SP DISCUSSION PAPER NO.0309
25988
Gender and Social Funds:
*           Challenges and
"    k        Opportunities
Kathleen Kuehnast
March 2003
i   oni -
rott on
LABOR MARKETS, PENSIONS, SOCIAL ASSISTANCE
T HE W OR L D  B AN K






Gender and Social Funds:
Challenges and Opportunities
Prepared for
Social Funds Unit of the Social Protection Department,
Human Development Network
The World Bank
by
Kathleen Kuehnast
Consulting Social Scientist
March 2003






ABSTRACT
Gender and Social Funds: Challenges and Opportunities
By Kathleen Kuehnast
This report examines the various challenges and opportunities of mainstreaming gender
issues in social fund projects and offers five good practice examples of gender integration
in social fund projects in Ethiopia, Honduras, Malawi, Moldova, and Romania. Each case
study takes gender into consideration during the preparation and implementation stages
and discusses good design practices and project results. In addition, the report offers a set
of working guidelines on integrating gender in social fund projects or subprojects. Based
on the good practice examples of the case studies, the Report presents recommendations
for next steps for integrating gender concerns into social fund practices.






Gender and Social Funds: Challenges and Opportunities
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I.    Purpose of the Report
II.   Gender Issues and Social Funds
. What do we mean by gender?
. What is Gender Analysis?
. Why gender integration is important in social fund projects
III.  Guidelines For Integrating Gender into Social Funds
. Working Guidelines
IV.   Good Practice Examples of Gender in Social Funds
. Analytic framework and methodology for reviewing social fund
projects
. Encouraging Poor Women (and their Husbands) to Participate in
Poverty Alleviation Efforts in Ethiopia
. When Women Learn a Man's Profession: ][nfrastructure and Social
Funds in Honduras
. Targeting Women's Involvement in Subproject Work in Malawi
. Empowering Rural Communities with the Help of Both Women and
Men in Moldova
. Bridging the Gender Gap in Romania's Social Fund Project
V.    Next steps for the future
VI.   References
Annex 1
Integrating Gender into Social Assessments
Annex 2
Gender Analysis by Sector: Questions to Consider
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Under the guidance of Samantha de Silva (HDNSP) and Wendy Wakeman (PREMGE),
this report was prepared by Kathleen Kuehnast, consulting social scientist. We
acknowledge the support of the Social Protection Department in the Human Development
Network and the Gender and Development Group in the PREM Network, both of which
were instrumental in making the report possible. The report also reflects advice provided
by numerous individuals, including the thoughtful comrnments of the reviewers, Nora
Dudwick (ECSSD), Gita Gopal (OED), and Mungai Lenneiye (AFTHI1). In addition,
Anush Bezhanyan (ECSHD), Soniya Carvalho (OEDST), Nadine Poupart (AFTH3),
Christine Pena (AFTH3), and David Warren (HDNSP) provided expert perspectives on
relevant social fimd projects and gender-related concerns.
iii






Gender and Social Funds: Challenges and Opportunities
I.    Purpose of the Report
Over the past ten years, the World Bank has made strides in bringing women into the
scope of development activities. Numerous operational reports and evaluations
document the inroads made in meeting this challenge. Women in Development efforts
have expanded to incorporate new concepts, including the need to understand gender in
the context of society, that is, how men and women interact, make decisions, share tasks,
and complement one another in a variety of roles in everyday life. Although sensitivity
to the gender expectations of women and men is increasing, women are often still left
out of the development picture. In many societies women's involvement in development
projects is curtailed unless men are aware of and support their participation. Therefore,
despite an increased awareness of gender issues throughout the Bank, practical tools are
needed to integrate gender awareness into its lending portfolio. This report examines the
various challenges and opportunities of mainstreaming gender issues in social fund
projects and offers good practice gender guidelines to Bank staff and-their clients.
Since 1998, when one of the first gender reviews of social funds was conducted,'
progress has been made in identifying and targeting subprojects that speak to the needs
of women, men, and other socially excluded groups. Now, five years later, the Social
Protection Department in the Human Development Network and the Gender and
Development Group in the PREM Network have initiated the current review of gender-
related practices in social fund projects. This report is intended not only to assess how
social funds have addressed gender issues, but to disseminate lessons learned from the
last decade of experience that will improve the design and implementation of future
social fund projects and their approach to gender and development. Clearly, no one
approach or strategy of gender integration can attend to the highly diverse countries and
societies served by the Bank, particularly in the area of social funds. Instead, the purpose
of this report is to offer guidance to Bank task managers in designing social fund
l See Elaine Zuckerman, (1998). Integrating WID/Gender Issues into Social Investment Funds, The World
Bank.



projects and answering the whys and hows of integrating gender concerns into the
project cycle.
The report begins in Section II by offering a brief background about gender and
development in social fund projects at the Bank. Section III offers a set of gender
guidelines that can be operationalized in any social fund project or subproject. They are
offered more in the spirit of "consider this" versus a "must-do" checklist. Section IV
offers the analytical framework in which the gender assessment of five countries was
undertalcen and presents five case studies of social fund projects in Ethiopia, Honduras,
Malawi. Moldova, and Romania. Each case study took gender into consideration in the
preparalion and implementation stages. The section also discusses good design practices
and considers the project results. Based on the previous studies and the examples of the
case studies, Section V presents recommendations for next steps for integrating gender
concerns into social fund practices.
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Section II. Gender Issues in Social Funds
What do we mean by gender?
Over the past decade, the term gender has expanded from being another name for
women, to the recognition that gender and development involves both men and women,
since their roles in society are inextricably connected and cannot be considered in
isolation from one another. Gender roles are not the same as biological roles of men and
women, instead gender roles are constructed in society and reinforced by institutions,
religious beliefs, and legal frameworks, as well as ethnic, class, and caste-based
obligations.
We know that gender inequalities in a society often lower the productivity of labor,
contribute to poverty and human rights abuses, and leave many people without a voice
in key decisions affecting their lives. It is important to note that in many of the poorest
developing countries where women are subject to a greater degree of social exclusion
and violence, men-particularly young men-suffer widespread unemployment. The
integration of gender into the Bank's development assistance work is thus a stated goal
of the Bank.3
The World Bank will work with governments and civil society in client countries, and
with other donors, to diagnose the gender-related barriers to and opportunities for
poverty reduction and sustainable development; and will then identify and support
appropriate actions to reduce these barriers and capitalize on the opportunities.
-Excerpted from The World Bank's Gender Strategy (2002)4
The gender development approach is proving important in many sector-related Bank
projects where men and women often have totally different relationships to a particular
concern in their community, whether it is water, sanitation, transportation, health, or
2 Commonly referred to as Women in Development (WID).
3For further information, see Integrating Gender into the World Bank's Work: A strategyfor action,
(2002). The World Bank. Also, Engendering Development-Through Gender Equality in Rights,
Resources, and Voice. (2001). The World Bank Policy Research Report.
4Integrating Gender into the World Bank's Work A strategy for action, (2002). The World Bank., p. 17.
3



education. Inclusive questions are now used to achieve a more expansive understanding
of gender issues in specific sectors, as shown in the examples below.5
SectQr           Examples of Inclusive Gender Ouestions
Agriculture      What different constraints do women and men face in terms of using
_____ ________ agricultural services?
Land             What is the relationship between men's and women's land
ownership and agricultural production? What are the differences in
productivity by gender?
Education        What gender differences exist in illiteracy rates, educational
enrollment and attainment, dropout, and retention rates?
Labor &          How do women and men use the labor market differently? Are there
Informal Sector  differences in benefits and earnings?
Micro enterprise What is the proportion of women and men who are self-employed or
Activity         operate micro enterprises?
Health    _      What differences exist in the health risks of men and women?
Gender sensitivity is not some illusive theory. Instead, it is a very practical approach to
Bank projects that considers, for example, scheduling community meetings at a time of
day when a woman's domestic and other responsibilities are less likely to be an obstacle.
It takes into account the local mores as to whether women can be even in the presence of
unrelated men; it considers the unspoken norms about whether women must defer to
men when the latter express their opinions. Experience has shown that a project that uses
a gender-sensitive approach during the implementation phase is more sustainable in the
long run.6 Integrating gender sensitivity into Bank projects thus not only makes sense in
terms of the bottom line, it also addresses many of the fundamental objectives of the
Bank, including the need to promote equity and empowerment in development projects.
What is Gender Analysis?
Gender analysis is a way of asking questions about the differences between men and
women and the impact these differences have on a given development project. The
analysis uses a broad range of questions, as detailed in Appendix 2. Gender analysis
examines what kinds of access and resources men and women have to realize their goals
5 Questions adapted from several sources, including Sectors & Issues for Gender Analysis (1999), Quick
Reference Guide: Latin America & The Caribbean Region, The World Bank.; M. Fong, W. Wakeman, &
A Bhushan, (1996). Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation: Gender Toolkit Series No. 2, The World
Bank.
6 Bruce Gross, Christine van Wijk and Nilanjana Mukherjee, (2001). Linking Sustainability with Demand,
Gender and Poverty, The World Bank, p. 19.
4



and aspirations and what keeps them from being able to help themselves and their
families. The analysis depends on quantitative, disaggregated data on men and women,
as well as qualitative research that reaches into the more difficult-to-measure dimensions
of social behavior such as gender expectations and values placed upon men and women
in their everyday lives.7 Gender analysis particularly influences the design phase of a
project by pointing out obstacles to participation that men and women may encounter
(see appendix 1). Logistical arrangements, transportation, timing of activities, and
alternative support for domestic responsibilities are also carefully considered in a gender
analysis.8
Why gender integration is important in social fund projects
Social funds represent a part of the Bank's portfolio that has shifted from financing large
physical infrastructure and public works projects to financing more community-
centered, demand-driven projects. Even though social fund projects finance rather than
implement projects, they nevertheless can play a vital role in raising awareness about
gender-specific issues in borrower countries, particularly in ministries and
municipalities, as well as among NGOs and local community organizations.
Since social funds are intended to stimulate local capacity, they have become an integral
part of many poverty alleviation strategies of various borrower countries.9 As a result,
the community focus of social fund projects engages the poor more fully in the project
cycle. Given that such community involvement calls for the participation of both men
and women, greater understanding of the gender norms and practices of the specific
community is necessary. The integration of gender awareness into social fund projects is
not only an appropriate goal for this type of Bank loan, it also reflects the Bank's overall
strategy on gender mainstreaming.
7For example, both Country Gender Assessments (CGA) and the Social Analysis Guidelines (SAG) offer
explicit guidance on how to incorporate gender into project design and implementation. See the Social
Analysis Sourcebook: Incorporating social dimensions into Bank-supported projects, (2002). The World
Bank.
s See the Social Analysis Sourcebook: Incorporating social dimensions into Bank-supported projects.
(2002). The World Bank.
9 Laura Rawlings, Lynne Sherburne-Benz, and Julie Van Domelen, (2001). Letting Communities Take the
Lead: A cross-country evaluation of socialfund performance. The World Bank.
5



In view of the fact that social funds are one of the fastest expanding portfolios in the
Bank, it is important that they reflect the gender policies of the Bank (OP 4.20) and
integrate gender-mainstreaming strategies.
Social fund projects are assumed sometimes to be "gender-neutral," with both men and
wornen participating in and benefiting equally from projects. Unless social funds are
actually designed to take into account the different needs, constraints, and opportunities
of men and women, however, it is difficult to assess whether they equally benefit from
such projects. Similarly, since social funds are demand-driven in nature, it is important
that ooth men and women take part in determining community priorities, implementing
and managing projects, and monitoring and evaluating subprojects. The most common
activities financed by social funds since 1987 have been the construction or
rehabilitation of schools, piped water supply systems, health facilities, and roads.'" In
each type of project, men and women have played different roles in facilitating the work
and maintenance of the projects.
Despite progress in Bank policies and projects, gender disparities remain particularly
acute for women in the areas of economic opportunity, legal rights, access to resources,
and influence in public and political forums.'1 Even though this report calls for a more
inclusive gender and development approach, the fact is that poor women are more at risk
of exclusion than poor men. Thus in many of the case studies presented here, the report
emphasizes the need to include women in the project cycle.
In comparison to other kinds of investments social funds have many advantages in
integrating gender concerns into project design. Because of their relatively high degree
of independence from delays in central government resource allocation, as well as their
focus on1 local decision-making capacity, social funds are far likelier to directly assist the
poor. Such increased participation at the community level in turn provides greater
opportunity to begin building more equity between men and women. 12 Since gender
10 See Social Funds: Assessing Effectiveness. World Bank Operations Evaluation Department, 2002, p. 1.
Ii Engendlering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources and Voice, (2001). A World
Bank Policy Research Report.
12 The World Bank Participation Sourcebook, (1996). ESD, The World Bank.
6



inequality tends to be more pervasive in poor countries, women tend to have fewer
rights, less access to resources, and a more limited voice in community affairs.
Incorporating gender issues into social fund projects in these countries makes poverty
reduction efforts more effective. Studies demonstrate that when women have the
opportunity to become active in the community, projects have greater likelihood of
success, thus improving project performance and sustainability.
Curiously, although there are compelling reasons to explain why gender integration is a
good proposition for successful social fund subprojects, evidence for this linkage is still
difficult to obtain. In part, this is due to the lack of careful monitoring of quantitative
and qualitative factors that contribute to the empowerment of men and women in their
communities. Gender, moreover, is not always the central problem. Social class or caste
may be more limiting factors than gender. This review discusses the challenges and
opportunities of integrating gender into social funds based on the Bank's commitment to
gender equity and recommends practical guidelines for encouraging a more proactive
gender-sensitive approach to project design and implementation.
7



Sectioni III. Guidelines for Integrating Gender into Social Funds
Social funds are an important vehicle for incorporating gender awareness into subproject
design. Among the strengths of social funds are decentralized management approach and
demand-driven mechanisms for identifying beneficiary concerns. Since gender norms
and practices vary from community to community, a well-designed approach in one
commlunity will not necessarily work in another community. Therefore, social finds
should follow useful but flexible guidelines on gender participation in subprojects.
The fol]owing working guidelines provide task teams with various ways to integrate
gender into the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of social fund
projects. Based on good practices followed in past projects, this list is not a prescription
for gender integration, but a list of suggestions that offer ways to improve the impact of
social fund projects on the lives of men and women.
Working Guidelines
1.  Create a strategv upfront that addresses gender issues in the context of social
fund activities.
2.  Assess the barriers and opportunities for female and male participation in
social fund subprojects through gender analysis and/or beneficiary
assessments.
3. Consider carefully the type of targeting needed to meet the concerns of the
various beneficiaries.
4.  Provide upfront training and information to all stakeholders, including
project staff, on gender and development in the context of social fund
activities.
5.  Identify and work with those people who have local gender expertise,
in,cluding those who are involved in community level women's groups and
government-led initiatives.
6.  Build canacitv for participation, especially among poor women.
7.  Consider the various mechanisms or incentives needed to encourage
pa,rticipation and commitment throughout the project cycle.
8.  Identify and build upon local or traditional organizations in which female
community members have a voice.
9.  Disaggregate monitoring indicators by both gender and age.
10. Integrate qualitative monitoring of gender concerns into the full project cycle.
8



Guideline 1: Create a strategy upfront that addresses gender issues in the context of
social fund activities.
Integrating gender into a project is best done before the project cycle begins. Because
gender relationships often shape sector related issues, planning for gender is not an add-
on component. Asking questions about how men and women's roles differ in relation to
a particular sector not only helps identify project design risks, but also it allows for the
task team to consider the opportunities in which men or women can become agents of
change. Creating a gender strategy not only ensures that women are not left out of the
subproject, but also that the social roles of men and women are accurately understood in
the context of the project. A strategy that integrates gender into project design also
allows for more gender-balanced policies from promoting equal access to project
participation to ensuring that everyone has a voice in the subproject activities. In
addition, upfront strategies allow for gender-based criteria in the consideration and
selection of subprojects.
The Ethiopian social fund project (ESRDF) sought to improve the quality of female
participation, and did so by creating a strategy that aimed for women's active
involvement in all sub-projects. From its inception, there was no ambiguity about
gender; instead gender integration became a vehicle for social equity and empowerment.
Guideline 2: Assess the barriers and opportunities for female and male participation in
social funds subprojects through gender analysis and/or beneficiary assessments.
Given the diversity of sites and situations in which social funds operate, a gender-
sensitive approach to socio-cultural issues is a necessity. Although many social fund
procedures and formalities are replicable, socio-cultural assumptions about gender differ
not only from country to country, but also from community to community.
Understanding gender relationships in the context of the specific community is crucial to
success.
During project preparation, the Romania Social Development Fund (RSDF) conducted a
gender analysis and found an overall lack of involvement of women countrywide in
ongoing community-based projects. The legacy of communism meant that women had
very little proclivity toward community involvement. This was compounded by
increasing household poverty, leaving women with little of no free time.
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Although the Bank collects quantitative data on gender pertaining to poverty, economic
oppoituiity, and political conditions, it is fundamental to conduct an informal gender
analysis or a formal beneficiary assessment to understand the various challenges that a
project may encounter. For example, gender may determine the degree of social access
to which a man or woman might have in any given society, or the extent to which their
social standing may be marginalized. Social analysis will assist the design phase by
better pointing out obstacles to the participation of men and women. Likewise, logistical
arrangerments, transportation, timing of activities, and alternative support for domestic
responsibilities should be considered in a gender analysis.13 Each of these issues can
have an impact on whether men and women have equal access to project participation.
Guidelinc 3: Consider carefully the type of targeting needed to meet the concerns of the
various lbeneficiaries.
Both men and women need to be considered when targeting social funds, but not
necessarily in the same manner. In many instances, women have fewer opportunities to
participate in subprojects, but this problem must be carefully considered in the context
of men and women's roles in the society. For instance, setting gender quotas without
understanding the social norms and expectations is not productive. Participatory
approac]hes that encourage men to allow their wives or daughters to become involved in
a subproject are far more productive than outsiders directing or determining gendered-
based social standards. Therefore, targeting must rely on upfront gender analysis or
beneficiary assessments.
Poor women were targeted for new employment opportunities in the Honduras Social
Investment Fund Infrastructure Project (FHIS), where they were introduced to
construction and maintenance work. Training was pivotal to the success of women
rapidly acquiring these new skills, and but so was building community acceptance
among men in order for women participating in what was once considered a male-
dominated field. The project achieved the goal of training and employing over 500
women in the construction field.
13 See the Social Analysis Sourcebook: Incorporating social dimensions into Bank-supported projects.
(2002'i. The World Bank.
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Guideline 4: Provide upfront training and information to all stakeholders, including
project staff, on gender and development in the context of social fund activities.
If you are giving any gender-awareness training, give it first to our
community leaders! They are the ones that keep us out of everything.
Flores Island, Indonesia'4
Gender awareness ultimately benefits project clients, but it must first begin first with
comprehensive training. Community leaders, social fund staff, extension services
personnel, and project trainers (at both national and community levels) all need
education in gender issues.
Start early. Upfront information about gender awareness must be available from the
inception of a social fund project. As found in previous studies on gender and social
funds, a one-time training event on gender cannot adequately build the capacity of local
and national institutions.'5 Moreover, what is often lacking in training sessions is a
practical methodology in which to incorporate gender into a project. For example,
increasing the number of female field staff is an effective way to improve awareness of
gender issues, since such women are more likely to interact with female community
members.
The Romania Social Development Fund (RSDF) recognized from the initiation of the
fund that the gender gap was vast in community based projects already underway in the
country. The RSDF took a top-down approach to gender and aimed the first gender
mainstreaming workshops at the supervisors and evaluators of the Fund. Examining both
the historical factors and the impact of poverty on women's participation were key
elements of the training workshops.
Guideline 5: Identify and work with those people who have local gender expertise,
including those who are involved in community level women's groups and government-
led initiatives.
14 Bruce Gross, Christine van Wijk and Nilanjana Mukherjee, (2001). Linking Sustainabilnty with Demand,
Gender and Poverty, The World Bank, p. 20.
15 Elaine Zuckerman, (1998). Integrating WID/Gender Issues into Social Investment Funds, The Inter-
American Development Bank.



As the result of the Beying Declaration and Platform for Action,16 many countries have
formulated national gender policies. Some have developed their own action plans for
gender equality and the advancement of women in their respective countries, while
others have identified an official representative in the government to address gender-
relatedc oncerns. Also, many countries have expertise in the form of women's groups or
NGGs. These groups are an excellent source of information, and in some cases have
already been involved in other donor projects requiring gender analysis. It is important
to recognize in-country expertise when it exists and to use it as a springboard for
broadening awareness of the group or individuals engaged in social fund training
progranms. 17
In the Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund (ESRDF), women's
groups were encouraged to submit proposals. The groups already had capacity and
awareness about gender. They also were well aware of the hurdles that confront women
in their daily lives.
Guideline 6: Build capacity for participation, especially among poor women.
Although community participation is one of the key intended outcomes of social funds,
it is not necessarily easy to achieve. Participation is particularly difficult for poor men
and women, when low literacy rates and skill levels have a significant impact on
participation. Sometimes the poor opt out of public involvement so as not to reveal their
low skill level or inability to read, especially since information about social funds,
including notification of meeting times and places, is often communicated in writing and
posted on public bulletin boards.
It is necessary to recognize that building capacity for women's involvement is often
dependent on men in the community. Therefore, consideration must be given to
informing both men and women, which in turn, may require different communication
16 The document sets out an agenda for national gender/women's action plans throughout the world. As of
April 2000, at least 95 Bank client countries had submitted national action plans to the UN. As reported in
The Gencler Dimension of Bank Assistance: An Evaluation of Results, (2002). The World Bank,
Operations Evaluation Department.
17 See The Gender Dimension of Bank Assistance: An Evaluation of Results, (2002). Operations
Evaluation Department, The World Bank.
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approaches. Often women have less access to public spaces due to the daily patterns of
their household commitments, for this reason, consider posting information and meeting
announcements in the vicinity of schools, water pumps, or health-care facilities.
One of the project components of the Malawi Social Action Funds I and II is the
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) component, which is an effective
knowledge management tool that sensitizes stakeholders to project procedures and
processes. At the same time, IEC serves as an instrument to empower stakeholders, and
moreover, project communities through recognizing and publicizing information about
their role in poverty alleviation. The component assists men and women in making sure
that they receive information regarding the project.
In order to ensure women's involvement, social funds must assess the traditional socio-
cultural barriers to their participation. One of the biggest barriers to women's
participation is the reaction of their husbands, since women's participation in some
societies poses a threat to men's control over them.
The time-consuming nature of committee work also inhibits participation and must be
considered differently for men and women. It is often more costly for women to be
involved in a project management committee (PMC), in light of their time-sensitive and
time-intensive duties, including childcare, food preparation, water and fuel gathering,
washing and cleaning, and care of the sick or elderly, etc. In addition, social fund
subprojects have documented that tensions within the household increase when women
are committed to activities outside the home.'8
Guideline 7: Consider the various mechanisms or incentives that are needed to
encourage participation and commitment throughout the project cycle.
Participation is a central feature of social fund projects. In many poor societies,
however, women are less able than men to take part in such activities. Poor women tend,
for instance, to have less power and control in community affairs. For this reason, it is
important to build simple mechanisms that target poor women's participation and
representation on local committees and subproject staffs. When appropriate, setting
quotas for female participation is one mechanism to encourage better project
18 See Razazz (1999).
13



participation. Percentage requirements are a good beginning, especially in communities
wheie there is a total lack of female participation. Quotas, however, do not solve the
greater problem of social bias-often held by both men and women-in which men are
considered better decision-makers, especially when it comes to community matters
Women often lack experience, authority in mixed-gender meetings, and the support of
their husbands and family. Bridging the gap between quantity and quality of female
participation in social fund activities represents an ongoing challenge, but may best be
achieved by drawing upon indigenous social groupings in which women are already the
primary participants and beneficiaries and accountability is built upon longevity of
social relations.
In the Malawi Social Action Funds I and II, emphasis was placed on equal
opportunity to participate on the project management committees (PMCs). With 50
percent representation of women as a goal, the project achieved much success. But
the Ftnds soon learned that having half of any committee made up of women was not
enough to ensure equity in participation. Women had few opportunities to obtain
leadership positions. In addition, lifestyle constraints for women, including logistical
problems, domestic and familial commitments, lack of experience, and other social
constraints, impeded their active participation. On paper, the PMCs were made up of
50 percent women, but in reality, women had many hurdles to overcome to fulfill
their obligation to the PMC.
Another approach is developing cash or in-kind incentives offered to a household in
order for a husband to agree for his wife to be involved on the project management
committee or other subproject activities. In some instances, men will consent to their
wives receiving training only if they return home with a daily allowance. An incentive
may initially help a household absorb the absence of one of its key players, but this
approach is not a sustainable solution.
Sensitizing husbands is thus extremely important for the long-term success of a training
endeavor that involves women. Also, men tend to support women when they themselves
are involved in project activities and are consulted about ways to enhance women's
participation. Women may also need to be encouraged to take time away from their own
work of childcare and household responsibilities. Providing childcare arrangements or
transportation to and from the meeting are several in-kind ways to encourage more
14



gender-balanced participation in a project. One approach to building an incentive
program is to involve the community in developing its own incentives for encouraging
the participation of women.
Guideline 8: Identify and build upon local and traditional organizations in which female
community members already have a voice and experience.
Most social funds create their own layer of management and accountability, but it is also
important to consider organizations and institutions that operate outside the formal
dimensions of the local community and the state, including childcare cooperatives,
rotating savings clubs, and mutual aid associations. These informal organizations offer
an excellent mechanism for disseminating project information to women. In previous
studies of social funds, community meetings organized by the project management
committee (PMC) often take place without women's involvement.'9 Sometimes women
never hear of a meeting because postings are made in public locations not frequented by
women, or, if they do find out about a meeting, women do not consider it appropriate to
attend such a public forum. It is therefore essential that social funds explore alternative
venues to reach out not only to women, but also to other groups that may be socially
marginalized or excluded.
In the Moldova Social Investment Fund (MSIF), specific gender-supportive mechanisms
were implemented to engage rural women in community empowerment efforts. In
particular, early child education was a high priority, both to bring women more into the
sphere of their children's learning and to provide quality childcare, which in turn
enabled women to take jobs.
Monitoring and evaluation phase
Guideline 9: Disaggregate monitoring indicators by both gender and age.
During the design phase and throughout the project cycle, data should be collected on
both men and women, but disaggregated by age. Using age and gender indicators can
reveal more specific information about gender relationships. Many societies have
structured social inequality as the result of age stratification. For instance, age
inequalities may limit women's ability to unite to protect their interests as women or
19 See Razazz (1999).
15



from becoming aware of their common interests. Older and younger women can have
widely divergent interests and are sometimes divided by deep social strains and
cleavages.20 In other situations, such as in post-conflict countries, it is important to
understand the different needs and constraints of young and old war widows. Countries
with a youth "bulge," where young males have few economic opportunities available to
them are much more vulnerable to disruption and corruption and may inadvertently
provide conditions in which terrorist activities can emerge.2' Social funds need to be
aware of these gender and age trends and to incorporate them into the design of
subpioj ects.
The HIV/AIDS crisis in Ethiopia has brought into perspective the importance of
monitoring for both age and gender in social fund projects, since HIV/AIDS information
and prevention strategies offered to youth are designed differently than information
given to the general public.
Guideline 10: Integrate qualitative monitoring of gender concerns into the entire project
cycle.
Social funds are considered demand-driven projects, meaning beneficiaries must be an
integral part of the monitoring process. Qualitative monitoring through a beneficiary
assessment, PRA, or other assessment tool is essential to judging the value of the project
and making necessary changes over time. One of the initial activities of social fund
subprojects is to involve the community in developing its own monitoring indicators,
which include gender-sensitive indicators.22
From its inception, the Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund Project
(ESRDF) collected project information data, both qualitative and quantitative, on men's
and women's involvement in the project. This allowed for ongoing monitoring and
evaluation of gender issues. For example, about 923 people (30 males and 893 females)
were trained as traditional birth attendants. Basic construction skill training was given to
about 4,153 people (2,968 males and 1,185 females).
20 See Kathleen Kuehnast, (2001). "Dilemmas of Gender and Generation in Central Asia." In Women in
Central Asia: A Turn of the Century Assessment. Washington D.C.: The Woodrow Wilson International
Center for Scholars. Pp. 24-31.
21 See Kathleen Kuehnast, (2002). "Ten reasons why youth inclusion efforts matter in the Central Asian
region," Concept paper for the World Bank. Also see Jennifer S. Holmes, (2001). Terrorism and
Democratic Stability. Manchester University Press.
22 See also, Samantha de Silva, (2002). Communities Taking the Lead. A Handbook on Direct Financing
of Community Subprojects, The World Bank.
16



IV. Good Practice Examples of Gender in Social Fund Projects
Analytic framework and methodology for reviewing social fund projects
This review is based on a short-term desk study of social fund projects that included an
examination of existing data and literature and incorporated other research relating to
gender and its impact on social fund projects. The five chosen projects were selected
from approximately 66 Bank social fund projects because they addressed gender in their
project designs. They are by no means the only social fund projects to do so, but they
offer an important perspective on gender awareness and for the most part, represent
good practice examples. There are many ways in which to assess the integration of
gender issues in any given Bank project. Yet three criteria are fundamental to the
assessment process and are particularly relevant to social funds: 23
. Does the project demonstrate an overall understanding of critical gender issues?
. Does a realistic strategy exist to address gender-based concerns in the context of
the given country?
. Do project indicators and benchmarks reflect the implementation of gender
awareness?
Does the project demonstrate an overall understanding of critical gender
issues? When assessing a project for gender awareness, often the focus is on the direct
impact of the project on beneficiaries. Gender sensitivity in project management is,
however, often equally relevant. It is important to consider the full extent to which
staffing, training, and extension services can build gender awareness and navigate socio-
cultural issues within a community. Recent findings on those projects with good
sustainability demonstrate that from the beginning the more that community interactions
are based on gender and poverty-sensitive demand, the more the community has the
opportunity to influence the design process.24 Of course, in order for staff and training
personnel to improve gender awareness, gender awareness is needed in project
management. The latter requires an assessment of (i) the key gender issues in a
community, (ii) the prioritization of gender needs, (iii) an understanding of the hurdles
23 These criteria were used in the recent report, The Gender Dimension of Bank Assistance: An Evaluation
of Results. Operations Evaluation Department, Report No. 23119, The World Bank, p. 5.
24 Bruce Gross, Christine van Wijk and Nilanjana Mukherjee (2001). Linking Sustainability with Demand,
Gender and Poverty, The World Bank.
17



that may arise in implementation, and last but not least, (iv) monitoring and evaluating
gender considerations.
.  Does a realistic strategy exist to address gender-based concerns in the
contexi of the given country? The process of integrating gender concerns into social
fund projects takes place in the context of both the community and the country. Project
objectives should be linked with long-term policy goals for men and women in the
country, while simultaneously addressing emerging issues. Therefore, a careful and
realistic assessment of the country's capacity to accommodate new or different gender
norms is needed; this assessment must then be considered over time. It is important to
emphasize that both female and male gender issues should be considered in tandem,
since the concerns of each group inevitably are intertwined. Many rural women in the
Kyrgyz Republic,25 for example, express fear of being physically or verbally abused by
young rnen when they leave their homes, especially after dark. To analyze this problem,
it is nol enough to state that women are isolated as the result of the threat of physical
harm. What needs to be considered is the extent to which unemployment, especially
among young males, leads to low self-esteem, alcohol and drug abuse, and boredom.
The emotional state of young men contributes to an environment in which women do not
feel safe. To attend to this gender dilemma, strategies must be developed that assist both
women and young men.
& Do project indicators and benchmarks reflect the implementation of gender
awareness? Assessing gender in social fund projects can be facilitated at both the
individual and group level. The individual level often relies on quantitative data, for
example, how many men and women benefited from the project; how many men and
women participated; how many men and women were employed; how many men and
women served in a leadership capacity, etc. Quantitative indicators are useful for
understamding the extent to which a project reaches its constituents. In the case of
women, however, even if the number of women participating in the project is relatively
high, mnmbers alone cannot verify whether the project will have a long-term positive
25 See "Poverty Shock: The Impact of Rapid Economic Change on the Women of the Kyrgyz Republic,"
(2003). In N. Dudwick, E. Gomart, and A. Marc, eds., with K. Kuehnast, When Things Fall Apart: The
Study ,ffPoverty in the Former Soviet Union, 1993-1999. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
18



impact on women's lives. Large participant numbers (of women or men) also do not
necessarily correspond with project sustainability. Thus analysis of women's
participation in social fund projects must provide a sense of the depth and the quality of
women's participation in the project.
Gender awareness also can be assessed at the group level through civil society and
NGOs. In many countries, women have low community participation rates. Research
conducted on gender accountability among NGOs26 indicates that the quality of
women's participation is an important indicator of whether an NGO is, in fact,
accountable to women's interests. Such an approach can also be useful for assessing
women's involvement in social fund subprojects. Many of the social fund projects
reviewed in this report rely exclusively on quantitative data to evaluate impact, yet
qualitative information illuminates why women want to be involved in a project and the
incentives that encourage them to continue their engagement.
The following five case studies are featured in this report because each study presents a
relevant and useful approach to integrating gender into social fund projects. Although
the case studies do not necessarily represent what the Bank identifies as Best Practice
Projects, the studies do represent different gender challenges in diverse geographic
regions. In each of the five case studies, women are more of a focus than men. In part,
this is because in most poor countries women face many more barriers to participation in
formal community activities than do men.27
26 See L. Mayoux (1998). 'Gender accountability and NGOs: avoiding the black hole' in C. Miller and S.
Razavi (eds.) Missionaries and Mandarins: Feminist Engagement with Development Institutions, London:
ITDG.
27 The impact of Women in Development (WID) efforts over the past fifteen years also cannot be
underestimated. WID brought the issue of women into the fold of development activities. The integration
of men into the gender equation occurred in the late 1990s. Several factors contributed to the expanded
understanding of men in development, but especially the soaring mortality rates for young and middle-
aged men in Russia and other former socialist countries. The impact of economic stress and declining
health standards took a drastic toll on men of this region.
19



THE CASE STUDIES
Country    Major Gender Challenge           Major Accomplishments
Ethiopia    How to engage women     1. Gender checklist created as an assessment
and to sustain             tool.
participation in the    2. Gender integrated into the Management and
project                     Information collection system.
3. Women targeted as trainers/facilitators and
agricultural extension workers.
4. Gender emphasis encouraged in subproject
______                             designs.
Hondluras   How to improve rural    1. Women retrained in infrastructure/
women's employment          construction industries.
opportunities           2. Expanded sense of gender roles reduced
social barriers for women in work.
3. Women transferred new skills to other lines
of work.
Malawi     How to engage women in  1. 20% improvement of women's involvement
both employment and         on project management committees.
project opportunities.  2. Training offered women new skills that were
transferable to other parts of their lives.
3. Social barriers and constraints to women's
involvement reduced.
Moldova     How to engage rural     1. Employment for women increased by 40% in
women in community          microprojects.
effort                  2. Staff of SF became nearly half women.
3. Improved awareness of gender issues in rural
areas.
Romania     How to encourage        1. Top-down approach allowed for
women's involvement in      mainstreaming gender issues among central
community projects          government, local govermnent & SF staff.
2.  Gender awareness integrated into training
and operational manuals.
3. Revisions made midway through SF project
to improve gender awareness.
20



Good Practice Case 1:
Encouraging Poor Women (and their Husbands) to Participate in Poverty
Alleviation Efforts in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in sub-Saharan Africa with a population of 64
million people, 76 percent of which survive on less than US$2 per day. This fact alone is
a major impediment for any social fund project, but add to it that social indicators for
both men and women are exceptionally low, with life expectancy of 51 years; that the
maternal mortality ratio is 871 per 100,000 live births; that over 50 percent of children
are stunted, and one out of six children die before the age of five; and that literacy rates
for men are estimated at 40 percent, and less than 20 percent for women-then the
challenge of this social fund project is put in perspective. Furthermore, age-old gender
norms that keep women from participating in public forums had to be addressed through
working with women's husbands, helping them understand the benefits that accrue as
the result of women's involvement in community project work.
0 Ethiopian Government and Bank Respond: Initiate a socialfund
The expanded Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund (ESRDF) Project
was based on the pilot project (ESRF) begun in December 1992 as a poverty reduction
program. The project was designed in the context of chronic poverty and more recent
transitory poverty due to civil war. The pilot project aimed to test whether a social fund
approach in one of the world's poorest countries could be an effective way of giving
millions of poor households and communities greater control over their economic and
social advancement. The social fund approach coincided with the decentralization policy
of the government.
Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund Project28
Appraisal date: March 13, 1996
Major components: Poverty reduction and community development
Total project cost: $240 million
Bank loan amount: $120 million
28 Information from the following documents: Staff Appraisal Report, Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and
Development Fund Project, The World Bank, 13 March 1996, Report No. 14907-ET.
Memorandum and Recommendation, Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund Project, The
World Bank, 13 March 1996, Report No. P-6706-ET.
21



* T'ackling Poverty through Women 's Involvement
The ES,RDF set out to provide poor, rural communities with the assets and services
needed to directly and effectively improve their economic and social standards. The
project targeted the poor, many of whom are women. Key components were set in place
to ensure that women's participation not only was established but also sustained.
Women's groups were encouraged to submit proposals.
The E'SRDF sought to improve the quality of female participation, and did so by
initiating social fund policies that emphasized women's involvement in sub-projects. A
special checklist was designed to help the project manager assess the impact of a project
on women. In addition, the project made an intentional effort to recruit women into staff
positions. Amid these proactive approaches, the ESRDF revamped its Management and
Informeation System to capture important information about women and the impact of
the project on their lives. In other words, the ESRDF went beyond simply establishing
quotas for women's participation, and instead, began to change the very nature of how
the social fund integrated awareness about women and their needs throughout the overall
project. ESRDF's approach to gender awareness offers an excellent example of how to
address gender equity, and to initiate the long and tedious process of gender
empowerment.
In 63 countries, gains in women's education made the single largest contribution to
declines in malnutrition in 1970-1995, accountingfor 43 percent of the total. Smith and
Haddad, 2000.
During the mid-term review (1999),29 particular emphasis was placed on developing
programs, such as financing gender and transport initiatives, labor saving devices, and
cooperative child care facilities, that ultimately would relieve women from some of their
most tedious and laborious chores. The review also emphasized the need to have more
female trainers and facilitators as a means of better reaching poor women. In spite of the
many strengths of the project, one of the shortcomings was that the key strategies were
not reflected in the monitoring cycle (as noted in the SAR), therefore it is difficult to
29 Mid-Term Review Aide Memoire, June 24, 1999.
22



conclude whether or not the objectives of including women in the projects were fully
met.
Key strategies of the Ethiopia Social Fund
1. Gender Checklist: used to identify whether a proposed sub-project may have
negative impact on women. If negative impacts are anticipated, mitigating
measures are applied in order to make the sub-project eligible.
2. Gender Policy: gave special consideration to proposals that emphasized benefits
for women.
3. Gender Recruitment: Women were targeted for staff positions. Training of staff
and facilitators to be aware of gender issues and how to encourage the
participation of women.
4. Engendering the Management and Information System: Project information was
collected through beneficiary assessments that focused on women and the impact
of the project on their livelihoods.
Subprojects often depend on women 's involvement
Planning and integrating gender concerns into the social fund from its inception is
important to long-term project success, since so many sub-projects are dependent on the
active participation of women. Consider for instance, that the most common activities
financed by social funds since 1987 have been the construction or rehabilitation of (i)
schools, (ii) piped water supply systems, (iii) health facilities, and (iv) roads.30 In each of
these instances, women are often more responsible than their male counterparts for
children's education; the carrying of water; the health care of the family; and the manual
maintenance of roads. In the ESRDF, women were targeted for staff positions, while
training took place simultaneously to assist facilitators and staff in how to encourage
women's participation. From the beginning, project information was collected, both
qualitative and quantitative data, on women's involvement in the project. This allowed
for a Management and Information system with ongoing monitoring and evaluation of
gender issues.
Human beings often resist change, and consequently are not easily moved to change
their behaviors unless they perceive that their lives will benefit from such change. In the
Ethiopian case, men and women were motivated to participate in the social fund for
several key reasons. First, they were motivated by the hope that their lives would change
30 See Social Funds: Assessing Effectiveness World Bank Operations Evaluation Department, 2002, p. 1.
23



for the better. They perceived that the potential employment opportunities would
improve their household situation. Moreover, the participants perceived that their needs
would be heard, since the project was dependent on their involvement. Each of these
factors must be a part of what is communicated to beneficiaries from the inception of the
social fimd in order for them to be opened to new approaches to solving their often-dire
predicaments.
Good Practice Case 2:
When Women Learn a Man's Profession:
_       ~~Infrastructure and Social Funds in Honduras
Honduras is the third poorest country in the Latin American and Caribbean Region, with
a GNP per capita of $730 (1998).' Over half of Honduran households live in poverty,
almost one third in extreme poverty. Although Honduras has made impressive
improvements in health indicators, including increased life expectancy and high
immunization rates, many social indicators remain low. Adult literacy is extremely low,
27 percent for males and 21 percent for females. Infant mortality remains high at 35 per
1,000 live births, and maternal mortality rate at 221 per 100,000 births. Beginning in
1990. the Government of Honduras began using investment funds as a key instrument
toward reducing the widespread poverty in the country; the success of this approach is
reflected in the fact that by 1997 FHIS had approved financing for 9,550 projects. Social
fund projects were originally intended to be a stopgap measure in Honduras until line
ministries were strengthened and poverty contained. But chronic poverty and the
occurrence of Hurricane Mitch in 1998, which devastated the country, have put social
funds into a much more long-term perspective.
The majority of the poor, including the extreme poor, live in the rural areas.
Employment opportunities are very limited, especially for women. Among the many
components of the Honduras Social Fund was a special project of the FHIS II, funded by
the German kreditanstalt fur Weideraufbau (KfW). It included extensive training and
employment opportunities for women, including opening up new possibilities for
3'Honduras Fifth Social Investment Fund Project (2000).
24



women working in a traditionally male-oriented building and construction work. With
an ambitious agenda, the project set out to train women in construction activities,
including cement-mixing, brick-laying, plastering, painting, making molds from iron
bars, etc, with the general exception of very heavy lifting. In a highly traditional society
where such work is considered a "man's job", it was surprising that the overall response
to the project by both men and women, including project executors, construction
supervisors, and fellow co-workers, was highly favorable. Women liked the opportunity
to learn a completely new skill, and men were much more accepting of the idea of
women doing construction work than previously anticipated.32
Title: Honduras Social Investment Fund Infrastructure Project (FHIS)33
Appraisal date: November 20, 2000
Major components: poverty reduction; improved employment opportunities for
women
Total project cost: $176 million
Bank loan amount: $60 million
Training women and menfor new work roles
The importance of gender-sensitive training was a central feature of the FHIS, in which
women were introduced to the new work experiences of construction and maintenance.
The project was based on a well-designed, three-part training process, which prepared
women for their new work experience. During the first phase, women were introduced
to construction theory over a five-day period. The second phase included on the job
training throughout the construction project. The final module included training in
maintenance planning prior to the conclusion of the project. Women enjoyed the training
and were gratified by how quickly they were able to put their new knowledge to use.
The extensive training program designed especially for women proved pivotal to the
success of the female workers acquiring these new skills. But more than training made
the difference. Capacity building at the community level among men was also important
32 A.K. Vandever Webb, Women's training and employmnent component in Honduras Social Investment
Fund (FHIS) Infrastructure Projects, an intemal report for The World Bank, 10 November 1997.
331nformation taken from the following documents:
Project Appraisal Document, Honduras Fifth Social Investment Fund Project, 20 November 2000, The
World Bank, Report, No. 21355-HO.
Anna Kathryn Vandever Webb, Women's training and employment component in Honduras social
investment fund (FHIS) infrastructure Projects, report to the World Bank, 10 November 1997.
25



to gain community acceptance for the concept of women participating in what was
typically considered a male-dominated field.
The creation of employment opportunities for women in infrastructure is not only
innovative, but also ground breaking as it challenged traditional roles for women in
Honduran culture. As the result of training, over 500 women were employed, most of
which were from poor or very poor municipalities. Many linked the high success of the
women's training and employment component to the enthusiasm and willingness of the
women themselves to acquire new skills and to have the opportunity to work in a non-
traditional field. Women also gained confidence from working along side other women
and men.
Civil war along with several severe hurricanes in Honduras loosened the social fabric of
the country in such a way that traditional gender roles have became more permeable.
When FHIS initiated an employment program for women in the fields of construction
and maintenance, the project flourished. Honduras represents a case where assessing the
right time for planned social change and enhancing non-traditional work opportunities
for women coalesced.
0 Gentder glitches
In spite of the favorable evaluations of the FHIS training, it is important to note that
many women expressed frustration in the training technique in that the training
examples often were not based upon their everyday reality, but instead were drawn from
men's experience of construction. This lack of attention to gender differences proved
probleniatic for some women and delayed the conceptual understanding of construction.
One of the surprising findings during project evaluation was that although gender equity
was a key emphasis of the project, the evaluation discovered that women were paid less
than men for the same work in nearly half of the 15 projects. In some cases, they were
not even paid the regional minimum salary authorized by FHIS. This example brings
into light that gender equity must be considered from many vantage points, not just
equal opportunity, but also equal pay.
26



Another glitch, less related to gender but still nevertheless important in social funds
planning, is that by the time the project was launched many of the initial construction
projects no longer existed in Honduras, making it difficult for the women to find further
employment in their newly acquired field. In the overall evaluation of the project, this
was not identified as a major issue, since the training was considered a successful
endeavor. But the long-term benefits of such a sub-project must be carefully considered
given that the training costs were approximately $415 per participant.34
0 Implications for Social Fund Project Design
Many of the lessons learned in the Honduras Social Funds Project are concerned with
inadequate communication and insufficient information flow to women participants. For
example, the on-the-job training component and the training manuals were not "user-
friendly." This was in part due to the fact that most of the participants had never
engaged in this type of work before and needed more rudimentary lessons that laid the
foundation of the acquisition of new skills. When training women in construction and
infrastructure work, as well as in any other field, the techniques and language used
should be more geared toward women's technical knowledge, or their lack context to the
construction arena.
More attention is required when it comes to pay equity for men and women doing the
same work. This is more socially sensitive and may require other forms of training to
help the community adopt principles of pay equity. Pay equity questions in subprojects
should be more carefully considered, including who makes decisions about pay levels?
Are pay levels set as a "condition" for making women's inclusion more "acceptable" to
the men, or an unthinking example of everyday practice?
On the positive side, the involvement of women in non-traditional work opportunities
that typically favor men is an important opportunity for social funds to consider. It offers
women, especially the rural poor, new skills with the added value of improving their
own community. The focus of this project was primarily rural poor women.
34 Susan Razzaz, (1999). "Women's roles in Social Investment Funds." An internal report for the World
Bank, 20 August.
27



Nevertheless, the same principles could be applied to urban settings as well, since there
are potentially better concentration of building projects over a longer period of time in
urban areas. It is important for the women involved to be able have more than one
oppoitun-ity to learn and improve upon their new skills.
Good Practice Case 3:
Z         Targeting Women's Involvement in Subproject Work in Malawi
Poveity in Malawi is pervasive, chronic and overwhelmingly rurally situated. Ranked as
the ninth poorest country in the world (based on GNP per capita), poverty alleviation has
become one of the Government's top priorities over the last decade. This was not always
the case. Since its independence in 1964, Malawi maintained its growth through estate
agriculture with the main approach to poverty reduction as one of "trickle-down effects."
Structural weaknesses along with external and internal economic shocks contributed to a
destabilization of its economy. By 1992 when serious drought hit its agricultural sector,
and numerous refugees crossed the border from Mozambique, Malawi was crippled and
poverty soared.
Title: Malawi Social Action Funds I and II (MASAF I and II)35
Major components: Poverty reduction; capacity building; empowering women
Total project cost: $ 71.3 million
Banlk loan amount: MASAF I $56 million, and MASAF II $ 66 million
Malawi has one of the highest Gini coefficients in all of Africa, at 0.62. The indicators
of social development are unfavorable for the country as a whole and worse for its poor.
Infant mortality rate (134 per 1,000 live births), maternal mortality (620 per 100,000
births) and the prevalence of disease including HIV/AIDS are among the highest in the
Sub-Saharan countries.
3S The information was taken from the following documents:
Memorandum and recommendation, Malawi Social Action Fund Project, The World Bank, 12 April 1996,
Report No. P-6796-MAI.
Project Appraisal Document, Malawi Second Social Action Fund Project, The World Bank, 17 September
1998, Report No. 17993 MAI.
28



* Women Integral to Poverty Reduction
Beginning in 1995 with a pilot project, social funds became a central feature of the
Government's poverty reduction strategy, emphasizing participation at the community
level. Because women are the head of thirty percent of all rural households, and poverty
affects one in two of this group, gender considerations became integral to poverty
reduction projects in Malawi. With the second phase of MASAF now underway36 in
2002, an extensive assessment was conducted, in which many of the results are reflected
below.37
From its inception, various mechanisms were designed to encourage the participation of
women. Based on lessons leamed during MASAF I, quotas were set up for the Project
Management Committees (PMC), requiring at least 30 percent representation of women
with a goal of 50 percent. In the Public Works Program (PWP), employment projects
required a minimum of 40 percent representation by women with a goal of 50 percent. In
addition, all members of the Project Management Committees received training on
leadership skills, procurement, bookkeeping, accounting, and other skills.
The representation of women on PMCs appears to be one of the great successes of the
MASAF I, since women are well represented in most sector-related projects, particularly
in water and maternity clinics. Surprisingly, women were less represented in education
sector (26%) and roads (20%). Communities consider the election processes to be fair,
since both men and women had equal opportunity to be on the PMCs. Nevertheless,
when it came to obtaining chair positions, women were considered less qualified
because they were perceived as having fewer leadership qualities. It is interesting to note
that in most of the committees' women filled the treasurer positions.
Another key component of bringing women into the fold of the social funds project, was
targeting female-headed households for the recruitment into the various subproject work
programs. This meant that a clear message was sent to both men and women in the
36 Staff Appraisal Report, Malawi Social Action Fund Project, The World Bank, 12 April 1996, Report No
14345-MAI.
37 Mwelu Ndeti, (2002). Engendering Participation: Assessment of the Malawi Social Action Fund.
29



communlity that women would be given priority in the new initiative.  Such
communiication activities were part and parcel of an overall strategy to target women and
other vulnerable groups, which were based on analysis of women's needs and priorities
in particular regions.
Finally, one of the most important aspects of the MASAF was the establishment of a
moniioring and evaluation (M&E) system to track both quantitative and qualitative
aspects of female participation. The M & E dimension is often forgotten when
integiating gender into subprojects, but it is one of the most important tools the project
has to address inequity and exclusion issues.
Key gender strate2ies in the Malawi Social Fund included:
.  Quotas established for women's participation
.  Targeting female-headed households for work program recruitment
. I)irecting communication directly to the needs of women and other
vulnerable groups
.  Tracking female participation through M&E system
Barriers to Women 's Participation
Women's constraints to participation, include logistical problems, domestic and familial
commitments, lack of experience in public forums, lack of recognized authority, social
constraints and husband's reactions. Therefore, although it is useful to set gender quotas,
these do not always address the social and cultural dynamics that act as a "glass ceiling"
to women, that bar them from leadership opportunities and active involvement in the
committees.
Dealing with socio-cultural assumptions about gender in Malawi proved to be more
difficult and subtle than originally anticipated. But over the past decade, the country has
made great strides in bringing women into the fold of community involvement. Yet
allowing women to participate in leadership opportunities presented another hurdle, one
that was linked to more socially embedded gender norms-that of the generalized lack
of recognized authority women are given in the public arena. In other words, it became
acceptable for women to be on a committee, just as long as she did not act in a
leadership position. This type of socio-cultural gender norm is difficult to change and
30



requires more time and experience for both men and women to acquire an acceptance of
women in leadership positions.
* Implications for Integrating Gender into Social Fund Subprojects
Women's active involvement and participation on the PMCs were considered by all
accounts as one of the most positive aspects of the MASAF. Beyond their involvement
on the PMC, training offered women new skills and gave them more confidence in other
parts of their lives. But women's equal representation on the PMCs was not sufficient to
ensuring their active participation, since there are many social barriers and outside
constraints that interfere with women's effective involvement, including numerous
household responsibilities, jobs, and the general negative view many men have toward
women's participation. This is why pre-project assessments can help identify the time,
social and cultural constraints that keep women from being actively involved in project
implementation.
Similarly, monitoring and evaluation of women's participation cannot be based on
numbers alone. The quality of participation is more important to building capacity in a
community than the numbers of women participating. Monitoring and evaluation
activities must move beyond using only quantitative data to determine effectiveness, and
instead dig deeper into the qualitative data to understand whether quotas act as a smoke
screens, masking the social limitations that may inhibit the active voice of women on
these committees.
31



Good Practice Case 4:
Empowering Rural Communities with the Help of
_-                  Both Women and Men in Moldova
Moldova is battling serious economic decline, with long-term debts, increasing
impovershiment, and declining economic opportunities. These changes have had a
devastating affect on the living standards and the quality of life, especially for the rural
poor, which makes up approximately 54 percent of the country's population. The
inconie of rural families is 3.5 times less than that in urban areas. While nearly all rural
households have electricity, only half of them have natural gas, and only one percent of
the households have access to piped water.
The Moldova Social Investment Fund (MSIF) was created in part as a response to the
communist legacy of people passively waiting for the national government to make
changes instead of making use of local initiatives. This expectation that change should
be directed from the central government, as well as having no tradition of community-
level initiatives have left communities with a resistance to change. People were
discourage and felt that addressing local problems would be fruitless, since they held a
high degree of distrust for local and regional officials. In part, this feeling was based on
their experiences of being promised things during political campaigns and then after
elections, such local considerations were often forgotten.38
Title: Moldova Social Investment Fund (MSIF)39
Appraisal date: January 1 1, 1999
M,ajor components: poverty reduction; microcredit for women
Total project cost: $19.8 million
Bank loan amount: $15 million
The MSIF seeks to empower rural communities and build local capacities, especially
among the poor, and to improve their access to basic social and economic services.
Under these broad goals, the project also has specific gender-supportive elements that
are designed to involve women in the community empowerment effort, as well as to
3S Beneficiary Impact Assessment of Moldova Social Investment Fund Activity. ISIS "Opinia", May
2001.
39 Project Appraisal Document, Moldova Social Investment Fund, II January 1999.
32



directly involve women, since mothers are traditionally more involved with younger
children than men. The project calls for at least 40 percent of the community committee
to be made up of women, and at least two of these women must be represented on the
implementing committee. The project also seeks to provide greater percentage of
employment opportunities for women, especially in microcredit rehabilitation. Integral
to improving women's participation in community empowerment is to provide better
opportunities for mothers to be involved in their children's early childhood development
through volunteer teaching, supervision and parent-teacher associations.
One of the benefits of having more women in decision-making seems to be reduced
corruption. In the Republic of Georgia, firms owned or managed by women are
significantly less likely to make unofficial payments to government officials than those
owned or managed by men. Dollar, Fisman and Gatti, 1999
* Intentional Gender Targeting
One of the strengths of the MSIF is its clear and explicit targeting of women and
children. This offers many advantages over those social funds that indirectly target
women by targeting the overall community. First, intentional gender targeting sets up
important indicators for monitoring and evaluation of women's involvement both as
participants and beneficiaries. Secondly, integrating gender considerations into the
design of the SIF allows for gender-sensitive training of facilitators, staff, and extension
service personnel. Thirdly, an important message is sent to the community that women's
involvement in project selection, design and implementation not only is expected, but
also ultimately, a requirement of funding. Nevertheless, it should be noted that calling
for gender equity in such a subproject could encourage men's involvement in their
children's early education, as well.
The limitation of the quota approach toward gender equity in community sub-projects is
that numbers do not guarantee necessarily that women are truly involved. The quality of
women's participation also must be addressed when quotas are established. Women
may show up at the community meetings, but unless they are allowed to voice their
opinions and concerns, as well as take on leadership opportunities, the quota system
33



actually can be a disservice, since meeting the quota of women may obscure the reality
that women have no power on the committee.
The results of the MSIF gender-specific targeting are at this point in the project cycle
difficult to decipher, in part to the lack of information available from the aide memoire
and the beneficiary assessment on the social fund's impact on women.40 Nevertheless, it
is important to note that the employment of women has increased from absolutely no
women involved to 40 percent female involvement in the micro projects. And though
both documents discuss the overall positive results of the Social Fund and its impact on
rural communities, it can only be deduced that women particularly benefited from the
activities. A possible indirect consequence of the emphasis on gender in the project
design is that 45 percent of the MSIF staff is women.
0 Taking Gender to a Broader Dimension
Women in rural regions often are at a disadvantage for active community involvement.
Both the demands on their time and imposed social norms limit their opportunities for
engagernent in public meetings. Social funds can open the possibility for women's
involvement by setting quotas that are conditional for subproject development. Although
quotas may not always be the best indicator for whether a social fund project has
successiully integrated gender, gender quotas, nevertheless, set a precedent and
communicate to a community that women's involvement does make a difference.
Two imLportant lessons can be drawn from the MSIF approach to women. First, the
project explicitly calls for the involvement of women. It identifies issues that are
important to women, including employment opportunities, improved childhood
educaticin, and improved childcare arrangements. The project though may have missed
an important opportunity to also involve men in the early childhood education efforts in
their community. At the same time the MSIF also reveals the problem of identifying
targeted groups in the project's objectives and not following up on these objectives with
a clear-cut monitoring and evaluation system. Neither the aide memoire nor the
40 Moldova Social Investment Fund Project Midtern Review Mission Aide Memoir,
Septenmber 10-21, 2001.
34



beneficiary assessment adequately addresses the objective of women's involvement in
the MSIF activities.
Good Practice Case 5:
Bridging the Gender Gap in Romania's Social Fund Project
Poverty in Romania is extensive with at least 30 percent of the population living below
the poverty line. The country also suffers from the legacy of communism, in which
extreme centralization of local and national governance has left a population that is
largely passive and reticent about decision-making, much less taking on leadership roles
in their local communities. Furthermore, the country offers few opportunities at this
point for civil society participation.
The Romanian Social Development Fund (RSDF) aims to improve the livelihood of
project beneficiaries and recipients in poor rural communities and among disadvantaged
groups, while increasing the local organization and self-help capacity of the community.
During project preparation, the RSDF noted the general lack of involvement of women
countrywide in ongoing community based projects and assessed ways in which to begin
intervening. Traditional notions of women designated to the domestic dimensions of
everyday life, and the communist legacy in which women had little real ability to make
an impact, has left a population with very little proclivity toward community
involvement. This has been compounded by the increasing household poverty leaving
women with little or no free time in which to participate in public activities.
Romanian Social Development Fund (RSDF)41
Project Appraisal: 23 December 1998
Project components: Poverty reduction; capacity building
Program cost: $41 million
Bank loan: $10 million
41 Project Appraisal Document, Romanian Social Development Fund Project, (1998). The World Bank, 23
December, Report No: 17379-RO.
35



* lTop-Down, Bottom-Up Approaches for Bridging the Gap
The Romania Social Development Fund (RSDF) recognized early on that the gender gap
was vast in community-based projects already underway in the country. The RSDF took
a top-down approach to gender and aimed the first gender mainstreaming workshops at
the sapervisors and evaluators of the Fund. Examining both the historical factors and the
impact of poverty on women's participation were key elements of the training
workshops.
A new gender component was introduced to the project in 2000, and over the course of
the next year, several gender mainstreaming workshops took place in Romania with the
evaluators and supervisors of the RSDF. Recognizing the gender gap in community
based projects already underway in Romania, the workshops were deemed necessary in
order to find culturally sensitive ways to stimulate and sustain the involvement of
women in all phases of the sub-project activities. The RSDF addressed the problem
through improving the training curricula and the operational manual, and providing
more information and ideas on how to bring women into the community project design
and implementation stages. The revised curricula and manual included a clearly stated
policy of equal opportunity for all, and explicitly spelled out the need to bring women
42
and minorities into all phases of the project.
The RSDF made important strides forward in integrating gender into their design
and implementation phases by:
. Introducing concepts on gender to the Government and providing training
workshops.
Conducting a thorough Social Assessment that addresses the needs of both
men and women.
. Being open to revising project components to better address the needs of
beneficiaries.
42 The policy states that: "To increase the participation level of the community members in making
decisions, including providing needed support for active involvement of rural women and minorities in
each stage of the facilitation process, and further implementation stage of the community project; and "To
promote equal opportunities principles in the community decision making process related to needs
identifical ion, prioritization of those needs according with the emergency degree and significance for the
communily, as well as, equal treatment in approaching those priorities that affect women and men's
lives."
36



One of the overall strengths of this social fund is the extensive social assessment studies
conducted on poor rural communities, disadvantage groups, and NGOs and CBOs in
Romania. The thorough understanding of the socio-cultural terrain gives this social fund
great advantage for promoting gender sensitive sub-projects.
Among the measures taken included revising the training curricula, as well as parts of
the Operational Manual in order to reflect the Balanced Gender Approach introduced at
the workshops. The new approach makes explicit the need to bring women into the
participation process at both the early stages of the facilitation process and also during
the implementation stage of the community project. For example, the facilitation guide
was revised so that the importance of equal opportunity and improved participation of
all community members, including women and minorities, were clearly spelled out.
* It's Never Too Late To Integrate Gender Practices
Ongoing monitoring and evaluation allows for improvements in the project, proving that
it is never too late to go back to the Operations Manual and revise procedures in order to
better facilitate the active participation of women in the project cycle. In addition, the
Romanian Social Fund brings into light the importance of social assessments, which lay
the foundation for appropriately integrating gender components into the social fund
design.
A comprehensive understanding of the country and community context is central to
developing practical approaches for engaging women in social fund subprojects. From
outreach to poor, rural women to integrating them into the scope of community problem
solving efforts, social funds that are tuned to the cultural and historic legacies of a
country have a much better chance of success than those that ignore such social impacts.
37



V. Next steps for the future
particular strength of social funds, and of Bank support to social funds is their
capaciy ifor innovation, flexibility and learningfrom experience. OED, p. 5343
The integration of gender-related analysis and awareness into social fund activities has
made some headway over the past decade. In addition to the numerous social funds that
have incorporated gender analysis into preparation and implementation stages, there is a
growtng recognition that better tools are needed for monitoring and evaluating the
impact of project on gender issues and how gender affects a project. This awareness is
reflected in one of the recommendations of the recent OED assessment of social funds is
the need for the Bank to identify measures for improving the monitoring of welfare
impacts, including gender effects.44
This attitude toward learning from our experience is not only a fruitful approach in
understanding the relevant concerns of gender in social funds, but it provides an
important platform from which to realize what is needed for the next round of
knowlecdge gathering. The following are three recommendations that if implemented
could expediently serve to guide the integration of gender into future social fund
projects.
Recommendation 1. Develop a Rapid Gender Analysis Checklist for social funds task
team leaders to quickly assess gender-related concerns during project preparation phase,
and devise ways to address them during project implementation.
Budget constraints represent one of the limiting factors as to why a gender analysis is
overloolced during project preparation. Gender analysis does not have to be a time or
budget intensive activity. Preparing a short checklist of gender concerns would be an
important improvement over not addressing gender at all, as it is far more effective to
recognize gender issues as a part of the blueprint for development than as an
afterthought. (See Annex 1 for checklist ideas.)
43 Social Eunds- Assessing Effectiveness, (2002). World Bank Operations Evaluation Department.
44 See page 55 of the OED report "Social Funds: Assessing Effectiveness", 2002
38



Recommendation 2. Create a Monitoring and Evaluation Checklist for a range of
gender-related concems that can be monitored from the inception of a project.
There are numerous practical and low-cost ways to monitor the involvement,
experiences, and perceptions of men and women in social funds subprojects, as well as
the impact of the subproject on men and women. Creating a gender disaggregated
baseline at the inception of the project that incorporates data on gender concems is a
good first step, and can be done through a Gender M & E checklist. In addition, such a
checklist could track changes through the project cycle on the various social
development factors, including literacy rates, poverty rates, school attendance rates, or
unemployment rates. More in depth approaches could be based on polling of attitudes
toward social funds subprojects; interviews and focus group discussions, and surveys.
(See Annex 2 for further ideas.)
Recommendation 3. Develop a short training module on gender and social funds aimed
at policy makers, country social funds staff, community leaders, extension services
personnel, and project trainers.
Working with the World Bank Institute (WBI), a short training module on Gender Issues
and Social Funds Projects could be developed that easily and at a low-cost could be
delivered in the project country. The training would introduce terminology, definitions,
and offer case studies. It also would include sub-modules from the recommendations
made above of a Rapid Gender Analysis Checklist, as well as a sub-module on how to
create monitoring and evaluation indicators during project preparation.
39



In summary, sometimes recommendations for gender integration into Bank projects are
aimed at the policy level, and often appear quite costly. Therefore, in the case of
integrating gender into social fund projects, a more modest approach initially is
recommended, one that is focused first on providing useful support to the task team
leader. Beginning with small steps, the social funds group can make a difference now.
These steps should be actions that every social fund project can straightforwardly
implemnent into their projects over a short period of time. Developing a series of learning
tools, including a gender checklist, a monitoring and evaluation checklist, and a training
module, could later be integrated into a more expansive project of designing a Gender
Toolkit for Social Funds. If each of these recommended activities could be incorporated
into the project cycle, the impact of gender awareness in social funds will be able to be
more accurately assessed. Then, from this vantage point, a more extensive and informed
set of recommendations can be made for the future.
40



VI. References
de Silva, Samantha (2002). Communities Taking the Lead: A Handbook on Direct
Financing of Community Subprojects. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Dollar, David, Raymond Fisman and Roberta Gatti (1999). Gender Inequality, income
and Growth: Are Good Times Goodfor Women? The World Bank Gender and
Development Working Paper Series, No. 1, May. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Fong, M., W. Wakeman, & A. Bhushan (1996). Toolkit on Gender in Water and
Sanitation: Gender Toolkit Series, No. 2. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Graham, Carol (1996). Gender Issues in Poverty Alleviation: Recent Experiences with
Demand-based Programs in Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe. Issues in
Development, Discussion Paper 11. Geneva: International Labor Office.
Gross, Alexandra and Samantha de Silva (2002). Social Fund Support of Microfinance:
A Review of Implementation Experience. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Gross, Bruce, Christine van Wijk and Nilanjana Mukherjee (2001). Linking
Sustainability with Demand, Gender and Poverty. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Holmes, Jennifer S. (2001). Terrorism and Democratic Stability. Manchester, England:
Manchester University Press.
Kuehnast, Kathleen (2003). "Poverty Shock: The Impact of Rapid Economic Change on
the Women of the Kyrgyz Republic," In N. Dudwick, E. Gomart, and A. Marc, eds.
with K. Kuehnast, When Things Fall Apart: The Study of Poverty in the Former Soviet
Union, 1993-1999. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Kuehnast, Kathleen (2002). "Ten reasons why youth inclusion efforts matter in the
Central Asian region," Concept paper for ECSSD, The World Bank.
Kuehnast, Kathleen (2001). "Dilemmas of Gender and Generation in Central Asia." In
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Woodrow Wilson Intermational Center for Scholars.
Mayoux, L. (1998). 'Gender accountability and NGOs: avoiding the black hole' in C.
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Development Institutions. London: ITDG.
Ndeti, Mwelu (2002). Engendering Participation: Assessment of the Malawi Social
Action Fund. Draft. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
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Rawlings, Laura Lynne Sherburne-Benz, and Julie Van Domelen (2001). Letting
Communities Take the Lead& A cross-country evaluation of socialfundperformance.
Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Razzaz, Susan (1999). 'Women's roles in Social Investment Funds.' An internal report
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Smith, Lisa C., and Lawrence Haddad (2000). Explaining Child Malnutrition in
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Timothy, Kristen (2002). The Millennium Development Goals: Gender
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Vandever Webb, A.K. (1997). Women's training and employment component in
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The World Bank (2002). Integrating Gender into the World Bank's Work: A strategyfor
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_ (2002). Social Analysis Sourcebook: Incorporating social dimensions into
Bank-supportedprojects. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
_   (2002). Social Funds: Assessing Effectiveness. World Bank Operations
Evaluation Department, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
_   (2002). The Gender Dimension of Bank Assistance: An Evaluation of
Results. The World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department.
(2001). Engendering Development-Through Gender Equality in Rights,
Resources, and Voice. The World Bank Policy Research Report.
A   (2001). Moldova Social Investment Fund Project Midterm Review Mission
Aide Memoir, September 10-21, 2001.
_   (2001) Beneficiary Impact Assessment of Moldova Social Investment Fund
Activity. ISIS "Opinia", May 2001.
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__     (1999). Project Appraisal Document, Moldova Social Investment Fund, 11
January.
42



(1999). Sectors & Issues for Gender Analysis Quick Reference Guide: Latin
America & The Caribbean Region, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
(1998). Project Appraisal Document, Romanian Social Development Fund
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(1998). Project Appraisal Document, Malawi Second Social Action Fund
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The World Bank.
(1996). Staff Appraisal Report, Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and
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43



Annex 1
Ways to Integrate Gender Into Social Assessment Tool*
Stakeholder Workshops
Provides an open forum to discuss and build consensus and ownership of the field
findings and recommendations and thus arrives at an agreement on the next steps. This
is a powerful tool for reaching a consensus when there are contradictions among the
infonnation gathered from different sources.
1. Incliude male and female population in the sample
2. Ensure that discussions address gender relations when asking the following
questions:
.  Whho are the target populations?
.  What are their interests in the project or policy?
.  What are the power differentials among the various categories of the target
population?
.  What relative influence do they have on operations?
.  Do recommendations address both equity and efficiency?
Focus (Group Discussion (FGD)
Facilitales open discussions to build consensus on the perceptions, attitudes, and views
of the primary stakeholders on the objective and strategy of the proposed project. It also
aims to ensure whether the proposed changes are acceptable to them.
. Use men and women facilitators.
.  Identify sample needs, priorities, and constraints of both male and female
populations.
. Perform additional exercises with men and women in separate groups.
. Schedule focus group meetings, paying attention to men and women's different work
schedules.
* Identify and address other constraints to women's participation, such as childcare,
domestic duties, distance, and cultural constraints.
Social Mapping Exercise
Provides a visual display of community members' perceptions of the physical dimension
of their community in social and economic terms. This could be carried out as part of a
Focus Crroup Discussion.
Use men and women facilitators.
Gather gender disaggregated data.
Perform additional exercises with men and women in separate groups.
Schedule exercises paying attention to work schedules of both men and women.
Identify perceptions for both men and women of the availability and access to
various services within the community.
44



Direct Observation
Allows an opportunity to perceive the existing situation in a selected locality.
Specifically, while in the field, the participant observer looks, listens, asks questions,
and documents detailed notes on his/her observations
. Use men and women participant observers.
. Ensure observations and analysis of existing situation provides a clear insight into
gender-based differences of all topics covered.
Desk Review
Gathers the existing documented information on the specific topic. This tool is very
relevant in getting background infornation on the specific topic. Specifically when
implementing Gender Analysis, this tool specifically aims to understand the extent of
gender disaggregated data available in the country.
. Identify availability of data disaggregated by gender.
. If yes, identify areas covered.
. Identify major gaps in the information.
. Gather gender disaggregated data.
Semi-structured Interviews
Provides a forum for one-to-one discussion in a relaxed atmosphere on specific topics
with direct beneficiaries and secondary informants. Specifically, it aims to provide an
opportunity for self-expression to the part of the population that is shy or otherwise
resistant to opening up in front of others.
* Include male and female population in the sample.
* Ensure men and women interviewers.
* Gather gender desegregated data.
* Interview men and women separately.
* Schedule interviews paying attention to men's and women's different work
schedules.
* Identify and address constraints to women's participation, such as childcare,
domestic duties, distance, and cultural constraints.
*The above table is developed from information provided in the following document:
Moser Caroline, Annika Tomqvist, and Bemice van Bronkhorst. 1997. Draft of
"Mainstreaming Gender into Social Assessments." Washington, DC: World Bank.
45



Annex 2
Gender Analysis by Sector: Questions to Consider45
Health Sector
What differences exist in the health risks faced by men and women? How do these
differ in terms of timing, severity, prevention, and treatment? What are the
imnplications in terms of health service delivery?
How do men and women experience the epidemiological transition differently?
What are the differing disease profiles for men and women at all stages of the life
cycle?
Does availability of and access to health services differ by gender?
Does gender-based streaming within the medical and allied health professions
affect male and female use of health services (e.g., patient preference to be treated
by same sex professionals)?
What are the gender differentiated effects of health care reform?
Within the family does gender affect health care and nutrition levels?
*  What are the reproductive health needs-family planning, prenatal care, STD
diagnosis and treatment, infertility, etc., -of men and women?
* What is the incidence of induced abortion? What are the characteristics of women
having abortions (age, socio-economic class, ethnicity, etc.)?
* What is the incidence of AIDS and STDs by sex and age, and what are the trends??
Educaltion Sector
* What gender differences exist in literacy rates, educational enrollment and
attainment, dropout and retention rates, and reasons for school dropout?
*   What are the implications of gender differences in terms of programs designed to
increase boys' and girls' educational achievement levels?
Do programs need to be tailored to the needs and circumstances of boys or girls?
Are gender stereotypes transmitted through teaching methods and materials?
How do differences in educational achievement affect labor market opportunities
for men and women?
*  Are there differences in the type and quality of informal and formal training
available to women and men?
* Does the household structure and income differentially affect boys' and girls'
school attainment?
Does the lack of child care differentially affect boys' and girls' school attendance?
Do changes in household earnings affect boys' and girls' schooling differently?
45 Information adapted from several sources, including Sectors & Issues for Gender Analysis (1999),
Quick Reference Guide: Latin America & The Caribbean Region, The World Bank.; M. Fong, W.
Wakeman, & A Bhushan, (1996). Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Gender Toolkit Series No.
2, The World Bank.; Managing the Social Dimensions of Transport- The Role of Social Assessment,
(1999 i The World Bank.
46



Poverty Work
* How does poverty affect women and men differently by type of household (e.g.,
single parent, dual parent, extended family households) and by urban or rural
residence?
* Do women and men control income separately in the household, and if so, how do
expenditure and resource allocation patterns vary by gender?
* In what ways do men and women contribute differently to poverty alleviation
efforts?
*  Does the gender of the recipient of social programs matter in terms o f how
resources are transferred through the household?
*  Do economic shocks affect women and men differently? (For example, do
economic fluctuations lead to increased violence, and if so, what are the gender-
differentiated effects as perpetrators and victims?
* Is movement in (or out) of poverty gender-specific?
*  What are the policy implication s of gender differences in poverty in terms of
services and social safety nets required by men and women?
Transportation Sector
What is the dominant form of transport for men and women in rural and urban
areas?
What percentage of the day is spent fetching water and collecting firewood by
women and by men?
* Are men or women responsible for carrying agricultural products to markets?
* Are men or women responsible for taking children to school?
* What are motorized accident rates for men and women?
* What are the non-motor accident rates for men and women?
•  Do women or men travel further for employment opportunities?
* Do women or men use public transportation more?
* What is the percentage of automobile ownership by men and women?
* What is the percentage of driver's licenses retained by men and women?
Micro-enterprise Activities
* What is the proportion of women and men who are self-employed or operate micro-
enterprises?
*  What are the different reasons men and women choose self-employment over wage work?
*  How do men's and women's participation differ in terms of scale, sector of operation,
earnings and risk aversion?
• Do gender differences exist in terms of availability and use of credit, and the type of credit
used by women and men and interest rates? What accounts for these differences?
• How do the characteristics of men's and women's micro-enterprises vary by rural and
urban location?
* What is the prevalence of boys and girls working in parent's micro-enterprise a s means of
supplementing family income?
47



Water and Sanitation Sector
.  What are the different roles that men and women play when it comes to household
water needs?
.  What percentage of a woman's or man's day is spent carrying water or tending to
washing clothes?
. Do women and men have equal say in community decisions about water usage?
. Who has the responsibility for the overall hygiene of household members?
. Who has the responsibility of repairing pipes or pumps?
. Who maintains the water or irrigation systems in the community?
. Do both men and women involved in water users associations?
. Do men or women experience more water-carrying diseases?
48



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles
No.       Title
0309      Gender and Social Funds: Challenges and Opportunities
By Kathleen Kuehnast
0308      Waivers and Exemptions for Health Services in Developing Countries
Ricardo Bitran and Ursula Giedion
0307      Ageing and Pensions in the Euro Area Survey and Projection Results
by P. C. Rother, M. Catenaro and G. Schwab
0306      Safety Nets in Transition Economies: A Primer
by Louise Fox
0305      Child Work: An Expository Framework of Altruistic and Non-Altruistic
Models
by Furio Camillo Rosati and Zafiris Tzannatos
0304      Pension Reform in Croatia
by Zoran Anusic, Philip O'Keefe, and Sanja Madzarevic-Sujster
0303      Joblessness and Precarious Work in Bulgaria: Addressing the Multiple
Aspects of Vulnerability in the Labour Market
by Alexandre Kolev
0302      Systemic Shocks and Social Protection: Role and Effectiveness of Public
Works Programs
by Kalanidhi Subbarao
0301      What Role for Safety Net Transfers in Very Low Income Countries?
by W. James Smith and Kalanidhi Subbarao
0233      Public Attitudes Matter: A Conceptual Frame for Accounting for Political
Economy in Safety Nets and Social Assistance Policies
by Carol Graham
0232      Ensuring Access to Essential Services: Demand-Side Housing Subsidies
by Harold M. Katsura and Clare T. Romanik
0231      Gender and Risk in the Design of Social Protection Interventions
by Kene Ezemenari, Nazmul Chaudhury, and Janet Owens
0230      Vulnerability and Poverty Measurement Issues for Public Policy
by Jean-Yves Duclos



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0229      Emerging from Ethnic Conflict: Challenges for Social Protection Design in
Transition Countries
by Christian Bodewig
0228      Child Work in Zambia: A Comparative Study of Survey Instruments
by Niels-Hugo Blunch, Amit Dar, Lorenzo Guarcello, Scott Lyon, Amy
Ritualo and Furio Rosati
0227      Strengthening Public Safety Nets from the Bottom Up
by Jonathan Morduch and Manohar Sharma
0226      Incentives and the Role of Institutions in Provision of Social Safety Nets
by Chris de Neubourg
0225      Food-Based Safety Nets and Related Programs
by Beatrice Lorge Rogers, Ph.D. and Jennifer Coates, M.S.
0224      Subsidies as a Social Safety Net: Effectiveness and Challenges
by Harold Alderman
0223      Assisting the Poor with Cash: Design and Implementation of Social Transfer
Programs
by Steven R. Tabor
0222      Effectiveness of Lending for Vocational Education and Training: Lessons
from World Bank Experience
by S. Canagarajah, A. Dar, R. Nording and D. Raju
0221      Participation of Children in Schooling and Labor Activities: A Review of
Empirical Studies
by Amit Dar, Niels-Hugo Blunch, Bona Kim and Masaru Sasaki
0220      The World Bank and Children: A Review of Activities
by Iqbal Kaur and Zafiris Tzannatos
0219      Managing Public Pension Reserves Part II: Lessons from Five Recent OECD
Initiatives
by Robert Palacios
0218      Guidelines for Assessing the Sources of Risk and Vulnerability
by Karin Heitzmann, R. Sudharshan Canagarajah and Paul B. Siegel



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0217      Czech Pension System: Challenges and Reform Options
by Esperanza Lasagabaster, Roberto Rocha and Patrick Wiese
0216      Extending Social Protection to Informal Workers in the Horticulture Global
Value Chain
by Armando Barrientos and Stephanie Ware Barrientos
0215      Social Fund Support of Microfinance: A Review of Implementation
Experience
by Alexandra Gross and Samantha de Silva
0214     Income Support Systems for the Unemployed: Issues and Options
by Milan Vodopivec and Dhushyanth Raju
0213      Social Protection ( Your Fingertips. Using Information & Communications
Technologies in Social Protection
by Knut Leipold
0212      Short-and Long-term Impacts of Economic Policies on Child Labor and
Schooling in Ghana
by Niels-Hugo Blunch, Sudharshan Canagarajah and Sangeeta Goyal
0211      Supporting and Expanding Community-Based HIV/AIDS Prevention and
Care Responses: A Report on Save the Children (US) Malawi COPE Project
by Susan S. Hunter
0210      World Vision's Experience Working with HIV/AIDS Orphans in Uganda -
1990-1995
by Joe Muwonge
0209      The Reformed Pension Systems in Latin America
by Jose E. Devesa-Carpio and Carlos Vidal-Melia
0208      Mandatory Annuity Design in Developing Economies
by Suzanne Doyle and John Piggott
0207      Long-Term Welfare and Investment Impact of AIDS-Related Changes in
Family Composition: Evidence from Uganda
by Klaus Deininger, Anja Crommelynck and Gloria Kempaka
0206      Child Labor Handbook
by Alessandro Cigno, Furio C. Rosati and Zafiris Tzannatos



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0205      An Overview of Labor Markets World-Wide: Key Trends and Major Policy
Issues
by Gordon Betcherman
0204      Options of Public Income Support for the Unemployed in the Philippines and
Social Protection
by Jude H. Esguerra, Makoto Ogawa, and Milan Vodopivec
0203      Unemployment Insurance and Unemployment Assistance: A Comparison
by Wayne Vroman
0202      Does Eurosclerosis Matter? Institutional Reform and Labor Market
Performance in Central and Eastern European Countries in the 1990s.
by Michelle Riboud, Carolina Sanchez-Paramo and Carlos Silva-Jauregui
0201      Pension Reform and Capital Markets: Are There Any (Hard) Links?
by Eduardo Walker and Fernando Lefort
0131      Child Labor, Nutrition and Education in Rural India: An Economic Analysis
of Parental Choice and Policy Options
by Alessandro Cigno, Furio Camillo Rosati and Zafiris Tzannatos
0130      Social Protection and the Informal Sector in Developing Countries:
Challenges and Opportunities
by Sudharshan Canagarajah and S.V. Sethuraman
0129      Chile's Pension Reform After 20 Years
by Rodrigo Acunia R. and Augusto Iglesias P.
0128      Labor Market Regulation: International Experience in Promoting
Employment and Social Protection
by Gordon Betcherman, Amy Luinstra, and Makoto Ogawa
0127      Generational Accounting and Hungarian Pension Reform
by R6bert I. Gal, Andras Simonovits and Geza Tarcali
0126      Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children: What role for social protection?
edited by Anthony Levine
0125      Child Farm Labour: The Wealth Paradox
by Sonia Bhalotra and Christopher Heady



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0124      What Can Be Done about Child Labor? An Overview of Recent Research
and Its Implications for Designing Programs to Reduce Child Labor
by Bj0rne Grimsrud
0123      Measuring and Analyzing Child Labor: Methodological Issues
by Bj0me Grimsrud
0122      Family-Controlled Child Labor in Sub-Saharan Africa-A Survey of Research
by Jens Christopher Andvig
0121      Is Child Work Necessary?
by Sonia Bhalotra
0120      The Cost and Benefits of Collective Bargaining: A Survey
by Toke Aidt and Zafiris Tzannatos
0119      The Informal Sector Revisited: A Synthesis Across Space and Time
by Niels-Hugo Blunch, Sudharshan Canagarajah and Dhushyanth Raju
0118      Social Services Delivery through Community-Based Projects
by Dinah McLeod and Maurizia Tovo (available in Spanish)
0117      Eamings Inequality in Transition Economies of Central Europe Trends and
Patterns During the 1990s
by Jan J. Rutkowski
0116      Viewing Microinsurance as a Social Risk Management Instrument
by Paul B. Siegel, Jeffrey Alwang and Sudharshan Canagarajah
0115      Vulnerability: A View from Different Disciplines
by Jeffrey Alwang, Paul B. Siegel and Steen L. Jorgensen
0114      Individual Accounts as Social Insurance: A World Bank Perspective
by Robert Holzmann and Robert Palacios
0113      Regulating Private Pension Funds' Structure, Performance and Investments:
Cross-country Evidence
by P.S. Srinivas, Edward Whitehouse and Juan Yermo
0112      The World Bank and the Provision of Assistance to Redundant Workers:
Experience with Enterprise Restructuring and Future Directions
by Yi Chen



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0111      Labor Markets in Transition Economies: Recent Developments and Future
Challenges
by Mansoora Rashid and Jan Rutkowski
0110      Operating Instruction Included: A Review of Social Investment Fund
Operations Manuals
by Juliana Weissman
0109      Risk and Vulnerability: The Forward Looking Role of Social Protection in a
Globalizing World
by Robert Holzmann
0108      Australia's Mandatory Retirement Saving Policy: A View from the New
Millennium
by Hazel Bateman and John Piggott
0107      Annuity Markets and Benefit Design in Multipillar Pension Schemes:
Experience and Lessons from Four Latin American Countries
by Robert Palacios and Rafael Rofman
0106      Guide for Task Teams on Procurement Procedures Used in Social Funds
by Jorge A. Cavero Uriona
0105      Programmes Actifs Pour Le Marche Du Travail: Un Aper,u General Des
Evidences Resultant Des Evaluations
by Zafiris Tzannatos and Amit Dar
0104      Kazakhstan: An Ambitious Pension Reform
by Emily S. Andrews
0103      Long-term Consequences of an Innovative Redundancy-retraining Project:
The Austrian Steel Foundation
by Rudolf Winter-Ebmer
0102      Community Based Targeting Mechanisms for Social Safety Nets
by Jonathan Conning and Michael Kevane (available in Spanish)
0101      Disability and Work in Poland
by Tom Hoopengardner
0024      Do Market Wages Influence Child Labor and Child Schooling?
by Jackline Wahba



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0023     Including the Most Vulnerable: Social Funds and People with Disabilities
by Pamela Dudzik and Dinah McLeod
0022      Promoting Good Local Governance through Social Funds and
Decentralization
by Andrew Parker and Rodrigo Serrano
0021      Creating Partnerships with Working Children and Youth
by Per Miljeteig
0020      Contractual Savings or Stock Market Development. Which Leads?
by Mario Catalan, Gregorio Impavido and Alberto R. Musalem
0019      Pension Reform and Public Information in Poland
by Agnieszka Chlon
0018      Worker Reallocation During Estonia's Transition to Market: How Efficient
and How Equitable?
by Milan Vodopivec
0017      How Poor are the Old? A Survey of Evidence from 44 Countries
by Edward Whitehouse
0016      Administrative Charges for Funded Pensions: An International Comparison
and Assessment
by Edward Whitehouse
0015      The Pension System in Argentina: Six years after the Reform
by Rafael Rofman
0014      Pension Systems in East Asia and the Pacific: Challenges and Opportunities
by Robert Holzmann, Ian W. Mac Arthur and Yvonne Sin
0013      Survey of Disability Projects. The Experience of SHIA, Swedish
International Aid for Solidarity and Humanity
by Kaj Nordquist
0012      The Swedish Pension Reform Model: Framework and Issues
by Edward Palmer
0011      Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for continuous Improvement in the
Global Workplace
by Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke and Archon Fung



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
0010      Can Investments in Emerging Markets Help to Solve the Aging problem?
by Robert Holzmann
0009      International Patterns of Pension Provision
by Robert Palacios and Montserrat Pallares-Miralles
0008      Regulation of Withdrawals in Individual Account Systems
by Jan Walliser
0007      Disability Issues, Trends and Recommendations for the World Bank
by Robert L. Metts
0006      Social Risk Management: A New Conceptual Framework for Social
Protection and Beyond
by Robert Holzmann and Steen J0rgensen
0005      Active Labor Market Programs: Policy Issues for East Asia
by Gordon Betcherman, Amit Dar, Amy Luinstra, and Makoto Ogawa
0004      Pension Reform, Financial Literacy and Public Information: A Case Study of
the United Kingdom
by Edward Whitehouse
0003      Managing Public Pension Reserves Part I: Evidence from the International
Experience
by Augusto Iglesias and Robert J. Palacios
0002      Extending Coverage in Multi-Pillar Pension Systems: Constraints and
Hypotheses, Preliminary Evidence and Future Research Agenda
by Robert Holzmann, Truman Packard and Jose Cuesta
0001      Contribution pour une Strategie de Protection Sociale au Benin
by Maurizia Tovo and Regina Bendokat
* The papers below (No. 9801-9818 and 9901-9934) are no longer being printed, but are
available for download from our website at www.worldbank.org/sp
9934      Helping the Poor Manage Risk Better: The Role of Social Funds
by Steen J0rgensen and Julie Van Domelen



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
9933      Coordinating Poverty Alleviation Programs with Regional and Local
Governrments: The Experience of the Chilean Social Fund - FOSIS
by Jorge C. Barrientos
9932      Poverty and Disability: A Survey of the Literature
by Ann Elwan
9931      Uncertainty About Children's Survival and Fertility: A Test Using Indian
Microdata
by Vincenzo Atella and Furio Camillo Rosati
9930      Beneficiary Assessment Manual for Social Funds
by Lawrence F. Salmen
9929      Improving the Regulation and Supervision of Pension Funds: Are There
Lessons from the Banking Sector?
by Roberto Rocha, Richard Hinz, and Joaquin Gutierrez
9928      Notional Accounts as a Pension Reform Strategy: An Evaluation
By Richard Disney
9927      Reform Options for Pay-As-You-Go Public Pension Systems
by Sheetal K. Chand and Albert Jaeger
9926      An Asset-Based Approach to Social Risk Management: A Conceptual
Framework
by Paul Siegel and Jeffrey Alwang
9925      Migration from the Russian North During the Transition Period
by Timothy Heleniak
9924      Pension Plans and Retirement Incentives
by Richard Disney and Edward Whitehouse
9923      Shaping Pension Reform in Poland: Security Through Diversity
by Agnieszka Chlon, Marek G6ra and Michal Rutkowski
9922      Latvian Pension Reform
by Louise Fox and Edward Palmer
9921      OECD Public Pension Programmes in Crisis: An Evaluation of the Reform
Options
by Richard Disney



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
9920      A Social Protection Strategy for Togo
by Regina Bendokat and Maurizia Tovo
9919      The Pension System in Singapore
by Mukul G. Asher
9918      Labor Markets and Poverty in Bulgaria
by Jan J. Rutkowski
9917      Taking Stock of Pension Reforms Around the World
by Anita M. Schwarz and Asli Demirguc-Kunt
9916      Child Labor and Schooling in Africa: A Comparative Study
by Sudharshan Canagarajah and Helena Skyt Nielsen
9915      Evaluating the Impact of Active Labor Programs: Results of Cross Country
Studies in Europe and Central Asia
by David H. Fretwell, Jacob Benus, and Christopher J. O'Leary
9914      Safety Nets in Transition Economies: Toward a Reform Strategy
by Emily S. Andrews and Dena Ringold
9913      Public Service Employment: A Review of Programs in Selected OECD
Countries and Transition Economies
by Sandra Wilson and David Fretwell
9912      The Role of NPOs in Policies to Combat Social Exclusion
by Christoph Badelt
9911      Unemployment and Unemployment Protection in Three Groups of Countries
by Wayne Vroman
9910      The Tax Treatment of Funded Pensions
by Edward Whitehouse
9909      Russia's Social Protection Malaise: Key Reform Priorities as a Response to
the Present Crisis
edited by Michal Rutkowski
9908      Causalities Between Social Capital and Social Funds
by Jesper Kammersgaard



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
9907      Collecting and Transferring Pension Contributions
by Rafael Rofman and Gustavo Demarco
9906      Optimal Unemployment Insurance: A Guide to the Literature
by Edi Karni
9905      The Effects of Legislative Change on Female Labour Supply: Marriage and
Divorce, Child and Spousal Support, Property Division and Pension Splitting
by Antony Dnes
9904      Social Protection as Social Risk Management: Conceptual Underpinnings for
the Social Protection Sector Strategy Paper
by Robert Holzmann and Steen Jorgensen (available in Russian)
9903      A Bundle of Joy or an Expensive Luxury: A Comparative Analysis of the
Economic Environment for Family Formation in Western Europe
by Pierella Paci
9902      World Bank Lending for Labor Markets: 1991 to 1998
by Amit Dar and Zafiris Tzannatos
9901      Active Labor Market Programs: A Review of the Evidence from Evaluations
by Amit Dar and Zafiris Tzannatos
9818      Child Labor and School Enrollment in Thailand in the 1990s
By Zafiris Tzannatos
9817      Supervising Mandatory Funded Pension Systems: Issues and Challenges
by Gustavo Demarco and Rafael Rofman
9816      Getting an Earful: A Review of Beneficiary Assessments of Social Funds
by Daniel Owen and Julie Van Domelen
994-8-    This paper has been revised, see Discussion Paper No. 9923
9814      Family Allowances
by Suzanne Roddis and Zafiris Tzannatos
9813      Unemployment Benefits
by Zafiris Tzannatos and Suzanne Roddis
9812      The Role of Choice in the Transition to a Funded Pension System
by Robert Palacios and Edward Whitehouse



Social Protection Discussion Paper Series Titles continued
No.       Title
9811      An Alternative Technical Education System: A Case Study of Mexico
by Kye Woo Lee
9810      Pension Reform in Britain
by Edward Whitehouse
9809      Financing the Transition to Multipillar
by Robert Holzmann
9808      Women and Labor Market Changes in the Global Economy: Growth Helps,
Inequalities Hurt and Public Policy Matters
by Zafiris Tzannatos
9807      The World Bank Approach to Pension Reform
by Robert Holzmann
9806      Government Guarantees on Pension Fund Returns
by George Pennacchi
9805      The Hungarian Pension System in Transition
by Robert Palacios and Roberto Rocha
9804      Risks in Pensions and Annuities: Efficient Designs
by Salvador Valdes-Prieto
9803      Building an Environment for Pension Reform in Developing Countries
by Olivia S. Mitchell
9802      Export Processing Zones: A Review in Need of Update
by Takayoshi Kusago and Zafiris Tzannatos
9801      World Bank Lending for Labor Markets: 1991 to 1996
by Amit Dar and Zafiris Tzannatos






Summary Findings
This report examines the various challenges and opportunities of
mainstreaming gender issues in social fund projects and offers five
good practice examples of gender integration in social fund projects
in Ethiopia, Honduras, Malawi, Moldova, and Romania Each case
study takes gender into consideration during the preparation and
Implementation stages and discusses good design practices and
project results. In addition, the report offers a set of working
guidelines on integrating gender in social fund projects or
subprojects. Based on the good practice examples of the case
studies, the Report presents recommendations for next steps for
integrating gender concerns into social fund practices.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT NETWORK
A4bout this series...
Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They present preliminary and unpolished
iesults of analysis that are circulated to encourage discussion and comment; citation and the use of such
a paper should take account of its provisional character. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions
expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to
the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the
countries they represent. For free copies of this paper, please contact the Social Protection Advisory Service,
The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Room G8-138, Washington, D.C. 20433-0001 USA. Telephone:
%202) 458-5267, Fax: (202) 614-0471, E-mail: socialprotection@worldbank.org or visit the Social Protection
website at www.worldbank.org/sp.