2017/83 Supported by K NKONW A A WELDEGDEG E OL N ONTOET E S ESREI R E ISE S F OFRO R P R&A C T HTEH E NEENREGRYG Y ETX ITCREA C T I V E S G L O B A L P R A C T I C E THE BOTTOM LINE Shedding Light on Electricity Utilities in the Middle East and Better management, sustainable pricing, and selective, context- North Africa: Insights from a Performance Diagnostic specific reforms could free up enough investment resources to What is the main insight from the performance The solution is readily available. By improving the management enable power utilities to meet and performance of the region’s utilities, more than enough diagnostic? growing demand for electricity in resources could be freed up to make the investments that are the Middle East and North Africa, The immediate solution to freeing up sufficient needed to meet demand—and to do so more efficiently. according to this analysis of a financial resources to meet annual investments This brief summarizes a new study from the World Bank (Camos new dataset covering 14 MENA needs resides in utility performance and efficiency and others 2018) that assembles and analyzes indicators for a large economies and 67 electricity sample of electricity utilities in the region. The study is based on utilities. The electricity sector in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) collection and analysis of primary data on 36 performance indicators is in the grip of an apparent paradox. Although the region is home in the newly generated MENA Electricity Database. It covers 67 to the world’s largest oil and gas reserves and has been able to electricity utilities in 14 economies of the region: Algeria, the Arab Daniel Camos is a senior maintain electricity access rates of close to 100 percent in most of Republic of Egypt, Bahrain, Djibouti, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, infrastructure economist at its economies, it may not be able to cater to the future electricity the World Bank. Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, the West Bank, and the Republic needs of its fast-growing population and their business activities. of Yemen.1 Primary energy demand is expected to rise at an annual rate of 1.9 Robert Bacon is a percent through 2035, requiring a significant increase in generating consultant with the World What else can the new database teach us? capacity. Investments have not been rising fast enough to meet that Bank, focusing on energy requirement. Analysis of the new MENA Electricity Database sector economics. The annual investments needed to keep up with demand have suggests solutions that will be useful to a wide and been estimated at about 3 percent of the region’s projected gross influential audience Antonio Estache is domestic product (GDP) (Ianchovichina and others 2012). But in most professor of economics at economies of the region, the ability to make those investments is The essence of the solution is not surprising: it involves cutting costs the Université Libre de limited by fiscal constraints. The region’s 2015 fiscal deficits averaged and improving revenue. Efficiency improvements could generate Bruxelles. on average more financing (4 percent of the region’s GDP) than the 9.3 percent of GDP , and the economies with the largest deficits were those that most heavily subsidized electricity. It thus seems unavoid- sector’s investment needs (3 percent of the region’s GDP). That said, Mohamad Mahgoub able that economies will continue to cut financing for the sector as Hamid, a mechanical they adjust to their fiscal situation. To bridge the widening financing 1 Not included are Libya, the Syrian Arab Republic, and the Islamic Republic of Iran. The sam- engineer, is an energy gap, the electricity sector must find its own financing sources, and it ple of operators in the MENA region comprises 12 vertically integrated utilities, 29 distribution consultant with the must do so quickly to keep pace with demand. utilities, 23 generation utilities, and 3 transmission utilities. Data were collected from 2009 to World Bank. 2013, with 2013 as the base year. Although the database contains much partial information, it also contains 945 base-year entries for 2013 validated across 14 MENA economies and 3,832 entries for the period 2009–13. Shedding Light on Electricity Utilities in the Middle East and North Africa 2 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a the optimal mix of cost-cutting and revenue-enhancing solutions is Where will the region’s utilities find the investment economy- and even utility-specific, because cost and revenue-effi- funds they so badly need? ciency margins vary substantially across the region. The report estimates the quasi-fiscal deficit (QFD) of the power Cutting hidden costs in the power sector is the key sector in the economies of the region and determines the proportion Explicit and implicit subsidies of the region’s power sector impose The essence of the solution that can be attributed to four factors: underpricing (setting tariffs a very heavy burden on taxpayers and electricity users. The burden is not surprising: it involves below costs), collection losses (failure to bill or collect revenues can be measured in terms of the utilities’ hidden costs, or QFDs, owed to the utility), transmission and distribution losses (made of which express the cost of not operating as efficiently as a well-run cutting costs and improving technical and non-technical losses such as electricity theft), and utility. The QFD encompasses four types of inefficiency: underpricing, revenue. overstaffing (employing more labor than a comparable efficient collection losses, transmission and distribution losses, and over- utility would do). It then assesses the utilities’ relative performance staffing. Underpricing is almost always linked to explicit subsidies of on a wide variety of technical, financial, and commercial indicators, the sector. Implicit subsidies, such as commercial losses, collection explores the scope for improvements and estimates the degree to failures, and overstaffing, are generally linked to poor management.2 which performance is affected by (a) vertical integration, (b) utility In half of the 14 Middle Eastern and North African economies size, (c) utility ownership, (d) the presence or absence of a regulator, studied, the QFD of the power sector exceeds 4 percent of the entire and (e) the level of development of a given economy. economy’s GDP . In most economies, the deficit is greater than the The target audiences for the study are managers of electricity immediate investment needed in the electricity sector. The QFD utilities, regulators, policy makers, and other stakeholders (including share of GDP is relatively small in Maghreb economies and large in members of civil society) concerned with the performance of some Mashreq and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) economies. specific utilities. The analysis is likely to be useful both at the sector Estimates of the QFD range between −0.1 percent of GDP for the level, since it highlights directions in which the sector may want to West Bank to 8.9 percent in Lebanon (figure 1). To put this in context, evolve, and at the macroeconomic level, since it highlights the main consider that in Sub-Saharan Africa, where social concerns are at drivers of the fiscal costs of the sector. At the utility level, the data least as large as in MENA, the sector’s QFD ranges from −0.3 percent (where they are detailed enough) allow managers and regulators to to 6 percent. At the utility level, performance also varies widely. evaluate performance features, which can then help them weigh When measured as a share of utilities’ revenue, QFDs range from 25 the trade-offs involved in making utilities more cost-effective and percent for a West Bank distribution utility to almost 1,300 percent client-oriented. For regulators and other stakeholders concerned for the vertically integrated Iraqi power ministry. The QFD of at least with the need to improve governance of the sector, the overall 13 utilities exceeds their revenue. In other words, these utilities analysis identifies significant information gaps. Without data, poor would double their revenue if they were to maximize their efficiency. management and poor policy decisions are unlikely to be addressed, These figures reveal the extent to which utility-specific inefficiencies imposing a significant cost on users and taxpayers. common in the region may be preventing self-financing. Absolute It should be remembered that the baseline year of the study is QFD values by economy, including the cost of the component of 2013 and that the power sector has changed since then—in some inefficiencies, are provided in table A.2 at the end of the brief. economies more than others. Several economies are addressing deep fiscal deficits linked to a long history of high energy subsidies that have endured since the Arab Spring. An appropriate response to this limitation of the study is to expand and extend the analysis and data collection begun here. 2 The methodology used in the report for the QFD of utilities was largely inspired by Trimble and others (2016). Another example of the use of the concept is Eberhard and others (2008). 3 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a Figure 1. Contribution of inefficiency category to the quasi-fiscal deficit of the power sector as a percentage of GDP in 14 MENA economies, 2013 10 Labor inefficiency (overstaffing) 9 Commericial inefficiency (collection losses) 8 Technical inefficiency (T&D losses) Without data, poor 7 Financial inefficiency (underpricing) management and poor 6 Percent 5 policy decisions are 4 unlikely to be addressed, 3 imposing a significant cost 2 1 on users and taxpayers. 0 -1 Egypt, Saudi Yemen, Lebanon Djibouti Bahrain Jordan Arab Rep. Arabia Rep. Iraq Oman Algeria Qatar Tunisia Morocco West Bank Source: World Bank calculations. Note: GDP = gross domestic product; MENA = Middle East and North Africa; T&D = transmission and distribution. Do the hidden costs show a pattern? operators (Jerusalem District Electricity Company and NEDCO) and for the Republic of Yemen’s vertically integrated utility. Underpricing is the major source of inefficiencies; Low tariffs and overstaffing often reflect good intentions, but they others are economy and utility specific are not the most effective ways to ensure that the poor can afford About two-thirds of the QFDs we detected can be traced to tariffs electricity or to boost employment. Moreover, given their present being set below cost-recovery levels in most economies (figure 2), macroeconomic prospects, many MENA economies cannot afford to which nearly always reflects a political decision intended to protect continue to lavish, on average, 2 percent of GDP on poorly targeted current users. Even under such circumstances, however, managing electricity subsidies (IMF 2013). Improving the sector’s performance costs can go far to enhance revenues. For example, Jordan’s high will allow economies to increase the social returns on fiscal levels of cost inefficiency are largely due to electricity production costs resources by allocating savings where they will do the most good, that reflect the preponderant role of diesel and fuel oil in generation. whether within the sector or outside of it. The remaining third is explained by technical losses, collection Identifying and unbundling hidden cost drivers and inefficiencies failures, and overstaffing, which are all mostly management decisions, at the utility level can pinpoint areas for improvement—whether though overstaffing may sometimes represent a political decision if it financial, technical, commercial, or labor related—and, from a reg- is an issue for all utilities in a given economy. These sources of ineffi- ulatory perspective, improve the accountability of key actors. From ciencies should not be underestimated, as they represent half of the the perspective of sector policy, quantification of the QFD provides resources needed for the sector’s investment needs. Overstaffing is of a rough order of magnitude of the improvements for which govern- particular concern in only a few utilities, almost all of them distribution ments might aim. Taking advantage of readily available opportunities utilities in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Collecting bills seems to be a to reduce cost inefficiencies in the generation and distribution of significant challenge for distribution utilities in Djibouti, Jordan, and the electricity will also increase the creditworthiness of utilities, thus West Bank. Technical losses are significant for two of the West Bank facilitating access to commercial financing. 4 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a Figure 2. Comparison of average end-user and cost-recovery tariffs in the MENA region, 2013 40 Average end-user tariff (Te) 35 Cost recovery tariff (Tc) 30 The quasi-fiscal deficit of 25 US¢/kWh at least 13 utilities exceeds 20 their revenue. These figures 15 reveal the extent to which 10 utility-specific inefficiencies 5 0 common in the region Tunisia Qatar Bahrain West Bank Oman Iraq Algeria Egypt, Morocco Saudi Jordan Yemen, Lebanon Djibouti may be preventing Arab Rep. Arabia Rep. Source: World Bank calculations. self-financing. Note: MENA = Middle East and North Africa; kWh = kilowatt-hour What about management? on a risky strategy as indicated by (a) a low ratio of current assets to current liabilities (lower than 100 percent) and (b) an exceptionally In general, commercial and financial management do high debt-to-equity ratio (almost four times the median outside the not match technical performance region), leaving utilities highly exposed to external shocks. For more than half of the indicators selected—most of them techni- The importance of labor costs highlighted by the QFD analysis is cal—the region’s economies tend to perform better than the sample likely to be a particularly sensitive topic in any policy discussion of of economies outside the region. Unfortunately, there does not the data reported in this study. Connections per employee are con- seem to be a clear correlation between good technical performance siderably lower in MENA than in other regions, suggesting that hiring and sustainable financial performance, and unless the sector can practices in the region may need to be reviewed in some cases. increase its revenue or better manage its costs, the current technical Where the matter is so sensitive that overstaffing simply cannot be level is unlikely to be sustainable (table 1). broached, it may nevertheless be useful to quantify the costs of not On the technical and operational side, international comparisons addressing the issue, thereby clarifying the implications for subsidy and trend analysis point to a significant increase in operating levels (if revenues cannot be increased). expenses during the period covered. This finding is consistent with the increase in oil prices from 2009 to 2013. With regard to commercial management, the indicators reveal (a) What can be done to improve sector performance? a high dependence on subsidies to recover costs and (b) a high tol- Well-targeted institutional and economic reforms are erance for nonpayment (with a ratio of accounts receivable to sales desirable—and feasible! that is almost three times that of economies from other regions). On financial dimensions, despite return-on-assets and return-on- Utilities are central to all organizational models found in the region, yet equity values that are somewhat better than those of peer econo- these models show substantial differences, some of which have been mies outside the region, MENA’s power sectors appear to be relying credited with—or blamed for—differences in utilities’ performance. 5 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a Table 1. Comparing the median performance of selected MENA and non-MENA utilities MENA Non-MENA All utilities Distribution Vertically integrated median median utilities utilities Technical and operational indicators OPEX/connection ($) DU: 346 DU: 129 — MENA higher MENA higher The results support VIU: 1,237 VIU: 594 the hypothesis that OPEX/kWh sold ($) DU: 0.10 DU: 0.14 — MENA lower Samples too small performance differences VIU: 0.07 VIU:0.18 Residential connections/employee DU: 252 DU: 367 — MENA lower MENA lower between utilities are likely VIU: 90 VIU: 157 to be correlated with Distribution losses 11 12 Equivalent — — institutional and economic Commercial indicators policy variables, although Energy sold (kWh)/connection 4,223 3,405 MENA higher — — a more thorough analysis Total billing/connection 299 292 MENA somewhat higher — — is needed to be able to Collection rate 92 94 MENA somewhat lower — — Financial indicators establish causality. Sales/OPEX (%) DU: 93 DU: 98 — MENA somewhat MENA somewhat VIU: 92 VIU: 87 lower higher Sales/total costs (%) DU: 88 DU: 97 — MENA higher MENA lower VIU: 56 VIU: 67 (depending on (depending on subsidies) subsidies) Accounts receivable/sales (days) 148 52 MENA much higher — — Debt/equity 357 91 MENA much higher and essentially — — unsustainable Current assets/current liabilities 84 88 Equivalent but not ideal — — Return on assets (%) 3 1 MENA somewhat higher but not high enough — — to stimulate financing Return on equity (%) 6 0 MENA higher but not commensurate with risk — — Source: World Bank calculations. Note: DU = distribution utility; kWh = kilowatt-hours; MENA = Middle East and North Africa; OPEX = operating expenses; VIU = vertically integrated utility; — = not applicable. Comparisons are only made for all utilities together when the indicator has the same meaning for different type of utilities. Otherwise comparisons are made separately for distribution utilities and vertically integrated utilities. The correlations between various institutional and contextual (or “driver”) was statistically significant. (A detailed table of some of characteristics (utility type, size, ownership, presence of a separate the 36 performance indicators found in the book appears at the end regulatory agency, and national income level) and performance indi- of the brief as table A.1.) cators, despite limitations (notably the use of cross-sectional rather The results support the hypothesis that performance differences than time-series data), suggest how and where reform policies may between utilities are likely to be correlated with institutional and be most effective. Of the 36 performance indicators used for this economic policy variables, although a more thorough analysis is analysis, 25 showed a statistically significant effect associated with needed to be able to establish causality. one of the characteristics; in 14 cases, more than one characteristic 6 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a Table 2. Categories of indicators where drivers of performance show significant results for a substantial proportion of the indicators in the category Indicator categories showing significant results for that driver Driver of Consumption and performance Losses efficiency Labor efficiency Cost efficiency Balance sheet Profitability billing Metering The case for change in Type of utility 3 3 3 the region’s monitoring Size 3 3 3 practices is thus strong— Ownership 3 3 and change is possible. Regulation 3 3 But without the checks Income 3 3 3 and balances provided by Source: World Bank calculations. an effective monitoring system, progress in addressing challenges Utility type and size are two of three policy-related drivers that Anything else? were most often significant (each for 30 percent of the indicators cannot be tracked tested), whereas ownership type (public or private) and presence of Yes. More systematic monitoring of sector adequately. an independent regulator are significant for about 20 percent of the performance is needed indicators tested. National income level was significant in 35 percent The MENA Electricity Database and the study summarized here offer of the tests, indicating that this variable should be considered in any the region a comparable dataset for a statistically significant sample comparison across economies. of economies within the MENA region, as well as a baseline against The effects of reform would not be felt across all indicators but which future progress can be tracked and measured. are likely to be concentrated on certain aspects of performance. To be effective and to ensure accountability of policy makers and Table 2 shows that the significant results for each driver are con- managers, progress needs to be measured from baseline to target, centrated within two or three categories of indicators. For example, which is how comparisons can become an input for policy. Targets utility type has a substantial proportion of significant links to the are best set at the firm level for most operational matters, but indicator categories of losses efficiency, profitability, and consump- sector-level targets are needed as well if governments are to address tion and billing, and it has no links at all to the categories of labor the fiscal and social concerns and constraints raised in the analysis. efficiency, cost efficiency, balance sheet, and metering. Ownership The comparable components of the dataset cover indicators in and regulation are linked to cost efficiency and labor efficiency. This three broad performance categories: (a) technical and operational, finding suggests that improvements in cost efficiency and labor (b) financial, and (c) commercial. But the dataset also exposes the efficiency are particularly open to reform efforts, because ownership monitoring weaknesses of the region. Very little comparable informa- and regulation are relatively easy factors to adjust. Other categories tion exists for generation utilities, for example. On many performance of indicators may be influenced by other drivers or by a complex indicators, comparability is not possible, either for lack of data or combination of factors that simple testing of one characteristic at a because the indicators have different meanings for different types of specific point in time was unable to duplicate. utilities in different economies of the region. 7 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a The gaps in the data that are needed for good policy and manage- References ment are real but not unsurmountable. To help fill them, authorities in Arab Union of Electricity. 2014. “Electricity Tariff in the Arab the region may wish to impose on regulated industries guidelines and Countries.” Arab Union of Electricity, Amman. other information-sharing requirements derived from modern regu- Camos, D., R. Bacon, A. Estache, and M. M. Hamid. 2018. Shedding latory practice. For unregulated utilities, standard accounting reports Light on Electricity Utilities in the Middle East and North The analysis provided and annual balance sheets can go a long way toward supplying the Africa: Insights from a Performance Diagnostic. Directions in here has shown how raw data needed to improve monitoring of the region’s electricity Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. sector, provided the will to use that information is present. much room there is to Eberhard, A., V. Foster, C. Briceño-Garmendia, F. Ouedraogo, D. Without a political commitment to improve the dataset and to Camos, and M. Shkaratan. 2008. “Underpowered: The State of cut specific costs and to use it to monitor progress and fine-tune policy, it will be difficult the Power Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Africa Infrastructure enhance revenue. It has for the sector’s decision makers to track efforts to cut the sector’s Country Diagnostic (AICD), summary of Background Paper 6, also shown, for many financing deficits and close its service gaps. The analysis provided World Bank, Washington, DC. here has shown how much room there is to cut specific costs and economies in the region, Ianchovichina, E., A. Estache, R. Foucart, G. Garsous, and T. Yepes. to enhance revenue. It has also shown, for many economies in the the unsustainability of 2012. “Job Creation through Infrastructure Investment in the region, the unsustainability of a business-as-usual approach. The Middle East and North Africa.” Policy Research Working Paper a business-as-usual case for change in the region’s monitoring practices is thus strong— 6164, World Bank, Washington, DC. approach. and change is possible. But without the checks and balances IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2013. Energy Subsidy Reform: provided by an effective monitoring system, progress in addressing Lessons and Implications. Washington, DC: IMF. challenges cannot be tracked adequately. Trimble, C., M. Kojima, I. P. Arroyo, and F. Mohammadzadeh. 2016. Many policy makers are already moving in the right direction by “Financial Viability of Electricity Sectors in Sub-Saharan Africa: making important institutional changes. How fast and how intensively Quasi-Fiscal Deficits and Hidden Costs.” Policy Research Working they move is likely to determine how quickly the financing and Paper 7788, World Bank, Washington, DC. service needs of the sector are met.  We are grateful to Erik Fernstrom and Vivien Foster for providing insights and guiding this exercise. 8 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a Table A.1. Key performance indicators by utility OPEX/connection Return on assets current liabilities Return on equity Sales/total costs receivable/sales sold/connection Current assets/ Energy volume Collection rate connections/ Total billing/ Debt/equity Distribution Sales/OPEX connection Residential OPEX/kWh employee Accounts Utility type losses Economy Utility $/con $/kWh con/emp % kWh/con $/con % % % days % % % % Algeria VIU SONELGAZ — 304 — 19 5,814 — — 92 56 — 428 146 –1.74 –7 Bahrain VIU EWA — 0.08 — — — — 97 37 — 205 67 84 0.88 1 Djibouti VIU EDD 1,612 0.43 44 — 3,713 — 37 152 110 192 222 274 — — Egypt, Arab DU AEDC 134 0.04 155 11 3,658 111 99 83 — 81 — 77 0.18 0.26 Rep. GU CEPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — 5 0 1 DU CEDC 230 0.04 178 6 5,862 197 94 89 83 — 685 66 2 8 GU EDEPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3,484 37 0.05 0.3 TU EETC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — 53 — — DU EEDC 157 0.04 188 10 4,392 132 95 90 80 175 527 103 0.04 0.12 GU MDEPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2,509 68 0.03 0.41 DU MEEDC 115 0.03 296 11 3,746 96 92 86 77 115 501 85 0.06 0.14 DU NCEDC 157 0.04 252 10 4,340 138 93 91 87 183 850 71 0.19 0.61 DU NDEDC 101 0.03 315 9 3,133 97 84 — 90 — 677 97 0.30 0.83 DU SCEDC 169 0.04 233 8 4,584 148 86 93 87 276 1,282 81 2.6 8.77 DU SDEDC 75 0.03 319 10 2,438 68 93 — — — 523 103 0.23 0.46 DU UEEDC 119 0.03 287 8 3,570 101 88 87 75 178 571 113 0.06 0.17 GU UEEPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1,270 56 0.35 3.02 GU WDEPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3,074 67 0.01 0.11 Iraq VIU MOE 820 0.07 — 37 — 182 — — — — — — — — Jordan GU AES Levant n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — — — — GU AAEPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 290 123 — — GU AES PSC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 333 287 — 36 GU CEGCO n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 354 95 12 21 DU EDCO — — 126 12 6,429 — — 97 — 117 1,476 99 5 16 DU IDECO 547 0.10 310 11 5,591 586 — 107 99 120 981 84 6 20 DU JEPCO — 0.14 364 14 7,437 — 97 93 — 122 576 80 25 12 TU NEPCO n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 126 — — — GU QEPCO n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 621 488 5 25 GU SEPCO n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 876 113 4 17 Lebanon VIU EdL 1,575 0.29 — 33 5,386 529 — 27 27 — — 15 –150 — Morocco DU AMENDIS Tanger 508 0.12 — 10 4,312 473 — — — — — — 3 3 DU AMENDIS Tetouan 346 0.15 — 11 2,292 299 — — — — — — –1 –2 DU LYDEC 836 0.20 — 7 4,223 520 — 100 89 76 279 72 — 18 VIU ONEE 510 0.09 — 15 5,634 190 — 118 87 159 3,327 63 –4 –127 DU RADEEL 361 0.12 — 8 2,953 — — 86 — — — — 6 7 DU REDAL 644 0.17 969 8 3,759 442 — 103 92 121 — 92 2 10 DU RAK 412 0.12 — 8 3,532 306 — 94 — — — — — — DU RADEEMA 410 0.10 — 5 4,047 466 — 130 — 205 41 — — — (continued) 9 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a OPEX/connection Return on assets current liabilities Return on equity Sales/total costs receivable/sales sold/connection Current assets/ Energy volume Collection rate connections/ Total billing/ Debt/equity Distribution Sales/OPEX connection Residential OPEX/kWh employee Accounts Utility type losses Economy Utility $/con $/kWh con/emp % kWh/con $/con % % % days % % % % Morocco DU RADEM 309 0.11 — 7 2,750 301 — 97 — — — — 21 22 DU RADEEJ 396 0.10 403 4 4,048 436 — 136 119 106 66 64 — — DU RADEEF 318 0.11 — — 2,814 312 — 98 — — — — — — DU RADEES 339 0.13 — 3 2,621 302 — 89 — — — — 14 16 Oman GU APBS n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 249 121 8 24 GU ABPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — n.a. n.a. n.a. 303 54 — — GU ASPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — n.a. n.a. n.a. 294 53 — — GU GPDCO n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — n.a. n.a. n.a. — 443 1 0.2 GU AKPP n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — n.a. n.a. n.a. 94 79 9 15 GU ARPP n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — n.a. n.a. n.a. — 156 — — GU BPDP n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1,857 42 3 — VIU DPC 1,438 0.05 92 15 27,586 — — 81 72 263 315 46 — — DU MJEC — 0.05 92 13 — — — 69 — 119 109 43 8 14 DU MZEC 1,150 — 115 11 — — — 61 — 110 148 18 6 14 DU MEDC 1,698 — 399 9 — — — 80 — 122 147 46 8 16 TU OETC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 192 — 7 20 GU PPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — — 0.1 — VIU RAECO 4,917 0.21 13 11 23,011 925 71 — — 365 316 128 3 11 GU SSPWC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 357 179 3 13 GU SPP n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1,399 118 3 — GU UPC n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 72 38 5 7 GU WAJPCO n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. — 504 8 2 Qatar VIU KAHRAMAA 1,519 — — — — — — 97 — 138 74 2145 — — Saudi Arabia VIU SEC 1,237 0.03 179 5 35,937 — — 99 39 205 392 86 2 5 Tunisia VIU STEG 948 — — 14 3,749 377 — 55 47 99 596 89 –4 –22 West Bank DU JEDCO — 0.19 — 26 5,988 97 — — — — 260 126 –20 –19 DU NEDCO 684 0.16 147 13 4,307 — 90 108 103 166 86 275 3 4 DU TUBAS 759 0.10 73 16 7,330 — 62 — — 276 — — 7 — Yemen, Rep. VIU PEC 158 0.06 90 36 2,631 178 — — — — — 75 — — Source: World Bank calculations. Egypt Electricity Production Company; WDEPC = West Delta Electricity Production Régie Autonome Intercommunale de Distribution d’Eau et d’Électricité de Safi; RADEEF Company; MOE = Ministry of Electricity; AES Levant = AES Levant Holding BV Jordan = Régie Autonome Intercommunale de Distribution d’Eau et d’Électricité de Fès; APBS Note: con = connection; DU = distribution utility; emp = employee; TU = transmission PSC; AES PSC = Amman East Power Plant; AAEPC = Amman-Asia Electric Generating = ACWA Power Barka; ABPC = Al Batinah Power Company; ASPC = Al Suwadi Power utility; VIU = vertically integrated utility; kWh = kilowatt-hour; n.a. = not applicable; Company; CEGCO = Central Electricity Generating Company; EDCO = Electricity Company; GPDCO = Al-Ghubra Power and Desalination Company; AKPP = Al-Kamil OPEX = operating expenses; T&D = transmission and distribution; - = not available; Distribution Company; IDECO = Irbid District Electricity Company; JEPCO = Jordan Power Plant; ARPP = Al-Rusail Power Plant; BPDP = Barka Power and Desalination SONELGAZ = Société Nationale de l’Électricité et du Gaz; EWA = Electricity and Water Electric Power Company; NEPCO = National Electric Power Company; QEPCO Plant; DPC = Dhofar Power Company; MJEC = Majan Electricity Company; MZEC = Authority; EDD = Électricité de Djibouti; AEDC = Alexandria Electricity Distribution = Qatrana Electric Power Company; SEPCO = Samra Electric Power Generating Mazoon Electricity Distribution Company; MEDC = Muscat Electricity Distribution Company; CEPC = Cairo Electricity Production Company; CEDC = Canal Electricity Company; EdL = Électricité du Liban; AMENDIS Tanger = AMENDIS Tanger; AMENDIS Company; OETC = Oman Electricity Transmission Company; PPC = Phoenix Power Distribution Company; EDEPC = East Delta Electricity Production Company; EETC = Tetouan= AMENDIS Tetouan; LYDEC = Lyonnaise des Eaux de Casablanca; ONEE = Company; RAECO = Rural Areas Electricity Company; SSPWC = Sembcorp Salalah Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company; EEDC = El-Behera Electricity Distribution Office National de l’Électricité et de l’Eau Potable; RADEEL = RADEEL; REDAL = REDAL Power and Water Company; SPP = Sohar Power Plant; UPC = United Power Company; Company; MDEPC = Middle Delta Electricity Production Company; MEEDC = Middle Rabat; RAK = Régie Autonome de Distribution d’Eau d’Électricité et d’Assainissement WAJPCO = Wadi Al-Jizzi Power Company; KAHRAMAA = Qatar General Electricity Egypt Electricity Distribution Company; NCEDC = North Cairo Electricity Distribution liquide de la Province de Kenitra; RADEEMA = Régie Autonome de Distribution d’Eau and Water Corporation; SEC = Saudi Electricity Company; STEG = Société Tunisienne Company; NDEDC = North Delta Electricity Distribution Company; SCEDC = South et d’Électricité de Marrakech; RADEM = Régie Autonome de Distribution d’Eau et de l’Électricité et du Gaz; JDECO = Jerusalem District Electricity Company; NEDCO = Cairo Electricity Distribution Company; SDEDC = South Delta Electricity Distribution d’Électricité de Meknès; RADEEJ = Régie Autonome de Distribution d’Eau, d’Électricité Northern Electricity Distribution Company; TUBAS = Tubas District Electricity Company; Company; UEEDC = Upper Egypt Electricity Distribution Company; UEEPC = Upper et d’Assainissement liquide des Provinces d’El Jadida et de Sidi Bennour; RADEES = PEC = Public Electricity Corporation. 10 S h e d d i n g L i g h t o n E le c t r i c i t y U t i l i t i es i n t h e M i d d le E as t an d N o r t h A f r i c a Table A.2. Absolute QFD values by economy, including the cost of each component of inefficiency Cost of the sources of inefficiencies expressed in absolute value ($ million) Commercial Absolute QFD QFD as Financial inefficiency Technical inefficiency inefficiency Labor inefficiency value share of GDP (underpricing) (T&D losses) (collection losses) (overstaffing) ($ million) (%) Lebanon 3,554 179 91 12 3,826 8.9 Djibouti 12 13 65 11 101 8.2 Bahrain 2,587 6 5 41 2,640 8.0 Jordan 2,003 283 252 70 2,608 7.8 Egypt, Arab Rep. 16,041 1,207 167 803 18,219 6.4 Saudi Arabia 35,806 848 1,264 549 38,467 5.2 Yemen, Rep. 1,137 291 27 38 1,494 4.2 Iraq 5,317 1,816 291 464 7,888 3.6 Oman 2,108 170 140 79 2,496 3.2 Algeria 3,063 766 213 678 4,720 2.3 Qatar 2,965 48 193 18 3,224 1.6 Tunisia 156 179 251 69 655 1.4 Morocco 639 321 197 -209 948 1.0 West Bank -95 34 34 15 -13 -0.1 Source: World Bank calculations. Note: GDP = gross domestic product; T&D = transmission and distribution; QFD = quasi-fiscal-deficit. Get Connected to Live Wire Live Wires are designed for easy reading on the screen and for downloading The Live Wire series of online knowledge notes is an initiative of the World Bank Group’s Energy and self-printing in color or “Live Wire is designed and Extractives Global Practice, reflecting the emphasis on knowledge management and solu- black and white. tions-oriented knowledge that is emerging from the ongoing change process within the Bank for practitioners inside Group. For World Bank employees: and outside the Bank. 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Once a year, the Energy and Extractives Global Practice takes stock of all notes that appeared, reviewing their quality and identifying priority areas to be covered in the following year’s pipeline. Please visit our Live Wire web page for updates: http://www.worldbank.org/energy/livewire e Pa c i f i c 2014/28 ainable energy for all in easT asia and Th 1 Tracking Progress Toward Providing susT TIVES GLOBAL PRACTICE A KNOWLEDGE NOTE SERIES FOR THE ENERGY & EXTRAC THE BOTTOM LINE Tracking Progress Toward Providing Sustainable Energy where does the region stand on the quest for sustainable for All in East Asia and the Pacific 2014/29 and cenTral asia energy for all? in 2010, eaP easTern euroPe sT ainable en ergy for all in databases—technical measures. This note is based on that frame- g su v i d i n had an electrification rate of Why is this important? ess Toward Pro work (World Bank 2014). SE4ALL will publish an updated version of 1 Tracking Progr 95 percent, and 52 percent of the population had access Tracking regional trends is critical to monitoring the GTF in 2015. to nonsolid fuel for cooking. the progress of the Sustainable Energy for All The primary indicators and data sources that the GTF uses to track progress toward the three SE4ALL goals are summarized below. consumption of renewable (SE4ALL) initiative C T I V E S G L O B A L P R A C T I C E ENERGY & EXTRA • Energy access. Access to modern energy services is measured T E S E R I E S F O R T H EIn declaring 2012 the “International Year of Sustainable Energy for energy decreased overall A KNO W L E D G E N Oand 2010, though by the percentage of the population with an electricity between 1990 All,” the UN General Assembly established three objectives to be connection and the percentage of the population with access Energy modern forms grew rapidly. d Providing Sustainable accomplished by 2030: to ensure universal access to modern energy energy intensity levels are high to nonsolid fuels.2 These data are collected using household Tracking Progress Towar services,1 to double the 2010 share of renewable energy in the global surveys and reported in the World Bank’s Global Electrification but declining rapidly. overall THE BOTTOM LINE energy mix, and to double the global rate of improvement in energy e and Central Asia trends are positive, but bold Database and the World Health Organization’s Household Energy for All in Eastern Europ efficiency relative to the period 1990–2010 (SE4ALL 2012). stand policy measures will be required where does the region setting Database. The SE4ALL objectives are global, with individual countries on that frame- on the quest for sustainable to sustain progress. is based share of renewable energy in the their own national targets databases— technical in a measures. way that is Thisconsistent with the overall of • Renewable energy. The note version energy for all? The region SE4ALL will publish an updated their ability energy mix is measured by the percentage of total final energy to Why is this important ? spirit of the work initiative. (World Bank Because2014). countries differ greatly in has near-universal access consumption that is derived from renewable energy resources. of trends is critical to monitoring to pursue thetheGTF in 2015. three objectives, some will make more rapid progress GTF uses to Data used to calculate this indicator are obtained from energy electricity, and 93 percent Tracking regional othersindicators primary will excel and data sources that elsewhere, depending on their the while the population has access le Energy for All in one areaThe goals are summarized below. balances published by the International Energy Agency and the the progress of the Sustainab respective track starting progress pointstowardand the three SE4ALL comparative advantages as well as on services is measured to nonsolid fuel for cooking. access. Accessthat they modern to are able to energy marshal. United Nations. despite relatively abundant (SE4ALL) initiative the resources and support Energy with an electricity connection Elisa Portale is an l Year of Sustainable Energy for To sustain percentage of by the momentum forthe the population achievement of the SE4ALL 2• Energy efficiency. The rate of improvement of energy efficiency hydropower, the share In declaring 2012 the “Internationa energy economist in with access to nonsolid fuels. three global objectives objectives, andathe means of charting percentage of the population global progress to 2030 is needed. is approximated by the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of renewables in energy All,” the UN General Assembly established the Energy Sector surveys and reported access to modern universalAssistance The World TheseBank and data are the collected International using household Energy Agency led a consor- of energy intensity, where energy intensity is the ratio of total consumption has remained to be accomplished by 2030: to ensure Management Database and the World of theenergy intium of 15 renewable international in the World Bank’s Global agencies toElectrification establish the SE4ALL Global primary energy consumption to gross domestic product (GDP) energy the 2010 share of Program (ESMAP) relatively low. very high energy services, to double Database. measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Data used to 1 t ’s Household provides Energy a system for regular World Bank’s Energy the global rate of improvemen and Extractives Tracking Framework Health (GTF), which Organization in the energy intensity levels have come and to double the global energy mix, Global Practice. (SE4ALL 2012). based on energy. of renewable The sharepractical, rigorous—yet energy given available calculate energy intensity are obtained from energy balances to the period 1990–2010 global reporting, Renewable down rapidly. The big questions in energy efficiency relative setting by the percentage of total final energy consumption published by the International Energy Agency and the United evolve Joeri withde Wit is an countries individual mix is measured Data used to are how renewables will The SE4ALL objectives are global, economist in with the overall from renewable energy when every resources. person on the planet has access Nations. picks up a way energy that is consistent 1 The universal derived that isaccess goal will be achieved balances published when energy demand in from energy their own national targets through electricity, clean cooking fuels, clean heating fuels, rates the Bank’s Energy and countries differ greatly in their ability calculate this indicator are obtained to modern energy services provided productive use and community services. The term “modern solutions” cookingNations. again and whether recent spirit of the initiative. Because Extractives Global rapid progress and energy for Energy Agency and the United liquefied petroleum gas), 2 Solid fuels are defined to include both traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural will make more by the refers to solutions International that involve electricity or gaseous fuels (including is pellets and briquettes), and of decline in energy intensity some t of those of efficiency energy and forest residues, dung, and so on), processed biomass (such as to pursue the three objectives, Practice. depending on their or solid/liquid fuels paired with Energy efficiency. The rate stoves exhibiting of overall improvemen emissions rates at or near other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). will excel elsewhere, rate (CAGR) of energy will continue. in one area while others liquefied petroleum gas (www.sustainableenergyforall.org). annual growth as well as on approximated by the compound and comparative advantages is the ratio of total primary energy respective starting points marshal. where energy intensity that they are able to intensity, measured in purchas- the resources and support domestic product (GDP) for the achievement of the SE4ALL consumption to gross calculate energy intensity Elisa Portale is an To sustain momentum terms. Data used to charting global progress to 2030 is needed. ing power parity (PPP) the International energy economist in objectives, a means of balances published by the Energy Sector International Energy Agency led a consor- are obtained from energy The World Bank and the SE4ALL Global Energy Agency and the United Nations. Management Assistance agencies to establish the the GTF to provide a regional and tium of 15 international for regular This note uses data from Program (ESMAP) of the which provides a system for Eastern Tracking Framework (GTF), the three pillars of SE4ALL World Bank’s Energy and Extractives on rigorous—yet practical, given available country perspective on Global Practice. global reporting, based has access Joeri de Wit is an will be achieved when every person on the planet The universal access goal heating fuels, clean cooking fuels, clean energy economist in 1 agricultural provided through electricity, biomass (wood, charcoal, to modern energy services The term “modern cooking solutions” to include both traditional and briquettes), and Solid fuels are defined the Bank’s Energy and use and community services. biomass (such as pellets 2 and energy for productive petroleum gas), and so on), processed fuels (including liquefied and forest residues, dung, involve electricity or gaseous at or near those of Extractives Global refers to solutions that overall emissions rates other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). with stoves exhibiting Practice. or solid/liquid fuels paired (www.sustainableenergyforall.org). liquefied petroleum gas Contribute to If you can’t spare the time to contribute to Live Wire, but have an idea for a topic, or case we should cover, let us know! Do you have something to say? We welcome your ideas through any of the following Say it in Live Wire! channels: Via the Communities of Those working on the front lines of energy and extractives development in emerging economies Practice in which you are have a wealth of technical knowledge and case experience to share with their colleagues but active seldom have the time to write for publication. By participating in the Energy Live Wire offers prospective authors a support system to make sharing your knowledge as easy as and Extractives Global possible: Practice’s annual Live Wire • Trained writers among our staff will be assigned upon request to draft Live Wire stories with series review meeting staff active in operations. • A professional series editor ensures that the writing is punchy and accessible. 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This note is databases—technical updated version of energy for all? The region SE4ALL will publish an has near-universal access to WhyD is this important? ERGY PRACTICE work (World Bank 2014). E G E N O T E S E R I E S F O R T H E E N to of A K N O W L is critical monitoring the GTF in 2015. that the GTF uses to electricity, and 93 percent Tracking regional trends for All The primary indicators and data sources below. goals are summarized the population has access the progres s of the Sustainable Energy progress toward the three SE4ALL Understanding CO Emissions from the Global Energy Sector nonsolid fuel for cooking. track is measured to modern energy services THE BOTTOM LINE to Your Name Here t (SE4ALL) initiativ e Energy access. Access connection despite relatively abundan 2 population with an electricity the share “Internat ional Year of Sustainable Energy for by the percentage of the access to nonsolid fuels.2 hydropow the energy sector contributes er, In declaring 2012 the the population with objectives and the percentage of of renewables in energy established three global and reported about 40 percent of global All,” the UN General Assembly access to modern using household surveys Why is this issue important? 2030: to ensure universal These data are collected and the World Become an author has remained emissions of CO2. three- consumption to be accomplished by in in the World Bank’s Global Electrification Database high energy double the 2010 knowledge share of renewable energy of the Database. relatively low. very Mitigating climate change energy requires services, to 1 quarters of those emissions ent Household Energy rate of improvem global Figure 1. CO2 emissions Health Organiza Figure tion’s 2. energy-related CO2 energy come from six major intensity levels have come energy mix, and to double the share of renewable energy in the of CO s2 emissions sources the global 0 (SE4ALL 2012). Renewab le energy. The question to the period 1990–201 by sector emissions by country consumption down rapidly. The big economies. although coal-fired in energy efficiency relative setting d by the percenta ge of total final energy of Live Wire and countries global, with individual mix is measure lics evolve les will opportunities to cut emissions of greenhouse aregases used to plants account for just are how renewab Identifying The SE4ALL objectives le energy resources. Data 0.5% picks up understanding of the main sources ofin those a way that is consistent with emis- the overall that is derived from renewab balances published 40 percent of world energy when energy demand requires a clear their own national targets in their ability other this indicator are obtained from energy 80 percent of differ greatly residential calculate production, they were again and whether Carbonrates sions.recent dioxide (CO2) accounts for more than spirit of the initiative. Because countries 6% sectors other Mics Agency and the United Nations. will make more rapid progress by the International Energy china 10% 15% intensity gas emissions globally, 1 primarily from the burning s, some efficiency is contribute to your responsible for more than of decline in energy total greenhouse to pursue the three objective on their other Hics . The rate of improvement of energy energy sector—defined toexcel elsewhere, depending include Energy efficiency 30% growth rate (CAGR) of energy will continue. of fossil fuels (IFCC 2007). The will 8% in one area while others by the compound annual energy 70 percent of energy-sector as well as on 41% approxim and heat generation—contributed and compara tive advantages 41 ated Japan 4% energy the ratio of total primary industry emissions in 2010. despite fuels consumed for electricity respective starting points 20% russia energy intensity is of global CO emissions in 2010 (figure 1). Energy-related that they are able to marshal. intensity, where measure d in purchas- improvements in some percent 2 the resources and support 7% usa product (GDP) gross domestic practice and career! an at the point of combustion make up the m bulk for the such of achievem ent of the SE4ALL other consumption to india 19% calculate energy intensity countries, the global CO2 CO Elisa 2 emissions Portale is To sustain momentu transport road 7% eu terms. Data used to andin are generated by the burning of fossil is needed. global progress to 2030 6% transport fuels, industrial ing power parity (PPP) the International economist objectives, a means of charting balances published by emissions 11% emission factor for energy energy 16% EnergyandSector nonrenewable municipal waste to generate nal Energy Agency led electricity Internatio a consor- are obtained from energy The World Bank and the the waste, generation has hardly changed United Nations. ent Assistance venting and leakage to establish the emissions SE4ALL Global Energy Agency and the sector at the point and over the last 20 years. and heat. Black carbon and methane Managem tium of 15 international agencies Notes: Energy-related CO2 emissions are CO2 emissions from the energy from the GTF to provide a regional of the for regular This note usesanddata domestic provides a system bunkers, Program (ESMAP) presented in this note. of combustion. Other Transport includes international marine aviation for Eastern are not included in the analysis and Extractives Tracking Framework (GTF), which given aviation and available navigation, Other Sectors rail and pipeline transport; perspect include ive on the three pillars of SE4ALL commercial/public World Bank’s Energy on rigorous—yet practical, country and heat genera- global reporting, based services, agriculture/forestry, fishing, energy industries other than electricity Global Practice. not specified elsewhere; Energy = fuels consumed for electricity and Where do emissions come from? tion, and other emissions as has in the opening paragraph. HIC, MIC, and LIC refer to high-, middle-, access Joeri de Wit is an will be achieved when on the planet heat generation, every person defined The universal access goal of countries heating fuels, energy economistare Emissions concentrated in 1 in a handful to modern energy services provided through electricity, fuels, clean and low-income clean cooking countries. cooking solutions” to include both traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural The term “modern Source: IEA 2012a. Solid fuels are defined and briquettes), and the Bank’s Energy and use and community services. biomass (such as pellets 2 and come primarily from burning and energy coal for productive that involve electricity or gaseous fuels (including liquefied petroleum gas), near those of and forest residues, dung, and so on), processed Vivien Foster is sector Extractives Global refers to solutions overall emissions rates at or other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite). with stoves exhibiting or solid/liquid fuels paired emissions closely manager for the Sus- The geographical pattern of energy-related CO Practice. gas 2(www.sustainableenergy forall.org). liquefied petroleum middle-income countries, and only 0.5 percent by all low-income tainable Energy Depart- mirrors the distribution of energy consumption (figure 2). In 2010, ment at the World Bank countries put together. almost half of all such emissions were associated with the two (vfoster@worldbank.org). Coal is, by far, the largest source of energy-related CO2 emissions largest global energy consumers, and more than three-quarters globally, accounting for more than 70 percent of the total (figure 3). Daron Bedrosyan were associated with the top six emitting countries. Of the remaining works for London This reflects both the widespread use of coal to generate electrical energy-related CO2 emissions, about 8 percent were contributed Economics in Toronto. power, as well as the exceptionally high CO2 intensity of coal-fired by other high-income countries, another 15 percent by other Previously, he was an power (figure 4). Per unit of energy produced, coal emits significantly energy analyst with the more CO emissions than oil and more than twice as much as natural 2 World Bank’s Energy Practice. Gas Inventory 1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Greenhouse 0.php gas. Data—Comparisons By Gas (database). http://unfccc.int/ghg_data/items/380