Report No. 8791 -UNI Towards a Gender Strategy for Nigeria: Integrating Women's Issues into the Development Agenda Apri 7,1992 MICROFICHE COPY Western Africa Department Report No. 8791-UNI Type: (ECO) SINGH, J j X32944 / / AF4CO FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY *-*,n,.* o . #\ - , , . :~~.- ,8st~ ~ ~ ~~ mAc ditiik an,a *_, use y reei.,-i,,n.s . i:,-' ' . ...,..,.t -,,,,;,..... on f I to -b pe. 6 .o f thei offii duis Rsotns. rto otherwise t6sed Withi ~rld ,,,k - .u ' . ""''; 'r"i' ' '-t"i'"4"''-''-' '.V/'O '-' ',' . ''" . ' ' ' S ' ' . ''.,' 4 .' " ' 'i D'; '~~~~~~~' ir~~~~ ~ _, 0> , V ,,~~~ ~ c-,t; , , , _ ,a,,'-- t~~ou,n ;3eW'1 Ra.i*nk-. ' A, °2 - _ , { ,, .st , _ , . . ,.,..- _ C TOWARDS A GENDER STRATEGY FOR NIGERIA: WOMN'S ISSUES PM1 THiE DEEMLOPMENT AED ABE1WA LQ9S I= FOS Federal Office of Statistics FON Federal Government of Nigeria FME Federal Ministry of Education GAD Gender and Development GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product LDC Less Developed Country LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas NFE Non-Formal Education NGO Non-Governmental Organization NISER Nigeran Institute of Social and Economic Research NPP National Policy on Population SAP Structural Adjustment Program SME Small & Medium Enterprise SWIS State of Women Information System UNESCO United Nations Economic, Scientific, and Cultural Organization SWR State of Women Report WIA Women in Agriculture WID Women in Development FOR O CIL USE ONLY TOWARDS A GENDERSTRtATEGY FOR NIGERLA: DnNnfRATnNG W.=WlS ISSUELFS 2= = DnEVEOPSD£AGENDA Table of Ca_e Pax No. UTIVETSWUARY *........................................ iv I. IlRODUCTrION .......................................... 1 II. BACKGROUND AND ROLE AND STATUS OF WOMEN IN NIGERIA .... ... 3 A.ThkeEomomy ................................................. 3. B. Denognhic ................................................ 4 C.TheouNlteRoles ofNigeran Womn ............................ 5 1. ChlIdBearingand Reing ................................. S 2. Female-Headed Households . . . 9 3. Family and Household Maitenan . .......................... 9 4. Economic and nomeEamningActivities ....................... 10 D. The PublicPolicy Frmework for Nigeria Women . . . 16 1. Economic Policies ..................................... 16 2. LegalandReguatoryEnvlonnmm t forWomen ................... 18 m. IDENTIFCATION AND IPLICATION OFCONSTRARNS . ............. 20 A. Ovview . ............................................. 20 B. Hn mCaitpConst ............i.......................... 21 1. Challnges ofFamilyandHouseholdMa.te.ancw . . . . 21 2. EducationConstnants ................................... 22 3. FetilityChoices . . ..................................... 24 4. Health and Nurition .................................... 27 5. Sodo-QilturaPl ce .................................. 28 C. Economic Prductvity Constraints ....... ...................... 28 1. Access to Productiv Factors. . . 28 2. Partcula lal Factors .... .. .... . 32 3. ImplicationsofLackofGe derDataonPolicyAnalyss .............. 33 IV. CONCEPrUAL FRAMEWORK FOR A GENDER STRATEGY ... .. 35 V: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A NIGERIAN GENDER STRATEGY ..... 40 A. Overview ............ 40 B. Intaventions foe a Gender Stre ......... .. ..... 41 1. Hunan Capital Intrventions ..... ..... . 41 2. Ecoomic Producvity nvein. .. 45 3. CcnplenmentaryI ...... 47 This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclsed without World Bank authorization. TOWAlU) A GIINDE SI = EG F lOk EXR ROMER&M WOMEDNS ISS1, INTO THE DEVELONa AGENDA Annex I Selected Bibliogahy Annex I Laws of Intestacy and Inheritance Annex IV Matrimonial Law and Types of Marriages in Nigeda Anmex IV Women and Credit: Formal and Informa Banking Measis In Nigeria Anex V An Analytical Framework for Prioritizing Intervendons Anex VI Estmates of Economic Growth Impacts of Constrains Affecting Female Productivity Annex VII Basic Indicators Related to Women in Developmen Amnex VIII Profile of Primary Education Table 2.1 Comparative Country Indicators Table 2.2 Statistical Profile Current National Data Table 2.3 Statcal Profile Historical Comparative Data Table 3.1 Nigerian D ogahc ad Health Survey Fertlity Patterns Table 3.2 Conftadtive Use by Method Table 4.1 Examples of Mechanisms Targeted to Collteral Constraints .~~peptt W X X* E NSeg;ggi 0 riE i XS Eai . S_ |~~pt IE bY M ** tACX-3t g*(~) : .Sk1i g~~~~ | (;RRW. g N X E E | E l E E N E E . a g E .-..-. g~~~~~~~~ | i,u ZKSEE1 l=t|l A. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ AB A. Jnu ogu&acgwm 1. Ti rpont edded "Towards a Gender Strategy for lgera IWnteratg Wom"e's Im nto th Delopmeu Agdae ba ben prpard based on field msions to Nigeda and ieriews with Federal and Stae Gov sources, membes of the academia vlage community leaden a wome's goups. The Rqet at torviw the currnt saon of women In Nigria and Idefies Isu nd EUe still requiring attenton. In pardaar, the Repot focus on e dosues of womn's lack of access to a ran of fctors that would allow them to reach dhr fll hbum poteial in contutn to the conomy of the country. Th Report discusses s rlating to oducon ad training, n,matio, crdit and prpty and amines th foma ad hinfmal legal and idtitonal barriers and pracces that prve women from ac ing thes fars. 2. The major objective of te Bank in Nigeria is to support governm dierts to allevit povty and ris th tad of livig in a susanable manner. In th medium tm, given curent and projected population growth rates, GDP grwth of 5 percent per amnum wM be necosato provide en a one p t growth in per capita consmpo Ths will re a doubling of the tDW producton of goods and services over 20 years. In order to adhieve this objeive, aUll of the productiv potn of Nigeria wM be needed. In th context, th ea _ and full deveopmet of boh th productive as well as reproductive roles of wome a c dtical o bring about economic succ ithe country. Th Rort atemp to pla women's role in th coate soa the lsm and consvtrints ca be addred witin a practcal famework leadg to t development of an action progm which would in tun lead to th Rmulaton of a stae to support vomen In Nigeda. 3. Thetiative on the part of the Bank to develop a strategy to support women has received much e m n Nigeria. In par, t positve rewonse is due to the fact tt the iiatv coindes with and comlments he deos and the ageoda of the Fede govemen of Nigeria WN). May Wom in Development (WID) focusd actvie are cumrnty bein idtiatod and onoing in Nigria by FON, its vaious mistries, the states, donors and non- organaton (NOOs). A Nato Women's Commisson ha been established under Der to hitae acvtes In support of women and to, tab actons to diminate I III if nba barers which eit to provent women from reaching ther fill producton potential. 4. Depte Its lag inal market and divesified na eouc base rich in oil ad S, Nigas led of human development is as low and in many c_es much lower than of its neighbors. Many of h uman Indica amo Ithe lowet In Aficalj j/ Life exancy at brth: 54 (compad with Togo: 55; Ghaa 56),; Mata mortalt: 150 per 100,000 liv biths (compared with Centrad Afic Reulc: 600; BDurkna Paso: 600); ifat mortai rate (per 1,000 live bIrhs): 100 (compare with Ghana: 86). RSou: Woddevelopmet Report 1991] -iv - S. Nigeian women produce on average 6.5 children and bea primay responsibility for the health, nutritional and educational needs of the children. At the same time, most Nigeaian women are also sef employed ad engged in some form of tradig and/or commerac farming and aropocsing of food crops. Iheir ability to play a ful role In productive activities, however, is constned by a range of social prcices, legal and Instittional barriers as well as distortons csed by negative extenaities, which limit their choices. 6. Significant programs recently undertaken as part of the women in development Initiative in Nigeria are. (I) the women in agricldture (W/A) progris that are ongoirj in all the States under the auspices of the Agricultural Development Programs suppr *P4 by the Bank; (i) the study on the legalpregulatory constraints and practies affecting Niger.an women's role and status; Qii) a National Workshop on Women and Access to Credit consistg of bankers and women entepreneurs to examine issues affectng women's access to commercial finance, and (iv) activities in spport of women which are initiated by the Women's Bureaus in some States under the guidance and direction of the National Women's Commission which is located in the Office of the President. Consrit Faced b; Wmx 7. Women In Nigeria face a variety of constraints, of which many are gender-specific. these can be grouped under two categories: (I) those that concern the question as to how well women are enabled and equipped in terms of tieir -human capital" endowment and development to perorm their many tasks and responsibilities. This category concerns with constraints relating to health, mtrition, matenlt mortality, fertlity and education; and (ii) those contrais that concern women's "economic productivity"-the constraw- which prevent and obstruct women from reaching their full production or development at potential. Ihis category includes constraints such as lack of access to resources, services and markets, as well as limied access to agricultural exension, productive land, training, information, Instituonalized credit, inputs, technology, support services and even to their own labor and time away from caring for the family and household. A major mataton of this gender-based low productivity trap is the very heavy burden placed on women, in terms of the time they are required to spend on low productivity, physically demading activities such as fetching water, fuelwood from great distances, manual crop processing and headloading of farm produce. The report discusses in detail, the different typ. of constraints and theinter-linkages. 8. The range of constrains identified have implications on how well women are able to cope with their many household and family maintenance tasks and responsibilities, as well as their efforts to undertake economic or income g activities. Women's choices with respect to allocadon of time between these, different activities and how well and efficiently they are able to perform these affect economic growth and output It also affects the human capital and the size and comdosition of families through natality and child mortality. The report discusses the impact of the vaius constaints on economic efficiency, economic equity and reform feasibility. The impacts of the constran srediscused in the context of defining the direction and content of a gender and development strategy and how the focus would be shifted on the weights attached to the priority setig cteria. The reforms which are required are discussed in the report under the following categories: (i) legisative; (ii) sectoral; (ii) institttional; (iv) awareness programs; and (v) economic interventon. The report also discusse examples of economic instruments such as direct tramnfrs, fines, subsidies and taxes and mechanisms targeted to address gender specific c(onstraints. illl jl fil 4li} >gt}tiio*l 1XIfg TOWARD)S A gfEL I RATEGY FOR -hgA INTEGRAUG WOMBUS ISSUE INTO ME D93ML4PI AGEXPA I. INIR 1.01 earch was carried out to determine the curret socia, legal, economic ad health conditions facing women in Nigeria. Ihe research relied upon field experience, iews with Nigerian Authorities, both at the Federal and State levels, _mms of the academia village co:-. ity leaders and women's groups. The research idendfied a number of obstacles women face a trying to reaize their full human and economic potential. These include limited or poor access to wter, energy, education, training, credit, and property. Higb ftlity rates and poor health are also major constrait. To the ultimate detriment of the country, such obstacles cutil or cap the productivity of women's labor time, thereby limiing women's contributio to Nigeria's economic and social prospeity. These obstacles exist because the existence of poverty is combined with socW and cultura practices which effectively ignore or negate the economic potential of women. Ihe removal of major i to women's participation in the development process will be significant for mac onomic and microeconomic development effors in Nigeria. 1.02 Traditionally, women's role in the social sectors (health, populaton, and education) has been recognized. However, improving the productive capacity of women, enabling them to play a larger role in the economic development of the nation, through the removal of obstacles which constrain them, has largely been ignored. The purpose of this report is to organize the research findings in a manner that is conducive to discussion and ultimately effective decision making. This report develops and applies a framework for decision making which idendfies the key constraints az inequities, thereby affording policy-makers a basis upon which to move forward. The report also identifies types of broader policy reforms and development initiatives which would support the specific challenges. In particuar, the report moves beyond targetng women for corrective purposes to anempting to integrate an awareness of the role of gender and gender relations in policy formulation for economic development. 1.03 Chapter I1 contas background information to provide an overview of the general living conditions of women in Nigeria. Available demographic data is provided to show the uracteriscs of the population: its size, location, general health, and level of education. A summary of this data is provided in Annex I. The social and legal status of women in Nigeria is discussed to reveal the social milieu in which women live, and the various cultural and legal obstacles with which they are faced. Annexes m and IV provide detailed information on the legal status of Nigerian wome. Informaton is also provided on the economic activity of women and the macroeconomic policy evironment in which they operate. 1.04 Chapter W.Y augments the backgound infonnation by assessing gender specific constraints and inequities under two main categories: (i) those tat address issues surrounding womens 'hIman capital' development (health, nutriion, fertility, education) and (i) those that conern women's "economic productivity'. These constraints and inequities are addressed within the context of women's triple burden and also highlights where appropriate, the impact of the constraints on economic efficiency and economic equity. 1.05 In Chapter IV, a conceptual framework for a Gender Straeg is further developed from Chapter H and applied to the array of constraints identified earlier. There are a number of conceual frameworks possible. In the Nigerian context, our expeience indicated that at Nigeria's stage of development and that of Nigerian women, it is appropriate to work within the -2 - contex of women's th prnpal roles: (i) cild boerg and reaing, (i) family and household managemt and (H) economic prodon aind acvni aos. 1.06 As women sk to p with these multple responAillites, which vary in dgr with culuro, Iom levels, ag and marit stabs, they confront a range of constaints which affect them In all or some of their zoles. Wihin framework, apprprie actkns'polcles to remove the partiular consain and Iequies are dicussed. Te targed constraints and Inquies ar divided Io two grups: ts considerd to be of prmary Ilmpoance to the Improvemt of humam capial devopment of women; and those considered to be of impoce in freeing up th economic producvity of women. In ai cases, policy reorms of both a short and long term nature are . The chapter concudes with r for short-term work in wpport of thm prscripon. 1.07 Capter V lenfies the specific tventons and the difflrt t of broade policy options/development Iniiatve which should also be maae ordmtecwnm These dclude legiadve rem, sector projects, instutonal refrm, eonmic Itvento and programs designed to raise national awanes. Some of hese refo are typically applicable at he national leve, whilo otes a most offecive whben applied at the comrmunty/vie level. The types of polies pued will deped upon the patcula containts to be targeted. Most of the consti canot be removed entirly in the short term and conequenly wUI requir supporting refos/policies whc are Implem over a longer tme frame. Such is the cas when the consa is lugely duo to accepted soci or culturl practces. 1.08 In te process of conducting the work cot n is report, dat iequa bas been a signicant problem In Nigeria, tee bas been no systematic rarch on how women affect ecmic delopment and conequenly genderspecific data is usually unvailable. Demograpic data in genal i unavalable since the lat official ces was undetae in 1963 and the results of te labtest census in Novmber 1991 wer unvailable at the time of writig. Curret hypot s and plannig are based upon e from ta year. Hence, confidence In lable Nigera sattca data i low. Data contained in his rtport i based upon a review of the avlble limited literatur on wome In Nigeria (Annex 1), and oeviews with Bank sta Federa Govement of Nigei officials, snnomental (NGOs), acdemics, worm's groups, and othes failar with Nigera Comparatve Idicato for selected counties in Sub-Sabaram Afica and Asia are prwvid wherever po4ssbl. Whe data was non*xstet and required, best etmates and judgm bad to suffice. Certain scan be made with confidence based on historic dsta, anedota evidence and on icreasiny more reliabl resear, tha women fac gender-pcif baries th go beyond the already sifica barers faci anyone who i poor and uneducated. In spie of dat scarcity, It bdive that the results obind in this tompxvi an accuaemsmen of th osub achug women in Nigea, and a preiminy Indication of the rave hmpact of the constain and hties on onomic efficiency and equlk. Wi is type of fm , a mo st c appach to thes ucan be undtaken by FGN as well as the donor communty. -3- A. 2.01 Nigala coun for one quar of the totl A*in population In Sub-Sahan Africa There ovar 250 dWffer e c group In Nigeia ad 395 muully unitellIggble lang . Any policy I n deiative on a naona lovd mut grqpple with ts divery and the i po wring of the Nigeria fderal sytm 2.02 Beinghelargestenomy inSub-SaharanAfica, Niahas consideablepotetal for deveopnt. Yet, in spie of being Aica's la oil prndme and accouting for appofIMatel 8.5 peret of OP BC's ta crude oi producton, Nigeria rmains one of the W s pooret coutries. hI te 70s drsg oil export veues gety Iprved the economy. By 1980, the value of eports bad isen to US$26 binion and per capita GNP to more than US$1,000. The prooes was reomed In the 80s as the madrt for oil weakened considrly. GNP per capia fl to US$490 in 1987 and to only US$280 in 1990 as the exchange rae was aded to ro"ct undying economic condion. 2.03 Nigeria is stM, stiy an agricutual economy. An esdmated 66 mill Nigeras live In rura areas.2/ About 30 pen of grss domestic product (GDP) comm from gicult, while over two-thirds of the labor force is sdtl engae In agicultural puri. Agricultal production Is mainly by small holdes acuntig for about 97 percent of te domestc food supply, using tradition medhods under rained conditions. In const, petroeum acwunts for 25 percent of the totDl GDP employing only about 1 percen of the popuatin but coopises 80 prce of the forei exchange receipts and 70 pet of budgtary revenues. lTere are also vast resou es of natutal gas which are only begin to be expoited. accunts for less ta 10 pnt of total GDP and less than 10 pece of employmen Srve, which accoun for about 30 percet of GDP, are domined by wholesale ad nta trade. 2.04 Rea wages condnuw to fill each yea since 1982/ and docled by an contned Iaion are the two main conXtr to the declin nr wages. In 1986, the govenmnt formlated its StucWta Adjustmen Program (A coverig itay the peiod 1986-88 In rsponse tD felin ofl prices, and sharp downtuns In ecomic growth rates. Te prgm has now beea In plc for five years. Weak Impi capacit, p es from interest g and perodic ovespeding have cased pe m under the prog to lapsefom tIme to dme. Ihe Govenment was Intrduced a three year rollg pla, which attaches more wet to economic crsia I d making. Thre is ons ab evidene that the onomy I turn aund and that the decine In overl CNP h been stopped. Ates In th non-oictor show sin of unstained rov, with an-oil GDP goinS at an ava rat of 6.6. pect per annm betwe 198 . Th oil sector has been growing at an avg rate of 7.1 pecn over th same period. The wifl duing the Guf C helped ai Oi reveues to arund 2/ Rouhy, 70 peren of the population I considered to live In rura se ments of fwr than 20,000 people. 1/ Doomde pucaing power fel a estmated 13 pecet pe anum in te cite ad 9 percem t per annum in rra area betw 9 and 1986 for muladve declies of 53 percent ad 39 perent respectively. -4 - US$13.4 bilion in 1990. Nigea's ernal debt at the end of 1990 Is estimated at US$36.1 bimion equi to around 100 perce of tho 0D1. Somw measu of debt relief was reenved for the first tm by Nigea under tie 1991 Pais Club A e . B. 2.05 The populaton of Nigeria Is etmated to be around 100 miion and growing at a rat of 3.1 percen per yeaV. About 65 percen of the populton Is ral. he oval sex rato for Nigeria s 102 men per 100 women.i/ The ratio higr for the urban areas; and sihy lower for the rural areas. Of thetoal populati abou 55 miion persons children agd 14 years and you2ger; and S4 million pesons a In th 15 - 64 age gwrp. The _y ratio i hence quite hWgh, standing at over I child r senior per person of working age. Mhe pop pato tends to be most in the southen parts of th couny. In 1989, esdma population dsies were highest In the states of Lagos, Iwo, and Anamba, ranging betwoen 400 and 900 persons per squae kilometer. Densides in the nrhern stte ranged from less han 50 peso per square kilometer in Niger to around 300 in Kano. Tr"2'j. IA R - 0mw adv Iinuiatm Rr Odhotd Camubiw in Ssb4eiina AU..9 S outh Ads PAOl" & COW"tr TOWd Fortit Ufs B'psoano Inft Mortlit Femae Edusetlen Mat mnd MAortalt fite 1917 s 10t7 a (per 1000 P*tmy 19OU 8seda 1980 (pe 100.000 birt) (Enrent } Rats liam) 1W80 Sub-Ssra Afds atswu 5.0 59 07 109 as 3o0 K-n: 7.7 Us 72 91 1 510 Muritke 2.1 67 23 106 49 m- 6 el 10s SW t b _ .0 South Ame -_,ldah 6.5 51 1 10 so 1 600 bin 4so se 76 24 50 Napal 5.9 51 128 47 11 Sd Lmns 2.7 70 as 102 70 90 a/ Peroata of feu d, af dolimmrt 18669) of a told 12.6 n p*Muy sel nmuut SourMe Weld Sanr,1a PNOm n P_ Staf Aepml Rat Nsbr 1960. hi Pueateg of smels shar of eulmsnt (1666 of a totd Sm _soande Wheel enont SoArIK WOord Sd ge Pedmm Erduotan Proa NeVA1. 1960. Souc W rl&d Bank, famC be ' NOv. 1669; Lm _1660 JI Ihe results of th census carried out in November 1991 are not available at the time of writing. It is undersood fiom unofficial sourc tha the ttal population of Nigera i esdmaW to be ms thn 100 million according to th lts census. Curt data estmate ae based upon the 1963 oficI census ad hypothse derived from subsequn populaion surves such as the Nigeria Felty Survey done in 1981/82. SI The typical male/female rado is less th one, with h eception of a few counta smch 1 Idia, China, h and Paidst, where sgniflcant pracices ad for mae children have reuted in higher feme mraliy rates. -5-w 2.06 As Table 2.1 indicates, Nigeria's level of human dvelopment I aog the lowest in the world Life epctancy Is on aveae 51 years. Ihe Infa mortality rate i 1051ttO live birhs while the child mortality rate (children under five years of age) Is 84 per 1000 live births.fi/ Ihe Nigeria Fertlity Survey fd that Infat and child mortaity raes are htghest In nua arm and among the uneducated; and the aes among the urba uneducated were twice as low as among the rura uneducated.Z/ These flnding are accredited to the fact that clean water and basic health services are more accessible in the urban centers. UNICEF fiod that in Nigeria only 25 percent of rural chidren under five have access to clean drking water and only 30 percent have access to health facities. For urba children, some 60 percent have access to ciean water and 75 percent bave access to health fcilities. Studies as to the exact causes of Infnt and chid motality and morbidity reveal that most are preventable. Ranked In order of prevalence, the causes are: gastroenterits, bronchpneumonia, febrile convulsion, malaria, measles, bronchitis, meningitis, sickle cell disease, tetanms, and pre-maturity. C. IhLe Mltipl Roles of NigdanWome 1. Cbil 1Rodmg an &eaXg 2.07 Nigerin women traditionally marry young (the aerage age is 18) and immediately xnmmence chfldbeaing. There is no minimum age for marriage. As a reult, 74 percee of the Nigerian womens reproductOve life is spent in marriage. Childbeaig carfies the highest rik of death for women of reproductive age in developing countries. Hence, the rate of matal mortalitY reflects both the availability of health services for women and the general wofre and Cnur'Itiona stats of mothers. in Nigeria, maternal mortality Is esmated to be 15001100,000 live bittbsl/ wh is one of the highest rates relative tD the world's lowest-income economies.2I Despite the high risk of matera mortality, Nigerian women produce and numnre, on average, 6.3 didren each. Only an estimated 7.8 percent of Nigerian women use contraceptives The fi/ i compaison to these sttstcs, the inft mortality rate for most of Sub-Sabran Africa ranges between 100 and 170 for every 1,000 live births. The infat mortaity rate in Sri Lanka and China are 33 and 32 respectively. Source: &Uaharari Fm Crisis to suiableelopment - A Lng Term PerOeie Study. World Bank, November, 1989. 2V Nigeria Fertlity Survey FS). 1981. IV This h the figre us by the Federal Mnity of Health, basd on a survy of hospils carried out in the 1980s. (Nigeria Impl s the National Policy on Popuation, Draft Sector Repor Dec. 1990.) 21 In compaion to these stistics, matenal mortaity rates in sevra Sub-Saharan African counDtre Inludig Zimbabwe, Kenya, and Tanzana, are in the rage of 00 1000 for every 100,000 live births. The matrna mortality rate in China Is 44 ar ') in Sri Lan per 100,000. (Source: Subsahara Afiica - From Crsis to Sustal. -: Developmet - A Long Term Perspective Study, World Bank, Nov. 1989.) -6 - ftility e in Nigea 1987 Ihas bee esmated at 6.5.IQ/ This Is among the hiest in Sub-SaharanAfrica (by contrast, Maua uIs 2.1, Zimbabwe 5.9, and Kenya 7.7) and higher an mot LDCs in South Asia (inda 4.3, Nepa 5.9, SrI Lanka 2.7). 2.08 Alhugh reproductive choice and deciso npact women dircdy, these choices and deco not fredy made by Ihm lheir status and role ar deined in large measure by thdr abwii to produce numems childre. Studies show tat the demands of firequent child beag strain womens health and ht fema halt, relaive to male health, deteiorates during the child-retig yea. The burten of reproduction means that educational and economic opportuni are limited. Whout a reducdon in the size of families, choices outside the home will co to be lmited for Nigein womnL. 2.09 High fertliy rates are known to be a couence of high infant and child mortality ramts coupled wit low levels of fmae etucation. Furthermore, low levels of female education are believed to be a cau of high dcid mortaity rat. In Nigeria the fertility and child mortality condions which exist are qui constent with the level of female educaion. Some 70 percent of the adut femae p at is Illitate (ompad to adult male illitacy of 46 percant). Paren prerentilly provide male chldren with an educadon. Female. studes are most p aent In pimary school acwonting for about 40 pert of the eollments. After grade six, fmae academic partici drp preciptously.W1 At the university level, abou 20 percen of enment are fme. jI Source: Word Bank Da - World Development Report, 1991. Other research undertan by such as the National Population Commission for Nigeria estmate a ferilty rate of 6.3 chidren per Nigeria femde. JV There we however reginal variation. See Tables 2.2 and 2.3. -7- Talb. 2.2 - Stti Prfil Curnrat Nstion Data I989 Pduazv schoo Statis by Stat a/ Number of Total Number of Number of Pen.!, Number of Number of Teachers 1 iers States Scos Ciss Pupils Pup&i Tauchers with NCE with TC I 1 Akva-Ibo 1,061 10,624 243,517 743,526 11,682 1 11,394 2 Anambr 2,096 25,279 410,671 1,003,2 30.903 935 22,323 3 1aud1 1,427 14,399 124,981 323,594 11,357 200 3,605 4 Bed. 1,857 21,083 552,201 1,063,432 21,137 440 14,880 S B_= 2,392 17,217 230,980 1,144,800 28,50 1,367 9,642 6 Born. 1,433 11,113 181,241 464,478 10,902 88 2,415 7 Css Rivr 623 8,382 113,251 403,703 6,564 22 6,100 a ong.! 1,464 11,116 132,610 354,495 18,913 329 6,254 9 lino 2,036 25,076 430,788 927,138 20,993 103 20,223 10 Kaduna 1358 14,345 237,903 559,929 15,187 2,180 4,731 it Kn. 3,276 20,649 406,453 1,163,81S 30,000 129 939 12 Katsa 1,939 18,682 210,897 775,482 10,73 132 S,958 13 Kwa 1,466 13,390 176,64S 32S,801 16,259 1,027 S,688 14 Lgos 894 21,654 338,086 866,128 16,623 5,174 13,247 1s N*w 614 5,417 117,691 311,426 8,172 220 6,100 16 Ogun 1,301 13,079 194,851 422,823 12,107 120 9,511 17 Odo 1,664 18,229 215,461 524,638 15,345 3,805 10,749 18 Oyo 2,9 38,686 536,209 1,083,474 32,740 I,1S9 26,966 19 Plateau 1,722 14,786 225,710 58,370 16,823 1,893 7,711 20 Res 1,112 12,168 218,226 429,954 10,694 489 10,645 21 Sokoto 2,458 18,018 227,601 723,124 25,694 552 3,120 22 FCT-Abqj 212 1,442 119,831 67,708 1,714 13 661 TOTAL MM 3L.834 S.64.8,04 14.441.0 373m102 20.378 202.862 Source: D q of Plnig, Research and Statistcs, Naiasl Primary Edw;a Co_mmision, Federal Republic of Nigeria. La Raw dat to be verified. Sor: Nigeria: Pimay Dducatba Prot (Report No. 8714-UN!), Wod Book Nowmber 1990. - 8 - Table 2.3 - Statistical Pofil. Hstorical Comparatve Data Malo and Feome Earment Ratios and Femanl Sham of Enrolbmnt. by State and ReR:on 197Sn6 170 - t°o- 1420 0 70- 60- 40 SC 20 la s~ ~ 7 a 0 c II 12 13 19 *0 is tt la laa t t t 1985186 ¶70- 160- 160- 1*0 Ila 1:0 *0 no To "- iAbM M l so *0 *0 10 a 3 4 a * 7 * la 10 II 12 13 14 16 le 17 18 19 Mal Ml- Opr.l. -e CM..rml *hero N1hm Stes bMltdle Sttes Southern States I DatuM 6 an" 11 aMbra 2 DOM 7 Gqeoa 12 Sandd S Kdausulatia S Iwana 13 Cros tivedrAkwa-rb 4YAaX 9Nig 14 Imo S Uk.. 10 pun 15 Lqs 16 Os= 17 Oido is Oyo 19 Riven r N!im : Primary Edftatiin Su -SW& (Report No. 7389-UNI), World Bank. June 30, 1989. -9 - 2. F- WV Haded 2.10 An bne y more fequent and sodo-economically Iportan phomon are femaleheaded households. Official nationalemates by the Fedal Office of Satcs (FOS) plae the prprdon of eme ed households at about 15 percent I ral and 18 percent In ubm aras. There are, hwever, significan rgional diffece. The 1990 Demographic and Healt Survey reported 23 percent of all hoseholds in the southeast and 19 percent in the southwest to be ale ed, I contast with only 6 pecent In the northeast and 5 pecen in the northwest Wiowhood poid part of the explantion for this phenomenon (partcularly among the Igbo whe tradition discoura remarriage even for young widows). The comparative ease and frequeq of diorce i anher importan cual fctor. And the Increasing rae of male out Io from nu arm in search of uan jobs cnute both to rising divorce rat. as we as to a Incree in th nuber of houseolds that re de fact, ahough not necessarily de jure, headed by women. 2.11 The principal and defining characteristic of femleaded households is, of couse, the absn of adult males. This not only m s tdai they lack the very importat economic resour of adut male labor (unless they can afford to hire it), but it also tends to place severe wnEmdm 1 on them in terms of access to other resources and essential services. For wo_m, especiay in rural Nigra, such acceSS-specy to lad, sti d credit, farm Inputs, the leg system, etc.-is still lagedy thrgh men sban, fthers, adult sons, brothes). These n fm, I1`are directly reflected in enmic and soci wellbeing. The National Demographic Sample Survey of 1980 found tha the medi ime of f ed households natonwide was les ta half the meian inicoe of male-headed househls. Te combinton of povey, greater pressu on women's time and grer dependence on the labor of children in female- headed households has s negatve impact on fmily food security and nutition and child welfare. 3. m11Y and Houshold cMainme 2.12 While most Nigeri women work outside the home, studies show tha the time tke for the care of hildren and household reoibes absorb more of a woman's dme than her actives on a daily basis.WV Women bear the greatest responsibility for etchig, storig, boiing and dispoin of water and for the m of the family snon standards and facies. Cmuny, les than 20 pere of the rural populaion has access to safe and comenient potble water sourcos and an even smaler pmente tD safe sanio Only an estimated 50 percent of the urbn ad semi-urban populdan have access to acceptable wtr So s. In rural Nigeria, betwoen two and five hours per day offamiy labor, almost excusively of women and airls, i expended in thng drinking wa to meet household subsisten 2.13 he use of ildwood as an eney sow ce is of parcula significance for Nigeria wom is estimted dth 90 percnt of Nigia's nual enery r ar met by fuWwood. The amount of daily labor time spet collecting fdwood is esmat to averag about W Women's posbiles to egge in acvties outie the home and compound (e.g., in fing} or tradW ar more limed In the North because of the Mulim pracic of beep women of hdbearin ag in secuon ( b), but even tee women are very actv In weconomc actvie (s pa. 2.20 and Box on pop 13). * 10- 2 boorsp day per famiy. Excet amg the Bs, w ere -a generally expected to ensmr the housdwold's foewood supply and ymsh rely on marke purchaes to do so, fth burde s largely botoe by wome Most ral women cook on very simpl. and enry-Inefficent stove, mad of th sonoes and/or mud, and thdr veay low energy efficincy makes for vroy high fe _ . Altnatie fiuls, such as k ene or LPG, ar generally avaable only in udw am, to part b40 b_Wopthte _kos and LPG pring polices make marketing ousie to mjr ubm center of th South finanly unaactive. Ihe heavy dependen on woodfes is bgtothgwing problm dof dtn1umeforestat iintur M 1 diovt woodfd problem Inthe North in prticular, re conditions are less avorabloe to tree gowth, wom fce Ineaing diffculty in obning sufficit wood for cking, h g and wapur Crp bypoducts such as millet and sorghum stalh (wa) arwe widey used cooking Maue by wome In the wdr regis wh fuelwood sb Increasingly mmr dificult to obtain. Where fcalb is n particularly shor supply, change in nufttkmd patterns ae becomng apprew fwer cooked and/or less nuttor meas. 2.14 Most women spnd condale tme each day preparg food for fmily Shss most housdds obtain idr fodstuff in a virtually unpoced stae, tis s a leoS&y ind tedious taL lI g -1- yam, cussm, grai, beans, spices and othe from thdr oginad sa I tasty nd utrtous meals takes up much of women's day tim. Proen ymandcuava is partiuay , volv nmerosstops: peelg anld wasing, grat and pig, ponding, pressng and dew8aterig sien, roasting, drying, mlg and gidin& pping ad slicing. WoriDg in groups or rotatig the most oq8u tau and among female m _emb of a compound or workgwup only digy eass the drudgery. 4. an_dgA_ykiu 2.1.5 In lmst all of Nigeras mny diffren soc_-ct ahan and wive he very dcdry deined and barly overapping gederspecific rights and oblgatios, and ths repetiO spher a so distinct that the econom bw spOUm in fac highly monetized. Thi, combined with th relive ea and frequcy of spua sepration ad dvorc is rected in the wide prevln of seat bdgetig of so - s the spou respective obligatons, to swh other and to thdir nuclear famiy or uhousebolde (and to th compound ad extue family whe social, esdntid ad ecom tadions so dictat). ThIs, in turnl explains womn's high dre of (and ee hige exs desire for) involvemnt in b m 4 oneo activie fr tirD own accoun In most of Nigeria, the hig dgr of gender- wepfif in Vi-81 Y q gides ato fids sqtlot in d A m d to mexd wome ia it'sn a (a) EdAd_og 2.16 Nigeria i stmi f y an ailtural economy. Over 70 pere of the work inage population is eagd in agriclral pursuits which, combined, account for about 30 percen of GDP. d' accut for the bulk of agricul prducton and over 90 pwot of the domestic food s Iy They us mainly tWdon m prti under rdan-fd conditions, and producvity ge ly low. Ihe prncpal ch crops are oil palm, 60Coc, rubber, coao, and gudnut Food crps, which include yms, csava, cocoyao, millet, 11 - sa¢rghu, maize nd ic, togeter account for over 75 pcet of GDP derived fom the cp sector-.1 2.17 Nigerian wme rpesn about 50 pece of t ricutura labor k and produce much of the coun's food. Sample surveys of 600 rur women In wesen, eastem anid orthern Nigeria showed that over 80 perce of Nigeian women, aged 15 and older, enge in agicutu poductio Most also conduct micto and small business eneprises. About 40 peret of the women surveyed were classified as famers and 52 percen as traders. Ihe remainn 8-10 percet were lasified asd ent food pwcessors. For the most part, of cows, food procei is rrely an acvity ntd t from either faing or tradig. Ihe vast majoit of won spend coderable time prcesng food, but usually as susidiay actvity, u1tKtaken fo tir own housewld. For many, however, It is also a true inomeariacidvity, often crd out as a parttime job In addition to faming andlor markeft. 2.18 Farm women undertake most farm opeaons themselves. In general, men ae resosbe for heavy labor such as Ind clearing, while women tend to most of the oher farm oped. This vares. however, among differet regions of the country, and in many areas, peiy in the southeast where the majorty of famers today are women, women undertake aU aspects of th fming opea includig land clearing. Rural women spend mearably longer hours than men with agricultural and housiold btence work. daily averase wokr hours for women range between 15 and 20, for men just over 15. 2.19 Wome face far greater constraints t men In tms of gaiing ownersh and/or cool over factors of production and produetive assets: * Much of their own labor is contolled by their husb and by compound ddes, and the thie availabe for work for their own acount is therefore very limkied. * The two main sources of farm lnd for women are temporary usfuctual allocation from their husbands and their natal famils and, in he Muslim North. iitane. Vey lIttle land is obtained by women through lease or purchas. Although the 1978 Land Use Decree legally permits women to bold land (va occwpancy), women generaly stand at a dis e in entern trnsactis bolving thek faring actviti becase of suroudng legal uncaite and their lack of makele land rits. * Accs to cpital i seely costraind by the limited ability to ear and cotol income of their own and by the far greer difficutes fad by women in obainig credit from sources (baks, cooperatives) .W * Women's ablity to own capital assets vaies, but condeably more limted ta mens. Fulani women own catle ad sma livesock, but not camde. ly Casa is the most import fDod crop for wom In th southeast and southwest, whie sorghm and millet ar most importt in the North. IV sbvinougNgd ru wmre idit groups (wUw, uWM, adah, etC.) to poOl facil resures on a smal scale and help each ote with loa for various prposs; see alAnn V. - 12 - Eveywhere, rural women own small n a and poulty. Farm machinery and ansport e_ is almost always owned by men, and women rardy benefit drety frm Its presence in the "househol. Imprved and meanizd crop pocesing equipment ta would reduce the drudgery of this work ad fciate the move to commerci processing is begining to find ts way into rur aas wher wome's groups are keen to gain ownership of it, but male entrepenom fifequeny enter the maket first becase they have ready accs to capial, technology suppliers and management k. jA~~~~~It - 14- I _ S.sssSS~~. 2.20 A very important, yet frequntly overlooked role of Nigerian women in agricultra and rural production and livelihood systms Is the enrmous amount of trasport services the patwa-uryiqgoften very heavy loads on their heads or backs. Thi involves primarily four type of ommoWo:wate, fuelwood, harvested farm produce, and goods carrie to or from market. Mm fact tha most wome of chidbearing age simultaneously als carry a small chid tied to thiWr back while performng this work makes the job so much more difficult and dangerus to their and their childrens health The tonages noved and distances covered ar rarey q- appreiate (see Box). Neither is the fact that this headloading commonly take plac not on leve groud, but over uneve terrain and under difficult climatic condkitin. The loads cared are heavy, accident ar frequent, and the impact on woamens health can be severe. @b) No9nEam fBdlQaMuta 2.21 Econmmic employment data for Nigeria Is scarce; gender-specific employment dat is more so. Much of the problem Is due to the fact that Nigera has a large informal secto, the specific of which are unkmown. It can boweve be infered, from a 1985 FOS labor forc surveyr -and field stuie tend to leand credenc to this-tha women are over-represente in tmheIformal sector and in micro and smUalleterprises. 2.22 MIcr and small enterprise play a Mpfctrole in scocnmcdvlpet Becaus of the severe shortage of capital, managerialeources and skilled labor In devloping countrie, the promotion of small enterprise is an importan approach to economic development Micr and small enterprise ar partculary imporan for women: the offer a flexibe form of barriers t oetry are low, and knowle4ge and skill can be adapted. Due to a variety of enray barrer to formal sector employment, self-employment in the micro and small enterpis sectr is often the only option availabe to women to earn income outside, agricultr. 2.2 Infomation about self-employe woman In Nigeria, the scale of thd oeirW thei source of input and opeamtin capital, and the economics of ther venture is limited to findingsfrom,various fieddstudies. Withmost of hestestdies carried out by pdgan socilogitsth economics of thuese aren often deal with only cursoriy, If at all. It is -15- p y g -~~~~~~~~~~ *isi - X clear, however, dwa larg nmbers of womn are actve In vwious forms of nnarclua sdlfempciyam~eVe ilk th regikn where traditonal femae seclusio pome partculaly sron !I 0to femae particiation in p1mM economIc activity -in the marketc (see pam 2.24). Sdf-employed wome teod to be ein fod -. -.. ~ andl II ,' p. *'. klgand ofte ntuVentures amelosey -_ 1adin __t_ -I'd osodted ith gdouad pcmftwork thee women mar blige to undertake for thei hms_o (see pam. 2.22). Yoruba women re patculaly noted for their etelve Inlvolmnt In tang and markein of both agrcula and other commodlt. But largo numbers of wme ar also earning hir own i me ftough self-employment In actWviies such a weavig and enbroidery, pottey, ber brwbig, olectio and maring of felwood ad of non-wood foret products. 2.24 In the Not, may wom work In grundnut pcsing and groundnut oi eur on, ad acdty which noes a nub of tim consming stqe from deomtlad srippg to rying, roastg, masing, prssing, skimming, etc. Ih prof fm groundnut oil saes genaly accre to te, men, but te women obtain idificant Icome of tik own from to sle of the vluabe byproduct wh-idS which Ihey prodc from the resid of the prs proes. n th Sout, many women ar imily enged in produng palm oil, palm krd oil and variu bypoduc. Men mainain the, te and haest the frui bunches. Womn stdp tho futs from the clusters, Sch wae and fuelwood, do all the boUig and proc g, crack to palmnkerls, producesoap and other by-pct, and umt all the madeing. Alhough the men tend to control the Income from pam oil prxcwdon and saes, th women drive - a - a -Income of ther own fom the sale of padm keel ol, sow and othi byprduct. 2.25 Bea brewing I a fequet fom of self-em;loyment fr women everywhere but in y Muslim aream . To ag in thi busines, wom will nt ony to inest In vais equipment, but also hav to purchae th needed grin (most comngly sorum) frm thir husbands or oter fams (ofte paying dh n with be frem thi own prducto Thy alo requr e quanie of kelwood and war to cay out ths trade and may pay to have these puts delivered. Fish y m and keting ar Imoa source of fmal anloyme and hInome oIn coastal and vain area. Weaving and potty ar locy important In some arm. Collecig firdwood for sale b an acivity usuay carr out by wome to ensur household svival. h colecton and sale of nonwood forest products ismpora in som rgi. 2.26 Even scluded Musim women In uban centers of the North are very acte in vari forms Of profitaesaelfemployMet Patcay pralet is th prp dara Of fod and snack for salo. Many ao earn Income by embdeln caps and other S . m2aIldre or oter relatives not reicted by the ditates of purdah act as to obta the needed raw matals and market the produt. - 16- (c) Fom Sea" 2.27 Priate Sector. The size of he Nigerian labor force, defined as 76 percent of the population age 15-64 is about 37.6 mfllion workers. j/ According to the Fourth Development Plan, only about 3 milion of these workes hold paid positions in the modern sector of the economy. Becamse most new entrants into the labor force over the next 15 years are children already born, the size of the labor force will be 62.1 million workers by the year 2000. Information on labor force participation rates by gender is poor. Africa-wide research shows that there are radicaly different participation rates by gender in the formal sector. For given educational and age characistcs, women are far less likely to have wage jobs than men, although there appears to be no lower propensity on the part of women to work for income. Women are significandy under-represented in the private, formal sector wage labor market (Annex I,L page 5-Smployed Women by Major Industry and by Sector in Nigeria, 1984). Women's access to foml sector employment is perceived to be limited for a number of reasons: women have lower educational qualificadons and, therefore, have less access to a wider range of jobs; women have asymmetric obligations within the houshold and, therefre, are less able to supply labor time on a basis private firms prefer; and due to pregnancies, women will have an Interupted career pattern which mes inial investment in training women on-the-job less attractive for employers in the private sectors. 2.28 Public Sector The private sector biases against women are repeated in public sector recruitment. Government and other public agencies account for about 60 percent of total employment in the modern sector in Nigeria. However, of 222,932 civil service positions in 1985, only 32,374 were held by women. In part, this can be attributed to the same factors as those which prevaUi in the private sector. Since the public sector is such a large part of total forma sector employment, it is in a powerful position to corrCt the under-representation of women in the formal economy. D. IEg Public Poliov Prmework for Nhierian W 2.29 Litde is known about the public policy enviome for women. One first step In --ndnd and addressing the role and position of women In Nigeria I to examine the formal, informal and institutional framework governing their lives. The linkage between economic policy and women's contribution to economic development is often undem . It is also Important to assess, for example, which laws overty dicriminate against women, which in their application might hinder their productive capacity and which ncourage their full economic participation. There is insufficient information about the insftutional Issues and administrative practices that constrin women and limit their sphere of activies. 1 . EcnmcPolicies 2.30 While it is clear that most policies have some impact on women, it is important to identify those beneficial policies which preferetay affect men, or those deleterious policies which affect women more advesedy than they do men. While here are broad linkages which ext between mareconomic policies and women's opportnies, the actual magnitude of these ill Ihe aumption that all persons below the age of 15 are outside the work force is hard to justfy for rura Nigera, where a 1983 Federal Office of Statistcs' survey showed that 10 percent of farm worker are under 15 years of age. - 17- impas differ between regions and will often be more pronounced in the rural settings. While It would be desirable to have detaied gender-speciflc data to describe the relative maitudes of the impacts of the gender-bias in tee policies, such data Is not readily available. It is necessay, therefore, to rely on describing just the broad linkages. 2.31 In addition, some of the policies are not, in isolation, gender-biased; but they do often accentuae the gender-bias caused by other factors. Wbile an economic policy ftamework encompasses a wide variety of policy instruments at the Intmational, national, state, and local levels, tne impac which a number of the more significant Federal and State economic policy initiatives have had on women are beginning to be assessed through research on the social dimensions of strucural development. In Nigeria, three current economic policy positions are significant in their Impact on the role of Nigerian women. 2.32 olia omen's Acess to Credit. Iflationary pressures in Nigeria have been strong as sectoral prices are being reformed. A key component of Nigerian macroeconomic policy has therefore been to maintain a fairly tight money supply through govemment and cetral bank actions. However, to encourage investment, commercial iterest rates have been mained below inflation in nominal tem. As a resut, there is an excess demand for credit and implicitly, credit is being made available only to the most creditworthy borrowers who can provide ample security. In addition, since loans tend to have some substantial, fixed adminitative componen, the lending bias has been towards larger loans. As many of the projects which might be undertaken by women involve small-scale enterprise, and as land inheritance reguations currendy suppress opportuities for capital accmulation and hence the avilability of collateral, the tight monetary policies have accenuated the detrimental impacts whic these other fcors have had on women's access to credit. 2.33 Idi Tx. En= bh= and Rural Ineme Broad macroeconomic policies can have impacts on prices through a number of mechanisms: subsidies and price controls directly affect prices, food import bans resut in increased domestic prices, and the liberalization of non-oil eaport trade drives domestic producer prices for these goods to in ational price levels. In aU such casms, the resultant relative prices which adise in the economy might create local distordons which have relatively detrimetal impacts on the role of women. Price controls on kerosene in Nigeria effectively reduce incentives for market mechanisms to distribute kerosene efficiently and, as a result, localized shortages are not uncommon as incentives exist to deliver the petroleum products elsewhere (such as through export) or not at all. In such circumstances, there are increased demands for the collection of firewood-which is predominantly undertakn by women. In this particular case, therefore, the broad pricing policies directly affect the avaaRable allocation of women's time for income earning opportnes. In the export sector, Nigeria has been promg diversification programs in an attempt to increase non-oil export revenL.es. A key policy undr this program has been to allow domestic producers to retain aU foreign exchae earned on non-oil exports. While the price decontrols have been on atl non-oil exports, the benefits conferred by this pC4cy have tended to benefit men much more than women. TIis is becase the predominant increases in products have, involved increased cash-crop sales through treecop products such as cocoa and rubber. This income accrues to male farmers with adequate land-holdings to grow such crops. 2.34 12irect x and DFa =. iscal policy through the personal income tax system currendy has a direct negative bias against Nigerian women, as only men are allowed to - is - deduct spouses and children as dependefts.Wl have less disposable income than men. The net effect of this policy is to decree the disposable income of women and depress womens wage opportnit. 2.35 Other liWages between economic policy meas and gender impact bias can be shown. In some cas, economic policy creates direct distorons (such a through personal Income taxes). In others, distorti's exacerbate conditions cread by other regWuoy fator (such as lId tenure laws and practes). In some cases, the orignl policy which is creating the bias is an ewnomically sound policy (such as allowing producers to keep foreign exchange earninon non-oil exports) and tie appropriate refm i a compl ty policy which equalizes women's opporunities to those of men. 2. Lad ad Rodu= Envro bmen 2.36 While formal initiatives through law and inttutonal reorm to bring about gender equaity are not sufficient, they are an essential first step in d ommitmet to gende equaity. Laws are the s l expressions of how sedously govermet tes the policy of equaity. Laws can serve as a bencmark agaist which to measure progress and they act as an instrument of last resort to remedy on-going activities a are conwtrary to the policy of equal opportunity for men and women. The Nigerian legal system comprises t indigenous cum y laws of the varios Nigerian ethic groups, the Iblamic law and the received English Counn Law, as well as priniples of equity and stautes of general application in force in Nigeia befre 1900. Legislation enacted by the Nigerian goveent at the Federal and State levels form the most current aspect of the legal sjstem. Ihis system gives rise to the operation of at least a tripartite system of laws wbich function staneousy in conjuncon with very significant informal social controls, based on gender, etnicity and reigion. While the natona legal stucture provides a generaized framework for use, the hiformal frwork of soci nonns governing day-to-day social and ecnomic lnterchanges are highly specialized and at least equally contoing . 2.37 The acta rights of rural women in diffet parts of Nigeria are therefore affected by the complex interaction of these three legal systems. For example, in many areas any member of the fmUily can lay claim to any piece of family land which is not under cultivation. The reslting confusion means that women have difficulty claimng a legal title to land that will satsfy commercial lending requirements of collateral security. The complex interaction of this multi- tiered legal structure is partcularly relevant to Isues of marriage and divorce. For example, a woman is generally not entitled to any share in matrimonial propety, and if she came into th marriage with propty, her husband can claim some or all of it. In addition, a woma's right to inherit propert will dpnd on the type of marriage de contated: customay, Islamic, or stutory marriuae. IW/ IJme Tax bhngu , Decree, 1961. The Federal Rpublic of Nigeda. In addition, if a woman is in sole custody of the children, she will be diallowed the child allowance unless witten consent is provided from the absent father. hV For example, the Constitons of 1979 and 1989 (which will become opeatve in 1992) guntee the right to fireedom from di aon. - 19- 2.38 Sinc a woman's togt to propety b sujec to vaying tradional and cuturl pacces, her abiliy to secre cred is undamined. A woman Is essendally viewed .s i dependent of hert sband or other male family mumber and coequently b not able to pledgt + collatl, what Is considered bis propty-even when support documents Indicat that the property is in 8-e name or Ii joiny owned. Although the Lad Use Act permits women to hold lnd (Via OCCUpanCy), poNt credito r ructant tend financial services because of tIng legal ci and becase the obsevaton of cuwtomary law renders uncertain a woman's propty teure. Other banking practes simia y reflect the precarious legal stat of women. For example, a common banking practice requirs a woman to furnis Informaton as to her husband's income and asset position before she can open a current account. Such a pactice effectively deter a woman fom using the financial system and mobilizing her svings for investment purposes. (Laws of instacy and iheriance and matimoni w are disusse more fiuly in ADnexes m and IV, respectively.) -20 - m. MLNECAMeNL AND BRI&QM OF CQBMW A. Overie 3.01 Nigerian women eentially have three major roles or responsibilities, each of which is associated with a range of specific needs, inequities and constrains: - child bearing and retzing; - family/household management and maintenance; and - economic/income earning activities. As they seek to cope with these multiple responsibilities (which vary among cultures, with income levels, with marital status and with age), women are confronting a variety of constraints and are subjected to a variety of consequences of which many (though not all) are gender-specific. Some of these constraihts and inequitable consequences affect women in aU three of their basic roles, others apply only in certain roles. 3.02 These gender-specific constraints and inequities can be broadly, but very usefuly, grouped into two main ogei: (i) Those that concern the basic question as to how well women are enabled and equipped in terms of their "human capital" endowment and development to perform their many tasks and responsibilities. This "human resources cluster" comprises gender-specific issues relating to health, nurton, maternal mortality, frility, and education. (ii) Those that concern women's "economic productivity" - the constraints women face, due to their gender, as they attempt to improve their productivity, the range of economic opportunites available to them, their ability to respond to such opporunities, their ability to earn income, and their control over such income. This broad category comprises women's lack of access to resources, to services and to markets. More pardcularly, it concerns their severely inferior access, for instance, to agricultural extension, tu k.oductive land, to training, to information, to institutional credit, to inputs, to affordable technology, to various support services provided by the public or private sector and even to their own labor and time. A major manifesttion of this gender-based low-productivity trap is the very heavy burden placed on women, in terms of the time they are required to spend on low-productivity, physically demanding actvities such as water fetching, fuelwood gathering, mamnal crop processing and headloading of farm produce. 3.03 There is, of course, a very high degree of interlinkge and synergy not only within, but also between these two sets of issues. Improving women's health and education poteniaUy has tmendous impact on their economic productivity (provided other constraints on the latter are eased or removed), and improved economic productivit) greatly affects women's ability to improve their (and their children's) human resource endowment and development. Nevertheless, this broad classification is also useful because it allows aligning Gender and Development issues with established sectoral development efforts and administrative arrangements. This readily facilitates the pursuit of Gender and Development objectives within the operational framework of St~~~~~~Ii~I IILgi~~~~~~I orI ~4RI 9~~~~$1 ~~~~~i~~~~~~~i a.~~~~~~~~~~~s ~i1IIiur ii'jjia id~~.ijto;* iBriL I;'~~~~~~~~~~0 -23 - Incom. Abseuce of a eduatn sono 8 * won fim accossing hfrmation pertinig tD social sices, fmy planning methods, and heat and nuttion. 3.13 Po P Nigedas urrt frmal eati syem bas a 6-3-34 structur: 6 yeas of pmay ducato; 3 years ofjor secondary; 3 year of senior secondary; Sd 4 yea of teary. Enae from lower to higher educao levds Is determined by competitve giaven by fedea and sat ducatinaaenc. Accoding to stated an_i Kom yoq, pdmary qedon i8 f whie fe ae d In almost all post-rimay WA-- -2 -- bothdiou (ecept in so norther states whe fbmae secondary education s fvee or w .D2 In ha, pimay ocatin has not been free due to declihg Feder and Stme govwmiw _6madon, opmuto Sin *0 oil prc slump in th early 1980s. Currt trends in Incased gvemen saxln for edu ae to be en ed. Spening an pimay educaon has bee cutaed over the pas decade while parots bave ben reqWred to mak financial contion in addii to he provision of books and sulies. 3.14 Female prmary school drops coniuly aRer grade six; and In rce yeas prmary shool a verall has fallen. With the xepin of two states-Borno and Niger-compulsory ed onal laws do not exist. Avlble data indicat that In 1989, femo pupils acomunled for abou 40 peca_ of tot prmy schoo .3m / This a decin ftm 1987 when thke Fedea Misty of Educatio reported female primay school _udbum at some 44 percent of the total. The 1987 data idica1that for each of the six prmay grades, femalnom as stable at around 44-45 perent of total elment Data prvided on secodary sdo enllmet idicatos tat In the fal yoer of ramm school, 38 pacal of toW aUmanwere female; whe in tcic school, 18 percet wereo fmalo In the fina yea. With rspect to unive , only 20 pecen of enrlmen ar womae Mm naiona static vary with respec to regios; feme school Is high in the wet and lowest In the I WomeW's Educatio Unit in FE has made eort tD ceat publc and paret awav of te ned tO eate feae children, and tO reorit feale aOt tDwards obtaining an educaoL Thes de 8 have Iased female Earpation to some extent eelly in the Nodhr regions whomerei among the lowest and needs to be encouraged.1y 3.1S M ob bee educatIoal leves nd reue frtliy, fmily heth and drww hounhold bwom b com iand whidy known Nigedr womn ar cleary foegoing more inom earig than their mal pa. Teik lower veage loves of education expose th to gret reatie ecowmi _nquty becas the labor seies thy can provde ar on averg of ls Income arng potetal. It i renble to conjecture tha they ar underepse In theformal sector and ov t he in ml and in the micro and a etpri sectors, in part beom of their low lvels of edatonal qWulica . Furthemorewom who do manage to acqur a forma edut aro usually channelled io traditional careers ash as mursig, pmary schwol teacg, secrtal srices which ar paly lowpying and limite to the public sector. 121 In 1981 theo Natal Polfcy on Educaton becme Unial Primy Educato 2W ITh tot nmber of e d in pimary sdhools - 14,441,066, of which female stu accout for 5,645,804. [Source: Nigr - Primy Educati Project, Staff Appraisal Reot, November, 1990 - See ao Anex IL) 2 bD p. 4-5. -24 - 3.16 H.AM gt u t . NFE is an organized educaonal acdvity conducted outside th mwork of the fomal oducational system to provide selective learng for specfic objectves. NFE is often the only option available to low-income women who seek to increase their income eaing potental. However, many programs provided are not relevant to what women need to improve their daily lives, to enhance their income earning capacity, or to provide them with social and economic mobiity. Historically, t for women has flen io a narrow range of low-productivity occupatons with limited potential for growth and income generation, thus p _pautbig existing, inadequate conditions. The type of training has important implications for the types of economic acdvities they will pursue. Often the NFE education projects simply reinforce domication instead of providing skills for activities which can genemte Income (for example, tic dying cloth, pssing food, shoe madkin ad repair, fnirture repair, and battery charing). Any education and trainig policy must consider boti potenial and exisdng women entrp rs. 3. PErtfli Chaime 3.17 In 1990, the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) conducted the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), a national sample survey designed to provide information on fertlity, family planning and health in Nigeria.ZZ/ The last natonal estimates of total ferility were calclae from data collected in 1981182. The new figures show a modest decline nationally from 6.3 to 6.0. However, there has been a more significant decline in the southern region of the country. Table 3.1 Total Fertlity Total Fertility Demographic and Nigeria Fertility Survey Health Summary Regions (1981/82) (1990) Nortast 6.4 6.6 Nortiwest 6.8 6.7 So _theast 6.0 5.6 Southwest 6.6 5.5 Nation 6.3 6.0 Source: Nigeria Dhic and Health Survey 1990, page 7. 3.18 Ihe reginal varlations reveal two pattrns. During the central ddldbearing as (25-29), women tend to bea children at the same rate in both the north and te south. However, In teo eady and late chidbearng years, regional diffeences emerge. As teenagers, women in the notth have idr at twie the rt of women in the south. Wojnen in the north achieve peak 2Z Federa Office of Stadstics, Nigeria Demographic and Heath Survey, 1990, Preiminay Report -25- fertllity int teir early twendes, while women In the souti do not adcieve peak fertility unt their late twetes. At the end of childbering years, women in the north contnue bearing children, at twice the rate of women in the south. The conseence is a total fertlity in the north of one child greater than that of women In the south (6.6 vs. 5.5).2W1 3.19 The national survey found the use of family planning low in Nigeria. Only 8 percent of married wo an had ever used a moden method at any time in their lives.WA4 Overall, only 6 percent of married women are cuntly using a contraceptive method. Approxiaey, the same mmiber use a traditiona as a modem mehod. There are significat differences in pattns of use of modern methods. Urban dwellers, those in the soutiern regions and those with fomal educations are more likely to use modern metds of family planning. Ih fact, the survey found that contraceptive use increases steadily with increased levels of educaion, reachig 19 percen among women with higher educaton (although half of this use is in the form of periodic abstinence and withdrawal). 3.20 High ferdlity rates among adolescent Nigerian women pose an increasingly critical problem to the formulation of healt'h and socW policies. Almost half of the country's women of hildbearing age are 15-24 years old. Sample surveys estmate that 54 percent of women aged 15-19 are already married. In the 20G24 age group, 85 percent of women have been married and nearly a dtird had three or more children.2W/ In an Ibadan area study of young married women who became pregnant, 9 out of every 10 had an abortion.2X/ Clandestine abortion is one of the main causes of deaths among umnarried Nigerian women aged 15-24, especially those atnding secondary school. Besides risk of death, abortons perfmed without professional medical ce cause a high risk of permaent loss of ferility and the severe social stigma that it carries in a country like Nigeria. In additon, treant of complications resulting from badly performed aborions strains limitd health care resources. 3.21 The use of modern contaceptives among adolescents is low. Only 7 percent of maried women in the 20-24 age group, and 4 perceat of those aged 15-19, are currenty using nmy form of contraception.27 Typicaily, family plang services in Nigeria where they exist at all are directed at older married coWles. Ihere are significnt health risk associated with early pregnacy both for the young mother as well as the child.21 In addition, early childbeing WI Federal Office of Statisics, Nigeria Demograpbic and Health Survey, 1990, Preiminary Report. 23I "Modern Method" would include the piUl, UJDs, lnjecdons, diaphragms, foams, condoms, and male and female strition. ZI Adolescent Fertility in Nigia, B. GyepWGarbrah, 1984. 2I Id. W1 Ibid. 2/ Early pregnancies, cay a higher risk of aemia, bleeding, toxemia, prolonged and difficult labor and uriay and bowel c cations and future fertility loss. For the child, premature birth and low birth wdgs are typical lead to longer-term problems. -26- lowers socal and occupaonal mobiity for the young mor. ducation is halted at lest typraf and mor ofnpumnmy. 3.22 is wel accepted ialty at yoo ng ages is lower among women wio are in schoo. Woa with form education tend to marry later and conaceptive use Increases as the level of education nase. In addi, these women eress a wills to use contaceptves and exercise contol over family planing, but both the level of nfiomatn on modern methods and eir avabity are severe, practcal constaints on tho wiing to practice contrption. However, he rnge of traditiona methods widely in use (charms, potions, bracelets etc.) indicate thaite interes in birth spacing is clearly presen in society. T"b32. 3 P_mip of ag women aun aly nurod wme wvo hww a c_urcepto mehod emo for a mihod, who hv enar used a mgbod, and who an ouway using a meehod, by mehod, Npa1990. Pao"umiWh Percen Who Par*"a live Poavei Cvrmetly_ Know Method Know Saure Used Meftd Usnog Mefthd Cautmosptiv Meho Ad Cm* AU CM AU CM AU CM Anr Meffd 45.7 43.6 34.0 31.9 15.2 14.0 7.6 6.0 43.5 41.2 332 31.2 9.0 8.4 3.8 3.5 PM 35.1 33.8 25.0 24.1 4.9 4.8 1.4 1.2 IUD 20.3 19.8 15.9 15.6 1.6 1.7 0.7 0.8 lqjetio 34.2 33.6 252 24.8 1.8 1.9 0.7 0.7 PeamimS Tablm 10.7 9.6 8.1 7.1 0.6 0.5 02 0.1 Do_ db 7.9 7.3 62 5.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 24.1 21.6 17.7 15.9 2.5 2.0 0.5 0.4 F?am& _wnlbmdon 20.4 19.4 15.7 14.9 02 0.3 02 0.3 Mob STaion 7.5 6.7 5.6 4.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Avy T1ditional Mift 25.7 23.6 10.8 8.9 9.4 8.1 3.8 2.5 Pedodic AJl_mm 17.3 14.7 10.8 8.9 5.4 4.3 2.4 1.4 Witmhaml 14.2 12.4 0.0 0.0 3.5 2.8 0.7 0.5 Odlbr Mebods 10.0 10.3 0.0 0.0 2.3 2.3 0.7 0.6 *All . wl (nmbe - 8781) _CM - ammnt mared ma - (ibe r 688 3.23 in 1988, FON aproved a National Policy on Populatn for Development aimed at impwoving famiy heat by an Ideal famiy size of four children per womaL Changes in populatin gowth and Improveme in the health of mothers and children, wil depend oan rductons in ferty. In Nigeria tis will be a major allenge due to a range of social, cultural and politic ct that vy due to the multiedic and regional diversity of he cotry. Throug the NPP, FON has recognized populatio growth as a national crisi constraining progress on social, ecommic and deve lomnt reimns. Family planning is a crtical fist sep to ensure thae at_ of social and economic goals. Although a reduced feriqit levd to four chdren is limited in terms of a goal of replace levd frtility, it woud be a major achvem for Nigeria women -27- 4. Helt a 3.24 Frewent chidbeing and poor nutin combine to weaken mate health, harm repodtive outcomes, and diminh women's strngth and efficiec In market, household and childcare activities.Z/ Ihe physical strains of hoenold mai ance, ftching water and felwood and agricultral labor combined with frequet pregnancies and minimal rest and leisure time, resut in chroc poor healt 3.25 Iher is growing concern among policymakers in Nigeria about malnutri M The recen relea of the National Demogac ad Health Survey (NDHS) shows that neay half of all precool children are severely stunted, an indication of long-term or cdroic malnutrition. While the problem of matdtion is widespread, it is pardcularly serious among inf and pregnt wome and lactating mothers. 3.26 In June 1991, a Bank-UNICEF-USAID Identification Mission for a Nadonal Nutiton Program (NNP) was stuck by the misinformation about the importance and significance of breding for the tutritional and health status and well-being of infants. The role of women In improving the nutritional status and health of dteir children is a crit one. Frequent childeain and poor mnurition among women of childbeaig age, in tum undermines the health and potential of this next genion. Actions in response to malntrtion proposed by the NNP Mission range from improved forms of on-farm storage, simple techologies for food presevaton, income-generaig acties for women, promotion of labor and time savig devices for mothers and dayeare ceners and ommuity based matna and child-care. 3.27 Cu. Ferty is not simply a population issue; it is also a female health issue. For example, lwduced aborton and its complicatis account for up to 70% of materal deaths in hospitls in developing counes and an unknown mSber of deaths ouside the hospital etting. A 1985 study suggests that abortion is one of the main causes of death among unmaried Nigerin women aged 15-24. 3.28 The NDHS showed a close correlation between matenal care and education lvels. Women with secondary schooling received, for example, tetaus toxoid injections for 82% of eir births but only 42 percent of births to women with no formal schooling received this important protection. Simia data holds true for antea care. At the time of delivery the majority of women with some schooling had asitn frm the health worker whie only 16 percent of births to women with no education did so. Substatal differen in maten care were lso documented by the NDHS between rura and ura areas where twice as many births received anstatal delivery care and between regions in the souti where such care was more typical ta in the northr aeas. 3.29 With the scarcity of physicians in rural areas; estmated at one doctor for 100,000 or more people, a focus on prevenatve heal care, safe mothedrood, famfly planning and nution ar cost effective and eficient approaches to female health. Preventive and promotive health programmes are critical, low cost ways to address heat and mnttion and the reduction of mantritlon-tiarly the control of diarr dis , conol of acute respiratory infections, prevention of measles and contol of malaria. To these can be added the dffeal halth riks faced by women from parsitic hnlections because of greater exposure to intd 221 Wodd Bank, Women in Develoment, Issues for Economic and Sector Analysis, p.33. -28- waw and to sewnHy uu_kwd dboam (STDs) becas of their greater diffculty i obtning d _an ae seua pu . S. 3.30 Tlh Nigerian legal system Is a complex Interon of laws which functon simtaously tn conjuncton with very signifcane rmal socal conrols, based on gender, ethiciq and religion. Whie h natona lega structures provide one framework of refee, the ifoml fiameork of socal noms govenAg day-tody social and economic bIrcages are hily controling. The actual rigbhs of women in different parts of Nigeria are tlefore ambiguouswand varied. 3.31 In Neria, child labor and child maTriage eaists and is generally accepted. As a reult, female chidreo are often dened an educaion, in lieu of labor in the home and/or ealy marge. Sine te rle of women is confined to the household for household m and produton for proation and for cdbearing, femae children are allowed to marry at puberty, at which time y are removed from school to ume their obligatis to the household. Ihis accted pracce effectively ma a low average level of female education and female labor productiviy. A woman's income eaing opporunte are Immediately curtaed while she spends most of ber poduve life in marriage. If she illierae, she i les able to ducate her ldren and to widen the choices and oppoenities for her female children. The practice of early marig promotes and pe high birth rates and low education. As a result, id labor and child maiag serves to constain individual and national eonomic efficency as well as naonal ecomic equit between the sexes. he elimiation of these costaints is required to improve the economic wefare of Nigerian women. Furhemore, low education leves perptuate high popuaton growth which only serves to mintai wiespred poverty. C. =GmicZr =uglyt conaaJni 1.Aen to Podun e= Q) O A 3.32 Th finanal Inputs, credit and savin availabe to Nigerian women to pursue productive actv is consdstey cited as one of the key constrin in deveopment Th nabiit to mterake Ivent sriously impeds ther capbility to expad or diversify i product and increse their inme earning potenal. is problem has acured Inaing Importance in ree years as economic stuctur adjustmet polici promoting, for exaploe, domestdaGr re have nouraead women to move fro m production into commercia podu Howe, wihout Inves capability, women in producive atrade and in agidcuure, ar uable to i a heir economic efficiec by acquirig bctors of producton such a raw and imdiae inputs, and beter tedcmology indluding labor-sv dvies. In comparson to their male countepar, ey ar economically d 1 - on-- beca their productivity and Income earnin opportunie ar curtiod. Their ait prt I In economic reforms slows the pace of stuctural adjustm at th naon lv. 31 Formal and Infmal baking in Nigeria ar discussed in Annex V. -29 - 3.33 Cultral traditions, stereowpes, baking pactics and the Impact of the peculiar legal sau accorded women in Nigeria produce a mnmber of fiactors which effectively curtail Nigerin women's access to credit. These factors bave been summared under ftree princple conaint: collal, infrmation disclosure, and transaction costs. All the of these constraints bhae the same type of Impact on economic efficiency: they lower national investmet and dampen the growth of national income. Without access to the financial inputs to build productive economic actves, Nigerian women will contine to work hard at inefficient levels. Furthermore, to the extent tha investment actually umdertaken is less productive at the marn than the foregone investment, a misallocation of investment resources occurs. From the perspective of economic equity, women are adversely affected becase it is their investments which are not undertakn thereby liming their income earning opporuities. (i) Colteral. Lack of access to collateral subsumes the issue of propery rights. In Nigeria women's right to property are subject to discriminatory traditonal and cal practices-which vary across the country and across ehnic groups-in spite of the fact that the national constitution guar the right to freedom from discriminton. In some areas, women cannot inherit land from a father or busband. In other areas, women are not entitled to any share in matrimonial property on divorce. The uncertainty of a woman's legal and f c status reduces her potential finania creditworthiness. Banking policy is such that a woman is viewed as a dependent of her husband with no legal rights to assets and hence unable to pledge property as collateral without his consent. (gd) _pislosure. This refers to the widely accepted banking practice in Nigeria which requires a woman to frnish detais of her husband's income and financial standing before she can open a current account. This prctice deters women from using the financial system and imedes their ability to accumulate and mobiize their own savings for investment purposes. For single women these policies effectively elim access to institional credit. (ii) io n Cost. The transaction costs constraint refers to costs incurred in using the financial system. All users face these costs but since women have lower average incomes, they bear them disproportionately. For example, minimum deposit requirements discourage small depositors most of whom are women. The ability to access banking sources may be consuained due to reasons of distamce and social/cultural constraints on mobit as wel as the tim required to travel in the face of the multiple roles that must be played by women. All of ese factors raise transaction costs directly and indirectly. The result is that women are deterrd from using the financia system to leverage their own savings. 00) Work-Related Trainin 3.34 jpljKe nuii and SmaU Buiness. The economic conditions of Nigeria have made it increasingly necessary for both rural and urban women to generate income of their own. Women must contribute more financialy to the household as the cost of living has risen and more women are single heads of household. The role of micro and smaU business acdvities outside of the household are now essentW for household income. 3.35 Much of a Nigerian women's economic output is produced at home, and a such it remains relatively unnoticed. The physical demands of childbearing and child care make It -30- harder fDr women and girls to seek education and traning away from home. Productivity and potei remain far below possible levels. Education and resources are needed to achieve value added to the raw labor of women. For female enrep lagey coneate In ma le industry or busines as producer and traders, the policy and reguatory environment often places them at a disadvantage to larger scale fims. Women are at a partcular disadvantage because of lack of training and access to infornation chanels to acquire the know-how to be able to get import licenses, foreign exchange, and other licenses and fees. Cultural traditions and family responsibilities keep women close t home and make it more difficult for them to get ut or input or to market products. 3.36 Meu to enable fmae enteprenes to operat efficiently are importn =ontriutios to houseold wellbeing and to aDton growth. Flexible and adaptive trnig in manw.gement, technical training, and basic bookkeeping are consistnly cited needs of women en repnes. Relative lack of education constrais them from maint their buiness and from business growth, as they are unable to access infonmation on credit, bureaucratic regulaions and Improved technology and inputs. 3.37 .itUra Extension, The vast majorty of rural women in Nigeria are fmes, and professional and effetve job-related training is as important for them as it is for male farmers. It h also mential if agicultural productivity in Nigeria is to improve and agricultural production iS to be environmentaly sustainable. lTe means for providig suh trn is agricultura extion. Agrictural extension sevices need to reach women, and the extension advice needs to be relevant and effective in tms of the particular responsibilities, risks, constrait and speciaized needs of female farmers. 3.38 Women famers face paricular gender-related constraints in gaining access to extesion (as well as other forms of educadon and information tnsmson). Chief among them are their heavy child cae and other domestic responbies, soci and physical restrictions on their mobility, limited or no formal education, and a range of socio-cutual factors. Widespread female illiteracy, for example, makes the use of written extansion materials largely useless as means to teach female farmers. Where culture and religion place tight restrictions on female mobilit and on female contact with males not related to them by blood or marriage, the need for fae-o-face contact with exesion workes quies locally acceptable and cost-effeve modifications to extnion practices if women farmers are to be reached; employing female extension staff and using group contacts rather than indiua concts are obvious approaches in such settings. Modifications in the regulado concenig staff employment (conceing minimum educatonal ) and deployment (concerning postigs in home villages) may be needed to ensure iat suffiient numbers of female staff can be hired. The timing of vists by extension staff may need to be adjusted to mtch women's daily work routines. And male and fee etension workers may need to be paired for field travel where culural norms and/or safety concerns pose obstaces to female staff travelling alone. 3.39 Over the past three to four yeus, the agricuLtural etension services operated by the individual states in Nigeria have made consideable progress in their efforts to reach women frmers. All stat' exnion sevices have embarked upon a dermined efrt to employ significant mbers of female extenson staff, not merdy to work in the tradiional areas of home economics, nutrition and food proesing, but to provide actual crop and livestock producXt advice to farm women In many state, one quarter or more of all contact farmers are now women, and in some arm of the southt women account for one third ad more of all contact fasm. } 3 x_nin uare beginning to be coont of the specific needs of farm -31 - women-be It In terms of the partcular actes they cary out, the special crops they grow, or the techdological and other ah ithey fice. 3.40 Nevertheless, what has beet achieved so far i8 merely a begining. Both research and extemion efforts are stil healy focsed on acops that tend to be under male control. Many extension recommendation still refect inadequate recognito of the enmous work burden that aready weighs on rural women and would, ff fuUy adopted, imply fuirher Increases in women's work load and/or maJor conflicts between women's work on male-controlled fields and their Involvemet in other esntal subsitce and/or income earning activities. There also is an urgent need for more thology reco ations that depend less on purchased input (a far more significant constain for most women frmers than for men). 3.41 Lack of access to trainig is a particular constaint casd by a variety of factors beyond education levels: the gender of the extenio agent, on to extension tralinng centers, child care obligations and buit-i biases favoring male farmers by exitig extension agents. These acces to training Issues can be diminished through the use of mobile trning, radio andtelevisionprograms as we:l asvidwc . hcreased recmeovertteoffemale etension workers who can work with women's groups will also encourage greater conWt with women fiume. IJI (iii) ITes dL M Inuhand- rkMA 3.42 Women tend to concentrate on functions undetaken for the family or within or near the household. Culture and tradition may also cof women and girls inside the family or close to home. Even for 'inside" activities, women may hae to rely on men to obtain res and inormation. Ibis issue, often reerred to as the inside/outside dichotomy3l/ varies by culture and region in Nigeri and impacts women diffety. Women's differential access to technology, iomation, credit, resources and other inputs place tm at a competive disadvantage in the economy. Becuse their productve capacity I strained, women often do not have the same capacity to respond to market danges and policy incentives. For small-scale female farmers, self-employed women or women working in small enterpri or services, factor mrkts operate more rigidly than for men Women have less access to ifmation, technology, inputs, credits and less mobility to seek them out. rier disavtages in education and traning and from poor health and uncontrolled prenances furter reduce women's capacity to meet market dhallenges and aggressively purse opportnitie. 3.43 While better and more accessible water supplies, fue sulies and woads and transport and food proceming ad storae techniques are generally discussed in tem of tle quality of a woman's life, thy also have a significant impact on her productive capacity. Simple technlogies that relieve te burden of household and famiy mainen also releasesubn time for economic actvity. At the same tme, care must be taken in the intoduction of new technologies which can inadverteny increase their workload, displace their work or result In loss of control of income. U1/ See generally Saito and Weideman for a thugh dission of the needs of women farmers and practical proaches for addressing hose needs. 3I World Bank, Women in DevelopmenL ssues for Economic and Sctor Analysis, 1989. -32- 3.44 in agriculture women face a range of peculiar constraints. Land availability and tenure is a problem bcas their plots tend to be smaller and often scattered. Lack of security in the land dress any incentive to make long-term in the land and elimintes land as a widely used source of collateral. Lwck of access to credit means less ability to purchas inputs (ftizers, impleme, Iigation devices. etc). 3.45 Women's capacity to adjust to changes In economic cirumces varies but bet educated women and women equipped to respond ecse they have access to credit and resources) are better able to respond to market changes and incentves. Constaints on womenWs economic responsiveness include: fmily and household responsibilities, limited culura exeatons (especially for the poor ad uneducated) poorer access to technology, infornmdon, resources and credit as well as systematic disrmion in labor markets. Women's inability to be "mobile" in marke impedes the adjustments required under structur adjustment measures. in addition, to the etent women cannot change, their own social/economic conditions worsen. 2. EvW M at 3.46 Tagato. The personal income tax system in Nigeria is such that women will, all other things being eq al, have less disposable income tm men he dependent povisions of the curenly opeaive Income Tax Management Decree of 1961 are, for the most part, unavailable for women. A Wife Allowance deducdon of 300 Naira for one wife only is provided to men who can prove that they are married by statutory or custmary law or divorced and paying alimony to an ex-wife. A woman is not entitled to a similar provision. With respect to children, thw Children's Allowance deduction is available to the father durimg marriage; and upon divorce, should the mother take custody of the children, the deduction is available to her only upon an application contMing const from the father. Otherwise, the father continues to receive the deduction even if he does not hold custody of the children. 3.47 LQJ=tLa. The Labor Act of 1974 offers women in the formal sector some degree of mateity protection. Matemity leave of twelve weeks is available and in the public sector it is granted with 50 percent pay. There Is significant under-repesentation of women in the formal private ad public ser. In the unrganzed private sector the amount of remuneration, if any is minimai. While the Act provides against the loss of employment during the maenity leave period, there is no secudty of employment afer the expiraion of the period. The legislative gap permits employers to terminate the employment of female workers arbitrarily. In addition, although the law accords a woman the oppo /right to leave work for a stated period of time when pregnant, she must produce a medical certificate as proof. Where a woman does not also produce a marriage cetificate or domen verifying that her name has changed from her original maiden name, employers have resed women the right to paid mateny leave. 3.48 Sections 33 and 43 of the Labor Act provide concessions to male employea and their famiges in the event of job relocation. From Section 33, may cizen who is recruited for service in Nigeria may be accompanied to his place of employment and there attended by his famfly (only two wives and childrean 16 years of age and younger). Further, Section 43 provides tat where a worker is recruited for employment outside of Nigeria, it shall be the duty of the employer to prvid facilities at his own expense to enable the worker's family to accompany him to the place of employment and to remain for the duration of the conta. No similar provisions apply tD female employees and their famflies. -33 - 3.49 Ma 1. Laws govning the mardage relationsip in Nigeria tend to impact maticaly wome's lal position and stats in uny respects Including domicile, prpr rihs and legal competece. For example, bride price under customary marrige is regad as purcha money of the brde. Tbis undamines her epede stus and makes ber foever indebted to her husband and family. For eample, childhood marriages ar cmmon within Customary law and impact feme health negatively and raises fertility rates. Although mtrimoni law in Nigeria has cged considerably over the last centmuy, the genesi of cotmporary legislation resides In customary law and the received Common Law. The status of a woman under the Nigeria law depends to a large emm on the valid marriage(s) she has contracted. Today, there are three types of valid marriages: statutory marriages, cumary marriaes and maiagOs under Islamic Law. The principles of law applicable to each of these types of mariages differ and to a large ext are adminstered by different systems of cour. For examle, the age of consent and age of marriage also varies with the type of marriage. Custmaymarriage provides no minmum age. (See Amex IV for a full dsc on matrimonial laws and their significance for Nigerian womean.) 3. Imnlicatons of Lack of Gender Data on Policy nyis 3.50 Effcive gender policy forwation is hampered by the lack of instituonal suppt services to provide gender-specific data and acquire it from women regarding their heath, ducation, and tecnical/physicd needs. For exmple, outside of subsistence producion it is known that women are engaged in micro to small-scale business but deas as to the ypes and bcations are unkown. Without such basic Information, technical assistance and finacial support canot be effectively ditbuted and gender-neutrd economic policies may have unexpected adverse fecs on women. Without such information, some will continue to argue ta women fc no gender-related constraint. 3.51 Dam . Unti recety, the demand for, and the availability of, gender-specific data has been rare. The key instidon for gathering and maintaining national stical data is the Federa Office of Statistics (FOS). Prior to 1986, when the first seminar on data requiremens direced at women was held, FMS had little ifration on women. Historically there has been little gender-specific policy making or consideration and hence there has been no perceived need for a gender focus in data coilection. However, policy-makers now realize the importance of women to national economic and huma welfare and consequently need gender-specific data and analysis at both the national and the household level so hat policy makers not only undetand what women do but undertand the relationd dynamics of the boushold tx constrain women's role and contbution. Ihe National Women's Commission is emining the posibilit of setting up a geoder-speciic data collectimg and g within the Commission. Effective short and long-term policy formation now requires, for example, gender-specific data painig to wage ime levels, educational levels and occupations. Wage level inforation will assist policy-makers in Identfying and removh4 eonomic inequity. Eucationl and occupational imnaton will serve to chanmn efectively governmeS expenditures Io areas which wfll have a direct and corectly anticipated effect on womenL Such e would be invetinem in hum capital or physical capital both of which would cea economic efficiency and equity. -34- IV. CONCePIAL FRAMEWORK FOR A9 SR 4.01 The range of cons0n denfied have implicato on both how well women are able to cope with thir many household and family tasks and responsibil (inslde" activities) a well as thir e to undertak succ¢_ly economic or (outside") activties. Womens' choices with espect to allocaon of time betwee Inside" aivities and '-outside actvities and how wel and efficiently they are able to pefom hese aff not only the growth and compositon of economic outu but also affec the hman capital of this and the nx generation and the size and com osn of the family through natality and child mortality. 4.02 To evaluate constain to women In developmet, sevea frameworks have been developed and added to in recent years: the "triple" burden of women (already refered to); gender equity (stucting progrmmes so tt men nd women simimlay positioned get a fair and measurable dure of program beneft); and the impact of constraints on limiting te Iransfratory potential of public policy reforms ded at changing gede expecons, the dstbution of wealtb and aces to levels of power. 4.03 Consaints can aso be caegorized in terms of their impact on cconomic efficiency and equity. In this approach, specific indicators of economic efficiny and economic equity can be deveoped and applied to the Idendfied consaints to assess the following: ? Economic efficiec impacts of the constrains on national income due to worn's tme allocation and the time allocation of other household members. s Economic equity Impac includig the nmber of women affected by each constint, the rehlive income of the afcted wome, and the potenal impact on gender quity if the con t is removed; and to euate each constraint in tem of the actual possbility of removing it; refom feasbility of the costraints including the ty of rdoms avaiable (direct or indire) and the ilme frame required for effecte refor impion 4.04 Under the efficien-eqit approach, constrais such as health and nutriton, family planning and saf mothedrood have a high ipact on economic efficiency and economic qty. he feasibility of imple refoms t remove these const is also high. The impact of economic efficenc and equity is high in constan such as water and energy availability; as in the subject of formal and hiformal education. However whee constrain such as import policy resrctons and epott po s a concned, mo analysi needs to be carried out to detemine positively th impact of these policies on economic equity. 4.05 The direcdon and content of a Nigeian Geder Strate uldmately depend on how one weighs each priortizing criteda. However, since for example, saf motherhood, waer availability, and educaton al have similualy hih impacts on economic efficiency and equity, as well as high refom feasibility, under ti analysis they emerge as key priority policy areas for action. (Annex VII descrbes the analytic framuwork for this approach). - 35 - 4.06 Policy refom can take a variety of foms: (a) legislative refom (law/jurisdiction); (b) sectoral projects; (c) in_ti n refoms (which may be reuid to suo [a] and [bD; (d) nanal awam programs (to support a] Wo [c); ad, (e) eonomic hterve s (which may requ changes in [aD. 4.07 uslaS refop involve iroducing or cnglL laws. They may directy tag a constaint by, for example, changing come axaon laws; or theq may aiate a cotai indirecdy by caifying the leg stats of women. (An apppriate actioM to address collaWal a _ l-siinton credit access.) Other legive re could provide women with a me of ealing dy pradcoes; or guarte cildren freedom from labor and a ainium educato Leal refom can be implemented quickly but when te constrai is largely cutr, thei public acceptc wil probably occur over the longer-term and must be accmpand by adoog awaenes programs, 4.08 The befi of net are quite often visble in the shorttem Such projecs involve infastructre dlopment such as water lies, the estblisent of educaton les, and the provision of sectorspecific credit. Sectoral projects can target co n direcdy, as would be the case when buiding mmr sdcols to aeviae the education ai; or indirectly, as when a commuity credit pool is provied to circumvet te collte constrai wome fa when rying to seu credt from commercial bab. In any cae, for thdr and coniued succe, they shodd be accompanied by nstutionl and awans rforms which make maabl gender-specific data and Input, and proot education and traig. 4.09 invoe changig the esting, or creating new, operaUt procedu and itrio of goverment and n-government instos. These reforms taret c1lat-W directly and indirtcdy by, fr emple, provi local facilities for water non-fomal educaon, cred diprs, and truancy enfo1eme I reform also include the davelopment of ppeal offices for discminatry prdctes and the establishment of gender-pecific data collection and n faciles. bIdutonal refors are likly tDo have an impletime somewhat longer thn tha of secoral project but once implemented, the respone tme would probably be fairly short. 4.10 aae inct polies whh typically b long ipon ad responsetis. They aim to aciecoopeatnand compliac bysec a publCoias to dh validt of gov Initiatis. To build supp for Gotenderand Developmet initves, progms ar required to raise public awre of: a) th Imoran of ed_ucati for aU children; b) the importae of oducaton for female chidren; and, c) the economic conritin wome can make to the contry If given equa access to education, trinig, and other fautors of producton. Such programs need to be conducted at all lovels of governmen- nona, sa, nd community or viap. 4.11 involve the use of monetary or non-monetay inc to pommote baiora cages, that wi allow womme tD participate g ly. Economic -36- refm are u=rly higly fasible becae respon tme s usually relatively short but, potentia inconsistenc wit otier oeco c objecies may make them controversial. 4.12 Various types of economic inuments for addressing geander constraihs are avaiable. For eample: (a) direct tansfers; (b) fines; (C) subsidies and taxes; and (d) regulaon/deregua on 4.13 Direct transfers involve the conditional or uncondio transfers of income to alleviae gender constaints. An ample would be government provision of fitel cookers for the development of alternatve energy. Fhies could be used to force compliance with legad reforms which, for emple, prohibit discriminatory practces. Governent subsidies in the form of interest rate relief or loan guaates (risk asumption) could be used to target credt access constraint. Removal of the txidon constraint would require the implementation of gender-neutra income tax laws. Economic regulaton of the banking sector coud be used to aleviate the credit access constraint. For example, bank loan portfolio regulto could result in a pordon of credit being earmarked for female invesors. Finally, deregulation would be required to address those constran which are in themselves economic policies. These include the removal of food Import restricons; the removal of intert rate ceil; and the removal of any preferential treatment for export producton. Deregulation could also be used to remove those aing policies which exacerbate constrn as in the case of LPG price regulation which ffectively inhibits the provision and distribution of alteatve energy supplies. 4.14 IThe reform opons discussed above can be implemented at the national, state, and om nty/village levels depending upon the pardular type of reform and nature of the particular constraint. The removal of the conaints associated with a lack of safe, accessible water, for example, requires both legisative reform, and direct sectoral projects. The former would be implemented at the national and/or state loves, whil the latter would be diected at conmmities and villages. Women's acces to credit was closely examined at a workshop organizeu by FMFED and supported by the Bank. Table 4.1 demonstrates th possile policies or interventions availale at a number of levels if FGN chose tO addre the issue of lack of access to collateral for credit. -37 - Table 4.1 - Exaples of Meaisms Taged at Redrssing the Colleral Consta Selected Examples of Mec" nim Available to Addre COllatral Natioal Stae Community Legislative Rforms cai lea status of carify legal status of women women Institutional Reorms implemet nation implement state WED support cooperative WID Action Plan Acdon Plans ledng institutions; create appeal office for disciminary _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ p rac tic es. Sectora Procs provide women provie credit pool explicit support In for sectorspecific =a_____________ SME program . projects. Awaene Prgms prwxot fmale prmote female promote female 3 ~ ~ ~~~enternus; enteprnusi; enternusi; promote equal prom equaity; promote equality; inform women of Infoin women of inorm women of their legal status their legal status any avaiale -iding schemes; Inrm women of _____________ _____________ _____________ their legad status. Dir Transfers provide start-up provide t r-up apial for selected capital for selected projet projects Fhi impose fines for ipoe fnes for disrmntr disrmntr .___ __ _ beiavior ba Subeldies & Tae lon guaratees for loan guarantees for ___________ female investor female investorsn_____ require bankl to earmak credit for femal investr - 38 - V. 1ANHAOMNDER SE33M A. S.01 A major conan In addressg womens concerDs in Nigia is that te has been no sh conceptual mework across sectos t assist plans to undetand th process of identfng thei needs, h conthe face in tbe specific sectors and the need to establish complementary linkges In the dffret sector programs. There i growing recogniion in Nigeria of the importat role which women play In contributing to the development of the country. Thbis is a decided improvemt from dte previous programs in support of women which had a wefare focus, with women as aid recipients. At that dme interventions were aimed at helping the poor and the weak to survive. Thei productivity and capat to make choices and participate in the economic devdopment of the country was mainly overlooked. Although currently there is growmg recognition of womens issues, there is still an absece of the need to inbtgte women's concerns into he deveopment agenda and the need to focus on removing consaints which they face in acceing productive resources. Policyqmkers need to be aware tdat deeply rooted disiiy pracces and long held view on appropriate gender roles and dhision of labor have to be reviewed and modified if women are to be given equal access to resources and opportunities to reach their fbll production pote. 5.02 The measres to assess the effctivenes of interventions of gender and development nmus inude their ability to achieve both gender equity and to have transfrmatory potential. Gender equity rei that women not only padcipae in development programs but at they also receive a fair share of the gain and benefits from the intervention. In a famework of gender equity, intervendons would aim at enhcing producdtv actes and labor oppormnities and at encouraging opportunitis for women to define the choices they prefer to fDlow in the directon of their lives. In a framwork that requies tr r ry potential of interventions, the enabling and equpping of women's human capital ae Important. More fum ly, incorporating an awaen of male/female relationships, the gender expectations of the society and itr ousold dynamics of its members into project planing and evaluation becomes 5.03 Ibis suggests then that there are two f_hl objectives to a successf gender strate: (a) acdons aimed at imprving women's hea and educatio and promoting ways that reduce their fertily and gives them control over their ferdlity; and (b) actons dmed at impving wome's eonomic producvity, incraing their ability to respond to economic opporttes, hder capacity to earn income and to gain great control over more of the incom they generate. 5.04 These require simutaneous acdon where possible across a broad range of the idfied constrints. Important elemts of these objectves are the actions necessary to equip women to control hse changes th do take place through devopment asistmce and to enable tmto deten thdr own directiom for dag in order to formulate an effecive plam of acton, short-tem activit need to be accompanied by broader and longertem policy initiaves. Th fllowing are r mendao for actions/interventions within the priority -39 - sor IUdfied in the foncepital to ai the fida objectives In a gender and delopmen statg. B. i Xnhzxo*uk±gfdnKSum= 1. Cnm" kgmXmt (a) S 5.05 It case of ural wat suply, the most importa players are generally women Currny, ther arfoW wat prject in Nigeria that have Inoved women in the desig and of the projeL llr s increasing evidence h olving women a the eaiest sges of a wa projea s signfican to the ultimabt success of ie water project over the ong tem he litay of chroic problems of susalnability in traditional war projects dth have not invdlved women well-known. A gnificant numbe of eisting wat facilities In Nigea are not working. Some of the problems dnfied In ts sector Include: (a) poor corination by various govenment ageocies responsible for water; (b) imied partaton by villages ad, In parcula, vile women in the planing and locatio of boreholes; (c) use of sdhow wels in ara which requrd deep driling to esure continuous water supply; (d) lack of planning, [ x and trnng In how to manhtan boreholes and pumps; and (e) lack of training programs to enre pper hadlin of drinking watr for better heath. hi addition, lack of nmhmawe Is In part a reut of lack of claity of ownersip by villages or communiti, of the equipme Itself. 5.06 Water sector acdvities in Nigeri must direly Involve the users, women, i d . h requirs for each project, local NGO's and womens grups to deiver tainn progrms to reh women In the rair, am d e of watr facles. It also requires asitig women In their communities In wopgating with gov _mab and dra undert wtr projects when choice of technology, ste selecti ad types ad avalbit of training programs are being determ d. Th liaison and traing fctos reqi social data dollecto and paddpant Both cU for appoah which encourag womn's patipaton to esu th women ae hired to undertab data collection and that women's grops me for projet plaing meedngs. Putr and ongoing war sector desig and d opment work rquires a gende pepetve In project desig, plunhg6eagem ataud r DIiqrtsysem to e thatpojectpoibilies importafor women cam be Ioducd by the women at the eae stages. (b) 5.07 Women are t key ageno in foesy and foestry projects becu they are the main collecora , oa d umses of fiel and fodde for home consumpton ad for sale to udrba maurket In many paUts of Neia In addit to being the main laboers in forestry actvites, wome as work extensively on forest p ma v$e edes and we ofte a mjr wure of knwledg on the grwth, us and of forest rsrces. in Nigeria and tougho Afica, they arelso te key managers of 'minor forest products' such as - 40 - plant fibers, resins, gums, dyes, medicinal plants, frits and edible and industrially usable seeds. In foresty, women are acutely aware of what will be lost if certain species disappear.3/ 5.08 ation: Sectoral analysis must look at women in all of their various capacites (rural, urban, landowners, landless, small holder) and roles as collectors and users of forest products for household use, as producers and entrepreneurs making commercial products from wood, as laborers in nursery and plantation operations, as planners and managers for forest and grassland management. In the energy sector, work is proceeding on the Natral Gas project for Nigeria. A secure supply of gas will be ava3lable by 1995. In the context of the Energy Sector Review, the Bank is examining the alternative energy sources applicable at the village level and the prospects for their future development. Ihere is a need for a package of village level activities that would support stat government efforts to introduce alternative sources of energy for domestic uses, encourage the fabrication of low cost, locally made cookers and burners and assist with the development of village tree nurseries. Direct transfer economic policies could include government provision and/or development of alternative fuel cookers-gas or coal-or the provision of seedlings to promote forest farming. The needs of women in the energy sector are particularly suited to pilot projects. (c) Forma Etuagi 5.9 Nigeria's Universal Primary Education scheme aims to provide children with a mininmu six years of free education. Despite this, access to formal education for young girls remains unacceptably low. Female literacy is only 31 percent of a gross literate population of 42.4 percent. A supportive institonal inidative would be an alliance between government agencies and village/community elders or repreentatives. 5.10 R: Short term sectoral projects could serve to: a) increase classroom and teacher availability where facilties are lacking; and b) increase the quality of delivery by provding professional development to exisng teachers which may include providig them with more or new teaching aids (projectors, blackboards, books, etc.). Professional development could also include a curriculum review to determine to what extent segregation exists which channels females into traditional roles of wife and home-maker. 5.11 At the national, stawe, and community levels, awareness programs are necessary to convie the public that it is worthwhile to invest in the education of female children. Females in pardcular need to be made aware that there can be career choices and that there are income earing opportnities available if higher education is obtained. Awareness programs could be supported w intitdutonal reforms such as cooperative government-NGO initiatives which provide cmmnity career counselling services to the schools. 5.12 A National Awareness Campaign on women's education was launched in 1986. Some sates have started their own awareness programs. These initiatives should be provided wift financial andlor tehica support. Other isuto which could also use similar support include the Women's Education Unit in the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Commission on Women. Both organizato, aid indeed any other orgnization concerned with women and education, would benefit, for example, from rsources allocated for the development of a ay In a survey conducted in Sierra Leone, women were able to name 112 forest products, while men could name no more than eight. -41 - gender-specific data base. Such data would mist in devising progms which Increase womens' access to eduaton in genal. (d) NLEm Fuao 5.13 Non-formal education is not a substite for formal educadion. Sklls taught in non- form courses do not raise Incomes or result in professional eaployment to the extent that certificatin rough mal education does. However, non-fomal education is one of the few options available to low-Income women who seek to impove their status. The quality and delivery of NFE must be raised. Currently, many programs are not relevant to what women need to improve their daily lives, enhac thei income-earning capacity or to provide them with soca and economic mobility. Ofken the non-formal educadton projects simply reinforce the domestition and marginalization of women 5.14 R: Most developmevn projects involve an NFE component tha with plnning and commitment could become significant vehicles for constructive training and education of women in practical, Income-ehancing methods. Well-designed needs assessments are essential parts of tee projects to ensure appropriate program content for women. Early, carefid consideraon rreds to be asured to plan for the participation of women in project training progms in r ambs ta reflect the prnciple of gender equity, that is that women receive a proportiol are of the benefit flowing from each development project (e) Hertbyhic 5.15 FGN is ommted to reducing the growth rate of population. Ihe solution to the populaton growth challenge rests largely with Nigerian women and the choices they have lale with respect to their fertility. It is well accepted dt the legal sat of women, their educational and income levels are key dda b of frtility. Women's economic and social posiions have proved to be crucia Influences in briging down family size. Women with more opportunities for educaton, income and varied sorces of satisfaction generally opt for smaller families. Mothers wih better education who undestand basic child care, nuition and health care, epeience lower ifant and child mortality, which removes the need to practice -eplacement births. he compe aitY of a commitment to improve economic opportnites for women and the objectives of a popuaon policy are bhig. Ihe popuaion issue is central to the Bank's dialogue with Nigeria. 5.16 1t-n: es popuation sector work being carried OUt to impleMent the National Policy on Populaton is crical to any dfort to impwve the role and status of women in Nigeria. Women need mnform about faily planng tchniques and the implications, both physical and soci of utilizing those techniques. Of par int erest in the Nigerin context a the socal, cultural ad legl fa affecgtin frtility and contraceptive ue. Research is required to separte the Impact on ferility of culturlI tradition and reguto frmeworks from actual practie as ra,prds for aample, monogmus versus polygamous marriages, as regards age of marriage, property right, and sex of the cild. A program research into facrs affectng fertility is to be spported under the National Popuaton Project for Nigeda 31I. The needs already identified In the NDHS wil be further explored. M/ Loan 2238-UNI. -42- 5.17 Frequent chldbearn and poor nutrition acting together trou much of a Nigeian womans lef, weaken her matrnal health, creatig highe ri pregnancies and impairig her abilt to work eff y in ber tree roles in the markt place, In the household and in caring for children S. 18 R e_: Access to family planning services and informationhelp materal heft by pmvmft the nmu to spac pregm_n. However, for those women who do become pregnat, by choice or othewis, th acivemnt of sf motherhood requires t commnity- bod het care be stengdted to prvide good pro-natal care and to sce women at risk in 5.19 By socsi and cultur aditon wome often expience a life-long disadvantage in aces to good nutuit Self denial in fbor of husbands and sons can reslt in sunting of female children and poor maternal health. 5.20 Work should be undet with exsting womes groups at the vilg levd for collecdve acdton. The use of grups/coopratives a vehicles for acquiring and W 0 Olin lingfomation can go a long way in ovecoming the household or 'inside" isolation ofen exprienced by women and in nasing the sef confidenc nee for tsrt Impact in adaptig new beair and In calUgng bauM, traditional socil pracices. (g) dbedsBoma=ndPactic 5.21 Little Is known about the complex web of cltuad and social practcs t In part make up the somary law of Nigeria. It is principally utomay practc that Iac women In tweirnside' roles and in challe ges of fmily and hoehold mainteac. Descriptions of how wome live thdr lives and the Impact of aW on them is no longer sufficien. The con*ex web of rdSWuipes and conduct ditated by cutomary practices need to be considred for sound doveopment pog in. Womrns reltnp with members of the same sex and among males and femaes at differt stages in the life cyclo, from differe trib bacgounds, fom differet pats of the couny ar often ditated by customary practc wih the force of law. Me cusoary praces a peasive and gorly not writ yet detemi how society i organed, how power Is distributed, deleted and recognized. They detmine the nture and degr of eonomic participation by men ad women. A concer with the rdation among men ad women, in th househld and in the matplacens to be reflected in sector work and, in patcul, proec parton 5.22 Ri abiW to undertake ge analysis requires mtr people with gender training which noves away *fom women-focused analysis to an analytic fwnework thst exami the nti setm of gender raios d thi Impact on progrmming designL A fmilarity with cuomary law and praes nd their implcations for prgamming becomes a f first step. It gl requires a c by Nigerias and donors to challenge the stat quo wth rpect to systmi and d m through policy reform. -43 - 2. =moIL agf ggd (a) 5.23 Women lack access to Institutona sources of cri for a varety of reasons-lack of coateal (such as land tie), banking practies that oftn restict thm from openg account of receiving loan witout a mae coa-sigor, low lvels of numeay ad lteracy, lack of nfrmationand of the banking system, disn and cost of travel to banking ftes n higr costs of cpital du to the small scOl of their eteprs. Mklions of Nigrian women nu small busin and farming operations and need credit. 5.24 : Table 4.2 lists individually the credit access constraints already identified along with types of polies which would work evenuato remo them In al cae, supporting prgms ar requiroe. lbe public, inuding the baking sector, needs to be made awa of the potentia cotution women can make to te nationa economy. Lega recour ait d bain practices could Invo omplement ecoc reorms such as noncomplian fin. Tbis type of awprogmming dsould work to hango bnking practies-atculay infoMaion rteuiem policies-ad communitylethic at about the legal st of wome. 5.25 Awareness progm also have a purely inormave role to play in providing women with Informaton about alternive avenues of obtaining crediL It was Identified in the Women and Credit Worksop tha most women ar unawar of the varius credit fies that are avai s as NNigain Better Life Ptogrm for Rural Dwelers, the Peopleos Bank and specfic ldig progms of the Und Bank of Afica which targed rur women organized IDo coortives. The Bank's Sml-m nteprise loI sod be aese cully for how can be made to respond to th needs of Ngrian wom enetprener who are yet to form part of its dien bas (b) wz '-g lT Cl) 5.26 In Nigia all states have Women In Agculture (WIA) programs laundhed under the respective stat Agriculture Daveopm Prgms (ADPa). The WIA prgrm bring female frmers Ination and techlogy and eachs them how to use it to impwve heir productvt. It als heps the ADPs understand the parcula needs and of female farme. 5.27 Re r Ihe WIA programs are in ned of more resourc-people, technolg, and financing-to be able to pwvideh fdillest support to fomale farMers. Estimates of tho impotance and value of goods and servc produced by women are in reported data becas thy tend not to tw fSomal market chanes. To conic deiion mabers of the need for prgramming for fmde farme, the public poH qymakers and resardhes need to be educated on the cical re wom ply In housncold and In natonal fDod security and encraged to consider female farms in seing progams and programm priories with spect to acces to f ing thology, ip and credit. To reach eetmes difficult to ach emdoames,dedevpntand/orsupplyofanativteacin aidsshouldbeinvestgad, such as fam raio p, vidoo trann tap, and mobil ftaining facilties. - 44 (ii) 5.28 Women hav not bee enourged to use the finacial system and do not know how to work with it. The SME project bas not bw successf i dis ting information among women's groups or business women about the projects' omponets. Prerequisites for qualifying for resources under the mutualist guaratee associaton provisions are unclear among SME officials. The traiig and resch provisions available under the SME Project for small business are equally unknown. 5.29 Recommend. The SME Project should quickly release funds so that sample surveying work can be undertaken to deterne the chaacristics of the female entrepreneur at varous levels of economic activity-her training needs, needs for inputs, credit needs and marketing requirements and then targeted trainig should be undertaken for women entrepreneurs by appropriately skilled orgaiions under the auspices of SME H. (c) TeM - Input and M uke 5.30 Lack of suitable household farm technology impairs women's efficiency, restricts their time and diminishes their physical energy for child rearing, child care and productive actvites. Technologies suitable for small scale farmers and busies where women are mostly represened are lacking. Women's access to formal finmacial institons for credit to acquire these is severely limited. 'he level and consistency of production prevents the efficiencies of scale that the large commercial distution networks require. 5.31 The use of groups for collective action can result in innovative approhes that breakdown these access barriers. Women should be encouraged and trained in cooweative and group formation that build on the traditional community level groups. The groups can be utilized for cost-shaing purposes to acquire technologies, to buy inputs in bulk for ditbuton to individual members in appropriatey sized units and for mutualist credit guarantee schemes. Women's groups can provide an access vehicle for development planns as well for working with small scale holders in cost efective ways. This reqires that sectoral specialists focus on building group actio into project planning and execution. (d) EcuaMicli&JnilSazItx 5.32 Measuring the impact of adjusmet accurely requires gender- eated data to be generated that assesses the impact of adjustment at the household level. Failure to undestnd the different roles men and women play in economic activity means the fine tuning required to ensure the adjustm process occurs will not occur quicldy enough if at all. 5.33 : The Socal Dimensions programs is an importan one to protect the vulnerable as much as possble. However, programs tha focus on improving women's mobility and productivity to be able to participate as important eoonomic p!ayers in adjustment are more imortt for the long tem Where policies have a diff il negative impact in the areas where women a concentaed, for example, the non-raded sectors (food and services) and the small busine sectors of idustry and agriculture, then compeating policies are required so women are not disadvnged by reason of gender in the adjustment process. - 45 - (e) I___IXgulr k 5.34 While lal rdorm wfll not bring about immediate changes in practces, it becomes an Impora point of deparre for those women who chose to exercise different choices and it becom an importa yasck agaist which to mease progress on a range of legimae socieal s. It aso indicat the clear commime of govermet to gender equity. Tne whole range of employmen and work related egation are Importa for women who already face sifficant entry barriers due to their lack of access to educational opportuWes and due to their multiple and sometimes conllicting ousehold and work roles. 5.35 R d : A rview of legal/ory Issues and practices in the banking sectr, employment sectr and with rpec to small scale enteprises should be undertaken. lhe Natona Commission on Women has established a legal deament to study and moUitor legislative-based discrimintion laws and practices that Impede the economic and human poentiW of Nigerian women. Mh reults of this review hould be a package of reforms for Implementatin by FGN. 'Me Commission needs technical and fincial support to ensure tha the work is undertake with rigor and presend in the most persuasive manner for FGN policy makers. (a) DataColl 5.36 Gender equity rtquires an awareness of male/female relationships and intra- ousehold dynamics in structuring data collection activities. Sex-disaggregated data, while vital does not reveal anything about gender relations. 5.37 Women's productve activities wil continue to be undervaued until censuses and project baseline studies are undertake with the dual goals of undead both the quantve apects of the division of labor as well as the qualitative aspects of intrauehold decision- making. For example, in agriculture it is important to klow not only what work is performed by men and women, it is equhaly Imp to know who owns or conols factors of producon and the income derived from sales of agricultural produce. Reserchers need to use a variety of methods to acwqure the best infotmation. For example, there are many aspects of formal female education at are imporat and need to be undestood: init enrolment and ages, length of time girls remain in sdhool, educational attainment levels, coniuation, rention, dropout and transitional rates, the streming of girls into trdiional women's courses (curriculum segregation) and educational requiements and standards for admission as well as the type of schools gir attend. 5.38 F: or effective policy formation now and in the future, data and input are requied to deemine what Nigerian women do, and what they need. To t end, support-filnancial and techical-Sould be supplied to agencies or organizations capable of amaing information for d ination to policy planners. 5.39 TWo complemeary initiatives are recommende for mediate action in the area of data geneation and further Information analysis. Tho gation of gender s fic data shoult be undaken with a view to establishing, in the long-term, a 'State of Women Information SysteW (SWIS); the SWIS concept was discussed at length in Nigeria on previous missions and receved broad support. (See Annex V.) In addition, a second cmlementary program would f"t0iO gab@ 2. 11111 1!ig [ Ew l}} @ IE5 Tsli 3,i tEa i:.:j$## jri[M9iE l | t ""~ I tit 1111ft -47- Page 1 of 3 Canadian Journa of African Studies, 1984, Womeni ual Rw es: A Case Stbudy o Souffiweoen Higed Ren Adeymo. Collier, 1989, WoMM and A s GU e meD ion Dr Collier, P., An _AIdaIuLjkNeigcz1g.MKt& July 1985. Maknwa-Adebusoye, Paulina, and Janice E. Olawoye, 'Gender Issues In the Neu Between Population Growth, Agricutural Sagnation and EnvIrometa Degradation in Nigera,' mimeo., Consultat Report (Draft), Agriculture Operations Division, West Africa Department, World Bank, October 1991. 11LO, 1987, Ere ers"i and SmallBNW Pffda= fDie tr Wome in DevelogiX ternatonal Center for Research on Women: Iwmvin Women's Accss to Credit In the ori: PoicQ and P June 1984. Itenational Center for Research on Women: Lmts to Pdctivit: Imgprvng Women's Ae to loloszv and Moser, C., MM bh=d Set R2UdMd lt and ry in Urban Five Rurl Developmen Dialogue Nigia, Federal Govment of, _huwd on _M danin Nia Thb' Women Education Branch of the Federal Mistry of Educao, 1989. Nigeria, Fedeal Government of, and fte Uni Natn's Chldren's Fund, Ani of the Sbion of Chiklren and Womn nm.I October, 1989. Saito and Weidemnn, April 1990, World Bank Worki Paper Seies 398, Agricultr Extension for Wome Famers fn Africa U.N. 1981, Wome an d Mig nJa .WgLda U.N., Economic and Social Commision for Asia and the Pafic, ank Credit for Rural Women, UNDPIILO/FDARD Home Econom cs Trainig, Cm& for R Women Jin Ng IA, 1988 World Bank, April 1989, Staff Aai Reort, lid..I Mzti ul tura DVElQgMe Proec -48- AN Page 2 of 3 Wodd Bank, August 1985, Nigri: Rurl Labor Markts 1973-1923 Wodd Bank, 1985 Draf, Wa and EnyM in Nigera! ADis of lsues MM hpea Reference to the Public Sector, A.R. Khan World Bank, 1985 Draft, Nigeria Labor Mkets (A.M. Altaf World Bank, s h Sol= on Women in Ivdopm Water Sup& and S World Bank, Februay 1987, luQnn Study on Cr ato RuraWon World Banlc, F-edea Repuli of Nigeia Prdry Education Project: Staff AmrasW Noveniber 20, 1990 World Bank, December 1991, Nigeria: Country Brief World Bank, July 19, 1989, Federa Republic of Nigeria: Water Suply Memorandum World Bank, June 1988, Nigeria: Public _endl= Review (1988-1992) World Bank, April 1990, The World Bank nviatve for Women in DeveopAent A Prog Report World Bank, June 30, 1989, l DuiApdm hi Sub-= SMtu World Bank, May 1989, Immovig WomeS in 4n S= baharan Africa: A Review of the Lierar World Bank, June 1989, NigerIa: Ste for Agrictural Growth. Main Reprt World Bank, t989, Kg" The Roe of Women i Economic World Bank, March 1989, Non-Formal Education and ri ing Progm for Women in Akica World Bank, May 1989, Edr tD WoenS Educstinn WorlJ Bank, November, 1989, SuSaharan Africa! From Cdi 2 Sustinable Growth -A World Bank, October 1988, Staff Appr Report, m Prvate Small andM World Bank, 1987, EMW9 AmigL _ D_ ng EL dLJ mn Wodd Bank, Setember 30, 1986, Ser ERR Rural Water Supply and World Bank, September 1988, -44- ARNM: I Page 3 of 3 World Bank, Septm 1988, Staff Apprais Report, Nida: Pvte Sm1 ad Medium World Bank, Saeldin, 1987, Mm Soi r of Struc Aftg=o gxedne *Dlm WASAd -50- Pagp I of£7 WOMS RIGES OF SUC=SION 1. In all legal ystem and societies, the law ratig to sucesion and to inheritance of propey has always genaed a gre de of contoersy. With regad to succesion to h_movablea, the nature of the subject matter bas compeled the establismet n all sociees of peculiar and local rules of sussion, is is why the Nian law of Succesions so vaied from culue to culture and from place to place. 2. lbe law recognizes two kinds of disposio of property on death -tete sucesion and nestae scesion. It is those rues respecting the latter that are of greatest significan tD Nigerin women. INIME SUCCESSION - CUSIObMAR MARRY13 3. The esbta of a native of Nigera who dies intestae and who has contraced a cusomary marriage is govened by th customary law of cssion applicable in his community. In most ethnic grups the customary rules usure that males receive proprty and inherite rights In the fmily and espedally in the community to which they belong and deny fema inheanc rigs to land, in pardcular and to chaftt to a lesser degree. Our custmary system of marge removes daghters from thdr paes i their husbads' fas. The resut is t in most Nig societes, female childre e not reed as pennanemt members of thir father's fmfly, and for th reason are did rgbts of nhrtnc to their father's immovable propety which is givem to males only. 11 n some other Nigeran societies, th eldest male ild lone nheits, alwhough, he i usualy under an obligation to administer the propety for the benfit of his younger broter and sistr. On the other hand, Yoruba customary law grants ihrtan rgt In ail types of property to male and femao children of te deceasd. lI 4. Altho cusomary law rules of iherita differ greaty fom one ethnic group to the other there is a univmersal rule which applies all over the country: cusomary law wives do not inherit their dceas husba's inestate estate. I Among the Yobu the "wives of a man alo consitut part of his immovable property and e fact that they contiu to be atache to the family, even Aer his death, c_ early that they are part of his I/ For example among the Igbos, Customary Law Manual page 103. 21 or example enin Custoary Law, See also R.A.I. Ogbobime: Material and Cases on lenin Land Law, 1974. .31 This rule also applies amng some matrilineal ocaunities in the Zactewn Nigeria e.g., Ohaffia. j Customary Law Manual, supra. -51- Page 2 of 7 bmvable propety. hey are, of course, a typ, of proper that could only be inheid by the male members of the femily. l/ 5. Ihe principle that a widow does not she in her husband's estat has been upheld in numerous court decisions. A/ It is remakable to find such unifrmty in the cumary laws of Nigeria with radicadly different ote traditions and cusomary laes. This principle applies rrespetive of the services the widow may have rendered to her deceased husband, or of her contAbutions, financi or otherwise, to the oamulatlon of his property. 6. Furthemore, in most communies, a woman is guilty of her husband's death until proven innocent. 11 To prove her innocence, she has to undertake various rigorous, demorlizing and even dehumanizing stages of mourning. There are some groups who have all the widow's hair shaved and subject her to trals of ordeal by forcing her to drink the water wifth which the dead body of the deceased husband was washed to prove that she had not in any way contbuted to the death. Some must lie on a dirty floor, unbathed, for seveal days eating only bland food out of broken plates. 1/ In some areas of Plateau State the wives of the deceased are forced out of their late husband's compound aft the funeral ceremony, regrless of whether they are too old to take care of themselves or have no altenaive home. Custm demands that the women, being the man's acquired property shud not spend one extra day In the matrioni hom after her husband's burial. The women dare not complain. All thes pris not only demoaze a widow but can also dsrupt her own economic acvities. 7. On the oder hand, on the death of a wife, the husband is not subjected to any of these pices. In some societies, there is the fear t the spirit of the dead wife may return at night to share the maimoni bed with the uviing husband. To avoid this happening other woman is found (usualy by the husband's mother) to keep the bereaved husband -company" from the very night he lost his wife. 21 8. Wome's Pro. Under the custmary laws of patrilineal sociedes the immovable properties of a woman who has never marre and who dies without leaving an issue, is inherited by ber full brothers and fher and, in their absce, by her half brothers and her A/ G.3.A. Cokers Family property mong the Yorubas, 2nd ed. p. 39; see also AJlg v. AM&"I (1952) 20 M.L.R. 46. 1/ osilala v Osilaja (1972) 10 C.C.N.C.J. 11 at p. 801 Sagunro davies v Sogunro & Ore. (1929) 9 N.L.R. 79 at p. 80; Suberu v Summonu (1957) 2#5.C. 33 at p. 341 See also Obl, S.N.C. - Modern Family Law in Southern Nigeria (1966) p. 80. V1 Report on the Constraints on Women in Ondo State of Nigeria, Dec. 1989 p. 4 paragraph 6; A Survey on Special Constraints on Women in Anambra State, Nigeria, Dec. 1989. p. 2. A/ For example in some parts of Sendel State of Nigeria. V A survey on speclal constralnts on women in Nigeria: A case study of Rivers State, Dec. 1989, p. 4; See also Hon. Justice Oputa, C. - "Women and Children as disempowered groups", Oct. 1989, National Seminar on Better Protection for Women and Children, Owerrl, Nigeria. -52- ANNAE&U Page 3 of 7 father's mgl successors. Ihese male successors are also entitled to her money and any of her valuable chattels. Only the feminine property of the deceased, such as dresses and oramet are takn by her fWll sisters or by her mother, or her haif sisters. In their abseoce he property is succeded to by the male line of sucers. 1I 9. The genal principle in SIu N is that a married womans ante-nuptial property, except those thng she took with her to her husband's place, belong to her father's family. ill If a married woman ceased to enjoy her ate-nuptial interests in land, Ater her marriage, such interests cease to be hers and will not constitute a part of her estate on her death. On the contrary, if she contimues to enjoy such property until her death, the rule ln most parts of Southern Nigeria, is that her son or, in his absence, her daughter will benefit from the estate. But should her son die without a male issue, the property reverts back to her father's family. D 10. A married woman's interest in land acquired after marriage is succeeded to by her snms. 1I In some sociedies in Southern Nigeria the husband has a life interest in the estate of his wife during his life time and therefore enjoys the property with his wife's sons. j4/ A married woman's movable property is succeeded to by her children. While her daughters nherit her feminine property, her sons inherit her valuable chals, money and livestock. Whether the husband has a share in whatever is inherited by the sons depends on the custom of the particular place. In the absence of children, the husband or his successors inherit the estate. W 11. In the majority of the family grouping is stly patrilineal. Al Where a woman dies leaving sons, her landed property is inherited by them. In he absence of sons, the position depends on her marital status. In the case of a married woman property acquired by her after marriage goes to her husband or his next of kIn. IV1 1Q/ Ibid as above 28 Hon. Justice Oputa's Paper. )J/ Lloyd, P.C. and Meek C.K. - Law and Authority in Nigerian Tribe, 1937, p. 134. 12/ Cooker, G.B.A. - Family Property among the Yorubas p. 4; See also the decision in Ewugege v. Adigiwe (1934) 11 N.C.R. 134. jIV Coker p. 43-44. 1Ih Coker p. 44-45 Lloyd, P.C. Yoruba Land Law (1937) p. 283. Jj/ Coker p. 44t Thomas, N.W. the Ibo Speaking people of Nigeria. (1912) p. 93-95. 1 O Meek op. cit. p. 186-87t Coker op. cit. p. 44. * X11 In a few societies in Iboland, succession in matrilineal. Under this system, a child belongs to his mother's, rather than his father's, family. When a man dies his property is not inherited by hli own children but by his maternal relations. See for details Chubb "Ibo Land Tenure, 1948, Okoro, Customary Law of 'succession in Nastern Nigeria, 1966, p. 160. -53- Page 4 of 7 12. The above is a reflecton of just a few examples of sitaton Illustrating some dII custmary laws and pracdces which place a woman In dadvanged positons on her b, du her lifetime, and even at her death. For a woman, the fa thather part have prperty or hold cetin titles may not necesy imply ta econmically she will enjoy any advantage. Ibis Is becas, as shown above, most of our customary laws fvor male members of our society in matters of Inheritance and successioL 13. Section 31 subsection 1 (a) of the 1979 Consittion provides tbat: 31(1) "Every individual is entWed to respect for the dignity of his person, and accordingy (a) no paso all be subjected to torure or to inhuman or degmaig treabnent." Similaly, Section 21 of the 1989 Constitution states as follows: 21 MThe State sall protect, preserve and promote the Nigeian cultures which enhance huiman dignity and ae consistent with the fundamental objectves as provided by this Chapter". Altught i c dear that the Contuion has absolute protecton for both men and women, in reality this is often not obsrved as shown in the teatment of widows solely on the basi of gender. tm Succession - hlamic Law Marriag 14. In conast to the customary law, a wife under Islamic Law is entided to share in her deceased husband's propty. If the deceased husband has no children, the widow, under Iblamic law, inhes one qurter of her husband's estate which is avalabe for distibution among heirs. When there a children or oher d e , the widWo's portion is one- eWh. WI I i important to note that the wife's poron is a collectve one and in the cae of two or more suvwing wives, the one-quarter or one-eighth of the e is shared equally. On te other hand a husband receives one-half of bis deceased wife's estate, if te are no dhin, or a quater, if there are. Since Islamic Law forbids polyandry, he keeps this share alone. .12 15. Although thee i no equality of inhace ihts between a husband and wife of an Ilamic Law Marria, a wife has a right at least to a pordto of her deceased husband's estate. Another problem with the Isamic Law of Inheritance is that men, do not always confom to the laid down rules of Sharia or lamic Law. ,/ Olayoe, C.O. - Title to land in Nigeria, 1974. 90. 11/ The Koran, Sura IV, verse 14. -54- A-M Pag 5 of 7 nte hamm - Sm 16. On of the greatest concer of many Nigerian women today is how the estate of an Intetat decesed Is disriute accordin not Only to custmary law but als under our sat . Ihe law accordig to Prof. Nwogugu 2QI In a sto of utter confin. He further states that the applicable rules are difficult to discern and even when they are known he provisions are subject to varyig Interp tons gin rise to many problems. For example, Seeton 36 of the Marg Act 211 which deat with Intestate succession was made applcabe only to the Colony of Laos. With the merg of the Colony with Lagos State, hat provion does not seem to have any area of geogrphc applicatio So far, it has not been made part of *e laW of the new feda capital, Abuja Wit this sae Of airs, there ae only two saues on Intetate successio in Nigeria - The Administation of Esae Law and the recen Anambra Stae Sucesn Edi ZL In both cases the distriton is based on th provisions of Eglish law. W4/ The Ihs of a Widow Under the Adsadon of state Iaw 1952 17. Secton 49 (1) () (2) provides that if an intea leaves a urviving spouse and i8sue, the spouso taes tbepeonal hattdes absolutely, together with a sm equal toD one ird of the redduawy estate fire of costs. In addition, the sviving spouse take a lif terest in one- third of residuary esate. Under Secton 49 (1) (I) (3) if the deceased left no ise but a su:vw g spouse, subject to what he or she receved under subsection (1) (3), is entitled to a sum equaD t two-thirds of the resduary estate; and in addition half of the residuary estate is held in trust fDr him or her. Whe there is only a survwiing spouse the residuay tate is held on trst for the surivin spoe absolutely. Thenre also fairly strict rules to ensre hat the asse of the decoased are not wasted or converted by the Admin. No such prtetion exists for a customary law wife. To sm up, the surviving spouse and issue are enied to the entire estate of the deceaswd itestate and his or relations are entirely adcuded. 18. We can sy that on paper, women are adequ y provided for but quite ofte, In practice, a statury wifes rights of otnce are completely ignored by tie deceased's rdatives who regad dte deceasd's estate as their birtight. The widow often does not prosect for her rihs in the law courts. Forthermore, few husbands who make wills usuallgy leave any s poron to their widows frm their estate. In practice, many a tim such wils ar Ignored by the deceds relative and, in the long run, the widow may receive notig. 21/ Nwougu, R.I., Family law in Nigeia, 1985. 32J 1914. 2iL/ 1959, which applies to lago, Ogun, Oyo, ondo & Bendel State. ZAI 1988. i/ 1English Admlnistratlon Notate Act 192 and the Intestate's ZEtate Act, 19523 Se also Nwogugu, R.I., - "Half a COntury of Family Law in Nlgeria", published 1989, Ln N.I.A.L.S. Law Series No. 2 at p. 103. -55- ANNEX 1 Page 6 of 7 19. Ti an Is not Iended as a copeheswve review of all thse Iws affecting Nigeian womns igs to acess productive resur. Usuly the Issue of mens rights to land dely dlineate. For most women, however, her access to land sems to be depndet upon fvorable from her men folk - usually her husband or father. Until recey the capciy of wome to hold land was completdy unknown to native law and custom in West Africa W and Nigeri. Although with the promulgation of the Laud Use Act, and the silnt oion of the land tenu system, women are pemtted to hold land, It apears tha as for as tidr dgts are concerned, women genray stand at a disadvantage in - Into involving land. 20. Ihe extrme depation of the widows tm of inheac rghs, vis-a-vis the relatively unnle Inhe of a wife's property by a surviving husband in most sociedes KSin signitcd t di sagainst Nigerian women Customs far more tha the sttaty law bea heavily on widows, thu maing their lot n only harsh but less Prodti. The law has to init on soc justice, by dearing all the Insttonal prejudices aainst wome A balanced development must pay particular ateio to those, like women who have hioricly and structrally been vicdms of coninue dim o 21. In sphe of the fact that wome are recognized as agricultural producers in Nigeria, tir lack of accss to land constr their productive potential. 22. hre Is an acute need tD closely study the demograhc, ational and cutural - 11 , tics of the Nigerian women and detemin from Nigerian women themselves, what d u tIencor in aining access to producdve resces and to relate the lack of access, to thir J to o husd, famigy, society and the process of deveopment 23. k i al Iportant to demnine womens level of nowledge cnering ther lea rgt to lad and ote productive resour and to idenfy a the e and which affect womr's access to and control of movable and b ~~prq.ety 24. Acctue primary data sould be obtid, from both rural and urban women In the twenty-two stae of Nigeri, to reveal th ablt and/or constait women encounter to sece lnd, from what sources they obtan lnd and their degree of Idependence in the utlzation of the lnd. It is also Important to obtain priary data from Nigeian men In order to theid dr _attus tas8 women having Indidua aces to productive resoures in Sword, ad to land in pru. 25. The law Reform Committee should examine the foUowing in light of their slgnficance to t efficient participat of women in developmet (a) Ihe Oyo Sta Married Women's Prperty Edict of December 1989 should be at by the other es of the country d Its pvions should be made applcble to evey women IrVeecve of the typ of mamriage contacted. ZI/ TakYbu (198S). -56- Page 7 of 7 (b) A leg shae to be fixed by the law for the divored wife from the asset acquied by dIe husband dudng the subince of their mariage. (c) Adequate provios houd be made for mannan of elderly divorced wives and widows who had spn a life-time bring up a family-irrespective of their type of marriage. (d) Adequate child should be given to the wife at least during the first ten years of her child's life, when she has the amal custody of the latter - irrespective of the type of marriage contracted. (e) Single-parent women whose chid's pater has been astablished should be given adequae maitna, for herslf and the child, by the natural father. (f) All existing Statutory, Customary or Islamic law pwrtisions which place, expressly or Implicitly, barriers In the path of wome's Itegration into the devlopment process genray and with regd to their access to productive sources paticulady, should be removed. (g) A new Administration of Estate Act is called for to tale account of intestate (h) For a marriage to be deemed valid, the three "lega system should have cleary etblis ales. Every one marying under any of these recognized ystm shodd be compled by the law to comply with the laid down rules. (Q) As ln the case of reglsa of ttle to Ind each marriage shoid be registrable and a ctficate dsould be issued as eviec for all types of marrige. (D Th appointment of Mariag Registr in eawh state i Imperative. Also fom of marrige should be frely died by these Registra. (k) Divorce and otr acillary relief doud be gated by apprpriate bodies esablished by the law. O) Once a divore is granted, a certificate uld be sent to the Registar of Marge and Divorce to amend the records acingy. (m) Any law - Statuty, Cusomary or Ilamic - preventig a woman from inhting from her hsband should be brogated. -57- ANNEX DM Page 1 of 4 MTONtLQ LA&W AND TYPS Of MARRIGS E NIGESA A, Sta -MjaVaF 1. A sttory marriage means a monogamous marriage celebrated in a licensed church, registry office or with spcial permission in a private dwelling. The laws governing its cebration and incidents are found mainly in the Ni M&uM Act Maimonial Cm= ", Common Law, Equity and relevant English statues of general application received into Nigeria 2. Mono=. The most radical innovation introduced by the Mm=Act, is the monogmogus form of marriage which was preously unknown to the Nigerian marriage laws. It contnues to be resisted by large se of the popuation. The e Act provides that whoever contat a marriage under the Al when already married by customary law to a third party, and whoever contr a mariage by customay law when already married under the a& commits an offence carrying a maximum punishmet of five years imprisomnt. 3. gm1sih. The importce of domicile to family law in general, and women in pacular, is sigpificant. Capacity to marry under the Mjis blrgely determined by the law of a person's domicile and cannot be resolved without reference to it. in addition, the domicie of a cild under the age of 16 usualy depends on that of a parent. Furthermore, proceeding for a decree of dissolution of mamriage, or of nulliy of marriage, or of judicial sepw2tion, or of resttution of conjuga rights, may be istuted only by a person domiciled in Nigeria. (in Nigeria, there is a recognition of the co-extnc of feder and state domicie). Ihe domicile of a NWerian wife foilows that of the husband and it is retained by her for the duration of the marriage. The effect of this is most striking where a deserted wife seeks a divorce from her husband. Usually divorce proceedbi are by the court of the husband's domicile. To get a divorce order, the woman must bring her action in the court of the jurisdiction in which her husband (who has desered her) is domiciled. 4. ITe laws of the domicile of a husband are also ye for the pupose of making a wil or in the diibution of a womas property on deat 5. A The Marige Act does not clearly specify a minimum age for marriage. However, sction 18 provides that: If either party to an ind marriage not being a widower or widow, is under twonty-oe yeas of age, the written C or if h bis dead or of unsound mind or absent from Nigia, of the mother .. must be produced... 6. _. In Nigeria, as a matter of pracdce, a married woman is required to submit a letr of consent fom her husband whea applying for a pa8sport for heslf or when she applies to have the names of her children included in her passporL Ihere is no such reuieent for the male applicant 7. W. The equitable docte of th separate estate, where propert given to a maid women tread as under her exchlus conrol, was given statutory recognition -58- AM 1 Page 2 of 4 under Ie Mued Won s PEy Ad 18I. Secton I of the Act provides ta all property beongn to a woman who maried on or after Januay 1, 1883, shdll be capable of acquiring, holdg and diposing of any real or peo prpery in the same manmer as if she were single. Fuermor, Secidon 2 of the me Act provid tIhat every married womm marying after the co_mence of the Act: Vuhll be ed to have and to hold as her separate prop" and to dispose of, in any manner aoresaid all real and personal property which shal belong to her at the time of mware or shall be acquired by or devove upon her after marriage, iudig any wages, eanings, money and propty gained or acquired by her in any employment, trade or occupation in which she is ened, or which she carred on separaey frm her husband.- he Mad Women's Prperty Act applies to marned women, except thwse m Ogun, ondo and Bendel states. In the later ttates, the Married Women's Poprty Law, 1958 applies. It has siilar povisio to the 1882 Act. S. The Maried Womens Prope Act apples to all married women regress of the type of marra entered Ito. However, he Maied Wme's Property Law does not afect the cpacit, property or liability of any person maied under customay or Ilamic Law. The effect is Ihat in Ondo, Ogun and Bendel states, womn's capacity to acquire, hold and dispose of propey dend entirely on customary law. 9. In Oyo State, th Maied Womn's Property Edict of December 1989 has been promulgate. Under tie provision of the Maried WomWes Prrty Act of 1882 and acording to Common Law pricples, money saved or property acquired by the wife from the houseeping allowancs beons absolutely to the husbands. Howeve, Secton 18 states at money and propety derived from tte housekoping allowance sod be treated as belonging to both husband and wife in equal shaes. B. own= 19. QuOverv. A cuastomary law mariage Is a mariage entered into in accordan with tbo unwitt provision of the customy laws of he vaiou Nigerian etnic groups. Such a marie may be conacted with rtive eas. It i not neessay to resort to an official governmt agency, and all at is esent Is the gewemt of the prospective pouses and their fmile. Althugh som local govnmen In the coutry now require regstration of a csomay marig, no of such a maige does no affect its vality. 10. }mv. All systm of utomary law In Nigeria pemt the prctie of polygamy. A man may marry wives as he plumes. Polyandry i, however, forbidden. 1. An o. While cusmary law does not reognize any aimum age for betrhal, pri csto pactice gery regnizes attainment of pubert as heV agefor Ir of marriage. While sec s 218 and 357 of the QJimiUa M Oprotects fmaes undr 13 years of age f*m forced or 1intona seual i se, sectI 6 eplIcitly exlds a customary law wif of the same age frm its provisios. -59- Page 3 of 4 12. Traditiolly, const of the parties to a cutomary marriae was not necessay. hi allows parents to betoth minor idren in marriage wktout their consent. This practie is ptalent among the FulmI and Hausa, and noW freuently among the Nupes and Gwains. Paren const for a gM s ncary and mandatory under omary law even if she has aW maturity. The requi conent Is at of the fahr, or guardian who is n loco prents to the prospective spouse. An at male may contrua a valid marriage without parental 13. Edrce and herGis. It is a well established principle of customary law In Nigeria that the payment of bride price and other gift Is ental for a valid customary mariage. Under custmy law, the bride prie and the other gift are regad as purcae money of the girl. This undemine the dignity of the cusomary law wife and mkes her forever indebted to her huband and his fmiy. This custm is enorced by the court. 14. The questo of the amount of the bride price often varies. Although initially bride- price was considered as a token apprecia of the prospective husband to the future wife's fmily, today it has assum e character of a commercial transaction. Further, as a result of excessive demands of some parent, leg bride prices are now fixed in certain states of the Federaion M. Thoe preaene of bride price and dowry In Nigeria has a significant negative Impact on the perceptio the actual stas, fte economic status of women and their ability to make choices. 15. In R In many systaes of customy law, women have full caci to acquire, own and dispose of property. Their husbands genealy have no legal rights to the of the wiWs property or her earnings. However, In other custmary societies such a the Eg and Awka, in Eatern Nigera, custmay law wive are deied the right to own both movWbles and imovables. In odr areas, we wives may own property, the right of its contol and disposa veste in the husbad as long as the marriage subsists. C. Mie i4 .zJa l I LAW 16. blamic law reads maige as a contract which sod be entered into on mutual conse. It validity does not dqed on the obse of any rdigious ght or ceremony. Islamic law governs the rgbts and duties of the Mulim poion in Nigeria whih are based universaly pon the Quaran (the ipsisima verba of Alah), the Ahaditt (the reports), the *rjma" (conses of the time) and the Qulyas (adogy). 17. The majop ptoblem with lamic law maiges in Nigeria is that they genraly do not conform with the laid down rues of Shawa or Isamc law. Like other Intiudons, Iblamic marages are nced by local cusms and trado even supersede the martal code of Ilam and are more similar to the Nigeran Csomary manriag already described. aic law allows polygamy but Im the number of wives to four. II Limitto ol Dowry Ma, 1956, Bastern Nigeria, CAP. 76, S. 5.3p Western Region Laws of Nigeria, 1953, s. 3; Various Orders of Northern Nigeria; Declarations of Native Laws and Custom. -60- ANNEAX m Page 4 of 4 18. hogrS lif. Islamic Law upholds the right of women to own, manage and dispose of their own property. According to classical Islamic Law theory, a Moslem wife is entited to all the property given to her befor maiage. She Is also ettled to have her separate property during mariage over which she has absolute rights of conttrol and disposal. Under the Malike School of Ilam, which operas in par of the Northern States, a married womn can dispose freely of one-tird of her poperty without the consent of her husband. Her power of alienaton over the remaining two thirds is expressly restricted by law. D. Conflict of L 19. The dualism of the general law and customary law and the multiplicity of customary laws In Nigeria have raised conflicts of law between the general law and customary law and between diffeent systems of customary law. Legislation provides that no person who is subject to custary law is to be deprived of its benefits unless there is agreement that he general law is to govem or unles the transaction is unkown to customary law. -61'- Page I of 3 WDIT:DQ& FORMALs AND INFORML BANICNG NI$HAMS Is LQ I 1. bm Sav= and Croft Sdhmes Indigenous savings and credit groups are the most significant self-help organiaions throughout Nigeria. An esdmated 30-50 percent of the adult population are members of these organizaons with 75-90 percent of the rural population in the Northern and Eastern states and 70 percent of the rur population in Oyo, Ogun and Ondo states. Among the different cltural groups, these organizations are referred to differently: among the Yorubas they are miu, in Iboland they are l or Qau, in Hausaland, they are Aashi, Igalas refer to them as Atrngba or Igo& Ijawas call them Qka and Tivs call them Bam. Membership can be "open" or "closed." Ihere are no major diffeences in the operation of the indigenous associations among the major othnic groups and no major differences among women and women's saings and credit associations. 2. Forml Financial stations A key source of credit, for the smalholder farmers and industrWiaists include the formal banking sector, paticularly the Nigerian Agricultur and Cooperaive Bank (NACB) and the Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry (NBCI). The involvement of the commercial and merchant banks in the financing of small scale entadrses in Nigera is promoted by the Central Bank of Nigeria's Monetary Policy Guidelines. Since the 1979-80 fiscal year, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) has stipulated a mandatory lending minimum of 10 percent to small scae enterprises out of total bank loans and advances of 70 percent reserved for indigenous borrowers. The financing of agriclture by the bank sector is encouraged by the Agricutural Credit Guarantee Scheme which guarne bank loans to farmers against defaut to 75 percent of outstanding pricipal. Te crefit guidines and the rural banking progm employed by CBN are designed to ensure that banks finace agiculture and extend banking facilities to the rura areas. The minimum share of credit allocation to agriculture has increased progressively to 15 percent in 1987 for the commercial banks and 4-10 percent for merchant banks. For sMwolders, specific direcdves are given by government to the commercial banks to lend up to N5,000 to this category without demading tangible securities. The mandatory minimum lending rate in 1988 for small scale industries 2I was 16 percent of the loans and advances for indigenous bonrowers. Analysis of aggregate lending data in the mid-O's shows that in fact the banks have confinuously failed to reach the minimum targets as prescribed by the CBN. Banks attribute their inability to meet CBN's presried guidelines in respect of small scale loans to a number of factors including inadequate collateral by applicants and the uneconomic nature of small loans. While bank lending data is not gender-desegregated, the majority of women fal irnto the small borrower category. LI This information is drawn from UNDP/ILO/FDARD Homs Economics Training, Credit Schemes for Rural Women In Nigeria, 1988 as well as interviews. 21 The CBN defines small scale business in term of their annual turnover. Any enterprise whose annual turnover is less than V500,000 is mall scale. -62- .ANNEXIV Page 2 of 3 3. gmCedc Cdit schemes for tura fams operated by government fail into categories of: (a) supesed agriual credit schemes; 0b) cop-specific programs ike the Coc Delopment Unts of Ondo and Uyo stat; (c) the Graduate Famer's Scheme; and (d) the Agricultur Development Projects. e suprvised agrictural chm have suffer hih losses due to low loan recoveres. Ihe cop-spcific prorms have generally stopped credit extesion to concentrate on the recovery of overdue loans. Repayment rates rang frm 14 perent to 31 percent. The Graduate Farmer's Prga of the National Directorate of Employment begun in late 1987 is to geat employment for raduates and other school leaver in the agricultural sector. The loan is provided mostly in kind for a S-year period. At this time loans are not yet due for repayment - of all the Agicultur Development Projects In the country as of 1988, only five had edit componets. Low loan recvery for aU categories is lagely due to Ieffetve supervision and follow-up due to Inadequate staffing, lack of access to n, and to faulty loan disbursement. 4. S Ed Small-cae 1 Scme hese operate within the state ministi of commerce and industry and are jointly f.imced by dtu federal and state governments. The maximum loan limit is N80,000 with a repayment perod of five to seven years. Althwh these have made a large contrution to the development of small-scale ,a number of problems hinder their development including political inrfrence and low loan reament res. S. Graduate EmVlaygen Progrs for m14 ee The Job Creaon Ln Guarmntee Fund of about N55 million is on deposit with twenty participating banks to serve as coLateral for loans to grduates who present viable business proposals. Patcipa undergo a short intensive coumse in small business management under the Entrepreneursi Development Progm fiuded in part by the World Bank As of January 1988, about 1,000 busiess loans had been ganted under the Small-Scale Industries and Graduate Employment Progrm. 6. Peoples Aukl People's Bank is a govenmet Initative laundhed in 1989. The Bank is modeUled after the Gram Bank In B h. One signficant diffence however, is that which the Grameem Bank dcarges market rates of interest the People's Bank provide interest free loans. he madate of this bank is tO giVe credi facilities to Individuals who ordinrly do not have access to co ercial loans trough theno commal banks. Its beneficiaries were to incude Nigerians involved in legimate economic actvis in both urban and rural areas. 7. In order to benefit from the facilities of the People's Bak befidaries are expected to orgnize themsdves along trade and profsiona groups. The schm i meant for only the less privileged members of society. An applcant for a loa must be confirmed by th professional -63- Page 3 of 3 group. The Bank provides non-iterest beaing loans of NSO -N2000 whout any collateral or sacuft requrements and only a 5 pc service or fee. The faciity allows for a two week moraorium and loan is sproad over one year. Ihe borrower Is eligible to apply for subsequent loans y o rp t of ou loan. Doc ^ sd paperwork are kept to a minimum. 8. At inception, People's Bak was established as a pilot poject in a few ates i the last quaer of 1989. DurWg this period, N40 mfllion was disbursed as loans to beneficiares. MTh scme weot atonwide i January 1990, and the government appwved the setng up of Communty Banks (CB). CBs are to be establised and b y owned by communty development associations, co-operative societes, frms groups, patiotic unions and trade groups wihin each zone and individual s of the commnity are to have the oppotunity to suribe to the equity capital of such CBs. The sum of N453 mllion has been earmard by Goverment for both People's Bank and the Community Bans in the 1990 budget. It is too early to judge how succesM tese two iniatives will be. 9. COGaM& The structure of the cooptve credi system vaies amoqg th states of the federation. Some states have a two-tier stucture with secondary societies betwen the primary societies and the apea organizat . In the tree-i struct, the primary societies are based at he vile level, the seconday societies are located in the local goverment headqts while the ae organizaos are in the state capials. A un*e carmel of the lending acivities of cpadives in Nigeria is the predce of small loans. Average loan size beag ely 100. Low repaymentof loans is a mail problem of the cBoorve credit system. ho repayment rae for the naona cooperative credit system is estimatd at about 31 percen. The reaons for loan defts include untimey loan disbu inefcve suevion, loan diveion, i _d and poor marketg. Only a small umber of women belong to coopemtives. Why this is the case, we do not know yet. 10. $geca Qfit Proag fot r1 W. Tere are two programs specfically designed for rural women: (a) the governm has rcently spored the Better Life for Rur Women progms which maks in kind loans to women for agricultural and small-scae entpises. Te las ae made available throg coopeaves and groups; and (b) the United Bank for Africa Ltd. is a private st finanal Insthiuon that makm credit avaible to Idiidual of a group as well as a group, provded suich groups have regtered trade names or are registered as coopatves. Membe of the group are jointly and sevelly lable for the repayment of the rAedit made to Individual mmbe or the group. k I too eay for these two programs to develop a track record. -64- Pap I of 6 AN ANALYTCAL ERABEMEOC FOR PRIORIZNG GE ND1R ,NiVIZTONS 1. Basic Indicators of a country's stage of development are national income, population growth, and enmc equity. National income provides an indication of living standards; populati growth wil reflect infat mortality, life expectancy, and average educatio level; and economic equity will indicate the relatve ability of groups witin the populaton to participae in economic activit. in Nigeria, with yeady per capita income of about US$300, women producing, on average, 6.5 children, and large segments of the poplation econmicaly disadvantged, it i clearly in an early stage of development. 2. With its present level of poverty and low standard of living, Nigeria canmt aflbrd t negect tappmg the economic potental of its resoces. Women in particular need to be targeted because of their dual roles in economic production and in human reproduction - each of which is dqmtw upon the other. Provding women with the means to realize their fill economic potent wil benefit women and move the nation into a higher stage of development through higher economic output, lower population growth, and increased economic equity. 3. Allowing women to realize their ful economic potential tails removing the set of contai women face intrying to conduct their economic actvity. Prvious studies have Idenified the individu n . However, becase their complexity and feasibility of removal varies, it is only possible to remove the entire set gradualy. Hence the question now becomes one of order: whch constraints should be addressed first. To provide an analytical basis for answering this questin, priozing citeria were developed and applied to the constraints. The criteria are such that they: (a) generate an initial ranking of GAD priorites by examinin the impacts of GAD constraints on economic effciency and equity; (b) examine the feasibility of removing particular constraints; and (c) identify policies or programs which would have the greatest poten of impwroving the welfare of women defined in ternis of economic efficiency and equit. Pdmar Cd&WA for R1in Egdies 4. Ihe overlding concern of the decison maker is the effetiveness of a proposed developme initative. Iherefore, priorizing citria must aid in assessing the relative effectveness of development iniatiaves in tageting a particular group, and in improving its economic and human welfire. As such, in the three ceria used to rank GAD development priorities, two correspond to the basic incators of economic development; the third indkates the ext to which the constraint can acaly be removed: (a) indicates the impact of the constraint on economic income and growth through its effct on personal and household efficiency; -65- Page 2 of 6 (b) econo ft indicates the degee to which women In society ae economically diadvantaged by the constraint; and, (c) feibilUtx indicas the type of remedial policy required - direct or indirect - and the amount of dme required befre resul can be practcaHlly expected. S. Indicators can be constructed which provide some objective means for addressing these critra. he purpose of establishing a set of indicators is to provide a consistent mehod of ranking information - on each constraint - which is both qualitative and quantitative in natre. Once the information is recorded by the indicatrs, the overall impact of each constraint on the above tee crteda can be assessed. After that, priorizing becomes a subjectve matter as it iS up to the decision maker to weigh the importace of each criterion, and to deal with tdeoffs betwee economic efficiecy and economic equity, while keeping in mind the feasibility of any reform policy. 6. While selecting indicators is in itself a judgmental process, a summary of the indicators used in this study is provided in Table 1. A ranking scale of 0 to 4 is used where the higher the ranking the more efficient, equitable, or feasible is the removal of the particular constraint. 7. The indicators of eom WM= reflect three possible impacts of a constraint on a woman!s time allocation. Since a woman is part of a household, an increase in her available labor time has ftfree possible implicadons for the allocaton of the total labor time within the household: (a) a child whose labor time no longer required to meet subsisece production requiremes may be free to attend school; (b) other household member(s), excudig chidren, whose labor time is no longer needed to meet subsistence production requirements may be free to direct their tme into other income earning acttivties, or leisure; and (c) the woman may direct her increasd labor dme into (i) her chid's education by auming their household cbores, (ii) other subsistence or income earning actvities, (iii) educato or (tv) leisure. 8. Given the ambiguity of the outcome of an increase in a woman's labor time, the impact on household and ultimately national income in the short and long term is likewise ambiguous. If the ice in time only allows her to assume her child's duties, totl hoehold product and income will not chne, at least in the short run. If her itcreased time releases other income eag household member(s) to pursue outside income, total household income will increase. If children are already in school and other household members do not hange their behavior, household income will increase if the woman either: a) improves her productivity by investng her time increase into some sort of education; or b) into other income earn actinvites. I she simply increases her leisure time, there will be no increase in household income. 9. The actual importaof .s of the nature of the adjustm process at the household level to policy rmulation is radily demonstrated. Consider a simple household in which a woman is primariy responsible for substence production of water and seleted farm crops; and the man is primarily responsible for havesting selected farm crops and for all cash crop and non-formal seecor ncome earning activity. Suppose fiuther that the woman spends a signifcant portion of her tme -66- Page 3 of 6 feching water and ta there are significant conomic entry bariers to her involvemen in non-fomal or formal sector actvity (such as her education level, employmen laws, or credit access const). At fir Slance, It migbt seem Importa to remove ct the and theat baie beo there will be a eanigfbl chae In household and nadal Inome. But this b only th case If the adjustment prce withn the househd i8 oriented only to cwnverg the womans time savins into forma Unon-formal sector activity on her parL If th adjustm process whn the household allows for a redstbuionof responibiles, then removal of the ety barrier would be less critical to an improvement in household and national income. For example, removing the wat constint might free up a woman's time to increase her Involvemat in harvesing fam crops, which In tu will free up the man's time to become more involved in fomal and non-formal sector acivity. As there are presumably no enty baier for his expanded Involvement in thes ativities, an nae in the womans household efficiency is noneheless immediately transa into higber household and aional income without necearily removing the barriers to her entry Into formal and non-formal actvities. 10. Informaon on the precise na of tho household adjustment prcess is mixed and, to assist policy makers, further household research is warranted. At this stage, however, In an effort to address the ambiguity of the impact on efficiency of the removal of a productivity consraint, three quaitative indicators were devised. Together they try to provie an indication of the pervasiveness of a constraint in vaious economic sectors Including su , formal, non-formal, and educaional. With respect to productive efficiency (personal and other household member), if it is possble that the removal of a constraint wil have positive repercussions for economic output in the sbien, forma, and non-formal sectors, on scale of 0 to 3, it is aigned a ranking of 3. If it is also possible ta its removal will increase the leisure time, it is awarded an addional point such hat the maximum attainable is a score of 4. With respect to educaton, a constt is ranbd according to the probable length of time required for its eaicai therby Inasing educational enrollment. 11. A quanttative indcator for the economic efficicy crkerion is provided in an esimate of the poteni long-term yearly impact on gross natoa income of any particular constraint. Idealy, thi estimate would be retieved from a model of the ecomy which builds in all of the relevat economic and policy variables a well as resource constra. Simulaions could be undaken with the model which would allow one to detmine what happens ff resources am augmeed, enhamced, or furhe constraind. In practice, however, such modds are not normaly availble - lagely due to technical and bformation h _ - and analysts must rdy on bestesm of what might occur win an economy. 12. In this study, the "oWrnity cost apoa Is }takn to esMae efficienCy losses. The opportunity cost of a constrat b the amount of incom forene as a result of its existence. In the case of a subsistce produicdon consmtaint, the esimate involves dts_ the next-best employme of labor in the absence of the con and the value of labor services in that employment. The estimas are comervadve in that multiplier defcts are Ignored. Ihe derivai - of the estmte for each consmnt, whih are based arious asumpons, are explained in Anex n 13. Three Indicators were chosen to reflect th effect of each constraint onngwk MI: the umber of women affected; the reaive wealth of the fct women; and the Impact ofthe cntas removal on gendequity. The first two indicat serve to dHarer he gup -67- Page 4 of 6 of women afcted by the extce of each constralnt the third indicator maks a general _ of the potential impact on economic equity of successfully removing the constrant. 14. The number of women afcted indicates the size of the group which woud be targeted were a doveopment hitativ undetake to remove the pacular consaint. Constait affcting the greatest nmber of women have the greatest potential of increasing economic eqity should they be removed. 15. The second Indicatr of ecoomic equity, wealth, is Included to: a) astain the inoome characteristics of women ffected by each constrint; and b) due to close coretion between income and education, judge the average education level of the women affected. For the puposes, wealth is charcized as where oe aft fall in the overall Ional (or regiona) income dtbution. If the constraint affes women in the high inme part of the popumon, it is ranked low on the scale of O to 4. Where no income h c csare avallable wh allow such identicaton, then a usefil alternative might be to caacterie the modes of producdon and weadth of the groups affected. An example of such a ranking would be: 0: those affected normally own property, land, and have formd sectr (wage) income. 1: no formal income but own land individually or collectvely and have adequae incom or subsistence from land to meet basic needs. 2: no formal income, but rent or have free transient access to land and have adeque income or subsistence from land to meet basic needs including rent; and can alow their children access to a basic educato 3: no fornm income, rent or have free trsiet access to land, but have inade inome or subsistce from land to meet basic needs indluding rent; and chld labor input may be required. 4: thiose affecte normally own no property, have no access to land (transient or rented), must purcs most food (i.e., urban poor); childrenaoften involved in nmeting sWbhtence requireme or in obtainig non-formal sector income. 16. Because income dibuton data were not avilable for Nigeria, the above ranking system was in fact used to dracteriz tis idicator in Nigeria. 17. Ihe trd indicator of economic equity is an overal policy effecdveness ck kIs economically desirable that the consrain preventig women from realizing their economic potendi be removed and that equity be retowe whe it is lacking. However, where inequity does not exist, it should not be created by policies diectd at women to the detrime of other groups In society, padtilary, men Where in ty clealy exists as a result of a constn this criion judges he ext to which women In partial are affected, and the degree to which equity would be rested if the constrin were removed. 18. he last crition is . I he idicator coe to judge the feasibity of removing any pacular constraint the avalability of reform policies and the likely respone time of remedial initiatives. If a constrain can be lifted in the short term using eiher direc or indic poces, it given a high rnking. Constrnt which can only be removed over the logr term must be addressed; but given Nigeria's state of conmic deloment, and the intimate link betwe GAD welfare and nation wlfae, policies whiw affect dmge immeiately should be considered prfeentaly. T~~~~~~~~~~~i Igsu i ii i 18 _~~~~~~~~ X I -69- ANN}EX V Page 6 of 6 11, DZistributiond lEq e) Number of Women Affected Etmated female population affeted by the constraont(millions or percentage of totl) t) Wealih of WomenAffected 0: group in top 20% of income levels 1: group In second 20% of income levels 2: group in third 20% of Income levels 3: group in fourdi 20% of income levels 4: group in bottom 20% of income levels g) Impact of Consrdaint Removal 0: improve women preferealy on Gender Equiy but income already greater ta male income 1: improve women preferentily but fmde income equals male income 2: improveme on low Iital inequaity 3: low improvement on high inial ineuality 4: high Improveent on high iia inequality XL EMi4t h) Rerm Impl 0: long-tem, no direct reforms, and se lime requires ndirect Influences 1: long-tem, direct reforms 2: medium- to long-term, direct and indirect reforms, Implementation or response delys 3: short, modium, and long-tem, Idirect reforms only 4: short, medium, and long-term, direct and/or indirect reforms -70- Page 1 of 4 E3STL"ES OF g;)OMI GROWTH IEAr OF CO Nn(; ME I lDDUrlVM 1. Tho quatitve Indicator for esmaing the impact of a given gender consta on the economic efficiency criterion is the esmated impact of tdat constraint on natonal income. Ideally, such ate_ would be retdeved using an economic model of tIhe economy which includes all of the relev economic bvioral raonsips, policy variables, and resorce c ra Simulations could then be undertaken to determine the ultimate impact on national income of policy refoms which served to augmen, enhan, or furthe constrai the resources of economic agent with the economy. In addition, in this case, the models would need to show explicit ties between a very "micro" level factor - the alocation of leisure tme of a woman wihin a household - to a highly aggegated level of naional economic performance: the GNP. Unfortunay, seldom are such models available due to their inormation and technical requireme-ts; as a resut, analysts must rely on best esmat of what might happen within an economy should partcular variables cage. 2. Bstimates of yearly national income losses can be achieved using an "opportunity costs' approach. This approach simply calculates an estimate of foregone long-term national income resulting from the exitence of a particular constaint, and ignores any multiplier efficts the incrmental income would Initiate. In the process of deriving the estimates, various assumptoDs were required which represen realistic - abeit consevave - estimates of some of the key inputs into the calculations. 3. Common data and aumptoincopworated in the GNIP impact esimates dicussed below are as follows: Total Population in Ngeria 113.0 million Potenti Labor Force 53.8 million (population aged 15 - 64) Female Labor Force (Potential) 26.9 million Female Labor Force Participation 9.7 million Urban Female Labor Force 9.5 million Rural Female Labor Force 17.4 million Per Capita Total GNP US$265.0 minlion Per Capita Agricultural GNP US$114.0 million 4. As hese assmptions were used consitedy for aU components, any deviations from these aumions are likely to change the absolute levels of the estmates on GNP, but not the relative raking. Ihese rankings thus provide a fairly robust indication of the relative manu of the economic efficiy impacts of relaxi each of the consaints. This approa is Iustated using a sample of some of the constaints identfied in the Assessment. -71- ANNEX Page 2 of 4 Sdao Water Availaity S. From previous work, it was und t 50 percent of the urban population does not hv acess to safe ad/or conient wa supplies. Iu the rural areas, the same can be said for 80 pcet of the popuala t was also und hat, on average, those women afced spend 2 hows per day findg and/or fetching water. Asumig ta a woman on average works a 12 hour day, water rtieval consumes 17 percent of her producdve labor time. Given the populaton data, tie oppotamity cost caculaton the depends on the value of productive time lost to meetihg hueold wa reureet. 6. Two vaues of smnu labor time were emated. The lower tange reprse lower me groups: per capita agricuural GNP of US$114. Ihe higher range reprents the middle income goups: per capita total GNP of US$20. Per capita agriculdtal GNP is callated giveun the contrbution of agric r to GNP and the etmaed number of people Involved In agrical producton (70 perceot of the population). Ihe opportunity cost of safe wat avability is t calculated by assuming 18.7 mMiLon women (rural and urban) could ee their produtiviy by 17 percet if safe wsaer was readily availe. The value range of lost producdivty i then US$360 to US$840 million. 7. This range wu then agme by US$1 biion to capture t cost of water-rlated helth ckness nd its associated productivity losses. Whe water onmion is a seiou problem, it is not unsa for heat are costs to increase wo-to tre-fold and for productie output to fall by 5-10 perce. Assuming modesdy a two-fold increase in health care costs for an at risk population of about 40 mIllion (mean plus women), and giventa current heath care costs for this populai are abou 7.8 perce of an anual per aplta GNP of US$300, tOh doubling hath ca expenditure q aslates into a bill of US$940 million. Furthermore, a S tD 10 percet decie In outut frm this populaton, as a result of dckness, would be equiva tot puvity loss of US$200 to US$450 million in the lower hIcome loves; and US$530 to US$1,000 million in th higher income levels. Henm, a water-related heat cost estimate of $1 bllio wu sdectod. Energy Availability 8. From previous findIns, 90 percent of Nigera's ral t er y re ent a met by fielwood. Some of it is donesoainably - 20 to 30 prcent - and some is not. It i the uh l delorteson and gating of fuelwood that causes rural women to spend about 2 hours pet day gathering wood. Assming the value of their labor im s the agricultural pet capita ann income of US$114, that 90 percent of the rural female labor force b using hzelwood as an eneW source, and that 75 prcent of hat gwo is doig so unsustainably, then the total productivity ls i of the order of US$200 million. Formal ucation 9. One method of esmating the oppot cost of edcadwn Ivolves drmining the difo bewn the value of labor services with an eucation and the value of labor servis without an education. This of course Igors the initianvestm cost In tim and tuition which would reduce ths opportunity cost t ao ignores the positive eff education has -72- Page 3 of 4 on ON? through its dampening effect on population growth which results in higher non-food consumption and higher investment. However, the method does provide some indication of the magnitude of foregone national income as a result of foregone educational investment. 10. Currenty there are about 8 million literate Nigerian women, or 31 percent of the adult female population. If the productive value of literate women corresponds to the middle income level of US$265, while the productive value of illiterate women corresponds to the agricultural income level of US$114, then the annual value of the education differential is some US$151. If the number of literate females literacy could be increased by 50 percent, or 4 million women, the incremental value in labor services would translate into a total of about US$600 milion per year. 11. Such a 50 percent increase in female literacy would still mean that only about half the female population would be literate. In Nigeria's National Population Plan, there is a 1995 target to reduce the proportion of women marrying before the age of 18 by 50 percent. While this will not necessarily translate direcdy into a proportional increase in literacy, the close connection between education and marriage postponement suggests that attainment of such a target would contrnbute significantly to an eventual increase in female access to education and female literacy. Non-formal Education 12. It was assumed that the women who could benefit from non-formal education (NFE) training programs are those who, although part of the labor force because they fall in the 15 to 64 age category, are not participating. A 1985 survey in Nigeria showed that nationwide female labor force participation averaged between 35 and 36 percent. Hence, given the female labor force esdmate of 26.9 million, about 17 million are not participating. Valuing the productive services of these women at t'Ae agricultural per capita income of US$114, and assuming conservatively that NFE traiing could raise their produetivity by 10 to 20 percent, then NFE provided to these women would be worth about US$200 to US$400 million in GNP amnn y. Credit Access 13. Women entrepreneurs in Nigeria are known to be involved in micro to small-enterpris. Data for the mbSer of women ' volved in such enterprises is unavailable, as are data for the tMes of enterprises. It is exectea, however, that the average loan size to micro- to small-entrepreneurs for small-holder production would be amund US$500. Loan performance data and economic analyses of small-holder ente s suggest that the rate of return on these investm tends to be quite high, possibly in the order of 50 percent, paying out in one or two years. If the average rate of return on investment in the economy as a whole is about 15 percent, then micro- to small investments not undertaken represent an opportunty cost of 35 cents per dollar invested. 14. If the credit access constraint facing Nigerian female investors is lifted, given the scarciy of gender-specific dta, it is difficult to estmate how much more investment will be undertaken by Nigerian women. However, if increased credit access promotes a modest increase of 5 percent in the number of labor force women accessing credit, then with a female labor force of 27 million, 1.4 million will undertake investment of some sort. Furthermore, if those 1.4 -73- ANNEX VI Page 4 of 4 million women each borrow, on average, US$500, then a total of US$670 million in investment will be undertaken. If that investment can earn a 50 percent return rather than the 15 percent it would have otherwise afforded elsewhere in the economy, then its annual opportunity cost is US$235 million. -74- ANNEX VII BASIC INDICATORS RELATED TO WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 1965 1297 Crude Birth Rate 51 47 (per thousmd population) Crude Death Rate 23 15 (per thousmd populaons) total Fertity Rate 6.9 6.5 5.4* Percentage of mafried women of child- 5 bering age usipg contraception (1985) Maternal mortality (1980) 1500 (per 100,000 live births) Infnt Mortality 105 (per 1,000 live births) (1987) Educaton (Primury Level) 63 79 Females per 100 males Education (Secondary Level) 51 76 Females per 100 males Source: World DeveJopment Report, 1991. NIGERIA Ftcil Qf Ed=ayEdsao CIUrent National Dot - 1982 PEdnry School Statistics by Sta No. of No. of No. of Pupils No. of Teachers Teachers Staes Schools Clasme Female Pupils Total Teachers With NCE with TC II Akwa-Ibom 1,061 10,624 243,517 743,526 11,682 1 11,394 Anambra 2,096 25,279 410,671 1,003,228 30,903 935 22,323 Bauchi 1,427 14,399 124,981 323,594 11,357 200 3,605 Bendel 1,857 21,083 552,201 1,063,432 21,137 440 14,880 Benue 2,392 17,217 230,980 1,144,800 28,500 1,367 9,642 BornO 1,433 11,113 181,241 464,478 10,902 88 2,415 Cros River 623 8,382 113,251 403,703 6,564 22 6,100 Gongola 1,464 11,116 132,610 354,495 18,913 329 6,254 Iwo 2,036 25,076 430,788 927,138 20,993 103 20,223 Kaduna 1,358 14,345 237,903 559,929 15,187 2,180 4,731 Kano 3,276 20,649 406,453 1,163,815 30,000 129 939 Katsina 1,939 18,682 210,897 775,482 10,793 132 5,958 K';ara 1,466 13,300 176,645 525,801 16,259 1,027 5,088 Lagos 894 21,654 338,086 866,128 16,623 5,174 13,247 Niger 614 5,417 117,691 311,426 8,172 220 6,100 Ogun 1,301 13,079 194,851 422,823 12,107 120 9,511 Ondo 1,664 18,229 215,481 524,638 15,345 3,805 10,749 Oyo 2,599 38,686 536,209 1,083,474 32,740 1,159 26,966 Plateau 1,722 14,786 225,710 558,370 16,823 1,893 7,711 Rivers 1,112 12,168 218,226 429,954 10,694 489 10,645 Sokoto 2,458 18,018 227,601 723,124 25,694 552 3,120 FCT-Abuja 212 1,442 119,831 67,708 1,714 13 661 Total 35,004 354,834 5,645,804 14,441,066 373,102 20,378 202,862 Source: Nigeria Primary Education Project CHAD r ,> NIGER > L BURKINA chjd FASO Ybhe R-~~~~~~~~~~~~*DAOflNMi~U1W a m > r S g f<4~~~~~~~~~~KNO l0 (0) ' BENIN KAOLIN \>g< ds v [,.\((tif t 't~~~~~*mjc > >>{4d ')N G r (0 A ) _RN + 'v'1) } (,' I 1 l __