LANDSCAPE NARRATIVE OF THE SUNDARBAN A SUMMARY A thick fog crawls slowly over the Bushra Nishat narrow channels of water that criss- Ganesh Pangare cross the delta and an egret emerges from a mangrove and gently takes flight as the forest wakes up to another beautiful morning. Natives from the nearby villages take out their boats to venture into the forest in search of fish, crabs, honey and timber, fully aware that tigers lurk in its shadows. This is the Sundarban – vibrant, mysterious, spectacular and, at times, dangerous. Photo credit: Ganesh Pangare 1 Why this narrative? To bridge the Famous for being one of the last regions because of the international remaining natural habitats of boundary, has been seen as two knowledge gap by the majestic Bengal tiger and the separate ecosystems instead of one collating data from eponymous sundari tree (a dominant since 1947. However, this shared both countries in mangrove species in the region), region offers India and Bangladesh a the Sundarban spreads over an great opportunity for collaborative order to facilitate area of about 10,200 km2 shared planning and action. the development between India and Bangladesh. It is a unique ecosystem that supports a At present, there is very little attempt of a collaborative huge assortment of plant and animal to understand the Sundarban in its action plan for the species and is sustained by a complex entirety, as one landscape or one region, and available literature focuses Sundarban. interaction between multifarious on only one side of the Sundarban geographical and ecological factors. Apart from its rich biodiversity, the (Dipu and Ahmed, 2013; Sarker, Sundarban is significant also because it 2010). This narrative, for the first time, provides livelihood to some of the most tries to bridge the knowledge gap by economically vulnerable people in the collating data from both countries in world, constituting nearly 0.1 per cent order to facilitate the development of the global population. of a collaborative action plan for the Sundarban region. This narrative The shared Sundarban region is defines the Sundarban region as the considered to be one of the seven Sundarban Reserve Forest (SRF) most globally important wetlands and the Ecologically Critical Area of the world (WWF, 2017). The (ECA) adjacent to the Sundarban in Sundarban National Park in India Bangladesh and Sundarban Biosphere and the Sundarban Reserve Forest in Reserve (SBR) in West Bengal, Bangladesh have been declared World India. Thus defined, the Sundarban Heritage Sites by UNESCO has also represents not only the uninhabited been listed as a Wetland of International mangrove forests but also the bordering Importance in the Ramsar Convention. areas that are home to people who are The Sundarban, geographically contiguous, directly dependent on the forest for but administratively split into two their lives and livelihood. The objectives of this narrative are to: g Create a multilayered and holistic understanding of the Sundarban to initiate planning activities that transcend political boundaries and multiple scales. g Align and analyse information of ecological, socio-economic and cultural variables of the Sundarban from different sources and records to support joint understanding of the Sundarban. g Synthesize current literature to identify effective management approaches and practices of the past. g Identify the gaps in learning, knowledge, data and information on the Sundarban. 2 The Sundarban is ever- changing and keeps evolving through the bio- tidal processes of accretion and erosion. The Physical Landscape The Sundarban landscape is dominated by deltaic simultaneously with deposition of silt and rise of formations that include a network of water channels riverbeds. This shapes the land masses (like beaches, (where freshwater rivers and canals mix with tidal dunes, swamps and so on) in the area and causes water seawater channels), salt marshes, tidal sandbars and channels to change their courses from time to time. islands. The tides play an important role in sculpting These changes can be sped up by land-reclamation the physical features of the land and the landscape efforts and sea level rise due to climate change. Planning keeps changing from high to low tide. However, the for this region needs to account for man-made as Sundarban landscape is not shaped by one factor alone well as natural changes and strike a balance between but by the complex interaction of the coastal system conservation of nature and the needs of the people. that includes tides, currents, sediments and organic matter. The Sundarban is ever-changing and keeps Around 30 percent of the Sundarban is covered evolving through the bio-tidal processes of accretion by water and the unique ecosystem of this mangrove and erosion. The natural resources management of the forest is shaped by rivers, canals and tidal flows. The Sundarban in both countries focuses on protection rivers in the region are fed by the distributaries of of plants and wildlife rather than conservation of the Ganga river system. The freshwater inflow from the habitat and overlooks the spatial progressions these rivers helps mitigate the salinity brought in by and interlinkages of the entire ecosystem. These the tidal seawater of the Bay of Bengal. However, in interlinkages between a wide variety of factors that recent decades the salinity has been rising in the area affect the ecosystem and each other, some of which and moving further inland due to reduced flow of exist outside the physical boundary of the forest, fresh water because of man-made diversions and dams hinder accurate analysis and as such result in slow as well as rise in sea levels. or insignificant progress in planning and resources The fragile ecosystem of the Sundarban and the management. Thus, the management of the Sundarban communities living in and around the Sundarban are will need to expand its spatial as well as subject-matter vulnerable to tropical cyclones, storm surges, erosion, boundaries if it is to capture such interrelationships. flood, drought, frequent inundation by high tide Most of the present-day Sundarban region was formed causing loss and disruption to lives and livelihood and during the last 5000 years by bio-tidal processes and often irreparable or long-term damage to the ecosystem. marine and atmospheric agencies. Erosion of estuary However, studies show that mangroves have the ability margins and changes in the sea face happens to cope with such hazards and, in most cases, recover from the impacts in due course (Spalding et.al. 2014). 3 The Biological Landscape Mangroves thrive in tropical estuarine succession in the Sundarban depends regions where mud-rich land meets on the freshwater rivers that deposit sea. Their specialized root systems silt, build land, and determine the help them survive high water stress salinity level. and fluctuations in temperature and The Sundarban salinity. The delicate balance of fresh The diverse array of plants, invertebrates and types of habitat in serves as a breeding water and seawater in the Sundarban the Sundarban support an abundant has helped create a unique ecosystem and nursing that is suitable for mangroves. wildlife, both terrestrial and aquatic. habitat for diverse However, increasing salinity in the The wildlife of the Sundarban has adapted to the freshwater and saline- marine organisms. region is bringing about changes in water environment and the ebb and flow vegetation –for example, trees like the Importantly, the tall sundari mangrove and golpata/nipa of tides. These wetlands also sustain billions of protozoans, cnidarians, Sundarban is one palm, which were abundant fifty years barnacles (Amphibalanus spp.), oysters ago, are now on the decline (Islam et of the few places in al., 2014). Salinity increase has affected (Crassostrea spp.), lichen and other the world where the the species combination and regular invertebrates. These organisms support juvenile fish, crabs, prawns, shrimps Bengal tigers still live in succession patterns and dwarf species and molluscs, which seek refuge in are gradually replacing the taller trees. the wild. The full impact of this on wildlife has, the shallow intertidal reaches that however, not been assessed. characterize the mangrove wetlands; these in turn are food to wading The Sundarban is home to a number migratory and local birds, pelicans of mangrove species like sundari and the endangered crocodile. As (Heritiera fomes), gewa (Excoecaria many as 447 species of vertebrate agallocha), goran (Ceriops decandra) wildlife (amphibians, reptiles, birds and keora (Sonneratia apetala). Sir and mammals) including the Gangetic David Prain (1903) recorded a total of and Irrawaddy dolphins, and the olive 334 species of plants in the Sundarban ridley turtles have also been reported. and surrounding areas. However, Importantly, the Sundarban is one recent studies have revealed a decline of the few places in the world where in diversity. In the Sundarban, three the Bengal tigers still live in the wild. distinct vegetation types have been The tigers are vulnerable to poaching documented in relation to varying and revenge killing. In the villages degrees of water salinity and freshwater around the Sundarban, prevention or flow, and the vegetation consists of resolution of tiger-human conflicts is a recurrent patches of these vegetation major part of tiger - conservation types. The pattern of vegetation efforts. 4 The Socio-Economic Landscape The conservation and management efforts in the Sundarban are primarily focused on protection of biodiversity and habitat of animals and plants. Till now, planning and strategy, in both India and Bangladesh, do not reflect the economic importance of the forest for the people who live nearby. These people are amongst the poorest in the region and face similar poverty- related issues on both sides of the border. The forest is their main source of livelihood as well as fuel, food, medicine and building materials. For example, in Bangladesh, the Sundarban provides employment for over 350,000 people working as jaleys (fishermen), bawalis (woodcutters), mouals (honey gatherers) and shrimp fry, crab, nipa- leaf and thatching- grass collectors (Tamang, 1993). In India, the livelihood of nearly 2 million people is linked with the Sundarban, which mainly includes fishing, crab, collection, honey and the Sundarban region have great beeswax collection and allied activities respect for it, and their traditional (Singh et al. 2010). practices, religious beliefs, rituals, folklore and arts and crafts promote With the moratorium on harvesting conservation and living in harmony of timber in both countries, agriculture with nature. Scientific management of and fishing and shrimp fry, crab the Sundarban mangrove forest was and honey collection are the most initiated during the British era when common ways of earning a living in the first call to preserve the forests the Sundarban. In recent decades was made in 1862 ( Choudhury and modern livelihood opportunities like Ahmed, 1994). Faced with dwindling tourism and brackish water shrimp forest produce, the colonial rulers farming have also gained popularity. declared some parts of the Sundarban The population, in the Sundarban as reserved forest in 1875–76 under Biosphere Reserve in India has the Forest Act (1855), and resource shown a steady increase over the last exploitation was brought under decade, while it has gone down in government control with a system of the areas surrounding the Sundarban permits. Despite this, by 1930s, the Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The standing stocks of other trees were on threat of natural hazards coupled with the decline due to unregulated felling the unpredictability of land and water and, thus, the Curtis plan, which was is a constant source of anxiety and based on detailed scientific inventory, vulnerability for the settlers around came into force in 1931. The Curtis the Sundarban. The fragile ecology of plan remains the last coordinated the region, threat of natural disasters, assessment of the entire Sundarban With the moratorium environmental degradation, drinking as one forest. Thereafter the relevant on harvesting of water scarcity due to increased salinity and inadequate infrastructure laws, policies and management plans timber in both have been Sundarban, focused only on development in the peripheral areas their side of the timber in both forest. countries, agriculture limiting livelihood options are the Issues and Shared Challenges The and fishing are the main reason for this out migration. Sundarban symbolizes a world of most common ways of Management and Conservation human earning a living in the poverty Practices Living in close contact and vulnerability surrounded by earning a living in the with raw nature, the people of natural Sundarban region. 5 richness. In Bangladesh and India –despite management of the region. Both countries national and international concern, are also vulnerable to the effects of climate political support and significant resource change like cyclones, fluctuations in water flows – a combination of exposure to salinity and flooding. Climate change and disasters and natural stresses, increasing sea level rise also affect agriculture and can population pressure, unregulated drives be devastating for the fragile Sundarban towards commercialization of natural ecosystem. products and insufficient institutional The management policies in both the coordination and capacity has led countries reflect their individual priorities, In Bangladesh to inadequate management of the and the political borders create the Sundarban and continuous degradation and India, of forest resources. While both countries perception that the two sides of the Sundarban are two separate regions. In around 7.5 face similar challenges with regard to Bangladesh, the Sundarban Reserve Forest sustainable resource management in the million people shared region, political and administrative (SRF) is managed by the Forest Department. Their primary focus is conservation of are directly boundaries have impacted their biodiversity. As per the provisions of effectiveness in dealing with these issues. dependent on Environmental Conservation Act, 1995, Around 7.5 million1 people are directly the 10-km wide band surrounding the the Sundarban. dependent on the Sundarban and suffer northern and eastern boundaries of the They suffer from several and similar dimensions of SRF, was declared ecologically critical area poverty in the two countries. The average (ECA) with the main objective of providing from many per capita income in the Indian part is about protection to the SRF and conservation of poverty- related USD 0.5 per day while the corresponding its biodiversity. However, other than a few problems like figure for the Bangladesh part is about USD uncoordinated activities by government 0.9 per day. Common factors highlighting and non-government agencies, no real poor health, low this extreme poverty include poor health initiative has been taken to manage and education, limited conditions, relatively low education levels, limited employment opportunities, develop the ECA area so far. In India, the degree of protection across the Sundarban employment inadequate infrastructure and very high Biosphere Reserve varies greatly. While opportunities risk of persistent cyclones, floods and embankment failures. the Project Tiger is federally managed, the national park and the wildlife sanctuaries and poor access are under the forest department of the state The Sundarban is an active delta region and to drinking water, the numerous islands are still being formed of West Bengal, who have varying degrees of control in different parts. The presence of sanitation and and reformed by natural processes. While numerous governmental organizations with mangroves help in soil conservation, sea electricity. level rise and tidal hydraulics have caused overlapping authorities and responsibilities gives rise to duplication of efforts, especially erosion in many of the islands. Hence, in terms of socioeconomic development, it needs to be included in planning and and monitoring of outcomes is limited. As regards data collection, three types of data are crucially required – forest inventory, wildlife census and survey, and hydro-meteorological data. While the government agencies in India and Bangladesh periodically collect these and other data, they lack a coordinated approach that can lead to a holistic understanding for better management of the Sundarban. Non-governmental actors, like researchers, scientists and journalists, add to the information database through their studies but their efforts are temporary and limited. After 1930 there has been no attempt to scientifically assess the Sundarban as a whole. This joint landscape narrative attempts to address these issues by combining data from a wide range of sources in order to support the development of a coordinated action plan. 1. Nearly 5 million in West Bengal, India, live in the buffer zone of Sundarban Biosphere Reserve and analyses from different studies (Hussain, 2014), show that the population, which according to BBS (2010) is 2.5 million, residing in a 20 km wide radius surrounding the periphery is directly dependent on the Sundarban in Bangladesh. 6 Emerging Opportunities for Coordinated and Concurrent Activities In 2011, India and Bangladesh signed Stronger economic growth and poverty a memorandum of understanding for reduction are critical to sustainable bilateral cooperation on conservation management of the Sundarban. All of the Sundarban and a protocol on plans with regard to conservation and the protection of tigers. Under these management of the Sundarban must two mutual agreements a number of include the people of the region as part strategic actions have been proposed to of the solution. Both countries recognize be undertaken in collaboration, such as the potential of green economy to boost joint research and monitoring, sharing economic growth and meet conservation of relevant information and technical goals simultaneously. They can work knowledge (e.g., on tiger–human together on this. Public services also conflict) between the concerned officials need to be strengthened, and joint of the two countries and execution of planning with a unifying agenda patrolling along the borders to prevent underpinned by goals and targets, and poaching and illegal trade. However, there exchange of experiences can be the mode is scope for more collaborative activities of cooperation. that the two countries can focus on and Fisheries and aquaculture can be many areas in which the two countries improved by measures such as joint fish can cooperate. By recognizing common stock assessment, helping local fishermen grounds and differences, specific needs improve productivity and profitability, and priorities can be identified. identifying more fish sanctuaries and India and Bangladesh can work together fostering backyard hatcheries to reduce on natural resources management to dependence on wild shrimp fry. improve biodiversity conservation The two countries also need to focus outcomes. Restoration and recovery more on marine resource conservation programmes and better recognition of through ocean research and marine the full value of forests can help increase protected areas. Integrating mangroves profitability, which could become an conservation in the marine resources incentive for investment in the forests. conservation can be an important Preventing or resolving human–wildlife approach for both countries. Joint conflicts and providing incentives to courses and curriculum development forest officials and communities can help focusing on applied /advance researches in protecting wildlife. Both countries such as marine bio- technology, marine can start community forestry that seeks fertilization and habitat modelling can be There is scope for to ensure both social interests and sustainable management of the forests introduced. more collaborative and offers an integrated package of India and Bangladesh have agreed activities that the benefits. Sharing relevant data on plant to work together on climate change and animal life and enhancing current adaptation and mitigation. Additional two countries can knowledge base will also be helpful. In activities they can focus on are, among focus on and many this, developments in technology can other things, conducting medium- and areas in which play a significant role. Cultural and long-range planning that incorporates media exchanges are also important for climate change and variability, creating the two countries improving bilateral relations as well as clear and integrated regional guidelines can co-operate. attracting new ideas and perspectives. for REDD+ (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation By recognizing India and Bangladesh can also work and the role of conservation, sustainable common grounds together to improve disaster management through technical cooperation, capacity management of forests and enhancement and differences, of forest carbon stocks in developing development and development of countries) community forestry, and specific needs and regional mechanisms and capacities for early warning among other things. studying the capacity of mangroves to act priorities can be as carbon sinks. identified. 7 The Way Forward Successful management of the Sundarban will require crafting of effective institutions at multiple levels in order to provide incentives and disincentives. While it is obvious that the Sundarban has to be considered with the dynamics of climate change and emerging socio- as one ecosystem, the issue really is how to make this economic needs of the people. collaborative action workable. Bangladesh and India are Consensus building in joint ecology management and separate countries and, therefore, any interaction between conservation efforts starts with national interests, including them needs the involvement of and clearance from their economic development, security and concerns and needs of respective governments. However, it is the state government the local population. Hence, it requires trust and political of West Bengal which is directly concerned with the will, platforms for dialogue and transparency, knowledge Sundarban, so its involvement is crucial. Finally, the policies and information, capacity and tools for integration of of governance and the problems are different on the two sides competing demands and identification of mutual benefits. of the border. This makes it more complex. Successful management of the Sundarban will require Regional platforms need to be established and developed to crafting of effective institutions at multiple levels in order to work alongside other regional platforms across sectors and provide incentives and disincentives. More importantly, the with the drivers of change in different rivers and basins. With institutions need to be truly representative, processes that multiple treaties signed between the two nations, the shared support interaction with stakeholders must also be included. Sundarban region has a possibility where it is developed Agreements will work on the ground only if they involve sustainably and managed as one ecosystem. In recent years, stakeholders and have their support and take into account several joint bodies have been set up of the governments of local politics. In order to catalyse and mobilize regional India and Bangladesh for the protection of the Sundarban. platforms, it is necessary to include them in national agendas The current level of cooperation is not enough to keep up and international dialogues. g Dipu, S., and Ahmed, F. 2013. Sundarban: Rediscovering Sundarban; The Mangrove Beauty of Bangladesh. Edited by Reza Khan. Dhaka: Nymphea Publication. g Choudhury, R.A., and Ahmed, I. 1994. “History of Forest Management”. In Bangladesh, vol. 2 of Mangroves of the Sundarbans, edited by Z. Husain and G. Acharya, 155–179. Bangkok: International Union for Conservation of Nature. g Islam S, Rahman M and Chakma S (2014). Plant Diversity and Forest Structure of the Three Protected Areas (Wildlife Sanctuaries) of Bangladesh Sundarbans: Current Status and Management Strategies. In: Mangrove Ecosystems of Asia, Faridah-Hanum et al. (eds.) Springer, New York, 127- 152. g Prain, D. 1903. Bengal Plants. Volume 2. Calcutta: West, Newman. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.47849. g Sarkar, S.C. 2010. The Sundarbans: Folk Deities, Monsters and Mortals. New Delhi: Social Science Press. g Singh, A., Bhattacharya, P., Vyas, P. and Roy, P. 2010. Contribution of NTFPs in the livelihoods of mangrove forest dwellers of Sundarban. Journal of Human Ecology 29(3); 191-200. g Spalding, M., McIvor, A., Tonneijck, F.H., Tol, S., and van Eijk, P. 2014. Mangroves for Coastal Defence: Guidelines for Coastal Managers and Policy Makers. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wetlands International; Arlington, VA, USA: The Nature Conservancy. g Tamang, K.M. 1993. Wildlife Management Plan for the Sundarbans Reserved Forest. Report of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the United Nations Development Programme project entitled Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest, Dhaka, Bangladesh. g Verma, M. 2018. Benefits of Cooperation: Focus on the Sundarban. Identification and Assessment. Discussion draft for Bangladesh-India Sundarban Region Cooperation Initiative (BISRCI) . Available at https://www.sundarbansonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Summary_ Economic-benefits-of-cooperation_FinalReport_2019.pdf g WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature). 2017. “Major Wetlands of the World”. World Wide Fund for Nature. http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/ water/intro/majorwetlands/. 8