83232 World Bank International Trade Department Gender Dimensions of Trade Facilitation and Logistics A Guidance Note KATE HIGGINS April 2012 GENDER DIMENSIONS OF TRADE FACILITATION AND LOGISTICS A Guidance Note Kate Higgins April 2012 Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................1 1.1. Objective and structure of guidance note ............................................................ 1 2. The gendered structure of the economy ..........................................................................4 2.1. The multiple roles women play in the economy .................................................. 4 2.2. Gender, women and trade.................................................................................... 5 3. Understanding the gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics ...........................8 3.1. Trade facilitation and logistics .............................................................................. 8 3.2. Gender and trade facilitation and logistics ........................................................... 8 4. Integrating a gender dimension into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives ................ 16 4.1. Initiatives on trade facilitation and logistics and gender: selected examples .... 16 4.2. Initiatives on trade facilitation and logistics and gender: selected case studies 18 5. Operationalizing the gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics at the World Bank .................................................................................................................................... 21 5.1. Overview of trade facilitation and logistics at the World Bank .......................... 21 5.2. Trade facilitation, logistics and gender at the World Bank ................................ 22 5.3. Practical advice on integrating gender dimensions into World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects .................................................................................. 31 5.4. Integrating gender dimensions into the Trade Facilitation Facility (TFF) ........... 40 6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 42 7. References .................................................................................................................... 43 iii iii Foreword As highlighted in the World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development, gender equality matters as an instrument for development. In trade related interventions, taking gender equality into account not only spurs country competitiveness, but also helps obtain better outcomes. Often times, however, it can be difficult for practitioners to understand how to incorporate gender into their trade work. There is in fact a disconnect between existing gender and trade literature and the types of trade interventions that are becoming increasingly important in the World Bank portfolio. The majority of the literature has focused on how trade liberalization policies—usually measured by tariffs or openness to trade—relate to achieving gender equality. While trade liberalization and managing exposure to the global environment are still key areas for support, there is only limited literature that looks at newer, rapidly expanding trade interventions: trade facilitation initiatives and trade competitiveness interventions that touch several dimensions of trade not strictly linked to tariffs. The World Bank’s International Trade Department and the Gender and Development Unit in the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management network are collaborating to produce guidance notes in order to help people working in the field identify and assess the gender dimensions of trade projects. These resources will be of particular interest to practitioners working on trade facilitation, trade policy, and trade competitiveness projects. The first guidance note discusses why gender matters for trade facilitation. It gives examples of projects that have integrated the gender dimension and what that has meant for project outcomes. In addition, the note provides practical advice and templates on how gender can be better integrated into these types of projects. Some of the key suggestions emerging from the guidance note—such as the use of gender disaggregated data—are valid for many types of projects. Other suggestions, however, are more specific to trade facilitation projects. The establishment of mechanisms to support cooperation amongst female traders in pooling goods and accessing better and cheaper logistics services serves as one such example. In this respect, this guidance note provides concrete suggestions for integrating gender dimensions into these projects without cumbersome procedures and/or resource-intensive changes to typical trade facilitation projects. This note was prepared by Kate Higgins, Theme Leader of the Governance for Equitable Growth Program at The North-South Institute in Ottawa, Canada and is part of a trade and gender initiative led by José Guilherme Reis (PRMTR) and Elisa Gamberoni (PRMGE). Cornelia Staritz (PRMTR) provided support from the beginning of the project. The note benefited from many detailed comments from colleagues in the trade facilitation and logistics pillar of the Trade Department, especially Charles Kunaka, Tadatsugu Matsudaira and Nina Inamahoro; from peer reviewers Sevi Simavi (IFC) and Stephanie Seguino (Economics Department, University of Vermont); and from discussants at a January 2012 Brown Bag Lunch event– Julie Babinard (Transport) and Paul Brenton (Africa region). Many colleagues from the Bank’s regional departments also contributed with comments and suggestions, among them Nora Dihel and Barbara Rippel (Africa region) and Mombert Hoppe (PRMVP). Overall guidance was provided by Mona Haddad and Pierella Paci, sector managers of the Trade and Gender departments, respectively. v v 1. Introduction Economic growth plays a central role in poverty reduction and, on the whole, countries that have made trade and exports a key part of their development strategy have grown at a faster rate than those that have not. But a critical challenge for many developing countries is reaping the full benefits that international trade offers. Obstacles exist, for example poor infrastructure and cumbersome border processes, which limit the gains that can be accrued through trade at the country level. In addition, there are economic, social, cultural and geographic factors that limit groups within countries from accessing and benefiting from existing and new international trade opportunities. Gender, defined as the social, behavioral, and cultural attributes, expectations and norms associated with being a woman or a man (World Bank 2011: 4), is one such factor. As with most economic policies, trade-related policies have gender-differentiated effects. In some cases, trade has been a catalyst for gender equality, with trade liberalization associated with rising employment and business opportunities for women. But it can also exacerbate existing gender inequalities and worsen women’s economic and social status.1 In addition, and critically, gender inequality can constrain a country’s trade expansion and hinder a country’s competitiveness. To support trade expansion and competitiveness, as well as gender equality, trade policies and initiatives should take gender-related constraints and effects into account. Failing to do so will not only have implications for improvements in gender equality, but also for the productivity and growth potential of the economy. 1.1. Objective and structure of guidance note The World Bank recognizes the importance of gender equality for growth and poverty reduction. Integrating Gender into the World Bank’s Work: A Strategy for Action was published in 2002, and called for strategic and selective integration of gender issues into World Bank projects (World Bank, 2002). More recent efforts have been spearheaded by Gender Equality as Smart Economics, a four-year plan for investing in improvements to women’s access to jobs, land rights, financial services, agricultural inputs and infrastructure (World Bank, 2006). In 2011, Applying Gender Action Plan (GAP) Lessons: A Three-Year Road Map for Gender Mainstreaming (2011-2013) was launched. It identifies key lessons from the implementation of the GAP and sets out a proposal to improve performance on gender and development, particularly in the economic sectors. Most recently, the 2012 World Development Report, Gender Equality and Development, provides a global update on the status of gender equality, a framework to analyze it, and a global agenda for action. In parallel, the World Bank presented to the Development Committee, in September 2011, the paper ‘Enhancing Attentions to Gender and Development in the World 1 There is an extensive literature on the gender impacts of trade liberalization. See for example Bussolo and De Hoyos (2009), Fontana (2009) and Tran-Nguyen and Beviglia Zampetti (2004). As Fontana (2009: 25-26) notes, there has been increased interest in the gender effects of trade policies, but sound empirical evidence is sparse, with analyses limited by the absence of gender-differentiated data and the difficulty in disentangling the effects of trade liberalization from those of other simultaneous changes. 1 1 Bank Group: Implications of the WDR 2012 on Gender Equality and Opportunity’. This paper highlights priority sectors, suggests how to replicate and bring to scale successful efforts in knowledge, lending and data, discusses how to build knowledge and expertise in new areas, and outlines how to raise awareness and stimulate demand for gender mainstreamed activities. Trade integration features among the areas where additional research is needed to identify drivers for women’s economic empowerment and where lack of capacity, in terms of inadequate knowledge, tools, and data to diagnose problems, identify areas for intervention, and translate policy into operations, is still pervasive. In line with this, and in response to growing interest at the World Bank, its clients and across donors and other stakeholders, the World Bank’s International Trade Department (PRMTR), together with the Gender and Development Unit (PRMGE), has initiated a trade and gender agenda. As part of this, the World Bank commissioned this guidance note. Additional work will look at the gender dimensions of trade policy and integration and export competitiveness. The objective of this trade and gender agenda is to support gendered analysis, diagnostics, technical assistance and lending operations by integrating gender dimensions into the development, implementation and evaluation of World Bank trade initiatives. This guidance note focuses on trade facilitation and logistics initiatives, which typically seek to improve customs and border management, trade infrastructure, port efficiency, transport security, logistics and transport services, regional trade corridors and transit and multimodal transport. The guidance note demonstrates why gender matters for trade facilitation and logistics and how gender dimensions can be integrated into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives. The ultimate objective of the note is to support World Bank staff to enhance the effectiveness of the World Banks’s trade-related work by integrating a gender perspective into trade-related policy dialogue, and the design, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of trade facilitation and logistics initiatives. The geographic focus of the guidance note is sub-Saharan Africa, because this is where most of the World Bank’s trade facilitation and logistics policy dialogue and projects take place. The advice provided largely focuses on small-scale female traders. This is due to the considerable trading constraints they face as women, and the poverty reduction impact that ameliorating these constraints could have. The key audience for this guidance note is World Bank staff. The note should also be of use to staff involved in trade-related initiatives in government ministries, other donor agencies and civil society organizations. The guidance note is structured as follows:  Section 2 briefly outlines the gendered structure of the economy and why gender considerations should be taken into account in the context of trade.  Section 3 outlines the scope of trade facilitation and logistics and the gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics.  Section 4 discusses a selected number of trade facilitation and logistics initiatives that take gender into account, exploring three initiatives in more detail.  Section 5 focuses on the work of the World Bank and provides practical advice on how 2 2 to integrate gender dimensions into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives. Specifically, the section: o Examines three existing World Bank trade facilitation and logistics initiatives and recommends how gender dimensions could be better integrated. o Provides practical, actionable guidance on how gender could be integrated into World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects. This guidance covers the diagnostic process, stakeholder engagement, strategies for responding to gender-intensified constraints and monitoring and evaluation indicators that can be used to track progress. o Recommends how the World Bank’s Trade Facilitation Facility (TFF) could better respond to gender issues.  Section 6 concludes. 3 3 2. The gendered structure of the economy 2.1. The multiple roles women play in the economy2 Women in developing countries are massively and increasingly involved in the market economy. Despite this increased involvement, significant gender disparities remain. Typically, women face gender-intensified constraints in the multiple roles they play in the economy – as producers, workers, traders, home managers, tax payers and users of public services. This limits the opportunities and benefits that women can gain from economic activities and imposes significant development costs on economies and societies (Simavi et al, 2010: 1).3 Box 1 highlights these multiple roles and challenges. Box 1: Women and the economy – multiple roles and challenges Women as producers and workers  Women tend to be concentrated in a few sectors in developing countries – typically food production in agriculture, apparel and domestic services. In contrast, men are more evenly distributed across a larger range of occupations and productive activities.  Women are more likely than men to be found in precarious forms of work.  Women typically face greater disadvantage than men in responding to new economic incentives, because their time is more constrained and their access to productive resources (for example, land and credit) is restricted.  Women tend to have limited access to skills, which limits their upward mobility for employment opportunities related to trade. Women as traders  Time constraints often prevent women from traveling long distances to reach markets that offer better prices and fairer conditions.  Women face cultural biases when it comes to appropriate modes of transportation. Many women travel on foot and carry head loads, and their control over even simple transportation advances such as draft animals, bicycles and carts is limited.  Women typically face greater levels of harassment by market or trade officials and as a result, are often paid too little for what they sell and pay too much for what they buy. Women as home managers  Tasks which are critical to the productivity of the labor force and the well-being of the population, such as food preparation, water and fuel collection, housework and child care, fall disproportionately 4 on women’s shoulders.  The burden of unpaid work is particularly heavy for rural women in remote areas, mainly because of poor physical infrastructure, which is likely to undermine the capacity of women to contribute to paid 2 Section 2.1 draws on inputs made by Dr. Marzia Fontana, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Sussex, United Kingdom. 3 UNCTAD (2009: 6) note that these problems are often more prevalent in developing countries for at least two reasons: i) differences between genders are often higher in developing countries; and ii) developing countries generally lack efficient government institutions, compensative policies and safety nets which may make trade-related adjustments swifter and easier. 4 See World Bank (2011: 19) for a breakdown of the difference in time women and men spend on care and housework. 4 4 productive activities and increases the probability that they will be involved in informal low-returns forms of employment.  Due to the roles that women play in the household, economic shocks resulting in changes in the relative price of necessities are therefore likely to have a different impact on female and male 5 household members. 6 Women as tax payers and users of public services  Women and men are likely to be affected differently by fiscal reforms because of their different economic roles and responsibilities. For example, a VAT on basic consumption goods may impact more directly on women in their responsibility as primary household caregivers.  A reduction in government revenue is likely to have gender-specific effects if it leads cuts to public services that disproportionately benefit women. Gender responsive budgeting initiatives can be a useful tool both for gathering information on gender patterns of public services use and for ensuring that social sector spending is especially oriented towards promoting gender equality. 2.2. Gender, women and trade 2.2.1. Why does the gender gap matter? The 2012 World Development Report, Gender Equality and Development (World Bank, 2011: 3), states that gender inequality matters for two reasons: First, gender inequality matters intrinsically, because the ability to live the life of one’s own choosing and be spared from absolute deprivation is a basic human right and should be equal for everyone, independent of whether one is male or female. Second, gender equality matters instrumentally, because greater equality contributes to economic efficiency and the achievement of other key development outcomes. Jones (2007: 3-9) makes similar points in relation to the gender gap in trade. Specifically, she argues that there are at least three reasons why gender inequality in trade needs to be addressed:  The business case: Removing the internal impediments to trade faced by women and proactively promoting the participation of women in exporting, will boost exports.  The development case: Increased entrepreneurship and labor force participation by women leads to income generation, employment, improved social status of women in the home and society, wealth creation and slower population growth.7 In addition, evidence shows that increases in women’s income tend to correlate with greater expenditure of children and family welfare, unlike similar increases in the income of men. 5 Misleadingly, many datasets, and policies based on these, continue to treat households as homogenous units made up of people with the same preferences and same decision-making power. This is however not the case, and power asymmetries in households are often along gender lines. More systematic documentation of intra-household resource allocation would significantly improve the ability of policy-makers to design policies that take these dynamics into account. 6 For more on women and taxation see Grown and Valodia (2010). 7 For example, a UNIFEM study of 2000 women involved in informal cross border traders in 2007-2009 in Cameroon, Liberia, Mali, Swaziland, Tanzania and Zimbabwe found that for a great majority, proceeds from their trading activities was the main source of income for their family. Women traders use their income to buy food and other items for the household, pay school fees, health care services and rent, save and reinvest in their businesses (UNIFEM, 2010: 2). 5 5  The human rights case: Governments have made a commitment to protecting and promoting internationally agreed principles that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. The business, development and human rights cases highlight why trade policies, programs and projects should take gender issues into account. Steps must be taken to minimize the negative impact of trade and export policies on women. But efforts need to go beyond this to ensure female traders, producers, entrepreneurs and workers reap the same benefits from trade improvements as their male counterparts (Simavi et al, 2010: 131-132). For compelling equity and economic reasons, policy makers and experts working in this field need to consider how the participation of women in trade can be promoted. 2.2.2. What should be done? The gender gap in trade suggests that gender analysis and gender mainstreaming should be applied to trade policies, programs and projects. Box 2 outlines these concepts. Box 2: Key gender concepts Gender: The social, behavioral, and cultural attributes, expectations and norms associated with being a woman or a man. Gender analysis: The systematic gathering and examination of information on gender differences and social relations in order to identify, understand and redress inequities based on gender. Gender mainstreaming: A strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and social spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. Sources: World Bank, 2011: 4; World Bank, 2002: 2; Reeves and Baden, 2000: 2. In the context of trade policies, programs and projects, gender analysis and gender mainstreaming should be used to:  Assess the different constraints that women and men face in relation to trade;  Assess the impact that particular trade-related initiatives will have on the well-being of men and women;  Design, implement and monitor trade-related initiatives in a way that supports gender equality, and in doing so, spurs the trade expansion and competitiveness of the country. The objective should be to facilitate women’s empowerment and well-being, while at the same time avoiding the entrenchment of existing gender disparities (UNCTAD, 2009: 5). Importantly, two common shortcomings should be avoided when using gender analysis and mainstreaming gender in trade-related initiatives. First, ‘adding on’ gender considerations as an after thought without adequately integrating them into the design processes. Second, discussing and assessing gender dimensions during the formulation of the initiative, but then failing to include concrete measures in design, implementation and monitoring (IANWGE, 2011: 17). 6 6 2.2.3. Progress to date Despite the differential gender effects and experiences in relation to trade, and the compelling business, development and human rights cases for integrating a gender dimension into trade and export strategies and initiatives, gender features only marginally in trade initiatives. It is reflected in the national export and trade strategies of only a few countries and is very rarely integrated into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives.8 There does appear to be a shift, however. For example, a number of meetings on the gender dimensions of trade have been convened in recent years, including the UNCTAD expert meetings on mainstreaming gender in trade policy, an expert roundtable on the gender dimensions of Aid for Trade and an expert roundtable on the gender dimensions of the Enhanced Integrated Framework.9 In addition, there is evidence of an increased gender focus in donor Aid for Trade investments: Aid for Trade initiatives with a ‘gender marker’ almost tripled from US$0.5 billion in 2006 to US$1.3 billion in 2008. This focus on gender remains marginal, however – it constituted only 3% of the US$42 billion invested in Aid for Trade in 2008 (Lammersen, 2010). 8 For example, Uganda’s National Export Strategy – Gender Dimension (Uganda Export Promotion Board, 2008). 9 See respectively ITC et al (2008), ITC (2010) and UNCTAD (2009). 7 7 3. Understanding the gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics 3.1. Trade facilitation and logistics With the lowering of traditional market access barriers, high trade transaction costs have become one of the most important obstacles that developing countries face in benefiting from globalization. The ability to move goods and services across borders rapidly, cheaply, and above all, predictably is a critical determinant of export competitiveness. The trade facilitation agenda, which focuses on measures to reduce the cost of trading across borders, and involves improving all aspects in the operations of global, regional and local supply chains, represents a significant opportunity for countries to realize their economic development and poverty reduction goals. Trade facilitation and logistics initiatives typically focus on customs and border management, trade infrastructure investment, port efficiency, transport security, logistics and transport services, regional trade corridors and transit and multimodal transport. This guidance note focuses particularly on four areas of trade facilitation and logistics: i) customs and border management, ii) trade and transport infrastructure, iii) logistics services, and v) diagnostic tools.10 3.2. Gender and trade facilitation and logistics There are a range of trade facilitation and logistics constraints that affect both women and men in developing countries. In addition to these, women face particular challenges. Further, we know that a substantial proportion of the cross-border trade women are involved in is informal, which can pose additional challenges. The scope of women’s involvement in informal trade is outlined in Box 3. 10 It would be useful for further work on the gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics to explore if and how gender-intensified constraints differ between different countries and different regions. For example, are there differences between the constraints women typically face in low and middle income countries? How do constraints faced by women in landlocked countries in sub-Saharan Africa differ from those faced in larger middle income countries, or countries in Asia? Are there particular issues in fragile states? 8 8 Box 3: Women and informal cross-border trade Defining informal cross-border trade: Informal cross-border trade is generally defined as trade that is legal but unregulated. The unregulated nature of this trade means that it is mostly undocumented, unregistered, and unaccounted for in countries’ official trade statistics and national accounts (Maimbo et al., 2010: 3). The scope of informal cross-border trade in sub-Saharan Africa: Surveys suggest that informal cross- border trade represents a significant proportion of regional cross-border trade in sub-Saharan Africa. For example, in Uganda, informal exports flowing to its five neighboring countries were estimated to account for USD 231.7 million in 2006, corresponding to around 86% of Uganda’s official export flows to these countries (Lesser and Moise-Leeman, 2009: 5). The role that women play: Women play a key role in informal trade. For example, it is estimated that 70% of informal cross-border trade in southern Africa is by women (UNIFEM, 2009: 4). In West Africa, the contribution of women informal cross-border traders to national GDP amounts has been estimated at 64% of value added trade in Benin, 46% in Mali and 41% in Chad (Charmes, 2000 in UNIFEM, 2010). Products traded and ways of trading: A substantial proportion of informal cross-border trade in sub- Saharan Africa concerns staple food commodities (such as rice, maize, beans and cattle) and low quality consumer goods (such as shoes, clothes and electronic appliances). It is mainly conducted by individual traders and micro, small and medium-sized enterprises and often consists of small consignments (Lesser and Moise-Leeman, 2009: 41). Volumes of informal cross-border trade, and the conditions these traders experience, is largely undocumented (Brenton et al, 2011). This means the contribution of informal cross-border traders to trade expansion and economic growth is unrecorded and as a result can be ‘invisible’ to government officials and decision makers. The means that despite the evident contribution of women informal cross-border trade to the economy, mainstream trade policies and institutions tend to neglect them (Masinjila, 2010: 3; UNIFEM, 2010: 2; Ndaiye, 2010: 3-4). The implication of ignoring this segment of the trading population is significant: it means that policy decisions are being made in response to incomplete data and information, and that informal businesses may be ‘missed’ in policy decisions and not offered the support they need to expand.11 3.2.1. Customs and border management With greater trade liberalization globally, outdated and bureaucratic border clearance processes imposed by customs and other agencies are now seen as posing greater barriers to trade than tariffs. Complex and cumbersome procedures and systems, along with poor infrastructure, increase transaction costs and lengthen delays to the clearance of imports, exports and transit goods. These delays and costs affect a country’s competitiveness, by either imposing inefficiencies that effectively tax imports, or by adding costs that increase the price of exports. Further, inefficient customs and border management creates opportunities for corruption 11 For example, data from the Ministry of Women and Veteran’s Affairs in Cambodia shows that only 20% of employment in Cambodia is in the formal economy. As economic growth is a target for the Cambodian Government, export strategies must tap into the wealth of the informal economy where 80% of the population works (Bunchhit, 2006 in Jones, 2007: 21). 9 9 (McLinden et al, 2011: 1-2). Evidence suggests that women traders face particular constraints when it comes to customs and border management. Low levels of literacy and lack of information and knowledge about cross- border trade regulations and procedures are more prevalent among female than male traders (Morris and Saul, 2000).12 This means that women are not able to fully benefit from the opportunities and efficiencies that border management reform offers. For example, research by Dejene (2001) in West Africa found that changes to liberalize and facilitate trade, brought about through regional trade and monetary institutions such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), had only a marginal effect on the practices of female cross-border traders: women had not been informed of the changes and therefore were not able to benefit from them. In East Africa, the evidence is similar: one year after the East African Community (EAC) Customs Union had become operational, cross-border women traders were not aware of it. Women were still using illegal (panya) routes to move goods across borders, unaware that some of the goods they were trading were not taxed (FES/CCGD, 2006: x). In the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), these trends have also been reported: high rates of illiteracy among women partly contribute to low levels of knowledge of the COMESA Trade Regime, the implication being that many women do not benefit adequately from zero tax facilities (Andjouza, 2009). Research undertaken across Africa shows how lack of physical security at border crossings differentially affects women, particularly in the form of harassment and gender-based violence (Brenton et al, 2011; Morris and Saul, 2000; Ndiaye, 2010: 3-4; Simavi et al, 2010: 133). A baseline study of women cross-border traders in Liberia, for example, found that 37% of respondents had experienced sexual based violence at border crossings, and 15% had been raped or forced to have sex in exchange for favors (Randriamaro and Budelender, 2008 in UNECA et al, 2010: 441). Informal women cross-border traders face perhaps even greater risk than women engaging in formal trade: a study of women and informal cross-border trade in East Africa found that if women were caught, they could be detained for the day while their wares were confiscated. In addition, in some cases they were asked to pay heavy bribes to be released, and sexual favors were demanded by officials to avoid arrest or confiscation of their goods (FES/CCGD, 2006: 51). The negative health implications of cross-border trading also appear more prominent for women than men. For example, the contours of HIV/AIDS transmission are evident at border crossings where customs procedures are slow and lack transparency. As an expert at a roundtable on the gender dimensions of the Enhanced Integrated Framework noted, poorly advertised taxes and duties at border posts could compromise the position of women small-scale traders and leave them in risky positions (ITC et al., 2008). The officialdom and corruption associated with cross-border trade is also considered a constraint that women experience more prominently than men. Typically, border agencies are manned by men and do not have a culture of working in gender sensitive ways to facilitate 12 Note there is locational variation when it comes to gender differences in the literacy levels of traders. A UNIFEM baseline study on cross border traders found that in Liberia, 70% of male respondents were literate, contrasted with only 43% of females. In addition, only 38% of women and 28% of men could not speak French, an important skill for trade purposes. In Tanzania and Cameroon, however, there was less gender variation in literacy levels (UNIFEM, 2010). 10 10 female trade (Dejene, 2001). For example, in a study conducted at four key border crossings in the Great Lakes region of Africa, it was found that 82% of officials who regulate the border were men (Brenton et al, 2011: 2). In addition, lower levels of literacy and knowledge of the border process among women can fuel extortion (UNECA et al, 2010: 442). Simavi et al (2010: 134) cite a World Bank Urban Informal Sector Investment Climate Analysis from Nairobi and environs from 2006, which found that on average, women perceive tax rates, tax administration and customs to be greater constraints to business growth than do men. Further, they found women are less confident when confronted with corrupt or intimidating behavior on the part of officials than men and felt that lack of clear information on rights and obligations made them vulnerable to exploitation, poor enforcement behavior by officials and poor service attitudes by tax officials. These information asymmetries and concerns around border delays and corruption, result in some women informal cross-border traders being reluctant to shift to ‘formal’ trade, even if trade liberalization and regional integration reforms are to their advantage. Ellis et al (2006: 3) argue that women perceive the regulatory burden of formal business as greater than men do, are more ‘time poor’ and as a result are less inclined to formalize their business. Women fear that even if protocols and policies are in place to speed up and simplify border processing, in practice this will not happen. Masinjila (2010: 2) notes that women give several reasons for lacking confidence in the benefits of the EAC Customs Protocol - a common belief is that the protocol will favor big traders and women express doubts that official rates of taxation will be easily applied. Their experience is that border officials will find reasons to demand a bribe. While much of the literature makes separate references to ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ traders, this dichotomy does not necessarily exist in reality. As Perberdy (2000) found in her study of cross- border trade between South Africa and Mozambique, most cross-border traders have some engagement with officials – most travel with visas and most pay some (though not all) duties on goods. In their review of informal cross-border trade in sub-Saharan Africa, Lesser and Moise- Leeman (2009: 5) found that while some of these traders operate entirely outside the formal economy, others are registered domestically but escape some or all regulations and duties. A study on informal cross-border traders in the Great Lakes region (Brenton et al, 2011) captures many of these constraints. Figure 1 illustrates these, indicating the risks cross-border traders face each time they cross the border. Note this survey obtained information from 181 traders, 85 per cent of which were women. 11 11 Figure 1: Reported frequency of risks reported by cross-border traders Source: Brenton et al, 2011: 3. 3.2.2. Trade and transport infrastructure Inadequate physical infrastructure lowers economy-wide productivity and raises trade costs, and as a result, constrains many people in developing countries from benefiting from opportunities offered by international trade. Non-existent or ageing transport systems separates many people – particularly those living in remote areas – from global markets. Cold chain and other specialized infrastructure required for exporting high value agricultural and good products in many places do not exist. Telecommunications and energy systems need to be upgraded to meet the demands of modern economies in many regions (World Bank, 2009: 16). Evidence suggests that women are disproportionately disadvantaged when it comes to infrastructure. There is particularly strong evidence in relation to transport infrastructure, where they often face higher transaction costs (World Bank, 2007).13 As with many other resources, men tend to have control over transport. For example, according to the Malawi Diagnostic Trade Integration Study (DTIS), women own only 10% of registered vehicles, 15% of bicycles and 2% of animal drawn carts (ITC et al, 2008). As a result, women rely more heavily on walking and public transport to get their products to market than men (Jones, 2007: 31).14 Indeed, in West Africa, women account for 70% of users of regional public transportation (Morris and Saul, 2000: 24). While both men and women suffer from poor roads, the fact that women predominate among traders who use public transport means that they feel the implications of poor transport infrastructure more acutely (Morris and Saul, 2000). For example, village transport surveys from Tanzania and Zambia show that women spend nearly three times as much time in transport activities compared with men, and transport about four times as much volume (Malmberg- Calvo, 1994 and Barwell, 1996 in ITC et al, 2008). In West Africa, road travel via public transport results in frequent delays, missed market days and perished goods (UNECA et al, 2010: 444). 13 See Babinard (2011) for discussion on engendering transport operations and surveys. 14 Babinard (2010: 9) notes that walking remains the dominant mode of transport for many women in developing countries, as other forms of transport are too expensive, or located inconveniently (Babinard, 2010: 9). 12 12 Women also spend a higher share of their income on transportation costs than men (Babinard and Scott, 2009), eroding their profits and reducing their ability to invest in their business and other productive activities. Security and safety also appears to disproportionately affect women when it comes to trade- related transport. For example, a study on women cross-border traders in West Africa found than women traders reported increased incidents of robbery and physical assaults in buses and trains, and at bus and train stations en route to markets across borders. Indeed, some women had stopped traveling to port markets such as Lagos and Lome because of increased levels of violence experienced at these locations. It has also been reported that in West Africa women will travel dangerously, on the top of vehicles, or through the night (Dejene, 2001: 3-4; UNECA et al, 2010: 444). 3.2.3. Logistics services Trade logistics involves the range of processes and services involved in moving goods from one country to another: customs and administrative procedures, organization and management of shipment operations, tracking and tracing, and the quality of transport and information technology infrastructures. Quality logistics services play a key role in facilitating the transportation of international trade in goods, supporting a country’s competitiveness. Inefficient logistics, on the other hand, hinders trade by imposing extra costs in terms of time and money (Korinek and Sourdin, 2011: 4). Many developing countries have not benefited from the productivity gains of logistics modernization and internationalization implemented over the last 20 years by advanced economies. As a result, they face significant challenges in moving tradable goods (Canuto, 2010: iii). Landlocked developing countries face particular challenges when it comes to logistics – for example, it takes 24 days to ready goods for export in Vietnam at a cost of USD 699, while it takes twice as long from a landlocked country such as Rwanda, where it is more than four times as costly (Korinek and Sourdin, 2011: 8).15 Due to this, logistics in landlocked developing countries are receiving growing attention (see for example Arvis et al, 2011). The literature and evidence on trade logistics and gender is extremely thin. Some of the broader challenges identified in the literature, however, may more acutely affect women traders than men. For example, we know the majority of women traders are micro or small-scale traders. This group of traders faces particular logistics constraints. Small-scale producers, especially those located in lagging regions in developing countries, lack easy and affordable access to efficient logistics services. To start with, small-scale traders pay comparably high unit costs for logistics services: there is a significant premium on small volumes and this presents a hurdle to small- scale producers who, for example, are not able to fill a truck or container. In addition, logistics in lagging regions, where many small-scale traders live, are often high cost due to low traffic volumes and long distances to economic centers or trading hubs. So unless small-scale traders 15 Time to export includes document preparation, customs clearance, port and terminal handling as well as inland transport and handling. 13 13 can consolidate traffic volumes, both scale and geographical alienation can prevent them from fully benefiting from global supply chains (Kunaka, 2011: 1).16 To manage these processes, some small-traders commission intermediaries. The role of intermediaries is controversial. In some cases it has been found intermediaries exploit small- scale traders, while in others it has been found that they facilitate trade that otherwise would not have occurred (Kunaka, 2011: ix). In East Africa, there is evidence of women depending on brokers or agencies to transact business and clear goods: despite clearing processes being simplified as a result of the EAC Customs Union, women traders are still using middlemen to facilitate their trade (FES/CCGD, 2006: 50). 3.2.4. Diagnostic tools A number of diagnostic tools exist to inform the design of trade facilitation and logistics initiatives. These include the World Bank’s Trade and Transport Facilitation Assessment (TTFA), corridor diagnostic studies and border audits, and other diagnostic tools that include trade facilitation components, such as Diagnostic Trade Integration Studies (DTIS) and the World Bank’s Trade Competitiveness Diagnostic (TCD). These tools are outline in Box 4. Box 4: Diagnostic tools on trade facilitation and logistics The Trade and Transport Facilitation Assessment (TTFA) is a tool for identifying trade facilitation and logistics inefficiencies in global supply chains. The TTFA is conducted through a range of structured interviews with public agencies (customs and other border management agencies, port authorities and transport regulators) and private service providers (freight forwarders, transport operators and financial intermediaries). It seeks to provide an in-depth assessment of a country’s supply chain to help identify corrective measures to facilitate trade and transportation (World Bank, 2010: 5). The focus of the TTFA is on transit costs associated with the movement of products and the procedural and documentary requirements needed to move goods through borders. It assesses the quality and range of logistics services and infrastructure and encourages information exchange and coordination between private and public participants (World Bank, 2010b). Corridor diagnostic studies and border audits identify and analyze corridor transit and transport costs and delays, including physical impediments, process constraints and non-tariff barriers such as institutional and regulatory constraints. They assess current and forecasted trade and traffic volumes and recommend and prioritize potential options for removing barriers. Examples include the Corridor Diagnostic of the Northern and Central Corridors of East Africa and the Northern Corridor Baseline Border Assessment (Turner and Higgins, 2010: 3). Diagnostic Trade Integration Studies (DTIS) evaluate the internal and external constraints on a country’s integration into the world economy and recommends areas where technical assistance and policy actions can help the country overcome these barriers. They are conducted as part of the Enhanced Integrated Framework (EIF), which was established to support least-developed countries in trade capacity, integrating trade issues into national development strategies and using trade as a tool for poverty reduction. DTISs typically focus on: achieving trade expansion and increasing export competitiveness; exploring trade policies, trading opportunities and supply-side constraints (e.g. bottlenecks related to transport and trade facilitation); and analyzing the export potential of particular sectors and sub-sectors. 16 In West Africa, Dejene (2001: 3) notes that women often organize themselves into convoys and negotiate the transportation of their goods using freight forwarders. 14 14 DTISs also recommend areas for policy intervention and donor assistance through the development of action/implementation matrices (EIF, 2009). The World Bank’s Trade Competitiveness Diagnostic (TCD) is designed to facilitate regional and country teams in carrying out a systematic assessment of a country’s position, performance and capabilities to trade, and to analyze the factors that facilitate or constrain competitiveness of exports. Despite evidence that gender influences how women and men engage with and benefit from trade facilitation and logistics, the TTFA does not advise that gender differences are examined in these assessments.17 Similarly, the Corridor Diagnostic of the Northern and Central Corridors of East Africa did not consider gender-differentiated constraints.18 These, and virtually all other trade diagnostic tools, are ‘gender blind’ (Jobes, 2010a). The DTIS is an exception – the DTIS template does include references to gender.19 This is largely the result of advocacy efforts following a roundtable on the gender dimensions of the Enhanced Integrated Framework (EIF), convened in 2008 (see ITC et al, 2008 and Hassanali, 2011). Given the role that women play in cross-border trade, the particular constraints that they face need to be captured in these diagnostic assessments. For example, non-containerized modes of transporting goods need to be incorporated into the analysis – head loading is a common method used by women to transport goods but is often ignored in diagnostics (UNECA et al, 2010: 425). Sampling needs to include a good representation of women, and include different types of women traders. Additionally, the methodology should recognize and respond to any socio-cultural barriers women may face in participating in such a study, including caring responsibilities, language and literacy (Jobes, 2010b). 17 In the 106-page toolkit, the words ‘gender’, ‘woman’, ‘women’ and ‘female’ do not feature. 18 The 277-page draft action plan for the Corridor Diagnostic of the Northern and Central Corridors of East Africa includes the word ‘gender’ once. ‘Woman’, ‘women’ and ‘female’ do not feature (see Nathan Associates Inc, 2011). 19 In the revised 15-page DTIS template, ‘gender’ features nine times and ‘women’ features four times. ‘Woman’ and ‘female’ do not feature. 15 15 4. Integrating a gender dimension into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives 4.1. Initiatives on trade facilitation and logistics and gender: selected examples Evidence of trade facilitation and logistics initiatives that involve a specific gender focus, or integrate gender analysis or gender mainstreaming, are surprisingly thin. Those that have been identified through online research are listed in Table 1. Table 1: Trade facilitation and logistics initiatives with a gender dimension20 Organization Initiative Governments Government of Rwanda Latest EIF projects are gender mainstreamed; used new DTIS template (with gender dimension integrated) for the updated 2010 DTIS in Rwanda. Government of Uganda Developed a National Export Strategy – Gender Dimension. Conducted an Informal Cross-Border Trade Survey in 2007. Regional Entities Common Market for Eastern and Southern COMESA has a Gender and Social Affairs Division. COMESA Gender Africa (COMESA) Policy and Gender Mainstreaming Strategy and Gender Mainstreaming Toolkit being developed. East African Community (EAC) EAC has a gender theme and Gender and Community Development Framework which includes a trade component. Gender-sensitization training manual on the EAC Treaty in development. Economic Community of West African ECOWAS has a Gender Development Centre. States (ECOWAS) Southern African Development SADC has a Gender Unit, a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy and Community (SADC) Gender Mainstreaming Toolkit. Development Banks African Development Bank (AfDB) Checklist for Gender Mainstreaming in Infrastructure Asian Development Bank (ADB) Under its Policy on Gender and Development, the ADB makes a commitment to design and support a larger number of projects that address gender equality and improvements in the economic and social status of women. A number of loans and grants related to trade facilitation and logistics have a gender and development theme, or effective gender mainstreaming. For example: • Greater Mekong Sub-region: East-West Economic Corridor Project (Lao PDR) • Roads Connectivity Sector I Project (Nepal • Dushanbe-Kyrgyz Road Rehabilitation Project (Phase II) Tajikistan • Road Sector Improvement Project (Timor-Leste) • Lae Port Livelihood and Social Improvement Project (Papua 20 This table does not include projects by the World Bank. These are discussed in the next section. 16 16 New Guinea) Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) IDB has a gender and trade initiative. UN Agencies UNCTAD Trade, gender and development program. Focus of work is on mainstreaming gender in trade policy. UNIFEM UNIFEM conducted a baseline study of women informal cross- border traders in sub-Saharan Africa to inform its programming. As a result, UNIFEM’s priorities are:  Support to coalitions and organizations of women informal cross border traders to amplify their collective voice into national, sub regional and regional trade fora and strengthen their advocacy platforms on a range of critical trade facilitation and other issues.  Partnership with Regional Economic Communities, government institutions, the African Union and the United Nations economic Commission for Africa for their enhanced leadership, commitment, and accountability to address issues facing women informal cross border traders, and mainstream gender issues in trade agreement and processes.  Production and dissemination of cutting edge knowledge products to: (i) ensure visibility of the contribution of women cross border traders to wealth creation, poverty reduction, employment creation and regional integration; (ii) disseminate best practices in supporting women informal cross border traders; (iii) fight stigmatization and violence against women informal cross border traders. Expansion of UNIFEM’s work on gender and security sector reform to include customs and their regional unions, border police, security services and health inspectors for better implementation of regional protocols and agreements on movement of people, goods and services from a gender perspective and for their engagement in fighting various forms of violence against women cross border traders such as: sexual harassment, rape, imprisonment or detention, confiscation of goods, and financial extortions. Donors Canadian International Development Support for the African Trade Policy Centre’s work on gender. New Agency (CIDA) work on the gender dimensions of Aid for Trade. Department for International Support for the Regional Trade Facilitation Programme (RTFP), Development (DFID) which funded wellness centers to support primary health care and HIV prevention. Support for increasing the gender-focus of Trade Mark East Africa. Social Development Advisor working on gender and trade from West Africa regional office. International Organizations International Trade Centre (ITC) Manages a Women and Trade program, which currently administers a project titled ‘Facilitating Women Informal Cross Border Trade in Uganda’. Convened Expert Roundtable on Gender Dimensions of Aid for Trade in October 2010. 17 17 4.2. Initiatives on trade facilitation and logistics and gender: selected case studies Looking in more detail at three initiatives, we can identify why and how gender was integrated, and the real or potential influence this had over the outputs and outcomes of the project. It should be noted, however, that there are relatively few evaluations of the gender impacts of trade initiatives. This is an area worthy of greater attention, so that lessons can be learned and shared. 4.2.1. Women informal cross-border traders in Uganda (Uganda Export Promotion Board (UEPB) and International Trade Centre (ITC)) 21 The objective of the project, managed by the Uganda Export Promotion Board (UEPB) and the International Trade Centre (ITC), is to increase exports by reducing and eliminating trade facilitation impediments that women informal cross-border traders face (ICBTs). The project seeks to address these impediments through a three-pronged approach: i) the simplification of cross-border procedures and processes for ICBTs; ii) capacity building of women ICBTs and trade facilitation and border agencies; and iii) establishment of strong networks with key trade and development stakeholders. The project is expected to produce several outputs:  A trade facilitation regime for Ugandan women ICBTs.  A one-stop window/fast track clearance system for ICBTs at four of Uganda’s key borders.  A customs integrity action plan for women ICBTS drafted and accepted by Uganda Revenue Authority and key trade facilitation agencies.  Women ICBT trade capacity hubs launched at four Ugandan borders.  Capacity building modules and technical support guidelines developed and approved by the ICBTs.  The establishment of a Uganda ICBT Trade Facilitation Association.  The publication of a best practice guide on developing and implementing trade facilitation measures for women ICBTs. Although the project does not have a specific objective to encourage women ICBTs’ transition to the formal export sector, it is hoped that through capacity building, training on export opportunities, exposure to trade facilitation practices and linkages to national trade networks and resources, more women ICBTs will be encouraged to formalize their businesses and eventually grow to become SME exporters. 21 This summary is based on a project brief provided by the ITC. 18 18 4.2.2. Anchoring Gender in Transport Projects in Rural Peru (World Bank) 22 The objective of this joint World Bank/Inter-American Development Bank project was to increase women’s participation in the design and implementation of a rural roads project, including a road maintenance system. The key activities were:  Capacity building and gender awareness training for transport sector staff (traditionally a male dominated sector).  Consultations with women’s organizations.  Gender quotas in rural roads committees, maintenance micro-enterprises and procurement processes. The project required that women comprise 10% of the members of the road maintenance micro-enterprises, 20% of the members of the road committees and 30% of direct beneficiaries.  Analysis of women–run businesses in the area to identify best practices.  Peer learning activities for business women. The results for the Peru component of the project were:  Rehabilitation and maintenance of 15,000Km of rural roads in 12 of the poorest departments of Peru. Improvements included 7,000Km of bridle paths, an informal means of rural transport mostly used by women and children. Following the project, 77% of women surveyed reported that the rehabilitated roads and tracks enabled them to travel further, 43% reported that they enabled them to obtain additional income and 67% reported that they enabled them to travel more safely.  Increase in the percentage of female owned micro-enterprises working on rural roads maintenance from 4% to 24%.  Substantial increase in female participation in rural roads committees.  Reported improvements in levels of self-esteem and self-worth on women working in roadway maintenance and the project (assessed through qualitative methods). It was found that including a gender perspective in the design of rural roads operations had a number of advantages. For example, it improved the quality of both roads and road maintenance, as the differentiated daily needs for both men and women were responded to. It promoted entrepreneurial capacity of women, and created job opportunities for women within the project. A number of obstacles needed to be addressed to support the successful implementation of the project (for example cultural stereotypes about gender roles, specifically against women working in road construction and maintenance). The project included a communications campaign regarding job opportunities that targeted women specifically and showed that they were also capable of performing many of the physically demanding tasks due to their experience working in agriculture. The project mapped tasks associated with routine road maintenance and presented them to gender mixed teams. Women naturally self-selected themselves into the tasks for which they had a competitive advantage and division of labor enhanced team synergies. The project also sought to address lack of self-confidence of women 22 This summary is based on World Bank (nd) and World Bank (2007). It also draws on the showcase of the project on the World Bank’s Promising Approaches to Engendering Development website. 19 19 through peer learning, training and employment opportunities. The World Bank decided that the project was replicable – it is currently being replicated in Mexico – and concluded that it could be adapted successfully to any rural roads project in remote areas by taking into consideration culturally specific gender barriers and local geography. 4.2.3. ‘Wellness Centres’ sponsored by the Regional Trade Facilitation Programme (RTFP) (UK Department for International Development) 23 The Regional Trade Facilitation Programme (RTFP) was established in 2003, with a vision to ‘make it easier and quicker for businesses to trade between countries in Southern and Eastern Africa so that economies in the region become more competitive and people benefit through job creation and increased wealth’. The RTFP was largely funded by the UK Department for International Development, and included a range of components, including the North-South Corridor project and One-Stop-Border-Post initiatives. Aware of the prevalence of STDs and HIV/AIDS along major transport routes, in 2007, the RTFP entered into a contract with the North Star Foundation to establish three ‘wellness centres’.24 The centers are low-cost, low-maintenance facilities providing primary health care, as well as treatment for STDs, HIV prevention, condom distribution, voluntary counseling and STD testing and referrals for follow-up services for tuberculosis and anti-retro viral therapies. The location for these centers (made from adopted transport containers) was planned for both sides of the Chirundu border crossing between Zambia and Zimbabwe and at the Beit Bridge (between South Africa and Zimbabwe). Prior to the establishment of the centers, the North Star Foundation undertook a Baseline Survey at Chirundu which revealed that 82% of the drivers and their assistants said that they had paid for sex at the border (with some 40% saying that they did so frequently). 65% of the male respondents thought that they were at high risk of becoming infected but none of the female respondents (72% of whom were sex workers) believed themselves at moderate or high risk of infection (with 70% believing that there were at no risk at all). 23 Research did not uncover an evaluation of this project, so the author is unable to comment on impact. 24 The North Star Foundation is a non-government organization that was established by the parcel delivery company TNT and is supported by the Federation of East and Southern Africa Road Transport Associations (FESARTA), in addition to UNAIDS and others (including organizations in the private sector). It grew from a realization that some 3,500 drivers a year in southern Africa were dying of AIDS-related causes and that the drivers who were replacing them were in a high-risk age group. In addition to the three centers financed by RTFP, the Foundation has others placed along the North-South Corridor route. 20 20 5. Operationalizing the gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics at the World Bank 5.1. Overview of trade facilitation and logistics at the World Bank Trade facilitation is a central component of the World Bank’s trade portfolio: trade facilitation projects constitute the World Bank’s largest and most rapidly increasing trade-related work. In fiscal year 2009, the World Bank funded $2.3 billion worth of trade facilitation projects, which accounted for 68% of the value of World Bank trade-related projects during that period. These projects focused on customs and border management, streamlining documentary requirements, trade infrastructure investment, port efficiency, transport security, logistics and transport services, regional trade facilitation and trade corridors, transit and multimodal transport, indicators and action plans. In addition to lending, the World Bank provides technical assistance, advice and training in trade facilitation (World Bank, 2010: 1-2). Some of these projects are funded through the World Bank’s Trade Facilitation Facility (TFF). The TFF is a multi-donor trust fund launched in April 2009 to help developing countries improve their competitiveness through concrete improvements in their trade facilitation systems and by reducing trade costs. It is designed to respond rapidly to government requests for assistance in improving infrastructure, institutions, services, policies, procedures and market-oriented regulatory systems that enable firms to conduct international trade on time and at lower costs. TFF assistance is delivered through technical advisory services and through building capacity for project preparation. TFF also supports small investments, as well as build capacity to prepare larger infrastructure projects that address critical trade bottlenecks (for example, those identified in trade facilitation audits, WTO needs assessments, and Integrated Framework action matrices). The TFF focuses on low-income countries and countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The World Bank’s focus on trade facilitation and logistics reflects developing country priorities For example, a review of recent Diagnostic Trade Integration Studies (DTISs) found trade facilitation and infrastructure was to be the category with the highest number of actions and the highest urgency actions (Brady, 2008 in World Bank, 2009: 15). World Bank trade facilitation and market access projects approved between FY2006 and FY2010 are listed in table 2. 21 21 Table 2: Trade facilitation and market access projects, World Bank lending projects, FY 2006- 1025 Project name Location Approval year (FY) IBRD/IDA Commitment Amount 3A-Abidjan-Lagos Trade and Transport Facilitation AFR 2010 175.56 CEMAS Transport and Transit Facilitation – Addit. AFR 2010 125.86 Customs Reform and Facilitation SAR 2010 29.28 TN Road Add Financing SAR 2010 20.28 Natl. Road Rehab (Osh-Batken-Isfana) ECA 2010 10.00 EG-Cairo Airport Development Project-TB2 MNA 2010 140.00 Emerg Customs and Trade Faci Add Fina SAR 2009 3.41 Second Trade and Transport Facilitation SAR 2009 19.00 South West Roads ECA 2009 1806.25 Roads and Safety Improvement ECA 2009 184.00 JO-Amman Dev Corridor Add’l Financing MNA 2009 13.20 MX Customs Institutional Strengthening LCR 2009 6.02 Lao PDR Customs and Trade Facilitation EAP 2008 3.00 rd CN-3 National Railway EAP 2007 134.00 TTFSE 2 ECA 2007 13.40 Trade and Trans Integ ECA 2007 30.12 Transport Sector Support Project ECA 2007 72.00 TTFSE 2 ECA 2007 26.40 KG Redu Tech Barriers for Enterpr & Trad ECA 2007 2.50 AL Busi Env Ref & Insti Streng ECA 2007 3.72 Source: PRMTR, World Bank 5.2. Trade facilitation, logistics and gender at the World Bank 5.2.1. Existing initiatives A number initiatives and projects are underway at the World Bank which to integrate a gender dimensions into projects focuses on trade facilitation and logistics. Some of these have been established in response and/or with the support of the Gender Action Plan (GAP). Table 3 outlines a selection of these initiatives. 25 Projects with ‘trade facilitation and market access’ marked as comprising 40 percent or more of the thematic focus included. 22 22 Table 3: Trade facilitation and logistics and gender – recent World Bank initiatives and projects26 Name Countries Objective/s Dissemination of Intensify engendering of transport operations by coordinating Mozambique, Vietnam, the update of the existing knowledge base of tools and good Transport & Gender Peru and/or Yemen practice cases on gender and transport. Good Practice Enhance the gender focus of transport-related investments, Integrating Gender Into including through growth center markets. World Bank Financed Bangladesh Transport Programs A strategic plan for supporting rural women entrepreneurs in Sustainable Support Ethiopia, including through physical market development, System for Rural Ethiopia feeder roads, and transport. Women Entrepreneurs in Ethiopia Increase gender mainstreaming within infrastructure projects. Making Infrastructure Projects Responsive to West Papua and Papua the Needs of Women in New Guinea, Lao PDR Rural and Remote Areas Mainstream gender in the diagnostic and reform measures to Gender and Transport Yemen be prepared through the Yemen Transport Sector Work. in Yemen Equip transport TTLs to be able to mainstream gender in their Capacity Building for Gambia, Ghana, work by providing gender expert(s) to a cohort of Bank TTLs. Mainstreaming Gender Ethiopia, Liberia, China, in Bank Transport Vietnam, India, Laos, Projects Lesotho and Sudan Encourage the development of a gender friendly transport Enhancing Women’s supply in order to enhance women’s mobility in West Bank and Mobility in West Bank West Bank and Gaza Gaza. and Gaza Ensure that transport investment and services provide (a) increased accessibility, affordability and mobility benefits equitably to women, men and vulnerable groups; (b) opportunities that will enhance women’s economic opportunities; (c) equal compensation for women from R&R Haryana State Roads India directly – e.g. joint title with husband to land/asset or cash Project compensation, opportunity for skill development training, access to employment or micro-credit; and (d) any adverse impact from displacement and economic losses associated with the project are more equitably absorbed by both men and women. 26 This table was generated by the author, by reviewing the titles and project descriptions of GAP and other projects projects. 23 23 Engender the Mumbai Urban Transport Project in the following ways: (a) carry out a gender need assessment in the urban transport sector in India within the specific context of Mumbai; Engendering Urban (b) prepare a gender action plan (GAP) for adding value to the Transport: Gender quality of outcomes of the MUTP-2A in terms of “social Need Assessment Study India inclusion”; and (c) make use of the dialogue and consultations for Mumbai Urban to be conducted during the study and GAP preparation, and of Transport Project the follow up dissemination process, as opportunities for triggering a larger “public discourse’ on gender and transport in India in order to further the ‘shared growth’ and “women empowerment” agenda. (a) Gain better understanding of how urban transport in Casablanca is meeting women’s transport needs, and more The Gender Dimension specifically, how it is facilitating or constraining their access to of Urban Transport in Morocco resources, markets, training, information, and employment. Casablanca (b) Identify priority areas for Government actions to improve urban women’s access to economic opportunities and thereby contribute to their economic empowerment. (a) Enhance the capacity of DPWH and sustain its efforts in mainstreaming and integrating gender considerations in transport planning, design and implementation of transport Gender Integration in projects and programs as well as policy formulation. Transport Planning, (b) Increase gender-sensitivity of DPWH’s staff and improve Philippines Design and their technical capabilities for integrating gender concerns. Implementation (c) contribute in accelerating the implementation of the third Millennium Development Goal which promotes gender equality and women empowerment by increasing women’s economic opportunities. (a) Increase women’s employment in poor, remote areas. (b) Improve their families’ level of well-being. (c) Develop a cost effective mechanism for maintaining rural Women's Employment roads. and Road Maintenance Vietnam (d) Raise awareness about the need for routine maintenance of in Rural Vietnam rural roads which are typically underfunded. (e) Build skills for routine maintenance at the commune level for the purpose of ensuring the sustainability of the investment. (a) Mainstream gender dimension and raise gender sensitivity in the project implementation so as to provide women with Empowering Women in more opportunities of engagement in community and Displaced Families in China household decision-making and economic activities. Wuhan (b) Customize and test some international gender mainstreaming knowledge and tools to the project localities in the Chinese context. Support women saffron producers to move up the value chain through a pilot implementation of key recommendations made Afghanistan: Supporting by the on-going gender and trade study in Afghanistan. Women Saffron Afghanistan Specifically, to assist these producers to undertake higher level Producers in Value value addition at the community level, which would facilitate Addition Activities trade activities at local, national, regional and/or international markets. 24 24 5.2.2. Integrating a gender dimension into selected World Bank projects How could World Bank trade facilitation and logistics initiatives more effectively take gender into account? Four existing World Bank projects are reviewed below. The objective is to see how gender has been integrated, and what steps could be taken to enhance the gender dimension of the initiatives. The projects are:  The Trade and Transport Facilitation Assessment (TTFA);  Improving the Conditions of Cross-Border Traders in the Great Lakes Region of Africa;  Technical Assistance to Support the Implementation of the CEMAC Transit System; and  Facilitating Innovation and Competition in Small Value Payments in CEMAC.27 Project 1: Trade and Transport Facilitation Assessment (TTFA) 28 Diagnostic objectives The Trade and Transport Facilitation Assessment (TTFA) is a tool for identifying inefficiencies in international supply chains that limit a country’s ability to compete in international trade. The assessment examines problems that affect not only exporters’ competitiveness, but also the ability to import and distribute inputs to production and consumer goods. The TTFA acquires this knowledge through a series of structured interviews with key participants in the commercial or procedural transactions that inform international supply chains, including private service providers such as freight forwarders, exporters, transporters, and bankers, as well as public agencies such as customs, port authorities and transport regulators. In essence, a TTFA can inform policy makers on how the supply chains for international trade function and where opportunities exist to improve their performance. Diagnostic components The TTFA is conducted in two phases. Phase 1 is intended to provide an understanding of the quality of logistics services, physical and procedural bottlenecks, and how both contribute to competitiveness in international trade. This phase includes:  Desktop research on the country’s trade and freight logistics;  The selection of types of trade and type of consignment for study;  Field-level interviews with traders and various associations and companies involves in relevant trade and logistics services;  A preliminary report; and  Either a phase 2 plan (if a decision is made to continue with phase 2) or a policy note (if a decision is made not to continue with the TTFA). Phase 2 provides information needed to design initiatives to improve supply chain performance and estimate its benefits in terms of competitiveness. It involves: 27 These projects were selected because they represent a range of trade facilitation and logistics areas, they are based in Africa (the region with the bulk of the World Bank’s trade facilitation and logistics investments) and they were reviewable in the short time available. 28 Project detail sourced from World Bank (2010b). 25 25  The establishment of a steering committee;  Further field-level interviews;  Site visits (for example to ports, border crossings and inland clearance facilities);  In-depth technical studies;  A stakeholder workshop; and  Final reports (an assessment report and reports on in-depth studies). Integrating gender dimensions There is currently no reference to gender in the TTFA. Given what we know about the gender- intensified constraints that women face in trade facilitation and transport, it is likely that taking gender considerations into account makes sense from both economic efficiency and gender equality perspectives. This could be achieved in a relatively straightforward way by reviewing existing data and analysis on the constraints faced by women as part of the desk research component of the TTFA, ensuring the views of women traders are captured through interviews and other forms of data collection, by including women in the TTFA steering committee and in stakeholder workshops, and reporting on gender-intensified constraints in TTFA analysis and reporting. The table below outlines these possible actions. Integrating gender considerations in TTFAs Component Gender integration Phase 1 Desk research - Review existing data, analysis and research on constraints faced by women traders. Interviews - Ensure that women traders are part of the interview sample. - Conduct interview with women in a gender-sensitive way. This will be context-specific, but may involve including women as part of the research team and conducting the interviews at times and in places where women are comfortable. - Conduct an assessment of the gender composition of personnel (e.g. customs officers, port authority personnel). - Interview both female and male personnel in interviews. - Include questions about the particular constraints that women face in interview checklists (e.g. for interviews with freight forwarders, customs brokers, road transport companies). - Collect data in a gender-disaggregated way. Preliminary report/phase 2 - Include findings on gender-intensified constraints and recommendations plan/policy note on opportunities for overcoming these constraints through policy and investments. Phase 2 Steering committee - Female traders represented in steering committee. Interviews - See above. Assessment report - Include analysis of gender-disaggregated data and findings and recommendations on tackling gender-intensified constraints. Stakeholder workshop - Ensure that women traders are represented in the stakeholder workshop. 26 26 Project 2: Improving the Conditions of Cross-Border Traders in the Great Lakes Region of Africa29 Project context and objectives There is enormous potential for international trade to drive growth and poverty reduction in the Great Lakes region of Africa. However, the long-lasting conflict since the beginning of 1990s has prevented the utilization of such opportunities, in particular in Eastern DRC. In short, the trade potential of the Great Lakes region is not being exploited due to three key factors: i) The unstable political and security situation in Eastern Congo and Southern Sudan, related to natural resource exploitation and land issues, which creates considerable risks and suppresses trade and economic activity, in particular investment; ii) Restrictive government policies that limit formal trade, together with weak governance of institutions involved in regulating trade, both at the border-crossing points as well as behind the border (e.g., road blocks), creating uncertainty and rent seeking by a wide ranging of official institutions and increasing the transaction costs of trading; and iii) Poor infrastructure, especially roads, inadequate power supply, lack of trade-supporting markets, institutions and information, and poor access to finance. Women face particular constraints. The recently published Risky Business report (Brenton et al, 2011) highlights the risks women face, in terms of sexual harassment, violence, bribery and the confiscation of goods, at border posts in the Great Lakes region. With this as the context, the objectives of this project are to:  Improve the conditions at the border (procedures and infrastructure) and the treatment of cross-borders traders, in particular women, in order to ensure their security and improve economic conditions; and  Provide an environment in which they can become better informed and organized to benefit from the dynamics of greater scale from more formalized trading. As the project description highlights, critical to achieving these objectives will be:  A reduction of the risk of trading and improvement of border crossing condition through transparent and predictable border procedures, elimination of violence and harassment and unofficial payments and better infrastructure;  Support to traders to become better organized and to operate more formally such as through access to information and training in business skills;  Improvement of their living conditions through from better organized and less risky business. 29 Project detail sourced from World Bank document titled ‘Project Description Note – Improving the Conditions of Cross-Border Traders in the Great Lakes Region of Africa’. 27 27 Project components The project has four components: physical upgrade of border crossing condition at Petite Barrière in Goma; professionalization of officials in Goma, Bukavu and Uvira; empowerment of small-scale traders; and promotion of policy dialogue between DRC and neighbouring countries on constraints for cross-border trade and advocacy for awareness of gender-based violence in trading. These components and related activities are outlined in the table below Component Activities 1-1 Construction of a building for 4 official border services 1-2 Lighting the border and installing a surveillance camera Component 1: for improvement of security environment Physical upgrade of border crossing 1-3 Posting official fee and tax information on a bulletin condition at Petite barrière in Goma board 1-4 Creating a parking space 1-5 Rehabilitation of access road 2-1 Capacity building of border officials (i) Training for DGDA 65 officials on regulations, taxes and fees (ii) Training for all officials (around 100) including security Component 2: services (FARDC, PNC, DGM and ANR) about public order, Professionalization of officials in basic laws, human rights and GBV Goma, Bukavu and Uvira 2-2 Joint workshop between traders and senior officials 2-3 Identification of officials: Distribution of uniforms and ID card for officials who don't wear it 2-4 Making a video on ‘Trade and Violence’ (for training and advocacy) 3-1 Workshop for individual traders and trade associations on border procedures, fees, tax and legal framework Component 3: 3-2 Providing financial resources to existing women’s Empowerment of Trade associations associations to fund a customs broker in Goma, Bukavau and Uvira 3-3 Providing the leaders of associations with training on business management Component 4: 4-1 Dissemination of policy note and the report on "Cross Promotion of policy dialogue border trade in the Great lakes region" between DRC and neighboring 4-2 High level seminar on trade policy in the DRC and countries and Advocacy work regional integration Baseline survey impact evaluation (i) Analytical work on the perceptions of the behavior change based on collected qualitative data from women traders and Impact Evaluation border officials (ii) Pre-post evaluation (iii) Comparative evaluation on trained officials and not trained officials 28 28 Integrating gender dimensions This project, which is ongoing, demonstrates how gender-intensified constraints can be some of the most significant constraints to trade expansion, and how the World Bank – in partnership with a range of stakeholders – can seek to address these. By upgrading the condition of the border crossing at Petite Barrière – through better lighting and surveillance cameras, the project addresses the physical insecurity that many women face at that border. Posting official fees and tax information on bulletin boards at border crossings may help to reduce bribes women face as a result of being unclear on the fees and tax rates that they are subject to. A simple handout, which will be provided to traders showing which agencies are entitled to be at the border, and the fees or taxes they can collect, will also support this. The project description notes that, because of high levels of illiteracy in DRC, the handout will be prepared with illustrations, and written in Swahili (the local language). Capacity building of border officials on regulations, taxes and fees, as well of human rights and gender-based violence, may improve the conduct of border officials, many of whom have been found to act unprofessionally and improperly, particularly in relation to women. Encouraging border officials to wear uniforms and ID badges, and the production of a video on violence and cross-border trade, may also support this. Workshops between officials and traders will seek to reduce the stigmatized view that many officials have of small-scale traders, and facilitate a dialogue between the two parties. Through workshops, and by providing finance to a randomly selected group of traders to fund a customs broker, the project will support improved organization of small-scale traders and help them limit the number of crossings they need to make, and limit the harassment they typically face the border. Project 3: Technical Assistance to Support the Implementation of the CEMAC Transit System30 Project context and objectives The Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) was officially created in 1994. It includes six member states: Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), Chad, Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon, most of which are resource-rich, involved in oil production and other high-priced resources. These countries are significantly involved in trade, but do not trade much with each other. Indeed, the CEMAC region is the least integrated trade region on the African continent. In 2006 inter-regional trade was between 0.5 – 1% of the total trade of member states, against 5% for the COMESA countries, 10% for SADC and ECOWAS, and 15% for the UEMOA. In addition, the CEMAC countries are low performers on the 2010 Logistic Performance Index (LPI); inefficient trade logistics are a major impediment to trade in the CEMAC region. This is 30 Project detail sourced from World Bank document titled ‘Concept Note - TA to Support the implementation of the CEMAC Transit System’. 29 29 despite the fact that transit systems are indispensable for the landlocked countries in the region (CAR and Chad), whose main business centers are at least 1500 km away from the nearest port in Douala-Cameroon. Previous trade and transportation work by the World Bank and other donors have identified soft bottlenecks to transit as one of the most urgent trade facilitation issues in the region. The objective of this project is to reduce non-physical barriers along the Douala Bangui and Douala N’Djamena corridors and to improve the implementation of the CEMAC Customs Union. The project complements ongoing projects, particularly the ‘CEMAC Transport and Trade Facilitation Project’. Project components The project has two main sets of activities: 1. Supporting the set up and possible extension of the transit regime from a procedure, training and IT standpoint. This involves:  Providing technical assistance, training and sensitization to a range of stakeholders, including customs agencies, banks, insurance companies, freight forwarders, transporters and shippers to finalize the adoption of the CEMAC transit regime;  Establishing coordination mechanisms for the implementation of the transit regime;  Providing technical assistance to establish monitoring mechanisms and determine the impact of the transit regime;  Providing technical assistance to conduct a political economy review of the framework for transport operations along the Douala-Bangui and Douala-Ndjamena corridors; and  Technical assistance and partial funding for the implementation of the ASYCUDA- World based transit modules including communication. 2. Establishment of a sustainable monitoring mechanism for corridor efficiency and communication. This involves:  Establishing a transport observatory; and  Supporting the implementation of a communication plan on the CEMAC Transit System. Integrating gender dimensions The concept note for this project states that the project does not have direct implications for social and environmental dimensions of transit facilitation (such as gender) and that these aspects are covered under the associated IDA-financed project (CEMAC Transport-Transit Facilitation). Gender considerations could however be integrated into this project in a straightforward way. For example, steps to could be taken to ensure that women traders were involved in the training and sensitization on the CEMAC transit system. Critically, gender-disaggregated data collection could be integrated into monitoring mechanisms. The table below outlines how gender could be integrated into a number of this project’s proposed activities. 30 30 Integrating gender into technical assistance provided to support the implementation of the CEMAC Transit System Activity Integrating gender considerations Technical assistance, training and sensitization to a Include women and conduct training and range of stakeholders on the CEMAC transit sensitization in an accessible and gender-sensitive regime. way (e.g. conduct at times and in locations where women are comfortable and able to participate; conduct in a language accessible to female traders). Technical assistance to establish monitoring Establish monitoring systems in a way that tracks mechanisms and determine impact of transit how women are involved in the transit regime. This regime. will involve gender-disaggregated data collection. Technical assistance for political economy review of Include gender considerations in the political the transport operations framework. economy review of transport operations framework. 5.3. Practical advice on integrating gender dimensions into World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects We know that women face a range of gender-intensified constraints when it comes to trade facilitation and logistics. We also know that women are actively involved in cross-border trade – even when, as the Risky Business report on DRC highlights, women face substantial risks (Brenton et al., 2011). This means that from a trade expansion and gender equality perspective it makes sense to integrate gender considerations into policy dialogue on trade facilitation and logistics, and the diagnostics, design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects. It is likely that all World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects will benefit from integrating a gender perspective. However, based on what we know about women’s trading patterns, there are instances when thorough gender analysis will be particularly critical. Box 5 highlights these. Box 5: Trade facilitation and logistics projects that require particular attention to gender Based on what we know about women’s trading patterns, it makes sense to pay particular attention to gender when the World Bank project focuses on:  Informal cross-border trading  Agriculture  Micro-enterprises  Products or sectors where there is known to be a high proportion of female traders (this will change by country/region) 5.3.1. Integrating the gender dimension into World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects: generic considerations Integrating gender considerations into World Bank trade projects need not be a cumbersome process. In many cases, only small changes, additional analysis or additional considerations will be required. There are some generic considerations that task team leaders and their teams should take into account in all trade facilitation and logistics projects. These considerations 31 31 span across the project cycle and include project diagnostics, stakeholder engagement, project design and monitoring and evaluation.  Diagnostics Understanding the gender dynamics of the economy where the World Bank project is taking place will help ensure that the project responds to the needs of both men and women. The World Bank Gender Country Assessments (GCA), which analyze the gender dimensions of development across sectors and identify gender-responsive actions important for poverty reduction, economic growth and human well-being (World Bank, 2002: xiii), should be a first reference point. Where the GCA does not provide enough information (for example, only national and regional data but little data on the sub-region where the project is taking place), a quick gender diagnostic could be conducted. The table below suggests information that will help build a picture of the gender dynamics of the economy, and potential data sources. In addition to using existing data sources, surveys, interviews and focus group discussions may need to be conducted. Understanding the gender dynamics of the economy – a quick gender diagnostic Data required Gender focus Data sources Number of enterprises by sector, Disaggregated by World Bank Enterprise Surveys size, product, location sex Business registers Business associations Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus group discussions) Number of enterprises trading Disaggregated by World Bank Enterprise Surveys formally and informally sex Business registers Business associations Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus group discussions) Labor force participation and Disaggregated by Labor force surveys employment data by sector, sex Household surveys occupational category, age, Population censuses managerial responsibilities Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus group discussions) Time-use in activities including Disaggregated by Time-use surveys trading, employment, unpaid sex Time modules in household surveys child care, unpaid housework Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus group discussions) Education and literacy and access Disaggregated by UN surveys to training and skills gender Household surveys development Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus group discussions) Access to financial services, Disaggregated by Administrative data including bank accounts and sex Banking records loans Specialised surveys Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus group discussions) Legal framework, including Identify Legal studies inheritance laws, property discrimination on CEDAW reports ownership laws, employment the basis of gender 32 32 laws, laws on mobility and other restrictions Leadership, including Primary research Specialised surveys participation in key decision (surveys, interviews, Primary research (surveys, interviews, focus making bodies, including focus group group discussions) business association, lobby discussions) groups, local government  Stakeholder engagement Throughout the project cycle, a range of stakeholders should participate. Where data is not available to inform the general gender diagnostic outlined above, and the more specific diagnostics outlined for each trade facilitation and logistics area outlined below, key informants will need to be identified and primary research will need to be conducted. A range of stakeholders should also inform the design, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of the project. It is critical that the participation and perspectives of women is part of these processes. Key stakeholders will include:  Women’s trading and business associations.  Female traders (including informal and formal traders, and traders that have different sized enterprises).  Representatives from the Ministry of Gender (or the ministry with responsibility for leading on gender issues) and gender representatives from other ministries (e.g. Ministry of the Economy).  Private sector representatives.  Civil society organizations that represent women’s interests.  Chambers of commerce. Stakeholder engagement, throughout the project cycle, must be gender-sensitive. This means that:  Both women and men are represented.  Women’s voices are heard. Typically, women are less forthcoming in meeting settings and are less represented in organizations that are typically consulted in trade projects, such as business associations and chambers of commerce. Steps need to be taken to ensure that women are willing and able to participate.  A wide range of women’s perspectives are represented. There will not be one female perspective, and efforts should be made to integrate and triangulate a range of female points of view.  The particular constraints that women may face are taken into account. For example, meetings held at a time when women are able to leave the home, and in locations that take into account women’s security concerns. In some places, women’s organizations may not be adequately organized to ensure their coordinated participation. In these cases, building the capacity of women’s trading and business associations should be considered, to ensure they are adequately represented and heard in decision making processes. 33 33  Project design and implementation In conducting the project design, TTLs and their teams need to think about if and how gender should be integrated into the project objectives and the project components. They should seek to answer the question: what gender-related inputs, outputs and outcomes should the project have? At the very least, the project should not further intensify gender-related constraints, or increase the gap between women and men in relation to trading opportunities. Both women and men should be represented in project implementation. This will include project governance structures and employment generated through the project. Where is it apparent that there is a strong gender angle to the project, bringing a gender expert on to the design team should be considered.  Monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation indicators need to be developed to track progress on gender-related inputs, outputs and outcomes. TTLs and their teams should ask: what are the gender-related results the project is seeking to achieve and how can this be measured? A significant constraint to understanding the gendered dimensions of economy is insufficient gender-disaggregated data. To address this, where World Bank projects are conducting gender- disaggregated diagnostics, and gender-disaggregated data collection systems, the project should seek to:  Build on-the-ground capacity in establishing these systems and collecting this data;  Ensure that systems, processes and budget commitments are in place to so that the collection of gender-disaggregated data continues once the World Bank project ends.  Governance, institutions and capacity Partner governments will have varying capacities to integrate gender considerations into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives. As well as seeking to integrate gender into World Bank funded and supported trade facilitation and logistics projects, World Bank officials should include gender issues in their policy dialogue and engagement on trade at all levels. 5.3.2. Integrating the gender dimension into World Bank trade facilitation and logistics projects: specific considerations In addition to the generic considerations outlined above, there are specific considerations that TTLs and their teams should reflect on for customs and border management, trade and transport infrastructure, trade logistics and logistics diagnostics projects. These considerations are shown for these five areas in the tables below. 34 34 CUSTOMS AND BORDER MANAGEMENT Practical guidance for World Bank projects Women face particular constraints when it comes to customs and border management. Evidence suggests that women face more intensified obstacles and constraints that their male counterparts in relation to information access, processing times, corruption and insecurity at border crossings. In addition, female traders are often ‘time poor’, shouldering the double burden of economic activity as well as domestic responsibilities, and may be constrained in their ability trade because of cultural and legal restrictions on their movement and activity. Diagnostics: questions to consider in project design Stakeholders: people to engage  How do women engage in cross-border trade? Is it formal or informal? Which products or  Women’s business and/or trading associations (for example the local chapter of Women in services are they trading? International Trade).  What are the constraints that women face in relation to customs and border crossings? Do  Individual female and male traders. women experience these more acutely than men?  Civil society organizations that represent women’s interests.  How are women represented as staff in customs and border management agencies?  Customs and border officials.  Do particular services exist to support women at border crossings?  Private sector intermediaries.  How could women’s involvement in cross-border trading be enhanced?  Chambers of commerce. Action: addressing gender-intensified constraints Gender-intensified constraint Potential responses Monitoring and evaluation indicators Input Output Outcome Poor levels of understanding amongst Culturally appropriate training and outreach for Number of training sessions for Number of female traders Higher levels of knowledge women about customs and border female traders on customs and border female traders. trained. amongst female traders of requirements and processes, including requirements and processes. customs and border opportunities that new technology offer. Support to women’s trading organizations to Capacity building initiatives for Higher levels of capacity in requirements and processes. increase their capacity to educate and support women’s trading organizations. women’s trading women traders on customs and border issues. organizations. Public information campaigns (e.g. posters, radio Number of posters distributed, Gender-sensitize public programs, local newspapers) on customs and radio programs broadcast, information campaigns. border requirements and processes that appeal to bulletins in local newspapers women and increase transparency. that appeal to women. Higher levels of corruption, harassment Gender training for customs and border Number of training sessions Number of officials trained. Lower levels of corruption and violence experienced by women at management officials. Gender issues covered in all conducted. Number of training and experienced by women. border crossings. training and operational manuals and codes of operational manuals and conduct for customs and border officials. codes of conduct covering Lower levels of harassment and gender issues. violence experienced by Advertising of customs and border requirements Number of areas where customs Traders better informed women. and costs in public areas to increase transparency. and border requirements and about customs and border costs are advertised. requirements and costs. Safer and more secure infrastructure at border Investments in improving Better lighting at border crossings. physical safety for women at crossings. border crossings. Windows in all offices and inspection areas at border crossings. Safe and affordable accommodation at border crossings. Surveillance cameras at border crossings. Policing and prosecution of corruption, harassment Awareness raising efforts More active policing of and violence at border crossings. amongst police and prosecutors gender-based violence and gender-based violence and discrimination at border discrimination at border crossings. crossings. Gender imbalance in composition of Strategies, including affirmative action employment Both women and men Gender balance in staff and customs and border management strategies, to improve the gender balance of employed by customs and management in customs and personnel, resulting in under- customs and border management staff, including at border management agencies, border management representation of women in positions of the managerial level. including at managerial agencies. authority and power at border crossings. positions. Family responsibilities and cultural Changes made at border crossings to enable higher Opening hours of border Border crossings opened at Increased participation of norms limiting participation in cross- levels of participation of women in trade. crossings changed to maximize times that enable greater women in cross-border trade. border trade. participation of women in trade participation of women. (e.g. early morning opening times). Changes made to processing Systems in place (e.g. systems to reduce the impact of separate processing lines for cultural norms in determining men and women) where female trade. cultural norms prevent interaction between men and women. 36 36 TRADE AND TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE Practical guidance for World Bank projects Evidence suggests that women are disproportionately disadvantaged when it comes to infrastructure. When it comes to transport infrastructure, we know that women tend to have less control over transport resources in the household than men. As a result, women rely more heavily on walking and public transport to get their goods to market. Women also tend to spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than their male counterparts, and experience higher levels of insecurity when using transport. When it comes to other forms of trade-related infrastructure, such as storage, we can expect that women and men may have different needs because of the goods they typically trade. Diagnostics: questions to consider in project design Stakeholders: people to engage  What types of trade and transport infrastructure is used by women? Does this differ  Women’s business and/or trading associations (for example the local chapter of Women in from men? International Trade).  How much time, and how much money, do women spend on these different types of  Individual female and male traders. trade and transport infrastructure? Does this differ from men?  Civil society organizations that represent women’s interests.  What challenges or constraints do women face in accessing and utilizing trade and  Government officials involved with trade and transport infrastructure. transport infrastructure? Do women experience these more acutely than men  Private sector representatives involved with trade and transport infrastructure.  Do particular services exist to support women with trade and transport  Chambers of commerce. infrastructure?  How could women’s use of trade and transport infrastructure be enhanced? Action: addressing gender-intensified constraints Gender-intensified constraint Potential responses Monitoring and evaluation indicators Input Output Outcome Greater difficulty for women in Increase the regularity and reach of public transport, Resources to support the Buses transporting goods and More women using transport accessing transport infrastructure and support affordability. expansion of public transport people to markets which are infrastructure - in the form of because of distance and cost, (e.g. buses). affordable, regular and stop public or private transport - to limiting access to markets and at an accessible distance to transport goods to markets. points of networking where most female traders. market information can be Support the development of feeder roads, which Resources to support the Expanded feeder road system exchanged. connect remoter areas with larger roads, and enable expansion of feeder roads. making it easier for female female traders to connect to larger markets. traders to access markets. Lower levels of safety and higher Improve safety on public transport. Resources to support the More buses transporting Safer and more secure levels of insecurity experienced expansion of public transport goods and people to market. transportation services for by women when using transport (e.g. buses) to reduce over- women traders. infrastructure. crowding. Improve security at transport hubs. Better lighting and ‘women More secure areas for women only’ spaces at transport hubs. to wait at transport hubs. More reliable police presence More effective police at transport hubs. presence at transport hubs. Inadequate access to storage Support the implementation of low-cost, reliable Resources to support the Increased number of low- Less wastage as a result of facilities for perishable goods at storage facilities for perishable goods at border implementation of low-cost, cost, reliable storage facilities waiting times, leading to better border posts, which women crossings. reliable storage for perishable for perishable goods. profits for female traders. typically trade more than men. goods. 37 37 TRADE LOGISTICS Practical guidance for World Bank projects Trade logistics involves the range of processes and services involved in moving goods from one country to another: customs and administrative procedures, organization and management of shipment operations, tracking and tracing, and the quality of transport and information technology infrastructures. Micro and small-scale traders – which women typically are – face particular challenges when it comes to logistics. They pay comparably high unit costs of logistic services due to small volumes. If in remote areas, they pay additional costs due to long distances to economic centers and trading hubs. In addition, some evidence suggests that while logistics intermediaries can facilitate trade for women, small-scale traders are sometimes exploited due to power imbalances, lack of market information or the need to get the goods quickly to market. Diagnostics: questions to consider in project design Stakeholders: people to engage  What types of trade logistics services are used by women? Does this differ from men?  Women’s business and/or trading associations (for example the local chapter of Women in  How much money do women spend on logistics services? Does this differ from men? International Trade).  What challenges or constraints do women face in using logistics services? Do women  Individual female and male traders. experience these more acutely than men?  Civil society organizations that represent women’s interests.  Do particular services exist to support women with logistics services?  Government officials involved with trade logistics.  How could women’s use of logistics services be enhanced?  Private sector representatives involved with logistics (e.g. trucking companies, ‘middle-men’)  Chambers of commerce. Action: addressing gender-intensified constraints Gender-intensified constraint Potential responses Monitoring and evaluation indicators Input Output Outcome High costs to access logistics Support cooperation amongst female traders to pool Support for coordination (e.g. Mechanisms to enhance Women accessing logistics services because of small their goods and access logistics services at lower establishment of cooperatives, cooperation amongst women services at lower costs. volumes. prices. establishment of systems and for the use of logistics processes for pooling goods). services. Low levels of market information Education of women about real trading costs and Number of female traders Women empowered to and empowerment amongst requirements so they can negotiate fairer prices with trained on trading and logistics negotiate fairer prices for their female traders, potentially intermediaries. costs and requirements. products and logistics services. leading to women paying inflated prices for logistics services. Public information campaigns on costs and Number of posters distributed, Gender-sensitive public requirements associated with logistics services (e.g. radio programs broadcast, information campaigns on posters at markets, radio announcements, bulletins bulletins in local newspapers. costs and requirements in local newspapers). associated with logistics. Use technology (e.g. mobile phones) to disseminate Network of female traders Functioning network of information on market prices and logistics costs. established, with a coordinator female traders in place, distributing price information. distributing price information. 38 38 TRADE FACILITATION AND LOGISTICS DIAGNOSTICS Practical guidance for World Bank projects Trade facilitation and logistics diagnostics tools are typically gender-neutral and do not take into account gender-differentiated constraints to trade. This can be addressed by ensuring that sex- disaggregated data informs the diagnostics, engaging with female traders throughout the diagnostic process, and being cognizant of the different ways that women and men and the gender- intensified constraints that women typically face. Diagnostics: questions to address Stakeholders: people to engage  Have steps been taken to ensure the diagnostic tool collects data in a sex-disaggregated  Women’s business and/or trading associations (for example the local chapter of Women way on the trade facilitation and logistics constraints that women and men face? in International Trade).  Have steps been taken to ensure that both women and men are interviewed in the trade  A range of female traders (e.g. informal traders, micro-traders). diagnostic?  Civil society organizations representing women.  Does the trade diagnostic capture the range of ways that women trade (i.e. informal  Government officials, seeking their perspective on gender-intensified constraints. trade and non-containerized trade)?  Private sector representatives, seeking their perspective on gender-intensified constraints.  Chambers of commerce, seeking their perspective on gender-intensified constraints. Action: capturing gender in trade diagnostics Diagnostic component Potential response Monitoring and evaluation indicators Desk research Ensure that data, analysis and research on constraints faced Gender issues are covered in desk research. by women traders are captured. Data collection (e.g. surveys, interviews) Ensure a range of different women traders are part of the Women traders are part of the data sample. data sample. A range of women traders are represented in the data sample (i.e. reflecting different forms of trading, different products, different levels of formality). Collect data in a gender-sensitive way (see ‘generic Data collected in a socially and culturally appropriate manner. considerations – 5.3.1.) This indicator needs to be developed in a context specific way, but may include collecting data in separate male and female for a, conducting interviews at times and in places where women are comfortable. Capture gender-intensified constraints in data collection. Include questions in the diagnostics about the particular constraints that women face in survey instruments and interview checklists. Include female customs, border management, transport and Female customs, border management, transport and logistics logistics personnel and staff in sample and conduct an personnel and staff are part of the interview sample and assessment of gender composition of these posts. assessment of gender composition of these posts conducted. Analysis and reporting Report on findings in a gender-disaggregated way. Include gender-disaggregated data in reporting. Include section on gender-intensified constraints faced by women in reporting. Provide recommendations on how gender-intensified constraints could be tackled. 39 39 5.4. Integrating gender dimensions into the Trade Facilitation Facility (TFF) There is an existing requirement that applicants for TFF funding take gender into consideration. The challenge appears to be operationalizing this. The gender impact of the TFF could be enhanced in two broad ways: i) the TFF could encourage applications for projects with a strong gender focus; and ii) the TFF could require applicants to demonstrate how gender considerations will be taken into account in the design, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of the TFF project, drawing on this guidance note. 5.4.1. Projects with a strong gender focus The TFF could encourage applications for projects that seek to tackle gender-intensified challenges that women traders face. Project examples are outlined in the table below. Examples of trade facilitation and logistics projects with a strong gender focus Area Example projects Customs and border  Culturally appropriate training and outreach for female traders on management customs and border requirements and processes.  Support to women’s trading organizations to increase their capacity to educate and support women traders on customs and border issues.  Public information campaigns (e.g. posters, radio programs, local newspapers) on customs and border requirements and processes that appeal to women and increase transparency.  Gender training for customs and border management officials .  Initiatives to improve gender balance amongst customs and border management staff (including management).  Advertising of customs and border requirements and costs in public areas to increase transparency and reduce corruption.  Investments in safer and more secure infrastructure at border crossings.  Initiatives to improve policing and prosecution of corruption, harassment and violence at border crossings. Trade and transport  Initiatives that improve the regularity, reach and affordability of public infrastructure transport to markets and borders.  The development of feeder roads, which connect remoter areas with larger roads, and enable female traders to connect to larger markets.  Initiatives that improve safety, particularly for women, on public transport and at transport hubs.  Initiatives that support the implementation of low-cost, reliable storage facilities at border crossings. Trade logistics  Support cooperation amongst female traders to pool their goods and access logistics services at lower prices.  Education of women about real trading costs and requirements so they can negotiate fairer prices with intermediaries.  Public information campaigns on costs and requirements associated with logistics services (e.g. posters at markets, radio announcements, bulletins in local newspapers).  Use technology (e.g. mobile phones) to disseminate information on market prices and logistics costs. 5.4.2. Demonstrating through the application process how gender considerations have been taken into account In the current ‘Application for TFF Support’, applicants are asked to indicate the contribution of their proposal to selected global development objectives, including gender. To enhance the gender focus of TFF projects, this guidance note proposes that: i) The TFF actively encourages applications that focus on tackling the gender-intensified challenges that women traders face (see 5.4.1.); ii) This guidance note is made available to TFF applicants, and they are encouraged to reflect on its recommendations in their applications; iii) Projects that are offered funding through the TFF, that are deemed by reviewers to have the potential to either entrench existing gender inequalities, or tackle existing gender inequalities, include a substantive section on gender in their project description or concept note; iv) TFF staff support those leading TFF projects to access gender ear-marked resources and/or expertise, through PREM Gender for example; and v) Projects that receive TFF funding report through existing monitoring and evaluation processes on gender outcomes. 41 41 6. Conclusion The objective of this guidance note has been to demonstrate why gender matters for trade facilitation and logistics initiatives and how gender dimensions can be integrated into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives of the World Bank. To do this, the guidance note has harnessed evidence on the gender-intensified constraints women face in relation to trade facilitation and logistics, and made the case for addressing them. It has provided clear and practical steps on how trade facilitation and logistics initiatives can take into account gender inequality, and respond to gender-intensified constraints. It has emphasized that integrating gender dimensions into trade facilitation and logistics initiatives need not be cumbersome and resource-intensive, but is important. Ignoring the very real gender inequalities women face in their efforts to trade and export will limit the contribution trade and associated economic opportunities can make to reducing gender inequality. Critically, it may also hamper a country’s export competitiveness, trade expansion and economic growth. By reflecting on this guidance note, World Bank staff, and others, can identify how their trade- related work can be more gender sensitive and ultimately result in better designed, implemented and monitored trade facilitation and logistics support to developing countries. 42 42 7. References Andjouza, Ahamada (2009) ‘Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa’, Inception Workshop on Mainstreaming Gender into Trade Policy and Training Workshop on Trade and Gender, June 18 and 19. Arvis, Jean-Francois, Jean-Francois Marteau and Gael Raballand (2010) The Cost of Being Landlocked. Logistics, Costs and Supply Chain Reliability. Washington DC: World Bank. Arvis, Jean-Francois, Monica Alina Mustra, Lauri Ojala, Ben Shepherd, Daniel Saslavsky (2011) Connecting to Compete. Trade Logistics in the Global Economy. Washington DC: World Bank. 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