization of corporate

bond markets, even when compared to firms from other developed countries with large domestic

bond markets. Less than 15 percent of the total amount raised in debt markets by U.S. firms over

the sample period was raised abroad.



3. Differences between Corporate Bond Issues at Home and Abroad: Non-price Attributes

This section addresses one question: How do international and domestic corporate bond issues

differ in terms of issue size, maturity, currency denomination, and rate type (fixed or floating)?



                                               13
We first present descriptive statistics to characterize domestic and international issues and then

present more formal analyses of the differences between issues at home and abroad, accounting

for time-varying country-specific factors and differences across firms.

       Table 2 shows the distribution of the number of issues at home and abroad according to

the different bond features. The table also shows the fraction of the different types of issues

conducted abroad. We examine the distribution of the number of issues to avoid giving excessive

weight to larger issues, but obtain similar results if we analyze instead the distribution of the

amount raised.

       A number of patterns emerge from Table 2. First, domestic bond issues tend to be smaller

than issues abroad. While more than 50 percent of domestic issues are below 100 million U.S.

dollars, more than two-thirds of international issues are above this amount. Furthermore, the

fraction of issues abroad tends to increase with the size of the issue. Second, domestic bond

issues seem to have shorter maturities than international issues. About 43 percent of domestic

issues mature in less than three years, but only 33 percent of international issues mature in this

period. Third, while a majority of domestic currency issues tend to take place at home, most of

the foreign currency issues take place abroad. The dollar is the most common foreign currency,

both for foreign currency-denominated issues at home (49.8 percent) and abroad (38.8 percent).

In the case of foreign currency-denominated issues at home, the euro and the yen are also quite

common. Close to 17 percent of foreign currency domestic issues are denominated in euros and

18 percent are denominated in yens. Fourth, the fraction of fixed rate issues is slightly higher for

issues at home than abroad. While close to 70 percent of domestic issues carry a fixed rate, 64

percent of issues abroad have a fixed rate.




                                                14
       Whereas the results in Table 2 suggest that bond issues abroad differ from those at home,

they might just reflect differences in the nationality, industry, or other characteristics of firms

that issue debt abroad relative to firms that issue debt at home. In fact, several papers document

that there are significant differences between those firms that access international capital markets

and those that are only active in local markets. One attribute that stands out is size, but there are

also significant differences in terms of profitability, valuation, and other firm characteristics that

might also affect the features of the bonds that firms issue (see, for example, Pagano et al., 2002;

Lang et al., 2003; Claessens and Schmukler, 2007; Gozzi et al., 2010). Therefore, accounting for

differences across firms is important for reaching meaningful conclusions regarding whether

issues abroad actually differ from issues at home.

       Table 3 provides formal tests of whether issues in international and domestic markets

differ, controlling for differences across countries over time and for cross-sectional differences

among firms. In particular, the table shows regression results for four dependent variables: issue

size (defined as the log of the amount raised per issue in U.S. dollars at 2008 prices), the

maturity of issues in years, a dummy variable that equals one if the issue is denominated in

foreign currency (and zero otherwise), and a dummy variable that equals one if the issue has a

floating rate (and zero otherwise). Each of these dependent variables is regressed on a dummy

variable that equals one for bond issues abroad (and zero otherwise) and four alternative sets of

control variables: country-year dummies (column (a)); country-year dummies plus issue size

(column (b)); country-year dummies and firm fixed effects (column (c)); and country-year

dummies and firm fixed effects plus issue size (column (d)). Using country-year dummies allows

us to control for time-varying country-specific factors that can affect the characteristics of debt

issues conducted by firms, both in domestic and international markets. We control for the size of



                                                 15
issues because larger bond issues might have different characteristics than smaller issues. The

firm-level fixed effects account for cross-sectional differences among firms and allow us to

analyze the within-firm differences between debt issues abroad and at home.

         We estimate separate regressions for each of the dependent variables and sets of controls

and only report the coefficient on the issue abroad dummy in the table. All regressions are

estimated using ordinary least squares and adjusting the standard errors for clustering at the firm

level. As a robustness test, we also estimated our regressions using Logit models for the dummy

dependent variables (foreign currency denomination and floating rate) to take into account the

binary nature of these variables, and obtained results similar to those reported throughout the

paper.

         Table 3 shows that issues in international and domestic bond markets have different non-

price characteristics, conditioning on country-time and firm fixed effects. First, issues abroad

tend to be larger than domestic bond issues. Consistent with the unconditional results reported in

Table 2, Table 3 shows that bond issues in international markets are, on average, larger than

issues in domestic markets when controlling for various combinations of country-year dummies

and firm-level fixed effects. This difference is not only statistically significant, but also

economically relevant. For instance, the results in Table 3, column (c) show that within a firm,

issues abroad are on average more than 19 percent larger than issues at home.

         Second, issues abroad tend to have a shorter maturity than domestic issues when

conditioning on different combinations of country-year dummies, issue size, and firm-level fixed

effects. This result differs from the unconditional findings in Table 2, which suggests that some

of the differences between issues at home and abroad reported in that table could reflect

differences between those firms that issue debt in international markets and those that do not



                                                16
and/or differences across countries. Once we account for these differences, we find that on

average issues abroad tend to have shorter maturities than domestic issues by about six months,

according to the estimations reported in Table 3, column (d).

        Third, bonds issued in foreign markets have a higher fraction of foreign currency-

denominated bonds than those issued in domestic markets. Consistent with the unconditional

summary statistics reported in Table 2, this pattern holds after controlling for various

combinations of country-year dummies, issue size, and firm-level fixed effects.

        Fourth, we find that bond issues in foreign markets tend to have a smaller fraction of

floating rate issues than those in domestic markets. Although on average foreign bond issuances

tend to have a higher fraction of floating rate issues than issuances in domestic markets (as

reported in Table 2), the results in Table 3 indicate that once we control for time-varying

differences across countries issues abroad are more likely to have a fixed rate than issues at

home.

        One concern about the results in Table 3 is that they might reflect differences between

different types of issues. For example, if foreign currency bonds tend to be larger and have fixed

rates (irrespective of where they are issued), the finding that issues abroad are larger and include

more fixed rate issues might simply reflect the fact that issues abroad are denominated in foreign

currency, and not some additional difference between domestic and international markets.

However, in unreported results, we confirmed the Table 3 findings when re-estimating the

regressions for different sub-samples based on varying bond characteristics (only fixed rate

issues, only medium- and long-term bonds, only dollar-denominated issues). In other words, we

found significant differences between issues abroad and at home for the different sub-samples of




                                                17
bond attributes, suggesting that our findings reflect differences across domestic and international

markets and not simply differences between different types of bond issues.

          To account for other possible differences across firms, Table 4 repeats the regression

analyses of Table 3 but restricts the sample to firms that issue debt both at home and abroad at

some point during our sample period. This significantly reduces our sample, from 13,920 firms

(116,338 debt issues) to 1,597 firms (54,137 debt issues). In the regressions reported in columns

(c) and (d) of Table 3, we account for cross-firm differences by including firm-level fixed

effects. Thus, the identification of the issue abroad dummy in those regressions is driven only by

those firms that issue debt both abroad and at home at some point during our sample period. The

results presented in Table 4 will only differ from those regressions in Table 3 (columns (c) and

(d)) to the extent that firms that issue both abroad and at home are subject to different country-

specific time trends than firms that do not issue in both markets.

          Table 4 shows that restricting the sample to firms that issue debt at home and abroad does

not affect the conclusions from Table 3. We find that issues abroad tend to be larger, and have

shorter maturities, a higher fraction of foreign currency issues, and a higher fraction of fixed rate

issues.



4. Do Firms Issue Different Types of Bonds across Markets after They Internationalize?

The results reported above suggest that there are indeed differences across markets, since we find

significant differences in the non-price features of bond issues at home and abroad, after

controlling for firm-level fixed effects and including only firms that issue bonds domestically

and abroad. However, those results consider all firms that issue debt at home and abroad at some

point during our sample period, including firms that issue debt at home before internationalizing



                                                  18
but do not issue debt at home after going abroad.16 Moreover, these results include domestic

issues that are conducted both before and after firms first access international debt markets. This

might raise some concerns that the differences we find between issues abroad and at home could

reflect differences between issues conducted before and after internationalization, as firms might

change the type of issues they carry out in any market after going abroad, and not necessarily

differences across markets.

         To test whether the non-price differences across markets persist even for the same firms

after internationalization, we restrict the sample to issues conducted after firms access

international bond markets for the first time. That is, we explicitly test whether a firm issues

different types of debt in domestic and foreign markets once it accesses international markets,

conditional on the firm issuing in both markets after it internationalizes. Again, we concentrate

on the size, maturity, currency, and type of rate of issues across markets.

         Table 5 follows a similar structure as Tables 3 and 4, presenting (1) unconditional

comparisons of the average characteristics of bond issues in domestic and international markets

and (2) estimations that assess whether issues abroad differ from domestic bond issues after a

firm internationalizes, while conditioning on various combinations of country-year dummies,

issue size, and firm-level fixed effects. The sample consists of only firms that issue debt at home

and abroad after internationalization and only issues that occur after a firm internationalizes. This

reduces the sample to 818 firms and 38,542 debt issues.



16
   In unreported tests, we find that a significant fraction of firms remain active in domestic markets after they first
access international bond markets, conducting a significant share of their bond issuances at home. Of the firms in
our sample, about half completely substitutes out of the domestic corporate bond market and into foreign markets
after they internationalize. The other half remains active domestically, with a significant fraction issuing bonds both
at home and abroad. In other words, the evidence suggests that firms do not overwhelmingly abandon domestic
corporate bond markets after they issue debt abroad. See Gozzi et al. (2010) for more discussion on the issuance
behavior of firms after they access international capital markets.


                                                         19
       The results in Table 5 show that firms indeed issue different types of bonds in domestic

and international markets after they internationalize. When a firm issues a bond in a foreign

market, the issue tends to be larger and of shorter maturity; the issue is also more likely to be

denominated in a foreign currency and have a fixed rate, than when a firm issues a bond in its

domestic market. These findings hold for all the regressions in Table 5 that condition on various

combinations of country-year dummies and firm-level fixed effects. These results complement

those in Table 4. While the latter table shows that firms issue different types of securities in

domestic and international markets when examining all firms that issue in these markets at any

point in time (including the periods before and after a firm internationalizes), Table 5 shows that

these differences hold when only considering the period after a firm internationalizes.

       In unreported tests, we analyzed whether the non-price characteristics of debt issues at

home change following internationalization. For most characteristics, we found no significant

difference between issues conducted at home before and after internationalization. Only in the

case of maturity we found evidence of a significant increase following internationalization. This

also suggests that the differences we find in Table 4 between issues abroad and at home do not

reflect differences in the characteristics of issues conducted before and after internationalization,

but rather differences across markets. The results in Table 5 confirm that this is the case.

       In sum, the results in Table 5 suggest that cross-market non-price differences in bond

characteristics reflect differences in the markets per se, not differences between the firms that

access those markets. Given that we restrict the sample to issues following internationalization

and to firms that access both domestic and international markets after going abroad and also

control for country-year dummies and firm fixed effects, the differences we find between bond

issues in domestic and international issues cannot be not attributed to differences across



                                                 20
countries over time or across firms. In other words, firms that have access to domestic and

international corporate bond markets use the two types of markets for different types of issues,

suggesting that these markets are not perfect substitutes.



5. Does the Country of Origin Matter?

While the results presented in Tables 3, 4, and 5 show that debt issues in domestic and

international markets have different characteristics, it is important to understand whether these

results are driven by firms from certain countries. Including country-year dummies as we do in

the regressions reported above controls for time-varying differences across countries in the

characteristics of issues in both markets (e.g., the possibility that firms from a given country are

more likely to issue certain types of bonds in a given period). However, it is possible that the

differences between issues abroad and at home also vary across countries. In particular, the

differences between issues abroad and at home that we find could mostly reflect, for example,

that when issuing debt abroad firms from developing countries are accessing deeper and more

developed financial markets that are very different from those at home. If this were the case, we

would expect to find significant differences between issues abroad and at home for developing

country firms, but not necessarily for firms from developed countries, which are likely to have

more active domestic bond markets and which are more financially integrated.

       To analyze whether the differences in bond features between issues in domestic and

international markets hold across developed and developing countries, Table 6 presents separate

estimations for each group of countries. We report regressions controlling for country-year

dummies and firm-level fixed effects for all firms (columns (a) and (b)) and only for firms that

issue bonds both at home and abroad at some point during our sample period (columns (c) and



                                                 21
(d)). The last two columns (columns (e) and (f)) show results for issues that take place after a

firm has internationalized, using only firms that issue bonds at home and abroad after

internationalization.

       Table 6 shows that most of the differences we find between issues abroad and at home

hold for firms from both developed and developing countries. In particular, the results show that

bonds issued abroad by firms from developed and developing countries tend to be larger, and are

more likely to be in foreign currency and to have a floating rate. The only noticeable difference

between firms from developed and developing countries is that while issues abroad tend to have

a shorter maturity than issues at home in the case of developed countries, there is no significant

difference in terms of maturity between issues at home and abroad in the case of developing

countries.

       In unreported estimations, we also confirmed the paper‘s findings when examining (a)

countries with high and low domestic financial development and (b) countries with high and low

levels of international financial integration, using regressions similar to those reported in Table

6. In particular, we classified countries as high (low) financial development if they are above

(below) the median across countries of different measures of financial development

(alternatively, private credit/GDP, private bonds outstanding/GDP, and private credit plus stock

market capitalization and private bonds outstanding/GDP). We also classified countries

according to their degree of financial integration, using both de jure measures of capital account

openness and de facto measures of overall financial integration. We found that, consistent with

the results reported in Table 6, most of the differences between issues abroad and at home exist

for firms from countries with high and low levels of financial development and financial

integration.



                                                22
        The results presented in this section and the previous ones show that issues in

international and domestic bond markets have different non-price features: international bond

issues are larger, of shorter maturity, tend to be denominated in foreign currency, and entail more

fixed interest rate contracts. These differences do not seem to be driven by differences across

countries or differences between those firms that raise debt abroad and at home. We find that all

the differences between bond issues at home and abroad remain when controlling for country-

year dummies and firm-level fixed effects, and when analyzing only those firms that issue bonds

both in domestic and international markets. In other words, issues conducted abroad by a given

firm are different from those conducted in the local market by the same firm, consistent with the

claim that domestic and international markets offer different types of financial services. Also,

our results are not driven by firms from developing countries accessing larger and more

developed financial markets abroad, given that we find significant differences between issues at

home and abroad even when analyzing only developed country firms.



6. Differences in Yield Spreads between Bond Issues at Home and Abroad

In addition to the non-price attributes analyzed above, we also study whether there are

differences in terms of borrowing costs between domestic and international bond issues.17




17
   Besides the literature on pricing differences discussed in the Introduction, several papers focus on the yields of
corporate debt in international markets. The earlier literature compares yields between issues in the Eurobond and
U.S. markets by U.S. firms, using data for a period with much lower financial integration (Finnerty et al., 1980;
Finnerty and Nunn, 1985; Kidwell et al., 1985; Mahajan and Fraser, 1986). More recently, other papers have studied
other markets. For instance, Miller and Puthenpurackal (2002) analyze the yields of Yankee bonds (bonds issued in
the U.S. by non-U.S. firms). Miller and Puthenpurackal (2005) and Petrasek (2010) compare spreads on global
bonds (those issued and traded simultaneously in several markets around the world) with those issued in the
Eurobond and U.S. markets. Carey and Nini (2007) compare interest rate spreads on syndicated loans to corporate
borrowers between the European and U.S. markets. Relative to this literature, our sample is significantly larger,
which allows us to use fixed effects to analyze differences across markets for the same issuer.


                                                         23
However, studying yields across markets raises several considerations and complications that

require a somewhat different type of analysis and a more specialized comparison.

       To obtain the cleanest possible comparison, we restrict significantly the sample of bond

issues we analyze. First, we focus only on U.S. dollar-denominated issues to avoid the problems

associated with comparing rates across currencies. In particular, differences in expectations

about exchange rate movements might generate differences in observed yields to maturity for

bonds denominated in different currencies. We focus the analysis on the U.S. dollar because it is

the most common currency of denomination for the bond issues in our sample, both for issues

abroad and at home. Second, we restrict the analysis to fixed rate issues because data on yields

for floating rate bonds are not available for a large part of our sample and comparing yields on

fixed and floating rate bonds is not straightforward. Finally, we exclude convertible bonds to

avoid comparing yields on different types of bonds.

       All the restrictions above substantially reduce the sample size. In particular, of the total

116,338 corporate bond issues by 13,920 firms used in the analysis of non-price features, we use

30,828 bond issues by 4,763 firms to analyze yields. Though smaller than our original sample,

this sample is still large relative to the ones used in the literature that analyzes yields. This larger

sample, together with the fact that several firms in our dataset issue bonds both at home and

abroad, allow us to better control for unobserved differences across firms by including firm-level

fixed effects in some of our specifications.

       Because of the high correlation between currency and country of issuance, when

restricting the sample to dollar-denominated issues the sample is reduced mostly to debt issues

by U.S. firms. Specifically, U.S. firms account for 98 percent of the issues at home and 81

percent of the issues abroad in the sub-sample we analyze (or 95 percent of all the issues).



                                                  24
Moreover, most of the dollar-denominated issues abroad by U.S. firms are conducted in the

Eurobond market. Thus, the analysis in this section essentially compares yields on bonds issued

by U.S. firms in the U.S. and Eurobond markets.

           The reduced sample size does not imply different results on the non-price bond features

studied in the paper. We re-estimated all the tables in the paper using the sample employed for

the analysis of yields and found results similar to those obtained when considering the full

sample.18 In particular, issues abroad are larger and have shorter maturities than issues at home,

consistent with our results for the full sample. We cannot analyze the type of rate for this reduced

sample because we are excluding floating rate issues. Also, we cannot analyze the currency

composition of debt issues because the only firms issuing abroad in domestic currency in this

sample are U.S. firms, so all the variation is absorbed by the country-time dummies.

           We estimate ordinary least square regressions of the yield spread at issue (defined as the

difference between the yield to maturity of a bond at the time of issuance and the yield to

maturity of a risk-free bond with the same maturity on the same date) on a dummy variable that

equals one for bond issues abroad (and zero otherwise) and various combinations of country-year

dummies, firm-level fixed effects, and other control variables used in the literature. In particular,

we control for the credit quality of issues by including several dummies for different rating

categories based on Standard & Poor‘s credit ratings. The excluded category is the highest rated

one, AA- to AAA, so the estimated coefficients measure the premium that riskier issues could

pay. We also control for the size of issues, by including the log of the amount raised per issue in

U.S. dollars (at 2008 prices), and for the maturity of issues. Moreover, we control for other bond

characteristics that can affect yields, such as whether the issue is subordinated and whether it has


18
     The estimations are available upon request.


                                                   25
a sinking fund. Given that some of the bond characteristics might be jointly determined with the

spread, we present results both excluding and including these controls. We report regressions for

different firm samples, following the same structure as the results on non-price features

presented throughout the paper. In particular, we present results including all firms (Table 7),

only firms that issue both at home and abroad during our sample period (Table 8), and restricting

the sample to firms that issue debt at home and abroad after internationalization and only issues

that occur after a firm internationalizes (Table 9).

       The results in Table 7 show that issues abroad tend to have lower yield spreads than

issues at home after controlling for different combinations of bond characteristics, country-year

dummies, and firm-level fixed effects. The difference is not only statistically significant, but also

quite large. For example, the estimates in column (f) show that, controlling for bond

characteristics, country-time dummies, and firm-level fixed effects, issues abroad have yield

spreads that are on average about 14 basis points lower than those of issues at home. This

difference is approximately 13 percent of the mean spread in our sample. The coefficients on the

rest of the control variables are consistent with the literature: larger issues, issues with longer

maturities, and those with lower credit ratings tend to have higher spreads.

       The results in Tables 8 and 9 show that when analyzing different samples of firms and

issues we obtain similar conclusions. In particular, Table 8 shows that issues abroad tend to have

lower yield spreads than issues at home, when restricting the sample to firms that issue debt at

home and abroad. Table 9 confirms that these differences also hold when considering only issues

conducted after a firm internationalizes, for firms that issue both at home and abroad.

       The results in Tables 7, 8, and 9 are robust to a number of alternative specifications not

reported here. For example, we obtained similar results when we used the log of spreads instead



                                                 26
of spreads as dependent variable. Moreover, while the reported regressions use Standard &

Poor‘s credit ratings, we reached similar conclusions when we combined data from Standard &

Poor‘s and Moody‘s (considering either the lowest credit rating of the two or an average). Also,

we obtained broadly similar results when we used ratings converted to a numerical scale as a

control variable, instead of controlling for dummies for the different credit rating categories.

Furthermore, we found that the differences in spreads between issues abroad and at home exist

for both financial and non-financial firms and when restricting the sample to U.S. firms.

       Overall, the results in this section show that there are pricing differences across markets,

reaffirming the main conclusion of the paper that domestic and international markets seem to

offer different financial services. The differences in yield spreads we find between dollar-

denominated issues at home and abroad remain when controlling for country-year dummies and

firm-level fixed effects, when analyzing only those firms that issue bonds both in domestic and

international capital markets, and also when focusing only on issues that take place after

internationalization. In other words, dollar-denominated issues conducted abroad by a given firm

tend to have lower yield spreads than those conducted in the domestic market by the same firm.

       Our finding that yields spreads differ across markets, even when comparing issues by the

same firm, raises the question of why lenders and borrowers might fail to compete these pricing

differences away. Borrowers that issue bonds both in the domestic U.S. and Eurobond markets

(which constitute the bulk of the sample used in these regressions) tend to be big corporations,

many with international operations, and investors in these markets are mostly large, sophisticated

institutional investors. One might expect that such market participants would notice persistent

differences in pricing across markets and would attempt to exploit them. However, as discussed

above, several factors, including regulations, transaction costs, and information asymmetries,



                                                27
might hinder the ability of investors to purchase securities outside their home market and/or of

firms to issue abroad. Market segmentation might prevent competition that would cause prices to

converge across markets. Moreover, the existence of pricing differences across markets does not

necessarily imply that there are unexploited arbitrage opportunities. Issues abroad and at home

might differ along some dimension that is relevant for pricing, but that cannot be adequately

controlled for in the empirical analysis. For instance, differences between the domestic U.S. and

Eurobond markets in terms of tax treatment, issuance procedures, flotation costs, liquidity, and

covenant enforcement could potentially generate the lower spreads for issues abroad that we

find. It is also possible that some factors already identified in the literature for which we account

in our analysis affect bond pricing differently across markets. Regardless of the underlying

cause, our results show that pricing differences between dollar-denominated issues at home and

abroad persist even after controlling for several bond characteristics highlighted by the literature

and after accounting for unobserved time-varying country-specific factors and for differences

across firms.



7. Conclusions

This paper offers the first comprehensive documentation of the major characteristics of corporate

bond issues in domestic and international markets and analyzes how firms use these markets. We

find that firms issue different types of bonds in domestic and international markets. International

bond issues are larger, of shorter maturity, tend to be denominated in foreign currency, and are

more likely to be fixed interest rate contracts. Moreover, we find that issues abroad tend to entail

lower yield spreads than issues at home. All of these results hold after conditioning on different

bond characteristics, country-year dummies, and firm-level fixed effects, and even when



                                                 28
analyzing only firms that issue debt both at home and abroad. These findings suggest that firms

face different borrowing costs in different markets and that domestic and international bond

markets offer different types of securities. Firms seem to be using these markets as complements

rather than as substitutes.

        The findings in this paper pose challenging questions to the corporate and international

finance literatures, including some very basic queries about the nature of international finance.

For example, why do domestic and international markets tend to specialize in providing distinct

types of debt securities? Further research would be necessary to understand whether home bias in

investor portfolios and informational asymmetries between different investor groups can account

for the patterns of issuance documented in this paper. Research on market microstructure might

also provide additional insights on why different markets provide different types of securities.

Furthermore, these findings raise questions about the distributional effects of financial

globalization. Since those firms with access to international markets can issue a more diverse set

of debt securities, apparently at lower cost, than firms without access to those markets, financial

internationalization might have cross-firm distributional effects that shape product market

competition and economic efficiency.




                                                29
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                                               32
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                                              33
                                               Figure 1
                   Evolution of Bond Issuance in Capital Markets around the World
This figure shows the evolution of the aggregate amount raised by firms through bond issues in capital markets
around the world in each year over the 1991-2008 period. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home
country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data are in U.S. dollars at 2008 prices.



                                       Amount raised through bond issues by firms
                                          (billion U.S. dollars at 2008 prices)


  1,800

  1,600

  1,400

  1,200

  1,000                                                                               Issues at home

    800

    600

    400

    200
                                                                                       Issues abroad
     -
          1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
                                                                          Table 1
                                       Amount Raised, Number of Issues, and Number of Firms by Issuer Country/Region
This table reports the number of issues, the number of firms, and the aggregate amount of capital raised by firms from each country/region through bond issues over the 1991-
2008 period. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data on amount raised are in
U.S. dollars at 2008 prices. Because firms may conduct issues both abroad and at home, the number of firms in the total column may differ from the sum of the number of firms in
the home and abroad columns. See Appendix Table 1 for a list of the countries included in each income group and region.

                                                   Amount raised
                                        (million U.S. dollars at 2008 prices)                    Number of issues                                Number of firms
                                    Home        Abroad         Total      % abroad   Home       Abroad      Total     % abroad       Home       Abroad      Total     % abroad
Germany                           1,617,549    1,024,279     2,641,828      38.8%     5,328      4,264      9,592      44.5%          414        235         540       43.5%
Japan                             1,276,368     315,084      1,591,452      19.8%     5,874      1,301      7,175      18.1%         1,030       583        1,277      45.7%
United States                     8,570,571    1,494,800    10,065,371      14.9%    50,434      4,029     54,463       7.4%         3,735       575        4,021      14.3%

Africa                               4,534      24,498       29,032       84.4%         27          79        106       74.5%          18          35         50       70.0%
Asia                               254,317     206,576      460,893       44.8%       4,973       1,077      6,050      17.8%         972         681       1,503      45.3%
Australia & New Zealand             44,088     383,836      427,924       89.7%        243        1,677      1,920      87.3%         102         178        261       68.2%
Eastern Europe & Central Asia        1,368     117,594      118,962       98.9%         17         380        397       95.7%          16         200        213       93.9%
Latin America & Caribbean          311,503     159,987      471,490       33.9%       6,469        951       7,420      12.8%        1,706        392       1,969      19.9%
Middle East                          3,489      48,655       52,144       93.3%         6          382        388       98.5%          4           64         68       94.1%
Western Europe                    2,577,723   4,266,459    6,844,181      62.3%      11,596      15,085     26,681      56.5%        2,479       1,819      3,739      48.6%
Other                                  57      382,292      382,349      100.0%         1         2,145      2,146     100.0%          1          278        279       99.6%

Developed countries              14,192,835   8,039,610    22,232,446     36.2%      75,821      29,419     105,240     28.0%        8,126       4,040      10,777     37.5%

Developing countries               468,731     384,450      853,181       45.1%       9,147      1,951      11,098      17.6%        2,351       1,000      3,143      31.8%

Total                            14,661,566   8,424,060    23,085,626     36.5%      84,968      31,370     116,338     27.0%        10,477      5,040      13,920     36.2%
                                         Table 2
  Distribution of the Number of Bond Issues at Home and Abroad by Issue Characteristics
This table shows the fraction of the number of bond issues conducted by firms over the 1991-2008 period for
different types of issues. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are
those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data on amount raised are in U.S. dollars at 2008 prices.
Short-term issues are those with a maturity of three years or less. Medium-term issues are those with a
maturity between three and ten years. Long-term issues are those with a maturity of more than ten years.



                                                      Composition of     Composition of
                                                      issues at home     issues abroad          % abroad
Issue size (amount raised per issue)
Size below 40 million U.S. dollars                         35.8%             11.8%               10.9%
Size between 40 and 100 million U.S. dollars               18.3%             20.8%               29.5%
Size between 100 and 250 million U.S. dollars              23.9%             31.4%               32.7%
Size above 250 million U.S. dollars                        22.0%             35.9%               37.6%


Maturity
Short term                                                 43.0%             33.4%               22.3%
Medium term                                                41.9%             53.1%               31.8%
Long term                                                  15.1%             13.6%               24.9%


Currency denomination
Domestic currency                                          94.7%             31.5%               10.9%
Foreign currency                                           5.3%              68.5%               82.7%

Currency denomination of foreign currency issues
U.S. dollar                                                49.8%             38.8%               78.8%
British pound                                              2.6%              7.3%                93.0%
Japanese yen                                               18.0%             5.7%                60.3%
Swiss franc                                                0.9%              9.2%                97.9%
Euro                                                       16.8%             13.8%               79.7%
Other                                                      11.9%             25.1%               91.0%


Rate type
Fixed rate                                                 69.6%             63.9%               25.3%
Floating rate                                              30.4%             36.1%               30.5%

Total number of issues                                    84,968             31,370              27.0%
                                                                 Table 3
                                    Comparison between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets
This table compares the characteristics of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008 period. Issues at home are those carried out
in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data on amount raised are in million U.S. dollars at 2008
prices. Columns (a), (b), (c), and (d) report least squares regressions of the different bond characteristics on a dummy identifying issues abroad and different
sets of control variables. Only the coefficient on the issue abroad dummy is reported. The regressions in column (a) are estimated including country-year
dummies. The regressions in column (b) are estimated including country-year dummies and the log of the amount raised per issue. The regressions in column
(c) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects and country-year dummies. The regressions in column (d) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects,
country-year dummies, and the log of the amount raised per issue. In the regressions of issue size, the dependent variable is the log of the amount raised per
issue. Standard errors are estimated with clustering at the firm level. Absolute values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **, *** mean significance at ten, five,
and one percent, respectively.

                                               Mean                                   Regression coefficient on issue abroad dummy, controlling for
                                                                                                                       Firm fixed effects and Firm fixed effects and
                                                                         Country-year            Country-year
                                   Issues at                                                                               country-year             country-year
                                                  Issues abroad            dummies          dummies + issue size
                                     home                                                                                     dummies          dummies + issue size
Dependent variable                                                            (a)                      (b)                       (c)                    (d)
Issue size                           172.6            268.5                0.418 ***                                          0.194 ***
(amount raised per issue)                                                [9.223]                                            [3.441]


Maturity (years)                      5.8              5.4                -0.758 ***              -0.823 ***                -0.537 ***              -0.528 ***
                                                                         [6.377]                 [6.886]                   [3.017]                 [2.960]


Foreign currency-denominated          0.05             0.69                0.612 ***               0.616 ***                 0.579 ***               0.581 ***
                                                                        [35.685]                [35.640]                  [23.732]                [23.581]


Floating rate                         0.30             0.36               -0.041 **               -0.053 ***                -0.074 ***              -0.080 ***
                                                                         [2.482]                 [3.083]                   [2.871]                 [2.987]

No. of observations                  84,968           31,370
No. of firms                         10,477           5,040
                                                                 Table 4
                                   Comparison between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets
                                             Only Firms that Issue Bonds at Home and Abroad
This table compares the characteristics of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008 period. The sample includes only firms that
issue bonds both at home and abroad at some point during this period. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are
those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data on amount raised are in million U.S. dollars at 2008 prices. Columns (a), (b), (c), and (d) report least
squares regressions of the different bond characteristics on a dummy identifying issues abroad and different sets of control variables. Only the coefficient on
the issue abroad dummy is reported. The regressions in column (a) are estimated including country-year dummies. The regressions in column (b) are
estimated including country-year dummies and the log of the amount raised per issue. The regressions in column (c) are estimated including firm-level fixed
effects and country-year dummies. The regressions in column (d) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects, country-year dummies, and the log of the
amount raised per issue. In the regressions of issue size, the dependent variable is the log of the amount raised per issue. Standard errors are estimated with
clustering at the firm level. Absolute values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **, *** mean significance at ten, five, and one percent, respectively.


                                               Mean                                 Regression coefficient on issue abroad dummy, controlling for
                                                                                                                     Firm fixed effects and Firm fixed effects and
                                                                       Country-year            Country-year
                                   Issues at                                                                             country-year             country-year
                                                  Issues abroad          dummies          dummies + issue size
                                     home                                                                                   dummies          dummies + issue size
Dependent variable                                                          (a)                      (b)                       (c)                    (d)
Issue size                          220.4             286.4              0.206 ***                                          0.184 ***
(amount raised per issue)                                              [3.465]                                            [3.151]


Maturity (years)                      5.3              5.3               -0.305 *               -0.313 *                  -0.538 ***              -0.513 ***
                                                                        [1.916]                [1.945]                   [2.928]                 [2.770]


Foreign currency-denominated         0.06              0.67              0.593 ***               0.598 ***                 0.576 ***               0.579 ***
                                                                      [24.636]                [24.478]                  [23.029]                [22.835]


Floating rate                        0.40              0.36              -0.099 ***             -0.103 ***                -0.076 ***              -0.081 ***
                                                                        [3.571]                [3.642]                   [2.883]                 [2.975]

No. of observations                 36,055            18,082
No. of firms                        1,597             1,597
                                                            Table 5
                              Comparison between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets
         Only Firms that Issue Bonds at Home and Abroad After Internationalization - Only Issues After Internationalization
This table compares the characteristics of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008 period. The sample includes only firms that
issue bonds both at home and abroad after their first bond issue abroad and only bond issues conducted after internationalization. Issues at home are those
carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data on amount raised are in million U.S. dollars
at 2008 prices. Columns (a), (b), (c), and (d) report least squares regressions of the different bond characteristics on a dummy identifying issues abroad and
different sets of control variables. Only the coefficient on the issue abroad dummy is reported. The regressions in column (a) are estimated including country-
year dummies. The regressions in column (b) are estimated including country-year dummies and the log of the amount raised per issue. The regressions in
column (c) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects and country-year dummies. The regressions in column (d) are estimated including firm-level fixed
effects, country-year dummies, and the log of the amount raised per issue. In the regressions of issue size, the dependent variable is the log of the amount
raised per issue. Standard errors are estimated with clustering at the firm level. Absolute values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **, *** mean significance at
ten, five, and one percent, respectively.

                                               Mean                                  Regression coefficient on issue abroad dummy, controlling for
                                                                                                                      Firm fixed effects and Firm fixed effects and
                                                                        Country-year            Country-year
                                   Issues at                                                                              country-year             country-year
                                                  Issues abroad           dummies          dummies + issue size
                                     home                                                                                    dummies          dummies + issue size
Dependent variable                                                           (a)                      (b)                       (c)                    (d)
Issue size                           237.1            282.6               0.180 **                                           0.164 **
(amount raised per issue)                                               [2.575]                                            [2.425]


Maturity (years)                      5.5              5.2                -0.374 *                -0.370 *                 -0.543 **               -0.514 **
                                                                         [1.952]                 [1.917]                  [2.537]                 [2.381]


Foreign currency-denominated         0.08              0.69                0.591 ***               0.596 ***                0.586 ***               0.590 ***
                                                                        [21.217]                [20.961]                 [20.940]                [20.669]


Floating rate                        0.42              0.35               -0.112 ***              -0.115 ***               -0.086 ***              -0.091 ***
                                                                         [3.560]                 [3.565]                  [2.903]                 [2.949]

No. of observations                 21,948            16,594
No. of firms                         818               818
                                                                       Table 6
                            Comparison between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets - By Country Income Level
This table compares the characteristics of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008 period. The top panel reports regression results for
developed countries. The bottom panel reports results for developing countries. See Appendix Table 1 for a list of the countries included in each income group. Issues at home
are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the firm's home country. Data on amount raised are in million U.S. dollars at
2008 prices. The table shows the results of least squares regressions of the different bond characteristics on a dummy identifying issues abroad and different sets of control
variables. Only the coefficient on the issue abroad dummy is reported. The regressions in columns (a), (c), and (e) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects and country-
year dummies. The regressions in columns (b), (d), and (f) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects, country-year dummies, and the log of the amount raised per issue.
In the regressions of issue size, the dependent variable is the log of the amount raised per issue. Standard errors are estimated with clustering at the firm level. Absolute
values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **, *** mean significance at ten, five, and one percent, respectively.

                                                                                                     Developed countries
                                                                                                                                             Only firms that issue bonds at home and
                                                                                                Only firms that issue bonds                     abroad after internationalization -
                                                     All firms                                       at home and abroad                       Only issues after internationalization
                                                                               Regression coefficient on issue abroad dummy, controlling for
                                    Firm fixed effects       Firm fixed effects         Firm fixed effects        Firm fixed effects        Firm fixed effects       Firm fixed effects
                                    and country-year          and country-year          and country-year          and country-year           and country-year        and country-year
                                        dummies             dummies + issue size             dummies            dummies + issue size             dummies           dummies + issue size
                                            (a)                      (b)                         (c)                     (d)                         (e)                     (f)
Issue size                               0.173 ***                                            0.166 ***                                           0.155 **
(amount raised per issue)              [2.953]                                              [2.761]                                             [2.250]
Maturity (years)                         -0.567 ***                 -0.558 ***              -0.560 ***                -0.537 ***                -0.550 **               -0.521 **
                                        [3.098]                    [3.042]                 [2.984]                   [2.838]                   [2.540]                 [2.391]
Foreign currency-denominated              0.573 ***                  0.576 ***               0.572 ***                0.576 ***                 0.584 ***               0.588 ***
                                       [22.494]                   [22.320]                [22.149]                 [21.931]                  [20.625]                [20.330]
Floating rate                            -0.067 **                  -0.072 ***              -0.071 **                 -0.075 ***                -0.083 ***              -0.088 ***
                                        [2.477]                    [2.582]                 [2.573]                   [2.654]                   [2.768]                 [2.809]
No. of observations                    105,240                    105,240                  52,551                    52,551                    16,341                  16,341
No. of firms                            10,777                     10,777                   1,389                     1,389                       749                     749

                                                                                                  Developing countries
                                                                                                                                           Only firms that issue bonds at home and
                                                                                               Only firms that issue bonds                   abroad after internationalization -
                                                      All firms                                     at home and abroad                      Only issues after internationalization
                                                                              Regression coefficient on issue abroad dummy, controlling for
                                    Firm fixed effects      Firm fixed effects         Firm fixed effects        Firm fixed effects        Firm fixed effects     Firm fixed effects
                                    and country-year         and country-year          and country-year          and country-year           and country-year       and country-year
                                        dummies            dummies + issue size             dummies            dummies + issue size             dummies          dummies + issue size
Dependent variable                          (a)                     (b)                         (c)                     (d)                         (e)                   (f)
Issue size                               0.858 ***                                           0.887 ***                                           0.940 ***
(amount raised per issue)              [9.992]                                             [8.291]                                             [5.422]
Maturity (years)                          0.401                      0.377                   0.344                     0.344                    -0.016                  -0.201
                                        [1.181]                    [1.107]                 [0.893]                   [0.855]                   [0.033]                 [0.402]
Foreign currency-denominated             0.748 ***                  0.734 ***                0.718 ***                0.696 ***                  0.670 ***               0.643 ***
                                           [21]                       [20]                [15.555]                 [14.503]                    [7.640]                 [7.025]
Floating rate                            -0.295 ***                 -0.291 ***              -0.299 ***                -0.276 ***                -0.298 ***              -0.257 **
                                        [6.543]                    [6.508]                 [5.422]                   [5.146]                   [3.018]                 [2.622]
No. of observations                     11,098                     11,098                    1,586                    1,586                       253                     253
No. of firms                             3,143                      3,143                      208                      208                        69                      69
                                               Table 7
         Comparison of Yield Spreads between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets
This table compares the yield spread at issue of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008
period. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the
firm's home country. The sample includes only U.S. dollar-denominated fixed rate issues. The table reports least squares
regressions of the yield spread at issue (in basis points) on a dummy identifying issues abroad and different sets of control
variables. The regressions in columns (a), (b), and (c) are estimated including country-year dummies. The regressions in
columns (d), (e), and (f) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects and country-year dummies. The yield spread at issue
is defined as the difference between the yield to maturity on a given bond and the yield to maturity on a risk-free bond with
a similar maturity on the issuance date. The yield to maturity on a risk-free bond is measured as the yield to maturity on
the constant maturity Treasury securities published by the Federal Reserve. Data on amount raised are in million U.S.
dollars at 2008 prices. Credit rating dummies are based on Standard and Poor's credit ratings. The excluded rating
category dummy is that for bonds rated AA- and above. Standard errors are estimated with clustering at the firm level.
Absolute values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **, *** mean significance at ten, five, and one percent, respectively.



                                                           Dependent variable: Bond yield spread at issue
                                          (a)            (b)             (c)             (d)              (e)            (f)
Issue abroad dummy                    -22.907 **     -11.313 **     -13.844 ***      -15.133 ***     -15.555 ***    -14.563    ***
                                       [2.573]        [2.011]        [2.659]          [3.376]         [3.549]        [3.301]
Issue rated CCC- to CCC+ dummy                      428.814 ***    411.176 ***                      296.807 ***    261.675     ***
                                                    [10.404]         [9.889]                          [9.215]        [9.307]
Issue rated B- to B+ dummy                          342.456 ***    329.012 ***                      156.588 ***    145.212     ***
                                                    [45.952]       [43.101]                           [7.902]        [7.260]
Issue rated BB- to BB+ dummy                        161.500 ***    157.355 ***                        74.629 ***     74.661    ***
                                                      [6.325]        [6.559]                          [4.007]        [3.880]
Issue rated BBB- to BBB+ dummy                        62.098 ***     54.436 ***                       28.016 ***     25.344    ***
                                                    [10.964]       [11.674]                           [4.912]        [4.499]
Issue rated A- to A+ dummy                            27.605 ***     23.865 ***                         3.889          1.831
                                                      [5.810]        [5.722]                          [1.379]        [0.674]
Issue not rated dummy                                 15.785 ***     23.010 ***                         5.529          5.521
                                                      [3.179]        [4.742]                          [1.500]        [1.609]
Log of issue size                                                      4.161 ***                                       1.575   **
                                                                     [3.671]                                         [2.092]
Issue maturity                                                         2.536 ***                                       1.660   ***
                                                                   [14.710]                                        [12.698]
Subordinated issue dummy                                             23.202 ***                                      32.983    ***
                                                                     [6.320]                                         [7.912]
Sinking fund dummy                                                   21.149 **                                        -1.244
                                                                     [2.385]                                         [0.304]

Country-year dummies                     Yes            Yes            Yes              Yes             Yes            Yes
Firm-level fixed effects                 No             No             No               Yes             Yes            Yes

No. of observations                     30,828         30,828         30,828           30,828         30,828         30,828
No. of firms                            4,763          4,763           4,763           4,763          4,763          4,763
                                                Table 8
         Comparison of Yield Spreads between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets
                            Only Firms that Issue Bonds at Home and Abroad
This table compares the yield spread at issue of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008
period. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the
firm's home country. The sample includes only U.S. dollar-denominated fixed rate issues and only firms that issue this type
of bonds both at home and abroad at some point during the sample period. The table reports least squares regressions of
the yield spread at issue (in basis points) on a dummy identifying issues abroad and different sets of control variables. The
regressions in columns (a), (b), and (c) are estimated including country-year dummies. The regressions in columns (d), (e),
and (f) are estimated including firm-level fixed effects and country-year dummies. The yield spread at issue is defined as
the difference between the yield to maturity on a given bond and the yield to maturity on a risk-free bond with a similar
maturity on the issuance date. The yield to maturity on a risk-free bond is measured as the yield to maturity on the
constant maturity Treasury securities published by the Federal Reserve. Data on amount raised are in million U.S. dollars
at 2008 prices. Credit rating dummies are based on Standard and Poor's credit ratings. The excluded rating category
dummy is that for bonds rated AA- and above. Standard errors are estimated with clustering at the firm level. Absolute
values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **, *** mean significance at ten, five, and one percent, respectively.



                                                           Dependent variable: Bond yield spread at issue
                                          (a)            (b)             (c)             (d)              (e)            (f)
Issue abroad dummy                    -23.383 ***    -19.153 ***    -17.273 ***      -16.640 ***     -16.522 ***    -13.721    ***
                                       [3.568]        [4.056]        [3.511]          [4.039]         [4.071]        [3.105]
Issue rated B- to B+ dummy                          306.814 ***    308.698 ***                      262.668 ***    260.458     ***
                                                    [18.363]       [18.170]                         [17.837]       [15.475]
Issue rated BB- to BB+ dummy                        163.792 ***    163.231 ***                      162.523 ***    158.898     ***
                                                      [3.952]        [3.886]                          [3.866]        [3.618]
Issue rated BBB- to BBB+ dummy                        75.757 ***     74.799 ***                       45.523 ***     42.692    ***
                                                      [5.955]        [5.746]                          [2.781]        [2.700]
Issue rated A- to A+ dummy                            29.788 ***     27.212 ***                         3.137         -0.119
                                                      [4.772]        [4.706]                          [0.514]        [0.020]
Issue not rated dummy                                 25.469 ***     28.431 ***                      -10.359          -7.328
                                                      [2.780]        [3.099]                          [0.948]        [0.690]
Log of issue size                                                     -0.068                                           0.727
                                                                     [0.046]                                         [0.667]
Issue maturity                                                         2.129 ***                                       2.202   ***
                                                                     [5.040]                                         [8.562]
Subordinated issue dummy                                               3.181                                           2.769
                                                                     [0.462]                                         [0.376]
Sinking fund dummy                                                  -43.291                                         -44.277
                                                                     [1.646]                                         [1.367]

Country-year dummies                     Yes            Yes            Yes              Yes             Yes            Yes
Firm-level fixed effects                 No             No             No               Yes             Yes            Yes

No. of observations                     6,715          6,715          6,715            6,715           6,715          6,715
No. of firms                             189            189            189              189             189            189
                                                Table 9
         Comparison of Yield Spreads between Bond Issues in Domestic and International Markets
             Only Firms that Issue Bonds at Home and Abroad After Internationalization -
                                 Only Issues After Internationalization
This table compares the yield spread at issue of bond issues at home and abroad conducted by firms over the 1991-2008
period. Issues at home are those carried out in the firm's home country. Issues abroad are those conducted outside the
firm's home country. The sample includes only U.S. dollar-denominated fixed rate issues and only firms that issue this type
of bonds both at home and abroad after their first bond issue abroad during the sample period. Only bond issues conducted
after internationalization are included. The table reports least squares regressions of the yield spread at issue (in basis
points) on a dummy identifying issues abroad and different sets of control variables. The regressions in columns (a), (b),
and (c) are estimated including country-year dummies. The regressions in columns (d), (e), and (f) are estimated including
firm-level fixed effects and country-year dummies. The yield spread at issue is defined as the difference between the yield
to maturity on a given bond and the yield to maturity on a risk-free bond with a similar maturity on the issuance date. The
yield to maturity on a risk-free bond is measured as the yield to maturity on the constant maturity Treasury securities
published by the Federal Reserve. Data on amount raised are in million U.S. dollars at 2008 prices. Credit rating dummies
are based on Standard and Poor's credit ratings. The excluded rating category dummy is that for bonds rated AA- and
above. Standard errors are estimated with clustering at the firm level. Absolute values of t-statistics are in brackets. *, **,
*** mean significance at ten, five, and one percent, respectively.



                                                            Dependent variable: Bond yield spread at issue
                                           (a)            (b)             (c)             (d)              (e)            (f)
Issue abroad dummy                     -25.261 ***    -23.766 ***    -22.271 ***      -18.255 ***     -19.738 ***    -16.961    ***
                                        [4.809]        [5.306]        [4.018]          [3.606]         [4.310]        [3.330]
Issue rated B- to B+ dummy                           297.315 ***    298.676 ***                      281.110 ***    279.057     ***
                                                     [19.090]       [17.751]                         [14.576]       [13.842]
Issue rated BB- to BB+ dummy                         151.335 **     149.256 **                       196.289 ***    193.138     ***
                                                       [2.400]        [2.325]                          [3.399]        [3.262]
Issue rated BBB- to BBB+ dummy                         89.547 ***     93.761 ***                       65.235 **      62.919    ***
                                                       [3.860]        [4.218]                          [2.585]        [2.695]
Issue rated A- to A+ dummy                             28.592 ***     27.594 ***                         9.719          5.797
                                                       [4.259]        [4.117]                          [0.882]        [0.555]
Issue not rated dummy                                  32.165 ***     35.163 ***                        -6.810         -3.098
                                                       [2.742]        [2.929]                          [0.444]        [0.207]
Log of issue size                                                       0.785                                           1.686
                                                                      [0.357]                                         [1.000]
Issue maturity                                                          1.861 ***                                       2.545   ***
                                                                      [2.712]                                         [5.225]
Subordinated issue dummy                                                1.049                                        -10.809
                                                                      [0.108]                                         [0.902]
Sinking fund dummy                                                   -13.131                                         -11.741
                                                                      [0.420]                                         [0.332]

Country-year dummies                      Yes            Yes            Yes              Yes             Yes            Yes
Firm-level fixed effects                  No             No             No               Yes             Yes            Yes

No. of observations                      3,738          3,738          3,738            3,738           3,738          3,738
No. of firms                              102            102            102              102             102            102
                                                                               Appendix Table 1
                                                                             Country Classification
This table presents the list of countries that constitute the different regions and their classification by income level. Countries are classified as developed or developing based on
the World Bank income level classification in 2008. Developed countries correspond to high-income economies according to the World Bank classification, those with a GNI per
capita of 11,456 U.S. dollars or higher in 2007. Developing countries correspond to low- and middle-income economies according to the World Bank classification, those with a
GNI per capita below 11,456 U.S. dollars in 2007. * means the country is classified as developed.



                                                                      Eastern Europe &         Latin America &
                           Africa                   Asia                Central Asia              Caribbean           Middle East        Western Europe               Other

Australia *        Central African Rep.     China                   Bulgaria                 Argentina              Bahrain *          Austria *             Aruba *
Germany *          Egypt                    Hong Kong, China *      Croatia                  Barbados *             Iran               Belgium *             Bahamas *
Japan *            Ghana                    India                   Czech Republic *         Bolivia                Israel *           Cyprus *              Bermuda *
New Zealand *      Liberia                  Indonesia               Estonia *                Brazil                 Jordan             Denmark *             Cayman Islands *
United States *    Mauritius                Malaysia                Georgia                  Chile                  Kuwait *           Finland *             Guernsey *
                   Morocco                  Mongolia                Hungary *                Colombia               Lebanon            France *              Jersey *
                   Nigeria                  Pakistan                Kazakhstan               Costa Rica             Qatar *            Greece *              Netherlands Antilles *
                   South Africa             Philippines             Latvia                   Dominican Rep.         Saudi Arabia *     Iceland *             Puerto Rico *
                   Tanzania                 Singapore *             Lithuania                Ecuador                UAE (United        Ireland *
                   Tunisia                  Sri Lanka               Poland                   El Salvador            Arab Emirates) *   Italy *
                                            Taiwan *                Romania                  Guatemala                                 Liechtenstein *
                                            Thailand                Russian Federation       Jamaica                                   Luxembourg *
                                            Vietnam                 Serbia & Montenegro      Mexico                                    Malta *
                                                                    Slovak Republic *        Panama                                    Netherlands *
                                                                    Turkey                   Peru                                      Norway *
                                                                    Ukraine                  Uruguay                                   Portugal *
                                                                                             Venezuela                                 Slovenia *
                                                                                                                                       Spain *
                                                                                                                                       Sweden *
                                                                                                                                       Switzerland *
                                                                                                                                       United Kingdom *