REGIONAL ACTION PLAN ON GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ACTION PLAN ON GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA 2  © 2021 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Regional Action Plan on Gender-Based Violence in the Middle East and North Africa. © World Bank Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@ worldbank.org. Cover and interior design : Sarah Alameddine 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Regional Action Plan on Gender-Based Violence in the Middle East and North Africa was developed by a World Bank team led by Mirjam Kalle, Jonna Maria Lundvall, Pia Peeters, and Johannes Hoogeveen. Overall guidance for the preparation of the report was provided by Ferid Belhaj, Anna Bjerde, Stefan Koeberle, Nadir Mohammed and Ayat Soliman. Members of the core team included Agathe Christien, Samantha Constant, Carmen De Paz Nieves, Saba Nabeel M Gheshan, Noushig Kaloustian and Alina Mykytyshyn. The team is grateful for valuable comments and guidance provided by Diana Arango, Hana Brixi, Patricia Fernandes, Maninder Gill, Lourdes Rodriguez Chamussy, Matthew Wai-Poi. The team further benefitted from reviews and inputs by Farida Aboulmagd, Amal Faltas, Mirai Maruo, Almedina Music and Nahla Zeitoun. The team would like to thank the following colleagues for their guidance at various stages of the development of this action plan: Gharam Alkastalani Dexter, Amatalalim Ali Mohamed Al-Soswa, Samir Bennegadi, Andreas Blom, Duygu Cicek, Angela Elzir Assy, Jaafar Friaa, Roberta Gatti, Saba Gheshan, Afef Haddad, Gamila Kassem, Siobhan McInerney-Lankford, Isabella Micali Drossos, Khalid Ahmed Ali Moheyddeen, Victor Mosoti, Lili Mottaghi, Fatima Shah, Adam Shayne, and Maha Yaktin. The team would like to thank Lourdes L. Anducta and Miravola Randria for the organizational support and Sarah Alameddine for the artwork, design and layout of the report. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6 ABBREVIATIONS 8 INTRODUCTION 10 A. CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS 14 I. Background and Prevalence 15 1. Intimate Partner Violence 16 2. Non-Partner Violence 19 3. Femicide 22 4. GBV Against Children 24 5. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting 29 6. Sexual Harassment 31 7. Cyber GBV 33 8. GBV in FCV Contexts 35 9. GBV and Climate Change 37 II. Challenges and Progress in Prevention and Response 38 1. Legal, Policy & Institutional Environment 39 2. Service Delivery 45 3. Protection and Access to Justice 51 B. BUILDING BLOCKS 54 I. Best Practices and Lessons Learned 55 1. Economic Empowerment Interventions 56 2. Behavioral Psychosocial Interventions 57 3. Education, Awareness-raising and Information Interventions 58 4. Youth Empowerment Interventions 59 5. Community Mobilization Programs 60 6. Service Delivery and Access to Justice 61 II. Existing World Bank Engagement on GBV 64 1. Analytical and Advisory Work 64 2. Operational Engagement 67 3. Implementing GBV-sensitive Safeguards as Part of the ESF 70 C. PRIORITY ACTIONS 73 I. Guiding Principles and Approaches 74 II. Three Pillars for Action 76 1. Data and Knowledge 78 2. Policy Dialogue 81 3. Operations 84 LIST OF ANNEXES 95 Annex 1 96 Annex 2 114 Annex 3 126 Annex 4 132 Annex 5 136 BIBLIOGRAPHY 140 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This Regional Action Plan on Gender-based sexual IPV during their lifetime, being the second Violence (GBV) in the Middle East and North Africa highest regional prevalence rate after South Asia (MENA) region reflects the region’s commitment (43 percent) and equal to Sub-Saharan Africa (40 to step up its efforts to address different forms percent). Average prevalence of FGM/C remains of GBV, recognizing the detrimental impact GBV among the highest in the world. GBV against has not only on the survivors’ wellbeing, but for men and boys, as well as particularly vulnerable societies and economies at large. It is a call to populations, is a taboo topic in many MENA action, for teams across the World Bank Group countries. The current COVID-19 pandemic has (WBG) to be creative and persistent in bringing exacerbated risks and affected the availability of these issues to the forefront of our dialogue, and and access to services. Challenges in the MENA to use all different instruments at our disposal region are further compounded in fragile and to contribute to preventing and addressing GBV. conflict contexts, which result in higher levels of GBV, including sexual violence and forced marriage, GBV remains a major challenge in the MENA and disrupt service provision due to insecurity, the region. Women and girls are particularly at risk breakdown of institutions, and the lack of rule of law. of different forms of GBV, including intimate Risks related to climate change increase existing partner violence (IPV), non-partner sexual violence, vulnerabilities and the incidence of GBV. With femicides and so-called “honor crimes”, child and devastating effects on individuals and societies, early marriage, female genital mutilation/cutting countries struggle to address GBV effectively. (FGM/C), as well as sexual harassment. Compared Legal and policy gaps, weak institutional capacity, to other regions, MENA has some of the highest and inadequate protection, services, and access to prevalence rates for different types of GBV. justice represent major obstacles, especially when Forty percent of women in MENA, for example, combined with discriminatory social norms and are estimated to have experienced physical or practices. Executive S ummary 7 This Action Plan identifies concrete, actionable region. Existing WBG engagement on GBV in recommendations for moving forward on this MENA and examples from other regions represent critical agenda through three pillars of action: (i) building blocks for future engagement, guided by data and knowledge, (ii) policy dialogue, and (iii) key principles for all GBV prevention and response operational engagement. An overview of rigorous efforts. Efforts to change discriminatory social evaluations of interventions provides best practices norms and behavior are prioritized throughout the and lessons learned for WBG engagement in the recommended actions moving forward. ACTION PLAN 1. Data & Knowledge 2. Policy Dialogue 3. Operational Engagement Support better data: Identify legal and policy gaps: Increase focus on prevention: alternative data sources, identify and bring gaps to the awareness and social norms incl. administrative records; agenda; close legal gaps; advocate change through education (schools capacity‑strengthening. for stand-alone GBV laws. and unis), public safety (transport, PRIORITY ACTIONS local infrastructure) and health Enhance knowledge: Support implementation: (community outreach). Improve analytical work, standalone GBV provide technical assistance to urban development, livelihoods, assessments, gap analyses. support implementation and women’s empowerment. strengthen procedures. Build evidence: Improve service delivery: pilot and assess behavioral Strengthen institutional prioritize health (service interventions; incorporate IEs in capacity: strengthening, psychosocial), operations. support capacity-building and SP (social services, case mgt, Apply ethical guidelines enforcement, incl. through referrals, livelihoods) - consider trainings. behavioral change. Strengthen access to justice: support service improvement, capacity development, monitoring, legal assistance. INSTRUMENTS Impact Evaluations Development Policy Financing PforR Behavioral Interventions ESF IPF SCDs CPF/CEN ESF Technical Assistance PLR With support in TA & ASAs ASAs With support in TA & ASAs 8 ABBREVIATIONS AoR Area of Responsibility CDD Community-Driven Development CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CEFM Child, Early and Forced Marriage CEN Country Engagement Framework CoC Code of Conduct CPF Country Partnership Framework CSO Civil Society Organization DHS Demographic and Household Survey DLI Disbursement Linked Indicator DPO/F Development Policy Operation/Financing ESA Environmental and Social Assessment ESF Environmental and Social Framework ESS Environmental and Social Standard FCV Fragility, conflict, and violence FGM/C Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting FY Fiscal Year GBV Gender-Based Violence GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GPN Good Practice Note GRM Grievance Redress Mechanism HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome HNP Health, Nutrition and Population IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IDA International Development Association IDP Internally Displaced Person IMAGES International Men and Gender Equality Survey IOM International Organization for Migration IPF Investment Project Financing IPV Intimate Partner Violence M&E Monitoring and Evaluation Abbreviations 9 MENA Middle East and North Africa MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey NGO Non-Governmental Organization OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights PforR Program-for Results PIU Project Implementation Unit PLR Performance Learning Review SCD Systematic Country Diagnostic SEA Sexual Exploitation and Abuse SEP Stakeholder Engagement Plan SH Sexual Harassment SOP Standard Operating Procedure SVRI Sexual Violence Research Initiative UAE United Arab Emirates UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN ESCWA United Nations Economic and Social Commission for West Asia UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNGA Unites Nations General Assembly UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Fund UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime VAC Violence Against Children VAW/VAWG Violence Against Women/Violence Against Women and Girls WASH Water, sanitation and hygiene WBG World Bank Group WBL Women, Business and the Law WHO World Health Organization 10 INTRODUCTION I ntrod uction 11 Despite some political and legal improvements, additional reporting and data collection challenges gender-based violence (GBV) remains a major and disrupted access to services. Climate change concern across the Middle East and North Africa aggravates GBV risk factors through competition (MENA) region. While most governments have over scarce resources, loss of livelihoods, food signed international human rights treaties and insecurity, and human mobility, with particular conventionsi and announced steps to translate relevance to the MENA region. In addition, the commitments into national legislation, strategies ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has led to increased and action plans, progress in practice has been GBV risks and has affected access to and the slow and inconsistent. Increased domestic and availability of services for survivors. Rising tensions international attention to various forms of GBV, in households, mobility restrictions, limited access and their impact on people’s wellbeing, and the to information, shifts in social safety nets, and overall development in the region provide a window inadequate services due to the pandemic put of opportunity for WBG engagement. women and girls, as well as specific vulnerable groups, at increased risk of GBV, particularly Women and girls in MENA are at particular risk IPV. Economic repercussions of the crisis may of GBV, which is an umbrella term for any harmful encourage negative coping mechanisms, including act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and transactional sex or child marriages.4 that is based on socially ascribed (i.e., gender) differences between males and females.1 Specific GBV has devastating effects on individuals and forms of GBV include intimate partner violence societies and the cost of inaction is high. GBV (IPV); non-partner sexual violence; GBV against can have severe impacts on individuals’ health and children; child, early and forced marriage (CEFM); wellbeing, including their physical health, and be femicides and violence committed in the name a source of trauma, psychological stress, anxiety, of “family honor”, and female genital mutilation or isolation. Physical and sexual violence increase (FGM/C), as well as sexual harassment in public the risks of miscarriage and mortality; some places, educational institutions, or in the workplace. forms of GBV can lead to death. In addition, GBV Interlinked factors at the relationship, community, is costly for society. It affects the human capital societal and structural levels influence GBV risks. potential of survivors, reducing labor market Patriarchal and discriminatory gender norms and participation and civic activities. Estimates before beliefs, women’s unequal access to education and the COVID-19 pandemic indicated that GBV can employment, and the absence of comprehensive cost up to 3.7 percent of GDP in some countries – legislative and policy frameworks in most MENA which is more than double than the amount that countries increase vulnerabilities across the many governments spend on education.5 In Egypt, region.2 According to WHO, 40 percent of women for example, costs due to IPV were estimated to in MENA countries have reported some form of be at least EU 127 million annually, based only violence in their lifetime, but overall prevalence is on the cost of the most recent severe incident likely to be higher.3 that women faced.6 High rates of IPV and sexual violence also translate into lost staff time and Contexts of fragility, conflict and violence reduced productivity to almost ten days of work (FCV), climate change and the current COVID-19 per employee yearly.7 pandemic amplify GBV risks and vulnerabilities. Conflict, humanitarian emergencies, and Despite country-specific issues, MENA countries displacement exacerbate pre-existing inequalities share many similarities and face common and patterns of discrimination and contribute to challenges. Legal and policy gaps, low institutional increased prevalence of GBV, particularly among capacity that hampers adequate implementation vulnerable populations. FCV contexts also result in of existing legal frameworks, inadequate protection i All MENA countries except Iran have ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), but only Djibouti did so without reservations in general and to specific articles. See: World Bank 2017a; Ban- yan Global et al. 2016. 12 Introd uction systems and service provision, and lack of access the MENA Regional Gender Action Plan FY18-23: to justice for survivors continue to represent major gender and conflict, with a focus on GBV, refugee/ obstacles to effective GBV prevention and response IDP gender issues and women in recovery & in the region. As root causes of these challenges, reconstruction, as well as the cross-cutting area underlying discriminatory social norms, gender of women’s voice and agency. As underlined by roles, and cultural beliefs urgently need to be the MENA Regional Gender Action Plan FY18-23 tackled and addressed throughout GBV prevention and the related Progress Note, improvements in and response efforts in different sectors. closing gender gaps, including addressing GBV, are key to achieving the WBG’s twin goals of reducing Nonetheless, legal reform processes or recent poverty and promoting shared prosperity8. policy commitments in several MENA countries The WBG Gender Strategy identifies the Bank’s provide a window of opportunity for WBG involvement in addressing GBV in three categories: engagement. Several MENA countries have support to programs to reduce IPV; developing adopted national strategies and plans to combat interventions to improve women’s safety and violence against women and girls.ii A number are security in public transport and in the workplace; currently drafting legislation on GBV or specific and developing integrated health and livelihood forms of GBV, including sexual harassment, approaches for women at risk of violence in conflict FGM/C, and IPV. In addition to relevant line areas. ministries, existing mechanisms on the national level, such as national councils and commissions, MENA is The Regional Action Plan on GBV in  can assist increased country engagement and organized as follows: dialogue. Operational engagement should leverage best practices from international organizations I. What to address and why: The first part and civil society initiatives. The Regional Action provides an overview of the current state of Plan on GBV can help the increasing awareness different types of GBV based on an in-depth of heightened GBV risks caused by the COVID-19 cross-country analysis including the most crisis to be used to build these considerations into recent prevalence data and an overview of analysis, policy dialogue and operations. the legal and institutional context. It includes a specific focus on the COVID-19 pandemic, The Regional Action Plan on GBV in MENA amplifiers in FCV contexts, and intersections aligns with key WBG priorities for the region. with climate change risks. This part aims to Enhancing the understanding of GBV in MENA illustrate the different forms of GBV that and developing concrete entry points for WBG need to be addressed and makes the case engagement is consistent with the MENA Regional why this is a priority in the MENA region. Strategy. It will contribute to promoting gender equality and female empowerment, as well as II. What works and what to build on: The plans outlined in the 2019 regional update to second part entails a systematized overview mitigate risks of gender-based violence, with a on best practices and lessons learned, based focus on supporting vulnerable, conflict-affected on a meta-analysis of rigorous evaluations populations. The Regional Action Plan on GBV of interventions. It further provides a brief contributes to the following key priority area for overview of existing WBG engagement gender equality and women’s empowerment of on GBV in MENA, and examples from ii See for example Jordan’s 2016 National Framework for Family Protection against Violence, 2015 Communication Strat- egy on Gender-based Violence, 2014 National Strategy to Combat Violence against Women (2014-2017); Iraq’s National Strat- egy to Combat Violence Against Women (2013-2017) and National Strategy on violence against women and girls (2018-2030); Lebanon’s National Strategy for Women in Lebanon (2011- 2021) of 2012 and National Action Plan 2019-2017; 7-year strategic plan on child protection and GBV of 2018; Egypt’s National Strategy to Combat Violence Against Women (2015); Morocco’s National strategy on violence against women in 2002 - a new strategy will be developed in 2020, and Action Plan for Women and Children and the Protection of Women from Violence in 2008. In Saudi Arabia, the Vision 2030 of 2016 and the Tenth De- velopment Plan 2015-2019 entail goals to enhance gender equality. A National Strategic Plan for the Prevention of and Action on Family Violence, has been prepared by the Ministry of Labor and Social Development. I ntrod uction 13 other regions, as building blocks for future engagement. III. How to engage and what to prioritize going forward: The third part sets out guiding principles and approaches as well as concrete entry points and actions for the World Bank Group across three pillars: data and knowledge, policy dialogue, and operational engagement. It aims to provide actionable recommendations on increased WBG engagement on GBV across sectors in the short, medium and long term. Phase I of this action plan serves to analyse prevalence, progress, and gaps in GBV prevention and response in the region and develop a set of critical recommendations for World Bank engagement. Under Phase II, a monitoring framework, including a set of indicators and more granular annual action plans, will be developed to track and measure progress towards implementation through a consultative process with Global Practices and Country Management Units. The report’s country profiles and background notes can be made available to World Bank teams upon request. 14 A. CROSS-COUNTRY ANALYSIS A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 15 I. BACKGROUND AND PREVALENCE The MENA region lacks nationally representative report on GBV, and to specifically shed light on data on the prevalence of different types of GBV. attitudes and behavior related to GBV. Throughout The main instrument to collect official data on GBV this document data is presented based on a wide prevalence and overall sexual and reproductive range of existing sources, beyond official data from health are Demographic and Household Surveys surveys, to provide a data-driven understanding of (DHS). There are only three recent DHS in MENA: the scope of the issues. For example, in FCV contexts, in Egypt (2015), Jordan (2017-18), and West Bank UN agencies often report on sexual and other types and Gaza (2019).iii In MENA countries, there are of GBV. With COVID-19, UN Women has carried out also few examples of consistent management of web-based surveys that include indirect questions administrative records on GBV. Some initiatives about GBVvi. Several NGOs across the region have present topic specific GBV data across countries conducted similar surveys, using internet or phone based on a combination of available official surveys. In addition, there are several organizations statistics and data from a range of sources. For that undertake perception surveys to gain a better example, UNICEF manages a database with understanding of attitudes and behaviors around statistical information on FGM/C and on child GBVvii. At the regional level, the Arab Barometer marriage, mainly drawn from the Multiple Indicator conducts surveys in 13 MENA countries and Cluster Surveys (MICS)iv. It is important to note that includes several questions specifically on feeling ethical and methodological challenges affect the safe and secure, women’s mobility and decision- reliability and accuracy of data collection on GBV. making, domestic violence, and verbal and sexual Sensitivities around potential re-traumatization of harassment in public places. Other cross-country survivors, a reluctance to talk about issues that are studies provide comparative information on often considered a family matter, normalization attitudes towards violence, based on quantitative of violence, pressure on survivors, and lack of data such as the International Men and Gender trust in the responsible institutions lead to severe Equality Survey (IMAGES) implemented in Egypt, underreportingv. Lebanon, and Morocco.9 To compensate for the lack of official statistics, The sections below describe the prevalence and other mechanisms are in place to monitor and characteristics of different forms of GBV in MENA. iii Other DHS in the MENA region are available for Yemen (2013), Morocco (2003-04), and Tunisia (1988). MICS surveys are available for Algeria (2018-19), Djibouti (2006), Egypt (2013-14), Iraq (2018), Lebanon (2000), Syria (2006), Tunisia (2018), West Bank and Gaza (2019-20), and Yemen (2006). iv The MICS collect household data on issues that directly affect the lives of children and women, and in the MENA region there are recent surveys from Algeria (2018-19), Egypt (2013-14), Iraq (2018), Oman (2014), Palestine (2019-20), Qatar (2012) and Tunisia (2018). v Data collection and analysis therefore requires following a set of guiding principles and approaches, particularly the “do no harm” principle. Development partners have developed recommendations for ethical and safe data collection and research, including specific guidance for emergency settings which apply during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in all MENA countries (UNFPA 2020e; UN 2019; WHO 2016; IASC 2015). See Annex 6 on Resources for further information.6 vi The survey was carried out in Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, Iraq, Yemen, Lebanon, and Libya to a sample of random internet users with a total sample of 16,500 respondents. See UN Women n.d. Rapid Gender Assessments on the Socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19, https://data.unwomen.org/rga vii At the global level, the nationally representative World Values Survey incorporates questions on acceptance of domestic violence. Data collection for the WVS-7 survey round will be completed in December 2021. The fieldwork in Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Egypt was funded by the World Bank. Intimate Partner Violence refers to any form 16 of violence – physical, sexual, economic and emotional abuse and controlling behaviors - by an intimate partner (who may or may not be part of the same household). 1. Intimate Partner Violence Intimate partner violence is one of the most prevalence levels tend to be underreported, prevalent forms of GBV in MENA. According to the although hotlines and health centers may have Status of Arab Women Report 2017, 35 percent of information on such cases. Moreover, in situations women in MENA have experienced some form of of conflict or other crises, household tensions due IPV in their lifetime.viii,10 IPV is often considered a to changing or threatened gender roles may result family matter rather than a societal problem and in higher prevalence of IPV.12 For example, the rate is usually not referred to in criminal laws across of intimate partner violence is estimated to be 34 the region.11 Most women who experience IPV percent higher for conflict-affected countries than never contact officials or seek services. As social non-conflict-affected countries globally.13 Figure 1 pressures deter survivors from reporting incidents, presents available country data. FIGURE 1: PREVALENCE OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE IN MENA 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0 Algeria Egypt Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Saudi Tunisia West Gaza Yemen Arabia Bank Lifetime experience of some form of IPV Lifetime experience of psychological IPV Experience of some form of IPV in past 12 months Experience of psychological IPV in past 12 months Lifetime experience of physical IPV Lifetime experience of sexual IPV Experience of physical IPV in past 12 months Experience of sexual IPV in past 12 months Sources and notes: Nationally representative data unless other stated. Algeria 2006 National Survey on Violence Against Women; Egypt 2015 Economic Gender-Based Violence Survey (CAPMAS, NCW, UNFPA); Iran 2016 meta-analysis of articles published 2000-2014 (Hajnasiri et al); Iraq 2012 Woman Integrated Social and Health Survey (Ministry of Planning); Jordan 2017-18 Population and Family Health Survey (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan); Lebanon 2014 study of 91 ever-married women age 20-65 presenting for gynecological care (Awwad et al); Morocco 2011 Enquête Nationale sur la Prévalence de la Violence à l’Egard des Femmes (High Commission for Planning); Saudi Arabia 2016 Cross Sectional Study of 421 women age 14-55 (Al Dosary); Tunisia 2010 Enquête Nationale Sur la violence à l’égard des femmes en Tunisie (ONFP, AECID); West Bank & Gaza 2011, 2019 Violence Survey in the Palestinian Society (Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics); Yemen 2002 Study on 120 women in Sana’a (Ba-Obaid & Bijleveld). No nationally representative data on the prevalence rates of IPV is available for Bahrain, Djibouti, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Syria, the UAE. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase increased during the lockdown14. In Lebanon, the in IPV. In West and Gaza, one in four phone survey NGO ABAAD’s hotline received twice as many calls respondents indicated that domestic violence in the first three months of 2020 as through all viii The definition of Arab states covers Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen, excluding the WB MENA countries Alge- ria, Djibouti, Iran; and including non-WB MENA countries Mauretania and Sudan. A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 17 of 2019, most concentrated in March when the without telling him, neglecting children or refusing lockdown started. An increase of 20 percent in sexual relations. For example, 42 percent of women domestic violence cases has been reported.15 In in Algeria24, 64 percent in Morocco, 51 percent Bahrain the crisis response program for women, in Iraq, and 49 percent in Yemen believe that Shamsaha, indicated a 46 percent increase of husbands are justified in beating their wives for cases from March to April 2020.16 Tunisia and Iraq at least one of the specified reasons.25 More than saw similar trends and spikes on their GBV hotlines. 70 percent of men and women in Egypt, Lebanon, Results from surveys conducted in Egypt are also Morocco and Palestine believe that wives should bleak: in April 2020, 11 percent of Egyptian women tolerate violence to keep the family together.26 reported that they were subjected to violence from their husbands during the previous week.17 Legal framework addressing IPV Economic abuse by an intimate partner is Some MENA countries have amended their widespread in the region and is strongly penal codes to address IPV, but generally interlinked with other forms of domestic these provisions do not address the issue abuse, including emotional, psychological, comprehensively. In many MENA countries some and physical violence. Economic violence is a forms of IPV are addressed in penal codes, but form of domestic violence that involves making there is a general lack of appropriate protection or attempting to make a person financially for survivors and mechanisms on prevention dependent by maintaining control over financial and recovery. Most penal codes in the region do resources, withholding access to money, and/or not recognize economic and sexual violence by forbidding attendance at school or employment.18 an intimate partner as a criminal offence and, Studies found that economic abuse experienced except in Algeria, domestic violence provisions by married working women in Jordan heightened only apply in cases of IPV by current spouses, not the probability of other forms of IPV, including violence committed by former partners. In Egypt, psychological, emotional and physical abuse.19 certain provisions can be interpreted as covering Another study indicated that 55.5 percent of some forms of domestic violence, although the urban and 44.5 percent of rural women in Jordan term domestic/intimate partner violence is not have encountered spousal economic abuse used. In Yemen, physical harm and sexual violence through controlling their economic resources, against women are criminalized, but psychological managing their financial decisions, and exploiting harm is not, and existing provisions do specifically their economic resources.20 In Yemen, women face address IPV.27 economic violence related to inheritance that prevents women from asserting, claiming, and Currently, stand-alone legislation on domestic defending their housing, land and property rights.21 violence has been passed in nine countries in In Djibouti, cases of economic violence by an the MENA region: the Kurdistan region of Iraq, intimate partner is one of the most reported forms Bahrain, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Kuwait, Saudi of GBV to service providers and represented more Arabia, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates.28 A than half of all GBV cases (54 percent) reported to stand-alone law on domestic violence was also the National Union of Djiboutian Women between passed in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.29 Several 2015 and 2020.22 In Tunisia, on the contrary, MENA countries (including Egypt, Iran and Iraq) economic violence cases are less reported by have prepared bills on domestic violence, although women (6 percent) than cases of psychological (25 they have not been passed yet.30 These laws cover percent) or physical violence (20 percent).23 mechanisms for prosecution and punishment of offenders, as well as protection, support, and Social norms play a central role in accepting recovery for survivors. They also address strategies and justifying IPV. In many MENA countries, both for prevention of domestic violence through women and men consider a husband to be justified awareness raising, education, and training of in perpetrating violence against his wife for reasons police and healthcare workers. In some countries, such as burning food, arguing with him, going out domestic violence legislation requires the state to 18 A . Cross -Country A nalysis establish specialized units within institutions, with the judges on a case-by-case basis.38 In Morocco, trained and sensitized personnel. For example, in the Family Code refrains from referring to wives’ Morocco, domestic violence law presupposes the supposed obligation of sexual availability, but establishment of specialized cells in courts, police instead appeals to “lawful cohabitation on the stations and hospitals to address cases of IPV.31 basis of good conjugal relations and the right of The definitions of domestic violence in stand- mutual respect, love and affection”.39 Since the alone legislation vary across countries. Physical legal definition of a marital rape is ambiguous, it and sexual abuse, and some reference to verbal may sometimes be prosecuted under rape or other and emotional harm, psychological abuse, and laws.40 Another example is that in Tunisia, marital exploitation, are common elements, but the level rape is not explicitly criminalized, although in its of detail provided differs between countries and response to the Convention on the Elimination definitions often omit economic violence.32 of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the government has claimed that it can Even though rape is criminalized in all countries be prosecuted under general criminal law.41 in the region, no country in the MENA region has explicitly and fully criminalized marital rape. While there is some progress on the legal Due to traditional beliefs of marriage as a contract framework for IPV, provisions in Personal Status between a man and a woman with certain duties, Codes or Family Law discriminate against there continues to be a widespread understanding women with consequences for their protection that a wife should be sexually available for her in IPV cases. Unequal divorce or custody rights husband. This is sometimes enshrined in Personal may trap women in abusive relationships. In most Status Codes or Family Law, explicitly excluding countries in the MENA region, divorce procedures marital rape from criminal provisions on rape.33 differ for men and women, with additional burden For example, in Djibouti, wives are legally obliged of proof for women.ix,42, Although domestic violence to “respect the prerogatives of the husband, as and abuse are usually considered reasonable head of the family, and owe him obedience in the grounds for divorce, legal procedures are often interest of the family”.34 Lebanon’s Penal Code long and costly. Unequal custody rights can also explicitly states that rape is “the forced sexual affect survivors of IPV, given the fact that in most intercourse [against someone] who is not his MENA countries guardianship rights are granted wife by violence or threat”.35 In Syria, the Penal only to men in case of divorce, which may deter Code criminalizes rape, other than of a female women from seeking divorcex. Lack of protection spouse.36 Nevertheless, in some MENA countries, mechanisms for GBV survivors who report about efforts have been made to define marital rape as a cases of violence is another obstacle, which hinders criminal offence. In Bahrain, there are protections women’s access to justice and discourages them provided by the law on domestic violence, from seeking help and reporting cases of abuse. according to which marital rape can be classified as a form of a sexual assault.37 In Djibouti, marital rape can be considered to constitute an act of violence against the spouse and prosecuted in accordance with the Penal Code, although cases are rare, and the decision is made exclusively by ix It is important to note that in Tunisia, Jordan, and Morocco the divorce procedure is equal for both men and women, while in Algeria and Bahrain, the repudiation of marriage by men can be accepted only though the court, and if both parties agree. See: Musawah. 2019. Positive developments in Muslim family laws. Malaysia: Musawah. https://www.musawah.org/wp-content/ uploads/2019/02/Positive-Developments-Table-2019_EN.pdf x Exceptions are Algeria (Family Law of 2005, art. 87) and Tunisia (Personal Statute Code, art. 67), where both divorced men and women can become guardians for their children after dissolution of a marriage. However, in Algeria post-divorce guard- ianship is annulled if a woman re-marries, although the same condition does not apply to men (Family Law of 2005, art. 56). In Egypt, if a woman remarries, custody of her children from a previous marriage is transferred to the children’s father or grand- mother (Law No. 4 of 2005, art. 20). Non-Partner Violence refers to gender-based physical, A. Cross- Co untry A nalysis sexual, psychological violence by someone other than 19 a partner (other family member, stranger, colleague, friend, etc.). Non-partner violence includes sex trafficking, rape and other forms of sexual assaults, some of which are particularly common in conflict settings. 2. Non-Partner Violence Specific groups are particularly vulnerable both an origin and destination country for persons to non-partner violence. While nationally subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking, with representative data or systematic analysis on trafficking survivors originating primarily from GBV perpetrated by persons other than intimate Asia, East Africa, Egypt, and Syria.50 In Lebanon, partner is difficult to find, violence in the context refugees and asylum-seekers are at high risk of of conflict, human trafficking, and among foreign GBV, including sex trafficking. Trafficking survivors domestic workers stand out in MENA. Moreover, are often detained or deported for crimes the COVID-19 pandemic has led to increased committed as a result of human trafficking, incidence of non-partner violence. without being screened for trafficking.51 Forcibly displaced women and girls or persons Female migrant domestic workers in the Mashreq in conflict-affected areas are at high risk of and GCC countries are particularly exposed to different forms of non-partner violence across different forms of non-partner violence, including the MENA region. Displaced populations are through human trafficking and sexual exploitation, exposed to GBV along migratory routes, camps, but also in the households they work in. In Bahrain detention centers, and judicial police prisons.43 In 30-40 percent of attempted suicide cases Iraq, for example, women, girls, men, and boys reported by the government’s psychiatric hospitals have been subjected to various forms of sexual were foreign female domestic workers who were violence, including rape and sexual enslavement, subjected to verbal, physical and sexual abuse, physical and psychological violence, as well as including beating, rape and sexual molestation52. human trafficking. Girls and women captured Lockdowns and movement restrictions due to by ISIS were exposed to forced marriage, sexual the pandemic have exacerbated their situation. slavery, rape, assault and domestic servitude, and In Jordan, at least one third of migrant domestic are often stigmatized and excluded.44 In Syria and workers have lost their jobs, and reported being Yemen, armed groups perpetrated sexual, physical subjected to violence, exploitation and abuse while and GBV on all sides of the conflict and used awaiting deportation to their home countries.53 violence to spread fear and secure control.45 In Syria, there was a significant increase in reported Already marginalized or stigmatized populations female rape cases from 300 in 2011 to 6,000 in face additional risks. In Algeria, divorced or 2013.46 Refugees in Jordan are also exposed to separated women, single mothers, and women different types of non-partner violence, with 28 living on the street reportedly face exploitation percent of Syrian women in Jordan experiencing and abuse.54 In several MENA countries, LGBTQI psychological abuse and 29 percent physical persons face particular protection challenges. In assault.47 Syrian as well as Palestinian refugee Kuwait, for example, transgender persons have women fleeing the conflict in Syria were found to been exposed to discrimination and violence, be at a heightened risk of GBV, including sexual especially after the Penal Code was amended, violence, labor and sexual exploitation.48 criminalizing the act of “imitating the opposite sex in any way”.55 There is a high prevalence of sex trafficking or forced prostitution in the region. In Iraq, up to Legal framework addressing 10,000 women and girls have been kidnapped and trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation, non‑partner violence or held for ransom, since 2003, and in 2017, the In many MENA countries, domestic legislation High Judicial Council recorded around 200 crimes addresses several forms of sexual violence, related to human trafficking.49 Jordan has been assault and inappropriate including sexual  20 A . Cross -Country A nalysis touching, but reporting and achieving justice The roots of these legal provisions can be traced remains a challenge. The Penal Codes of Bahrain, to some cultures or communities considering Djibouti, Egypt, Kuwait, Libya and West Bank and unmarried girls and women who have been Gaza have provisions for the prosecution of sexual raped as unfit for marriage. Stereotypes putting assault against women.56 At the same time, some the blame on survivors (for example, based on MENA countries do not have a clear definition clothes, location, or company) influence reporting or any provisions on sexual assault in domestic and health seeking behavior. Survivors of rape legislation. For instance, the Algerian law does not encounter little support or help when reporting contain any provisions for prosecution of sexual offenders with whom they are personally assault, although aggravated sexual assault may acquainted.62 In addition, in most MENA countries be classified as indecent  assault and punished. extramarital sex is an offence. This discourages In  Oman and Qatar, general provisions on physical women from coming forward to prove that they assault can be applied to sexual assault.57 have been raped, due to fears of being convicted of having an extramarital affair. It places women All MENA countries criminalize rape and set at risk of becoming subjects of “honor crimes” and severe punishments for rape offenders under puts unmarried women who report rape at risk of their Penal Codes, but the definitions of rape being prosecuted for the offence of fornication. varyxi. In some countries, rape is understood as The only exception is Djibouti, where adultery and a crime committed by a man against a woman, fornication are not criminal offences.63 Morocco is as in Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman currently making efforts to repeal its provisions and Syria.58 The level of detailed description of on extramarital sex, which will make a clear what constitutes rape varies, and some countries distinction between consensual sex and rape, and, (Jordan, Libya, Morocco) recognize rape not as a respectively, give more protection for the survivors crime against an individual, but rather against of GBV.64 In Iraq, rape is seen as dishonorable, and public morality.59 The sentence in most countries it is more socially acceptable to conceal the crime is imprisonment, while some others (Iran, Syria, than to file a complaint.65 According to the IMAGES Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) practice study, around a third of all respondents from capital and/or corporal punishment, which Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, and Palestine believe often violates international law agreements.60 In that a man who rapes a woman and marries some cases, rape offenders are exonerated from her should not be prosecuted.66 By marrying his punishment if they marry the rape survivor. For victim, family honor and reputation are considered example, in Algeria, Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, to be restored.67 Due to increasing criticism and and Syria an offender may avoid punishment, or pressure from civil society activists to change get a less severe penalty, if he marries the survivor these laws, relevant provisions have been removed of rape.61 from a number of Penal Codes. Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and West Bank and Gaza have abolished their rape-exoneration provisions.68 Only xi According to the Istanbul Convention, sexual violence and rape are defined as: “a) engaging in non-consensual vaginal, anal or oral penetration of a sexual nature of the body of another person with any bodily part or object; b) engaging in other non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a person; c) causing another person to engage in non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a third person”. The International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) defines rape as a “sexual penetration without valid consent or with consent as a result of intimidation, force, fraud, coercion, threat, deception, use of drugs or alcohol, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of benefits”. A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 21 Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, and Tunisia legally recognize a rape victim’s right to an abortionxii. There is limited domestic legislation in MENA countries on GBV in the context of armed conflicts. Under international agreements, sexual violence against civilians during armed conflicts constitutes a crime against humanity and can be qualified as war crime, if it is performed with the use of force or arms, and/or on a systematic basis. Sexual violence as a war crime is regulated by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998), which only Djibouti, Jordan, Tunisia, and West Bank and Gaza have ratified in the MENA region. Certain legal efforts have been undertaken in Libya to recognize survivors of SGBV during the Libya uprising as survivors of war, and therefore provide them with a right to reparations, but implementation remains challenging.69 Most countries in the region have ratified, without reservations, the 1950 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.xiii In addition, several countries have adopted comprehensive laws on prevention and protection of human trafficking victims,70 while others have provisions in their Penal Codes which include the criminalization of human trafficking.71 xii Except for Tunisia (Penal Code, Art. 214), abortion in criminalized in all other countries in the region, generally with the ex- ception of when the woman’s life and health is at risk. See: UNDP Gender Justice & The Law publications for Algeria (2018), Egypt (2019), Iraq (2019) and Tunisia (2019). Specifically, in Algeria, abortion is legally prohibited, although, according to the Law No. 85-05 of 1985, Art. 72, it is allowed for rape survivors, as it is recognized that the rape might significantly affect psychological and emotional health of women. In Egypt, a 1998 fatwa on abortion permits abortion for rape survivors on the early months of pregnancy. In Iraq, rape is regarded as a legally mitigating circumstance for a pregnant woman to procure an abortion because of shame. In Libya, abortion is prohibited, although the penalty is reduced if it is performed to save the honor of a woman and her family. In West Bank and Gaza, abortion is forbidden, although in practice it is performed, if a pregnancy is the result of incest or rape (UNDP 2019a). xiii Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, and West Bank and Gaza ratified the 1950 proto- col, while Algeria, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have done so with the reserva- tions of some articles. Femicide is the most extreme form of gender-based violence and refers to the intentional killing of 22 women or girls because they are females. So-called “honor killings” fall under this category. 3. Femicide The killing of women and girls because they are Egypt agree with the practice, 32 and 12 percent in females is often motivated by “family honor” Morocco, 26 and 8 percent in Lebanon, and 37 and in MENA, and justified by referring to the risk of 48 percent in West Bank and Gaza, respectively.72 reputational damage from adultery, refusal to In a nationally representative survey in Kuwait, 33 marry by arrangement, selecting a partner for percent of men and 37 percent of women agreed marriage by own choice, and being involved in that physical violence is justified in the case of sexual relations with a person of the same sex.xiv female adultery.73 Overall, femicides often remain unreported or are officially categorized as suicides or accidents.xv Legal framework on femicide There are no nationally representative statistics on the prevalence of femicides or so-called honor Femicide, especially when associated with killings in MENA countries. preserving family honor and dignity, is not fully criminalized through the legal and justice The acceptance of “honor crimes” and “honor systems. Legal frameworks in MENA countries killings” is high in the region, and is strongly linked are lenient in dealing with so-called “honor crimes”, to a traditional belief in men being responsible either through judicial discretion of what constitutes for the exercise of guardianship over female a crime, or mitigating circumstances under laws relatives in their charge. Family honor is linked relating to adultery and crimes committed while to economic and legal systems that emphasize enraged. In several countries, such as Egypt and men’s role in maintaining the family financially Jordan, judges have discretionary powers under the and economically. In many MENA countries, the Criminal Code to reduce the sentence for cases of sexual behavior of women is a matter of honor so-called honor killings.74 In other MENA countries, for their male relatives, and bringing “dishonor” to if an offender can prove that violence against a the family is a sufficient ground and justification woman was a “crime of rage”, he may benefit from for femicides. The IMAGES survey found that a mitigating circumstances. For example, in Algeria, vast majority of respondents agreed that the way the Penal Code states that a person catching women act and dress directly affects a man’s his/her spouse in adultery provides a reasonable honorxvi. Specifically in relation to “honor killings”, ground to set mitigating circumstances, even if the 62 percent of men and 49 percent of women in violence resulted in the spouse’s death. Similarly, xiv So-called honor killing of a female relative may be in response to activities from contacting persons of different faiths, initiating a separation or divorce, being a survivor of rape, and even flirting. See: Kulczycki, A., & Windle, S. 2011. Honor killings in the Middle East and North Africa: A systematic review of the literature. Violence Against Women, 17(11), 1143. See also: UNDP 2019a. xv For example, in Egypt, a total of 165 femicides was reported in 2020. See: Salaam Gateway. 2021. Egypt sees gen- der-based violent crimes rise to 415 during 2020: Edraak Foundation. Via Daily News Egypt. February 4, 2021. https://www. salaamgateway.com/story/egypt-sees-gender-based-violent-crimes-rise-to-415-during-2020-edraak-foundation. In Al- geria, 60 cases were reported, with a significant increase compared to the previous year. See: The Arab Weekly. 2020. Rape, murder of Algerian woman spark calls for death penalty. October 9, 2020. https://thearabweekly.com/rape-murder-algeri- an-woman-spark-calls-death-penalty. In Lebanon, 138 women migrant domestic workers were killed between 2016 and 2017. See: Al-Hindi, M. 2020. A Comparative Analysis of the Femicide of Migrant Domestic Workers in Bahrain and Lebanon. Con- temporary Challenges: The Global Crime, Justice and Security Journal, 1, 59-75. A study in Jordan identified 66 cases of “honor crimes” involving the murder of women recorded between 2000 and 201. See: Banyan Global et al. 2016. From these cases, 69 percent were committed by a brother. 56 percent of the women were aged between 18 and 28. In West Bank and Gaza, 23 wom- en were killed at the hands of family members in 2018. See: Ghoneim, N. 2020. Domestic Violence in COVID-19 Lockdown: Pal- estinian Women Are Dying at an Alarming Rate. Egyptian Streets. April 24, 2020. https://egyptianstreets.com/2020/04/24/ domestic-violence-in-covid-19-lockdown-palestinian-women-are-dying-at-an-alarming-rate/. xvi Respondents in the IMAGES survey consider that the way women act, and dress directly affects a man’s honor in Egypt (95 percent of men and 83 percent of women), Lebanon (68 percent of men and 32 percent of women), Morocco (83 percent of men and 76 percent of women), and West Bank and Gaza (82 percent of men and 66 percent of women). See: El Feki et al 2017. A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 23 the law in Bahrain provides a reduced penalty for perpetrators who kill or injure their spouses, after catching them in the act of adultery. Furthermore, in Yemen, a man killing his mother, daughter, sister, or wife after finding them in the act of committing adultery faces a maximum prison sentence of one year, or a fine.75 Also in Yemen, a man who has killed his wife or a female relative on the grounds of honor can be excused by his family, at which point the state can imprison him only if he is deemed a threat to public order, although this decision rests exclusively with a judge.76 Similar provisions, which reduce penalties for committing so-called honor crimes, can be found in the Penal Codes of Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Qatar, Syria, and Yemen.77 Only Djibouti, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and West Bank do not have mitigating conditions for so-called honor crimes.78 Different regulations also apply to the very concept of adultery, depending on whether it has been committed by men or women. The only country in the region where adultery is not considered a criminal offense is Djibouti. According to the UNDP, adultery committed by women rather than men is more likely to be viewed as dishonor and disrespect of public morality.79 Even when the Penal Code does not explicitly distinguish between the prosecution of men and women for adultery, women are more likely to be punished than men. In Iraq and Syria, men are punished for adultery only when it occurs at their homes, while women are punished regardless of the location.80 In Jordan, survivors’ rights to use “self-defense” differ. A man can claim mitigating circumstances for killing his wife if he finds her committing adultery under any circumstance, whereas a woman only benefits from mitigating circumstances when committing the crime in the marital home.81 GBV against children refers to gender-based physical, sexual, psychological abuse and violence towards a 24 person below the age of 18. It includes early and forced marriage and school-related GBV. It does not refer to other forms of violence committed against children, such as violent punishment or disciplining, neglect, bullying, or gang violence. 4. GBV Against Children Children and adolescents in MENA are at risk of School-related GBV negatively impacts different forms of GBV—at home, in schools, and educational outcomes, with students avoiding forced into early marriage. MENA countries lack school, not reaching their potential in terms of comparable data on GBV against children, and learning, or dropping out of entirely. School- nationally representative data on the percentage related GBV includes bullying, as well as physical of girls (aged 15-17 years) who have experienced and verbal violence, corporal punishment, and sexual violence is only available for Egypt (3 sexual harassment and violence.89 GBV in schools percent in 2014) and Jordan (2.7 percent in 2018).82 can have serious and long-term consequences for In Lebanon, one study found that 24 percent of affected students, and lead to the intergenerational children reported experiences of childhood sexual transmission of violence.90 In Libya, for example, abuse.83 52 percent of survivors reporting violence more than one in three school children experience and receiving specialized services in Jordan were some form of sexual violence by other children, children, with the majority of them ages 12-17.84 teachers, or other adults. Around 35 percent In Algeria, incest has been reported as prevalent experienced unwanted touching, 18 percent sexual among girls and boys.85 Although not included as comments, 6 percent rape, and 11 percent have a form of GBV, violent disciplining at home is the had a teacher offer them better grades, money, or most common type of violence against children in other favors for sex.91 MENA, with some of world’s highest rates in Egypt and Tunisia.86 In addition to immediate harm, Physical and sexual bullying are the most violent discipline can lead to more violence-prone frequently reported forms of GBV. Generally, norms and violent behavior against partners and boys are significantly more likely to be physically children in adulthood. In Lebanon, for example, punished by a teacher than girls. Evidence from men who had witnessed their fathers beating their Egypt shows that 83 percent of male survey mothers during childhood were more than three respondents have been beaten or physically times more likely to perpetrate physical violence punished by a teacher.92 In Morocco, boys are at home than those who did not.87 more likely to experience teacher violence than violence at home, while in Lebanon and Palestine Both girls and boys are exposed to a range children seem to be more at risk at home than at of gender norms that make girls particularly school (ibid). School-based surveys reveal that on vulnerable to GBV. From early childhood, girls and average over 43 percent of boys have experienced boys are prescribed strict gender norms, which sexual bullying (harassment or violence) in schools, affect their socialization and perception of the while the share is 34 percent for girls (see Figure roles and freedoms of men and women. Boys are 2). Except for Djibouti and Egypt where girls are taught to be “masculine”; for example, protective more likely to report sexual bullying, boys are more of female relatives, dominant, and tough. Girls affected by sexual bullying in most other surveyed are taught to be submissive and confined to the MENA countries. home, at times with restricted social interactions. In Morocco, 62 percent of men and 57 percent Children who are already marginalized or in of women believe that being a man means to be vulnerable situations are at higher risk of GBV. tough, and in Egypt, Morocco, and West Bank and Girls and boys in conflict or displacement settings Gaza, the majority of survey respondents said are targeted because they are already vulnerable that boys are responsible for the behavior of their (for example, children living on the street, sisters, regardless of their age.88 unaccompanied minors, and orphans), because of the perceived affiliations of their parents, or when abducted or recruited by armed groups.93 A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 25 FIGURE 2. SHARE OF STUDENTS WHO WERE SEXUALLY BULLIED ON ONE OR MORE DAYS DURING THE 30 DAYS BEFORE THE SURVEY Boys Girls 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Morocco (2016) Algeria (2011) Bahrain (2016) Djibouti (2007) Egypt (2011) Jordan (2007) Kuwait (2015) Lebanon (2017) West Bank & Gaza (2010) Qatar (2016) Tunisia (2008) UAE (2016) Source: Global school-based student health survey (GSHS). In Yemen, for example, more than a quarter of to 32 percent in Yemen (see Figure 3). Across sexual violence cases reported in 2018 were against the region, the prevalence of child marriage in children, and most of these acts were perpetrated rural areas is significantly higher than in urban by community members and relatives.94 Children areas.98 Forcibly displaced children and children in recruited by armed groups are reportedly conflict contexts were found to be at high risk of exposed to sexual violence, for example in Libya.95 early marriage, with increasing rates over recent Furthermore, trafficking of persons under the age years.99 In such insecure and often economically of 18 remains a major issue, including for young difficult situations, families can resort to child and girls sold into temporary marriages, as reported in early marriages as a coping mechanism. Early Iran.96 marriages accounted for 32 percent of marriages among Syrians in Jordan, which is twice as high Cyber GBV against children in the MENA region as the level in Syria before 2011.100 Similarly, 41 is an emerging problem. For example, in Saudi percent of Syrian women refugees aged 20-24 Arabia in 2016 there were over 2,000 cases of in Lebanon were married before the age 18 in online child sexual exploitation reported. According 2018, compared to 13 percent of Syrian women to UNICEF, child support hotlines in Algeria report married before the age of 18 according to the cyberbullying, online sexual extortion, and online 2006 Syrian household survey.101 The COVID-19 trolling as the most urgent cases of GBV against pandemic may further increase the number children in the country. In Jordan, the most of early marriages. According to assessments common forms of online GBV against children carried out in other health crisis contexts, such include grooming, online sexual harassment, and as the cholera outbreak in Yemen, reported involving children in, or exposing them to, child child marriages increased because of additional sexual exploitation materials.97 stresses on families and the deterioration (or lack) of informal and formal support structures.102 That Child, early, and forced marriage is widespread is, in some MENA countries child marriage is a form in MENA with, on average, 18 percent of girls of economic gain through bride price, particularly married before age 18 and 3 percent before in conflict contexts but also in marginalized areas age 15. Prevalence rates vary significantly across characterized by economic hardship, increasing different countries, ranging from 1 percent in Libya 26 A . Cross -Country A nalysis FIGURE 3: PREVALENCE OF CHILD AND EARLY MARRIAGE AMONG WOMEN IN MENA Yemen West Bank and Gaza United Arab Emirates Tunisia Syria Saudi Arabia Qatar Oman Morocco Libya Lebanon Kuwait Jordan Iraq Iran Egypt Djibouti Bahrain Algeria 0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0% 25.0% 30.0% 35.0% Women age 20-24 married under age of 15 Women age 20-24 married under age of 18 Source: The figure shows most recent available data. For the purpose of comparability, data from the UNICEF database on child marriage was used for most countries. Studies reflected in OECD Social Institutions and Gender Index (2019) were used for Bahrain, Kuwait, Libya, United Arab Emirates. Note that data on child and early marriage among boys is limited. The UNICEF data base provides some information. In Egypt, 0.2 percent of men age 20-24 were married under the age of 18; in Jordan 0.1 percent; in Qatar 0.6 percent and in Tunisia 0 percent. In Djibouti, 0.8 percent of boys age 15-19 were reportedly currently married or in union; 0.6 percent in West Bank and Gaza; 0.4 percent in Jordan and Morocco; and 0 percent in Tunisia. cost of living, and unemployment.xvii Not all early Sexual trafficking and prostitution of children marriages are motivated by coping mechanisms. have been documented in many MENA countries, In many MENA countries it is considered preferable with the ongoing humanitarian crises worsening for girls to be married early, as younger brides the situation and posing new threats. While are less likely to have had previous intimate both adults and children are victims of trafficking, relationships and are believed to be able to better several countries in the region have been identified cater to their husband’s needs.103 In Morocco, for as source, transit and destination countries example, if a woman does not get married at a specifically for sexual trafficking of children.105 In “socially accepted age”, she and her family will face Tunisia, for example, the Ministry of Women, Family stigma, gossip, social exclusion, and bullying.104 and Children identified 709 potential survivors of human trafficking among 10,000 reported cases of child abuse in 2018,106 and in Morocco xvii For example, in Morocco child and early marriages most frequently occur in areas where people have limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. In Yemen, a family who marries their daughter, receives a so-called bride price (mahr), which depends on the age of the bride. See: UNICEF 2017. In many MENA countries, having a daughter is seen as an additional economic burden, and early marriage is a way to obtain some financial security for the family. See: ICMEC 2013. A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 27 400 child survivors of human trafficking—the maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual majority of whom were sexually exploited—were abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) identified in the period 2012-2015.107 In conflict or any other person who has the care of the child.”114 and humanitarian crises, sexual trafficking of Several MENA countries have initiated legislative underage persons is a particular risk. According changes in domestic law to protect children against to UNODC some families choose to trade their sexual abuse. Jordan criminalizes some conduct daughters for money and goods to protect them related to child sexual abuse material. Similarly, from potential violence and obtain some means the United Arab Emirates penalizes conduct for survival.108 However, such trades often end up related to child exploitation and sexual abuse. In in sexual exploitation and trafficking of underage Egypt, the penalty for sexual assault increases girls. In Iraq, displacement, sectarian violence and for acts carried out against children.115 When it poverty have led to an increase in children sexual comes to rape, in most countries in the region, trafficking and exploitation.109 In Syria, Yazidi girls, increased penalties are imposed where a victim captured by ISIS, are openly sold and used as sex is underage. For instance, in Jordan, the penalty slaves.110 for rape is 10 years’ imprisonment; however, the death penalty is applied in the case of rape of a Children are also at risk of sexual exploitation child under 15 years old. Similarly, in Kuwait, the in travel and tourism in the region. There is death penalty is applied where a victim is under 16 evidence that this occurs in Egypt, Lebanon, years old, and in Lebanon, the imprisonment term Morocco, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, increases from five years to seven years for the and Yemen.111 In Egypt, for example, so-called rape of a child under 15.116 “summer marriages” are legally permitted for male tourists, allowing them to marry a girl The legal age for marriage varies across for the duration of their vacations without any countries, but child and early marriage is only responsibilities and consequences afterwards, prohibited in few MENA countries, and even then even in the event of pregnancy. Some girls can be numerous exceptions exist. The prohibition of married up to 60 times before they reach age 18.112 child marriage is one of the key CEDAW obligations A similar phenomenon is documented in Yemen, under Article 16, to which nearly all countries in with sex tourists from Gulf countries using legally the region have made one or more reservations.xviii contracted “temporary marriages” to sexually In Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, exploit girls, some reportedly as young as 10 years Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Gaza, and United Arab old.113 Emirates the legal marriage age is 18 for both men and women.117 A lower legal marriage age is set in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and West Bank, and the Legal framework addressing GBV lowest legal marriage age is established in Iran, at against children 13 years for girls and 15 years for boys.118 A higher While all MENA countries have certain legal legal marriage age is legally enforced only in Algeria protections in place for children, most lack (19 years) and Libya (20 years).119 In Lebanon, Saudi comprehensive national legislation addressing Arabia and Yemen there is no official minimum child sexual abuse. All countries in the region have legal age for marriages.120 Moreover, in Lebanon ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child the minimum marriage age varies across different (1989), which refers to sexual abuse: “states parties religious laws.121 Even in countries where the legal shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, minimum age for marriage is set at 18 years, social and educational measures to protect the exceptions can be made by the courts or with the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, permission of guardians. For example, in Djibouti injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, marriages of girls under 18 years are subject to the consent of the husband and wife’s legal guardians. xviii Countries, which have made reservations on the application of Art. 16 of CEDAW are Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Ku- wait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Syria, and the United Arab Emirates. 28 A . Cross -Country A nalysis Although recent legal reforms have raised the minimum legal age for marriage in Morocco to 18 years, judges may still grant requests for early marriage for “well-substantiated reasons”.122 Several MENA countries have set up specialized institutional mechanisms to facilitate their legal responses to human trafficking of children and adults, and to address the issue in a cross- sectoral manner. Djibouti, Iraq, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates have central or national committees to combat human trafficking.123 Bahrain’s National Committee to Combat Trafficking in Persons established a center to provide migrant workers with integrated services ranging from legal, social, public, and psychological health services to security protection, and a 24‑hour call center operating in seven languages. Kuwait has set up a specialized unit to manage and investigate trafficking cases, as well as a centralized recruitment center to counter the use of illegal recruitment agencies. In Syria, an Anti- Trafficking in Person Department was established, which in 2017 opened a unit to receive women and child survivors of trafficking in collaboration with the Syrian Commission for Family Affairs.124 A. Cross- Co untry A nalysis Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting refers to 29 all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non‑medical reasons. 5. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) 39 percent of the female urban population (women remains a concern in several MENA countries, aged 15-49) have undergone FGM/C compared to and is particularly common in rural areas. Among 98 percent of the rural population. In Egypt, 77 girls and women ages 15-49 years, 94 percent in percent of girls and women in urban areas have Djibouti, 87 percent in Egypt, 53 percent in Oman, undergone FGM/C as compared to 93 percent 19 percent in Yemen and 7 percent in Iraq have been in rural areas. The divide is not always large – in mutilated (Figure 4). In Saudi Arabia, for example, Yemen the difference is two percentage points and a 2017 survey of 963 women ages 18-75 years in Iraq one percentage point. UNFPA estimates in Jeddah found that 18 percent had undergone that 2 million FGM/C cases which could have been FGM/C.125 In Oman, 85 percent of respondents to averted will take place over the next decade as a the 2000 National Health Survey supported the result of the disruptions to services caused by the practice, particularly in rural areas.126 In Djibouti, COVID-19 outbreak.127 FIGURE 4: PREVALENCE OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN MENA COUNTRIES 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Djibouti Egypt Iraq Oman Yemen (2012/2006) (2015) (2018) (200) (2013) Percentage of girls and women aged 15 to 49 years who have undergone FGM Percentage of girls and women aged 15 to 49 years who have heard about FGM and think the practice should end Source: UNICEF Data Warehouse 2020. Data on attitudes for Djibouti is from 2006; Data for Egypt refers to girls ages 6 months to 14 years. Source for Oman is Musawah 2017. 30 A . Cross -Country A nalysis Acceptance of this practice varies. While 94 In some countries, FGM/C is subject to percent of girls and women ages 15-49 years regulation but is not criminalized under the law. in Iraq, 64 percent in Yemen, and 51 percent in While no legal prohibition criminalizes FGM/C in Djibouti think that FGM/C should be eliminated, in Oman, it is prohibited by medical doctors in public Egypt only 38 percent of women think so. In many hospitals through a policy directive.133 In the UAE, communities where FGM/C is practiced, it is a FGM/C is not a criminal offence, although there is a cultural tradition considered important to conform ban on performing it at public hospitals and clinics.134 to community expectations and acceptance, and In Yemen, the law does not prohibit FGM/C, but the in some cultures it is believed that an uncut woman practice is forbidden in government institutions will not be able to marry, which, in turn, leads to and medical facilities, albeit without defining social stigma and exclusion. A majority of men penalties for violations.135 and women in Egypt believe that it is important to continue FGM/C because ofcustoms andtradition.128 Most MENA countries do not have legal Although no religious texts call for FGM/C, the prohibitions on FGM/C, which is linked to no or practice is often justified by or associated with low reported prevalence of the practice. This religious support. For instance, in Egypt, 68 percent is the case in  Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, of men and 59 percent of women believe that Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and West FGM/C is required by religion. Importantly, FGM/C Bank and Gaza. FGM/C is also practiced  and is also practiced to increase the attractiveness of not explicitly prohibited in Iraq, where it can be women and raise their chances of being married, regarded as an “assault”.136 by safeguarding femininity and modesty through the removal of body parts that are considered “unclean”, “unfeminine” or even “male”.129 Legal framework on FGM/C In most countries, including those with the highest prevalence of FGM/C, like Egypt and Djibouti, the practice is prohibited and criminalized.130 Provisions against FGM/C sometimes include preventative measures. In Djibouti, for example, failing to report a case of FGM/C to authorities is punishable with up to one year’s imprisonment and a fine. However, legal gaps remain and actual enforcement is weak. In Egypt, although FGM/C was criminalized, the prohibition can be circumvented through provisions which allow for harmful actions to be taken in order to prevent a greater harm to oneself or others—allowing FGM/C practices to continue when found medically necessary and when carried out by professional doctors. 131 In Djibouti, despite legislation, cases of FGM/C are neither reported nor prosecuted.132 A. Cross- Co untry A nalysis Sexual harassment refers to any form of 31 unwelcome sex-based behavior (verbal, non-verbal, physical) that is offensive, humiliating or intimidating. It is common in public spaces and at workplaces. 6. Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment in public places, educational feel safe on public transportation and 83 percent institutions, and the workplace has received do not feel safe in the street.137 More than half increasing attention across the region. of Tunisian women have experienced physical or Prevalence rates, although often not available psychological violence in public spaces.138 At the on a nationally representative scale, remain high same time, sexual harassment often remains across the region. According to the OECD’s 2019 underreported. Additionally, surveys reveal that Social Institutions and Gender Index, many women large parts of the populations in MENA countries do not feel safe walking alone at night, spanning believe that women deserve to be harassed, for from 76 percent in Jordan to 30 percent in Iraq example, when “dressing provocatively” in public.139 (Figure 5). In Egypt, 87 percent of women do not FIGURE 5: SHARE OF WOMEN WHO DO NOT FEEL SAFE WALKING ALONE AT NIGHT IN THEIR NEIGHBORHOOD Algeria Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Libya Morocco Tunisia WB&G Yemen 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Source: OECD 2019 Social Institutions and Gender Index. Legal framework on sexual harassment The definitions of sexual harassment are often incomplete, unclear, unavailable, or overlap with Many countries in the MENA region have made that of sexual assault, and vary across the region. legislative and policy efforts to address sexual For example, in Bahrain, sexual harassment is harassment, including criminalizing it through defined as “commit[ting] an act of indecency their Penal Codes.140 Articles on the criminalization with a female” in either a public or private space; of sexual harassment are listed in the Penal in Egypt as “accosting” in a “private or public or Codes of Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, frequented place implying sexual or obscene Kuwait, Morocco, Qatar, Syria, Tunisia, the United gestures, whether by verbal or nonverbal means or Arab Emirates, and Yemen.141 Stand-alone laws through actions, in any manner including modern criminalizing sexual harassment have been means of communication”, and in Tunisia as “any passed in Lebanon, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia.142 act, gestures or words with sexual connotations 32 A . Cross -Country A nalysis that are offensive to one’s dignity or affect one’s Penalties for sexual harassment vary across modesty with the intention to subject the victim the region and, being a relatively new concept to the perpetrator’s sexual desires”. Jordan in many MENA countries, are not yet widely established penalties for those, who fondle a minor enforced. In Egypt, sexual harassment can be or a woman without consent.143 Algeria’s legislation prosecuted only when an offender attempted to criminalizes only cases of sexual harassment obtain sexual benefits from a woman.150 In Djibouti based on the abuse of authority .144 In Djibouti, an employer must take all necessary measures Libya, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, sexual to prevent acts of sexual  harassment  and harassment falls under the category of sexual to punish perpetrators, who are liable to a assault and/or indecent/offending act against disciplinary sanction.151 In Jordan, if an employer females.145 However, there are often no provisions or their representative commits an act of sexual for prosecution of sexual harassment specifically in harassment, the establishment may be closed educational institutions, sporting establishments, for a certain period of time.152 In Iraq, penalties and cyberspace (for example, in Qatar, Syria, and for sexual harassment  are up to six months’ Yemen). There are no laws or regulations on sexual imprisonment and/or a fine of one million IQD. In harassment in Iran and West Bank and Gaza.146 Kuwait, sexual harassment is sanctioned with a prison sentence of up to 15 years, depending Some MENA countries also address workplace on the scope and circumstances in which it was sexual harassment and violence through labor committed. In Morocco, Qatar, and Tunisia, laws and other legislation. Certain provisions for committing sexual harassment can result in punishment of sexual harassment at the workplace imprisonment for one to two years and/or a can be found in the Labor Laws of Algeria, Bahrain, financial penalty.153 Djibouti, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.147 In Algeria, sexual harassment is defined as “any act committed by someone abusing their position in office, with the aim of obtaining sexual favors”. In Iraq, sexual harassment includes physical and verbal offences. In Morocco, sexual harassment is defined as “any intensified harassment of others by acts, statements or signs of a sexual nature or for sexual purposes; or sending written, telephonic, or electronic messages or recordings or images of a sexual nature or for sexual purposes, in public or other spaces”.148 Labor laws and other regulations often fail to account for the journey to and from work, putting women and girls at risk of sexual harassment in public places, including transport hubs, on trains or buses, and in private or semi- private transportation, such as taxis. Furthermore, labor laws generally do not apply to informal employment environments where many women in MENA countries work, which leaves them without redress mechanisms in cases of exploitation and abuse as well as sexual harassment.149 Additionally, labor laws are often not applicable to civil servants, leaving women working in the public sector without protection, or only the protections granted by the penal code. Cyber GBV includes stalking, bullying, hate speech, sexual harassment, non-consensual dissemination A. Cross- Co untry A nalysis of pornographic or hypersexualized images, 33 death and rape threats, surveillance through email, messaging apps and social media platforms, and electronically facilitated sexual exploitation and trafficking. 7. Cyber GBV One third of women in MENA have experienced partners and/or governments constitute a at least one form of  online violence.154 Cyber distinct form of cyber GBV. Women’s appearance, GBV includes different forms of online conduct behavior, and voices are often scrutinized by targeting women and girls, which aim to intimidate, society, and posting personal content online may coerce, cause fear and anxiety, humiliate, or create lead to increased risks of cyber GBV and real-life emotional and psychological distress.155 According threats. For example, in West Bank and Gaza, to a national survey in Egypt, over 80 percent of women often report familial surveillance and women reported having experienced online sexual interventions in their online presence and content.163 harassment, while another study on cyber violence In Yemen, women often refuse to publish personal against women indicates that 42 percent of women photos online, as they might be used as a reason have experienced some form of online violence for bullying and blackmailing.164 Similarly, women in the past 12 months.156 In Morocco, 13 percent in Saudi Arabia report that posting photos without of women have been subject to online abuse traditional covering clothes might result in not only according to the second National Survey on the the increase of cyber threats and hate speech, but prevalence of violence against women.157 In Jordan, also police arrest.165 81 percent of women have experienced cyber sexual harassment.158 The COVID-19 outbreak Legal framework on cyber GBV and lockdown measures increased risks of cyber GBV due to the increased use of mobile devices, Most MENA countries are yet to implement online platforms and digitalization of services. For legal and policy frameworks to prevent and example, on major social media platforms, online address cyber GBV. Some countries (such as abuse targeting women increased by 50 percent Iran, Jordan, and the United Arab Emirates) have in March 2020 globally, and online harassment passed cybercrimes acts to penalize certain forms was the highest reported type of violence against of cyber GBV, while others (Iraq and Egypt) have women in all MENA countries.159 amended their criminal codes to address online violence.166 At the same time—and partly due Cyber GBV targeting women and girls increases to the emerging nature of this phenomenon— the probability of offline violence. For example, in no country in the region has enacted legislation Egypt, if a woman refuses to date a man or asks against all forms of cyber GBV. Many countries for divorce, she may become a target for threats of have regulations on cyber bullying, defamation, sexual and physical violence, together with sexist and threats of death and rape, while electronically and discriminatory comments.160 Case studies facilitated sexual exploitation and trafficking, from Morocco show that women are targeted by cyber sexual harassment, and cyberstalking are their ex- or current partners with “revenge porn”; not explicitly covered. The degree to which existing non-consensual dissemination of pornographic laws provide protection against cyber GBV also or sexualized content without an owner’s varies. For instance, in Jordan, dissemination permission, as a form of coercion to continue a of non-consensual pornography is considered relationship or as a punishment for ending one.161 a crime only when it involves minors.167 In Iran, Women activists, journalists, and bloggers in the criminalization of certain forms of cyber VAW is MENA region encounter increased risks of being motivated by protecting public morality and the targeted by cyber GBV, intended to discredit their reputations of families, rather than seeking justice contributions and shift public attention from for survivors. In Egypt, cyber sexual harassment substance to discussion of their private life.162 can be prosecuted as an “indecent assault incident”, but not as a distinct form of GBV. Only Egypt and Censorship, control, and surveillance of women’s Morocco have emphasized a gendered approach profiles on social media platforms by relatives, to tackling cybercrimes in their legislation, 34 A . Cross -Country A nalysis acknowledging the fact that women and girls are forms of sexual harassment the type least disproportionally targeted by online violence.168 reported is online harassment.171 An online survey in Egypt found that none of the respondents had Obstacles to accessing justice present a ever filed a complaint to police when facing sexual challenge to accurately reporting cyber GBV. harassment online.172 In addition, women from For example, in Morocco underage women cannot West Bank and Gaza admit they do not trust complain to police without the consent of their police and their competency to handle cases of parents.169 However, the social stigma and shame online abuse.173 In some cases, women choose not of discussing cyber GBV prevents adolescents to report due to a lack of trust in the legal and from talking to their parents and, consequently, social response. In Iran, for instance, producing the from seeking legal help. In Iraq, fear of defamation files used in revenge porn can impact women for a and social stigma discourages survivors of cyber lifetime, whereas the punishment provided by law GBV from revealing their experiences and reporting does not exceed 24 months and/or US$135,000.174 their offenders.170 Studies from different MENA In Morocco, it is the responsibility of a survivor to countries show limited awareness of existing find out personal details of their offenders, if they legislation. In Jordan, for example, among different want to report them to police.175 A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 35 as a recruitment strategy to attract young men, 8. GBV in FCV Contexts by promising marriage and sexual slaves as forms of domination and status. Human trafficking GBV can be used as a tactic in conflicts to has enabled terrorist groups to generate income humiliate, dominate, and disrupt social ties, and and finance their activities.183 Female heads of women and girls, as well as men and boys, face households, and women migrating with children, heightened risks and violence, including GBV, in were found to be particularly vulnerable to sexual settings of conflict and displacement. Conflict violence committed by authorities, armed groups, contexts, complex humanitarian emergencies, smugglers or traffickers, as observed in Iraq and and protracted displacement exacerbate Libya.184 Additionally, survivors of conflict-related structural inequalities and pre-existing patterns GBV, including children of rape survivors and their of discrimination, and contribute to increased mothers, are often stigmatized and can be at risk prevalence of GBV, which particularly affects of abuse, abandonment, and marginalization. already vulnerable populations.176 This can result in long-lasting effects even after conflict may have Forcibly displaced persons, particularly women ended, perpetuating “a cycle of anxiety and fear and girls, are disproportionately affected by that impedes recovery”.177 As discussed earlier, different forms of GBV. Insecure environments in sexual violence and rape are used as a means border areas, displacement settings or, upon return, of control and repression. In Syria, for example, lack of privacy, limited livelihood opportunities and armed actors systematically raped and sexually services, and declining international attention humiliated detainees from opposing factions.178 In and assistance over time lead to exacerbated Yemen, GBV against women, men, and children protection risks for female refugees, IDPs, and by armed actors and/or in detention is widely returnees.185 For example, in Iraq, women and documented, including extortion through sexual girls with an affiliation or perceived affiliation violence and rape.179 to ISIS face greater risk of sexual assault, rape, and exploitation, in addition to lack of access to In FCV contexts, men and boys are more likely services and civil documentation.186 to suffer severe injuries or die, and women and girls are disproportionately exposed to sexual The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbates violence and different forms of GBV. As men and the risks of GBV among vulnerable women and boys often comprise the majority of combatants, children in conflict zones and in refugee and they are generally at higher risk of being killed or displaced settings. Survivors of trafficking in injured through combat. Men and boys are also Iraq and Syria are at risk of further exploitation exposed to GBV, including sexual violence, during as lockdowns and border restrictions limit their and after conflict, including in formal and informal ability to seek and get help, while countries also detention settings and in armed groups.180 Due divert resources to fighting the pandemic.187 This to the taboo and stigma associated with GBV is likely in Iraq where ISIS-affected communities against men and boys, and deeply entrenched are still vulnerable to trafficking.xix Of an estimated cultural assumptions about male invulnerability 800,000 people trafficked each year across to such violence, men and boys face particular Syria, 80 percent are women and girls, with 79 reporting barriers, and prevention and response percent trafficked for sexual exploitation. Some remain largely non-existent.181 Escalation of Palestinians with permits to work in Israel returned conflict and a rise in militant groups have resulted during the pandemic and were forced to self- in abduction, trafficking and enslavement of quarantine at home, making it challenging for wives women and girls.182 Sexual violence has been used and families to continue residing in their usually xix The International Organization for Migration reports that it assisted 100 victims of trafficking in Iraq between 2017- 2018, of whom 90 percent were women. See: IOM. 2019. In Iraq, IOM Engages Government, Community Actors to Tackle Hu- man Trafficking. Press Release. August 2, 2019. https://www.iom.int/news/iraq-iom-engages-government-community-ac- tors-tackle-human-trafficking. 36 A . Cross -Country A nalysis Box 1: UN Framework on Sexual Violence in Conflict In 2000, the Security Council adopted resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security, which calls for the increased participation of women, and the incorporation of gender perspectives, in all UN peace and security efforts. Additionally, resolution 1820 (2008) addresses sexual violence in conflict situations. Follow-up resolutions 1888 (2009), 1889 (2009), and 1960 (2010), have focused on preventing and responding to conflict-related sexual violence, and have established the UN architecture to this end, including the appointment of a special representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) on sexual violence in conflict, strengthening UN coordination mechanisms, establishing a Team of Experts on the Rule of Law and Sexual Violence in Conflict, and the establishment of monitoring, analysis and reporting mechanisms. Recent resolutions indicate that acts of sexual and gender-based violence can be used as a tactic of terrorism (resolution 2242, adopted in 2015) and establish the nexus between trafficking, sexual violence, terrorism, and transnational organized crime (resolution 2331, adopted in 2016). In 2013, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) adopted general recommendation No. 30, with guidance to States Parties to the Convention on legislative, policy and other measures to protect, respect, and fulfil women’s human rights in situations of conflict and instability. CEDAW general recommendation No. 35 recalls that GBV against women and girls constitutes discrimination under the Convention. In July 2018, the UN SRSG on Sexual Violence in Conflict and the CEDAW Committee signed a Framework of Cooperation to reaffirm common commitments to promote and protect the rights of women and girls affected by conflict-related sexual violence. This framework of cooperation aims at reinforcing synergies between the pillars of peace and security, human rights, and development. This will be done through establishing a joint program of work; advancing national-level implementation of human rights standards on the protection of women and girls affected by sexual violence, and cooperating in the conduct of research and collection of data to ensure accountability and compliance of Member States with the obligations under international law. Source: OHCHR n.d. small quarters given restrictions on mobility are contracting sexually transmitted infections, already widespread.188 In Lebanon, only one third unplanned pregnancy, and maternal mortality of Syrian refugee women have access to a mobile as a result of sexual violence in conflict. Access phone, which can deepen their isolation and limit to, and availability of, essential services, including their (and their families’) access to critical health for life-saving health care, clinical management information during quarantine.189 of rape, or medication, as well as psychosocial support, are often limited during and after FCV contexts contribute to added challenges conflict.190 Institutional collapse, and the lack of in GBV prevention and response, and disrupted justice mechanisms, services, and access limit the access to services puts GBV survivors further at recording of cases and the provision of services. risk. While GBV is already widely underreported, These factors also result in widespread impunity it remains particularly difficult to determine its for perpetrators of GBV.191 In Syria, the UN SRSG prevalence in FCV contexts due to additional report on sexual violence in conflict (2019) pointed security-related reporting and data collection out that formal justice systems are often non- challenges. Women and girls are at higher existent outside of government-controlled areas. risk of severe sexual and reproductive injuries, In Yemen, the breakdown of law and order and A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 37 the limitations of the justice system resulted in women face greater risks of rape, domestic widespread impunity.192 In Iraq, despite numerous violence, sexual exploitation, and assault. detentions and prosecutions of ISIS members on terrorism charges, no cases included indictments Resource scarcity makes travel to collect water for GBV crimes.xx and other resources longer and exposes women and girls to new security risks, including GBV. During prolonged drought, women and girls tend 9. GBV and Climate Change to make more frequent and longer trips to get food and water – which makes them more vulnerable to sexual assault, rape, and harassment, as in Yemen As one of the most water scarce regions globally, and Djibouti.196 For example, in Yemen, where 11.2 the MENA region is highly vulnerable to climate- million Yemenis are in acute need of water and related stresses and environmental disasters, sanitation,197 women have reported being afraid to which have major gendered implications. travel alone to collect water.198 Resource scarcity and environmental vulnerability exacerbate existing gender inequalities. Gender While direct links between climate change and norms and power structures shape how women displacement are complex and multi-causal, and men access and control natural resources, are climate-induced migration can increase GBV exposed to environmental hazards, and are able risks.199 In MENA, prolonged droughts have led to cope with climate-related risks.193 Women in to climate-induced migration from rural to urban rural areas often face a double economic burden— areas and exacerbated pre-existing socioeconomic income generation and unpaid household care— and political tensions, such as in Syria and Djibouti. while dealing with climate-related shocks. Loss Climate-induced migration due to resource of income due to environmental stresses can lead scarcity or natural disasters can increase women’s women to take on new roles, such as paid work exposure to GBV due to overcrowding and unsafe in sectors that have traditionally been dominated conditions in temporary housing, emergency by men, while keeping household responsibilities. shelters, and IDP camps.200 Drought-affected In MENA countries, agriculture is the largest adolescents from Ethiopia on the move through employment sector for women, making them Djibouti have experienced high risks of GBV and particularlyvulnerableto climate-related impacts.194 trafficking on their journey and upon arrival. A While women are often the primary providers of survey by the Danish Refugee Council found that water, food, and fuel, they face gender disparities nearly 100 percent of women migrants in transit and discriminatory norms in accessing and through Djibouti started taking contraception controlling land, property, and other assets. These before they left their country of origin, indicating disparities make it harder for women and girls to that they anticipated being raped or sexually mitigate climate-related hazards, and increase abused during their migration journey and took their exposure to GBV. precautions to avoid pregnancy.201 Climate change and environmental vulnerability During, and in the aftermath of, natural can aggravate GBV risk factors. A comprehensive disasters, women and girls are at particular review by the International Union for Conservation risk of GBV, including IPV, especially women of of Nature found direct links between environmental lower socioeconomic status.202 Poor harvests, issues and GBV.195. During and after natural livestock loss, lower earnings, and food insecurity disasters and extreme weather-related events, due to resource scarcity, natural disasters, and xx In 2018, the Special Adviser of the UN Investigative Team to Promote Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da’esh/ ISIL was appointed with a mandate to collect, preserve and store evidence of ISIS war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide, which include acts of sexual violence. So far, ISIS members have only been prosecuted on terrorism charges, but not for crimes of sexual violence. The UN Special Representative, with the Team of Experts on the Rule of Law and Sexual Violence in Conflict, supports the government to prosecute “pilot cases” of crimes of sexual violence crimes perpetrated by ISIS. See: UN Secretary-General 2019. 38 A . Cross -Country A nalysis environmental degradation can put pressure on cases of young girls running away to other tribes men in their traditional roles as providers for the to escape from forced marriage during pastoral household. In Djibouti, for example, prolonged conflicts.209 drought has also led to major losses in pasture and livestock.203 The socioeconomic impacts of climate- Sexual exploitation and abuse, including sex related stresses have also increased tensions trafficking, linked to land tenure and productive within households during prolonged droughts, due resources has been used to assert control over to scarcity of resources and women’s increased natural resources and maintain unequal power involvement in how money should be spent.204 This structures.210 Where the rule of law is weak, GBV increased tension exacerbates IPV risks.205 Women has been used to enable illicit and illegal activities, living in severe and moderate drought have been through sexual exploitation to exert control over found to face higher risks of a controlling partner, communities. In Iraq, ISIS deliberately targeted and of experiencing physical and sexual violence, and contaminated the farmlands of minorities than women not experiencing drought.206 in Kirkuk211 while intimidating civilians through night attacks, kidnapping, execution of farmers, Forced/early marriage has been used as a burning of agricultural land, and sexual abuse negative coping mechanism to deal with food and exploitation.212 Women’s lack of land rights insecurity brought about by prolonged drought also makes them particularly vulnerable to land and natural disasters. In situations of protracted and property grabbing, which can increase their conflict, environmental shocks, and natural vulnerability to sex trafficking and sexual extortion disasters, girls and boys face heightened risks of to access agricultural land.213 More particularly, early marriage.207 In Yemen, both the protracted research found a correlation between control over violent conflict and environmental vulnerability land and land disputes affecting women with intra- have contributed to a threefold rise in already high family GBV. In Yemen, for example, GBV has been rates of child marriage, due to economic collapse, used to deter women from asserting and claiming lack of security, and food insecurity.208 In pastoral land, property, and inheritance rights.214 While the communities in Djibouti, conflict over pasture, correlation between GBV and women’s land rights livestock, and water points due to resource is highly variable and context-specific, evidence scarcity have exacerbated some forms of GBV, suggests that secure and equitable land rights are including forced intercommunal marriage, which is a key lever to reduce some forms of GBV, by giving used as a conflict resolution mechanism to build women more decision-making and bargaining peace between communities. There have also been power within the household. II. CHALLENGES AND PROGRESS IN PREVENTION AND RESPONSE While most countries in the region have ratified leadership and capacity. This section details the international frameworks and/or developed institutional framework for GBV prevention and national strategies to address GBV, considerable response in MENA, challenges to GBV survivors challenges remain in relation to law enforcement accessing justice and protection, and limited and policy implementation. GBV survivors continue service delivery due to a lack of capacity and trust to face significant barriers to accessing support in existing systems. services and justice due to limited institutional A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 39 Crime (1950) has been fully or partially ratified by 1. Legal, Policy & all countries, except of Iran and Yemen. Djibouti, Institutional Environment Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, and West Bank and Gaza are members of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966). The a. International Conventions & International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) has been ratified in most Constitutions MENA countries, except for Saudi Arabia and the Most countries in the region have signed the United Arab Emirates. The Convention on the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Rights of the Child (1989) has been ratified by Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). While all countries in the region, with Bahrain, Djibouti, Iran is the only country in the region which has not Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and signed the CEDAW, only Djibouti, Tunisia, West Yemen making no reservations. Bank and Gaza, and Yemen have done so without reservations and/or declarations. Countries’ Most MENA countries recognize and commit reservations are generally linked to incompatibility to the enhancement of gender equality in their with Shari’a law, domestic legislation, customs, constitutions.216 Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, and traditions.xxi The CEDAW articles most Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, frequently under reservation are Article 2 Syria, Tunisia and West Bank and Gaza explicitly (obligation to amend national legislation to ensure refer to equality on the basis of sex/gender. The gender equality), Article 9.2 (women’s rights in constitutions of Jordan, Lebanon, and the United regards to the nationality of their children), Article Arab Emirates do not contain any provisions on 15 (freedom of movement and choice of residence gender parity, although the principle of equality and domicile), Article 16 (protection of equality of is mentioned in regard to race, religion, and/ marriage and family life), and Article 29 (regulation or ethnicity. Egypt and Tunisia are the only two on the international disputes between the member countries in the region whose constitutions states of the convention). Libya and Tunisia are the express commitments to tackle discrimination only two countries in the region to have ratified the and prevent GBV through legal means.217 The Optional Protocol to CEDAW, which grants their constitutions of Iran, Iraq, Libya, and Syria do not citizens the opportunity to refer to the provisions explicitly refer to combatting GBV, although they of the Convention when domestic law is restricted imply that the state should not tolerate, and should or unavailable.215 address, gender-based discrimination to ensure equal rights and freedoms of all citizens.218 Other Many countries in the region have ratified general protections for women and girls include, other international treaties, contributing to the for instance, prohibitions on forced labor, slavery, reduction of GBV and promotion of women’s the slave trade, the sex trade, and trafficking in agency. Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria Iraq; and provisions on the freedom of speech have ratified the Convention for the Suppression and protection from discrimination, violence, and of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation hatred based on gender in Libya.219 of the Prostitution of Others (1951). The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (1950), which supplements the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized xxi For example, Bahrain, Iraq, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Syria refer to this argument to justify the reser- vations. Egypt has stated that Shari’a law has already provided rights and protections to women which are equivalent or even superior to those outlined in the CEDAW. Tunisia and Yemen have ratified the convention without reservations, but have declared that in the event of contradictory statements between the convention and the domestic law, the priority should be given to the latter. Detailed information about country reservations, comments and dates of ratification can be found on the UN General Assembly website. A/RES/34/180. 40 A . Cross -Country A nalysis b. National Strategies Addressing vulnerable children, including protection against Violence Against Women and Girls sexual abuse and exploitation. Several MENA countries have adopted national In some countries, GBV or violence against strategies that specifically address violence women and girls is not addressed by a stand- against women, including Algeria, Bahrain, alone strategy or specific national action plan, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and but rather as part of an overall strategy on West Bank and Gaza. Bahrain, for example, has women and girls. In Jordan, the recently approved adopted the National Action Plan for the Protection National Strategy for Women in Jordan 2020- of Bahraini Women (2013 - 2022), which aims at 2025 includes, as one of four strategic objectives, the promotion of family stability and protection that “Women and girls enjoy a life free of all forms of of women from all forms of violence. The plan gender-based violence”. It calls for interventions for incorporates executive and legislative measures “effective GBV prevention, protection and response providing services, protections, and counselling for mechanisms in the private, public and digital survivors of GBV. Algeria has adopted the National sectors and spaces”, and for the development of Strategy to Combat Violence Against Women to policies that make high quality services accessible provide support and protection to GBV survivors, to GBV survivors. Similarly, Djibouti’s  National implement empowering strategies, and raise public Gender Policy 2011–2021 includes the elimination awareness.220 Iraq’s Anti-Violence against Women of harmful practices and GBV in its objectives.221 In Strategy (2013-2017), adopted in March 2013, and Egypt, GBV is a priority in the National Strategy the National Strategy on Advancement of Women on Women’s Empowerment 2030. A National in Iraq, adopted in 2014, call for legislation on IPV/ Strategy for the Advancement of Women in the violence against women. In West Bank and Gaza, United Arab Emirates 2015-2021 was passed the 2013 National Strategy to Combat Violence by the Cabinet and  includes mechanisms for against Women tasks the Ministry of Women’s protecting women and children from violence and Affairs with policy making for eliminating GBV abuse.xxii Iran, Kuwait, Libya, and Oman  have no against women. specific policy framework or strategy to address GBV or VAW. More details on the legal and policy Some countries have launched national environment in MENA can be found in Annex 2. strategies to eliminate specific forms for GBV. Djibouti, for example, has a National Strategy for c. Institutional Framework the Total Abandonment of FGM/C (2018-2022). In Jordan, a National Strategy and Action Plan In many MENA countries institutional leadership to Prevent Human Trafficking (2019-2022) was on GBV prevention and response is lacking, and launched in 2019. In Kuwait, the state introduced even where clear responsibilities are in place, the Kuwait National Child Protection Program, institutional capacity to effectively prevent which partially focuses on elimination of GBV and respond to GBV is generally low. While most against girls, including sexual abuse, assault MENA countries have ministries, departments, and exploitation. In addition, in 2018, the Council units, or committees to address GBV or violence of Ministers of Kuwait approved and funded a against women, mandates and responsibilities are national strategy to combat human trafficking. often fragmented, and institutions lack adequate Similarly, Oman has a National Childhood Strategy funding to effectively carry out their mandates (2015-2025) to strengthen services available to on a national scale. Although some coordination mechanisms exist, including national councils xxii Previous efforts have included Algeria’s 2008 National Strategy for the Promotion and Integration of Women, which in- cluded combatting gender-based violence as a core principle (UNDP 2018a). Qatar’s National Development Strategy (2011-2016) included a section on domestic violence, and a General Strategy of the Family (2011-2016), with a strategic objective related to violence against women. Yemen’s National Strategy for Women’s Development (2006-2015) contained “combatting violence against women” as one of its six objectives (OECD 2019l). A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 41 or commissions, as well as specific instruments and the Status of Women. In Bahrain, the Supreme to address certain types of GBV, such as human Council for Women launched a unified framework trafficking, FGM/C or child marriage, overall for counselling services and family awareness in coordination and effective collaboration remains 2019, in cooperation with the public and private weak. In units dealing directly with GBV survivors, sectors. It established a Women’s Support these weaknesses often translate into lack of GBV Center which provides social, psychological, and awareness and training, including in the justice, legal assistance to families before, during, and police, social, and health sectors. In conflict- after marriage; shelters for women survivors of affected countries, overall governmental and domestic violence; a hotline to support survivors institutional capacities have been undermined, and provide legal advice, and training programs for including in Yemen and Libya, with government GBV service providers, including in social centers officials themselves involved in GBV, human and police stations. Djibouti established a Ministry trafficking, and exploitation in several cases.222 for the Advancement of Women and Family Planning in 2008. Egypt’s National Council for Specific ministries, national commissions, and Women manages a Women’s Complaint Bureau supreme councils are mandated to work on GBV that offers counselling services and referrals to or violence against women and girls as part of civil society organizations (CSOs) for medical their general mandate on women’s issues. Where or legal assistance, on a case-by-case basis. In a ministry for women’s or family affairs exists, Morocco, a national committee on violence against it is usually responsible for coordinating GBV women, as well as regional and local committees, prevention and response efforts. In Algeria the coordinates judicial and government action and Ministry of National Solidarity manages hotlines address obstacles to survivors’ access to justice. and national shelters for GBV survivors, and The Ministry of Women’s Affairs in West Bank, co- coordinates governmental action to implement chaired by the Ministry of Social Affairs, is leading the national strategy to combat violence against the National Committee to Combat Violence women through its Delegate Minister for the Family Against Women.223 However, some countries have 42 A . Cross -Country A nalysis abolished their ministries for women’s affairs, government institutions and NGOs has been for example Iraq in 2015 and Lebanon in 2020, established to support women GBV survivors and weakening national coordination and resulting implement measures across sectors. Some MENA in lack of leadership, inefficiency, and loss of countries have targeted committees, units, or synergies on issues such as GBV prevention and working groups in place for specific forms of GBV, response.224 In some parts of West Bank and Gaza, particularly human trafficking. Some countries, coordination and implementation of existing laws such as Egypt and Morocco, have national has been hampered by the fragmentation of areas observatories to measure progress on addressing under the control of different authorities.225 violence against women. Other forms of cooperation on GBV prevention The overall low institutional capacity on GBV and response across governmental institutions frequently translates into limited capacity can be observed in several MENA countries, throughout entire institutions, and affects sometimes around specific types of GBV. In the ability of public officials to prevent and Bahrain, the Supreme Council for Women, the respond to GBV. Institutional weaknesses at the Minister of Interior, the Minister of Labor and Social higher political levels across the region include Development, the Ministry of Justice, Islamic lack of leadership, prioritization, coordination and Affairs and Endowments, and the Ministry of resource allocation. This leads to inefficiencies Health formed a joint committee, which led to the and lack of synergies on GBV prevention and 2017 launch of a database and statistics project response. Many MENA countries lack sufficient to consolidate, track, and monitor statistics on qualified staff. In many countries police officers, violence, including cases of domestic violence.226 judicial personnel, health and social workers do In Jordan, the Ministry of Education and Ministry not systematically receive training on effective of Health formed gender units to better address GBV responses.xxiii CSOs often play an important GBV, and a national coordination mechanism role in complementing or expanding official has been established involving the Ministry of capacity building efforts by providing training for Social Development, local and international public officials and other frontline responders.xxiv organizations, and the UN. Similarly, in Tunisia, However, officials receiving GBV complaints an inter-sectoral mechanism created in 2016 often prioritize family reconciliation, and reports aims to improve coordination among frontline illustrate that gender-based stereotypes and service providers with five ministries (Health, discriminatory attitudes affect the investigation, Interior, Justice, Social Affairs, and Women, Family prosecution, and adjudication of GBV cases.xxv The and Children). A common framework between lack of medical personnel specialized and trained xxiii This has been reported in Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and West Bank and Gaza. See: UN Women & Oxfam 2018; Global Protection Cluster 2018; International Commission of Jurists 2019; CEDAW 2017, 2019; United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2016; UN Women Global Database on Violence Against Women; OECD 2019a–j. xxiv In Algeria, for example, the Wassila Networks contributed to the training of medical, legal and media personnel. ABAAD in Lebanon has enabled skill-sharing between experts in different domains and front-liners and offers an online course on GBV case management in emergencies. In Egypt, CEWLA created awareness and training materials for public officials and relevant authorities on “honor crimes”. In some of countries where civil society presence is relatively weak—such as Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen—CSOs have less access to provide training. In Iran, for example, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (2016) noted that law enforcement officials, judges, and relevant professionals working with children do not have proper access to GBV sensitivity training. See Cairn Info. n.d. Le réseau Wassila, un collectif algérien pour les droits des femmes et l’égalité. https://www.cairn.info/revue-nouvelles-questions-feministes-2014-2-page-136.htm; International Planned Parenthood Federation. n.d. Association Djiboutienne pour l’equilibre et la Promotion de la Famille. https:// www.ippf.org/about-us/member-associations/djibouti; SOAS Centre of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law. n.d. Egypt Center for Egyptian Women Legal Assistance. https://www.soas.ac.uk/honourcrimes/partners/egypt---centre-for-egyptian-women- legal-assistance-cewla.html. xxv This has been reported in Iraq Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and West Bank and Gaza. OECD 2019a–j; International Commission of Jurists 2019; CEDAW 2018; UNGA 2019; Euromed Rights. 2015. Palestine. Report on Violence against Women in the Context of Conflict. Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network. https://euromedrights.org/ wp-content/uploads/2015/12/EMHRN-Factsheet-VAW-Palestine-EN.pdf A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 43 in forensic aspects of GBV leads to evidence d. Civil Society & Development Partners being lost, and emergency contraception not being provided in cases of rape, and also affects In the context of limited public institutional adequate treatment of GBV survivors, referrals, capacity, CSOs are instrumental in advocating and follow-up mechanisms. The lack of adequate for GBV survivors’ rights to justice and services. health system capacity is even more pronounced CSOs, including women’s rights groups and in FCV settings, where the availability of female human rights activists, have been particularly gynecologists, medical professionals who provide instrumental in advocacy efforts to influence specialized GBV services, and forensic specialists, national policy and legal frameworks. In Egypt, is limited.xxvi Service providers often have limited for example, CSOs and women’s rights groups capacity to respond to the different needs of have long campaigned for a national strategy to GBV survivors, including psychological services, address violence against women and girls, and physical health, safe shelter, legal assistance, and were part of the strategy development process material support. under the leadership of NCW.xxvii CSOs also come together to hold governments accountable for A small number of MENA countries – such as fulfilling their mandates on GBV prevention and Lebanon, Kuwait, Djibouti, Morocco, and West response, and some organizations monitor and Bank and Gaza - have developed multi-sectoral record overall human rights violations in their referral systems and integrated approaches to respective countries, including women’s rights increase collaboration between different sectors issues and GBV.xxviii In some MENA countries CSOs within government and CSOs. In Kuwait, doctors have formal coordination and network functions are required to report domestic violence cases or together with the governments. In Lebanon, for injuries to a Ministry of Interior investigator at the example, the NGO ABAAD has been co-chair of hospital, who must then pass the report to the the National Technical Task Force to End GBV Department of Investigation within the Ministry, against Women and Girls alongside the Ministry along with a medical report by the examining of Social Affairs since 2012).227 In Djibouti, the doctor. In Lebanon, a referral system for GBV National Union of Djiboutian Women works closely survivors, standard operational procedures, and with government actors to coordinate the multi- case management protocols were established sectoral response to GBV with line ministries and through coordination between CSOs and different provide key services for survivors. ministries. In West Bank and Gaza, a coalition of CSOs launched a national referral system for CSOs fill important gaps in prevention, through survivors called Takamol, which is now legally awareness raising, and in response, by both required for GBV service providers, including health, connecting and providing services to survivors police, and social service providers. for legal, health, shelters, and psychosocial support, as well as general livelihood and empowerment programs. Many CSOs working on GBV in the region provide targeted information xxvi This is reported in Iraq, Gaza, and Syria. See: UN Women & Oxfam 2018; Banyan Global et al. 2016; UN Women 2017; UNFPA 2018. xxvii Other examples include Djibouti, where the ADEPF (Association Djiboutienne pour l’Equilibre et la Promotion de la Famille) has worked closely with the Ministry for the Promotion of Women, the Ministry of Health, and the State Secretariat of Youth on the issue of female genital mutilation. In Iran, the National Welfare Organization has been working with the judiciary to prevent child marriages through a joint awareness campaign. KAFA and ABAAD in Lebanon have also been advocating for legal reforms. See: International Planned Parenthood Federation n.d.; ODVV 2017; ABAAD 2020. xxviii In Egypt CEWLA (Center for Egyptian Women’s Legal Assistance) established a strong network with executive and legislative stakeholders and other civil society organizations, to strengthen cooperation between stakeholders on women’s and children’s legal rights (Global Fund for Women n.d.). The Omani Center for Human Rights (n.d.) documents human rights issues in the country and raises awareness of human rights in all areas of public life, including women’s and children’s rights. Similarly, in Egypt, the El Nadeem Center for Rehabilitation provides a media archive that summarizes certain violations of human rights and raises awareness of violence against women in the household, and sexual violence in public spaces (Michaelson 2018). 44 A . Cross -Country A nalysis for GBV survivors and conduct public awareness- communities. World Vision International operates raising activities through community outreach in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and West Bank and and communication campaigns. Often CSOs are Gaza. It addresses GBV as part of its humanitarian the first point of contact for GBV survivors, and strategy, with some focus on combatting child as such play an important role in connecting marriages and violence against girls by advocating survivors with appropriate services.xxix Often with for legal reform, investing in scaling-up education the support of v.xxx The role of CSOs is further and empowerment of adolescent girls, and discussed in the sections on access to justice and community dialogue. The International Rescue service provision. Committee (IRC) is implementing humanitarian aid programs in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, In addition to local CSOs, numerous international Syria, and Yemen, which address GBV against NGOs are working at the country and regional female refugees and IDPs, among other issues, level in MENA on elimination of GBV against and provide different types of support to survivors. girls and women, especially in the context For example, in Iraq IRC offers counselling, group of humanitarian crises. For example, CARE activities and legal support to women and girls, International implements development programs and in Syria IRC is creating safe spaces for women in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank and girls that offer services for survivors of GBV.xxxi and Gaza, and Yemen, with programs on child marriage and engagement to address violence UN agencies, based on their individual specialized through a focus on gender norms and stereotypes. mandates and expertise, are key stakeholders In Syria, CARE provides protection programming advocating for change and supporting national for GBV, as well as case management and and regional efforts to prevent and address GBV. psychological support. Plan International has a Many UN agencies work closely with governments presence in some MENA countries with efforts to and CSOs to strengthen national capacities to address and prevent GBV, such as in Jordan where prevent and respond to GBV. They advocate for they implement support programs for children legal and policy reforms and their enforcement, who are at risk of abuse, child marriage and contribute to strengthening government capacity exploitation. Save the Children offices, particularly for GBV prevention, and are directly involved in in Lebanon and Yemen, address GBV against service provision for survivors of GBV. Annex 4 children through educational programs to protect includes examples of support by UN agencies in adolescents from GBV and the promotion of their the MENA region. sexual and reproductive health rights. Several international organizations focus primarily on UN agencies recognize that effective prevention addressing and combatting GBV against female and response requires coordinated and sustained refugees, asylum seekers, and IDPs, as well as host action by the multiple actors working on GBV. xxix For example, in Algeria, the organization RACHDA refers women to other institutions for consultations, reception ser- vices, and so on. (Balsam 2011). In Djibouti, the National Union of Djiboutian Women’s counselling center for female survivors of GBV has worked with the police and legal authorities, and directs survivors to appropriate services (No Peace Without Justice 2008). In Egypt, the El Nadeem Center for Rehabilitation has referred refugees to special organizations providing help to refugees and asylum seekers, following the shutdown of their clinic (Michaelson 2018). xxx In Lebanon, ABAAD has worked on engaging men and providing support at the individual, family, couples, and commu- nity levels, promoting non-violent behavior, reinforcing positive familial and social relationships, and engaging women and men from host and refugee communities in instilling concepts of non-violence and partnership (ABAAD n.d.-a–c). In Djibouti, ADEPF has worked on social norms around the cultural practice of FGM/C through TV, radio programs and educational programs (Inter- national Planned Parenthood Federation n.d.). xxxi See: International Rescue Committee (n. d.). Similarly, the Danish Refugee Council (DRC) assists refugees and internally displaced persons in Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen, and provides support services for vulnerable women and girls. For instance, in Lebanon, DRC delivers psychosocial support, case management and community-based protection for female GBV survivors. In Syria, DRC focuses on strengthening the protective environment for women and girls. Efforts to com- bat GBV as part of the humanitarian aid program have been also undertaken by the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC). In Iraq, refugee women receive legal support from NRC, particularly in vulnerable cases. In Iran, NRC provides emergency service delivery for women, affected by humanitarian crisis, and organizes community-based education services to empower adolescent girls. A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 45 UNFPA is leading the Inter-Agency Gender-Based often underfunded and have limited capacity to Violence Area of Responsibility (AoR) that functions fully meet the needs of survivors.230 A continued as a platform to bring together NGOs, UN agencies, lack of standard procedures, functioning referral academics, and others, under the shared objective systems, and survivor-centered case management of “ensuring life-saving, predictable, accountable hinders effective service delivery. Services in many and effective GBV prevention, risk mitigation and regions, particularly in remote locations, are often response in emergencies”.228 There are a number of unavailable, inadequate or inaccessible for GBV GBV sub-clusters in the MENA region, including in, survivors and those at risk. Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, and Yemen, which are generally led by UNFPA, UNICEF or UN Limited institutional capacity and trust Women, depending on the priority GBV issue. In in existing systems, combined with social humanitarian settings, UNHCR is responsible for stigmatization, contribute to few survivors of organizing and coordinating GBV response actions GBV seeking support. Most survivors of GBV on the regional and/or national levels. do not seek any help or support. For example, according to a national survey in Tunisia, only five percent of female GBV survivors approached 2. Service Delivery a governmental institution or CSO for help. Less than four percent approached police, and around two percent reached out to health care providers.231 Many MENA countries have not ensured In West Bank and Gaza, less than two percent of comprehensive service provision for GBV female GBV survivors went to police for protection survivors through legislation and policy. or to file a complaint.232 In Jordan, less than three Service provision for survivors is a government percent of female GBV survivors have ever sought responsibility, but legal regulations lack consistency help from lawyers, the police, or medical personnel.233 and clarity on the rights of survivors, including services. In several MENA countries, governments FCV countries face additional challenges are committing to service provision through new regarding service delivery for GBV survivors. legislation, national strategies and/or action plans, Although some GBV services have been provided to or agreements with other agencies.xxxii Effective female IDPs, refugees, and migrants, many services case management is key, as it provides GBV are disrupted due to ongoing conflict.234 In Syria, survivors with multi-sectoral services including for example, operations of shelters for trafficking health care, counselling and psychosocial support, survivors in Damascus and Aleppo are on hold. legal aid, socioeconomic empowerment, and Yemen’s commitment to develop five shelters for referral to other services. However, government women in the action plan of the Ministry of Social capacities are weak and responsibilities for service Affairs and Labor for 2011-2015 have not been provision tend to be spread across various public implemented.235 institutions with insufficient coordination. The result is fragmented service delivery and limited It remains particularly difficult to reach geographic coverage.229 Thus, in many MENA vulnerable population groups. These include countries, GBV-related services are often provided unregistered persons, adolescent girls, elderly by CSOs. While CSOs have long been engaged in women, survivors with disabilities, LGBTQI GBV prevention and response efforts and are often survivors, and male survivors of GBV.236 The few the first responders in GBV cases, they are also services available to LGBTQI and male survivors xxxii Morocco’s plan to combat VAW stresses that legal and financial measures as well as listening centers should be strengthened to support female GBV survivors. Tunisia’s National Strategy on Violence against Women (2009) states the need for a variety of services for GBV survivors, including immediate and accessible protection through shelters. Bahrain’s Law on Protection against Domestic Violence (2015) states that the state should provide adequate and sufficient support for survivors of GBV including shelter, although no regulations on management and access to shelter are provided. The West Bank and Gaza National Strategy to Combat Violence Against Women (2011-2019) underlines the need for an increased number and enhanced quality of shelters. 46 A . Cross -Country A nalysis of violence are generally managed by CSOs, and GBV survivors.xxxiv Survivors or those at risk may accessing these services is highly stigmatized.xxxiii not have access to a phone or the internet, or Adolescent girls are often restricted in their would put themselves at risk by accessing remote mobility and cannot access services due to family case management services from their homes or community constraints, but some government- during confinement. The following section covers run services specialize in reaching these younger key social services including GBV hotlines, health women. In Algeria, for example, the  Ministry services, psychosocial support and livelihoods of National Solidarity, Family and Status of support. Women manages reception centers for girls under the age of 18 and centers for elderly women over a. Hotlines 60 years.237 The State Welfare Organization in Iran runs 31 health houses for young and/or unmarried Hotlines are often a first point of access for women “in danger of social harms”, and 26 safe GBV survivors, and in MENA these are generally houses for married and/or elderly women.238 In provided and managed by both government Kuwait, the Ministry of Health established the institutions and CSOs. In Algeria, hotlines run National Child Protection Program in 2015, which by the Ministry of National Solidarity, Family and initiated the creation of Child Protection Centers Status of Women are in place in the 48 provinces, to address domestic violence against children and and the Balsam Network of CSOs manages a abuse at home. national network of 15 call centers supporting the delivery of essential services to survivors.239 The Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, service delivery National Union of Djiboutian Women operates for GBV survivors has been affected in many a counselling center for female GBV survivors, MENA countries by the closure of facilities, working with the police and legal authorities limited operations, and shifting of resources. The to direct survivors to appropriate services deteriorating socioeconomic situation imposes (Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada further hardship in already vulnerable settings and 2017).240 Bahrain is an example of using multiple particularly in countries experiencing humanitarian hotlines: the crisis response center Shamsaha crises. Nationwide efforts to analyze and evaluate provides two 24-hour helplines, one in English the situation and introduce best practices for and one in Arabic, and free text message services addressing GBV during the COVID-19 crisis are through WhatsApp or SMS; the Aisha Yatim family being implemented in several MENA countries with counselling center provides an eight-hour-a-day CSOs, international development partners, and hotline to survivors of IPV, and the government governments engaging in joint efforts to support manages a hotline specifically for women migrant availability and access to services. In some workers.241 In Libya, CSOs, in cooperation with countries, face-to-face management services the Ministry of Social Affairs and UN agencies, have been replaced by remote case management launched a psychosocial hotline to assist survivors or mobile forms of counselling. Notwithstanding of GBV and other vulnerable populations in 2019.242 the importance of remote-based systems, Kuwait has established a hotline to report labor including phone, internet and SMS services, the complaints, human trafficking, and forced labor, current crisis has underlined that effective case although no hotline is available for reporting on management requires additional entry points for domestic violence or other forms of GBV.243 In xxxiii Other, CSO-driven examples, include: in Lebanon, the NGO MOSAIC specifically provides medical, psychological, and legal support to LGBTQI and male survivors to reduce the gaps they face in service provision, and Plan International works with educational and health facilities to engage with adolescent girls at risk of GBV (Irish Consortium on GBV 2019). In Kuwait, Al Hurriya focuses on the rights of LGBTQI people (Amnesty International 2019, Human Rights Committee 2016).  xxxiv See for guidance on case management during COVID-19: UNFPA 2020e. In Lebanon, with the support of international partners, ABAAD launched an online learning course on GBV case management in emergency settings for social workers and other service providers (ABAAD 2020). A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 47 countries such as Iraq and Lebanon, hotlines are Specialized medical services are scarce and mainly managed by CSOs.xxxv medical personnel are not always trained to respond to GBV cases. In Morocco, for example, Given the limited physical accessibility of some public hospitals have GBV units that provide centers or other facilities for GBV survivors urgent medical care to survivors.244 In Qatar, during COVID-19, hotlines gained additional the Aman Protection and Social Rehabilitation importance. National helplines for domestic Center provides medical services for survivors violence or other forms of GBV extended their of domestic violence, including female migrant operating hours, and additional phone services workers who have fled their sponsors.245 Beyond were launched in several countries to provide legal treatment of physical injuries, GBV survivors do assistance or psychological support via phone, for not always receive treatment for prevention of example, in Lebanon, Tunisia and West Bank and STIs or HIV, nor receive emergency contraception.246 Gaza.xxxvi UN agencies have supported the ramping Furthermore, facilities do not always schedule up of hotlines to respond to increased needs due follow-up appointments, and mental health is to COVID-19 in, for example, Lebanon, Yemen and often not integrated into the health response for Oman.xxxvii GBV survivors. Lack of forensic medical personnel or lack of training can lead to evidence that is b. Health Services required for court cases being lost. NGOs or shelter staff are sometimes also engaged in training GBV survivors directly seek or are referred to health care professionals on GBV response and health care service providers to receive medical providing these types of services, including Clinical attention, and these services provide critical Management of Rape.xxxviii interventions for GBV survivors. Health services often serve as a first point of contact for GBV Health systems are particularly strained survivors, with key services such as emergency through the COVID-19 pandemic in several contraception to prevent pregnancy, post- MENA countries. Acknowledging that countries exposure prophylaxis medication to prevent HIV face difficult choices when health systems infection, and presumptive treatment of sexually are overwhelmed, it is widely recognized that transmitted infections. They can also provide first- services for GBV remain essential, especially line support, psychological first aid, and referral given its increased prevalence during COVID-19.247 to other services, although this is not necessarily Nonetheless, given resource constraints, it has been standard practice in MENA countries. particularly challenging to increase provision of xxxv In Iraq, a 24/7 hotline for women, who experienced domestic violence is operated by Cordaid’s mental health program (Cordaid 2020). KAFA and ABAAD in Lebanon run emergency lines for GBV survivors (Banyan Global et al. 2016). The section on Psychosocial support specifically discusses the counselling function of the hotlines. xxxvi In Lebanon, for example, the National Commission for Lebanese Women, in cooperation with the Internal Security Forc- es, set up a new domestic violence hotline (UN Women 2020a). In Tunisia, an additional hotline was opened to respond to the five-fold increase of reported GBV cases and the operating hours of the existing hotline were extended to 24/7 (TV5Monde 2020). In West Bank and Gaza, existing hotline hours for GBV reporting were extended (CARE Palestine West Bank/Gaza. 2020. A Summary of Early Gender Impacts of the COVID 19 Pandemic.). See: OECD. 2020. COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses. http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/covid-19-crisis-in-the-mena- region-impact-on-gender-equality-and-policy-responses-ee4cd4f4/ xxxvii In Lebanon, UNFPA launched a family planning hotline at the beginning of the pandemic, which also provides support in questions of reproductive and maternal health and emergencies and in Yemen, UNFPA supported hotlines and toll-free numbers as an alternative to in-person services for survivors of GBV (UNFPA 2020). In Oman a hotline that provides psychological and medical counselling for women was jointly launched by UNFPA, WHO, the Omani Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, and the Ministry of Health. (ibid). xxxviii In Lebanon, ABAAD and KAFA offer access to medical treatment to survivors of GBV, and ABAAD has worked with UNICEF to enhance the capacity of frontline workers in hospitals and primary health care centers through training on GBV and CMR in health facilities throughout the country (UN ESCWA 2017, ABAAD 2020). In Syria, the Sisters of the Good Shepherd organization provides emergency care as well as psychological and medical services to survivors of violence. In the United Arab Emirates, Emirates Red Crescent delivers first aid and relief to the survivors. 48 A . Cross -Country A nalysis health services for survivors of GBV. FCV countries up by the Egyptian Ministry of Interior.251 Similarly, are particularly vulnerable, where availability of counselling services and referrals to CSOs are health and WASH services is insufficient, health provided in several countries, such as Egypt, Tunisia care facilities have been partially destroyed, and and Yemen.252 Numerous CSOs offer psychosocial governance remains fragile. support activities combined with other services, such as livelihood programs, offered in shelters or safe spaces, or direct counselling through hotlines.xl c. Psychosocial Support Psychosocial support is a key component of GBV During COVID-19, overall psychosocial support service delivery. Mental health impacts for GBV needs increased, while service delivery was survivors include self-harm and suicidal behavior, affected. Prior to COVID-19, some MENA countries depression, anxiety, substance misuse, sleep were offering psychosocial support services via disturbances, and post-traumatic stress disorder. phone or other remote mechanisms, and the In addition, GBV survivors often face shaming and pandemic has increased the need for these services. stigmatization from theirfamilies orcommunities.248 In Morocco, a new digital platform that will help Psychosocial support takes the form of emotional raise awareness among families and enable direct support groups, positive parenting groups, and reporting of acts of GBV is being developed.253 New other community activities,xxxix as well as individual modes of psychological counselling and support treatment through counsellors and health target vulnerable women and those who have professionals. In many cases, it is an entry point limited access to support services.254 for disclosing GBV incidents; in Lebanon, data shows that more than 30 percent of survivors d. Shelter seek individual help after more than one month of continuing participation in psychosocial activities.249 Despite some advances in the establishment and capacity of shelters, overall coverage, Psychosocial support is maintained through accessibility, capacity, and financing of shelters government service providers and CSOs in remains concerning. Shelters for GBV survivors MENA countries, often directly linked to shelters. and those at risk are an essential component Several government-run or government-funded of GBV prevention and response, providing shelters in the region, such as in Algeria, Tunisia protection, allowing survivors of violence to and Jordan, provide psychological and social distance themselves from abusive situations, and services for GBV survivors.250 In other countries, preventing further violence through awareness response-related units have been set up, like raising and support.255 Although most MENA a Community Police Department which offers countries offer shelters in some form, their number psychological and social support to GBV survivors and geographic coverage remains inadequate. in Kuwait, or the Violence against Women Unit set According to a 2019 study, there are not more xxxix Psychosocial interventions are therapeutic interventions which use “cognitive, cognitive-behavioral, behavioral or sup- portive techniques to relieve pain. Methods include patient education, interventions to aid relaxation, psychotherapy, and struc- tured or peer support.” See: Health and Human Rights Info. 2016. Mental Health and Gender-based Violence: Helping Survivors of Sexual Violence in Conflict – a Training Manual.. xl In Algeria and Bahrain, for example, several CSOs provide psychosocial support through telephone counselling and assis- tance. There are other examples, such as in Iraq, where the ASUDA organization provides psychological, social support, directly and via telephone hotline. The National Union of Djiboutian Women has a counselling center for female GBV survivors. The El Nadeem Center for Rehabilitation in Egypt also provides psychological rehabilitation to domestic violence survivors and med- icolegal reports whenever necessary (DW Akademie nd). In Lebanon, the CSO ABAAD also established a Men’s Center for men who show signs of violent behavior, which offers psychosocial support and anger management to men (ABAAD 2020). In some MENA countries, shelters offer out-of-shelter counselling and psychosocial support services. For example, in Bahrain, the Wom- en’s Support Center provides social, psychological and legal assistance to families, and the counselling services are provided in several social centers (UNDP 2018). A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 49 than 50 shelters across all Arab states.xli Shelter collaboration with the Ministry of Social Affairs.257 services have been affected by COVID-19, with In Morocco, the “Union de l’Action Feminine” (UAF) facilities closed, operations limited, and/or made operates a network of several centers providing inaccessible by movement restrictions. housing, counselling, and guidance, as well as legal, medical and psychological assistance to women The services provided in shelters vary, and experiencing violence. Only the government of staff are not always adequately trained to Bahrain funds the costs of a shelter run by a provide specialized services.xlii Most shelters or CSO.xlv In some countries it is difficult for CSOs to safe spaces in MENA countries offer temporary establish shelters. For example, in Iraq, only the accommodation to survivors of domestic violence, government can legally provide shelters, due to a while some also provide rehabilitation services. narrow interpretation of the Law on Combating Due to a lack of financial and material resources, Human Trafficking (2012) and, as a result, some many shelters depend on part-time employees survivors of GBV are temporally placed in female and volunteers, who do not necessarily have prisons to ensure protection.258 professional qualifications and competencies. Centers in Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza, and Shelters or safe houses for specific vulnerable Yemen provide health services without specialized groups or for survivors of specific forms of GBV health care staff and/or child-related services exist but are scarce. Some MENA countries have without employing childcare staff.256 In other special shelters for trafficking survivors, generally countries, such as Lebanon, shelters offer a wide operated by CSOs, such as the Organization of range of services, including from specialized staff.xliii Women’s Freedom in Iraq (OWFI) for Yazidi women and girls who have escaped ISIS, and in the United Many existing shelters are run by CSOs which Arab Emirates, by the Emirates Red Crescent and often depend on international donors for the government. In Oman, the government has support. Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi opened a shelter for trafficking survivors with the Arabia, Syria and West Bank and Gaza have provision of lodging, psychological counselling, government-run shelters.xliv Nonetheless, even in legal assistance and medical services.259 In Saudi areas with government shelters, most shelters Arabia, the government-run shelter does not allow are run by CSOs and face challenges in staffing, access to women over age 65 years, refugee and capacity, sustainability, and service provision for migrant women, women with disabilities, and those survivors. In Lebanon, for example, most shelters with mental health issues.260 In contrast, a center and safe spaces are provided by CSOs, often in for the accommodation of migrant workers was xli ESCWA defines Arab states as: “Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.” ESCWA (2019). This is aligned with the findings of the UN Women and Center for Arab Women Training and Research (CAWTAR) directory of govern- ment and non-government institutions supporting female survivors of violence in 19 MENA countries, which found that out of 434 organizations documented, only 10 percent indicated that they provided shelter services (UN ESCWA 2019b). xlii UN agencies have developed minimum considerations for essential services for women and girls in shelters which in- cludes providing safe and secure accommodation; ensuring safety measures are in place; providing basic accommodation needs free of charge; ensuring there is a protocol for unaccompanied children, including for longer-term alternative care; where neces- sary and appropriate; ensuring that accommodation is accessible for women and girls with disabilities (UN ESCWA 2019a). xliii ABAAD’s emergency safe shelters in Lebanon, for example, provide free temporary houses for women at risk or survivors of GBV, including single and married women, their children, as well as adolescent girls. Services include immediate safe housing (24/7), crisis counselling, emergency support and information on legal rights, xliv In Egypt, the Ministry of Social Solidarity announced the opening of a new shelter in Giza in 2019, which is one of eight similar facilities across the country (Egypt Independent 2019). In Qatar, the Ministry of Administrative Development, Labor and Social Affairs offers shelter assistance as well as childcare (Hukoomi Qatar Government nd). xlv Among the many examples of CSO-run shelters are: In Algeria, SOS Women in Distress offers a temporary accommo- dation center for women and children experiencing abuse (Balsam nd). RACHDA has also created a reception center (DARNA) in Algiers providing temporary housing to survivors of domestic violence (ibid). In Bahrain, the Bahraini Young Ladies’ Association established the Aisha Yateem Family Coaching Center, which offers consultancy services and residential facilities (BMMI 2016). The National Union of Djiboutian Women offers safe spaces for female GBV survivors (Devex n.d.).. 50 A . Cross -Country A nalysis established in 2015 by the Bahrain National Children provides social rehabilitation for survivors Committee to Combat Trafficking in Persons of domestic violence.262 Shelters in Algeria offer and the Labor Market Regulatory Authority, follow-up support for up to two years to help a first  its kind in the Arab Region providing of  reintegrate survivors back into society.263 In the integrated services ranging from legal, social, public United Arab Emirates, the General Women’s Union and psychological health services,  to security provides vocational training and job placement protection, and a 24-hour call center in seven services, and facilitates economic independence languages.261 through small business development.264 ABAAD operates eight Women and Girls Safe Spaces Access to shelters remains difficult for survivors throughout Lebanon, based at the Social because of admission requirements and limited Development Centers of the Lebanese Ministry protection measures, which are often anchored of Social Affairs, which offer a range of services in patriarchal social norms. Seeking access to including soft skills and economic empowerment shelter can be challenging, especially when police for survivors of GBV and their children.265 or judicial officers receiving reports of abuse are not adequately trained. In response, some MENA Demand for livelihood and economic support countries have enacted legislation that prohibits became particularly urgent in the context of the authorities from interfering with a GBV survivor COVID-19 pandemic. International development reporting abuse, such as Law No. 293 in Lebanon, partners, NGOs, and CSOs attempt to provide which prescribes penalties for judicial officers in livelihood and empowerment support for GBV such cases. Some shelters have specific eligibility survivors under the conditions of the pandemic. requirements, such as nationality, marital For instance, in Libya, Women and Girls Safe status, and proof of a hospital or police report.xlvi Spaces in Tripoli and Sabha are delivering Furthermore, many shelters do not accept women livelihood training for women on, to sew face with their children, or impose age restrictions on masks in compliance with WHO guidelines.266 In children, especially boys, accompanying survivors, many MENA countries digital solutions have which deters them from seeking shelter. been developed to encourage vulnerable women’s economic opportunities and livelihoods. Other strategies of supporting livelihood and economic e. Livelihoods and Empowerment opportunities for vulnerable populations, including Overall, livelihood and economic support targeted GBV survivors, focus on the distribution of food towards GBV survivors is limited.xlvii Shelters and and hygiene products, immediate cash assistance, CSOs are regularly constrained in their funding and governmental support for health insurance.267 and so often prioritize immediate assistance over longer term support to survivors. To some extent, life skills trainings and rehabilitation services are offered in MENA countries through shelters. The Qatar Foundation for the Protection of Women and xlvi In Egypt, for example, women and girls must meet several conditions to be admitted into a shelter, namely only Egyptian nationals or those officially married to an Egyptian man, or a divorcée of an Egyptian man, who is still in her post-divorce idda (waiting) period (UN ESCWA 2019b). Some shelters require proof of identity, which is the case in Lebanon and Yemen, or proof of hospital and police reports, like in Bahrain, before accepting women at the shelter (ibid). In Kuwait, there are no shelters for mar- ried women who suffered from GBV, nor any temporary accommodation services for adolescent girls under the age of 18 subject to family violence (CEDAW 2011b). In Oman, shelters and support centers are available only for women of Omani nationality or married to Omani men, and access to the Dar al Wifaq shelter for female survivors of violence and trafficking is only possible through the office of the Prosecutor General or another law enforcement agency (OECD 2019h, UN ESCWA 2019b). xlvii This paragraph discusses livelihood and economic support for GBV survivors, not general livelihood/economic support as a prevention strategy. See for more information on this see: Women’s Refugee Commission (2011). Preventing Gender-based Violence, Building Livelihoods Guidance and Tools for Improved Programming. Women’s Refugee Commission 2011. Preventing Gender-based Violence, Building Livelihoods Guidance and Tools for Improved Programming. https://gbvaor.net/thematic-ar- eas?term_node_tid_depth_1%5B68%5D=68&term_node_tid_depth_1%5B69%5D=69 A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 51 Access to legal recourse is directly affected 3. Protection and Access by the costs of legal services, lack of legal to Justice assistance, and challenges related to physical access. Public legal aid services are only available in few MENA countries, and the inability to pay Access to justice and legal representation is for legal aid affects the chances of cases being a key barrier to survivors of GBV obtaining brought to court. Beyond court fees and legal protection, rehabilitation, or compensation. services, physical access to courts can be another GBV survivors face considerable challenges that barrier, because of distance from remote areas, include: lack of information and awareness; high lack of transportation, or the physical design of costs of legal services and lack of legal aid or facilities. Women often have limited access to transport; inadequate training of public officials; financial resources or are financially dependent underrepresentation of women in the police and on their husbands, and especially in cases of judiciary; procedural challenges, including barriers intimate partner violence or violence involving in customary law systems and informal justice family members, this limits their ability to seek mechanisms, and deeply entrenched social norms justice. Furthermore, facilities and buildings are and biases that affect help-seeking behavior. not necessarily designed to protect GBV survivors’ GBV survivors in FCV-affected countries, forcibly privacy, reinforcing fears of negative repercussions displaced persons, and migrants without legal and lack of trust in institutions. These challenges status or limited rights under national laws face have been exacerbated during COVID-19 by additional obstacles. Movement restrictions and movement restrictions and closures of public closures of public institutions during the current institutions. On the other hand, some special units pandemic are exacerbating these challenges. have been established to address GBV cases, such as for example in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. In many MENA countries, there is a lack of information and awareness on the rights of GBV survivors. In addition, information on legal rights and protections is particularly difficult to access for poor women and girls in rural areas, refugees and asylum-seekers, and migrant domestic workers. For example, in Djibouti, it is suggested that women’s lack of knowledge of their rights and the legal framework is linked to extreme poverty, structural difficulties, and discriminatory attitudes and behaviors.268 52 A . Cross -Country A nalysis In addition, several countries have national human Limited knowledge of GBV survivors’ legal rights rights institutions which sometimes provide an and lack of appropriate training leaves public alternative to courts for women seeking redress officials inadequately prepared to respond for human rights violations.269 effectively. Police, prosecutors, and judges in many MENA countries lack understanding of gender- To compensate for the lack of public legal sensitive procedures and specific sensitivities on aid services, CSOs offer free legal assistance GBV cases, and sometimes blame survivors of GBV in several MENA countries, sometimes in or do not take the cases seriously.273 In addition, collaboration with the respective governments. law enforcement authorities do not always take In Egypt, the Women’s Complaint Bureau in the adequate measures to ensure the confidentiality NCW offers referrals to CSOs for legal assistance, and safety of GBV survivors and witnesses, on a case-by-case basis, and the Violence against discouraging others from reporting incidents and Women Unit in the Ministry of Interior is mandated undermining trust in the legal system.xlix to follow up on GBV legal cases.270 Some CSOs provide medico-legal centers where GBV survivors Procedural challenges place a heavy burden can receive both health and legal services, resulting on GBV survivors. In several countries, such as in an increase in prosecutions and convictions.271 Djibouti, there is no legal process for obtaining In some cases, legal aid services are provided a protection or restraining order from a court in through joint efforts between governments, bar IPV cases.274 In other countries, procedures are associations and/or CSOs, for instance in Bahrain, lengthy, only provide protection for a limited Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia, and time, and often put the burden of proof on the West Bank and Gaza, In other countries CSOs survivor.l In some countries, survivors of rape are given a limited legal and operational space to cannot testify without facing the perpetrator, provide free legal assistance to women.272 Across with no protection mechanisms for the survivor or the region, several CSOs offer free legal advice witnesses. Furthermore, in Shari’a courts in several or representation to GBV survivors, such as the countries, such as Bahrain and Libya, a woman’s Jordanian Justice Center for Legal Aid that provides testimony is only worth half the testimony of a legal aid services to Jordanians, and Syrian, Iraqi, man.275 In countries with guardianship systems and Palestinian refugees.xlviii this can deter women from seeking justice through the formal system, especially in cases involving xlviii Other examples of CSOs that provide legal assistance to GBV survivors include, in Algeria, the Wassila Networks; in Bah- rain, the Awal Women’s Society of Bahrain and SOS Women in Distress lawyers; in Egypt, CEWLA provides legal aid, particularly for poor women; in Iraq, the Family Guidance and Awareness Center; in Kuwait, SWS provides domestic and migrant workers with legal assistance including lawyers and representation at police stations; in Morocco, the Ennajda centers, the “Association El Amane pour la Femme et l’Enfant” and the “Centre des droits des gens”; in West Bank and Gaza, the Women’s Centre for Legal Aid and Counselling (WCLAC) and the Palestinian Working Women Society for Development; in Syria, the Sisters of the Good Shepherd; and in Yemen, the Yemen Women’s Union. See: Amera International. N.d. Jordan Pro Bono Directory. http://www. refugeelegalaidinformation.org/jordan-pro-bono-directory xlix Banyan Global et al. 2016; In Djibouti, a law on legal aid for poor complainants was introduced in 2011 but is rarely used due to lack of awareness, as well as prevailing social norms and traditions (UNDP 2018c). In Lebanon, some criminal courts continue to consider “honor” as a mitigating circumstance and grant reduced sentences to perpetrators, despite the abolition of this provision from the Penal Code (International Commission of Jurists 2019). In Morocco, Tunisia and other MENA countries, police officers were found to refuse to record cases, investigate allegations and arrest suspects. Instead, police often saw their role in IPV cases as promoting mediation and preserving survivors’ marriages, and did not file formal charges. In some cases IPV survivors have been told to return to their abusers, or police did not take any further action (Amnesty International 2016; Hu- man Rights Watch 2016, 2018). Moreover, women are generally underrepresented in police and judicial institutions, which may deter female survivors of GBV from seeking support. For example, in Jordan only 19% of judges and 27% of practicing lawyers are women (UNDP 2018e), and some countries have introduced quotas to increase share of female judges which has led to higher shares – 39% in Djibouti, 24% in Morocco (UNDP 2018c). l In Lebanon, for example, urgent protection orders by a judge require that a survivor submits proof of violence and risks of recurrence, and are only valid for a short period of time (International Commission of Jurists 2019; UN ESCWA 2019b). This burden of proof, along with forensic requirements, adds further barriers. In Jordan, women are usually required to provide two or more witnesses to any investigation, or to prove battery if charges are pressed (ESCWA 2017). In Algeria, there is a requirement to prove injury as part of forensic evidence (UN Human Rights Council 2011). A. Cross- Co untry Analysis 53 family members. In Saudi Arabia, a woman needs context, social stigma regarding GBV contributes the authorization of a male guardian to file a to a culture of shame and dishonor towards complaint, and if a woman decides to enter or survivors and prevents them from access to legal leave a detention center or a state-run shelter, services.lii In some cases, GBV survivors risk being she needs her guardian’s consent.276 Customary prosecuted themselves due to inconsistencies in legal systems and informal justice mechanisms legal frameworks and a culture of victim-blaming, are present in MENA countries where the rule of including risks of being prosecuted for “moral law has broken down due to conflict, or in remote crimes” or even the offence of fornication. Some areas, but also exist in parallel to formal systems governments fail to address the sensitive issue of in some countries. These systems are often GBV cases perpetrated by state agents, resulting dominated by elderly men, and tend to prioritize in inability for women to report cases and obtain reconciliation, consensus, and the avoidance protection and services.liii This adds to a general of social shame over the rights and needs of lack of trust in public institutions across the region. survivors. The precedence of customary law can pose a major obstacle to the implementation of GBV survivors in FCV-affected countries, the formal legislative framework.li forcibly displaced persons, or migrants without legal status or limited rights under national laws Due to restrictive gender norms, GBV survivors face specific protection and access to justice reporting and filing legal complaints regularly challenges. They rarely approach authorities to face stigma and discrimination, and even risk report cases due to lack of trust, lack of identity re-victimization. As noted, a majority of the documents, or the prevalence of informal dispute population in MENA countries supports attitudes resolution mechanisms. Ongoing conflicts in Libya, that reinforce traditional gender roles in which Syria and Yemen have undermined governmental men are expected to exert power over women capacity in certain areas and severely affect by controlling their bodies and mobility. In this protection and access to justice for GBV survivors. li In Djibouti, for example, cases are often regulated through traditional resolution mechanisms or within the family, through payment of indemnities to a survivor’s family, without asking the survivor’s consent (UNFPA 2017a; SIHA Network. 2019. Djibouti. https://sihanet.org/djibouti/). In Iraq, disputes are also commonly settled through informal systems without recourse to a court, especially in cases involving family members (UN Women & Oxfam 2018). lii In Jordan, for example, GBV survivors face obstacles in accessing justice through the courts due to social stigma, fear of embarrassment and negative repercussions, especially in cases involving family members (UNDP 2018e). In Yemen, police sta- tions and courts are commonly considered inappropriate for “respected women”, and authorities reportedly expect GBV survivors to take their complaint to a male relative to intercede on her behalf or provide sanctuary rather than filing a complaint (OECD 2019l, UNDP 2018k). GBV survivors often refuse seeking help and justice because of the fear of social stigma or of dishonoring their family, and family members often discourage women and girls from seeking justice, and instead handle the matter in pri- vate or through traditional, socially acceptable mechanisms. Research on access to justice in Lebanon, Jordan and Egypt found that women only file a complaint in court for personal status matters as a last resort and gender norms still hinder them from doing so (UNDP 2018). See: ECPAT 2020; Hasday, J. E. (2000). Contest and consent: A legal history of marital rape. Calif. L. Rev., 88, 1373. liii For example, in Libya officials have reportedly been involved in human trafficking cases (US Department of State 2019a). 54 B. BUILDING BLOCKS B. Building Blocks 55 This section outlines best practices and lessons have included improving the quality of referral learned from a comprehensive review of evaluations systems and service delivery, strengthening of GBV prevention and response interventions, government capacity, and mitigating GBV risks conducted for this Action Plan. It describes existing through livelihood support. Both sub-sections aim WBG engagement in the region to address GBV to serve as building blocks for future World Bank through analytical work, operations, and gender- engagement on GBV in the MENA region. sensitive safeguards. Existing WBG interventions I. BEST PRACTICES AND LESSONS LEARNED Rigorous evaluation of interventions to address unequal power in relationships to prevent GBV, GBV is scarce at the global level, and is almost through the promotion of an adequate legal and completely lacking in the MENA region. The institutional framework, a focus on community review of evaluations, particularly randomized culture or traditional gender-norm transformation, controlled trial studies,liv conducted for this Action the empowerment of women, and the active Plan, identified a total of 133 relevant studies engagement of influential men.281 across the globe since 2000, of which only 16 percent were from MENA countries.277 Most of Several factors are important in the design these MENA studies refer to Egypt, Iran and Syria.278 and implementation of interventions, including Most evaluations of GBV response mechanisms assessing the country context, involving are from high income countries and do not tend both women and men, and engaging various to evaluate their impacts on addressing GBV. stakeholders at community and institutional When available, these studies are typically not levels. Assessing the country-specific context randomized controlled trials.279 and prevalence of different forms of GBV is an important factor to consider when planning, Combined or integrated approaches that both designing, and/or scaling-up GBV prevention and acknowledge social norms and simultaneously response interventions. It is also important to address GBV risk factors at individual, target both men and women in behavior change community and institutional levels are activities.282 GBV prevention and response considered the most effective in preventing and interventions can be more effective when responding to GBV. Context-specific interventions implemented in environments that can transmit focusing on the possible interplay of multiple attitudes and social norms about GBV and gender factors and actors operating at individual, equality, and have the potential to reach a large household, community, and policy levels (Figure proportion of the population (for example, national 6), are more likely to exhibit positive effects on governments, legislation, health care, education reducing GBV.280 Going beyond simply recognizing and social services, media, and workplaces). inequalities, and rather working to challenge and Finally, adopting an aspirational and empowering change the harmful norms that perpetuate them approach in GBV programming tends to be more is key. Various studies and reviews confirm the effective than only emphasizing the negative relevance of focusing on the structural drivers of aspects of GBV.283 The sustainability or long-term liv The review prioritized studies assessing interventions that were implemented in the region, and given the scarcity of those, was expanded to also include assessments from relevant contexts such as other middle-income countries, fragile and conflict contexts, and countries where more than 30 percent of the population is Muslim. Some studies using other evaluation designs than RCTs have been included when they were especially interesting for the purpose of the review. 56 B. Building Blocks FIGURE 6: EFFECTIVE AND PROMISING INTERVENTIONS AT INDIVIDUAL, HOUSEHOLD, COMMUNITY, AND POLICY LEVELS INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD COMMUNITY POLICY • Women’s • Accounting for • Community • Legal and institutional empowerment relationship dynamics mobilization programs framework behavioral elements aimed at challenging • Economic and social • Health screenings plus in economic social norms empowerment from programs empowerment early age • Engaging influential programs • All women’s justice men and using the • School-based centers • Parenting programs Qur’an and adolescent • One stop service empowerment • Changing social norms • Safe spaces for women centers programs and adolescents • Advocacy programs with pregnant women impacts of GBV interventions are, however, often women, as in the Maisha and the TEVAW overlooked in assessing their effectiveness. Studies programs in Tanzania.286 Cash transfer programs with longer follow-up periods of 12 or 24 months are associated with declines in physical violence reduce the chances of social desirability bias and (of up to 9 percent among participants in the provide a better assessment of actual behavioral Juntos program in Peru, for instance), in the risk of change.284 The length and intensity of programs being a survivor of physical abuse (by 40 percent are also important to ensuring effectiveness. In among participants in the Mexico Oportunidades most cases, longer interventions are found to be program) or in the domestic violence rate (by 8 effective, while short-lived, one-sided policies alone percent in the municipalities where the Familias en do not appear to be sufficient to reduce exposure Acción program was implemented in Colombia).287 to violence.285 Closer to the MENA region, the Zindagii Shoista intervention in Tajikistan combined group discussions and micro-grants provision and led 1. Economic Empowerment to a halving in the number of women reporting IPV over the past 12 months.288 Microfinance or Interventions savings interventions without any additional component are classified as ineffective in reducing A wealth of evidence—mostly coming from IPV rates, at least in the context of low-income the Latin American and Caribbean region— countries.289 An emergency cash transfer program confirms that cash transfer and microfinance in Syria, for instance, led to an increase in physical programs can contribute to reducing the (from 14 to 19 percent), and sexual (from 18 to 25 incidence of different forms of IPV; however, percent) IPV and economic abuse (from 22 to 35 such interventions need to be coupled with an percent) among participants, likely in connection awareness raising or behavioral component. with changes in the decision-making capacity of Programs from different (mostly low income) the affected women.290 Evidence from Bangladesh contexts confirm that adding an awareness also indicates that, to contribute to decreased raising or behavioral component to microfinance levels of GBV, pure cash and food transfers need to interventions can have positive impacts on IPV be combined with household and community level and foster behavior change among participant behavioral interventions.291 B. Building Blocks 57 Combined economic and social empowerment irrespective of the history of violence. The Unite interventions can also be effective in reducing for a Better Life program in Ethiopia utilized the women’s exposure to and experience of IPV. traditional coffee ceremony to deliver a series of Programs that aim to improve women’s access group-based sessions on root causes of IPV and to financial assets, improve their agency and gender stereotypes and unequal roles in the home. decision-making powers, and equip them with The results proved that the project was effective in financial literacy skills are promising, especially in reducing men’s perpetration of sexual and physical regard to GBV-related attitudes. For example, the IPV, as well as women’s experience of sexual and Stepping Stones and Creating Futures intervention physical IPV.295 India´s CHARM, a family planning in South Africa combined livelihood components intervention with young couples, led to a significant (training on setting livelihood goals, coping with reduction in sexual IPV and related attitudes (even crises, managing savings, getting and keeping at the 18 month follow up).296 The Women’s Health jobs, and managing work expectations) and Coop program in South Africa, which provided social empowerment elements (GBV, sexual and three hour workshop sessions on, among other reproductive health, communication skills, and topics, violence prevention, led to decreases in sexual behavior), targeting both young and elderly reported sexual or physical abuse by a partner. The members of the community. An evaluation found Indashyikirwa program in Rwanda led to a decrease men reported considerably less physical IPV and in IPV incidence among attendees of the intensive economic IPV perpetration, as well as reductions participatory training for couples.297 Thee types in sexual IPV and non-partner sexual violence of interventions are also effective in reducing risk perpetration, although there was no impact on factors of GBV (such as alcohol abuse and unequal women’s reporting of IPV. Similarly, the Women for decision-making in households) and enhancing Women International intervention in Afghanistan, protective factors, such as better communication which delivered vocational training, a cash transfer, skills within relationships.298 and social empowerment sessions, led to a significant reduction in severe IPV among women Interventions that focus on the promotion of with medium levels of food insecurity at baseline, but fathers’ involvement in child care, non-violent not among other groups of participants.292 However, forms of conflict resolution, and healthy evidence from other studies shows that combining parenting practices, prove to be effective in economic empowerment and social empowerment preventing IPV. For example, the REAL Fathers interventions might have no effect on reducing the intervention in Uganda, which combined a rates of IPV.293 For example, the savings and gender mentoring program for young fathers, awareness dialogue program in Cote d´Ivoire did not reduce the raising activities, and community celebrations, led incidence of IPV, although it significantly improved to a decrease in IPV and violence against children.299 women’s financial autonomy, gender equitable Female participants in the Bandebereho program household decision-making, and gender attitudes in Rwanda, which engaged expectant and current among participants.294 fathers and their partners in sessions of reflection and dialogue, reported reduced physical and sexual IPV. Moreover, the Ethiopian male norms initiative 2. Behavioral Psychosocial resulted in increased support for gender-equitable norms and decreased reporting of IPV.300 Evidence Interventions shows that combined parenting and IPV-prevention interventions provide an opportunity to impact Behavioral group-based interventions with beneficially on two generations simultaneously women and men, to promote egalitarian and, if the impact is further sustained, lay the attitudes and couple relationships, show foundations for a less violent society of the future.301 positive effects on reducing women’s exposure Psychosocial response interventions can to IPV. Such interventions typically involve improve mental health outcomes for GBV couples, occasionally with other family members, survivors in fragile and conflict affected areas. 58 B. Building Blocks There is evidence showing that behavioral Faith-sensitive approaches or models can interventions with women and girls who have contribute to more gender equal norms and survived GBV can be effective in improving the reductions in abusive behaviors within households mental health outcomes of participants. This has and communities. The intersection between been the outcome in group and individual cognitive patriarchal social norms, religion, or religious processing therapy interventions with women values and GBV (which leads to social tolerance survivors of sexual violence in the Democratic and wide impunity for aggressors) is particularly Republic of Congo; group therapy for mothers to relevant in the region. There seems to be growing children after rape in Rwanda, and the post-rape interest in how more progressive reinterpretations psychological individual support program in the of Islamic scripture can contribute to ameliorating Democratic Republic of Congo.302 One study from patriarchal attitudes toward women’s roles. Iran shows that IPV‑affected women benefit from Evidence from Egypt, for instance, indicates that trauma‑focused interventions such as narrative using the Qur’ān to empower women is promising.308 exposure therapy (NET), although the study does The Happy Muslim Family program in Thailand, not assess the likelihood of NET reducing future among the first to attempt to prevent violence (re)occurrence of IPV.303 by changing the behavior of men in accordance with Islamic principles and social norms, led to a There is conflicting evidence on the efficiency of reduction in domestic violence.309 The Emotional interventions targeted exclusively at men and Focused Intervention on Spousal Abuse and boys, with the purpose of preventing or reducing Marital Satisfaction Among Elderly Married GBV. Some evidence suggests that more intensive Couples in Iran also led to a significant decrease in interventions with men and boys show positive abusive behaviors and an improvement in marital impacts, although there are few such interventions. satisfaction three months after the intervention.310 For example, the Yaari Dosti intervention in India, Another program from Iran, the Prevention and which targeted young men age 15-29 promoting Relationship Education Program, which worked positive aspects of masculinity and awareness with the distressed couples, showed similar results, on sexual and reproductive health, led to a leading to a significant decrease in marital conflict decrease in physical and sexual violence against and an increase in marital satisfaction levels, both female partners and women.304 The Stepping immediately after the end of the program and at Stones and Creating Futures intervention in the one year follow-up.311 South Africa proved to be highly successful at reducing perpetration of IPV by men, but did not lead to any changes in reported experiences of 3. Education, Awareness- IPV among women.305 Findings about so-called batterer intervention programs (targeted at male raising and Information perpetrators) indicate that these programs do not Interventions work as well as expected, as they often experience high dropout or offender attrition rates (which may falsely inflate their impact), and sometimes Comprehensive school-based programs that have unintended negative consequences such cover a wide range of activities and actors show as the normalization of aggressive behaviors.306 promise in changing mindsets and behaviors Additionally, there is evidence that brief bystander around GBV. Short informational activities interventions which target men and boys alone such as workshops on dating violence (as in are ineffective in preventing the (re)occurrence Mexico or Haiti’s Safe Dates curriculum) can help of GBV.307 Therefore, working with men and boys raise knowledge and awareness among young requires intensive interventions, or should be seen participants.312 However, programs with a wider as an important part of a wider, multi-component scope show particularly long-term positive effects. approach that also includes work with women The Precede-Proceed Model used with girls in and girls. Iran, for instance, has had significant positive impacts on gender-related attitudes.313 A multi- B. Building Blocks 59 component, school-based intervention, PREPARE, and referrals led to declines in further abuse.324 in South Africa has led to the reduction of IPV Comprehensive programs for pregnant women, victimization, and the formation of safer intimate including some form of training or cognitive partnerships among adolescents, among other behavioral therapy component, can be effective outcomes.314 Combined group and individual in reducing IPV among participants.325 The awareness-raising activities also seem to be more prevention of mother-to-child transmission of effective than group-only campaigns, as shown by HIV in South Africa, combined with standard care the program Amor del Bueno in Argentina.315 This and health education sessions, was successful type of intervention is of special interest for some in decreasing IPV among participating women.326 MENA countries in relation to FGM/C. In Egypt, for A relevant example from MENA is Iran, where instance, a comprehensive information campaign training pregnant women in problem-solving skills with university students led to an increase in led to significantly reduced rates of physical and knowledge about the dangers of that practice.316 psychological violence.327 This is particularly relevant from a social norms perspective, where systematic biases in the information people reveal to each other produce 4. Youth Empowerment widespread overestimation of private support for these norms.317 This pluralistic ignorance means Interventions that, when uncertainty and misgivings about a norm go unrecognized, people who oppose the While comprehensive programs aimed at socially norm still perform it.318 empowering adolescent girls are promising as a way to change views and experiences of Mass media and “edutainment” programs also IPV, the design, implementation, and context appear to be promising, although evaluations of programs matters. Examples of successful with regard to GBV-related outcomes remain comprehensive adolescent girl programs include scarce. Studies show that media can enhance the Adolescent Girls Empowerment Program in agency, and promote changes in social norms.319 Kenya, combining safe spaces, health vouchers, Improving access to information through media and savings, which reduced girls’ experience of can lead to lower levels of acceptability for spousal violence;328 the Empowerment and Livelihood abuse.320 In Uganda, a mass video campaign for Adolescents program in Uganda, combining significantly reduced the incidence of GBV, while microfinance, vocational and life-skills building, the MTV series Shuga led to a reduction in men´s which led to reduced levels of coerced sex, sustained support for GBV.321 The Somos Diferentes, Somos two years after completion.329 However, evidence Iguales program in Nicaragua, which made use from other programs, such as the Safe and Smart of Sexto Sentido, a ‘social soap’, resulted in a Savings Products for Vulnerable Adolescent significant reduction in stigmatizing and gender- Girls (SSSPVAG) in Kenya and Uganda and the inequitable attitudes.322 At the same time, mass Adolescent Girls Initiative in Zambia, shows that media campaigns focusing on awareness raising these interventions may not always be effective alone are unlikely to decrease the occurrence of in reducing GBV.330 This indicates that differential GBV.323 Evidence from different regions suggests design, implementation and/or contextual factors that such stand-alone awareness raising are at play. interventions are ineffective at reducing GBV by themselves, but can form a part of a wider Targeted programs can provide adolescent program against GBV. girls with alternative livelihood opportunities and stronger voice and agency, so that, for Advocacy programs with pregnant women are example, girls stay in school, develop relevant also effective in decreasing abuse, especially skills, and postpone marriage. The Ishraq program when combined with behavioral or educational in Egypt can offer a promising example for the components. In Peru, discussions about pregnant region. It combined skills building and social women’s experiences of abuse in health settings 60 B. Building Blocks empowerment activities for school age girls components and when they engage (religious) in Egypt, and significantly reduced support of leaders. There is promising evidence of success FGM/C from 71 percent to 18 percent among girls in low- and middle-income countries when these who participated for more than a year.331 Another approaches involve high-intensity delivery, program relevant to MENA is the COMPASS engaging a cross-section of the community, and adolescent empowerment program in Pakistan, involving informal activities that provoke critical Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo, reflection and discussion. Most community which led to improvements in views about child mobilization only interventions appear to have marriage. In particular, In Ethiopia, the number limited effects on IPV prevalence, although they can of adolescent girls who thought that girls should lead to changes in attitudes (see for instance the be 18 or older before having their first child or Sonke in South Africa).334 However, comprehensive getting married doubled from the beginning of the community mobilization interventions can have program, while in Pakistan, girls were significantly positive direct impacts on IPV, as shown by more likely to believe they should be given the two different experiences in Uganda, the SASA! same life opportunities as boys.332 community mobilization program that reduced IPV by 52 percent, and SHARE project, which showed There is growing evidence to suggest that a 20 percent reduction in women’s reports of inheritance and asset ownership interventions physical and sexual IPV.335 Combined educational and policies have a promising impact on the and community mobilization programs targeted reduction of certain forms of GBV. These are at men appear to have especially positive effects interventions that improve legislative provisions for patriarchal norms and IPV (self-reported) and promote reforms of family, property, perpetration, as shown by a men’s discussion inheritance, and land acquisition/ownership laws. group in Cote d´Ivoire336 and an intervention on Increasing women’s access to assets and legal male norms in Ethiopia.337 Of special interest for protections is an important tool for social and some MENA countries (especially those in conflict) economic empowerment, and for shifting decision- is the Help Children Peace Education program in making and control powers of female members of Afghanistan, which covered a range of activities at families and communities. For example, reform of the school and community levels targeting various the inheritance law in India in 2005, which granted stakeholders,lv and led to more equal gender equal inheritance rights to sons and daughters, attitudes and less victimization among children.338 has decreased women’s vulnerability to IPV by 17 The engagement of religious or community percent and reduced the number of GBV cases by leaders can be key to success. The Transforming 36 percent. Similar reforms took place in a number Masculinities program in the Democratic Republic of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa,333 resulting in of Congo, which aimed to engage and equip faith significant economic empowerment of women, leaders to be catalysts, led to a substantially lower although there is a lack of studies to identify their prevalence of physical and sexual IPV.339 effect on GBV. This type of intervention has been effective in reducing harmful traditional practices such 5. Community Mobilization as FGM/C. One significant model for reducing FGM/C is the TOSTAN program implemented in Programs several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa including Senegal, Mali, and Burkina Faso. The program Evidence shows that community mobilization utilizes community-based education on health, programs can be effective in reducing GBV, literacy, and human rights to change behaviors especially when combined with educational by prompting identification as role models and providing information about the negative lv Including children, teachers, parents, community and religious leaders, civil society organizations (CSOs) and influential women. B. Building Blocks 61 consequences of this practice. In Senegal, for trust in institutions, and a decrease of 10 percent example, women directly involved in the program in domestic violence and female deaths due to reported significantly less violence, while women aggression and femicides.344 in the intervention villages who were not directly involved in the program also reported lower levels One-stop centers for integrated services and of violence and FGM/C, which indicates positive support to GBV survivors can improve women’s spillover effects.340 access to services, and their subsequent levels of satisfaction. The Ciudad Mujer programme in El Salvador accommodates 18 state institutions 6. Service Delivery and in the same physical space and offers more than 20 services that respond to the needs of women Access to Justice for free, with special sensitivity to their particular situations. According to an impact evaluation, Expanded GBV screening activities in health women who visited Ciudad Mujer used 43 percent programs have promising results in high-income more public services than women who did not countries, but more evidence is required to attend the centers. In addition, these services evaluate their effectiveness in other contexts. positively influenced users’ levels of satisfaction There is growing evidence that a comprehensive with life. While 85 percent of women who did not approach to identifying and counselling women visit Ciudad Mujer reported being satisfied with experiencing IPV in health settings (Screening Plus) their life in general, this proportion increased to 93 can be an effective strategy to improve health percent for those who visited the centers.345 A recent outcomes and reduce victimization.341 The services review of these types of centers across countries that were most comprehensive and integrated in offers important conclusions about the barriers to, their responsiveness to IPV were in primary health and also enablers for, effectiveness.346 The main and antenatal care settings. Findings suggest barriers identified included a lack of political will that the availability of clear guidelines, policies and government investment on issues of IPV/SV; or protocols, management support, intersectoral corruption and mistreatment by police; lack of coordination, adequate and trained staff, and a basic medical supplies and facility equipment; poor supportive and supervised environment are key documentation, data management systems, and elements. However larger scale and high quality monitoring mechanisms; lack of services on nights research is required to provide further evidence in and weekends; lack of community awareness of this area.342 one-stop center services; weak multi-sectoral collaboration; weak referral networks; lack of Specialized and gender-sensitive protection adequate psychosocial services and staff, as well as services can better meet the needs of survivors. inadequate training on trauma informed care and For example, a training program in family police OSC operations. Key enablers were support from stations in Medellin, Colombia, with female higher leadership, supportive laws and policies on police officers was found to be associated with VAW, standardized policies and procedures, regular an increase of 7-8 percent in the rate of formal interagency meetings, on-site psychological reporting of VAW and IPV.343 All-women’s justice services and support groups, and champions or centers (WJCs) are specialized institutions that dedicated staff leaders in centers. The table below mostly employ female officers and provide summarizes the review of effective, promising, and incoming survivors with a service integrating all conflicting GBV interventions (Table 1). steps of the complaint process (for example, police station, attorney’s office, and medical doctor) in a single office. In Peru, WJCs resulted in a 40 percent increase in VAW reporting, an increase in women´s 62 B. Building Blocks TABLE 1: WHAT WORKS BEST?lvi ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT: BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOSOCIAL Programs focused on improving economic INTERVENTIONS: opportunities and reducing poverty and Psychosocial programs aimed at shifting vulnerability among women. attitudes, norms and behaviors. Cash transfers + social norm change Behavioral programs to promote egalitarian component => IPV attitudes and norms among men and women Entrepreneurship/access to finance + Group-based workshops with women and men social empowerment/behavioral change => to promote changes in attitudes and norms mostly attitudes but also IPV Parenting interventions with IPV component => IPV and attitudes Cash transfer only Behavioral preventative and response Micro-finance or savings and loans couples’ therapy => IPV and attitudes + gender and empowerment training Behavioral programs to minimize risky components health behaviors => IPV and attitudes Entrepreneurship/access to finance + Behavioral response programs with male gender‑related training perpetrators Entrepreneurship or access to finance Behavioral preventive programs with men programs only and boys alone EDUCATION, AWARENESS RAISING, YOUTH EMPOWERMENT AND INFORMATION: INTERVENTIONS: Programs that focus on informing and Interventions to socially empower educating about GBV, its impacts and ways women and girls through skills building to prevent it or respond to it. or safe spaces provision. Prevention programs with pregnant women in Social empowerment programs targeted health settings => attitudes and IPV at adolescents Media campaigns and edutainment => Inheritance and asset ownership policies attitudes and IPV and interventions Advocacy interventions with women to prevent victimization => IPV and attitudes Social empowerment programs targeted at adolescents Life skills/school-based curriculum, rape and dating violence prevention training Whole School interventions Stand-alone awareness campaigns/single component communications campaigns lvi The interventions selected have been classified by the methodology they use. The review has covered both prevention and response types of interventions – although most evidence relates to the former. Some interventions that do not directly tar- get GBV but may have indirect or spillover effects in this area have been also considered. The main categories identified are listed in the summary table below, which provides a brief description by category, the main types, and whether the existing evidence shows that they are effective (green), promising (soft green), ineffective (orange), or for which it is conflicting or in-conclusive (soft orange). B. Building Blocks 63 COMMUNITY MOBILIZATION EDUCATION, AWARENESS RAISING, PROGRAMS: AND INFORMATION: Awareness raising programs Programs that focus on informing organized at the community level and educating about GBV, its impacts and and by community members. ways to prevent it or respond to it. Community mobilization + educational/ One stop protection and response services norms component for women => reporting Gender sensitive (female, trained staff) Community mobilization only programs protection and response services => reporting, satisfaction Screening Plus programs => IPV Screening in health services Sensitization and training of institutional personnel without changing the institutional environment Effective: At least two high or moderate quality impact evaluations, using randomized controlled trials and/ or quasi-experimental designs (which make use of a comparison group) have found statistically significant reductions of physical IPV, sexual IPV, or non-partner sexual violence. An intervention is also considered effective based on high-quality meta-analyses and systematic reviews of findings from evaluations of multiple interventions. Promising: One high or moderate quality impact evaluation, using a randomized control trial or quasi- experimental study has found statistically significant reductions in physical or sexual IPV, non-partner sexual violence or a pattern of change across multiple violence outcomes. Conflicting: Evidence from different high-quality studies shows conflicting results on one or more VAWG domains. No effect: At least two high or moderate quality impact evaluations, using randomized controlled trials and/ or high-quality quasi-experimental designs have found no significant reductions in physical IPV, sexual IPV, or non-partner sexual violence. 64 B. Building Blocks II. EXISTING WORLD BANK ENGAGEMENT ON GBV The World Bank is committed to addressing GBV knowledge about GBV. While the WBG has not through research and learning, collaboration, and produced any stand-alone GBV-related reports operational engagement. Recognizing that GBV is in the MENA region, regional and country level a risk and a main barrier to women’s empowerment gender reports analyze GBV as part of the broader has led to it being highlighted as a strategic priority assessment of women’s voice and agency in some under the voice and agency pillar of the WBG cases.348 One example of analytical work that has Gender Strategy, and IDAs 17, 18 and 19 include benefited from additional data collection is the specific commitments on GBV (Box 2). The World Yemen Human Capital and Gender Assessment, Bank currently supports development projects which collected sex-disaggregated data that through integrating GBV components in sector- allowed the analysis of, among other things, child specific projects such as transport, education, marriage; women’s access to psychosocial care and social protection, and through stand-alone and counselling; women’s experiences of tensions/ projects.347 Furthermore, the World Bank also conflict within households, and perceptions conducts analytical work and collaborates with UN of safety and women’s mobility outside the partners and bilateral organization to generate data household. Ongoing stand-alone GBV assessments and knowledge, and to provide technical assistance in Morocco and Djibouti include analysis of GBV related to effective prevention and response. prevalence and underlying drivers, mapping of existing services, and gap analysis of legal and In addition to operational engagement and policy frameworks. analytical work, the Bank has strengthened its GBV risk assessment, mitigation, and The Women, Business and the Law report and management through dedicated safeguards index recognize GBV as a barrier to women’s instruments and guidance notes. The Bank has economic inclusion, and provides an entry point put in place comprehensive Sexual Exploitation and for policy and programmatic action. MENA Abuse/Sexual Harassment (SEA/SH) guidelines has improved the most of any region in terms in projects with major civil works. In addition, of introducing reforms towards more gender training modules for project task teams and equal societies in the last few years, but still lags government counterparts on project preparation behind all other regions. In general, women have and implementation have been made available.lvii just a little over half the legal rights men have in the measured dimensions, with an index at 51.5, compared to a global average of 76.1 (World Bank 1. Analytical and Advisory 2021).349 It recognizes that GBV is a barrier to economic opportunities for women and specifically Work includes indicators that measure if a country has legislation on sexual harassment in employment There is a breadth of analysis across the Bank and domestic violence. According to the latest WBL and in MENA that has contributed to enhancing index, in October 2020 eleven MENA countries lvii The 2016 Inspection Panel (IP) case of the Uganda Transport Sector Development Project, which found evidence of sexual misconduct and abuse by contractor staff, constituted a turning point in the WB approach to GBV prevention and mit- igation, with the goal of increasing its efforts to effectively protect the safety, dignity and well-being of affected communities. In the wake of the IP investigation, the WB established a Global GBV Task Force, comprised of external experts and WB support staff, which in July 2017 provided this set of recommendations on prevention, mitigation and response to SEA/GBV. This initia- tive further helped to elaborate the WB Action Plan, which identified key steps to enhance social risk management, strengthen operational systems to improve accountability, and build staff and client capacity on GBV. B. Building Blocks 65 Box 2. GBV in IDA Policy Commitments, WBG Gender Strategy & MENA Regional Gender Action Plan IDA17: Support efforts for addressing gender-based violence issues in fragile and conflict-affected states. IDA18: Increase the number of operations in fragile contexts that include gender-based violence prevention/response and links to livelihood activities compared to IDA 16. IDA19: Support at least five IDA countries to invest in GBV prevention and response, delivering safe, quality, inclusive services through health systems; Support at least five IDA countries to implement GBV prevention and response protocols as part of safe and inclusive schools. WBG Gender Strategy (FY16-23): Under strategic pillar 4 of Enhancing Women’s Voice and Agency and Engaging Men and Boys, the Strategy specifically sets out to address issues of child and early marriage, and to help reduce the incidence of gender-based violence in relevant operations and mitigate its impact in conflict situations. To address GBV, the Strategy identifies three categories: (i) support programs to reduce IPV; (ii) develop interventions that improve the safety and security of women in public transport and in the workplace, and (iii) develop integrated health and livelihood approaches for women in conflict areas who are at risk of violence. MENA Regional Gender Action Plan (FY18-23): The Action Plan defines Women’s Economic Empowerment and Gender and Conflict as its two main focus areas, with Women’s Voice and Agency as a cross-cutting priority. While GBV is highlighted under Gender and Conflict in the original RGAP, the mid-term review (December 2020) points to GBV and sexual harassment as additional areas that merit attention going forward, aligned with the enlarged regional strategy and priorities. The mid-term review identifies the need to strengthen the focus on GBV across instruments and refers to the development of a regional GBV Action Plan. had legislation on sexual harassment at work, of a law criminalizing sexual harassment (December with either criminal penalties or civil remedies, 2020) based on significant technical assistance and only 55 percent of MENA countries had from the MGF.351 The technical assistance consisted legislation addressing domestic violence.350 Most of revising legal outputs based on international recently, Lebanon has passed a comprehensive best practice to compile several existing draft law on sexual harassment. The data presented in laws into one, and facilitating coordination across the WBL report and index has been a useful tool stakeholders building on the Bank’s convening in furthering the discussion on these topics across power. Another example is the Piloting of Delivery countries in the region. of Justice Sector Services to Poor Jordanians and Refugees in Host Communities (P157861; 2016- The Bank has leveraged trust funds to provide 2018), a recipient executed trust fund (RETF) that technical assistance and advisory services was implemented by the NGO Justice Center for to prevent and address GBV at the country Legal Aid, providing different types of legal aid level in MENA. In Lebanon, the Mashreq Gender and awareness campaigns to enhance access to Facility (MGF) (P168157) has provided legal justice for poor and vulnerable populations. The technical assistance to multiple public agencies project specifically targeted women and a large identifying legal gaps related to women’s economic share of cases specifically concerned information, opportunities, directly contributing to the passing counselling and legal representation related to GBV. 66 B. Building Blocks The WBG is also supporting Egypt’s inclusive and work to influence policies that ultimately aim growth and sustainable recovery from COVID-19 to prevent GBV and improve the lives of survivors. through Development Policy Financing (DPF). This In collaboration with the SVRI, the Development DPF includes a pillar on fostering women’s inclusion Marketplace on Innovations to Address GBV and actions to address GBV in public transportation funds research in low- and middle-income and support survivors through a One Stop Center. countries across the globe. It supports teams in providing evidence-based research, interventions In addition, the World Bank supports partner and undertaking other activities related to GBV initiatives that aim to increase the knowledge prevention and response. Over the last four years, and evidence base at the global, regional and the Development Marketplace has supported country levels, through—for example—the projects in 28 countries with an investment totaling Development Marketplace on Innovations to more than $4 million. In MENA, five projects— in Address GBV. The Sexual Violence Research Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon —have been granted Initiative (SVRI) has created the world’s largest funding through the Development Marketplace, research network on violence against women and contributing to improving the evidence base on children, and is a partnership the Bank takes part the effectiveness of different models to prevent in. It provides a space where various stakeholders and respond to GBV (Table 2). and global players in the field can connect with one another, share and promote their research, TABLE 2: GBV DEVELOPMENT MARKETPLACE SUPPORTED RESEARCH IN MENA Country Year Lead Agency Project Objectives Jordan 2020 Jordan Forum Testing reintegration This project is focused on qualitative and for Business and model “trust” for quantitative methods of evaluating a unique model Professional Women; women and girl of reintegration for survivors of violence in Jordan. Hakoura for Educational survivors of GBV with Programs. their families and communities in Jordan. Jordan 2019 Women & Health Harnessing the power Researchers aim to understand how social Initiative at the Harvard of social networks to interactions among youth influence attitudes T.H. Chan School of create positive change related to gender and to GBV. Based on the study Public Health; School of in norms and attitudes among 1,000 youth (men and women ages 18-24) Nursing, University of towards GBV among living in East Amman, the team intends to promote Jordan; The Jordanian youth in Jordan. evidence-based recommendations for research and Hashemite Fund for interventions. Human Development. Jordan 2018 Try Center (Jordan); Preventing IPV among The main goal of this project is to study and identify Cambridge Reproductive newly-weds in Jordan. whether a primary prevention program for IPV Health Consultants among new married couples in Jordan increases (USA); Institute for knowledge and improves attitudes about gender Family Health (Jordan). norms and violence. Egypt 2017 International Center for Gender Equity Model, Project aims at developing an intervention for gender Research on Women; Egypt – Promoting equity in private firms incorporating a focus on Ministry of Investment Women’s Economic GBV prevention. It assesses the effectiveness of the (Egypt), w Ministry of Empowerment and developed intervention, with regard to increasing Manpower (Egypt); UN Fighting GBV women’s access to employment, improving their Women; University of working conditions, changing community attitudes Cairo, Social Research towards women’s work and GBV, and preventing Center. domestic and workplace violence. B. Building Blocks 67 Lebanon 2016 Queen’s University;  Making sense of early This project aims at reducing the rates of child ABAAD Resource Center marriage among marriage among Syrian refugees by using Cognitive for Gender Equality. Syrian refugee girls. Edge’s SenseMaker and a participatory approach to assist communities in the self-identification of acceptable, feasible, and sustainable interventions that will enact change from within. The project led to recommendations for more effective interventions aimed at reducing and addressing child marriage in the region, especially among refugee populations.lviii 2. Operational Engagement on service provision within the health sector and almost all in east Africa. While there are no stand-alone GBV operations There has been progress in integrating in the MENA region, the Bank has designed and components or elements of GBV prevention and implemented two stand-alone projects in the response into service delivery, social inclusion, Africa region, focused on health response. The and legal and institutional strengthening first stand-alone investment lending, the  Great across regions and instruments.lx Most IDA/ Lakes Emergency Sexual and Gender-Based IBRD projects that incorporate activities related Violence & Women’s Health Project, was approved to GBV are IPFs, and generally aim to expand in FY14 and provided US$107 million in IDA funding access to and quality of social and health services to Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, for GBV survivors, to improve referral systems and Rwanda for the provision of integrated health and to incentivize behavioral and attitude change and counselling services, legal aid, and economic through enhanced awareness, empowerment, opportunities to survivors of (or those affected and social inclusion. Out of 115 Development by) sexual and gender-based violence.lix In FY19, Policy Operations (DPOs) approved by the Board building on the experience of the Great Lakes FY20-FY21Q2, only a handful include GBV-related project, a Democratic Republic of Congo-specific prior actions (Annex 3). Several of the DPOs project (P166763) committed US$100 million address specific types of GBV, in particular child to prevent and respond to GBV, expanding the marriage. There are programmatic DPOs that engagement to aim for changes in social norms have a somewhat phased approach to the GBV. In by promoting gender equality and behavioral Bangladesh, a first DPO introduced mechanisms change through strong partnerships with CSOs. for anonymous reporting and monitoring Another stand-alone project was designed for grievances, including sexual exploitation and Uganda (P160447), but was never approved by abuse and sexual harassment; a second DPO the country’s Parliament. Annex 3 includes an strengthened enforcement capacity through the overview of stand-alone operations and operations Labor Inspections Management Application (LIMA) with strong GBV components, mostly focused that included the reporting mechanism; and a third DPO supported full deployment of LIMA. In MENA, lviii The work has resulted in a series of research papers: Bartels, S.A. et al. 2018. Making sense of child, early and forced marriage among Syrian refugee girls: a mixed methods study in Lebanon. BMJ Global Health; Roupetz, S. et al. 2020. Continuum of sexual and gender-based violence risks among Syrian refugee women and girls in Lebanon. BMC Women’s Health. Roupetz, S. et al. 2020. Displacement and Emotional Well-Being among Married and Unmarried Syrian Adolescent Girls in Lebanon: An Analysis of Narratives.” International journal of environmental research and public health vol. 17; Garbern, S. C. et al. 2020. ’It will be a weapon in my hand’: The Protective Potential of Education for Adolescent Syrian Refugee Girls in Lebanon. Refuge: Cana- da’s Journal on Refugees, 36(1). lix This was the first stand-alone operation with WBG commitments. There was a small Bank-Executed and Recipient-Ex- ecuted TF project prior to that in the DRC on “Addressing Sexual Gender Based Violence in South Kivu (P117558)” FY10-12. lx The review of operations with GBV focus or components covers operations that have been active within the last five years. 68 B. Building Blocks dialogue between the Government of Egypt and health workers, helping to connect community the Bank is being advanced in preparation of a representatives and local service providers. To DPO on Inclusive Private Sector Led Growth for address gender-specific vulnerabilities, especially Sustainable Recovery (P171311; expected to go to among vulnerable Jordanians and Syrian refugees, the Board early FY22). The PDO includes a pillar the Jordan Emergency Health Project (P163387) to foster women’s inclusion, which incorporates includes a capacity building component that a GBV prior action for the first time in MENA: the provides training and development of protocols adoption and publication of a ministerial decree on GBV and reproductive health (in partnership on a national code of conduct to promote safe with other donors and UN agencies), and further transport, and the adoption and publication of a supports the collection, use, and analysis of more Prime Ministerial decree to establish and operate sex-disaggregated health data. Some projects are a one stop center for supporting GBV survivors in more ambitious, such as the CAR Consolidation and Greater Cairo. The aim is to introduce reforms that Social Inclusion Development Program (P173900), address issues around GBV prevention and service which includes a prior action establishing targeted provision for survivors, supporting the foundation free healthcare for victims of GBV. for different actors to work together in addressing GBV. Elements of GBV prevention and response are included in many projects that aim to protect The most common focus of operations that and improve people’s livelihoods. The Social address GBV is on strengthening the capacity, Protection Enhancement Project in West Bank and and improving the quality of, referral systems Gaza (P160674) and the Iraq Emergency Social and service delivery for survivors, especially in Stabilization and Resilience Project (P165114) both the health sector. Commonly, these projects also focus on livelihoods and emergency response in incorporate communications and information FCV contexts through the provision of conditional focused activities. The Lebanon Health Resilience cash transfers. They both incorporate elements Project (P163476) supports a health system over- of prevention and response to GBV through sub- burdened by the influx of Syrian refugees, with a components that utilize lessons learned from package of services to address GBV, elderly care, similar programs related to reliance on community non-communicable diseases, and mental health spaces, social outreach, and awareness through screening, case management, counselling, campaigns, among other things.lxi The West Bank and outreach activities. The project provides and Gaza Emergency Social Protection COVID-19 targeted health services for girls and adolescents. project (P174078) includes actions to respond The Transforming Egypt’s Healthcare System to increased levels of GBV due to the pandemic Project (P167000) delivers family planning, and by using previously GBV-trained social workers maternal and reproductive health services, and to strengthen household awareness on stress also builds awareness on GBV (including domestic management and on available protection services, violence and child marriage) and GBV response and by prioritizing GBV response service providers services at the local level through community in the selection of sub-grants.lxii The Yemen lxi More specifically, the WB&G SPEP project developed positive messaging to promote family, motherhood /parenting support through interactive tools, including game cards, conducting trainer of social workers, male and female on GBV-related issues and protocols for home visitations, and hired a senior local GBV expert to provide support. Another example is the recent West Africa project Nigeria for Women (P161364) that supports improved livelihoods in targeted areas of Nigeria and utilizes a GBV design and analysis with a focus on community-based approaches and awareness raising for prevention. lxii Across the Bank, several COVID-19 response projects aimed to protect the poor and vulnerable from the impact of the pandemic, include activities directly transferring benefits to women and redressing the amplified gender-based vulnerabilities to contribute to lowering GBV risks. See for example, Accelerating India’s COVID-19 Social Protection Response Program, (P173943 and P174027); Niger Second Laying the Foundation for Inclusive Development Policy Financing, (P173113). Another example of a project that focuses on communications is the Strengthening Foundations for Post COVID-19 Recovery in Peru project (P174440) that includes the development of a sexual harassment mobile app dedicated for use in emergencies in universities, innovative GBV awareness initiatives targeting adolescents and a communications strategy in support of the implementation of the na- tional GBV plan. B. Building Blocks 69 Emergency Electricity Access Project (P163777) Project (P175137) will provide sensitivity training recognizes that women suffer disproportionately to security personnel on effective handling of from lack of access to clean and modern energy, sexual harassment and other complaints, and including in health outcomes, prospects for income enhance patrolling of platforms by well-trained generating activities, and safety; and that the personnel, all with a view to improving service collapse of power supply and nighttime lighting has delivery. In Jordan, the Second Equitable Growth & also added to security concerns, especially among Job Creation Programmatic DPF (P168130) took a women for whom the lack of lighting on the way broader look at drivers of women’s low labor force to shared latrines exacerbates risks to GBV. The participation, identifying that women’s lack of project supports increased access to, and reliability safe transportation and sexual harassment in the of, energy. Actions within the project ensure that workplace impede women’s access to economic women are part of the decision-making processes, opportunities. It recognized the importance of a that female borrowers are targeted, and that code of conduct on sexual harassment in public women’s specific inputs and concerns are taken spaces, transport, and in the workplace. The Code into consideration. In other regions, there is also of Conduct in Transport regulates passenger, operational work to improve GBV survivors’ access driver, and operator conduct in public transport, to justice. The Madagascar Investing in Human and makes explicit reference to sexual harassment. Capital DPF (P168697) strengthens the legal To support the operationalization of the code, regime for the prevention and prosecution of acts the Mashreq Gender Facility provides technical of GBV and the protection of victims of GBV. The assistance for the training of stakeholders and Delivery of Legal Aid for the Poor and Vulnerable the development of a mobile app to report sexual in Vietnam (P171660) will train legal aid providers harassment cases and other infringements. to be better equipped to work on civil, marriage and family law, and to work more effectively with Several Bank projects include education-related vulnerable groups, such as ethnic minority women, activities and targeted communications to GBV survivors, and people with disabilities. support GBV awareness raising and prevention. In the MENA region, several education projects Access to harassment- and discrimination-free incorporate actions that specifically aim to transportation, public spaces, and workplaces improve knowledge and capacity related to GBV is important for women’s overall safety and in general and sexual harassment in schools security. Globally, concerns of harassment in specifically. To address gender-based violence transportation and in public spaces represent a and sexual harassment in schools in Egypt, the mobility barrier that disproportionately affects Supporting Education Reform Project (P157809) women and girls, and World Bank transport incorporates gender-sensitive behavior in projects are increasingly addressing this issue. In kindergarten classroom training modules, and the Lebanon, analysis showed that women do not have gender dimension in the continuous professional a reliable and safe alternative to private vehicles development framework and classroom given the safety and harassment concerns with management training. The training modules existing public transportation. Lower-income address, among other things, gender gaps and women, who are forced to use existing unsafe stereotypes in education and GBV in schools. public transportation, are particularly affected. The The Jordan Education Reform Support Program Greater Beirut Public Transport Project (P160224) (P162407) trains and certifies teachers on gender- sets out to improve safety on public transportation specific modules and introduces a socio-emotional through the training of bus drivers, creation of learning intervention which includes issues of GBV. reliable channels for complaints, improvements in Some projects focus on promoting more gender- security systems (cameras at stations and buses, equal attitudes for a safer and more inclusive well-lit stations, security guards), and campaigns society. For example, the Economic Opportunities to raise awareness against sexual harassment. for Jordanians and Syrian Refugees PforR The Railway Improvement and Safety for Egypt Additional Financing (P171172) includes a DLI to 70 B. Building Blocks address social norms through communication risk mitigation measures. The Environmental and campaigns targeting a series of related issues Social Framework (ESF) includes four standards such as the image of masculinity and stereotypes that define the Borrower’s responsibilities that are taught to children. especially relevant to SEA/GBV (Box 3). In the MENA region, all projects being prepared 3. Implementing GBV- under the ESF are screened for SEA/SH. Regardless of risk rating, all projects will be required sensitive Safeguards as to integrate at least a basic set of SEA/SH risk Part of the ESF mitigation measures as per the Good Practice Note. It is recommended that even projects that have been assessed as having a low risk of SEA/SH World Bank teams are required to assess GBV put in place basic risk mitigation measures, such as risks, especially related to sexual exploitation and Codes of Conduct, a SEA/SH-sensitive grievance abuse and sexual harassment (SEA/SH), during redress mechanism (GRM), GBV service provider project preparation, with the understanding mapping, and consultation and sensitization that the risk assessment is a continuous process with communities. Aligned with these general and should take place throughout the project life ESF-related tools, specific guidelines have been cycle. Several resources are available to teams to developed for Health, Nutrition and Population support the consideration of GBV during project (HNP) COVID-19 response operations to mitigate design and implementation. The GBV Good Practice any risks of SEA/SH, based on a strong focus on Note for Addressing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse awareness-raising and broad communication (Box and Sexual Harassment (SEA/SH) in Investment 4). In MENA, including SEA/SH measures in projects Project Financing involving Major Civil Works352 through the ESF introduces some challenges, sets standards for SEA/SH risk identification, primarily due to: (i) the sensitive nature of the assessment, mitigation, and response and applies topic when discussed with the client; (ii) low client to all IPF operations in sustainable development capacity and/or budget to manage and oversee and infrastructure sectors. The World Bank SEA/ implementation of SEA/SH prevention measures; SH Risk Assessment Tool further helps teams (iii) client disagreement in overall principles of understand SEA/SH issues and identify potential codes of conduct, and particularly accountability risks based on a combination of the country frameworks, and (iv) client disagreement over the context (for example, fragility and legal aspects) overall SEA/SH risk screening results. and the project specific scope (such as labor influx, consultation and feedback from women groups, GBV “retrofitting” is mandatory for high/ presence of military personnel). This tool consists substantial risk active SD operations. All of a series of questions as a starting point for projects from Social Development with a closing discussions within the team to assign a risk rating date beyond June 2021 are screened based on score for the project (low, medium, substantial, or the guidance note and the risk assessment tool, high). In addition, the Bank has developed, and is in to retroactively integrate SEA/SH risk mitigation the process of finalizing, sector-specific screening measures into projects with a risk rating of tools (social protection, health, and education) substantial or high. The screening exercise rated to provide more targeted guidance.lxiii From the two out of 29 SD projects and two out of 17 client side, and especially for pipeline projects, the Human Development projects as substantial risk, Environmental and Social Assessment (ESA) is the and needing to be retrofitted. primary vehicle for assessing SEA/SH risks, as well as stakeholder engagement (particularly with The Bank has strengthened other measures that women groups) on SEA/SH risks and potential aim to prevent and address GBV risks related to Bank financed projects, including GRMs, Codes lxiii By April 2021, the INF/SD screening tool is finalized, while HD tools SPJ, HNP and EDU are expected to be finalized shortly. B. Building Blocks 71 Box 3. Relevant Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) Standards The Environmental and Social Framework lays out the World Bank’s commitment to sustainable development with four Environmental and Social Standards especially relevant to SEA/SH: » ESS1, Assessment and Management of Environmental and Social Risks and Impacts formulates the Borrower’s relevant responsibilities linked to prevention and containment of GBV incidents associated with each stage of a project. The ESS1 lays out that in performing the environmental and social assessment the Borrower will consider all risks and impacts of the project, including “threats to disadvantaged or vulnerable groups” (such as women and children). » ESS2, Labor and Working Conditions, while recognizing the importance of employment creation, also addresses SEA/SH risks linked to labor influx and forced labor. ESS2 also refers to child labor, highlighting that persons under the age of 18 will not be employed or engaged in connection with the project in a manner that is likely to expose them to physical, psychological, or sexual abuse. This provision should be implemented in conjunction with the Guidance Note on Managing the Risks of Adverse Impacts on Communities from Temporary Project Induced Labor Influx. » ESS4, Community Health and Safety addresses the health, safety, and security risks and impacts on project-affected communities and the corresponding responsibility of Borrowers with particular attention to vulnerable groups. The ESS4 also refers to situations when projects are “situated in high- risk locations that may threaten the safety of communities“, which may increase the risk of SEA/SH. » ESS10, Stakeholder Engagement and Information Disclosure requires project teams to develop a Stakeholder Engagement Plan (SEP) to be implemented over the life cycle of the project to keep communities adjoining the project and other stakeholders informed about the project, and to enable their ongoing engagement and feedback. For substantial- and high-risk projects, stakeholder guidance should be sought to identify existing and potential local SEA/SH risks, and relevant stakeholders should be identified and consulted on potential interventions and risk mitigation measures, to enable an understanding of SEA/SH risks and trends in the community. of Conduct, and Contractor Disqualification.lxiv approach should be survivor-focused, and ensure Managing allegations of SEA/SH is a sensitive task, the confidentiality, safety, and wellbeing of the since survivors can experience stigma, rejection, or survivor to minimize the risk of re-traumatization harm, and may be reluctant to come forward. At and further violence. Since 2021, the Bank’s the same time, grievance mechanisms and internal Procurement Framework includes provisions to monitoring and reporting on SEA/SH incidents disqualify contractors and sub-contractors who create a crucial building block for the prevention fail to implement GBV prevention measures. The and response strategies of Borrowers. Thus, staff World Bank is the first multilateral development engaged in a project linked to SEA/SH incidents bank to ban contractors from cooperation for need to be trained to apply an approach that non-compliance with GBV-related obligations.lxv differs from that of other types of concerns raised The Bank’s Standard Procurement Documents for through project-level grievance mechanisms. This large works require that all contractor personnel lxiv Those means and procedures are complemented by the new World Bank Accountability Mechanism, which after the reform of the Inspection Panel in 2020 carries out Compliance Review and Dispute Resolution Service. lxv The World Bank introduced these provisions in the Procurement Framework and Regulations effective for all procure- ment initiated on or after January 1, 2021. 72 B. Building Blocks Box 4: SEA/SH Risk Mitigation Measures in COVID-19 Response Operations The Technical Note on SEA/H for HNP COVID-19 Response Operations outlines a minimum set of SEA/ SH risk mitigation measures that COVID-19 response projects should put in place, as described below. » Staff in PIUs/PCUs will sign Codes of Conduct. This can also include the development and dissemination of communications materials outlining unacceptable behavior on SEA/SH. » Make information available to health service providers on where GBV psychosocial support and emergency medical services can be accessed, such as specialized facilities and helplines. » Promote two-way communication between health authorities and communities that allows information on instances of SEA/SH to surface and inform the strengthening of risk mitigation measures as needed. Measures include establishing community feedback mechanisms for healthcare providers and developing rapid guidance on how to deal with SEA/SH complaints through hotlines and other mechanisms. are provided with a Code of Conduct, in a language and partnerships can be leveraged to support that is culturally appropriate and understood, new analysis, and contribute to deepening our and that defines the behavior expected from understanding of GBV-related issues in the region employees, such as prohibiting sexual harassment. and strengthening the evidence base on the The Code of Conduct also stipulates provisions for effectiveness of GBV prevention and response addressing SEA/GBV, which include prohibitions efforts. Lessons learned from stand-alone GBV against sexual activities with legal minors (anyone operations in other regions can be utilized to pilot younger than 18 years), how allegations will be multi-sectoral initiatives in MENA countries. GBV handled, the appropriate time frame for processing components can be added to pipeline projects complaints, and the range of possible consequences in other sectors and GBV components that are for perpetrators. All workers must also complete already in place can be expanded, particularly with relevant training courses on the environmental regard to health, social protection, education, and and social requirements in the contract, including transport. These would ideally be accompanied on health and safety matters, sexual exploitation by behavioral change focused communication and abuse, and sexual harassment. The Code of and outreach, as well as impact assessments. To Conduct encourages discussions of ethics and improve the legal and institutional framework for compliance, empowering employees to handle GBV prevention and response in the longer term, ethical dilemmas they encounter in everyday work. DPOs in MENA could include prior actions on As a result, it can become a benchmark against GBV, including specific types of GBV that remain which individual and organizational performance a major concern in several MENA countries, such can be measured.353 as child marriage and FGM/C. Existing tools and mechanisms, including through the ESF and SEA/ Existing WBG engagement on GBV and SEA/ SH Risk Assessment, provide important entry SH provides several entry points for increased points for broader World Bank engagement on action in the MENA region. Research initiatives GBV prevention and response. 73 C. PRIORITY ACTIONS 74 C. P riority Actions Effective GBV prevention and response remains which guiding principles and approaches to follow a major concern in the MENA region. Building on and where to engage with regard to (i) data and international best practices and lessons learned, knowledge, (ii) policy dialogue, and (iii) operations. as well as existing engagement on GBV, the World It highlights priority actions utilizing existing entry Bank is well positioned to support countries in points and exploring options for broader GBV the MENA region to increase GBV prevention and engagement. response efforts. The following sections describe I. GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES Design and implementation of GBV prevention survivor-centered approach places emphasis on and response interventions should be guided by the integrity, security, and personal experience of the following key principles:354 (i) do no harm; (ii) GBV survivors by applying the following principles adopt a survivor-centered lens; (iii) build on the to decisions related to policies and service delivery:355 strength and resilience of communities; (iv) adopt an intersectional approach; (v) strengthen existing » Safety. The top priority of GBV case systems, and (vi) be evidence-based. management is to ensure the safety of GBV survivors, as well their children, caregivers, or 1. Do no harm. It is vital to ensure the safety and vulnerable witnesses. security of GBV survivors at all times, including their children and caregivers. Teams should take » Confidentiality. Personal information of all measures to anticipate and avoid any negative survivors should not be shared with third parties consequences, ensure trust and empowerment of without informed consent,lxvi including when GBV survivors, and minimize the risk of potential working on multi-sectoral coordinated activities. exposure to further harm. Applying the “do no harm” Adequate confidentiality policies should be in principle requires adequate assessments of gender place for health and social services, police and dynamics and social norms that may result in re- security forces, and the justice systems, and traumatization, stigma, marginalization, or further clearly communicated to the survivor. violence by perpetrators, families, or communities. » Respect. Survivors have the right to decide When aiming to conduct an interview with a GBV whether they want to proceed with the survivor, for example, teams should make sure reporting of a GBV case. All involved parties that survivors are not at risk of being exposed should respect the dignity, wishes, and choices to reprisals, stigma, or violence as a result of the of survivors and allow them to be in control of interview and consider whether an interview may the process by deciding whom to tell and what cause survivors to recount traumatic events and action to take. potentially result in re-traumatization. » Non-discrimination. Survivors should receive 2. Adopt a survivor-centered lens. The survivor’s equal and fair treatment regardless of age, rights, needs and wishes should be prioritized when gender, race, religion, nationality, ethnicity, developing and implementing GBV interventions. A sexual orientation, citizenship status, social lxvi Informed consent means “making an informed choice freely and voluntarily by persons in an equal power relationship. A survivor must be informed about all available options and fully understand what she is consenting to as well as the risks, includ- ing the limits of confidentiality, before agreeing. The full range of choices should be presented to the survivor, regardless of the service provider’s individual beliefs. The survivor should not be pressured to consent to any in interview, exam, assessment, etc. A survivor is allowed to withdraw consent at any time.” (Global Protection Cluster 2019). C. Priorit y Actions 75 2. Adopt a survivor-centered 3. Build on the resilience 1. Do no harm of communities lens Always ensure the safety and security Prioritize survivor’s integrity, security, Engage communities as active partners of GBV survivors. and personal experience in policies and in prevention and access to services. service delivery. 4. Adopt an intersectional 5. Strengthen existing 6. Be evidence- approach systems based Consider varying characteristics of GBV Build on established systems through Base intervention design on data and survivors and vulnerabilities in collaboration across stakeholders and evidence, incorporate M&E in project developing response. sectors. design and scale-up. class, or any other characteristic. In practice, of GBV interventions or components in projects this also requires that services are provided free should reflect, and to the extent possible identify, of charge for those who are unable to afford it vulnerable groups based on different characteristics and that appropriate means are taken to reach and include actions that specifically address marginalized groups. their differentiated needs. When information is scarce, projects can play an important role in 3. Build on the strength and resilience of contributing to increased information by collecting communities. Communities, including women disaggregated data and assessing specific barriers and girls, as well as men and boys, should be that different population groups face. engaged as active partners to combat GBV and promote survivors’ access to services. 5. Strengthen existing systems. Effective GBV Participatory approaches and citizen engagement prevention and response requires building on allow for direct consultation and dialogue with established systems through multi-sectoral members of communities. Engage groups who coordination among various actors working on are often overlooked and ensure that all members GBV in order to avoid duplication, support locally of the community benefit from the proposed driven initiatives, and improve service delivery and interventions.356 Through community outreach and knowledge sharing across sectors. Stakeholder citizen engagement, teams can build on the voice, and service mappings can help identify existing agency, and skills of people, which is an important referral systems and service providers, as well as step in promoting trust and empowerment of GBV gaps and bottlenecks, to create synergies and survivors and facilitating community dialogue. inform operational engagement. 4. Adopt an intersectional approach. The varying 6. Be evidence-based, drawing on research and characteristics of GBV survivors—geography, best practices as the basis of recommendations. ethnicity, religion, language, sex, age, income, Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are disability, and socioeconomic status—need to also essential in the design and scale-up of GBV be considered when addressing this issue, since interventions. Basing project design on data and their combination determines the vulnerability evidence contributes to ensuring that resources and exposure to different forms of violence, as are invested in interventions that work, mitigating well as survivors’ abilities and resources to react unintended or harmful consequences, and taking to violence. GBV interventions should be aware the local context into account when scaling up of and target multiple forms of discrimination activities. Assessing impact during implementation that GBV survivors might experience, and provide of GBV prevention and response activities is key to adequate support to each survivor in accordance continuous learning and improvement of outreach with their actual needs and capacities. The design and targeting. 76 C. P riority Actions Box 5: Guiding Principles and Approaches Amidst COVID-19 This box illustrates how to integrate the guiding principles outlined above in GBV prevention and response amidst the current COVID-19 pandemic: » Do no harm: Implementing face-to-face population-based surveys during the COVID-19 pandemic can be challenging and using remote data collection methods could pose serious safety risks to those interviewed. In this context, utilizing existing data and information from service providers and key informant interviews can help prioritize the safety of survivors while continuing to document the prevalence of GBV. » Adopt a survivor-centered lens: Ensuring the safety and confidentiality of GBV survivors in situations of restricted mobility requires additional measures, such as safe reporting mechanisms via phone or online through silent calls or preprogrammed messages when survivors are in close proximity to perpetrators. » Build on the strength and resilience of communities: Adapting community-based approaches to guarantee the meaningful participation of women in COVID-19 response planning and decision- making is critical to address the detrimental effects on women’s voice and well-being associated with COVID-19-related mobility restrictions and isolation. » Adopt an intersectional approach: Applying an intersectional approach means, for example, taking into consideration innovative and remote ways to reach women with disabilities who are facing additional barriers to access services, or migrant domestic workers who do not have access to information about public health protocols or GBV hotlines due to language and mobility barriers. » Strengthen existing systems: When service accessibility and availability is limited due to COVID-19 lockdowns, it is critical to build on existing efforts with partners on the ground. This cooperation can include information-sharing on services and gaps, and the coordinated use of relevant tools and resources for safe data management. » Be evidence-based: Designing and implementing GBV interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic should build on evidence and lessons learned from interventions in other emergency settings and health crises. For example, evidence shows that local women’s organizations are critical providers of GBV services during health crises. Supporting their efforts through long-term and flexible funding therefore represents an important entry point. II. THREE PILL ARS FOR ACTION Recommended actions for World Bank and/or accompanying technical assistance. Since engagement on GBV in the MENA region center availability of nationally representative prevalence around (i) data and knowledge, (ii) policy dialogue, data on GBV and its different forms remains a major and (iii) operational engagement. All three pillars concern in the region, efforts to utilize existing data, for action are interlinked as both policy dialogue support data collection efforts, and strengthen and most interventions will require prior research capacities in this regard is important. Nonetheless, C. Priorit y Actions 77 the lack of comparable, high quality statistics on be strengthened or expanded, and suggestions different aspects of GBV in MENA countries should on where to step up engagement through not preclude the adoption of adequate actions to additional research, operational engagement or prevent and address GBV in the region. The Action targeted policy dialogue on GBV. It calls for strong Plan calls for integrating social norm and behavioral collaboration with governments, UN agencies, and change into GBV prevention and response efforts other stakeholders and consistent multi-sector across sectors to address root causes of GBV engagement to prevent GBV, increase access to systematically. The proposed actions across services and justice for survivors, and improve the MENA countries and sectors provide an overview safety of those at risk. of both existing entry points, where efforts should ACTION PLAN 1. Data & Knowledge 2. Policy Dialogue 3. Operational Engagement Support better data: Identify legal and policy gaps: Increase focus on prevention: alternative data sources, identify and bring gaps to the awareness and social norms incl. administrative records; agenda; close legal gaps; advocate change through education (schools capacity‑strengthening. for stand-alone GBV laws. and unis), public safety (transport, PRIORITY ACTIONS local infrastructure) and health Enhance knowledge: Support implementation: (community outreach). Improve analytical work, standalone GBV provide technical assistance to urban development, livelihoods, assessments, gap analyses. support implementation and women’s empowerment. strengthen procedures. Build evidence: Improve service delivery: pilot and assess behavioral Strengthen institutional prioritize health (service interventions; incorporate IEs in capacity: strengthening, psychosocial), operations. support capacity-building and SP (social services, case mgt, Apply ethical guidelines enforcement, incl. through referrals, livelihoods) - consider trainings. behavioral change. Strengthen access to justice: support service improvement, capacity development, monitoring, legal assistance. INSTRUMENTS Impact Evaluations Development Policy Financing PforR Behavioral Interventions ESF IPF SCDs CPF/CEN ESF Technical Assistance PLR With support in TA & ASAs ASAs With support in TA & ASAs 78 C. P riority Actions 1) SUPPORT DATA COLLECTION AND DOCUMENTATION OF GBV 1 • Support national GBV data enhancement through alternative data sources, including sector specific administrative records related to service provision (health, justice, etc.). • Capacity-strengthening for data collection and analysis. 2) ENHANCE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DIFFERENT FORMS OF GBV AND AFFECTED GROUPS 2 • In-depth research on specific types of GBV, incl. IPV, GBV against children, child and early marriage, non-partner violence, cyber GBV, sexual harassment. • In-depth research on GBV against specific population groups, incl. children and youth, displaced persons and migrants, LGBTQI, men and boys. 3) UNDERSTAND UNDERLYING DRIVERS OF GBV AND 1. Data and BARRIERS TO ACCESS SERVICES Knowledge 3 • Analyze amplifiers of GBV in MENA countries, incl. climate change, FCV and COVID-19. • Build knowledge on underlying social norms and what works to transform adverse social norms, behaviors and attitudes. • Identify barriers to access services and conduct gap analyses of services available for survivors. 4) BUILD ON THE EVIDENCE OF WHAT WORKS 4 • Pilot and assess GBV prevention interventions aimed at changing social norms and attitudes. • Evaluate interventions aimed at addressing GBV response (referral systems, service delivery). Given the comparative advantage of the WBG in and the identification of data gaps, and provide the area of data and analysis, the organization suggestions for ways to improve the evidence could play a role in strengthening the evidence base as part of these discussions. Data gaps base on GBV at the country and regional level, could be related to, for example, quality, coverage promoting data analysis, and improving statistical in terms of capturing different types of GBV, and information systems and the harmonization representativeness of data for certain population of data. While there is limited appetite for the groups or at a subnational level. Data should be collection of official data in the MENA region, sex-disaggregated and specifically include women the WBG can support several activities aimed at and girls, as well as men and boys. strengthening the existence of quality data on GBV, including by using existing alternative data sources, Generating adequate and harmonized data such as online platforms. In addition, Systematic to assess the dimensions and nature of GBV Country Diagnostics (SCD) provide an important is key to understanding it. Given that in MENA entry point to not only shed light on the impact of only Egypt, Jordan, and West Bank and Gaza GBV in people’s and societies’ wellbeing, but also to have recent Demographic and Health Surveys, identify precise data and knowledge gaps. this is an instrument that the Bank could push for, for example under projects that specifically support data collection and statistical capacity a. Support Improved Data Analysis and development. In addition, the Bank could support Promote Documentation of GBV or provide technical assistance for dedicated, specialized surveys, and for the identification, Documenting the prevalence of GBV will collection, and monitoring of GBV data, including contribute to making it visible. To inform activities such as guidelines for harmonization discussions on GBV at the country level, the World and coordination of data. Support could also be Bank should promote the analysis of existing data C. Priorit y Actions 79 provided to specific Ministries providing services Given the large knowledge gaps concerning for survivors of GBV, to strengthen their capacity GBV against children and school-related GBV, to monitor, manage and analyze GBV-related data, it is crucial to document its prevalence and such as for example in the health, education and scope. Generally, data on school-related GBV can justice sectors. Furthermore, existing alternative be collected through cross-national surveys or data sources, such as online platforms, should be national surveys. While it is increasingly common utilized for further analysis. to measure the prevalence and scope of bullying and corporal punishment, the issue of sexual violence in schools and cyber bullying among b. Enhance Knowledge About Different adolescents requires particular sensitivity. A Forms of GBV and Affected Groups good practice example in this area is the Violence Specific forms of GBV in the MENA region Against Children (VAC)357 survey, administered remain particularly concerning and require in 12 developing countries (none in MENA), which additional research and analysis. One example measured physical, emotional, and sexual violence is the relatively under-researched issue of sexual against children based on a household sample harassment in public spaces, including public focusing on young people ages 13 to 24. transportation, which is of increasing concern across MENA countries. Moreover, special c. Understand the Underlying Drivers of attention should be paid to the emerging—and GBV and Barriers to Accessing Services rapidly growing—phenomenon of cyber violence, which has been exacerbated by the COVID-19 Stand-alone GBV assessments can help pandemic due to an increased use of mobile devices understand the underlying drivers and amplifiers and digitalization of services. Continuing research of GBV and identify gaps in institutional on the prevalence rates and characteristics of frameworks and service delivery. These stand- different forms of cyber GBV is an important step alone assessments can include country-level data towards increased awareness of the problem on prevalence and characteristics of various forms and broader dialogue and engagement on GBV in of GBV, drivers and amplifying factors, the legal and digital spaces. Furthermore, the high prevalence of policy environment, and service provider mappings. FGM in Djibouti, Egypt and Oman, as well as the Country profiles developed for the purpose of this issue of early, child, and forced marriage in Egypt, Action Plan provide an overview of these issues for Iraq, Yemen, Lebanon and Jordan, particularly with all MENA countries. Based on the needs of country regard to displaced populations, require additional teams, the country profiles can be used for in- analysis. depth, stand-alone GBV assessments, including comprehensive service provider mappings. Analysis of GBV against specific population groups remains scarce in MENA countries. In Building the evidence base on the impacts of many MENA countries, GBV against displaced GBV amplifiers on prevalence, service delivery, persons, including refugees, IDPs, and returnees, and access to justice for survivors is critical to is a particular concern. In several MENA countries, inform engagement in situations of FCV, climate particularly in the GCC countries, Lebanon, vulnerability, and health crises. Rigorous analysis and Jordan, female migrant domestic workers about the incidence, drivers, and ramifications have been exposed to heightened GBV risks, of GBV in contexts of displacement is especially exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. relevant for FCV countries, where both phenomena Analysis of the often less visible forms of violence are deeply intertwined. In addition to FCV-related against men and boys, as well as against LGBTQI factors, specific concerns related to climate change persons, remains scarce in the region. Qualitative and its impact on MENA countries need further research and mixed-methods approaches can research and rigorous evaluation. More research is provide insight into where programming efforts needed to better understand how climate-related need to be directed. stresses, such as water scarcity and prolonged 80 C. P riority Actions droughts, aggravate GBV in MENA, and how GBV Action Plan. Evidence-based program design is interferes with resilience and recovery efforts from key to learning about what works best in specific both climate-related and conflict-related shocks. contexts and to address certain types of GBV, Priority countries that are particularly affected by and will be crucial to ensure cost-effectiveness FCV, environmental vulnerability and GBV include and responsiveness to the needs of the various Syria, Yemen, Djibouti, and Egypt.358 stakeholders. This knowledge will help realign and adjust programs and policies to improve their These stand-alone assessments can also performance and will be needed to inform policy disentangle the role of social norms as underlying makers on a range of decisions, from ending drivers of GBV and build evidence on what works inefficient interventions to scaling up those that to change adverse norms and harmful practices. work. 359 There are several efforts to disentangle gender norms and their role in limiting women’s voice and To learn what works, and to be able to course- agency and general participation in society across correct less effective interventions, all activities MENA countries through, for example, nationally aimed at addressing GBV should be monitored representative perception studies like the World and, to the extent possible, evaluated. Beyond Values Survey and the Arab Barometer, which can the collection and reporting of sex-disaggregated be used to inform the design of interventions and data, gender responsive monitoring and evaluation outreach. The World Bank has also contributed (M&E) plans are recommended to also capture to expanding the knowledge on this, most unintended consequences like GBV, which would recently through the work of the Mind, Behavior be particularly relevant for health, education, and and Development (eMBeD) team. However, more cash transfer projects.lxvii The most paradigmatic country specific diagnostics are needed, and case is that of cash transfer programs, which evidence on what works to change social norms have been shown to have important unintended and to address harmful practices remains scarce. (and generally positive) impacts on the incidence of different forms of IPV by improving economic Based on country-level needs, stand-alone GBV wellbeing, reducing household tensions, and assessments can include comprehensive service empowering women.360 Project design should provider mappings and gaps analyses. These include assessments that can capture the learning serve to assess the accessibility, availability, and of GBV interventions, preferably using mixed- quality of services for GBV survivors and those at methods research with qualitative methods, to risk, and provide an overview of referral pathways disentangle the role of social norms and dynamics and case management systems available on a and identify “harder to measure” results of the country level. Service provider mappings/gap intervention that may otherwise remain invisible analyses can help to inform further operational and unaccounted for. Ethical considerations engagement across sectors (see section on surrounding confidentiality and safety or context operational engagement). sensitivity are even more important in this area. When possible, teams should consider d. Build on the Evidence of What Works incorporating an impact evaluation in the intervention design to measure the attributable Continuing to build on and develop the evidence effect of the program within the target population. base of what works best to address GBV is necessary. MENA clearly lags behind other regions in this area, as shown by the background review of randomized controlled studies conducted for this lxvii It is recommended that existing, agreed-upon GBV indicators are used, to ensure comparability (World Bank 2014). As an example, in 2013, the UN Statistics Division published the Guidelines for Producing Statistics on VAW, which included interna- tionally agreed indicators. In addition, the global compendium, developed by MEASURE Evaluation, includes a set of monitoring and evaluation indicators for use at the programmatic, policy, and institutional levels across all sectors. C. Priorit y Actions 81 1) IDENTIFY LEGAL AND POLICY GAPS 1 • Support stand-alone laws to address GBV. • Review existing legislation on GBV to align with international law and best practices. • Review related legislation, incl. personal status law, migration law, etc. • Policy dialogue on specific forms of GBV, incl. child marriage or FGM. 2) SUPPORT IMPLEMENTATION OF LEGAL REFORMS • Provide technical assistance to implement legal and policy reforms. • Support the development or revision of national strategies, and/or action 2 plans to tackle GBV. 2. Policy • Support the development or strengthening of National Codes of Practice, workplace policies, and/or standard operating procedures. Dialogue • Embed GBV in policies to improve women’s agency, promote women’s leadership, and enhance economic empowerment. 3) STRENGTHEN INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS AND LEADERSHIP • Strengthen institutional frameworks and leadership. 3 • Strengthen legal enforcement and capacities. • Support trainings and capacity-building that are embedded in institutional frameworks. The World Bank is uniquely positioned to engage learning related to ongoing engagements as well with governments in policy dialogue on how to as to assess if there may be any momentum for prevent GBV, protect survivors and those at risk, reflecting additional GBV priorities based on the and strengthen service delivery and access to country context. justice. A key entry point for the medium- and long- term policy engagement is to identify and address Policy dialogue should further focus on specific gaps in existing legislation and its enforcement, as forms of GBV given the respective country well as supporting efforts for stand-alone laws that context. IPV remains of particular concern in all seek to address GBV comprehensively, building MENA countries. Policy dialogue should address upon the country profiles undertaken for this Action legal loopholes, barriers to help-seeking and Plan. DPFs provide a unique instrument to promote reporting, as well as specific service delivery in this relevant changes. In addition, the World Bank regard. The prevalence of other forms of GBV varies should use its policy dialogue space to advocate from country to country and requires targeted for strengthened institutional frameworks and policy engagement. In Djibouti, Egypt, and Oman, leadership on GBV and to promote adequate for example, FGM/C remains a major concern resource allocation for the implementation of and entry point for engagement. Measures to national policies and action plans. Key guiding prevent early, child, and forced marriages should documents like Country Partnership Frameworks be discussed in Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Yemen, (CPFs) or Country Engagement Notes (CEN), should Lebanon, and Jordan, and should include displaced incorporate an assessment of GBV prevalence populations. DPFs can include specific prior actions, and response, to identify specific priorities for such as establishing Child Protection Committees the Bank’s engagement to address identified at the national, regional, and municipal level to issues. The Performance Learning Reviews (PLR) address child and early marriage. provide an opportunity to discuss any specific 82 C. P riority Actions a. Identify Legal and Policy Gaps b. Support Implementation of Legal and As part of its policy dialogue, the World Bank Policy Reforms can point to gaps in existing legislation on GBV, The World Bank can support implementation of based on a review of national frameworks. This legislative changes and legal reforms through includes legislation that directly addresses forms technical assistance and financing instruments. of GBV, such as Penal Codes or stand-alone laws This includes supporting countries in revising on GBV or domestic violence. Stand-alone laws on legislation and regulations related to GBV combatting domestic violence, violence against prevention and response through instruments, women, or GBV are important instruments for such as Development Policy Financing (DPF) and comprehensive reform as they reaffirm the Development Policy Operations (DPOs). DPFs can obligation of the state to create prevention provide opportunities for a wide range of actions to measures and offer services for support and support GBV-related laws, policies, and systems. recovery. Many MENA countries have drafted In recent years, several MENA countries have or adopted stand-alone laws to address GBV, to shown strong interest in legal reforms and have protect survivors, and establish essential services. taken steps to advance their legislation. The World Gaps should also be identified in laws that address Bank can help sustain this momentum through specific forms of violence, including anti-trafficking continued policy dialogue on these critical issues. laws, cybercrime laws, or laws on sexual harassment Building partnerships with UN agencies that have (at the workplace or in general) where remaining supported governments in developing national barriers for GBV survivors may exist, for example, strategies on GBV and legal reforms can also help impediments related to protection measures or strengthen policy dialogues through the World burden of proof requirements. Furthermore, given Bank’s convening power. For example, UNFPA the cross-sectoral nature of GBV prevention and supported the development of Algeria’s National response, a review of government policies across Strategy to Combat Violence Against Women and sectors (health, education, transport, private Tunisia’s Organic Law No. 2017-58 on expanding sector development, social protection, justice, and protection for GBV survivors.361 Where national even tax reform) can also help identify relevant GBV strategies and action plans exist, actions aspects and potential adverse policies indirectly and synergies with development partners can be linked to GBV prevention and response. developed to facilitate implementation; where no national instruments exist, DPFs can promote the Existing WBG tools and databases should be development of such key policy frameworks. A DPF leveraged in the identification of legal and policy can support the development and implementation gaps. The Women, Business and the Law index, of data collection, monitoring, and evaluation which provides a comparative assessment across mechanisms into the plans and strategies. Prior countries on matters related to domestic violence action on combatting GBV can be part of different and sexual harassment, is a valuable starting point types of DPOs, such as human capital DPOs. for teams, as are the country profiles prepared for The Bank can also specifically focus on sexual the Action Plan. In many MENA countries, legal harassment in the workplace, for example, through loopholes exist with regard to the minimum age employment. Technical assistance in this regard of marriage. This also applies to countries with can also focus on developing or strengthening a parallel non-formal justice systems, allowing for National Code of Practice, workplace policies, and the application of traditional or religious law. Annex standard operating procedures. Annex 3 includes 2 provides a detailed overview of legal gaps at the an overview of prior actions in DPFs across the country level. Bank. C. Priorit y Actions 83 Policies to promote women’s agency development and reinforcement of such systems and leadership, and enhance economic as part of COVID-19 response operations.362 empowerment, can contribute to creating a more enabling environment and to facilitating Strengthening legal enforcement to protect GBV a cross-sectoral framework for GBV prevention survivors and those at risk is critical. Most GBV and response. While these policies aim to survivors refrain from seeking protection or filing reduce constraints that hinder women’s access legal complaints due to fear of reprisal or stigma, to resources and participation in economic and shame or pressure from family members and social life, they can also contribute to social norm communities, and lack of trust in formal institutions. change and help reduce GBV risks. Bringing these Even when cases are brought to the courts, elements into policy dialogues can help promote procedures often stall or sentences remain lenient, the integration of GBV prevention and response leading to prolonged insecurity for survivors and measures into projects that include components widespread impunity for perpetrators. Reinforcing and activities aimed at enhancing women’s the institutional framework, and building the economic empowerment and/or opportunities. capacity for legal enforcement, is crucial. As part Establishing a link to other commitments that the of its policy dialogue in MENA countries, the World country has already made on combatting GBV, Bank can add regulations as prior actions, to such as in national development strategies, can strengthen enforcement of legislation protecting strengthen policy dialogues in this regard. GBV survivors, including the implementation of existing GBV legislation through, for example, the development of implementation plans,lxviii and c. Strengthen Institutional Frameworks specifically the issuance, enforcement, and and Leadership monitoring of protection orders for GBV survivors Strengthening institutional frameworks and and those at risk. DPFs should be accompanied by leadership should be part of the policy dialogue previous analytical work and technical assistance on GBV. Establishing and reinforcing dedicated in this regard. Additionally, to address sexual institutions, as well as proper coordination harassment at the workplace, for example, the mechanisms across sectors, is a necessary enforcement capacity of labor inspectorates could pre-condition for this agenda to move forward. be strengthened. Through technical assistance and DPFs, the World Evidence shows that trainings and capacity- Bank can strengthen institutional frameworks building need to be embedded in institutional and systems to prevent and address GBV and frameworks to be effective. It remains crucial sexual harassment. In addition to developing for GBV prevention and response efforts that and revising national strategies and action plans professionals in all relevant sectors receive to combat GBV, the World Bank can help install comprehensive and standardized training on GBV, structures that ensure institutional leadership and including health, social, police, and justice officials. oversight of these commitments at the highest However, training institutional actors is ineffective political levels and across different sectors of without system-wide change. Institutional government. Implementation of national action change addressing gender norms and attitudes, plans or strategies should be led by a high-level institutional policies, and targeted support can board or steering committee, across government sustainably build institutional capacities. Through departments and including other stakeholders policy dialogue, the World Bank can engage with a strategic mandate and adequate technical with governments on how to strengthen these capabilities. Another potential entry point for World capacities, particularly in the public sector. Bank work in this area is through supporting the lxviii In Kiribati, the DPF requires an implementation plan for GBV legislation in preparation by the government (Project ID: P167263). 84 C. P riority Actions 1) FOSTER SOCIAL NORMS CHANGE, AWARENESS AND COMMUNITY MOBILIZATION • Integrate social norms and behavior change across GBV prevention efforts • Work with media, incl. social media, on awareness raising, norms change and 1 alternative messaging • Social norms change interventions at the community level; working with community leaders and local authorities; intensive group-based workshops; peer education activities 2) UTILIZE HEALTH SERVICES AS AN ENTRY POINT FOR 2 PREVENTION • Provide information on available services and referrals as part of general health and social interventions • Early identification of survivors and persons at risk, e.g. via screenings in emergency departments and reproductive, maternal and child services 3) EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH • Programs and teaching in schools, incl. through online and remote learning 3 • Capacity-building for teachers, professors and administrative staff • Protocols, code of conducts, and training material for teachers, professors 3. Operations and administrative staff • Strengthen reporting mechanisms and accountability Prevention • Tailored programs for children and adolescents exposed to violence, incl. in of GBV non-school settings 4) IMPROVE SAFETY OF PUBLIC SPACES, TRANSPORT, WORKPLACE 4 • Improve safety of public spaces through a broad range of operations, such as infrastructure, urban, and municipal development interventions • Increase safety of transportation means and stations, visible information on emergency help and services; develop CoCs for conductors and staff, complemented by trainings • Foster zero tolerance policy on GBV and SH at the workplace providing 5 information and support to those at risk 5) INCREASE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT • Livelihood support and economic empowerment, combined with behavioral components • Long-term empowerment programs, incl. life skills trainings, mentoring and safe spaces, particularly for adolescents The World Bank has a key role to play in Social norm and behavioral change components addressing GBV and its various forms through are integrated across sectors. Working with its operational engagement, including prevention, men and boys requires reviewing best practices service delivery, and potentially access to justice. and lessons learned, as outlined in the review The following section describes recommended undertaken for this Action Plan and considering actions for engagement in MENA countries, based multi-component approaches that are embedded on existing entry points, as well as suggestions within communities and include working with for operational engagement in the longer term, women and girls. including through comprehensive GBV operations. C. Priorit y Actions 85 PREVENTION OF GBV factors. Although evidence is mixed in terms of social marketing campaigns or edutainment GBV prevention efforts can be integrated across campaigns as well as large scale awareness raising World Bank operational support for MENA campaigns, well-designed approaches, especially countries.lxix Prevention efforts need to address the in combination with community level work, can be underlying causes of GBV. In particular, they aim to used to actively challenge gender discrimination, transform social norms, attitudes and behaviors social norms and attitudes that drive violence and that support gender discrimination and GBV. to provide alternative messages. To prevent FGM/C, Furthermore, prevention efforts aim to strengthen for example, radio stations, television, newspapers legal and policy frameworks, increase safety and and social media platforms can be used to highlight availability of services, strengthen women’s agency, the harmful effects of FGM/C, including the fact and build partnerships for regional and national that it is illegal. Piloting innovative uses of social strategies to combat GBV. World Bank operations media to challenge norms and attitudes can be can build on existing work in MENA countries at the another entry point for World Bank engagement individual, family, community, organizational and in this regard. Especially in the current situation, societal level across different sectors for continued online, visual, audio and print media provide a engagement as well as stand-alone operations critical platform and entry point for GBV prevention on GBV prevention. With regard to cultural and efforts. Specific media campaigns can help provide norms related aspects of GBV, including behavioral information on how and where to seek help, change focused interventions that specifically specifically during the pandemic when services aim to change attitudes and in the longer term, may be limited. Additionally, media campaigns behaviors towards GBV in projects, accompanied can particularly address the issue of cyber GBV by evaluations would be essential. and positive conduct of behavior among Internet users. In addition to targeted media campaigns, the World Bank can help strengthen regulatory a. Foster Social Norms Change, frameworks in the sector. Awareness and Community Mobilization Social norms change interventions in communities continue to be an urgent priority Social norms and behavior change should be for GBV prevention. Promoting positive attitudes, prioritized in GBV prevention and response beliefs and norms related to gender, including efforts across sectors. As indicated throughout through engaging men and boys, is essential for the Action Plan, underlying discriminatory norms, GBV prevention. There is promising evidence from behaviors and attitudes are at the root of high LMICs that multi-year community mobilization GBV prevalence rates in the region, and should be interventions lead to community level reductions targeted in WB engagement throughout different in physical and sexual IPV. Additionally, intensive sectors, including health, education, transport, group-based workshops with women and men or social support, livelihoods, among others. peer education activities for youth can improve Increasing awareness and mobilizing communities individual attitudes and behaviors of the target through targeted interventions are important groups, including reduced prevalence of GBV, additional entry points, as outlined below. which can initiate wider community change. Social norm change interventions can also focus Working with the media is important to increase on specific types of GBV, such as FGM/C or other awareness of GBV, its root causes and risk harmful practices. These types of interventions lxix This Action Plan uses a broad definition of prevention, including primary and secondary prevention. Primary prevention refers to efforts to prevent GBV from occurring in the first place, for example through community awareness of risk factors, conflict resolution, challenging harmful norms, and so on. Secondary prevention focuses on early identification of survivors, for example. via screenings, responding to survivor needs, and referral to appropriate services. Tertiary prevention aims to mitigate the negative impact of violence that has already occurred. In this Action Plan, tertiary prevention is covered by the section on Response. 86 C. P riority Actions could be built into for example social protection, on grievance redress mechanisms and leverage CDD, municipal development projects and youth digital technology in this regard. projects. Efforts should involve a wide range of stakeholders at the community level, including Additionally, universities can be an effective local authorities, community, traditional and entry point for GBV prevention and social religious leaders. norm change interventions. GBV prevention programs in universities often primarily aim to reduce sexual harassment and sexual assault b. Utilize Health Services as an Entry on campus. Recommended interventions Point for Prevention include informational campaigns, awareness Health providers are often the first point of raising programs, educational (online) courses, contact for individuals at risk of GBV and are edutainment with contextualized narratives, therefore not only important for GBV response and efforts to strengthen university policies on but also for prevention efforts. Providing GBV. The World Bank can help develop tailored information on available services and referrals prevention programs at universities. It can should be part of general health interventions. further offer technical assistance to develop and Survivors and those at risk can be identified early revise policies and codes of conduct for staff and on through screenings at primary health care professors. facilities and reproductive, maternal and child Tailored programs for children and adolescents services, when adequate training is provided. exposed to GBV are critical for sustained prevention efforts. Children and adolescents c. Educational Approaches for Children who are living in households where they are and Youth exposed to GBV or witness IPV against their mothers or other caregivers, are at greater risk Prevention efforts rely heavily on education of perpetrating violence in their own relationships in schools, including programming and lessons as adults, particularly boys and young men. on life skills, respectful relationships, conflict Programs reinforcing the resilience of children resolution, gender roles, etc. at all levels of and adolescents, providing safe environments to schooling. Learning materials and curricula need recover and building skills in developing respectful to be adapted to the respective age group and and healthy relationships can help to break this type of educational institution, taking contextual “cycle of violence”. The World Bank can build on its factors into account and working with local work with children and youth in the MENA region partners who are already working on these issues. to offer tailored programs in this regard. School-based interventions are found to be particularly effective in preventing GBV when using participatory approach and interactive methods. d. Improve Safety of Public Spaces, Working with schools on how to integrate GBV Transport, Workplace awareness raising and information on assistance Improving safety in public spaces is an and available services is a key entry point. School important part of GBV prevention efforts. Poor staff and teachers should receive specialized infrastructure, unlit streets, limited sanitary training on how to generally address these topics facilities, unsafe transit points, markets, and through remote/online teaching, but also how to other public spaces increase GBV risks and can be respond to concrete cases of suspected abuse. addressed through a broad range of operations, Through education projects, the World Bank such as infrastructure and urban development can help develop and revise protocols, code of interventions. Technology-based solutions, such conducts, and training material for administrative as applications or online platforms mapping high staff and teachers. It can further strengthen risk areas, can be a component of World Bank reporting mechanisms building on its expertise engagement in MENA countries alongside other C. Priorit y Actions 87 prevention efforts to improve safety in public e. Increase Social and Economic spaces. In the medium term, safety audits can Empowerment be a practical tool to record the state of facilities, evaluate their safety, and make recommendations Reducing financial strain and poverty as GBV for safer public spaces. risk factors remain important from a long- term prevention perspective. Livelihood support Safer transport is another key entry point for and economic empowerment includes short term World Bank engagement on GBV prevention. social welfare support, including provision of basic Sexual harassment and violence in public transport goods and services, cash transfers, low/no interest is a prevalent phenomenon across MENA countries, loans, housing support, and unemployment particularly putting women and girls at risk. It has assistance. To avoid negative impacts, such as a severe impact on daily lives and professional increased tensions through changing gender roles, opportunities by limiting their mobility, including these types of programs should be combined their ability to get to their workplace and back. with behavioral components, for example in Standard protocols and codes of conduct should “social protection/ economic empowerment plus” be developed for public transport workers and programs. Similarly, long term empowerment conductors, complemented by trainings on gender initiatives can help reduce vulnerability and risk of and GBV awareness. Adequate grievance redress violence. These initiatives include life skills trainings, mechanisms and responsive accountability mentoring and safe spaces. Livelihood, vocational mechanisms should be in place that allow survivors trainings, and life skills trainings specifically to safely and confidentially report incidents. targeting adolescents show promising impacts Safety of transportation means and stops should on GBV reduction and could be an entry point for be increased through better lighting and visibility, World Bank engagement in MENA countries. connectivity between neighborhoods and routes, especially in peripheral areas. In the short term, visible information on emergency numbers and services for GBV survivors and those at risk in buses, trains and transit points could be an entry point for the transport sector. Addressing sexual harassment at the workplace can be an additional key entry point for World Bank engagement. Workplaces and employers play a special role in communicating zero tolerance for GBV, providing information and support to those at risk. Occupational safety and health programs and risk assessments could be used to integrate efforts to prevent harassment and violence and change the organizational culture. Furthermore, strong commitments, monitoring mechanisms, complaints procedures and disciplinary measures foster an environment of zero tolerance at the workplace. A variety of projects could support the development of effective human resource policies, procedures and practices that help prevent sexual harassment and violence (including cyber GBV) at the workplace. 88 C. P riority Actions Conduct service provider mappings and gap analyses to inform programming 1) ENSURE QUALITY HEALTH SERVICES FOR SURVIVORS • Provide high-quality health services for survivors, incl. first-line support, treatment for injuries, emergency contraception, STI prevention, HIV post 1 exposure prophylaxis, post-rape care, as well as psychological and mental health care • Build capacity of service providers through continuing education and in- service training • Integrate GBV health services into existing health systems where possible 2) IMPROVE PSYCHOSOCIAL SUPPORT AND MENTAL HEALTH CARE 2 • Ensure availability of crisis counselling, support helplines and information about services • Provide psychosocial support for survivors and referral to mental health care providers • Provide Parenting consultations and psychological support interventions for 3. Operations children and adolescents Services for 3) FACILITATE ACCESS TO SAFE SPACES, LIVELIHOODS Survivors of GBV 3 SUPPORT, AND REINTEGRATION • Update policies for the accommodation of girls and boys in line with international standards • Provide emergency or transitional housing for GBV survivors and children in the short term while supporting long-term recovery and empowerment through income generating activities, economic opportunities, and skill- building trainings 4 4) ESTABLISH FUNCTIONAL REFERRAL SYSTEMS AND CASE MANAGEMENT • Integrate clear protocols and agreements about the referral process in the relevant service sectors • Develop or strengthen multisectoral referral systems with consistent procedures between services In addition to prevention, service provision are still available.363 The World Bank can address remains a critical area of potential World Bank these service provision gaps by partnering with engagement to address GBV. In many MENA UN agencies and civil society organizations countries, GBV survivors have limited access including women’s groups, especially in FCV to quality basic services, including emergency contexts, to provide direct response services helplines, health care, psychosocial support, social for survivors (Annex 4). Amidst the COVID-19 services, shelter and safe accommodation, as well pandemic, UN agencies have facilitated access to as adequate police and justice sector response. essential services, such as helplines, health, and Service providers often do not have sufficient case management. FCV contexts are a key entry- funding, human resources, and capacities to point for GBV work in the region through strong respond adequately to the needs of GBV survivors partnerships with development partners on the and those at risk. Due to lack of knowledge, fear ground and long-term engagement as it requires of reprisal or shame, many did not seek help from time and a flexible approach to implement, service providers nor reported their experiences innovate, and adapt in these challenging contexts. or filed complaints. During the current pandemic, these challenges have been exacerbated, service Service provider mappings can be an important provision is reduced or disrupted in many resource for clients and a useful tool for World countries, and survivors face additional burdens Bank engagement in GBV response efforts. Service reporting cases or accessing those services that provider mappings identify which services and C. Priorit y Actions 89 initiatives are currently available for GBV survivors best practice. This includes building capacity at and those at risk, including judicial institutions, pre-service, through continuing education and health care services, psychosocial support and in-service training. The World Bank can build on mental health care, hotline and counselling services, successful health interventions to support GBV shelters and safe spaces, as well as livelihood and survivors and those at risk in other regions to economic empowerment initiatives. Service provider engage in MENA countries. mappings should also identify the main users of the services, which groups and geographic locations b. Improve Psychosocial Support and may not be reached, and what types of GBV are addressed. Mapping exercises can be conducted for Mental Health Care internal purposes, for example at the pre-planning Crisis counselling, information and support stage of projects, or be offered to clients to inform helplines, and referral to services are important their GBV response. social services for GBV survivors. Although they may not directly lead to reduction of violence, a. Ensure Quality Health Services for telephone or online helplines allow survivors Survivors and those at risk of violence to seek help and obtain information on protection mechanisms Providing high quality health services for GBV and services. Crisis information should be widely survivors is a key recommended entry point available and accessible and should include for World Bank programming. GBV survivors information about the rights of survivors and need to be able to access medical treatment, the services available. Counselling should also including first-line support, treatment for injuries, support survivors to make informed choices and emergency contraception, STI prevention, HIV offer a range of options. Help lines should operate post exposure prophylaxis, post-rape care, as well 24/7 and provide services free of charge. Case as psychological and mental health care. Primary workers and staff should be adequately trained health care providers are often the first formal and protocols for referrals need to be in place and point of contact for GBV survivors, whether they updated according to the current situation. If the disclose their experience of violence or not. Health World Bank engages in integrated service delivery services for GBV survivors should be integrated operations in MENA countries in the longer term, into existing health systems, where possible, rather this should be part of the response. than being provided as stand-alone services. Psychosocial support and counselling should be Specific population groups require specialized part of an integrated approach to service delivery. healthcare services. Women who experience GBV often results in a range of mental health GBV while pregnant, for example, face a higher consequences. Counselling should be provided risk of complications and need special counselling at the community as well as health care level, in and referral to specialized gynecological services. groups or at the individual level, and by specialized Adolescent girls are especially vulnerable to GBV professionals over a longer period of time as needed. in crisis settings and special attention should Referrals to adequately trained providers should be be given to removing barriers and facilitating integrated into GBV case management systems. adolescent girls’ access to services. Children are Healthcare providers are often the first point of more vulnerable to exploitation and abuse and contact and should provide information and referral survivors should receive specialized child-friendly to appropriate psychological support services. and rights-based health services. Furthermore, Children should be able to receive specialized, age- male survivors have specific needs with regard appropriate support and counselling. Additionally, to treatment and care that should be addressed parenting consultations and psychological support by health care providers in a non-discriminatory interventions for girls and boys who experience manner. Professionals need to be trained in or observe IPV could be an entry point for MENA identifying and treating GBV survivors in line with countries. 90 C. P riority Actions c. Facilitate Access to Safe Spaces, d. Establish Functioning Referral Livelihood Support, and Empowerment Systems and Case Management Providing livelihood support can be a major Strong referral and case management systems entry point for WBG engagement to support the are crucial for effective support for survivors recovery and empowerment of GBV survivors. of GBV. The World Bank can offer technical Interventions usually provide emergency or assistance to support developing or revising transitional housing for female GBV survivors standard operating procedures for referrals and their children in the short-term. Safe houses in collaboration with relevant stakeholders. In and shelters in many MENA countries specifically countries where no referral systems are in place, it need to update their policies for accommodation can particularly engage in distributing information of children in line with international standards on available services and how to access them in and establish access to shelters for boys. Some the short term. However, it is paramount that institutions offer access or referral to other the development and support to referral systems services, including health care, counselling and be coupled with the strengthening of the quality economic assistance or trainings. Long-term of the services referring to, in order to ensure reduction of violence often requires that survivors effectiveness and limit any risks for the survivors. leaving a safe house or shelter are financially In the medium and longer term, the World Bank can independent and do not have to return to an work with governments to develop or strengthen abusive situation. Supporting long-term recovery multisectoral referral systems with consistent and empowerment provides an entry point procedures between services and to integrate for World Bank engagement. This can include clear protocols and agreements about the referral activities to enhance income-generating activities process in the relevant service sectors. and economic opportunities, better access to agricultural resources and increased agricultural productivity, as well as capacity building, skills development and training. C. Priorit y Actions 91 1) IMPROVE ACCESS TO LEGAL COUNSELLING AND 1 ASSISTANCE • Partner with organizations working to enhance legal services for GBV survivors • Strengthen legal aid and counselling centers 2) STRENGTHEN REPORTING MECHANISMS AND RESPONSIVENESS • Leverage digital technology for safe reporting and help-seeking, e.g. through mobile applications, silent calls, pre-programmed messages etc. 2 • Ensure that gender-sensitive procedures are in place and staff and service 3. Operations providers are trained on GBV case management through digital technology • Increase accessibility to courts in remote areas and areas with limited Protection and connectivity, e.g. through mobile justice units Access to Justice 3) BUILD CAPACITIES OF PUBLIC SECTOR • Develop and implement codes of conduct/ codes of practice for professionals in the public sector • Conduct specialized, gender-sensitive training that is embedded in the 3 institutional framework • Increase female representation in police, judicial system and legal support services and establish specialized units a. Improve Access to Legal Counselling b. Strengthen Reporting Mechanisms and Assistance and Responsiveness Legal advice and assistance for GBV survivors Digital technology can be used to enable is a key factor to ensure access to justice. GBV reporting and help-seeking. Safe and confidential survivors often lack knowledge about their rights, mechanisms are essential for survivors to report available security measures and legal options as violence. During the current situation, GBV well as related issues such as divorce/marriage survivors and those at risk may face even higher laws, guardianship, child custody, the division barriers to reporting cases or seeking help. Mobile of property and migration law. In addition, rural applications can be used to seek help even when communities do not always have access to court perpetrators are nearby, for example through silent systems and legal contracts. Legal advice and calls, silent chats, and pre-programmed messages assistance to navigate judicial procedures should to pre-set contacts, including family members, be survivor-centered and free of charge. Based on government authorities, or CSOs using geolocation. its data on access to justice and legal aid across They can also be used for real-time reporting of countries through sector assessments, the World incidents and location sharing to allow for rapid Bank can partner with organizations working to interventions. Leveraging such digital platforms enhance legal services for GBV survivors. It can requires specific ethical and safety guidelines to work with National Women’s Commissions or ensure the confidentiality, protection, and wellbeing other institutions coordinating the legal response of the survivors. The World Bank can offer technical to establish and strengthen legal aid centers and assistance on leveraging digital technology for counselling. safe reporting and help-seeking. It can work with service providers to ensure that gender-sensitive procedures are in place and staff is trained on GBV case management through digital technology. 92 C. P riority Actions Specialized justice institutions that address GBV, legal support services can have a positive impact including GBV prosecution units and specialized on help-seeking and reporting of GBV. Effective mobile courts, can enhance access to justice for mechanisms to enhance women’s participation in GBV survivors. Evidence indicates that specialized the justice and security sectors include targeted protection services are more effective than those recruitment campaigns for women, quota that do not take gender and GBV considerations into systems for women in the judiciary, and training account. Such units can perform several functions, and mentoring for women judges and lawyers. including receiving complaints and GBV reports, The World Bank can offer technical assistance and providing both legal assistance and support on gender-sensitive recruiting practices, human in initiating court cases. To increase accessibility in resources policies, and trainings for specialized remote areas and areas with limited connectivity, staff, for example through trust-funded TA. deploying mobile justice units which operate under Developing and implementing codes of conduct social distancing regulations should be considered. and codes of practice for relevant stakeholders The World Bank could support the establishment of in the judicial sector can help systematize good specialized mobile courts through DPFs or P4R. practice across units. Codes of conduct and updated policies should be accompanied by specialized, gender-sensitive training that is c. Build Capacities of the Public Sector embedded in the institutional framework and In the longer term, increasing female accountability mechanisms. representation in police, judicial systems, and Box 6. Potential Engagement in the COVID-19 Context » Data collection during the COVID-19 pandemic needs to meet additional ethical and safety principles. Data on GBV, risk factors, availability and accessibility of services and emerging needs remains crucial during the pandemic to design evidence-based programs addressing the needs of survivors and reducing risks. In-person data collection efforts may be impossible during the pandemic and remote data collection can entail safety risks, especially for women and girls exposed to IPV during confinement. In fact, the WHO and UN Women strongly advise against collecting information about respondents’ experiences of violence through rapid assessments t. The World Bank therefore needs to work with clients and development partners to utilize existing data, including population-based surveys predating the pandemic, service- based data, qualitative data and case reports, key informant interviews with providers and frontline workers.lxx The ethical and safety principles for data collection on VAWG should be applied also in secondary data collection efforts, for example when conducting interviews with providers remotely via phone or web-based platforms to ensure the safety and confidentiality of survivors.364 » The World Bank should use its policy dialogue space to ensure that GBV is part of the COVID-19 response and recovery policies at both national and regional levels through high-level events with client countries. GBV services need to be considered essential during the pandemic and should be included in national COVID-19 recovery policies and plans. » GBV prevention efforts need to be adapted to the current situation during the pandemic. Prevention programming, including community outreach and mobilization, dialogue and awareness-building, as lxx There are some examples of innovative, safe data collection focusing on proxy measures. East Asia and Pacific Gender Innovation Lab collected data on exposure to GBV through a phone survey, to understand the greatest risk factors and policy interventions that may effectively protect women. No direct questions about violence were asked, since in-person data collection was impossible due to the pandemic, and also in order to protect the safety of the respondents from backlash by perpetrators in the same households. Rather, a series of proxy questions focusing on safety perceptions, household tension,n and general injuries, which allowed for inferring likely exposure to violence. See: World Bank. 2020g. What Factors Exacerbate and Mitigate the Risk of Gender-Based Violence During COVID-19? Insights From a Phone Survey in Indonesia. http://documents1.world- bank.org/curated/en/991971610438425529/pdf/What-Factors-Exacerbate-and-Mitigate-the-Risk-of-Gender-Based- Violence-During-COVID-19-Insights-From-a-Phone-Survey-in-Indonesia.pdf C. Priorit y Actions 93 well as livelihood and empowerment initiatives, have been interrupted through restrictions on mobility, suspension of work, school, sport, faith and social institutions and social distancing. At the same time, prevention efforts are urgently needed to address the increasing risk of violence during the pandemic. In the short term, existing health and social services, online learning, and media are recommended entry points for prevention. Prevention efforts should continue where possible given necessary COVID-19 precautions and regulations. Additionally, technology-facilitated solutions and digital tools, including mobile applications, websites, blogs, social media can be used to continue and adapt GBV prevention efforts during the pandemic. » Remote and online services need to be strengthened during the pandemic. Certain types of services, including psychosocial support, legal assistance and counselling, can be offered remotely while taking additional measures to ensure that GBV survivors and those at risk can safely access these services.lxxi Helplines should extend their services to provide 24/7 support, especially during the pandemic when other services may be limited or more difficult to access. Mobile applications can link survivors of GBV with verified professionals or provide a list of contacts with instructions on how to access help and report cases. Through its work on digital development, the World Bank can help adapt remote service delivery and multisectoral standard operating procedures. Service providers and CSOs should receive capacity building for remote counselling and support to develop adapted tools, materials, and trainings. » Accessible and safe services for GBV survivors need to be included in the COVID-19 response. The World Bank can build on existing rapid assessments and studies by UN agencies and other organizations to inform the development, programming and implementation of these integrated response mechanisms. It can strengthen existing relationships with partner organizations and communities to identify needs and capacities. Furthermore, the World Bank can support governments in mainstreaming GBV information in standard operating procedures for service providers to conduct GBV screenings in reported COVID-19 cases. The World Bank should work with governments to ensure that critical services receive adequate resources and funding during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health and social service providers directly targeting GBV survivors and those at risk should be considered essential during the pandemic. Shelters and safe houses should remain open where feasible while adhering to COVID-19 safety precautions. Notwithstanding the importance of remote-based systems, some may not have access to a phone or the internet or would put themselves at risk accessing remote case management services in their homes during confinement. Setting up general helpdesks in permitted areas or utilizing open services, such as pharmacies or food distribution points with privacy and confidentiality measures in place, could provide alternative opportunities to alert GBV workers for support, get a referral or receive direct support near the premises. Judicial protection measures need to remain available or should be adapted during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as through remote procedures to ensure compliance with protection orders. In Lebanon, for example, judges conduct virtual sessions to issue protection orders for women at risk of violence and survivors.365 Furthermore, electronic submission of testimony and evidence should be enabled, for example, through secure online platforms, text messaging and phone calls. World Bank investment in digital technology should be complemented with gender-sensitive design of tools, taking local conditions and barriers into account. In collaboration with other development partners working on these issues, the World Bank can offer technical assistance in this regard. lxxi In Morocco, for example, the Regional Council of the College of Physicians and the Moroccan Society of Psychiatry offer remote psychosocial support (UN Women 2020a). 94 C. P riority Actions PRIORITY ACTIONS TO ADDRESS GBV AMIDST COVID-19 Data and Knowledge Utilize existing data and alternatives to data collection during COVID-19 for targeting of response. In case new data is collected, apply ethical and safety principles, including for remote data collection. Policy Dialogue GBV services need to be considered essential during the pandemic. Ensure that actions to address GBV are part of the national COVID-19 response and recovery plans. Prevention Recognize that prevention efforts are urgently needed to address the increasing risk of violence during the pandemic. Adapt prevention efforts, incl. through updated protocols, technology-facilitated solutions, remote and digital tools, such as mobile applications, websites, blogs, social media. Continue GBV prevention programming, including community outreach and mobilization, dialogue and awareness-building, livelihood and empowerment initiatives where possible. Integrate existing health and social services, online learning, and media as entry points for GBV prevention. Services Ensure that GBV services are designated as essential during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mainstream GBV information in SOPs for service providers to conduct GBV screenings in reported COVID-19 cases. Support availability and accessibility of services, i.e. by setting up general helpdesks in permitted areas or utilizing open services. Strengthen remote and online services, e.g. extend operating hours of helplines, help adapt remote service delivery and multisectoral SOPs through digital development. Update information service directories and referral systems to avoid disruptions. Build on existing rapid assessments and studies by UN agencies and other organizations to inform the development, programming and implementation of integrated response mechanisms. Strengthen relationships with partner organizations and communities to identify needs and capacities. Protection and Access to Justice Adapt procedures to current situation, incl. through remote solutions for reporting, opportunities to file complaints online, online court proceedings, etc. Ensure that service providers are aware of increased GBV risks and adequately trained to respond to reported cases. List of A nnexes 95 LIST OF ANNEXES Annex 1. GBV and COVID-19 in MENA Annex 2. Legal and Policy Environment in MENA Annex 3. Select Stand-alone IDA/IBRD GBV Operations and DPOs with GBV Component or Focus Annex 4. Overview of UN Agencies Addressing GBV Annex 5. Resources and Tools for Teams Country Profileslxxii » Algeria » Malta » Bahrain » Morocco » Djibouti » Oman » Egypt » Qatar » Iran » Saudi Arabia » Iraq » Syria » Jordan » Tunisia » Kuwait » United Arab Emirates » Lebanon » West Bank and Gaza » Libya » Yemen lxxii Country profiles are available upon request. Furthermore, the team can provide a regional overview of stakeholders upon request. 96 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 ANNEX 1 ON GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IMPACT OF COVID-19  IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION AND POTENTIAL SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS   OR BANK OPERATIONS ENTRY‑POINTS F INTRODUCTION Around the world, the COVID-19 pandemic has challenges with data availability and collection, as increased the incidence of gender-based violence well as institutional challenges such as incomplete (GBV) and affected survivors’ ability to access and unenforced legal frameworks, limited capacity services. The Middle East and North African to deliver services, and discriminatory social norms region (MENA) is no exception. Almost all MENA that need to be taken into account when engaging countries have imposed movement restrictions on GBV prevention and response in the region. The through partial or full lockdowns to contain the main purpose of this note is to encourage World pandemic. The rates of different forms of GBV, in Bank management across MENA countries to particular intimate partner violence (IPV), cyber maintain a particular focus on GBV response and sexual violence, and child marriages,lxxiii have prevention while engaging clients, and to encourage increased. Existing mechanisms and activities, operational colleagues to consider integrating GBV which support GBV prevention, protection, and interventions into their projects. The note draws response, have been negatively affected. Even on sector-specific operational guidance notes before the pandemic, at least 37 percent of Arab to respond to the different impacts of COVID-19 women experienced some form of violence in their on women and men, including recommendations lifetime.366 to address GBV in each sector. More precise operational entry-points are presented in Table 1. The World Bank is well placed to address these issues in the MENA region, by strengthening and adapting existing GBV prevention efforts and service provision in response to the pandemic.lxxiv This note complements the forthcoming MENA Regional GBV Action Plan. It illustrates the evidence of increased incidence of GBV in the region, discusses intersectional factors that affect the prevalence of GBV, and outlines measures to respond to GBV during COVID-19. It also highlights lxxiii Definitions used in this paper are based on: World Bank. 2020-b. Environmental & Social Framework for IPF Opera- tions Addressing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse and Sexual Harassment (SEA/SH) in Investment Project Financing involving Major Civil Works. https://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/741681582580194727/ESF-Good-Practice-Note-on-GBV-in-Major-Civil- Works-v2.pdf lxxiv Despite country-specific differences, there are a range of issues related to GBV in the region that remain a concern across countries, including prevalent social norms, legal and institutional challenges, weak capacities and service provision, as well as barriers to access justice. Therefore, this issue is being explored from a regional perspective. However, aggregated data at the regional level is difficult to identify and the majority of emergency-response policies are implemented at national and subnational levels; therefore, this discussion will be represented through country-specific data points and references. List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 97 IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON RISKS OF GENDER‑BASED VIOLENCE GBV incidence has increased as a result Results from a survey conducted in Egypt in April of COVID-19 related lockdowns, reduced 2020 are also bleak: 11 percent of married women mobility, and disruptions in access to services, reported that they were subjected to violence from exacerbating existing economic and social their husbands during the previous week, family inequities worldwide. Many countries are reporting problems increased by 33 percent, and violence substantial increases in emergency calls for IPV among family members by 19 percent since while experiencing decreased access to services, the outbreak of COVID-19.375 In Libya, a country including crisis centers, shelters, legal aid, and where 70 percent of women are not able to go to protection services. Online abuse and cyber GBV health facilities unless accompanied by a male have also increased substantially.367 Furthermore, guardian, 46 percent feared domestic violence the disruption of existing efforts to prevent GBV would increase during lockdown measures.376 In may have long-term impacts: for example, UNICEF Algeria, there were reports of increased domestic estimates that 2 million female genital mutilation violence, including women killed by their husbands. (FGM) cases that could have been averted will However, these have not translated to more calls take place over the next decade if current efforts to hotline services, and in Jordan there has been a are disrupted.368 Similarly, an additional 10 million notable decrease in hotline calls to seek help.377 child marriages over the next decade are expected because of the implications of COVID-19.369 Risks Women and girls are increasingly exposed to of GBV are exacerbated by multiple, intersecting online abuse and violence. More than half of the factors, which are intensified during the pandemic. girls and young women who use social media These include economic vulnerability, labor worldwide have experienced online abuse.378 conditions, for example for migrant domestic Research before the COVID-19 pandemic indicated workers, living in rural areas, having a disability, that approximately 84 percent of respondents or living in conflict zones and as refugees and from MENA countries who had experienced displaced persons. online violence reported some form of real- world impact, including fearing for their safety Countries in the MENA region are showing and feeling anxious or depressed.379 This finding trends that compound the already high rates of supports other research suggesting that women GBV, in particular IPV. In West Bank and Gaza, tend to reduce their online presence because of the Women’s Center for Legal Aid and Counselling online abuse and violence.380 This is particularly reported a 69 percent increase in GBV consultations detrimental given the increased reliance on online in April 2020 compared to the previous month.370 communication and service provision during the Tunisia and Iraq saw similar spikes on their GBV pandemic. Globally, online abuse targeting women hotlines371 In Lebanon, the NGO ABAAD received increased by 50 percent in March 2020 on major triple the number of calls to its hotline in 2020 social media platforms.381 In the MENA region, compared to 2019, and reports of domestic violence online harassment was the highest reported type doubled last year compared to the previous year.372 of violence against women in 2020.382 This includes Since the onset of the pandemic and reduction a surge in non-consensual sharing of images and in face-to-face services, 57 percent of women videos with the purpose of shaming, threatening, and girls in Lebanon reported feeling less safe in and controlling women, often linked to IPV.383 At their communities and 44 percent of women and the same time, there have been increased efforts girls surveyed reported feeling less safe in their in using online spaces to increase awareness and homes.373 In Morocco, incidence of GBV recorded share information about combatting GBV and by the government reached 54 percent, with the supporting survivors during COVID-19. highest rates reported among married women.374 98 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 Women in households marked by economic workers have also lost their employment and face distress are at higher risk of IPV.384 In Egypt, heightened risks of deportation. In Jordan, for surveys revealed that exposure to spousal violence example, at least one-third of migrant domestic in the first weeks of the outbreak increased at lower workers are reported to have lost their income income levels: from 14 percent among the lowest or jobs by May 2020.388 There were also reports economic level to six percent among the highest. from several GCC countries of deportations of Economic stress and instability can affect the rate thousands of migrant workers. Their precarious and severity of IPV. In the context of the financial legal and economic situation puts them at a higher crisis in Lebanon, COVID-19 has exacerbated these risk of sexual exploitation, abuse, and harassment. factors by increasing pressure on households struggling to meet basic needs, including families Rural populations have lower access to services, with a larger number of individuals. For example, a infrastructure, and information during COVID-19 higher percentage of women living in households lockdowns. In MENA, 27 percent of women and with five or more family members (18 percent) 18 percent of men are working in agriculture. reported feeling unsafe and afraid of the threat In countries with large rural economies, such of domestic violence compared to those who lived as Morocco, up to 75 percent of women work in in households of two to four people, or alone (14 agriculture. In Tunisia, for example, 70 percent of percent).385 Evidence from other regions supports the agricultural workforce are women.389 Fifty- the same conclusions.386 nine percent of female farm workers in Tunisia experienced violence on farms, with 40 percent Reports show worsened conditions for migrant indicating that they experienced psychological domestic workers during lockdowns across the violence, 31 percent verbal violence, and 29 percent region, and especially for migrant domestic workers physical violence.390 While existing sexual and in Lebanon, Jordan and in Gulf Cooperation Council reproductive services have generally experienced (GCC) countries.lxxv Most of the 3.16 million migrant lower disruption in rural areas, rural women often domestic workers employed in Arab states, who have very limited access to social protection are predominantly women,387 do not benefit from and quality health care facilities, exacerbating legal protections, and are highly dependent on their vulnerabilities in the context of COVID-19.391 employers underthe Kafala “sponsorship”system.lxxvi Furthermore, GBV survivors and persons at risk The lack of legal protections in addition to the in rural areas may not be reached by relevant inherent power imbalance puts migrant domestic information and face higher barriers to accessing workers at heightened risk of GBV with limited services, which are traditionally concentrated in options for recourse. Airport closures prevented more populous areas. many of them returning to their home countries and movement restrictions and social distancing The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated risks measures have led to increased vulnerability. of discrimination, exploitation, violence, and Furthermore, many employers have reduced barriers to information and services faced salaries and, in some instances, salaries may be by persons with disabilities.392 While data on withheld completely, which results in an inability persons with disabilities in the MENA region to send remittances back home. In Lebanon, the is rather unreliable due to data collection and sharp currency depreciation has resulted in already reporting challenges, research found that they limited wages losing value for migrants looking to experience greater vulnerabilities and exclusion send back remittances. Many migrant domestic than persons without disabilities. For example, 67 percent of persons with disabilities in Morocco lxxv The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is comprised of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. lxxvi The kafala, or sponsorship, system is a legal framework in Arab Gulf countries, Jordan, and Lebanon that defines the relationship between migrant workers and their employers. Under this system, the state gives local individuals or companies sponsorship permits to employ foreign laborers. For more details, see: Robinson, Kali. 2021. What is the Kafala System. Council on Foreign Relations. March 23, 2021. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-kafala-system List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 99 have never been to school, compared to 35 of the Global Protection Cluster’slxxvii operations, percent of persons without disabilities.393 While including Syria and Iraq.400 Survivors of trafficking many institutions and NGOs offer services to in Iraq and Syria are at risk of further exploitation women subjected to violence, these services as lockdowns and border restrictions limit their usually fail to consider accessibility needs.394 ability to seek and get help.401 According to a COVID-19 lockdown measures disrupted critical 2021 survey of aid workers, including in Yemen services, such as adapted public transportation, and Syria, 98 percent of respondents agreed that regular rehabilitation or health care appointments, the pandemic had worsened the humanitarian and close contact with health care workers and crisis in their countries with regard to GBV risk caregivers.395 Prior to the pandemic, women with factors, including increased food scarcity and disabilities in low- and middle-income countries famine, hyperinflation, extreme poverty, delays were already two to four times more likely to in aid delivery, lack of funding, and crowded experience IPV than non-disabled women, and the living situations.402 For refugees, asylum seekers, risk of both IPV and non-partner violence increases and internally displaced persons, preexisting with the severity of the disability.396 Despite an challenges have been magnified since the onset absence of robust research on the increased of the pandemic, including exclusion from public prevalence of GBV toward women with disabilities health facilities and other key social services, as during COVID-19, it has been well established that well as an elusive legal status in some cases. They this crisis is aggravating preexisting inequalities are more likely to be employed in precarious jobs and vulnerabilities—and GBV is no exception. in the informal sector and experience disruptions Furthermore, persons with disabilities have to income generating activities. They also strongly been and continue to be underrepresented in rely on services delivered by UN agencies and consultation and decision-making around relevant NGOs, many of which were forced to close due to legislation and service provision, which enhances the pandemic. the risk that their priorities will not be properly reflected. On the other hand, the crisis is also a The pandemic has increased the risk of child unique opportunity to rapidly scale up adapted marriage for girls. Child marriage can be a and remote approaches, such as phone-based negative coping mechanism to deal with financial counselling and inclusive communication methods. instability, loss of livelihoods, and difficult living conditions in conflict and fragile contexts. Prior to Women and children in conflict zones and the pandemic, there were nearly 40 million child in refugee and displaced settings also face brides in MENA, including currently married girls exacerbated GBV risks. Even before the pandemic, and women who were first married in childhood. conflict and displacement were directly linked to While child marriage has decreased from one increased GBV prevalence. In Yemen, for example, in three marriages to one in five over the past the incidence of GBV increased by 63 percent 25 years, progress has stalled and significantly from the start of the civil war.397 and two-thirds reversed in some countries over recent years, of girls in Yemen are married before the age of 18, largely due to conflict and fragility.403 Increased compared to one-half before the war.398 In Syria, economic stresses and loss of livelihoods during GBV has been a persistent feature of the conflict the pandemic have led to a further increase in and used as a tool of war.399 Particularly in contexts the risk of child marriage in the region. In Jordan, of armed conflict, GBV is also perpetrated against for example, rates of child marriage have been men, boys, and sexual and gender minorities. on the rise in the Azraq and Zaatari camps since COVID-19 has heightened these risks, and the the onset of the pandemic.404 In Yemen, service associated loss of livelihoods and economic strain providers expressed concern that child marriage further exacerbate them. In August 2020, GBV would increase during the pandemic due financial was occurring at a higher incidence in 90 percent constraints among poor families. lxxvii UNHCR-led network of UN agencies and NGOs which provides protection to people affected by humanitarian crises. 100 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 STATE OF GBV PREVENTION AND RESPONSE IN MENA The following section describes the state of GBV penalties for perpetrators, and stipulating the prevention and response in MENA countries conditions of punishment.407 with regard to institutional frameworks, service delivery, and awareness raising efforts during the At the national level, several countries are pandemic, followed by key challenges that have strengthening inter-ministerial coordination to been exacerbated in the current context. support survivors of GBV. The National Council for Women (NCW) in Egypt, for example, has specified mitigation and response policies to protect women Institutional Policies and Strategies in the post-COVID-19 era, including combatting Many COVID-19 response and recovery GBV, in coordination with line ministries, by approaches at the global level highlight increased strengthening the provision of services such as risks of GBV. The World Bank Group (WBG) hotlines and legal aid, and ensuring that information approach for responding to COVID-19 discusses reaches communities.408 In Tunisia, the Ministry the sharp increases in domestic and GBV,405 and of Women, Family, Children and Elderly Affairs is aligned with the UN Comprehensive Response has strengthened coordination with different to COVID-19, which highlights that preventing line ministries and other stakeholders, including and responding to the increased levels of violence managers of shelters and call centers, to ensure against women and girls is critical.406 The United adequate temporary shelters during quarantine Nations (UN) Secretary-General appealed to and focus on vulnerable population groups such governments in April 2020 to make the prevention as pregnant women.409 Similar committees are and redress of violence against women a key part being established elsewhere in the region with of national response plans. Several humanitarian the support of international partners—such as in agencies have also developed guidance on Djibouti, with the objective of carrying out needs prevention and response to GBV in emergency assessments, establishing a case management settings. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee committee, and supporting emergency hotlines.410 and Gender-based Violence Area of Responsibility are global-level forums that facilitate coordination National-level legislation that protects women and collaboration in humanitarian settings. Several from IPV is the foundation for establishing guidance notes have been produced to help identify legal protection for survivors and formal and mitigate GBV risks within COVID-19 response avenues for recourse. According to the World in humanitarian settings. Bank’s Women, Business and the Law report,411 45 percent (nine out of 20) of MENA economies At the regional level and under the umbrella of do not have legislation specifically addressing the League of Arab States, member countries domestic violence. In some cases, legislative have agreed to strengthen cooperation between frameworks even protect perpetrators of the Arab Parliament and the Arab Women violence, for example, through regulations where Organization in support of combatting violence perpetrators are exonerated if they marry the against women. This includes recommending GBV survivor, etc. While these discriminatory laws legislative mechanisms that can guide Arab highlight entrenched institutional challenges to governments when preparing or updating combatting GBV, there has been some legislative relevant national legislation for combatting progress in MENA countries. For example, Kuwait violence against women, including: considering issued comprehensive legislation on domestic combatting violence against women an essential violence for the first time in September 2020 part of the state’s national legislation, plans and that not only prohibits any form of physical, policies, criminalizing all its forms, imposing severe psychological, sexual, or financial domestic abuse, but also provides for protection orders and List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 101 services for survivors of violence. In December pandemic has exacerbated the impacts of these 2020, the Lebanese parliament criminalized inadequacies while highlighting the necessity of sexual harassment, a reform supported by the strengthening remote service provision. Some World Bank through the Mashreq Gender Facility. governments have implemented measures aimed COVID-19 has fostered discussion across the at strengthening services for survivors, including region around the prevalence of domestic violence through helplines, shelters, and other reporting and the importance of legal reform, which presents mechanisms.413 For example, in Lebanon the an opportunity to advocate for the introduction of National Commission for Lebanese Women, in robust legislation and commensurate enforcement cooperation with the Internal Security Forces, set measures. up a new domestic violence hotline. Face-to-face support also continued for high-risk cases during While some justice systems have implemented the lockdown.414 In Tunisia, the operating hours novel methods of serving constituents to of the national domestic violence helpline have address family law issues during COVID-19, been extended to 24/7 and a free psychological including remote hearings, these innovative support service via phone was launched for approaches have lagged in MENA. Women initiate survivors of violence.415 Morocco launched a most family law cases, including formalizing platform, Kolona Maak, to provide 24/7 remote marriage or divorce, seeking custody of children, support to female survivors of violence. The and requesting protection from violence. Access platform has the advantage of linking survivors to courts is therefore critical. At least 72 countries to national authorities and security forces via a worldwide introduced measures to declare family hotline and regional listening centers.416 In Jordan, cases urgent or essential during lockdown.412 the Family Protection Department of the Public Security Directorate took measures and organized Many countries also created new online portals, transportation of survivors to shelters while the which not only help maintain access during movement of people and transport was restricted COVID-19 but expand access to women with during comprehensive lockdown.417 In Iraq, the disabilities and mobility challenges. In MENA, government has taken necessary measures to Lebanon was the only country to introduce ensure that shelters continue to stay open and hearings to obtain protection orders via video call. provide services to women survivors, with support The attorney general of the Court of Cassation from UN agencies and NGOs. In the West Bank and also issued a circular with updated procedures Gaza, the Police’s Family and Juvenile Protection for public prosecution of domestic violence cases. Department launched a helpline to improve access COVID-19 is accelerating efforts to modernize civil of women to services via free phone calls and to legal systems around the world toward enhanced facilitate referral and protection.418 In Egypt, a GBV inclusion and there is an opportunity for countries medical response clinic was inaugurated as part in MENA to invest in doing the same. Rather of the emergency room at Ain Shams University than being regarded as temporary and reversible, hospital and will be working 24/7, free of charge.419 measures that help close the gender justice Egypt is also launching clinics in 20 governorates gap should be made permanent and scaled as with support from the United Nations Population appropriate. Fund (UNFPA), offering comprehensive services for women subjected to violence.420 Service Delivery Leveraging digital solutions has proven especially Countries in MENA have adapted some GBV important in fragile and conflict affected areas. services during the pandemic, particularly In Syria, case management workers are receiving through remote service provision. Even prior to online training to be able to manage GBV cases COVID-19, referral systems and service delivery online and to mobilize support networks for mechanisms have been limited and inconsistent, women through online platforms. At the same both in terms of accessibility and quality. The time, mobile teams provided essential services for 102 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 those without access.421 In Yemen, tele-counselling practices such as FGM/C and child marriage. serviceslxxviii have been supported through hotlines Dignity kits are being distributed in health and toll-free numbers to address disruptions in the centers in Syria, Libya, and Iraq, and to families ability to conduct in-person sessions. Specialized in conjunction with cash assistance.424 In addition psychological centers have been supported to to strengthening referral pathways and hotlines continue operating, following international public to be able to address FGM, other actions include health guidelines and with the provision of PPE. establishing rescue brigades to reach remote In Libya, health workers received training on areas.425 UNHCR distributes similar shelter kits COVID-19 heath awareness, psychological first with core relief items to refugees, internally aid, and hotline services.422 displaced persons and other marginalized groups with a focus on water, sanitation and hygiene.426 There have been several initiatives aimed at In Egypt, the distribution of dignity kits in addressing GBV and ensuring access to services communities also includes messages about FGM for refugees and asylum seekers. In Algeria, for and early marriage.427 example, UNHCR reached out to female refugees and asylum seekers by SMS to share information about GBV services, including available support Awareness Raising through a UNHCR helpline. Female asylum seekers The second most common type of measure during who are categorized as most vulnerable are COVID-19 in MENA has been awareness raising provided with housing and cash assistance. In Iraq, and sensitization campaigns.428 Communication UNHCR is continuing protection services including campaigns sharing messaging on non-violent remote case management and emergency conflict resolution within the household, cash assistance and in Egypt, it is continuing to management of anger and stress, and healthy operate 24/7 emergency hotlines and remote case discipline are an important part of GBV prevention management for survivors, as well as emergency and response, along with information on available cash support for survivors and those at high risk. services, including GBV support resources. In Lebanon, UNHCR is providing emergency cash Women, girls, and other at-risk populations often assistance and remote support, including case do not access information as much as their male management and psychosocial counselling over counterparts. Although there is no evidence that the phone. GBV prevention sessions for women social communication interventions aiming to have also been moved from physical safe spaces reduce violence at the population level alone can to being run online. Women receive internet data prevent violence, rigorous assessments suggest to participate. However, barriers to access remain. they can improve the knowledge that GBV Mobile phones are not necessarily in women’s survivors and those at risk have about available.429 hands and there are constraints associated with In Lebanon, the Ministry of Interior, with the digital literacy. One approach that has been National Commission for Lebanese Women applied when in-person interventions are required (NCLW), led an information campaign on where and humanitarian workers are unable to access to report violence.430 UNHCR is also targeting communities has been for partner organizations refugees with digital content about COVID-19, to hire and train refugee community workers to access to GBV services, and new hotlines, as well safely identify and refer caseslxxix,423 as materials targeting men and boys.431 In the West Bank and Gaza, a radio campaign on women’s Development partners also distributed dignity access to justice was launched in collaboration kits, which contain basic necessities to maintain with the Media Community Center. Morocco’s health and hygiene during the pandemic while Ministry of Social Development collaborated also working to combat harmful norms and lxxviii UNFPA Tele-counselling services include psychological counselling, psychosocial support services, GBV case manage- ment and referral, legal aid consulting, coronavirus awareness and protection services related to women in prisons. lxxix This approach was used in Kenya and could be replicated in MENA. List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 103 with UN Women to re-launch a communication to engage local councils and support youth and campaign, Hit Ana Rajel (“Because I am a Man”), informal activists’ initiatives to raise awareness. In on positive masculinities and to promote ways Egypt, the referral pathway for female survivors of for men and boys to participate more actively in violence is being updated to include the most up- domestic work.432 In Syria, government entities to-date hotlines and newly introduced response have used different media channels, such as TV, and reporting mechanisms. The updated referral radio, and Facebook, to raise awareness and share pathway will be disseminated publicly to reach messaging to influence social norms and promote women and girls in remote areas, under the practices to prevent VAWG. There are also efforts leadership of the NCW.433 KEY CHALLENGES TO ADDRESSING GBV Addressing GBV and its underlying causes is and court hearings are pushed aside because of complex, and defined by multiple challenges. the restrictions in place and a backlog of cases. They include incomplete legal frameworks, In Lebanon, forensic doctors have reportedly been inadequate enforcement, distrust in institutions, unable or unwilling to document physical violence underreporting, and data collection challenges. of GBV survivors at police stations for fear of the These challenges are compounded by a lack of spread of COVID-19.436 GBV or child marriage accessible, available quality services and major may not be considered essential or urgent issues obstacles to accessing justice. Underlying these as financial resources are diverted toward efforts challenges are discriminatory social norms that to contain COVID-19.437 Ongoing interventions to normalize violence and stigmatize seeking help combat practices such as FGM may slow down or or pursuing recourse. COVID-19 has aggravated be set aside, potentially reversing progress made these challenges and brought their consequences in some communities. Laws must be meaningfully to the fore. implemented and enforced, which requires not only enacting them, but also ensuring that all relevant Incomplete legal provisions are a major challenge parties comply. This requires a comprehensive to systematically strengthening the response to effort from all branches of government, including GBV in MENA. Increased GBV during COVID-19, the judiciary. In 2019, only 14 percent of judges in has shown up legal gaps and the inadequacy of Arab states were women. Evidence shows that the institutional responses in the region. While several increasing presence of women in judiciaries in the countries have reformed their laws to enhance Arab world is associated with positive effects such women’s and girls’ physical and psychological as more gender-sensitive handling of cases and well-being and protection from domestic violence, increased understanding of the judiciary’s role in loopholes remain and various forms of GBV are protecting women from violence. The prevalence not addressed at all. Law enforcement and justice of female judges can also encourage women to systems may not see addressing GBV as a priority rely on judicial mechanisms when their rights have during the pandemic, especially in the MENA region been violated.438 where domestic violence, including marital rape, is often not criminalized.434 Underreporting of intimate partner violence and other forms of GBV has always been a challenge COVID-19 has increased the barriers to globally, and in the region. In MENA, less than 40 effectively implementing and enforcing percent of women who experience violence seek legislation and systems for holding perpetrators help of any sort or report the crime.439 Distrust in of GBV to account. Enforcement of existing institutions, prevalent social norms, fear of shame regulations is weak and access to justice is or stigmatization, lack of knowledge about rights limited.435 This was the case before COVID-19 and resources, and pressure from families and and more so now, when potential indictments communities continue to present major barriers to 104 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 seeking help and reporting. Access to information, under-resourced, and existing resources may be and the ability to seek support services, for GBV reprioritized due to COVID-19. Displaced women survivors and those at risk has been severely and girls in refugee and IDP camps face increased hampered during the pandemic, especially in challenges accessing quality services. Camp MENA where nearly half of women lack internet overcrowding, limited health services, and poor access or a mobile phone.440 Lockdown measures water, sanitation, and hygiene can increase both and mobility restrictions have made the situation exposure to COVID-19 and risks of GBV in camp more difficult. Decreases in calls to hotline services settings.446 during the early stages of the pandemic, as was the case in Jordan, reinforced concerns about Limited institutional and legal capacity is women’s ability to seek support.441 A UN Women compounded by challenges with the ethical survey in May 2020442 found that of respondents and confidential management of support for who knew a woman who had been subjected to GBV survivors and witnesses. Law enforcement violence, the proportion of who reported that officials often do not follow adequate measures to support was sought ranged between 23 percent, ensure the confidentiality and safety of survivors in Morocco, and 38 percent, in Iraq. A considerable and witnesses, undermining trust in the legal proportion of respondents agreed that “a woman system and discouraging others from reporting.447 should tolerate domestic violence to keep her In Egypt, for example, witnesses in an ongoing family together, especially in these difficult times”, high-profile case were arrested448 after authorities with the highest level of agreement observed in had initially encouraged survivors and witnesses to Yemen (52 percent), and the lowest in Tunisia (31 come forward.449 These phenomena are reinforced percent). In all countries, more men than women by social norms that stigmatize reporting. agreed with the statement. Additionally, many survivors lack knowledge about relevant laws Despite evidence of increased incidence of GBV and services. In Gaza, for example, 25 percent of during COVID-19, data gaps make it difficult to women had no knowledge of how to seek legal aid get an accurate picture of its prevalence and in their community and 35 percent were unaware consequences. Challenges with ethical, safe and that wives can file court cases to ensure financial confidential data collection are compounded by support from their husbands. For survivors who underreporting and survivors’ unwillingness to lost their jobs and livelihoods during the pandemic, pursue recourse. Collecting sensitive information it has been increasingly difficult to leave an abusive may pose serious safety risks to survivors450, partner due to financial dependence, especially in and in times of lockdowns, ensuring the privacy, countries experiencing an economic and financial confidentiality, and safety of survivors may be crisis like Lebanon.443 even more challenging.451 Upholding ethical and safety principles remains paramount and the “do Trust in public institutions has varied widely no harm” principle must be followed through when during the pandemic, ranging from 63 percent embarking on data collection. Exploring existing in Jordan to only 6 percent in Lebanon, given the data resources and understanding what additional relative weakness of health care systems and data can show should be the initial step when shortcomings in delivering basic social services considering data collection.452 While data and in MENA.444 Many of the services are offered by evidence are valuable tools, targeting resources to NGOs that rely on external donor funding, which ensure that GBV survivors have access to quality can be unreliable, risking their ability to provide services and support remains a key priority.453 services. In FCV contexts, capacity is further constrained, as in Libya, Syria and Yemen, where Several initiatives are underway to collect data it has been increasingly difficult for providers of on the impacts of COVID-19 on GBV. While medical, legal, and social services to access GBV development partners are implementing large- survivors.445 Furthermore, the quality of services scale rapid assessment phone and online surveys, may be poor or ineffective because they are some governments have introduced new data collection and analysis. For instance, the Palestinian List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 105 Civil Police Force’s Family and Juvenile Department use of project grievance redress mechanisms to collects monthly data and compares it to the support referrals for GBV survivors. The World previous year to track trends in GBV cases. A policy Bank EAP Gender Innovation Lab conducted phone paper launched by the NCW in Egypt identified data surveys in Indonesia, using vignette questions, and knowledge work as one of the pillars of Egypt’s to understand which factors are associated with short- and medium-term response to COVID-19. greater exposure to GBV during the COVID-19 pandemic. Two notable observations were that The World Bank is also supporting data women in households marked by economic collection efforts. In the Mashreq, the Maghreb distress, such as food insecurity, were at a and in Egypt, for example, World Bank emergency higher risk of violence, and also that having a job health projects will collect and analyze sex- and protects women from increased violence due to age-disaggregated data to better understand the the COVID-19 pandemic.454,lxxx The World Bank is differentiated impact of the pandemic on different considering opportunities to embed learning more demographic groups, including impacts on the deliberately in its interventions (see Box 1). BOX 1: SPOTLIGHT ON CASH TRANSFERS There is emerging evidence about the impacts on GBV of direct cash transfers to women. The expansion of social protection systems during COVID-19, and particularly cash transfers, presents an opportunity to explore how to best leverage these transfers to combat GBV. For example, a mixed methods study in Ecuador found decreases in poverty-related stress and increases in empowerment among women who received transfers, which improved their bargaining power in the household and their self-confidence. However, much is still unknown. For example, many cash transfer programs combine transfers with other components, such as nutrition training and conditions related to education and health. These components may affect women’s social or human capital distinctly from the cash transfers. So far, studies have not been able to separate the impacts of cash transfers on IPV from those of other components. World Bank support through emergency social protection programs in Jordan, Lebanon, and West Bank and Gaza utilize digital payments to deliver cash assistance to boost vulnerable women’s financial inclusion in countries where the share of women who have financial accounts or a mobile payment provider is sometimes less than half that of men. Cash assistance and top-ups are intended to provide immediate short-term relief. They are complemented by communications to inform beneficiaries about their temporary nature, as well as other health and social protection related matters, such as tips on good hygiene practices and information on women and family protection services. lxxx There is a measurement note from this work that provides guidance to practitioners who may wish to carry out similar work; see: Pelova, Elizaveta and Jarvis, Forest. 2020. Can we capture exposure to Gender-based Violence (GBV) through Phone Surveys during a Pandemic?. EAPGIL. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/950601606987399330/pdf/Can- We-Capture-Exposure-to-Gender-based-Violence-GBV-through-Phone-Surveys-during-a-Pandemic.pdf. 106 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 OPERATIONAL ENTRY POINTS COVID-19 has underlined the importance of for mitigating the risks of sexual exploitation, strengthening the focus on GBV prevention and abuse, and harassment (SEA/SH) in the context of response. Efforts are underway to address GBV designing and implementing World Bank-financed in WBG operations. Many World Bank-financed operationslxxxi. The WBG COVID-19 Response health and social protection COVID-19 emergency Approach Paper455 and World Bank Development response projects focus on the continuation of Committee Paper From COVID-19 Crisis Response GBV health services and protection facilities (for to Resilient Recovery – Saving Lives and Livelihoods example, shelters and care centers) as essential while Supporting Green, Resilient and Inclusive during the pandemic. Some projects support Development (GRID)456 frame the WBG approach targeted communication campaigns for violence for supporting countries to address the immediate prevention, which include practical advice on health crisis and its corresponding social and stress management, mental health, and healthy economic impacts, while focusing on rebuilding conflict resolution. Given the complex nature economies that are more inclusive and resilient to of GBV, it is important to also promote cross- future shocks. These approaches will require urgent sectoral approaches and to foster multi-sectoral investments at scale in all forms of capital (human, coordination. While several MENA countries have physical, natural and social) to address structural taken steps to address GBV as part of their weaknesses and promote growth. The impacts of pandemic response with support from donors and GBV on human and social capital development, UN agencies, more can be done to strengthen these together with the structural and intersectional efforts and push this agenda forward through approaches that are required to address it, World Bank-financed operations while aligning underscore the importance of addressing GBV in with national priorities. There are organizations, the World Bank’s COVID-19 response operations. both international and local, which have been at The World Bank can support GBV response for the forefront of efforts to address GBV in the region refugees through programs and policies adapted prior to the World Bank’s engagement. Through to their specific vulnerabilities and needs. In line leveraging their expertise and experience, the with ongoing work on displacement and gender, World Bank’s support should ensure coordination, this includes helping them to overcome barriers in collaboration, and complementarity with these accessing education, economic opportunities, and organizations. services to prevent and respond to GBV.457 While this note focuses on interventions in the context The WBG is well-positioned to support client of the COVID-19 pandemic, the forthcoming governments in responding to and preventing MENA GBV Action Plan and its background papers GBV through COVID-19 emergency response frame the Bank’s approach to integrating GBV and other operations. Table 1 illustrates some prevention and response in World Bank operations entry points task teams can consider for in the region. addressing GBV in the context of COVID-19. These recommendations are not exhaustive, and task teams should rely on the key resources listed and relevant focal points for detailed guidance. Box 2 provides examples of WBG projects that have been approved during COVID-19 that help address GBV. It is important to note that suggested interventions and examples are independent of any measures that projects are expected to adopt lxxxi For detailed information see: World Bank. 2020-b. List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 107 Table 1: Operational Entry Points by Global Practice HEALTH AND NUTRITION » Ensure GBV services within health care systems are designated as essential. • Include post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and emergency contraception (ECP) in the list of essential medicines related to COVID-19 emergency supply chain systems for response. • Make a minimum emergency package of sexual and reproductive health services available. • Ensure funding for essential services such as GBV diagnostics, mental health, and sexual and reproductive health, are prioritized and not diverted. » Include possibilities for remote service provision of essential health services (for example, via phone or SMS). » Ensure health service providers have updated lists of GBV service providers (including psychosocial support, case management, shelter, legal, and police or security) to enable accurate referrals. » Incorporate essential training modules on identifying, treating, and referring GBV survivors for medical professionals into existing training (use existing training opportunities rather than creating separate training). » Include GBV messaging in all forms of community health outreach. » Invest in violence prevention campaigns, including practical advice on stress management, mental health, and healthy conflict resolution that target men and women, girls and boys, making use of various channels (radio, TV, social media) and relevant influencers, celebrities and faith leaders. » Strengthen midwives’ networks and/or invest in mobile clinics for those living in hard to reach areas. » Fund actions and equipment to ensure the safety and wellbeing of women frontline health care workers, including by ensuring safe transportation, safe housing, mobile phones and credits, adequate PPE, and so on). Relevant resources: Guidance for Health COVID-19 (Coronavirus) Response Projects; Gender Dimensions of the COVID-19 Pandemic; Identifying and Mitigating Gender-based Violence Risks within the COVID-19 Response; Violence Against Women and Girls Health Sector Brief. 108 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 SOCIAL PROTECTION » Expand economic inclusion programs that support survivors’ livelihoods long-term; collect sex- disaggregated data to assess gender-differentiated use and impact of top-ups for cash transfers and of other support related to COVID-19. • paying transfers directly to women; • engaging men and boys to mitigate any risk of backlash against women’s participation in the program; • delivering accompanying measures which build women’s skills, self-esteem and social networks, providing women with resources for productive economic inclusion » Expand coverage and ensure predictability of safety net transfers to provide adequate consumption of basic goods and services and to reduce uncertainty around the timing and level of income. • Continue or introduce new cash transfers, particularly for vulnerable groups of people (with particular attention to the needs and risks of women and girls and other at-risk groups in high-risk employment situations: those in the informal labor market, domestic workers, those who are dependent on their work for immigration/residency status, and so on). • Leverage safety net programs to close gender gaps in access to ID, bank accounts and mobile phones. » Include GBV prevention activities within cash transfer programs and labor market activities. » Consider GBV messaging with alternative modes of accessing help in locations women visit (for example, grocery stores, or pharmacies), as well as the program’s grievance mechanism. » Provide women with mobile phones (and/or phone credit) so they can access GBV-related information, support services, and financial services. » Consider using mobile services where safe and feasible to facilitate cash transfers and to reduce associated security and safety risks. » Invest in violence prevention campaigns, including practical advice on stress management, mental health, and healthy conflict resolution that target men and women, girls and boys, making use of various channels (radio, TV, social media) and relevant influencers, celebrities and faith leaders. » Provide GBV training and sensitization to key project staff and volunteers, particularly those who are in direct contact with project beneficiaries. » Ensure the continuation of existing protection facilities (for example, domestic violence shelters, institutional care centers, and initiatives providing essential social work). Relevant resources: Safety First – how to leverage safety nets to prevent gender-based violence; Identifying & Mitigating Gender-based Violence Risks within the COVID-19 Response; Care-IRC Global Rapid Gender Analysis for COVID-19; Violence Against Women and Girls Social Protection Brief; Entry Points for Gender Design in SSN COVID-19 Response Operations. List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 109 EDUCATION » Develop or maintain a system to track dropouts of girls and boys in both normal education services and remote learning services. » Address the gender digital divide and ensure that girls and boys have access to remote learning and are trained with the necessary digital skills and knowledge of online safety. » Develop and carry out trainings for teachers and school staff to build their capabilities to detect and prevent sexual abuse and other forms of GBV, and to promote gender equitable norms. » Develop or reform institutional codes of conduct for teachers and administrative staff to prohibit sexual harassment and other abuses. » Foster the integration of GBV prevention into school health and/or life skills curricula for students. » Expand school-based counselling and referral services. » Carry out school-based programs targeting the prevention of dating violence. » Improve girls’ safety at school (location, infrastructure design, safe spaces) and on the way to and from school. Relevant resources: Protecting Children During COVID-19; How to Protect Vulnerable Children, Especially Girls, During the COVID-19 Pandemic?; Identifying and Mitigating Gender-based Violence Risks within the COVID-19 Response; Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide Education Sector Brief. AGRICULTURE AND FOOD » Provide cash transfers to women traders so they can afford increased costs. » Train women cross-border traders and border officials for awareness and prevention of GBV. » Provide women with mobile phones (and/or phone credit) so they can benefit from digital interventions, increase privacy and security, and reduce the need for physical interaction. » Provide productive inputs (such as fertilizers and seed) directly to women farmers. » Train and deploy more women border officials, and provide them with a safe and sanitary work environment. » Institute grievance redress mechanism at borders that can serve both women traders and officials. » Monitor food consumption habits, price changes, availability and/or distribution due to the pandemic, and consider providing cash transfers or food assistance. » Consider dedicated food distribution times or locations that are open only for the most at risk (where feasible, consult with women and girls to determine their preferred time windows and locations) » Increase women’s participation in decision making and regulatory bodies (for example, regulatory bodies overseeing cash grants, licensing agencies for inputs such as fertilizer, and land tribunals). Relevant resources: Entry Points for Gender Design in Agriculture and Food in COVID-19 Response Operations; Identifying and Mitigating Gender-based Violence Risks within the COVID-19 Response. 110 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 DIGITAL DEVELOPMENT » Invest in systems that enable digital payments of cash assistance that target both women and men. » Consider including GBV referral and response systems in government digitization programs which are being scaled up during COVID-19. » Target women and girls in digital identification systems which are being scaled up during COVID-19. » Assess exposure to online GBV, and consider carrying out awareness raising and prevention campaigns that provide tools and resources on how to identify, document and report online GBV. » Consider investing in strengthening protocols and codes of conduct for law enforcement officials addressing online GBV. Relevant resources: Online and ICT facilitated violence against women and girls during COVID-19. GOVERNANCE » Ensure that family law cases are considered urgent or essential during lockdown. • Ensure that courts remain open and legal services are available for GBV survivors seeking justice, to ensure their safety and to hold perpetrators accountable. • Ensure inclusion of displaced populations in affected COVID-19 areas. » Assess availability of survivor-centered legal services, and train personnel on ethical and safety principles. » Identify formal and informal legal networks and accountability mechanisms to ensure women know their rights. » Include the law enforcement and justice sectors in comprehensive multi-sectoral national plans or strategies to address GBV. » Establish protocols for filing police reports and pressing charges. » Increase available services for survivors of violence, such as safe houses, mobile legal aids clinics, and so on. Relevant resources: Justice for Women amidst COVID-19; Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide—Citizen Security, Law and Justice Brief. MACROECONOMICS, TRADE AND INVESTMENT & POVERTY » Support legislative and regulatory reforms that enforce and monitor protection and redress for GBV survivors. » Support the establishment of referral pathways for GBV survivors. Relevant resources: Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide; Gender based violence and the law. List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 111 BOX 2: EXAMPLES OF WBG OPERATIONAL SUPPORT DURING COVID-19 THAT HELP ADDRESS GBV The Lebanon Emergency Crisis and COVID-19 Response Social Safety Net Project (P173367) supports the provision of social support services, including psychosocial and GBV services, through partnering with specialized organizations, and will track the number of GBV survivors referred to relevant service providers. The Kenya COVID-19 Health Emergency Response Project (P175188) focuses on strengthening the capacity of health care providers to identify the risks and health consequences of GBV and to offer first-line support and medical treatment. It includes community sensitization and outreach activities to provide information on available support services and messages on alternative behaviors to violence. The project will also provide GBV care kits to facilitate quality service provision, build knowledge and skills for clinical care (including forensic evidence collection), and improve data collection and analysis to monitor service delivery and understand emerging trends. The Ghana COVID-19 Emergency Preparedness and Response Project (P174839) provides support to the Domestic Violence and Child Abuse Support Unit of the Ghana Police Service, the Department of Social Welfare, the International Federation of Women Lawyers and the Legal Aid Board so that affected women, girls, and children have greater opportunities to access appropriate services, including counselling. The project also helps train front-line health workers to recognize and manage early signs of GBV and to refer survivors while guaranteeing their privacy and safety. The Albania Emergency COVID-19 Response Project (P174101) supports messaging and awareness among health workers, through the overall communications strategy, to identify any GBV risks and cases. The messaging strategy proposed under the project ensures that vulnerable groups (women, Roma and Egyptians, persons with disabilities) are reached in a language and format (including sign language) that they understand. The South Sudan Provision of Essential Health Services Project (P168926) will significantly scale-up attention and efforts to improve access to services for survivors of GBV. Clinical management of rape and basic psychosocial support services are included in the essential package of health services offered at health facilities. The Zambia COVID-19 Emergency Response and Health Systems Preparedness Project (P174185) contributes to the implementation of the Zambia Safe Schools Framework and helps enhance capacity of one-stop centers that support GBV survivors in selected health facilities, including data collection and information management on GBV. The project also helps disseminate information on available GBV services, including established response hotlines and community outreach. 112 List of A nne x es | A nne x 1 Resources on GBV and COVID-19 Care-IRC. 2020. Global Rapid Gender Analysis for UN Women Lebanon. 2020. Gender Alert on COVID-19. https://www.care-international.org/ COVID-19 Lebanon. Issue No. 3. https://www2. files/files/Global_RGA_COVID_RDM_3_31_20_ unwomen.org/-/media/field%20office%20 FINAL.pdf arab%20states/attachments/publica- tions/2020/06/lebanon%20gender%20alert%20 End Violence Against Children. 2020. Protecting issue3/update%20652020/gender%20alert%20 Children during Covid-19 – Resources to reduce vi- on%20covidlebanon%20issue%203english.pd- olence and abuse. https://www.end-violence.org/ f?la=en&vs=3305 protecting-children-during-covid-19-outbreak UN Women. 2020. Online and ICT facilitated vio- Homer, Annie. 2020. How to Protect Vulnerable lence against women and girls during COVID-19. Children, Especially Girls, During the COVID-19 https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/head- Pandemic?. Global Partnership for Education blog. quarters/attachments/sections/library/ April 21, 2020. https://www.globalpartnership. publications/2020/brief-online-and-ict-fa- org/blog/how-protect-vulnerable-children-es- cilitated-violence-against-women-and-girls- pecially-girls-during-covid-19-pandemic during-covid-19-en.pdf?la=en&vs=2519 Inter-Agency Standing Committee. 2020. Identi- World Bank. 2020. Gender dimensions of the fying and Mitigating Gender-based Violence Risks COVID-19 pandemic. Policy Note April 16, 2020. within the COVID-19 Response. https://gbvguide- http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ lines.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/In- en/618731587147227244/pdf/Gender-Dimen- teragency-GBV-risk-mitigation-and-Covid-tip- sions-of-the-COVID-19-Pandemic.pdf sheet.pdf World Bank. 2020. Guidance for Health Klugman, Jeni. 2017. Gender based violence COVID-19 (Coronavirus) Response Projects. and the law. Background Paper – Governance April 17, 2020. https://pubdocs.worldbank.org/ and the Law. https://pubdocs.worldbank.org/ en/425301587156203830/Gender-in-HNP- en/232551485539744935/WDR17-BP-Gender- COVID-19-response-4-17-20-external.pdf based-violence-and-the-law.pdf World Bank, the Global Women’s Institute and In- UN Women and ESCWA. 2020. The Impact of ter-American Development Bank. 2014. Violence COVID-19 on Gender Equality in the Arab Region. Against Women and Girls Introduction. December https://www2.unwomen.org/-/media/field%20 2014. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curat- office%20arab%20states/attachments/publi- ed/en/395651468127153128/pdf/929640WP- cations/2020/04/impact%20of%20covid%20 0Box380e0Guide0Introduction.pdf on%20gender%20equality%20-%20policy%20 brief.pdf?la=en&vs=4414 World Bank, the Global Women’s Institute and In- ter-American Development Bank. 2015. Violence UN Women, IDLO, UNDP, UNODC, World Bank and Against Women and Girls Health Sector Brief. April The Pathfinders. 2020. Justice for Women amidst 2015. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curat- COVID-19. https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/ ed/en/107001468338533710/pdf/929630RE- headquarters/attachments/sections/library/ VISED00tor0Brief0APRIL02015.pdf publications/2020/justice-for-women-amidst- covid-19-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5442 List of A nnexes | Anne x 1 113 World Bank, the Global Women’s Institute and In- ter-American Development Bank. 2014. Violence Against Women and Girls Social Protection Brief. December 2014. http://documents1.worldbank. org/curated/en/509041468321553133/pd- f/929700WP0Box380Soc0Protection0Brief. pdf World Bank, the Global Women’s Institute and Inter-American Development Bank. 2015. Vio- lence Against Women and Girls Education Sector Brief. April 2015. http://documents1.worldbank. org/curated/en/509041468321553133/pd- f/929700WP0Box380Soc0Protection0Brief. pdf World Bank, the Global Women’s Institute and Inter-American Development Bank. 2014. Vi- olence Against Women and Girls Citizen Se- curity, Law and Justice Brief. April 2015. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ en/265241468140040759/pdf/929660RE- VISED00ity0Brief0APRIL02015.pdf World Bank. 2020. Entry Points for Gender De- sign in SSN COVID-19 Response Operations. (Internal document). https://worldbankgroup. sharepoint.com/sites/Gender/Documents/ Forms/AllItems.aspx?id=%2Fsites%2FGen- der%2FDocuments%2FCovid%2D19%20 and%20Gender%2FCheat%20Sheet%20 for%20gender%20design%20in%20SSN%20 COVID%20response%20%2823%20April%20 2020%29%2Epdf&parent=%2Fsites%2FGen- der%2FDocuments%2FCovid%2D19%20and%20 Gender World Bank. 2020. Entry Points for Gender Design in Agriculture and Food in COVID-19 Response Operations. (Internal document). https://world- bankgroup.sharepoint.com/sites/Gender/Docu- ments/Covid-19%20and%20Gender/Matrix%20 Entry%20Points%20in%20Agriculture_PvdV%20 Final.pdf 114 List of A nne x es | A nne x 2 ANNEX 2 LEGAL AND POLICY ENVIRONMENT International Conventions Most countries in the region have signed the In addition to CEDAW, many MENA countries Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of have ratified other international treaties, Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). While contributing to the protection of women’s rights, Iran is the only country in the region which has not elimination of discrimination against women and signed CEDAW, only four MENA countries - Djibouti, girls, and addressing GBV. Egypt, Iran, Lebanon, Tunisia, State of Palestine, and Yemen - have and Syria (without reservations) and Iraq (with done so without reservations and/or declarations. reservations), for example, have ratified the 1951 Reservations are generally linked to incompatibility Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in with Shari’a law, domestic legislation, customs, Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution and traditions.458 For example, Qatar and Bahrain of Others. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress explained that CEDAW provisions should not and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially contradict domestic legislation, as well as local Women and Children (1950), supplementing the customs and traditions. Tunisia and Yemen, which United Nations Convention against Transnational have ratified CEDAW without reservations, have Organized Crime (1950) has been fully or partially declared that in case of contradicting statements ratified by all countries, except of Iran and Yemen. between the convention and domestic law, the Djibouti, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, priority should be given to the latter. The articles and State of Palestine are also members of the that are most frequently under reservation are International Covenant on Civil and Political Article 2 (obligation to amend national legislation to Rights (1966). Jordan, Libya, Tunisia, West Bank ensure gender equality), Article 9.2 (women’s rights and Gaza, and Yemen have ratified the Convention in regards to the nationality of their children), Article on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for 15 (freedom of movement and choice of residence Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962). and domicile), Article 16 (protection of equality of The International Covenant on Economic, Social marriage and family life), and Article 29 (regulation and Cultural Rights (1966) has been ratified in on the international disputes between the member most MENA countries, except for Saudi Arabia States of the convention). Libya and Tunisia are and United Arab Emirates. The Convention on the the only two countries in the region which have Rights of the Child (1989) has been ratified by all ratified the Optional Protocol to CEDAW, which countries in the region, with only Bahrain, Djibouti, grants their citizens the opportunity to refer to the Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and provisions of the Convention to protect their rights Yemen making no reservations on the convention. and freedoms, when domestic law is restricted or All other countries in the region have put certain unavailable.459 articles of the convention under reservation that are considered incompatible with the domestic legislation or contradictory to Shari’a law. List of A nnexes | Anne x 2 115 TABLE 1: RATIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS International Covenant on Economic, Prostitution of Others 1951 Marriage, Minimum Age for International Covenant on Civil and all Forms of Discrimination Against Convention Relating to the Marriage and Registration Migrant Workers and Members of Convention on Consent to Convention on the Elimination of Human Trafficking 2000 The Palermo Protocol on Traffic in Persons and of Status of Refugees 1951 Convention on the Rights of the International Convention on the Social and Cultural Rights 1966 Protection of the Rights of All the Exploitation of the Suppression of the Convention for the of Marriages 1962 Political Rights 1966 Their Families 1990 Women 1979 Child 1989 CEDAW ICRMW ICESCR ICCPR CRC Algeria 1996 1993 2004 1989 1963 2005 1989 1963 - Bahrain 2002 1992 2004 2007 - - 2006 - - Djibouti 1998 1990 2005 2002 1977 - 2002 1979 - Egypt 1981 1990 2004 1982 1981 1993 1982 1959 - Iran - 1994 - 1975 1976 - 1975 - - Iraq 1986 1994 2009 1971 - - 1971 1955 - Jordan 1992 1991 2009 1975 - - 1975 1976 1992 Kuwait 1994 1991 2006 1996 - - 1996 1968 - Lebanon 1997 1991 2005 1972 - - 1972 - - Libya 1989 1993 2004 1970 - 2004 1970 1956 2005 Morocco 1993 1993 2011 1979 1956 1993 1979 1973 - Oman 2006 1996 2005 2020 - - - - - Qatar 2009 1995 2009 2018 - - 2018 - - Saudi 2000 1996 2007 - - - - - -- Arabia Syria 2003 1993 2009 1969 - 2005 1969 1959 - Tunisia 1985 1992 2003 1969 1957 - 1969 - 1968 UAE 1997 2009 - - - - - - State of 2014 2014 2017 2014 - - 2014 - 2019 Palestine Yemen 1984 1991 - 1987 1980 - 1987 1989 1987 GREEN Ratified without reservations. YELLOW Ratified with reservations/declarations. RED Not ratified. 116 List of A nne x es | A nne x 2 Constitutions Most MENA countries address gender equality in political spheres. Egypt (2014, art 11) and Tunisia their constitution and underline the importance (2014, art 46) are the only two countries in the of equal opportunities for male and female region that do not only condemn discrimination citizens.460 Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, of women, but also express their commitment to Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, tackle discrimination and prevent GBV through Syria, Tunisia and West Bank and Gaza explicitly legal means. The constitutions of Iran (1979, art 21), use the term of “equality on the basis of sex/ Iraq (2005, art 29), Libya (2011, art 159), and Syria gender” in their constitution. In Jordan, article 6 (2012, art 23) do not contain explicit prohibition of the constitution identifies only race, language, of GBV, although they imply that discrimination and religion as criteria for equality, and do not based on gender is inappropriate and that it is the use words such as “gender”, “sex”, “women”, “girls”. obligation of the state to address it and ensure Similarly, there are no references to the equality equal rights and freedoms to all citizens. Other on the basis of sex/gender in the constitutions of general protections for women and girls include, Lebanon and the UAE. In Yemen’s constitution, for instance, the prohibition of forced labor, slavery, women are only mentioned in the statement that slave trade, sex trade, and trafficking in women “women are the sisters of men” (2001, art 31). or children in Iraq (2005, art 37); and provisions on the freedom of speech and protection from Some constitutions contain articles on discrimination, violence, and hatred based on violence prevention and protection of women gender in Libya (2011, art 37). in professional, social, economic, financial, and TABLE 2: CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON GENDER EQUALITY AND GBV Saudi Arabia West Bank and Gaza Lebanon Morocco Bahrain Djibouti Kuwait Algeria Tunisia Jordan Yemen Oman Egypt Qatar Libya Syria UAE Iran Iraq Constitution refers to gender equality Constitution refers to GBV GREEN Constitution’s articles directly refer to gender equality and/or express commitments to combat GBV. YELLOW Gender equality and commitments to tackle GBV are partially mentioned in the constitution. RED Articles of the Constitution do not address gender equality and GBV. List of A nnexes | Anne x 2 117 Legal Framework on Different Forms of GBV TABLE 3: CRIMINALIZATION OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF GBV IN PENAL/CRIMINAL CODES Saudi Arabia West Bank and Gaza Lebanon Morocco Bahrain Djibouti Kuwait Algeria Tunisia Jordan Yemen Oman Egypt Qatar Libya Syria UAE Iran Rape Iraq is criminalized No exoneration for rape offenders for marrying their victims Marital rape is  criminalized No mitigating circumstances for femicide/so-called “honor crimes” Sexual harassment is criminalized Comprehensive provisions on human trafficking FGM/ C is criminalized (if practiced) Cyber GBV is criminalized Adultery is not criminalized GREEN The relevant law addresses gender equality and/or protection from GBV. YELLOW The law addresses GBV to some extent, but gaps remain. RED There is no or minimal protection on GBV under the law. GRAY No data available 118 List of A nne x es | A nne x 2 a. Intimate Partner Violence that states establish specialized units within institutions, with trained and sensitized personnel. Some MENA countries in the region have amended For example, in Morocco, domestic violence law their Penal Codes to address IPV, but generally presupposes the establishment of specialized these codes are not sufficient in addressing the cells in courts, police stations, and hospitals to issue comprehensively. In many countries, some address cases of IPV.464 Finally, all the standalone forms of IPV are addressed in the Penal Codes, but domestic violence laws in MENA countries include there is a general lack of appropriate protection the possibility of obtaining a protective order for survivors and mechanisms for prevention and against the preparator, even in their absence465. response. Most Penal Codes in the region do not Protective orders include different types of orders, recognize economic and sexual violence from including prohibiting preparators from contacting an intimate partner as a criminal offence, and or harming GBV survivors, or damaging their in all countries, except for Algeria, provisions on properties, or accessing joint assets. Generally, domestic violence provide protection to women children of survivors are included in the protection in cases of IPV from current husbands, excluding orders, but there are some exceptions that may the possibility to seek justice for any violence exacerbate or cause harm. For example, in the committed by former partners. In Egypt, some Lebanese domestic law,466 children are excluded Penal Code provisions can be interpreted to cover from protection orders when they are not in the some forms of domestic violence, although the mother’s custody.467 This means that if during the term “domestic/ intimate partner violence” does child’s stay the mother is exposed to her husband’s not appear in the document.461 In Yemen, physical violence, the child is not protected. harm and sexual violence against women are criminalized in the Criminal Code (art 254 and 270), While rape is criminalized in all countries in but there are no provisions on psychological harm, the region, no country in the MENA region has and existing provisions do not relate specifically to explicitly and fully criminalized marital rape. IPV. Due to traditional beliefs perceiving marriage as a contract between a man and a woman with certain Currently, standalone legislation on domestic duties, there is a widespread understanding that the violence exist in nine countries in the region: wife should be sexually available for her husband -- Bahrain, Jordan, the Kurdistan region of Iraq which is sometimes enshrined in Personal Status Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Codes or Family Law that explicitly excludes and the UAE.462 Several MENA countries (e.g. Iran, marital rape from criminal provisions on rape.468 Iraq and West Bank and Gaza) have prepared For example, in Djibouti, wives are legally obliged bills on domestic violence, although they have to “respect the prerogatives of the husband, as not been passed yet. The definition of domestic head of the family, and owe him obedience in the violence that stand-alone legislation refers to interest of the family.”469 Lebanon’s Penal Code varies across countries and does not encompass explicitly states that rape is “the forced sexual all of forms of violence. Physical and sexual abuse, intercourse [against someone] who is not his wife as well as references to verbal and emotional by violence or threat”.470 In Syria, the Penal Code harm, psychological abuse, and exploitation are criminalizes rape, other than of a female spouse.471 common elements, but the level of detail provided Nevertheless, in some MENA countries, efforts differs and economic violence is mostly excluded.463 have been undertaken to define marital rape as a Provisions of the above-mentioned laws cover criminal offence. In Bahrain, there are provisions in mechanisms on prosecution and punishment the law on domestic violence that classify marital of the offenders, as well as protection, support, rape as a form of a sexual assault.472 In Djibouti, and recovery for the survivors. The laws contain marital rape can be considered as an act of violence strategies on prevention of domestic violence against the spouse and prosecuted in accordance through awareness raising, education, and training with the Penal Code, although cases are rare, and of police and healthcare workers. Moreover, in some the decision is made exclusively by judges on a countries, domestic violence legislation requires List of A nnexes | Anne x 2 119 TABLE 4: GENDER COMMITMENTS IN PERSONAL STATUS/FAMILY LAW Saudi Arabia West Bank and Gaza Lebanon Morocco Bahrain Djibouti Kuwait Algeria Tunisia Jordan Yemen Oman Egypt Qatar Libya Syria UAE Iran Iraq Equal rights on divorce Equal rights on post-divorce guardianship Equal rights on custody of children Equal rights on inheritance and property GREEN Law guarantees equal rights to men and women YELLOW Women have some legal rights, but significant inequalities exist in the law. RED Women do not enjoy equal rights and protection under Personal status/Family law case-by-case basis (UNHCR 2015).473 In Morocco, violence and abuse are usually considered the Family Code restrains from referring to wives’ reasonable grounds for divorce, legal procedures obligation of sexual availability, but instead appeals are often long and costly. Unequal custody rights to the “lawful cohabitation on the basis of good can also affect survivors of IPV, given the fact that conjugal relations and the right of mutual respect, in most MENA countries guardianship rights are love, and affection”.474 As the legal definition of a granted only to men in case of divorce -- which may marital rape is ambiguous, it may sometimes be deter women from seeking divorce.479 The lack of prosecuted under rape or other laws.475 In Tunisia, protection mechanisms for GBV survivors hinders marital rape is not explicitly criminalized, but the women’s access to justice and discourages them state has claimed that it can be prosecuted under from seeking help and reporting cases of abuse. general criminal law.476 While there is some progress in legal frameworks b. Non-Partner Violence on IPV, there are provisions in Personal Status In many MENA countries, domestic legislation Codes or Family Law that discriminate against addresses several forms of sexual violence, women - which negatively affect their protection including sexual  assault and inappropriate in IPV cases. Unequal divorce or custody touching, but reporting and accessing justice rights, for example, may trap women in abusive remains a challenge. Provisions on prosecution of relationships. In most countries in MENA region, sexual assault against women are present in the divorce procedures differ for men and women that Penal Codes of Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Kuwait, put an additional burden of proof for women when Libya and West Bank and Gaza.480 At the same a woman asks for divorce.477478 While domestic time, some MENA countries do not have a clear 1 20 List of A nne x es | A nne x 2 definition or any provisions on sexual assault in repealed these provisions in their Penal Codes. domestic legislation. For instance, the Algerian Thus, the abolition of rape-exoneration provisions Penal Code does not contain any provision was enacted in Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, on prosecution of sexual assault, although and West Bank and Gaza.491 When it comes to the aggravated sexual  assault may be classified as rape victim’s right to abortion, only Algeria, Egypt, indecent  assault and punished.481 Similarly, the Iraq, and Tunisia legally allow this.492 Penal Codes in Lebanon (art 507-511) and Tunisia (art 228-229) do not include any clear definition There is limited domestic legislation in MENA of sexual assault and abuse, although these acts countries on GBV during military conflicts. Under are punishable as “indecent acts”. In Oman and international agreements, sexual violence against Qatar general provision on physical assault can civilians during military conflict are crimes against be applied to punish sexual assault.482 Moreover, humanity and can be qualified as war crimes, if older, unmarried or divorced women have less these crimes are performed with the use of force chance to prove the crime and achieve justice. For or arms and/or on a systematic basis. Sexual example, in Egypt, younger women below 25 years violence as a war crime is regulated by the Rome are reported to be more likely to report physical or Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998), sexual violence than older women.483 which was only ratified by Djibouti, Jordan, Tunisia, and West Bank and Gaza. In Libya, Ministerial While all MENA countries have criminalized rape Decree 119 was adopted to recognize survivors of and set severe punishments for rape offenders SGBV during the Libya uprising as survivors of war under their Penal Codes, the definition of rape and provides them with reparations rights, which varies.484 In some countries, rape is understood as however are yet to be implemented.493 a crime committed by a man against a woman, e.g. in Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman Most countries in the region have ratified the and Syria.485 The level of detailed description of 1950 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish what constitutes rape varies, and some countries Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and (Jordan, Libya, Morocco) recognize rape not as a Children, supplementing the United Nations crime against an individual, but rather against Convention against Transnational Organized public morality.486 Imprisonment is foreseen in Crime, without reservations.494 In addition, most countries, while some other countries (Iran, several countries have adopted comprehensive Syria, Qatar, UAE and Yemen) practice capital laws on prevention and protection of human and/or corporal punishment, which often violates trafficking, while others have provisions in their international law agreements.487 In some cases, Penal Codes which include the criminalization of rape offenders are exonerated from punishment, human trafficking.495 if they marry the rape survivor. For example, in Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait and Libya the offender may c. Femicide avoid punishment or get a less severe penalty, if he marries the survivor of rape.488 The roots of Femicide, especially cases associated with these legal provisions can be traced to cultural and preserving family honor and dignity, is not fully social norms considering unmarried raped girls sanctioned through the legal and justice system and women as unfit for marriage. According to the in most MENA countries. Legal frameworks in IMAGES study, around a third of all respondents MENA countries are lenient in dealing with so- from Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco and West Bank called “honor crimes”, either through judicial and Gaza believe that a man who rapes a woman discretion of what constitutes a crime, or legally and marries her should not be prosecuted.489 By enforced mitigating measures for adultery crimes marrying his victim, family honor and reputation and crimes committed while enraged. In Egypt and are considered as restored.490 Due to increasing Jordan, judges have discretionary power under the criticism and pressure from civil society activists Criminal Code to reduce sentences for cases of so- to change these laws, several countries have called “honor killings.”496 In Yemen, a man who has List of A nnexes | Anne x 2 121 killed his wife/female relative on the grounds of use “self-defense” differ. Thus, a man can benefit honor can be excused by his family, and the state from mitigating circumstances for killing his wife can imprison him only if he is deemed a threat to if he finds her committing adultery under any public order, although the decision is exclusively circumstance, whereas a woman can only benefit upon the judge.497 Article 262 of the Penal Code from mitigating circumstances if she kills/hurts provides that the killing of the mother, daughter, her husband who is committing adultery in the sister or wife after finding them in the act of marital home.503 committing adultery is penalized with a maximum prison sentence of one year or a fine. In other Extramarital sexual relationships are generally MENA countries, if the offender can prove that prohibited in MENA countries. In most MENA violence against a woman was a “crime of rage”, he countries, extramarital sex is a punishable offence, may benefit from mitigating circumstances under which makes it difficult for women to come the law. For example, in Algeria, Article 279 of the forward and prove that they have been raped, due Penal Code states that the killing of a wife who was to fear of being convicted of adultery. It further caught in an act of adultery is a reasonable ground places women at risk of so-called “honor crimes”. to set mitigating circumstances for the husband, Morocco is currently making efforts to repeal the even if violence resulted in the death of the spouse. provision on extramarital sex, which will make In Bahrain, Article 333 of the Penal Code provides a clear distinction between consensual sex and a reduced penalty for perpetrators who killed or rape, and, respectively, give more protection for injured their spouses, after catching them in the GBV survivors.504 Djibouti is the only country in act of adultery. Similar provisions that reduce the region where adultery and fornication do not penalty for the commitment of so-called “honor constitute a criminal offence.505 crimes” can be also found in the Penal Codes of Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, d. GBV Against Children Qatar, Syria, United Arab Emirates, West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen.498 Only Djibouti, Lebanon, Saudi While all MENA countries have certain legal Arabia, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates have protection in place for children, most countries repealed mitigating conditions for so-called “honor lack comprehensive national legislation crimes”.499 addressing sexual abuse of children. All countries in the region have ratified the Convention on the Different regulations also apply to the very Rights of the Child (1989), whose Article 19 refers concept of adultery, depending on whether it to sexual abuse.506 Several MENA countries have has been committed by men or women. The initiated legislative changes in domestic law to only country in the region where adultery is not protect children against sexual abuse. For instance, considered a criminal offense is Djibouti.500 All the Jordanian Cyber Crime Law 2010 (art 9) has other states recognize adultery as a criminal penalized conducts related to child sexual abuse offence and prosecute it under their Penal Codes. material and the distribution of pornography. According to a UNDP Regional Report (2019), Similarly, in the United Arab Emirates, the Federal adultery, committed by women rather than Law on Child Rights (Wadeema’s Law, 2016) men is more likely to be viewed as dishonor and penalizes conducts related to child sexual abuse. disrespect of public morality.501 Even when the Individuals who are convicted for child sexual abuse Penal Code does not make explicit differences in are not allowed to seek jobs that presuppose direct the prosecution of men and women for adultery, contact with children, even afterthe rehabilitation.507 women are more likely to be punished than men. In Egypt, courts established in 2017 that children In Iraq and Syria, men are punished for adultery, born into customary (Urfi) marriages are entitled only when it occurs at their homes, while women to be legally registered – which secured their are being punished regardless of the location.502 legal rights to health and education, as well as In Jordan, punishment for adultery is equal for minimization of their risk to sexual abuse and men and women, although survivors’ rights to exploitation. Moreover,  the penalty for sexual 1 22 List of A nne x es | A nne x 2 assault under Article 269 of Penal Code was the legal marriage age is 18 for both men and increased for acts carried out against children. As women.509 A lower legal marriage age is set in for rape, increased penalties are imposed when Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and West Bank, and the the victim is underage. For instance, in Jordan, lowest legal marriage age can be observed in Iran, the penalty for rape is 10 years of imprisonment, at 13 years for girls and 15 years for boys.510 A however, the death penalty is applied in case of higher age of legal marriage is established only rape of a child under 15 years old (Jordan Penal in Algeria (19 years) and Libya (20 years).511 In Code 1960 art 293). Similarly, in Kuwait, the death Lebanon and Yemen, there is no official minimum penalty is applied, if a survivor is under 16 years old legal age of marriage.512 Moreover, in Lebanon, the (Kuwait Criminal Code art 186-187). In Lebanon, minimum  marriage age  varies across different imprisonment increases from 5 years to 7 years religious laws. Even in countries where the legal 513 for the rape of a child under 15 (Lebanon Penal minimum age for marriage is set at 18 years, Code art 503). exceptions for marriage of underage individuals apply by decision of the court or permission of the The legal age for marriage varies across guardians. Exceptions to the official age of marriage countries, but child and early marriage is only are allowed in most countries if they are agreed by prohibited in few MENA countries and numerous the judge and/or child’s guardian. For example, in exceptions exist. The prohibition of child marriage Djibouti, the marriage of women below 18 years is is one of the key CEDAW obligations under Article “subject to the consent of the husband and wife’s 16, to which nearly all countries in the region have legal guardians.514 In Morocco, although legal made one or more reservations.508 In Djibouti, reforms in 2004 raised the  age  for marriage  to Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, 18 years, judges may still grant requests for early Syria, Tunisia, Gaza, and United Arab Emirates, marriage for “well-substantiated reasons.515”  TABLE 5: MINIMUM LEGAL AGE OF MARRIAGE FOR WOMEN AND MEN516 Saudi Arabia West Bank Lebanon Morocco Bahrain Djibouti Kuwait Algeria Tunisia Jordan Yemen Oman Egypt Qatar Libya Syria Gaza UAE Iran Iraq Women 19 15 18 18 13 18 18 15 - 20 18 18 16 18 18 18 18 15 18 - Men 19 18 18 18 15 18 18 17 - 20 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 16 18 - List of A nnexes | Anne x 2 123 e. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting This is the case in Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria and West Even in countries with the highest prevalence Bank and Gaza. FGM/C is also practiced and not of FGM/C, like Egypt and Djibouti, the practice explicitly prohibited in Iraq, where it can only be is prohibited and criminalized.517 Provisions regarded as an “assault” under the Penal Code.522 against FGM/C sometimes include preventative measures. In Djibouti, for example, anyone failing to file a report a case of FGM/C to the authorities f. Sexual Harassment is punishable with up to one year of imprisonment Many countries in MENA region have taken and a fine (Penal Code art 333). While the act is legislative and policy efforts to address sexual criminalized in some MENA countries, legal gaps harassment, including criminalizing it through remain, and actual implementation is weak. In their Penal Codes.523 Articles on criminalization Egypt, although FGM/C was criminalized in 2008, of sexual harassment are listed in the Penal the prohibition can be circumvented through Codes of Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Article 61 of the Penal Code, which allows for Kuwait, Morocco, Qatar, Syria, Tunisia, the United harmful actions to be taken in order to prevent Arab Emirates and Yemen.524 A standalone law a greater harm to oneself or others, allowing for on the criminalization of sexual harassment has FGM/C practices to continue when found medically been passed in Lebanon (Law No. 205), Morocco necessary and when carried out by professional (Law 103-13), and Saudi Arabia (Royal Decree No. doctors.518 In Djibouti, despite the existence of the M/96, Dated 16 Ramadan 1439 A.H. approving the respective legislation, cases of FGM/C are neither Anti-Harassment Law). Notably, the definition of reported, nor prosecuted.519 Elimination of FGM/C sexual harassment is often incomplete, unclear, cannot be achieved through legal reforms alone, as unavailable, or overlapping with that of sexual the practice is deeply entrenched in social norms assault and vary across the region. In Bahrain, and traditions. Approaches that target underlying sexual harassment is defined as “commit[ting] an drivers and root causes of FGM/C by changing act of indecency with a female” in either public or attitudes and promoting social norm change private space (Penal Code art 350). The Egyptian should be central in attempts to eliminate harmful Penal Code (art 306) provides a broad definition, practices. according to which sexual harassment is an “accosting” in a “private or public or frequented In some countries, FGM/C is subject to place implying sexual or obscene gestures, regulations but is not criminalized under the law. whether by verbal or nonverbal means or through In Oman, while no legal prohibition criminalizes actions, in any manner including modern means FGM/C, the practice is prohibited in government of communication.” In Jordan, the Penal Code (art institutions (by medical doctors in public hospitals) 305) establishes punishment for those who fondle through a policy directive.520  Its Child Law of a minor/ a woman without their consent. According 2014  (art 20) also  prohibits traditional practices to Tunisian Penal Code, sexual harassment is “any that are harmful to the health of the child but act, gestures or words with sexual connotations does not specifically mention FGM/C. In the UAE, that are offensive to one’s dignity or affect one’s FGM/C is not a criminal offence, although there modesty with the intention to subject the victim is a ban on performing it at public hospitals and to the perpetrator’s sexual desires” (art 226). In clinics.521 In Yemen, while the law does not prohibit Algeria, only cases of sexual harassment based on FGM/C, a 2001 ministerial directive abolished the the abuse of authority are subject to criminalization practice in government institutions and medical under the actual legislation.525 In Djibouti, Libya, facilities albeit without defining penalties for Morocco, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, violations (ibid).  sexual harassment falls under the category of Most MENA countries do not have legal sexual assault and/ or indecent/offending act prohibitions on FGM/C because the FGM/C is against females. Most MENA countries lack not reportedly practiced or prevalence is low. comprehensive provisions on criminalization of 1 24 List of A nne x es | A nne x 2 sexual harassment in educational institutions, of time.530 In Kuwait, sexual harassment is sporting establishments, and regarding online sanctioned with a prison sentence of up to 15 years violence. under the Penal Code (art 191-192), depending on the scope and circumstances of its committing. Some MENA countries also address workplace In Iraq, penalties for sexual harassment  are up sexual harassment and violence through labor to six months’ imprisonment and/or a fine of one laws and other legislation. Certain provisions on million IQD.531 Moreover, in Morocco, Qatar and punishment of sexual harassment at workplace Tunisia,532 committing sexual harassment can can be found in the Labor Laws of Algeria, Bahrain, result in imprisonment of one to two years and/or Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Oman, a financial penalty. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.526 In Algeria, sexual harassment is defined as “any act committed by someone abusing their position in g. Cyber GBV office, with the aim of obtaining sexual favors” Most MENA countries are yet to implement (Law 15-19 2015). In the Labor Law of Iraq (art legal and policy frameworks to prevent and 10), sexual harassment includes physical and address cyber GBV. Some countries, such as verbal offences. In Morocco, sexual harassment is Iran, Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, have defined as “any intensified  harassment  of others passed cybercrimes acts to prosecute certain by acts, statements or signs of a sexual nature or forms of cyber GBV, while others, such as Iraq for sexual purposes; or sending written, telephonic, and Egypt, have amended their penal and or electronic messages or recordings or images of criminal codes to address this issue.533 At the a sexual nature or for sexual purposes, in public same time – and partly due to the emerging or other spaces” (Law 103-13, art 5). Regulations nature of this phenomenon - no country in the often fail to account for the way to and from region has enforced legislation against all forms work, putting women and girls at risk of sexual of cyber GBV or provided an exhaustive list of all harassment in public places, including transport forms of cyber GBV. Many countries have adopted hubs, trains or buses, as well as private or semi- certain regulations on cyberbullying, defamation private transportation like taxis. Furthermore, and death and rape threats, while electronically labor laws generally do not apply to informal facilitated sexual exploitation and trafficking, employment, a huge share of which is occupied cyber sexual harassment and cyberstalking are not by women, which leaves them without redress explicitly covered in most legislations. The degree mechanisms in cases of exploitation and abuse to which existing laws provide protection against as well as sexual harassment.527 Additionally, cyber GBV also varies. For instance, in Jordan, labor laws are often not applicable to public or dissemination of non-consensual pornography is civil servants, meaning that women working in the considered as a crime only when it involves minor public sector are generally left without protection individuals (Jordan Cybercrimes Act 2015). In Iran, or only the protection of the penal code. criminalization of certain forms of cyber GBV is motivated by the necessity to protect public Punishment measures of sexual harassment morality and reputation of families, rather than vary across the region and are not yet widely by establishing justice for survivors.534 In Egypt, enforced. Under the Egyptian Penal Code, sexual cyber sexual harassment can be prosecuted on harassment can be prosecuted only when the the grounds of “indecent assault incident”, but offender attempted to obtain sexual benefits from not as a distinct form of GBV.535 Only Egypt and a woman.528 In Djibouti, the employer must take Morocco have emphasized a gendered approach all necessary measures to prevent acts of to tackling cybercrimes in their legislations, sexual harassment and to punish perpetrators, acknowledging the fact that women and girls who are liable to a disciplinary sanction.529 In are being disproportionally targeted by online Jordan, if an employer or their representative violence.536 commits an act of sexual harassment, the establishment may be closed for a certain period List of A nnexes | Anne x 2 125 Policy Framework Several MENA countries have adopted women and girls. In Jordan, the recently approved national strategies that specifically address National Strategy for Women in Jordan 2020-2025 violence against women. Bahrain, for example, includes GBV as one of four strategic objectives has adopted the  National Action Plan for the “Women and girls enjoy a life free of all forms of Protection of Bahraini Women (2013 - 2022), gender-based violence” calling for interventions for which  aims at the promotion of family stability “effective GBV prevention, protection and response and protection of women from all forms of mechanisms in the private, public and digital violence. The plan  incorporates executive and sectors and spaces” and for the development of legislative measures that provide protection policies that make high quality services accessible and counselling services  for survivors of GBV.537 to GBV survivors. Similarly, Djibouti’s  National Algeria has adopted the  National Strategy  to Gender Policy 2011–2021 includes the elimination Combat Violence Against Women to provide of harmful practices and GBV in its objectives.545 support and protection to GBV survivors, In Egypt, GBV is set as a priority in the National implement empowering strategies and raise public Strategy on Women’s Empowerment 2030. awareness.538 Iraq’s Anti-Violence against Women A National Strategy for the Advancement of Strategy (2013-2017), adopted in March 2013, and Women in the United Arab Emirates 2015-2021 the National Strategy on Advancement of Women was also passed by the Cabinet and  includes in Iraq, adopted in 2014, called for legislation on mechanisms for protecting women and children IPV/ violence against women.539 In West Bank from violence and abuse.546,547 Iran, Kuwait, Libya, and Gaza, the 2013 National Strategy to Combat and Oman have no specific policy framework or Violence against Women tasks the Ministry of strategy to address GBV against women. Women’s Affairs with policy making for eliminating GBV against women.540 Some countries have launched national strategies to eliminate specific forms for GBV. Djibouti, for example, has a  National Strategy for the total abandonment of FGM/C 2018- 2022.541 In Jordan, a National Strategy and Action Plan to Prevent Human Trafficking (2019-2022) was launched in 2019.542 In Kuwait, for instance, the state introduced the Kuwait National Child Protection Program, which partially focuses on elimination of GBV against girls, including sexual abuse, assault and exploitation. In addition, in 2018, the Council of Ministers of Kuwait approved and funded a national strategy to combat human trafficking.543 Similarly, Oman has a National Childhood Strategy (2015 – 2025) to strengthen services available to vulnerable children, including protection against sexual abuse and exploitation.544 In some countries, GBV or violence against women and girls is not addressed by a standalone strategy or specific national action plan but rather as part of an overall strategy on 1 26 ANNEX 3 SELECT STAND ALONE IDA/IBRD GBV OPERATIONS, AND DPOS WITH GBV COMPONENT OR FOCUS Financing Amount Project Name / ID Country GP Project Development Objective GBV Indicators Instrument (US$ M) Timeline Great Lakes Burundi, HNP (i) expand the provision of services to (i) Awareness about GBV built IPF 106.96 Jun 2014 – Emergency Sexual DRC & mitigate the short and medium term (ii). Increase availability of integrated Dec 2019 and Rwanda impact of sexual and gender based services for GBV survivors within Gender Based violence; and (ii) expand utilization communities, health facilities, CoEs Violence & Women’s of a package of health interventions (iii). Increase availability of medicines, Health Project targeted to poor and vulnerable females. infrastructure, equipment of health (P147489) facilities. (iv). Improve quality of health services (v). Expand the provision of services for survivors (vi). Expand utilization of a package of health interventions targeted to poor and vulnerable females List of A nne x es | A nne x 3 Financing Amount Project Name / ID Country GP Project Development Objective GBV Indicators Instrument (US$ M) Timeline Gender Based DRC SSI Increase in targeted Health Zones: (i) (i) Percentage increase in reported cases 100 Aug 2018 – Violence Prevention the participation in GBV prevention who receive access to multidisciplinary IPF Jun 2023 and Response programs; (ii) the utilization of multi- services, defined as at least two of the Project sectoral response services for survivors following (medical, psychosocial, security, (P166763) of GBV; and (iii) in the event of an legal support & livelihoods support. Eligible Crisis or Emergency, to provide (ii) Percentage reported decrease in immediate and effective response to accepting attitudes towards GBV in said Eligible Crisis or Emergency. targeted Health Zones. (target: 20). List of A nnexes | Anne x 3 (iii) Percentage of eligible cases of GBV that receive Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) Treatment within 72 hours (target: 80) (iv) Number of direct project beneficiaries (target: 785000). (v) Percentage of implementing partners providing services to GBV survivors in line with quality standards. (vi) Female beneficiaries (target: 50%) (vi) Direct project beneficiaries is Twa communities. (target: 30000.00) Outer Islands Kiribati TRA The PDO is to improve the connectivity, (i) A draft code of conduct has been IPF 43lxxxii Mar 2020 – Transport safety and climate resilience of developed and will be finalized by Jun 2026 Infrastructure transport infrastructure on Selected contractors. Investment Outer Islands, and in the event of an (ii) A draft GRM has been developed Project for Kiribati Eligible Crisis or Emergency, to provide (October 2019). (P165838) an immediate response to the Eligible (iii) A national free call Help Line (191) is in Crisis or Emergency. service. (iv) A gender capacity assessment was conducted in September 2019 (v) National Gender Social Safeguards Specialist conducted consultations in four islands (101 women and 87 men) on the GBV Framework. 127 lxxxii IDA grant (30 US$ M) and Asian Development Bank (12 US$ M). 1 28 Financing Amount Project Name / ID Country GP Project Development Objective GBV Indicators Instrument (US$ M) Timeline Nepal Development Nepal URL Prior Action #4: Approval of the National Simulation exercises on the activation DPF 50 Mar 2020 – Policy Financing Pandemic Preparedness and Response and use of the National Pandemic May 2023 with CAT DDO Plan (NPPRP), which enhances Preparedness and Response Plan (NPPRP) (P166788) government’s preparedness and carried out, while also ensuring Essential response capacities for pandemic crisis, Health Care Services (EHCS) to meet the which includes Gender-specific actions direct needs of women during emergencies and indicators under NPPRP. The Plan and issues faced by other vulnerable will notably improve the availability groups. Exercises will incorporate specific and quality of services for women and actions to respond to women’s needs, other vulnerable populations. During among others: (i) the identification of implementation of the NPPRP, the priority groups; (ii) the delivery of medical MOHP will ensure Essential Health attention to pregnant women, persons Care Services by liaising with relevant with disabilities (PWDs), young children, health units, particularly in relation etc. (iii) delivery of psychological, clinical to: (i) the delivery of medical attention and legal support for GBV survivors; to pregnant women, (ii) delivery of Baseline: 0; Target: 3 (2023) psychological, clinical and legal support for GBV survivors; and (iii) delivery of psychosocial counseling for disaster survivors. Nepal Fiscal Nepal MTI Prior Action 4: The National Women National Women Commission has (i) DPF 200 May 2018 – Reforms DPC Commission has adopted an integrated established a 24-hour Helpline manned Feb 2019 (P160792) platform that provides a comprehensive by trained staff; (ii) established a case response system and coordinates and processing system to track service expands access to services for Gender provision; and (iii) issued protocols and Based Violence cases. guidelines for survivor support, case prioritization and service access. Share of service referrals (legal, health, police and shelter homes) on Gender Based Violence cases that are closed; Baseline: 0; Target 80%. List of A nne x es | A nne x 3 Financing Amount Project Name / ID Country GP Project Development Objective GBV Indicators Instrument (US$ M) Timeline Strengthening Bhutan MTI Prior Action 12: The Recipient, (i) Proportion of Public-School Teachers DPF 40 Apr 2020 – Fiscal Management through its Cabinet, has approved categorized as either Beginning or Jun 2021 and Private Sector the National Gender Equality Policy Proficient by the new Bhutan Professional Employment on January 21, 2020; as evidenced Standards for Teachers. Baseline: 0; Opportunities by letter Ref C-3/47/2020/422 dated Target: 50% (2021) Development Policy January 23, 2020; and (ii) through the Credit (P171780) National Commission for Women and Children, has approved the Standard Operating Procedures for the Prevention of Gender-Based Violence, as evidenced List of A nnexes | Anne x 3 by letter Ref 2 (7) NCWC-Commission Meeting/2020/, dated January 23, 2020. First Inclusive and Ecuador MTI Prior Action #9 introduces a legal Prior Action #9 is expected to reflect DPF 500 Jun 2019 – Sustainable Growth framework to prevent and eradicate a gradual shift in the Government’s Dec 2019 DPF (P169822) violence against women, with positive and citizens’ strategies, programs, and impacts on their ability to find and attitudes, strengthening the prevention sustain an income-generating activity. and eradication violence against women, This law and associated regulations ultimately resulting in a safer environment provide a way to focus government for women to live, study, and work. The action on the awareness and prevention labor reform, which will be designed with of violence with the participation of the World Bank’s technical assistance, citizens, under the principle of co- will aim to address constraints on labor responsibility. These two actors must market regulations that limit accesses guarantee, through policies, plans to high quality formal jobs. Therefore, the and programs, the transformation expected outcome of this reform is to of sociocultural patterns and the increase formal employment in general eradication of practices that normalize and among the vulnerable segment in violence against women. This law also particular establishes three components for the eradication of violence: care, protection and reparation of women victims of violence to ensure their safety and integrity and to resume their life, job, and family activity. Investing in Madagascar HNP Prior Action 1. To strengthen the Number of communities (fokontany) that DPF 100 Mar 2020 – Human Capital legal regime for the prevention and have signed the pledge to combat child Mar 2021 Development Policy prosecution of acts of GBV and the marriage. Financing protection of victims of GBV (P168697) 129 130 Financing Amount Project Name / ID Country GP Project Development Objective GBV Indicators Instrument (US$ M) Timeline Niger First Laying Niger MTI Prior Action 1: establishing Child Share of targeted communes that have a DPF 350 Dec 2018 – the Foundation Protection Committees at the national, Child Protection Committee. Dec 2020 for Inclusive regional, departmental, commune, and Development village to promote the abandonment of Share of demand of family planning met Policy Financing child marriage for adolescent girls aged 15-19. (P169830) Prior Action 2: allowing access to Share of adolescent girls aged 15-19 family planning assistance to married who are married and mothers in school adolescent girls without parents or system. husbands’ mandatory accompaniment, to improve their access to health services. Prior Action 3: allowing adolescent girls to remain enrolled in school in the event of pregnancy or marriage, to improve educational attainment. Consolidation and Central GOV Prior Action 8: establishing targeted Number of Health Facilities offering DPF 25 Mar 2020 – Social Inclusion African free healthcare for children under-five, Free Health Care for Pregnant Women, May 2021 Development Republic pregnant and breastfeeding women and Breastfeeding Women, Children Under Program: victims of GBV; Five Years and GBV victims. Supplemental Financing (P173900) Niger Second Niger MTI Prior Action 1: To promote abandonment Share of targeted communes that have a DPF 250 Dec 2019 – Laying the of child marriage by establishing a Child Protection Committee. Dec 2021 Foundation Monitoring Committee for overseeing for Inclusive the operationalization of Child Development Policy Protection Committees (“CPC”) in fifty Financing (50) pilot municipalities. (P173113) Prior Action 2: To promote abandonment of child marriage, by: (i) approving the adoption of an operational manual governing the composition, mandate and responsibilities of CPC; and (ii) establishing the eligibility criteria for the municipalities in which the CPC should be created. List of A nne x es | A nne x 3 Financing Amount Project Name / ID Country GP Project Development Objective GBV Indicators Instrument (US$ M) Timeline Second Central GOV Prior Action 9: In order to improve Number of districts where targeted DPF 50 May 2019 – Consolidation and African access to healthcare for pregnant free health care is implemented by the Dec 2021 Social Inclusion Republic and breastfeeding women, children government (and not by donors), which Development under five, and gender- based violence receive essential medicines Program survivors, the Recipient has allocated (P168474) budget in the 2020 Budget Law to fund the implementation of the policy on targeted free healthcare in seven List of A nnexes | Anne x 3 districts in CAR Uzbekistan: Uzbekistan MTI Prior Action 8: To reduce barriers The establishment of referral pathways DPF 500 Jul 2019 – Supporting a limiting the full economic participation for survivors of gender-based violence. Jun 2022 Transparent and and safety of women, the Borrower Inclusive Market has issued regulations to further Transition (P171751) implement legislation: (i) guaranteeing non-discrimination on the basis of sex for employment, electoral candidacy, and for access to state resources; and (ii) for the issuance, enforcement, and monitoring of protection orders for survivors of gender-based violence. Afghanistan Afghanistan MTI Prior Action 4: To help address Proportion of general education schools DPF 200lxxxiii Jul 2020 – COVID-19 Response gender-based violence, the Minister of that have provided training to school Dec 2020 Development Policy Education has approved a administration staff, teachers, students, Grant (P174234) Gender Based Violence Action Plan. and Shura members on the School Code of Conduct for GBV and SEAH; Baseline= 0%; Target = 50% (end of 2021). Bangladesh Second Bangladesh SPJ Prior Action 7: The Ministry of Labour 10% for women-owned businesses of labor DPF 250 Mar 2019 – Programmatic Jobs and Employment has launched and safety complaints addressed by DIFE Dec 2020 Development Policy nationally and across sectors the Labor (quarterly average), of which related to Credit (P168724) Inspection Management Application, sexual harassment or GBV including mechanisms for feedback from workers and online reporting of inspection results. 13 1 lxxxiii Source of financing: 100 (US$ M) - IDA and 100 (US$ M) – Multi-donor TF (B3025; COVID-19 Response DPG) 132 List of A nne x es | A nne x 4 ANNEX 4 UN AGENCY SUPPORT TO GBV PREVENTION AND RESPONSE IN MENA UN agency support to GBV prevention and with policy makers, opinion leaders, and religious response in MENA include building the capacity authorities to support efforts to end violence of governments and other stakeholders in law against children, which includes domestic abuse and policy reform, the provision and delivery and child marriage (UNICEF 2018). In Iraq, UNICEF of key services, and awareness and advocacy works with the Police and the Health, Justice, and efforts. For example, UNFPA supported advocacy Education and Welfare Ministries to strengthen efforts and the development of the Algeria the protection of adolescents and women, National Strategy to Combat Violence Against especially the most vulnerable from violence, Women and the Tunisia Organic Law No. 2017- exploitation, abuse and neglect, in accordance 58 on expanding protection to survivors of GBV with international standards (UNICEF Iraq nd). (UNFPA 2018, UNFPA Tunisia nd). In 2019, UNICEF In Iraq and Syria, WHO is implementing projects Lebanon supported the Reform of Law No. 422 on to strengthen health sector capacities to deliver the Protection of Children in Violation of the Law services to GBV survivors, which includes updating or Exposed to Danger and other child protection technical and normative guidelines and tools and related provisions and contributed to the Ministry enhancing WHO participation in coordination of of Social Affairs’ Strategic Plan on Child Protection GBV response (WHO nd). and GBV (UNICEF Lebanon nd). Several UN agencies work jointly as well as based on their specific Awareness-raising – coupled with research mandates for the elimination, criminalization and studies - is an important area of work to assess reporting of FGM/C in Egypt and Djibouti, where the magnitude of the problem and design prevalence rates are particularly high. UNICEF effective interventions to combat GBV. Several and UNFPA have co-led the Joint Program to UN agencies, especially UNFPA and UN Women, End Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Djibouti specifically target men and boys as agents of and Egypt since 2008 – which contributed to the change in their advocacy and awareness-raising inclusion of FGM/C related issues in the National efforts to encourage more respectful and positive Action Plan on Gender and the National Action attitudes toward girls and women. The UN Plan on Children in Djibouti (UNFPA & UNICEF Secretary General’s UNiTE to End Violence against 2013).lxxxiv Women  campaign, managed by UN Women, aims to prevent and eliminate violence against Box 1 below describes how key UN agencies women and girls around the world by advocating focuses on GBV prevention and response. for the adoption and enforcement of national laws to punish all forms GBV, monitoring the UN agencies contribute to strengthening implementation of multi-sectoral national plans on government capacity for GBV prevention and prevention of GBV, establishing national and local response. In Egypt, UN Women’s Cairo Safe campaigns to address GBV, and contributing to City Program across more than 20 cities build the data collection and analysis on the prevalence stakeholder capacity to prevent and reduce sexual of various forms of violence against women and harassment and other forms of sexual violence girls (UN Women nd). In addition, UN Women in public spaces (UN Women Egypt nd). In the organized Because I am a man campaign in Egypt, same country, UNICEF is closely cooperating lxxxiv At a programmatic level, UN Women, UNICEF and UNDP also include a focus on FGM/C in Egypt (UN Women Egypt nd, UNDP Egypt nd, UNICEF 2017). List of A nnexes | Anne x 4 13 3 Box 1: How UN Agencies Address GBV The below list identifies the main focus of key UN agencies in preventing and addressing GBV. The United Nations Population Fund – UNFPA - focuses on advocacy and awareness-raising, research and data collection, and coordination in development and humanitarian settings, addressing issues such as early and forced marriages, harmful physical practices, and protection of reproductive and sexual health. The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women - UN Women - focuses on providing on-going programmatic support to survivors of domestic violence and other forms of GBV; conducting research and advocacy for policy change; and, promoting more gender equitable attitudes and behaviors to address GBV, through awareness-raising, advocacy efforts and research activities. As part of its commitment to gender equality, United Nations Development Programme – UNDP - includes a focus on the elimination of certain forms of GBV, generally emphasizing the legal and policy frameworks to tackle GBV, access to justice and capacity for multi-sectoral support and services. In MENA, this is part of the work program in Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen. The United Nations Children’s Fund – UNICEF - primarily addresses GBV through their child protection programs that prevent domestic violence against children, advocate for the criminalization of FGM/C, raise awareness about child, early and forced marriages, and campaign against physical violence in the education sector and sexual abuse of children. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - UNHCR - applies an intersectional approach to GBV prevention and response, with a focus on legal issues, protection, and service provision for refugees and internally displaced people, but also targeting host communities. The World Health Organization – WHO - works to strengthen the national health systems to address GBV against women and girls, and as part of that mandate they have produced internationally recognized ethical guidelines, operational protocols and clinical handbooks. The International Organization for Migration – IOM - works on counter-trafficking, and violence against women migrants and women migrant workers, especially in contexts of emergencies and natural disasters. IOM also attempts to address and eliminate harmful practices, such as FGM/C. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Africa - UN ESCWA - undertakes analytical work and provides policy recommendations on GBV-related issues and works with different stakeholders in the MENA countries to enhance safety for women and guarantee equal access to justice. Sources: Information collected from the websites of the respective UN agencies, and additional documents (UNFPA 2019, WHO 2007, WHO 2014 134 List of A nne x es | A nne x 4 Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and West Bank for the coordination of these services. WHO also and Gaza to advocate for behavioral change and published guidelines and handbooks about ethical involvement of men in caregiving, childcare, and issues in addressing sexual and/or reproductive domestic work, as well as elimination of harmful health violence. National GBV sub-clusters gender-based stereotypes and prejudices.lxxxv In in MENA countries report building their GBV Algeria and Yemen, UNFPA supports men and boys’ strategiesaroundtheseguidelinesandhandbooks.lxxxvi engagement in addressing GBV, by working on The UNDP-initiated project on Ending Gender- changing negative gender attitudes and prejudices, based Violence and Achieving the Sustainable adopting respectful behaviors, and demonstrating Development Goals in Iraq and Lebanon, tests positive respect to women and girls (UNFPA new tools and approaches that reduce gender- 2018). In Iraq, UNICEF is engaging communities to based violence and intensify progress towards change deeply rooted behaviors and gender norms other development goals, such as health, social and aims to increase awareness among children cohesion and economic empowerment (UNDP nd). and women of their rights and of the availability In cooperation with local CSOs, UNFPA created of services (UNICEF Iraq nd). These campaigns are Women and Girls Safe Spaces in Jordan, Lebanon, often based on or coupled with research studies. Iraq, and Syria, to provide access to GBV case For example, the UN Women-Promundo study management services, referrals, psychosocial (2017) on Understanding Masculinities: Results support, awareness raising, counselling, life skills from the International Men and Gender Equality and empowerment activities (UNFPA 2015). In Survey (IMAGES) in Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, Lebanon, UNICEF provided psychosocial support and Palestine shed light on attitudes related to for children and created safe spaces for girls and various forms of GBV. UN ESCWA also published women, who survived domestic violence or other a study (2019) on the availability and accessibility forms of GBV (UNICEF Lebanon nd). In Yemen, of shelters for survivors of domestic violence in UNHCR has supported refugee women and girls MENA countries, covering Algeria, Bahrain, Jordan, through a GBV case management package which Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, includes psychological first aid and counselling, Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen. legal medical, and financial assistance (UNHCR 2019). In Syria, UNHCR opened a community center UN agencies can also directly support response in the Homs Governorate to provide protection services to GBV survivors, in addition to services to at risk populations, including GBV providing global and regional instruments to prevention (Ibid).lxxxvii IOM also addresses GBV in improve service delivery. For example, the UN crisis operations, and has worked in Iraq since 2014 Joint Global Programme on Essential Services for to improve information gathering and response, Women and Girls Subject to Violence developed a incorporating protection concerns and standard guidance tool identifying essential health, social operating procedures in coordination  with GBV services, police and justice sector services for Specialists (IOM 2017). women and girls survivors of GBV, and guidelines lxxxv Other examples of UN Women led campaigns targeting men and boys are: In West Bank and Gaza, UN Women is im- plementing the Men and Women for Gender Equality Regional Program, aimed at questioning gender norms and stereotypes and tackling gender prejudices and violence. Through its Men and Women for Gender Equality program, UN Women has also led two advocacy campaigns on banning and prosecuting early and forced marriages (UN Women Arab States nd). lxxxvi These include the 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) published Ethical and safety recommendations for research- ing, documenting and monitoring sexual violence in emergencies, which provide guidelines for healthcare personnel and other involved parties on how to address the issue of sexual violence and communicate with its survivors. The clinical handbook Health care for women subjected to intimate partner violence or sexual violence (2014) follows the survivor-centered approach and es- tablishes ethical code for addressing sexual and gender-based violence. lxxxvii Other UNHCR initiatives focusing on GBV in the region includes operating an emergency shelter and protection program for judicial assistance in Morocco, with a referral and comprehensive care provision system for survivors and people at risk of GBV (UNHCR 2020). Similarly, in Lebanon, UNHCR provides case management services including psycho-social support, health assistance and legal counseling to survivors of GBV, and in Iraq, UNHCR supports IDP survivors of GBV through health and se- curity services, psycho-social support, and safe shelters (UNHCR Lebanon nd, UNHCR Iraq nd). List of A nnexes | Anne x 4 13 5 To respond to the COVID-19 crisis and its impact on GBV prevalence and service provision, UN agencies have stepped up their support to this agenda. UN agencies have led the development of multi-sector response to address the impact of the pandemic on women and girls in several countries in the MENA region, often in coordination with the national mechanisms for women’s affairs. UN Women is monitoring and undertaking rapid assessments of violence against women and girls and COVID-19 in many countries, including Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and West Bank and Gaza. UN agencies are also directly involved in GBV response during the COVID-19 pandemic to facilitate access to essential services, such as health, justice and policing, social services, helplines, and coordination of these services. In Yemen, for example, UN Women supported women around the country with essential livelihoods and services to GBV survivors (UN Women 2020b). 136 List of A nne x es | A nne x 5 ANNEX 5 RESOURCES AND TOOLS This annex provides a list of selected internal and external resourceslxxxviii to address GBV in MENA, including knowledge hubs and databases, practical guidelines and handbooks, and COVID-19 specific resources. World Bank Group Resources Strategies and Action Plans » World Bank (2018). Second Country Gender Action Plan (C-GAP II) for Palestinian Territories (FY2018-2021). » World Bank (2017). Progress Towards Gender Equality in the Middle East and North Africa Region. » World Bank (2017a). Global Gender-Based Violence Task Force: Action Plan for Implementation. » World Bank (2016). World Bank Group Gender Strategy: Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction and Inclusive Growth (FY16-23). » World Bank (2014). Strategic Framework for Mainstreamimg Citizen Engagement in World Bank Group Operations. » World Bank (2012). Regional Gender Action Plan for the Middle East and North Africa Region (FY13- 16). Environmental and Social Framework Directives and Good Practice Notes » World Bank (2020). Good Practice Note: Addressing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse and Sexual Harassment (SEA/SH) in Investment Project Financing involving Major Civil Works. » World Bank (2018). Good Practice Note: Assessing and Managing the Risks and Impacts of Using Security Personnel. » World Bank (2016). Addressing Risks and Impacts on Disadvantaged or Vulnerable Individuals or Groups. » World Bank (2016). Managing the Risks of Adverse Impacts on Communities from Temporary Project Induced Labor Influx. Studies and Reports » Arango, D., Morton, M., Gennari, F., Sveinung, K., Ellsberg, M. (2014). Interventions to prevent or reduce violence against women and girls: a systematic review of reviews. World Bank Group. » Bott, S., Morrison, A., Ellsberg, M. (2005). Preventing and responding to gender-based violence in middle and low-income countries: a global review and analysis. Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS 3618. World Bank Group. » Willman A., and Corman, C. (2013). Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: What is the World Bank Doing and What Have We Learned, A Strategic Review. World Bank Group. » World Bank (2020g). Citizen Engagement and Stakeholder Consultations during COVID-19. lxxxviii Please note that the resources include hyperlinks for easy access. List of A nnexes | Anne x 5 13 7 » World Bank (2020h). Women’s Economic Participation in Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon. » World Bank (2019). Gender-Based Violence in Fragile, Conflict, and Violence Situations. FCV Health Knowledge Note. » World Bank (2018). Women Economic Empowerment Study - MENA. » World Bank (2013). Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and North Africa. MENA Development Report. » World Bank, Global Women’s Institute and IDB (2015a). Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide: Education Sector Brief » World Bank, Global Women’s Institute and IDB (2015b). Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide: Transport Sector Brief » World Bank, Global Women’s Institute and IDB (2014a). Violence Against Women and Girls Toolkit. » World Bank, Global Women’s Institute and IDB (2014b). Violence Against Women and Girls Resource Guide: Health Sector Brief » World Bank and Sexual Violence Research Initiative (n.d.). Working with Adolescents and Youths to Reduce GBV. Development Marketplace: Innovations to Address Gender-based Violence. » World Bank and Sexual Violence Research Initiative (n.d.). Technology and Gender-Based Violence. Development Marketplace: Innovations to Address Gender-based Violence. » World Bank and Sexual Violence Research Initiative (n.d.). Interventions to Reduce Gender-Based Violence in Humanitarian Settings. Development Marketplace: Innovations to Address Gender-based Violence. » World Bank and Sexual Violence Research Initiative (n.d.). Shifting Cultural Norms to Address GBV. Development Marketplace: Innovations to Address Gender-based Violence. » World Bank and Sexual Violence Research Initiative (n.d.). Economic Empowerment to Address Gender-Based Violence. Development Marketplace: Innovations to Address Gender-based Violence. External Resources Online Platforms, Knowledge Hubs, and Databases » Association for Progressive Communication, Online Gender-Based Violence. » European Institute for Gender Equality, Methods and Tools for Combating Gender-Based Violence » GBV Guidelines Knowledge Hub. » Gender Based Violence AoR / Global Protection Cluster. Field Support and Helpdesk. » International Organization for Migration. Institutional Framework for Addressing GBV in Crises  » Sexual Violence Research Initiative. » UN Population Fund. GBV portal. » UN Women. Global Knowledge Platform to End Violence against Women.  Handbooks and Practical Guidelines » GBV Information Management System (2017). Inter-Agency GBV Case Management Guidelines.  » Gender Based Violence AoR / Global Protection Cluster (2020). Handbook for Coordinating Gender- based Violence Interventions in Emergencies. » Gender-Based Violence AoR (2021a). Facilitator’s Guide: Understanding and Applying the IASC Minimum Standards for GBV in Emergencies Programming. 138 List of A nne x es | A nne x 5 » Gender-Based Violence AoR (2021b). Facilitator’s Guide : Understanding and Applying the IASC Minimum Standards for GBV in Emergencies Programming – The Contextualization Tool. » International Rescue Committee (2015). Progress and challenges in ensuring life-saving services and reducing risks to violence for women and girls in emergencies. » Jhpiego GBV Quality Assurance Tool for post-violence care in health facilities. » UK Aid Direct (2020) What Works to Prevent Violence against Women and Girls.     » UNICEF (2018). Systems Strengthening and GBViE Programming. » UNICEF (2012). Caring for Child Survivors of Sexual Abuse: Guidelines for health and psychosocial service providers in humanitarian settings. First Edition.   » UNFPA (2020).  Understanding and Applying the Inter-Agency Minimum Standards for GBV in Emergencies Programming. » UNFPA (2019). The Inter-Agency Minimum Standards for GBV in Emergencies Programming. » UNFPA (2018). Managing Gender-Based Violence Programmes in Emergencies E-Learning and Companion Guide. » UNFPA (2015). Reporting on Gender-Based Violence in the Syria Crisis: Good Practices in the Media. » UNFPA (2006). Human Rights-Based Programming: What It Is. » UN Women / ILO (2019). Handbook. Addressing Violence and Harassment Against Women in the World of Work. » UN Women (2019). Essential Services for Women and Girls Subject to GBV. » UN Women (2015). A framework to underpin action to prevent violence against women.  » USAID (2008).  Violence Against Women and Girls: A Compendium of Monitoring and Evaluation Indicators. » WHO (2020). Clinical management of rape and intimate partner violence survivors. » WHO (2019). RESPECT Women: Preventing violence against women. » WHO (2017). Responding to children and adolescents who have been sexually abused. » WHO (2014). Healthcare for women subject to intimate partner violence or sexual violence. » WHO (2005). Researching Violence Against Women. A Practical Guide for researchers and Activists.  COVID-19 specific resources » Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2020). Identifying and Mitigating Gender-Based Violence Risks within the COVID-19 Response. » Johnson, K. et al. (2020).The impact of COVID-19 on services for people affected by sexual and gender- based violence. » Neetu, J. Casey, S. Carino, G., and McGovern, T. (2020). Lessons Never Learned: Crisis and gender- based violence. Developing World Bioethics, 20(2), 65-68. » UN Women and Translators without Border (2020). COVID-19: How to include marginalized and vulnerable people in risk communication and community engagement. » Yaker, R. and Erskine, D. (2020). GBV Case Management and the COVID-19 Pandemic. GBV AoR Help Desk. MENA-specific resources » Abaad and Oxfam (2018). Working with men in the law enforcement and justice sectors to promote women’s access to justice: a review of approaches, challenges, and lessons in the MENA region. » Adra, N. et al. (2020) Women, violence and exiting from violence with a gendered approach: MENA region and diaspora. List of A nnexes | Anne x 5 13 9 » Amado L. E. (2005). Sexual and bodily rights as human rights in the Middle East and North Africa.  » Bayan Global and USAID (2016). Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative – MENA: Situational Analysis. » Birchall, J. (2020).  Gender-sensitive security and justice interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa,  MENA  and South Asia. » Elghossain, T., Bott, S., Akik, C., Makhlouf Obermeyer, C. (2019). Prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in the Arab world: A systematic review. BMC International Health Human Rights, 19,29. » Ilkkaracan, P. (2015). Commentary: Sexual Health and Human Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress or backlash? Global Public Health 10(2), 268-270. » Khoury-Kassabri,  Arab youth involvement in violence: A socio-ecological gendered M. (2019).  perspective. » Kulczycki, A. and Windle, S. (2012). Honor Killings in the Middle East and North Africa: A systematic review of the literature. Violence Against Women 17(11). » McAlpine, A., Hossain, M., Zimmerman, C. (2016). Sex trafficking and sexual exploitation in settings affected by armed conflicts in Africa, Asia and the Middle East: A systematic review. BMC International Health Human Rights, 16,34. » Plan International (2020). The protection of young women and girls in the Middle East and Northern  Africa (MENA). » Roupetz, S. et al. (2020). Continuum of sexual and gender-based violence risks among Syrian refugee women and girls in Lebanon. » Solomon, H. et al. (2021). Beyond Patriarchy: Gender, Islam and the MENA Region. In: Arab MENA Countries: Vulnerabilities and Constraints Against Democracy on the Eve of the Global COVID-19 Crisis. » UNDP (2019). Gender Justice and Equality before the Law: Analysis of Progress and Challenges in the Arab States Region. » UNESCWA (2017). Status of Arab Women Report 2017 Violence Against Women: What is at stake? » UNESCWA and the UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (2017). Estimating costs of marital violence in the Arab region: Operational model. » UNHCR (2014). Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Response in Refugee Situations in the Middle East and North Africa. » UNICEF (2018). A Profile of Violence against Children and Adolescents in the Middle East and North Africa.  » UN Women Arab States (n.d.). Facts and Figures: Ending Violence against Women and Girls. » UN Women, UNDP, the United Nations Team of Experts on the Rule of Law and Sexual Violence in Conflict (2018). 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[Penal Code] » Oman, Royal Decree No. 126 of 2008, the Law Combating Human Trafficking. » Bahrain, Penal Code 1976. » Qatar, Law No. 15 of 2011 on Combating » Djibouti, Penal Code 1995. Trafficking in Human Beings. » Arab Republic of Egypt, Penal Code, Law No.58 » Saudi Arabia, Law on Protection from Abuse, of 1937. Royal Decree No. M/52 of 2013. » Islamic Republic of Iran, Islamic Penal Code » Saudi Arabia, Suppression of the Trafficking in 1991. Persons Act, Royal Decree M/40 of 2009. » Iraq, Iraqi Penal Code, Law No. 111 of 1969. » Saudi Arabia, executive Regulation on » Israeli Penal Law 5735-1977. 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[Penal Code] » United Arab Emirates, Penal Code (Federal Law No. 3) 1987. » Republic of Yemen, Republican Decree, By Law No. 12 1994. [Penal Code] 1 68 Bibliography Country Family/Personal Status Laws Country Labor Laws » Algeria, Code de la famille 1984. » Iraq Labor Law 2015. » Kingdom of Bahrain, Legislative Decree No. (19) » Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Law No. 48 of 2009. amending the Labor Code 2008. » Djibouti, Family Code, Act No. 152 of 2002. » Kuwait, Labor Law (Law no. 38) 1964. » Islamic Republic of Iran, Family Protection Law » Libya, Law No. 12 of 1378 [2010] on Labor 1975. Relations 2010. » Iraq, Personal Status Law 1959. » Morocco, Labor Code 2003. » Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Jordan Personal » Oman, Royal Decree No. 35/2003 Issuing the Status Law 2010. Labor Law. » Kuwait, Family Law Code 1984. » Saudi Arabia, Labor Law (Royal Decree No. » Libya, Family Law 1984. M/51) 2006. » Morocco, Family Code, Law No. 70-03 2004 » United Arab Emirates, Federal Law No. 8 of Morocco, Family Code, Law No. 70-03 of 2004. 1980. » Oman, Personal Status Law No. 32 of 1997. » Gaza, Presidential Decree of 4 November 2019. » Qatar, Family Law 22 of 2006. » Syrian Arab Republic, Personal Status Code (Legislative Decree 59/1953) 1953. » Tunisia, Code du Statut Personnel 2012. » United Arab Emirates, Personal Status Act 2005. » Republic of Yemen, Personal Status Law 1992. 169 ENDNOTES 1 IASC Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action. 2015. https://gbvguide- lines.org/en/capacity-building/iasc-gbv-guidelines-introduction/ 2 UNESCWA. 2017. Status of Arab Women Report 2017 Violence against Women: What is At Stake. Lebanon, ESCWA. https:// www.unescwa.org/sites/www.unescwa.org/files/publications/files/arab-women-report-violence-against-wom- en-english.pdf 3 WHO. 2013. 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PRB Policy Brief, https://www.prb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/06052015-egypt-vi- olence-against-women-1.pdf 12 UN Secretary-General. 2019. Conflict Related Sexual Violence—Report of the United Nations Secretary-General. S/2019/280. https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/annual_report_of_the_sg_on_crsv_2018.pdf; Herbert, S. 2014. Links between gender-based violence and outbreaks of violent conflict. GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report. http://gsdrc.org/docs/open/hdq1169.pdf 13 Corral, et al. 2020. On the Front Lines of the Fight against Poverty. Washington DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge. worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/33324/9781464815409.pdf 14 Juzoor Health and Social Development. 2020. 800 Palestinians were selected for a rapid phone survey with a response rate of 79 percent. 15 Barkawi, B., Farouk M. 2020. Seek help, say Middle East women’s groups as domestic violence surges. Reuters. April 8, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-healths-coronavirus-women-mideast-trfn/seek-help-say-middle-east- womens-groups-as-domestic-violence-surges-idUSKBN21P23M; 16 GDN Life. 2020. Domestic Violence cases in Bahrain surge 46 per cent. Blog post. May 8, 2020. https://www.gdnlife. com/Home/ArticleDetail?ArticleId=34938&category=4 17 Naguib, M. 2021. Egypt: The pandemic of domestic violence. Ahram Online. https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsCon- tent/50/1209/419277/AlAhram-Weekly/Focus/Egypt-The-pandemic-of-domestic-violence.aspx 18 European Institute for Gender Equality. N.d. Economic Violence. https://eige.europa.eu/thesaurus/terms/1096 19 Alsawalqa, R. 2020. Economic Abuse of Women in Amman, Jordan: A Quantitative Study. SAGE, https://journals.sage- pub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2158244020982616 ; Alsawalqa, R. 2021. Women’s Abuse Experiences in Jordan: A Compar- ative Study Using Rural and Urban Classifications. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 8, 186. 20 Alsawalqa 2021. 21 Norwegian Refugee Council. 2019. Repairing Fractured Landscapes: Challenges and opportunities for resolving disputes over land, housing, water and other natural resources in Yemen. https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/reports/re- pairing-fractures-landscapes/repairing-fractured-landscapes---challenges-and-opportunities-for-resolving-dis- putes-over-land-housing-water-and-other-natural-resources-in-yemen.pdf 170 END N OTES 22 National Union of Djiboutian Women 2020. 23 Hajaiej, M. and Ben Jemaa, M. 2019. Violences économiques basées sur le genre: un véritable frein à la relance économique. Le Bulletin de l’OGEC. https://tunisia.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Bulletin_OGEC_Violences_fondees_sur_ le_genre.pdf 24 MICS Algérie. 2019. Rapport final des résultats. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/algeria/media/1441/file/En- qu%C3%AAte%20par%20Grappes%20%C3%A0%20Indicateurs%20Multiples%20(MICS6)%202019.pdf 25 World Values Survey 2014. 26 El Feki, et al. 2017. 27 Algeria, Code Pénal 1966 [Penal Code], Arts. 266 bis, 266 bis 1; Arab Republic of Egypt, Penal Code, Law No. 58 of 1937, Arts. 267, 290, as amended by Law No. 215 of 1980; Republic of Yemen, Republican Decree, By Law No. 12 1994 [Penal Code], Arts. 254, 270. 28 Algeria, Law No. 19 of 2015 (15-19) on Domestic Violence; Bahrain, Law No. 17 of 2015 on Protection against Domestic Violence; Jordan, Law No. 15 of 2017 on Protection from Family Violence (amending Law No. 6 of 2008); Lebanon, Law No. 293 of 2014 on the Protection of Women and Family Members from Domestic Violence; Morocco, Law No. 103-13 of 2018 on Violence against Women; Saudi Arabia, Law on Protection from Abuse, Royal Decree No. M/52 of 2013; Tunisia, Law No. 58 of 2017 on the Elimination of Violence against Women; the United Arab Emirates Federal Decree No. 10 of 2019 on Domestic Violence. 29 Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Law No. 8 of 2011 on Combating Domestic Violence. 30 UNDP. 2019a. Gender Justice & Equality Before the Law. New York: United Nations Development Programme. https://www.arabstates.undp.org/content/rbas/en/home/library/Dem_Gov/gender-justice---equality-before-the- law.html 31 Morocco, Law No. 103-13 of 2018, Art. 10. 32 Regarding physical domestic violence, some countries (Bahrain, Lebanon; Morocco; Tunisia) have a broad definition, which includes physical and sexual abuse, physical and sexual damages and/ or death. In terms of psychological violence, the most common definition, found in the legal frameworks of Algeria, Bahrain, Lebanon, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia includes verbal and emotional harm, psychological abuse, and exploitation. Iraq provides an exhaustive list of psychological abuse, including “humiliating, insulting, belittling, intimidating, psychological pressure, suicide due to domestic violence, cutting off social relations, and marriage to settle feuds”. The economic dimension of domestic violence vary the most: economic harm (Morocco), leaving family members without sufficient means to support basic needs (Saudi Arabia), intimidation to deprive of financial resources (Bahrain), economic assault, which leads to economic damage (Tunisia), forced begging and forced sex work (Lebanon), orders to quit employment and forced prostitution (Iraq). Laws cited: Algeria, Law No. 15-19 of 2015, Arts. 266 bis, 266 bis (1), 330 bis; Bahrain, Law No. 17 of 2015, Art. 1; Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Law No. 8 of 2011, Art. 2; Lebanon, Law No. 293 of 2014, Arts. 2, 3; Morocco, Law No. 103-13 of 2018, Art. 1; Tunisia, Law No. 58 of 2017, Art. 3; Saudi Arabia, Royal Decree No. M/52 of 2013, Art. 1. 33 Jordan, Law No. 15 of 2017, Art. 2; Lebanon, Penal Code, Legislative Decree No. 340 of 1943, Art. 503. 34 UNESCWA, UNFPA & UN Women 2019. Gender Justice and Equality before the law: Analysis of Progress and Challenges in the Arab States Region. 35 Lebanon, Penal Code, Art. 503. 36 Syrian Arab Republic, Penal Code, Legislative Decree No. 148 of 1949, Art. 489. 37 Bahrain, Law No. 17 of 2015, Art. 1. 38 Djibouti, Penal Code 1995, Art. 343. 39 Morocco, Family Code, Law No. 70-03 of 2004, Art. 51. 40 UNDP 2019a. 41 Amnesty International. 2015. Assaulted and Accused: Sexual and Gender-based Violence in Tunisia. London: Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde30/2814/2015/en/ 42 UNDP 2019a. 43 UNICEF. 2020a. Humanitarian Response Plan: Libya, Executive Summary. https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/ sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/files/libya_hrp_2020_executivesummary_english.pdf 44 UN Women & Oxfam. 2018. Gender Profile—Iraq: A Situation Analysis on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Iraq. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620602/rr-gender-profile-iraq-131218- en.pdf; Amnesty International. 2018. The Condemned: Women and Children Isolated, Trapped, and Exploited in Iraq. London: Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE1481962018ENGLISH.PDF 45 UNDP. 2018f. Libya: Gender, Justice and the Law. New York: UNDP. https://www2.unwomen.org/-/media/field%20 office%20arab%20states/attachments/publications/2018/gender%20justices%20and%20the%20law%20 in%20the%20arab%20region/country%20assessments/libya%20country%20assessment%20-%20english.pd- f?la=en&vs=4403; Global Protection Cluster. 2019. Handbook for Coordinating Gender-based Violence Interventions in Emergencies. GBV AoR. https://gbvaor.net/sites/default/files/2019-07/Handbook%20for%20Coordinating%20 GBV%20in%20Emergencies_fin.pdf 46 Euromed Rights. 2013. Violence Against Women, Bleeding Wound in the Syrian Conflict. https://euromedrights.org/ publication/violence-against-women-bleeding-wound-in-the-syrian-conflict/ 47 UNESCWA 2017. 48 CEDAW. 2017. Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Jordan. CEDAW/C/JOR/CO/6. https://digitalli- brary.un.org/record/1313504?ln=en EN D NOT ES 171 49 UN Women & OXFAM 2018. 50 UNDP. 2018e. Jordan: Gender Justice and the Law. New York: UNDP. https://www.undp.org/content/dam/rbas/doc/ Gender%20Justice/English/Full%20reports/Jordan%20Country%20Assessment%20-%20English.pdf, p. 24. 51 CEDAW (2008). Concluding comments of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. CEDAW/C/ LBN/CO/3. Available at: https://evaw-global-database.unwomen.org/-/media/files/un%20women/vaw/country%20 report/asia/lebanon/lebanon%20cedaw%20co.pdf?vs=731 52 Bahrain Centre for Human Rights, Caram Asia, and the Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights. 2008. The Situation of Women Domestic Workers in Bahrain. Report submitted to the 42nd session of the CEDAW Committee. October 8, 2008. https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/bchrbahrain42.pdf 53 Yaker, et al., 2020. 54 OECD. 2019a. Social Institutions and Gender Index: Algeria. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/ datasheets/2019/DZ.pdf 55 Human Rights Watch. 2012. They Hunt Us Down for Fun; Discrimination and Police Violence against Transgender Women in Kuwait. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/kuwait0112ForUpload.pdf 56 Bahrain, Penal Code 1976, Art. 344; Djibouti, Penal Code, Art. 326; Egypt, Presidential Decree Promulgating Law No. 11 of 2011, p. 3; Kuwait, Penal Code, Law No. 16 of 1960, as amended by Law No. 31 of 1970, Art. 186; Libya, Penal Code 1953, Arts. 368, 398. Rape and sexual assault are criminalized under Israeli, Jordanian and British law applied in East Jerusalem, the West Bank and Gaza Strip, respectively (Section 435 Israeli Penal Law 5735-1977, Art. 292-295 Jordanian Penal Code, Art. 152-154 British Penal Code). 57 Algeria, Law No. 15-19 of 2015, Arts. 333 bis 2 and 3; Lebanon, Penal Code, Arts. 507–511; Tunisia, Code Pénal 1913 [Penal Code], Arts. 228–229; Oman, Personal Status Law No. 32 of 1997, Art. 37; Data on Qatar from Human Rights Watch 2019. 58 Bahrain, Penal Code, Art. 344; Egypt, Penal Code, Arts. 267, 268; Iraqi Penal Code, Law No. 111 of 1969, Art. 393; Penal Code of Jordan (No. 16 of 1960), Art. 292-295; Morocco, Code Pénal 1963 [Penal Code], Art. 486; Oman, Penal Code, Royal Decree No. 7 of 1974, Art. 257; Syria, Penal Code, Art. 489. 59 Libya, Penal Code, Art. 407; Morocco, Penal Code, Art. 486. Related to the definition of rape, according to Djibouti’s Penal Code (Art. 343), rape is an act of sexual penetration, committed on another person with the use of violence, constraint, or threat. A detailed definition can be also found in the Penal Code of Tunisia, according to which rape is defined as any “act resulting in intercourse, regardless of the nature or the method used, against a female or male without the person’s con- sent” (Art. 226(3)). In contrast, the Penal Code (Art. 224) in Iran does not define rape but considers it as a form of adultery or physical assault, depending on the context of the case. 60 Imprisonment is foreseen in Algeria (Penal Code, Art. 336); Bahrain (Penal Code, Art. 344); Djibouti (Penal Code, Arts. 324 and 325); Lebanon (Penal Code, Art. 503); Morocco (Penal Code, Art. 486); and Oman (Penal Code, Arts. 225, 226). See also CEDAW 2017 and UN Human Rights Committee, General comment no. 20: Prohibition of torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (article 7) (1992) (A/44/40). 61 Algeria, Penal Code, Art. 326; Bahrain, Penal Code, Art. 353; Iraq, Penal Code, Art. 398; Kuwait, Penal Code, Art. 182; Libya, Penal Code, Art. 424; Syria, Penal Code, Art. 508. 62 El Feki et al 2017; Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab Women for Training and Research. 2016. Gender-Based Violence in the MENA Region: Context Analysis. USAID. Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative – MENA Task Order; Rebeiz, M. J., & Harb, C. 2010. Perceptions of rape and attitudes toward women in a sample of Lebanese students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(4), 735-752. 63 UNDP. 2018c. Djibouti: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. 64 Guessous, H. 2019. Moroccan MP Supports Sexual Freedoms, Calls for Repealing Law Against Abortion. Morocco World News. October 1, 2019. https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2019/10/283792/morocco-sexual-freedoms-law-abor- tion/ 65 UN General Assembly. 2014. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequenc- es, Rashida Manjoo. United Nations. https://www.unwomen.org/en/docs/2014/5/special-rapporteur-on-violence- against-women-a-hrc-26-38 66 El Feki, et al., 2017. 67 UNDP 2019a. 68 UN Women. 2019. Reforming laws that forced women to marry their rapists. July 16, 2019. https://www.unwomen.org/ en/news/stories/2019/6/feature-story-of-change-reforming-laws-that-forced-women-to-marry-their-rapists 69 UN ESCWA. 2019b. Shelters for Women Survivors of Violence Availability and Accessibility in the Arab Region. Lebanon, ESCWA, United Nations House. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3894966?ln=en; UNDP 2019a; Chaban, S. 2018. Addressing Violence Against Women Through Legislative Reform in States Transitioning from the Arab Spring. In In Lahai, John and Khanyisela Moyo (eds.). Gender in Human Rights and Transitional Justice. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. 70 Bahrain, Law No. 1 of 2008 with respect to Trafficking in Persons; Djibouti, Law No. 133 of 2016 on the Fight Against Trafficking in Persons and Illicit Smuggling of Migrants; Egypt, Law No. 64 of 2010 on Combating Trafficking in Humans; Iraq, Law No. 28 of 2012 Combating Trafficking in Persons; Jordan, Law on Protection Against Trafficking of Humans No. 9 of 2009; Morocco, Law No. 27-14 on Combating Trafficking in Persons; Oman, Royal Decree No. 126 of 2008, the Law Combating Human Trafficking; Qatar, Law No. 15 of 2011 on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings; Saudi Arabia, Suppression of the Trafficking in Persons Act, Royal Decree M/40 of 2009; Syria, Law Against Trafficking in Persons, Leg- islative Decree No. 3 of 2010. 172 END N OTES 71 Algeria, Penal Code, Art. 303; Kuwait, Penal Code, Art. 201; Lebanon, Penal Code, Art. 524; Libya, Penal Code, Arts. 418– 420); West Bank (Arts. 309-318), and Gaza (Arts. 161-166). Yemen’s legislation considers slavery as a criminal offense, although no provisions on human trafficking are available under domestic law; see: UNDP 2019a. 72 El Feki, et al., 2017. 73 Gengler, J. J., Alkazemi, M. F., & Alsharekh, A. 2018. Who supports honor-based violence in the Middle East? Findings from a national survey of Kuwait. Journal of interpersonal violence. 36, no. 11–12 (June 2021): NP6013–39. https://doi. org/10.1177/0886260518812067. 74 Mosleh et al. 2015. 75 Algeria, Penal Code, Art. 279; Bahrain, Penal Code, Art. 334; Yemen, Penal Code, Art. 262. 76 UNDP. 2018k. Yemen: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. https://yemen.un.org/en/17750-gender-justice-law- yemen 77 Egypt, Penal Code, Art. 237; Jordan, Penal Code, Art. 340; Islamic Republic of Iran, Islamic Penal Code 1991, Arts. 299, 630; Iraq, Penal Code, Art. 128; Kuwait Penal Code, Art. 153; Libya Penal Code, Art. 375; Morocco Penal Code, Art. 418; Qatar Penal Code, Art. 47; Syria Penal Code, Art. 172. 78 UNDP 2018c; CEDAW. 2014. Consideration of reports submitted by States Parties under article 18 of the Convention. CEDAW/C/LBN/4-5. New York: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. www2. ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/cedaws40.htm; Devers, L.N. and Bacon, S. 2010. Interpreting Honor Crimes: The Insti- tutional Disregard Towards Female Victims of Family Violence in the Middle East. International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory. Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2010, 359-371; UNDP. 2018j. Tunisia: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP; Emirates New Agency. 2020. President approves amendments to Personal Status, Civil Transactions, Penal Code, Crimi- nal Procedural laws. November 7, 2020. 79 UNDP 2019a. 80 UNDP 2019a. 81 Jordan Penal Code, Art. 340. 82 UNICEF 2020. 83 Usta, J., & Farver, J.A.M. (2010). Child sexual abuse in Lebanon during war and peace. Child: Care, Health & Development 36(3): 361–368. 84 UNICEF. 2016. Multi-Country Real Time Evaluation of UNICEF Gender-Based Violence in Emergencies Programmmes. 85 Amnesty International. 2014. Algeria: Comprehensive Reforms Needed to End Sexual and Gender Based Violence Against Women and Girls. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/212000/mde280102014en.pdf 86 UNICEF. 2018. A Profile of Violence Against Children and Adolescents in the Middle East and North Africa: Leaving No One behind. https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/2826/file/VAC%20in%20MENA.pdf. In October 2019, Tunisia became the first non-member state to sign the Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of the Council of Europe. 87 El Feki et al., 2017. 88 El Feki et al., 2017. 89 School-related GBV is defined as acts or threats of sexual, physical, or psychological violence occurring in and around school, perpetrated as a result of gender norms and stereotypes, and enforced by unequal power dynamics (UNESCO & UNGEI 2015). 90 Barker et al., 2011; Jewkes et al., 2010. 91 Global Protection Cluster. 2018. Interagency Gender based violence Action Plan for Libya. GBV AoR. https://www.human- itarianresponse.info/en/operations/libya/document/libya-interagency-gbv-action-plan 92 Promundo and UN Women. 2019. International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES). 93 UN Secretary-General 2019. 94 United Nations Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict. 2019. Yemen; based on UN Secretary-General 2019. 95 United States Department of State. 2019a. Trafficking in Persons Report: Libya. https://ly.usembassy.gov/2019-traf- ficking-in-persons-report-libya/ 96 United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child. 2016. Concluding observations on the combined third and fourth periodic reports of the Islamic Republic of Iran. https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Concluding-Obser- vations-CRC-Iran-2016-eng.pdf 97 UNICEF 2016. 98 See, for example: CAPMAS, NCW & UNFPA. 2015. Egypt Economic Gender-Based Violence Survey (ECGBVS). https:// egypt.unfpa.org/en/publications/economic-cost-gender-based-violence-survey-egypt-2015 99 UNHCR. 2015b. Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Response in Refugee Situations in the Middle East and North Africa. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/568f9a014.pdf; UNICEF. 2017. Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Middle East and North Africa Regional Office. https:// www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Full-Report-FINAL.pdf 100 World Bank 2017a. 101 UNFPA. 2017b. Lebanon: Scorecard on Gender-based Violence. https://arabstates.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub- pdf/UNFPA%20-%20Lebanon%20WEB_0.pdf EN D NOT ES 173 102 UNICEF Helpdesk. 2018. Gender-based Violence in Emergencies: Emergency Responses to Public Health Outbreaks. Sep- tember 2018. https://www.sddirect.org.uk/media/1617/health-responses-and-gbv-short-query-v2.pdf; Peterman, et al. 2020. Pandemics and Violence Against Women and Children. Center for Global Development Working Paper 528. April 2020. https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/pandemics-and-violence-against-women-and-girls.pdf 103 UNICEF 2017; ICMEC. 2013. Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa: A White Paper. https://www.icmec.org/ wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Child_Marriage_in_the_MENA_Region.pdf 104 UNICEF 2017. 105 ECPAT International (n.d.) specifically identifies Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and UAE. 106 US Department of State. 2019. Trafficking in Persons Report. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/up- loads/2019/06/2019-Trafficking-in-Persons-Report.pdf. 107 UNODC. 2016. North Africa and the Middle East. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/Glo- tip16_Country_profile_North_AfricaMiddle_East.pdf. 108 UNODC. 2018. Global Report on Trafficking in Persons − in the context of armed conflict https://www.unodc.org/docu- ments/data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/GloTIP2018_BOOKLET_2_Conflict.pdf 109 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. 2015. Concluding observations on the combined second to fourth periodic re- ports of Iraq. CRC/C/IRQ/CO/2-4. 110 UN Secretary-General. 2018. Children and armed conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic: Report of the Secretary-General. S/2018/969. October 30, 2018. https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=s%2F2018%2F969&Language=E&De- viceType=Desktop 111 ECPAT International. 2020. Regional Overview: Sexual Exploitation of Children in the Middle East and North Africa. Bang- kok: ECPAT International. https://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Regional-Overview-Sexual-Ex- ploitation-of-Children-in-the-Middle-East-and-North-Africa-ECPAT-research.pdf 112 McGrath, C. Underage Girls are Egypt’s Summer Rentals. Inter Press News Service Agency. August 5, 2013. http://www. ipsnews.net/2013/08/underage-girls-are-egypts-summer-rentals/ 113 United States Department of State. 2019c. Trafficking in Persons Report: Yemen. https://www.state.gov/re- ports/2019-trafficking-in-persons-report-2/yemen/ 114 Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Art. 19. 115 Jordan, Law no. 15 of 2017 on Protection from Family Violence (amending Law no. 6 of 2008), Art. 8; the United Arab Emirates, Federal Law No. 3 of 2016 on Child Rights, Art. 33. In Egypt, Law No. 11 of 2011 increased the penalty for sexual assault under article 269 of the Penal Code, from three years’ imprisonment, to fifteen years’ imprisonment, for an as- sault carried out by force against a child. 116 Jordan, Penal Code, Art. 292; Kuwait, Penal Code, Art. 186; Lebanon, Penal Code, Art. 503. 117 Djibouti, Family Code,Act No. 152 of2002,Art. 13; Egypt, LawNo. 126 of2008 amendingthe provisions ofthe Child Law,Art. 31-bis; Iraq, Personal Status Law No. 188 of 1959, Art. 7; Jordan Personal Status Law No. 36 of 2010, Arts. 10a, 10b; Morocco, Family Code, Arts. 20, 21; Oman, Personal Status Law, Sec. 7; Saudi Arabia, Executive Regulation on Child Protection of 2015, Art. 16/3; Syrian Arab Republic, Personal Status Law No. 59 of 1953, Art. 16; Tunisia, Code du Statut Personnel 2012 [Personal Status Code], Arts. 5, 6; Gaza, Presidential Decree of 4 November 2019; the United Arab Emirates, Personal Status Act (Federal Law No. 28) 2005, Art. 30. 118 Bahrain, Personal Status Code/Family Law No. 19 of 2009, Art. 20 (16 years); Kuwait, Personal Status Law No. 54 of 1984, Art. 26 (15 for women, 17 for men); Qatar ,Family Law No. 22 of 2006, Art. 17 (16 for women, 18 for men); Civil Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran 1928, Art. 1041. Information on West Bank (15 for girls and 16 for boys), see: Azzouni. 2010. Palestine – Palestinian Authority and Israeli-Occupied Territories. In Kelly, S. and Breslin, J. (eds). Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa. NY: Freedom House. 119 Algeria Code de la famille 1984, Art. 7; Libya, Law No. 10 of 1984 on Marriage and Divorce Provisions and the Effects Thereof, Art. 8. 120 UNICEF. 2011. Lebanon: MENA Gender Equality Profile. United Nations Children’s Fund; UN Human Rights Council. 2009. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Yakin Ertürk, Addendum Mission to Saudi Arabia. A/HRC/11/6/Add.3. Geneva: Human Rights Council; OECD. 2019l. Social Institutions and Gender Index: Yemen. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/YE.pdf 121 OECD. 2019f. Social Institutions and Gender Index: Lebanon, and UNICEF 2011. For instance, for Catholic religions, the minimum age for males, with a guardian’s permission, is 16 and for females is 14. Without a guardian’s permission, the minimum ages are 17 and 15, respectively. Within the Roman (Greek) Orthodox code, a male must be 17, and a female, 15 to marry. All religious communities allow for exceptions for boys and girls if the guardian gives consent, sometimes even below the age of 15. 122 Djibouti, Family Code, Art. 39; Morocco, Family Code, Art. 20. 1 74 END N OTES 123 UNDP 2018b; UNDP 2018c; UNDP 2018j; UNDP. 2018i. Syria: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP; UNDP. 2018h. Oman: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP; UNDP 2018. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP; CEDAW. 2019. Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of Iraq. November, 2019. CEDAW/C/ IRQ/CO/7. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CEDAW/C/IRQ/ CO/7 percent20&Lang=En; United States Department of State. 2018. Trafficking in Persons Report: Morocco. https:// www.refworld.org/docid/5b3e0ac84.html; United States Department of State. 2019b. Trafficking in Persons Report: Qatar. Available at: https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-trafficking-in-persons-report-2/qatar/; OECD. 2019k. So- cial Institutions and Gender Index. United Arab Emirates. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/ datasheets/2019/AE.pdf. 124 Syria, Law Against Trafficking in Persons No. 3 of 2010; UNDP 2018i. 125 Rouzi, A., et al. 2017. Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. BMJ Open 2019. Available at: doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684 126 Musawah. 2017. Thematic Report on Article 16, Muslim Family Law and Muslim Women’s Rights in Oman. Submission prepared for CEDAW Committee in Geneva, Switzerland. October 2017. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/ Shared%20Documents/OMN/INT_CEDAW_NGO_OMN_29224_E.pdf 127 UNFPA. 2020d. Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Family Planning and Ending Gender-based Violence, Female Gen- ital Mutilation and Child Marriage. Interim Technical Note. April 27, 2020. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/ resource-pdf/COVID-19_impact_brief_for_UNFPA_24_April_2020_1.pdf 128 El Feki, et al. 2017. 129 WHO. 2020c. Female Genital Mutilation. Fact sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-gen- ital-mutilation. 130 Djibouti, Penal Code Art. 333; Egypt, Penal Code Art. 242-bis. Also criminalized in Tunisia, Penal Code, Art. 221. In Bahrain, there is no specific legal provision on FGM/C, but the act can be prosecuted as an assault under the Penal Code, Art. 337. 131 Djibouti, Penal Code, Art. 333; Egypt, Penal Code, Art. 61. 132 OECD. 2019c. Social Institutions and Gender Index Djibouti. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/ datasheets/2019/DJ.pdf. 133 CEDAW. 2011. Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Oman. CEDAW/C/OMN/CO/1. Oman, Child Law No. 22 of 2014, Art. 20, also prohibits traditional practices that are harmful to the health of the child but does not specifically mention FGM/C. 134 OECD 2019k. 135 Yemen, Ministerial Directive on Prohibition of FGM/C in governmental and private health facilities of 2001. 136 Iraq, Penal Code, Art. 412. 137 CAPMAS, NCW & UNFPA 2015. 138 UN ESCWA 2017. Additionally, In Jordan, 63 percent of women reported having experienced sexual harassment while us- ing public transport, see: Aloul, S., Naffa R., Mansour, M. 2018. Gender in Public Transportation: A Perspective of Women Users of Public Transportation. Research study. Sadaqa and Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. In Libya, 25 percent of women reported being sexually harassed in the past 12 months, with 19 percent experiencing verbal sexual harassment and 5 percent experiencing physical sexual harassment, see: Bouhlila 2019. 139 Population Council. 2014. Survey of Young People in Egypt (2009 and 2014). https://www.popcouncil.org/research/ survey-of-young-people-in-egypt-2009-and-2014 140 Euromed Rights. Egypt: Situation report on Violence against Women. https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/up- loads/2017/03/Factsheet-2017-VAW-Egypt-EN.pdf. In addition, the Bank has contributed to some of these changes, such as in Jordan, where the Second Equitable Growth and Job Creation Programmatic Development Policy Financing is addressing harassment in public transportation and at the workplace. See: World Bank. 2019a. Jordan—Second Equitable Growth and Job Creation Programmatic Development Policy Financing. Website Brief. https://www.worldbank.org/en/ country/jordan/brief/second-equitable-growth-and-job-creation-programmatic-development-policy-financing 141 Algeria, Penal Code, Arts. 333 bis, 341 bis; Bahrain, Penal Code, Art. 350; Djibouti, Penal Code, Art. 326; Egypt, Penal Code, Art. 306 bis A; Jordan, Penal Code, Art. 305; Kuwait, Penal Code, Arts. 191, 192; Morocco, Penal Code, Art. 503; Qatar, Penal Code, Art. 291; Syria, Penal Code, Arts. 505-506; Tunisia, Penal Code, Art. 226; United Arab Emirates, Penal Code, Art. 358; Yemen, Penal Code, Arts. 270–274. 142 Lebanon, Anti-Sexual Harassment Law No. 205 of 2020; Morocco Law No. 103-13 of 2018; Saudi Arabia, Royal Decree No. M/96, Dated 16 Ramadan 1439 A.H. approving the Anti-Harassment Law. 143 Bahrain, Penal Code, Art. 350; Egypt, Penal Code, Art. 306 bis A; Jordan, Penal Code, Art. 305; Tunisia Penal Code, Art. 226. 144 UN Human Rights Council. 2011. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and conse- quences, Rashida Manjoo - Addendum - Mission to Algeria, 19 May 2011, A/HRC/17/26/Add.3. Available at: https://www. refworld.org/docid/4ef1aa952.html 145 Djibouti, Penal Code, Arts. 430, 431; Libya, Penal Code, Arts. 368–398; the United Arab Emirates, Penal Code, Federal Law No. 3 of 1987, Art. 359; Yemen, Penal Code, Art. 278. 146 UN General Assembly. 2019. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, on her mission to the Occupied Palestinian Territory/State of Palestine. 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Refugees, Migrants, and the Food Insecure Djibouti. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). 202 World Health Organization. 2002. The World Health Report 2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva: World Health Organization; International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent. 2007. World Disasters Report. Geneva. https://www.ifrc.org/PageFiles/99876/2007/WDR2007-English.pdf 203 Djibouti Ministry of Women and Family. 2019. Rapport d’Examen National Approfondi Établi à l’occasion du 25ème an- niversaire de la quatrième conférence mondiale de Beijing sur les Femmes et les 5 ans du Programme de développement durable des Nations Unies à l’horizon 2030. 204 CARE International, Oxfam. 2016.Consolidated Gender Analysis for Ethiopian Drought Response. Great Britain: Oxfam, CARE Ethiopia, ECHO. 205 Gevers et al. 2020. 206 Epstein A. et al. 2020. Drought and intimate partner violence towards women in 19 countries in sub-Saharan Africa during 2011-2018: A population-based study. PLoS Med 17(3): e1003064. EN D NOT ES 177 207 Castañeda Camey et al. 2020. 208 UN OCHA. 2019. Humanitarian Needs Overview: Yemen. OCHA Yemen. 209 Djibouti Ministry of Women and Family 2019. 210 Castañeda Camey et al. 2020. 211 Oxfam. 2020. Protection Landscapes in Diyala and Kirkuk, Iraq. Oxford: Oxfam International. https://reliefweb.int/sites/ reliefweb.int/files/resources/rr-protection-landscapes-diyala-kirkuk-iraq-050320-en.pdf. 212 CIVIC (Center for Civilians in Conflict). 2019. “We Just Want Someone to Protect Us”: Civilian Protection Challenges in Kirkuk. Center for Civilians in Conflict. https://civiliansinconflict.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Kirkuk_We-Just- Want-Someone-to-Protect-Us.pdf 213 Castañeda Camey et al. 2020. 214 Norwegian Refugee Council. 2019. Repairing Fractured Landscapes; Challenges and Opportunities for Resolving Disputes Over Land, Housing, Water and Other Natural Resources in Yemen. https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/reports/re- pairing-fractures-landscapes/repairing-fractured-landscapes---challenges-and-opportunities-for-resolving-dis- putes-over-land-housing-water-and-other-natural-resources-in-yemen.pdf. 215 UNDP 2019a. 216 The following constitutions and their relevant amendments are referred to: Constitution of the People’s Democratic Re- public of Algeria 1989 (Amended 1996); Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain 2002; Draft Constitution [Djibouti] 1992; Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt 2014; Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran 1979 (Amended 1989); Constitution of the Republic of Iraq 2005; Constitution of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Amended through to 2011); Constitution of Kuwait 1962, reinstated in 1992;Constitution of Lebanon 1926; Constitution of Libya 2012; Constitution of the Kingdom of Morocco 2011; Constitution of Oman 1996; Constitution of Palestine 2003; Permanent Constitution of the State of Qatar 2004; Syrian Arab Republic Constitution of 2012; Constitution of Tunisia 2014; United Arab Emirates’ Constitution of 1971 with amendments; Constitution of the Republic of Yemen 2015. 217 Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Art. 11; Constitution of Tunisia, Art. 46. 218 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Art. 21; Constitution of the Republic of Iraq, Art. 29), Constitution of Libya, Art. 159; Syrian Arab Republic Constitution, Art. 23. 219 Constitution of the Republic of Iraq, Art. 37; and provisions on the freedom of speech and protection from discrimination, violence, and hatred based on gender in Constitution of Libya, Art. 37. 220 UN Human Rights Council 2011. 221 Djibouti, Law No. 173/AN/02/4th L. 222 Global Protection Cluster 2018; United States Department of State 2019a; United States Department of State 2019c. 223 Ministry of Women’s Affairs of Palestine. 2011. National Strategy to Combat Violence Against Women 2011–2019. http:// www.lacs.ps/documentsShow.aspx?ATT_ID=5501 224 CEDAW 2019; OECD. 2019d. Social Institutions and Gender Index: Iraq. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/up- loads/files/datasheets/2019/IQ.pdf 225 UNGA 2019. 226 UNDP. 2018b. Bahrain: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. 227 ABAAD. 2020. Women and Girls Safe Spaces. Available at: https://www.abaadmena.org/direct-services/safe-spaces- for-women-and-girls. 228 GBV AoR. n.d. Website. https://gbvaor.net 229 UN ESCWA. 2019b. 230 Banyan Global et al. 2016 231 Banyan Global et al. 2016. 232 Banyan Global et al. 2016. 233 Demographic and Health Surveys. 2019. Jordan Population and Family Health Survey. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/ pdf/FR346/FR346.pdf 234 Global Protection Cluster 2019. 235 UN ESCWA 2019b. 236 Irish Consortium on Gender Based Violence. 2019. Responding and Empowering. GBV Services in Lebanon in Response to the Syrian Crisis. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ICGBV-Report-CSW-63-In- violence-we-forget-who-we-were-Final.pdf. 237 UNDP. 2018a. Algeria: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. 238 Landinfo. 2020. The Iranian welfare system. Available at: https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/1303791/download. 239 Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 2013a. Algeria: Forced marriages, including state protections. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/540430a44.html 240 Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (2017). Djibouti: Domestic violence, including prevalence and legislation; pro- tection provided to victims by the state and civil society (2013-May 2017) [DJI105802.FE]. Available at: https://www.ecoi. net/de/dokument/1403541.html 241 GDN Life 2020; UNDP 2018b. 242 UNFPA. 2019c. Launch of the first psychosocial hotline in Libya - Statement of UNFPA Libya Representative Ms. Bérangère Böell-Yousfi. December 4, 2019. https://libya.unfpa.org/en/news/launch-first-psychosocial-hotline-lib- ya-statement-unfpa-libya-representative-ms-b%C3%A9rang%C3%A8re-b%C3%B6ell 178 END NOTES 243 OECD. 2019e. Social Institutions and Gender Index. Kuwait. Available at:https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/up- loads/files/datasheets/2019/KW.pdf 244 Banyan Global et al. 2016. 245 Consult Aman (n.d.). About Aman. http://www.aman.org.qa/En/Pages/AbouttheAman.aspx.. Other examples of CSOs providing health services include, in Lebanon, ABAAD (nd) provides Clinical Management of Rape (CMR) services. In Qatar, the Aman Protection and Social Rehabilitation Center provides medical assistance to survivors of violence (Consult Aman nd). In Syria, Sisters of the Good Shepherd organization (nd) provides emergency care as well as psychological, medical services to survivors of violence. Emirates Red Crescent (nd) in the UAE also provides first aid and relief to the survivors. 246 OECD. 2019j. Social Institutions and Gender Index. Tunisia. Available at: https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/up- loads/files/datasheets/2019/TN.pdf 247 WHO. 2020b.‎COVID-19 and Violence against Women: What the Health Sector/System Can o, 7 April 2020. World Health Organization; OECD 2020. 248 WHO. 2020d. Gender-based violence in health emergencies. Available at: https://www.who.int/health-cluster/about/ work/other-collaborations/gender-based-violence/en/ 249 Irish Consortium on GBV 2019. 250 UN Women n.d.; Banyan Global et al. 2016. 251 OECD 2019e; Banyan Global et al. 2016. 252 Bahrain News Agency. 2019. Supreme Council for Women unveils framework. November 19, 2019. https://www.bna.bh/ en/SupremeCouncilforWomenunveilsunifiedframework.aspx?cms=q8FmFJgiscL2fwIzON1%2BDm7TIyjUo7EuiGij9Q- F9lSY%3D; Banyan Global et al 2016 ; UNDP 2018k. 253 UNFPA 2020a. Arab States Region COVID-19 Situation Report No. 4. Available at: https://www.unfpa.org/sites/de- fault/files/resource-pdf/ASRO_COVID-19_Regional_Sitrep_4_3_June.pdf 254 UNFPA 2020a. 255 IRC (International Rescue Committee), IMC (International Medical Corps), and NCA (Norwegian Church Aid). 2020. Women and Girls Safe Spaces: Technical Guidance Note for COVID-19. Available at: https://gbvaor.net/thematic-areas?term_ node_tid_depth_1%5B66%5D=66 256 UN ESCWA 2019b. 257 UN ESCWA 2019b. 258 Human Rights Watch. 2019. Submission to the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Wom- en on Iraq. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/10/07/submission-committee-elimination-all-forms-dis- crimination-against-women-iraq 259 UNDP. 2018h. Oman: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. Other examples of CSOs that operate shelters dedicat- ed to populations at risk such as refugee communities or persons at risk of human trafficking include: the KAFA center in Lebanon provides specialized services in its Qamra temporary shelter for women affected by trafficking. In Qatar, the Foundation to Combat Human Trafficking shelters survivors of human trafficking and provides comprehensive protection and care (Arab.org nd). The We Exist shelter in Tunisia provides services for LGBTQI persons, including GBV survivors (Peace Insights n.d.). The Yemen Women’s Union has been providing shelter services to IDPs and host communities and delivers specialized GBV services (Yemen Women Union n.d.). 260 UNDP 2018f. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. 261 UNDP 2018b. 262 Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning. 2011. Qatar National Development Strategy 2011 to 2016. Available at: https://www.qu.edu.qa/static_file/qu/offices%20and%20departments/Qatar%20National%20Development%20 Strategy.pdf; CEDAW. 2018b. Second Periodic report submitted by Qatar under article 18 of the Convention, due in 2018. CEDAW/C/QAT/2. Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1485883?ln=en 263 UN ESCWA 2019b. 264 General Women’s Union. n.d. Programs and Projects. Web page. Available at: https://gwu.ae/programs_projects/?lan=en 265 ABAAD 2020. Women and Girls Safe Spaces. Available at: https://www.abaadmena.org/direct-services/safe-spaces- for-women-and-girls. 266 UNFPA 2020a. 267 OECD 2020. 268 OECD 2019c. 269 UNDP. 2018. Gender Justice & The Law regional Report. Available at: https://www.arabstates.undp.org/content/rbas/ en/home/library/Dem_Gov/gender-justice-and-the-law-study.html 270 Banyan Global et al 2016. 271 UNDP 2018. 272 UNDP 2018. For example, in Jordan, the Mizan for Law organization refers cases of abuse to its Noor Network of lawyers which represents vulnerable individuals and survivors of human rights violations (Amera International nd). The Moroccan Ennajda centers refer women experiencing domestic violence to legal services (Aujourd’hui le Maroc nd). 273 CEDAW 2015; CEDAW 2017; International Commission of Jurists. 2019. Obstacles to Women’s and Girls’ Access to Justice for Gender-based Violence in Morocco. https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Morocco-Obsta- cles-GBV-Publications-Reports-Thematic-report-2019-ENG.pdf; OECD 2019. 274 UNDP 2018c. EN D NOT ES 179 275 UNICEF. 2010. Bahrain Gender Equality Profile. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Bahrain-Gender-Eqa- ulity-Profile-2011.pdf, OECD. 2019g. Social Institutions and Gender Index Libya. Available at: https://www.genderin- dex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/LY.pdf 276 UNDP. 2018f. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Gender Justice and The Law. Available at: https://www.arabstates.undp.org/ content/dam/rbas/doc/Gender%20Justice/English/Full%20reports/Saudi%20Country%20Assessment%20-%20En- glish.pdf; CEDAW. 2018a. Concluding observations on the combined third and fourth periodic reports of Saudi Ara- bia. CEDAW/C/SAU/CO/3-4. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?sym- bolno=CEDAW%2fC%2fSAU%2fCO%2f3-4&Lang=en 277 Half the studies were from Sub Saharan Africa; 16 percent from Latin America and the Caribbean, and 17 percent from South Asia. The following sections summarize best practices and lessons learned based upon the studies. The bibliogra- phy includes full references to the studies referred to. 278 Egypt see: Brady, M et al. 2007. Providing New Opportunities to Adolescent Girls in Socially Conservative Settings: The Ishraq program in rural Upper Egypt—full report. Population Council. http://www.cpcnetwork.org/wp-content/up- loads/2014/04/IshraqFullReport.pdf; Hayes, C. 2014. Tackling Gender-Based Violence with Technology: Case Studies of Mobile and Internet Technology Interventions in Developing Contexts. STATT. https://www.genderit.org/sites/default/ files/statt_tackling_gbv_with_technology_0.pdf; Mohamed, R. 2017. Working with the government and the private sec- tor to promote gender equity and prevent gender-based violence in Egypt. Blog post. Cairo Sexual Violence Research Initiative. https://www.svri.org/blog/working-government-and-private-sector-promote-gender-equity-and-pre- vent-gender-based-violence; Morsy, M. 2012. Safe city free of violence against women and girls is a safe city for ev- eryone: Egypt’s experience. Egypte/Monde Arabe. Troisième Série, 9. December 31, 2012. http://journals.openedition.org/ ema/3026). Iran see: Boroumandfar et al. 2010. Reviewing the effect of two methods of educational package and social inoculation on changing the attitudes towards domestic violence against women. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res, 283-291; Ekhtiari et al. 2014. Effect of an intervention on attitudes towards domestic violence among Iranian girls. J Pak Med Assoc. 2014 Sep; 64(9):987-92; Fallahi et al. 2020. Communication behaviors and marital functioning among Iranian newlyweds: the effects of the prevention and relationship education program. Current Psychology, 1-12; Hazrati et al. 2017. The effect of emotional focused intervention on spousal emotional abuse and marital satisfaction among elderly married couples: A randomized controlled trial. International journal of community based nursing and midwifery, 5(4), 329; Orang et al. 2018. The efficacy of narrative exposure therapy in a sample of Iranian women exposed to ongoing intimate partner violence—a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 25(6), 827-841; Taghizadeh et al. 2018. The effect of training problem-solving skills for pregnant women experiencing intimate partner violence: a randomized control trial. The Pan African Medical Journal, 30:79. Syria see: Falb et al. 2019. Cash Transfers in Raqqa Governorate, Syria: Changes over Time in Women’s Experiences of Violence and Wellbeing. Washington DC: International Rescue Committee and London: UK Department for International Development. 279 Kirk et al. 2017. Effectiveness of secondary and tertiary prevention for violence against women in low and low-middle income countries: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 17, 622; Jewkes et al. 2014. Stepping Stones and Creating Futures intervention: shortened interrupted time series evaluation of a behavioural and structural health promotion and violence prevention intervention for young people in informal settlements in Durban, South Africa. BMC public health, 14, 1325. 280 Sapkota et al. 2019. Interventions for reducing and/or controlling domestic violence among pregnant women in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Systematic Reviews, 8, 79. 281 Kerr-Wilson, A. et al. 2020. A Rigorous Global Evidence Review of Interventions to Prevent Violence Against Women and Girls. What Works to Prevent violence among women and girls global Programme, Pretoria, South Africa; Semahegn, A., Torpey, K., Manu, A. et al. 2019. Are interventions focused on gender-norms effective in preventing domestic violence against women in low and lower-middle income countries? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reproductive Health, 16(1), 1-31. 282 Jewkes, R., Flood, M., & Lang, J. 2015. From work with men and boys to changes of social norms and reduction of ineq- uities in gender relations: a conceptual shift in prevention of violence against women and girls. The Lancet, 385(9977), 1580-1589. 283 Promundo and UN Women 2019. 284 Kerr-Wilson et al. 2020. 285 Hughes K, Bellis MA, Jones L, Wood S, Bates G, Eckley L, McCoy E, Mikton C, Shakespear T, Officer A. 2012. Prevalence and Risk of Violence Against Adults with Disabilities: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Observational Studies. Lancet. https://www.who.int/disabilities/publications/violence_children_lancet.pdf?ua=1 286 Kapiga et al. 2019. A social empowerment intervention to prevent intimate partner violence against women in a microf- inance scheme in Tanzania: findings from the MAISHA cluster randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Global Health, 7(10), e1423-e1434; Messersmith et al. 2017. A mixed methods study to test the preliminary effect of World Education’s Together to End Violence Against Women (TEVAW), a program to address intimate partner violence in Northern Tanzania. Boston: The Center for Global Health & Development 1 80 END NOTES 287 Bobonis, G. J., González-Brenes, M., & Castro, R. 2013. Public transfers and domestic violence: The roles of private infor- mation and spousal control. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 5(1), 179-205; Haushofer, J., & Shapiro, J. 2016. The short-term impact of unconditional cash transfers to the poor: experimental evidence from Kenya. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(4), 1973-204; Hidrobo, M., Peterman, A., & Heise, L. 2016. The effect of cash, vouchers, and food transfers on intimate partner violence: evidence from a randomized experiment in Northern Ecuador. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 8(3), 284-303; Perova, E., & Vakis, R. 2013. Improving Gender and Development Outcomes Through Agency: Policy Lessons from Three Peruvian Experiences. Lima: World Bank. 288 Mastonshoeva et al. 2019. Zindagii Shoista–Living with Dignity: Mixed Methods Evaluation of Intervention to Prevent Violence Against Women in Tajikistan. International Alert. 289 Kerr-Wilson et al. 2020. 290 Falb et al. 2019. 291 Roy et al. 2017. 292 Gibbs et al. 2020. The impacts of combined social and economic empowerment training on intimate partner violence, depression, gender norms and livelihoods among women: an individually randomised controlled trial and qualitative study in Afghanistan. BMJ Global Health, 5(3), e001946. 293 Agüero, J. & Frisancho, V. 2018. Sumaq Warmi: Reducing Violence Against Women in Microfinance. Technical Note No. IDF- TN-1387. Inter-American Development Bank; Green et al.2015. Women’s entrepreneurship and intimate partner violence: A cluster randomized trial of microenterprise assistance and partner participation in post-conflict Uganda (SSM-D-14- 01580R1). Social Science & Medicine, 133, 177-188; Ismayilova et al. 2018. An integrated approach to increasing women’s empowerment status and reducing domestic violence: Results of a cluster-randomized controlled trial in a West African country. Psychology of Violence, 8(4), 448-521; Naved et al. 2019. Evaluation of the HERrespect intervention in preventing intimate partner and workplace violence against female garment workers in Bangladesh: results and experiences of a quasi experimental study. Draft manuscript – What Works. 294 Gupta et al. 2013. Village Savings and Loans Associations, Gender Dialogue Groups, and Gender-Based Violence against Women in Cote d’Ivoire: Findings from a randomized community trial. 295 Sharma et al. 2020. Effectiveness of a culturally appropriate intervention to prevent intimate partner violence and HIV transmission among men, women, and couples in rural Ethiopia: Findings from a cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS medicine, 17(8), e1003274. 296 Raj et al. 2016. Cluster randomized controlled trial evaluation of a gender equity and family planning intervention for married men and couples in rural India. PloS one, 11(5), e0153190. 297 Stern, E., & Heise, L. 2019. Sexual coercion, consent and negotiation: processes of change amongst couples participating in the Indashyikirwa programme in Rwanda. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 21(8), 867-882. 298 Fulu, E. & Heise, L. 2015. What Works to prevent violence against women and girls evidence reviews. Paper 1: State of the Field of Research on Violence against Women and Girls. 299 Ashburn et al. 2017. Evaluation of the Responsible, Engaged, and Loving (REAL) Fathers Initiative on Physical Child Pun- ishment and Intimate Partner Violence in Northern Uganda. Prevention Science, 18(7), 854-864. 300 Pulerwitz et al. 2015. Changing Gender Norms and Reducing Intimate Partner Violence: Results From a Quasi-Experimen- tal Intervention Study With Young Men in Ethiopia. American Journal of Public Health, 105(1), 132-137. 301 Kerr-Wilson et al. 2020. 302 Bass et al. 2013. Controlled Trial of Psychotherapy for Congolese Survivors of Sexual Violence. New England Journal of Medicine, 368(23), 2182-2191; Hall et al. 2014. The Effect of Cognitive Therapy on Structural Social Capital: Results From a Randomized Controlled Trial Among Sexual Violence Survivors in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. American Journal of Public Health, 104(9), 1680-1686. ; Hogwood et al. 2014. Rebuilding the social fabric: community counselling groups for Rwandan women with children born as a result of genocide rape. Intervention, 12(3), 393-404; Hustache et al. 2009. Evaluation of psychological support for victims of sexual violence in a conflict setting: results from Brazzaville, Congo. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 3(1), 1-10. 303 Orang et al. 2018. 304 Verma.et al. 2008. Promoting gender equity as a strategy to reduce HIV risk and gender-based violence among young men in India. Horizons Final Report. Washington, DC: Population Council. 305 Gibbs et al. 2017. The Stepping Stones and Creating Futures intervention to prevent intimate partner violence and HIV- risk behaviours in Durban, South Africa: study protocol for a cluster randomized control trial, and baseline characteristics. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 1-15. 306 Kerr-Wilson et al. 2020. 307 Kettrey, H.H. & Marx, R. A. 2019. The Effects of Bystander Programs on the Prevention of Sexual Assault across the College Years: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(2), 212-227; Miller et al. 2013. One-year follow-up of a coach-delivered dating violence prevention program: A cluster randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 45(1), 108-112. 308 Masoud, T., Jamal, A., & Nugent, E. 2016. Using the Qur’ān to empower Arab women? Theory and experimental evidence from Egypt. Comparative Political Studies, 49(12), 1555-1598. 309 Laeheem, K. 2016. Factors affecting domestic violence risk behaviors among Thai Muslim married couples in Satun prov- ince. Kasetsart journal of social sciences, 37(3), 182-189. 310 Hazrati et al. 2017. EN D NOT ES 181 311 Fallahi et al. 2020. 312 Gage, A. J., Honoré, J. G., & Deleon, J. 2016. Short-term effects of a violence-prevention curriculum on knowledge of dating violence among high school students in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 9(3), 178-189; Lazarevich et al. 2017. Dating Violence in Mexican College Students: Evaluation of an Educational Workshop. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(2), 183-204. 313 Ekhtiari et al. 2014. 314 Matthews, T. et al. 2017. Stories from survivors: Privacy & security practices when coping with intimate partner abuse. In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2189-2201). 315 Sosa-Rubi et al. 2017. True Love: Effectiveness of a School-Based Program to Reduce Dating Violence Among Adolescents in Mexico City. Prevention Science, 18(7), 804-817. 316 Brady et al. 2007. 317 Prentice, D. 2012. The psychology of social norms and the promotion of human rights. In Ryan Goodman, Derek Jinks & Andrew K. Woods (eds.). Understanding Social Action, Promoting Human Rights. Oxford Scholarship Online. 318 Miller, D.T, and McFarland, C. 1991. When social comparison goes awry: the case of pluralistic ignorance. In Jerry Suls and Thomas Ashby Wills (eds). Social Comparison: Contemporary Theory and Research. Hillsdale, New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 287–313. 319 Paluck, E. L. and Ball, I. 2010. Social Norms Marketing Aimed at Gender-based Violence: A Literature Review and Critical Assessment. New York: International Rescue Committee. 320 Jensen, R., & Oster, E. 2009. The power of TV: Cable television and women’s status in India. The Quarterly Journal of Eco- nomics, 124(3), 1057-1094. 321 Banerjee, A., Ferrara, E. L., & Orozco-Olvera, V. H. 2019. The entertaining way to behavioral change: Fighting HIV with MTV (No. w26096). National Bureau of Economic Research; Green, D. P., Wilke, A., & Cooper, J. 2018. Silence Begets Violence: A mass media experiment to prevent violence against women in rural Uganda. Newhaven, CT: Innovations for Poverty. 322 Solorzano 2008. Catalyzing personal and social change around gender, sexuality, and HIV: Impact evaluation of Puntos de Encuentro´ s communication strategy in Nicaragua. Horizons Final Report. Washington, DC: Population Council. 323 Ellsberg et al. 2015. Prevention of violence against women and girls: what does the evidence say?. The Lancet, 385(9977), 1555-1566; Jewkes et al. 2020. 324 Cripe et al. 2010. Intimate partner violence during pregnancy: a pilot intervention program in Lima, Peru. Journal of Inter- personal Violence, 25(11), 2054-2076. 325 Kerr-Wilson et al. 2020 326 Jones, D. et al. 2014. Implementing comprehensive prevention of mother-to-child transmission and HIV prevention for South African couples: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 15(1), 1-9. 327 Taghizadeh et al. 2018. 328 Austrian et al. 2018. Adolescent Girls Initiative–Kenya: Midline results report. Nairobi : Population Council. 329 Bandiera et al. 2018. The Economic Lives of Young Women in the Time of Ebola : Lessons from an Empowerment Program. Working paper. World Bank: Washington, DC.  330 Austrian, K., & Muthengi, E. N. 2013. Safe and Smart Savings Products for Vulnerable Adolescent Girls in Kenya and Ugan- da: Evaluation Report. Nairobi: Population Council; Austrian et al. 2018. 331 Brady, et al. 2007. 332 Tanner et al. 2017. 333 Buehren, N. et al. 2017. The Effects of Land Title Registration on Tenure Security, Access to Credit, Investment and Pro- duction: Evidence from Ghana; Goldstein et al. 2016. Formalizing Rural Land Rights in West Africa: Early Evidence from a Randomized Impact Evaluation in Benin. Policy Research Working Paper. No. 7435. World Bank. Washington DC; Hall- ward-Driemeier, M., & Gajigo, O. 2013. Strengthening Economic Rights and Women’s Occupational Choice: the Impact of Reforming Ethiopia’s Family Law. Policy Research Working Paper. No. 6695. The World Bank. Washington DC. 334 Christofides et al. 2018. A cluster randomised controlled trial to determine the effect of community mobilisation and ad- vocacy on men’s use of violence in periurban South Africa: study protocol. BMJ Open, 8(3), e017579. 335 Abramsky et al. 2014. Findings from the SASA! Study: A cluster randomized controlled trial to assess the impact of a community mobilization intervention to prevent violence against women and reduce HIV risk in Kampala, Uganda. BMC Medicine 12:122; Wagman et al. 2015. 2015. Effectiveness of an integrated intimate partner violence and HIV prevention intervention in Rakai, Uganda: analysis of an intervention in an existing cluster randomised cohort. The Lancet Global Health, 3(1), e23-e33. 336 Hossain et al. 2014. 2014. Men’s and women’s experiences of violence and traumatic events in rural Cote d’Ivoire before, during and after a period of armed conflict. BMJ Open, 4(2). 337 Pulerwitz et al. 2015. 338 Corboz et al. 2019. What works to prevent violence against children in Afghanistan? Findings of an interrupted time series evaluation of a school-based peace education and community social norms change intervention in Afghanistan. PLoS one, 14(8), e0220614. 339 Le Roux et al. 2019. 340 Arango et al. 2014. Interventions to prevent or reduce violence against women and girls: a systematic review of reviews. Working paper. No. Women’s voice, agency, and participation research series ; no. 10 . Washington, D.C : World Bank Group. ; Berg, R. & Denison, E. 2012. Effectiveness of interventions designed to prevent female genital mutilation/cutting: a systematic review. Stud Fam Plann. 2012 Jun;43(2):135-46. 1 82 END N OTES 341 Falb et al. 2019. 342 Daley, D., McCauley, M., & van den Broek, N. 2020. Interventions for women who report domestic violence during and after pregnancy in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic literature review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 20(1), 1-9. 343 Romero et al. 2017. 344 Kavanaugh, G., Sviatschi, M.M., & Trako, I. 2018. Female Officers, Gender Violence and Human Capital: Evidence from All-Women’s Justice Centers in Peru. Working Paper. Princeton Department of Economics. 345 Bustelo et al. 2019. 346 Olson, R. M., García-Moreno, C., & Colombini, M. 2020. The implementation and effectiveness of the one stop centre model for intimate partner and sexual violence in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review of barriers and enablers. BMJ Global Health, 5(3), e001883. 347 World Bank. 2019b. Gender-Based Violence (Violence Against Women and Girls). https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ socialsustainability/brief/violence-against-women-and-girls. 348 See for example the following World Bank publications: Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (World Bank 2013); Progress Towards Gender Equality in the Middle East and North Africa Region (World Bank 2017a); Egypt Women Economic Empowerment Study (World Bank 2018); State of the Mashreq Women report: Women’s Economic Participation in Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon (World Bank 2020e). 349 The Women, Business and the Law measures gender inequality indicators across the dimensions of mobility, workplace, pay, marriage, parenthood, entrepreneurship, assets and pension. A value of 100 indicates full gender parity and is only achieved by 10 countries. 350 World Bank. 2021. Women, Business and the Law 2021. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.world- bank.org/handle/10986/35094. Out of 20 MENA countries, the following countries have no legislation on sexual harass- ment in employment: Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Syria, West Bank & Gaza and Yemen. The following nine countries do not have legislation on domestic violence: Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Syria, West Bank & Gaza and Yemen. Source: WBL 2020 index, presented in WBL 2021. 351 https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/mashreq-gender-facility. 352 See Annex 6 for a link to the Good Practice Note. 353 The World Bank GBV website provides an Index with Code of Conduct examples. 354 Annex 6 includes resources, tools, and guidelines for teams to operationalize these guiding principles. These are based on the World Bank’s guidance through the GBV Task Force as well as international best practice. 355 UNFPA; 2015a. Minimum Standards for Prevention and Response to Gender-Based Violence in Emergencies. United Na- tions Population Fund; UN Women. 2020a. COVID-19 and Essential Services Provision for Survivors of Violence Against Women and Girls. UN Women; World Bank 2017a, 356 World Bank 2014; UN 2019. 357 CDC (Centers for Disease Control). n.d. Violence against Children Surveys: Country Reports. Website. Violence against Children Surveys: Country Reports. United States. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/ vacs/reports.html. 358 Castañeda Camey et al. 2020. 359 Prevention Collaborative repository. https://prevention-collaborative.org/search/; the Align Platform. https://www. alignplatform.org/resources. 360 “What Works” section of this document. 361 UNFPA 2018, UNFPA Tunisia nd. 362 Uruguay COVID-19 Response & Economic Recovery DPO (Project ID: P172796). 363 UN Women 2020. 364 UN Women. 2020k. Violence Against Women and Girls. Data Collection during COVID-19. UN Women, World Health Organization.  365 UN Women 2020e. 366 UN Women. n.d. Facts and Figures: Ending violence against women and girl. UN Women Arab States. https://arabstates. unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures 367 Allouche, Yasmina. 2020. ’Silent pandemic’: How women in the Middle East and North Africa are threatened online. Middle East Eye. July 13, 2020. https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/women-middle-east-north-africa-threats-harass- ment-abuse-sexism-online 368 UNICEF. 2021. 2 million additional cases of female genital mutilation likely to occur over next decade due to COVID-19. Press release. February 5, 2021. https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/2-million-additional-cases-female-geni- tal-mutilation-likely-occur-over-next-decade 369 UNICEF. 2021-a. 10 million additional girls at risk of child marriage due to COVID-19. Press release. March 7, 2021. https:// www.unicef.org/press-releases/10-million-additional-girls-risk-child-marriage-due-covid-19 370 WCLAC (Women’s Centre for Legal Aid and Counselling). 2020. COVID-19 and Women’s rights in Palestine—WCLAC Gender Assessment Report March 5th–May 31st. https://www.wclac.org/files/library/20/07/aoazpvvqscgipswyhc3fqr.pdf 371 UNICEF. 2020. Middle East & North Africa Region COVID-19 Situation Report No.12. Reporting Period: October 22– November 22, 2020. https://www.unicef.org/media/92061/file/MENA-Covid-19-SitRep-22-November-2020.pdf 372 Houssari, Najia. 2021. Domestic Violence Doubles in Lebanon. Arab News. February 11, 2021. https://www.arabnews. com/node/1807246/middle-east EN D NOT ES 183 373 UNICEF 2020. 374 Sherif, Saida. 2021. ‫ كورونا ضاعف المعاناة‬.‫ نساء تحت رحمة العنف بالمغرب‬Sky News Arabia. February 5, 2021. https:// www.skynewsarabia.com/varieties/1412853-‫المعاناة‬-‫ضاعف‬-‫كورونا‬-‫بالمغرب‬-‫العنف‬-‫رحمة‬-‫نساء‬ 375 Morsy, Maya. 2020. A safe haven for women. Ahram Online. June 19, 2020. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsCon- tentP/4/372299/Opinion/A-safe-haven-for-women.aspx 376 Al Houti, Hani. 2020. ‫ نسبة الزيادة فى المشاكل األسرية بسبب كورونا‬%33 ‫لمركز بصيرة يكشف‬. Al Youm Al Saaba3. May 2, 2020; UN Women. 2020. Already Impoverished and Impacted by Insecurity and Discrimination, Libyan Women Are Likely to be Hit Hardest if COVID-19 Takes Hold in the War-Torn Country. Press Release. April 14, 2020. https://ar- abstates.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2020/04/press-release-new-report-the-economic-and-social-impact-of- conflict-on-libyan-women; UN Women. 2020-a. Gender-sensitive prevention, response and management of COVID-19 outbreak in Libya. https://www2.unwomen.org/-/media/field%20office%20arab%20states/attachments/publica- tions/2020/04/covid-19%20in%20libya/survey%20gendersensetive%20prevention%20response%20and%20man- agement%20of%20covid19%20outbreak%20in%20libyabrief%20design.pdf?la=en&vs=90 377 UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund). 2020. Arab States Region COVID-19 Situation Report No.3. May 1-13, 2020. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ASRO_COVID-19_Regional%20Sitrep%20%233_May%20 2020.pdf 378 Plan International. 2020. Free to be Online? Girls’ and young women’s experiences of online harassment—The State of the World’s Girls 2020. https://plan-international.org/publications/freetobeonline 379 American Bar Association. 2019. Global Perceptions of Gender-Based Violence Online—Survey findings and call to action. https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/directories/roli/misc/study-global-perceptions-of-gbv-on- line-2019.pdf 380 UN Women. 2020-b. Online and ICT facilitated violence against women and girls during COVID-19. https://www.unwom- en.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/brief-online-and-ict-facilitated- violence-against-women-and-girls-during-covid-19-en.pdf?la=en&vs=2519 381 Allouche 2020. 382 UN Women. 2020-c. 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Violence against Women in the time of COVID-19—Lebanon 2020. https://lebanon.unfpa.org/sites/de- fault/files/pub-pdf/english_report_23-02-2021_vaw_in_covid-19.pdf 386 Halim et al. 2020. 387 UN News. 2020. Pandemic poses fresh challenges for vulnerable migrant workers in Middle East. August 10, 2020. https:// news.un.org/en/story/2020/08/1069922#:~:text=Pandemic%20poses%20fresh%20challenges%20for%20vulnera- ble%20migrant%20workers%20in%20Middle%20East,-ILO%2FHisham%20Ashraf&text=Thrown%20into%20the%20 streets%2C%20locked,the%20onset%20of%20the%20pandemic 388 Aoun, Rana. 2020. COVID-19 Impact on Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the Middle East. GBV AoR Research Query. May 18, 2020. https://www.alnap.org/help-library/covid-19-impact-on-female-migrant-domestic-workers-in-the- middle-east 389 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2020. COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses. June 2020. https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/covid-19- crisis-in-the-mena-region-impact-on-gender-equality-and-policy-responses-ee4cd4f4/ 390 Agence Tunis Afrique Presse. 2020. 58% of female farm workers in Tunisia paid between 10 and 15 dinars per day (survey). August 31., 2020. https://www.tap.info.tn/en/Portal-Society/13024256-58-of-female-farm 391 OECD 2020. 392 UNFPA. 2020-a. COVID-19 and Persons with Disabilities: Key Messages. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/ resource-pdf/UF_COVID_infographic.pdf 393 World Bank. 2020. Country Profile—Morocco. Disability Inclusion. Internal document. 394 UNFPA. 2019. Women and Girls with Disabilities: Needs of Survivors of Gender-Based Violence and Services Offered to Them. March 2019. https://palestine.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Women%20and%20Girls%20with%20 Disabilities_0.PDF 1 84 END N OTES 395 Lebrasseur, Audrey, Fortin-Bédard, Noémie, Lettre, Josiane, Bussières, Eve-Line, Best, Krista, Boucher, Normand, Hotton, Mathieu, Beaulieu-Bonneau, Simon, Mercier, Catherine, Lamontagne, Marie-Eve and Routhier, Francois. 2020. Impact of COVID-19 on people with physical disabilities: A rapid review. Disabil Health J. 2021 Jan; 14(1): 101014. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7603994/ 396 Hughes K, Bellis MA, Jones L, Wood S, Bates G, Eckley L, McCoy E, Mikton C, Shakespear T, Officer A. 2012. Prevalence and Risk of Violence Against Adults with Disabilities: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Observational Studies. Lancet. https://www.who.int/disabilities/publications/violence_children_lancet.pdf?ua=1 397 Habib, Margaret. 2020. COVID-19 exacerbates the effects of water shortages on women in Yemen. Wilson Center. August 20, 2020. https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/covid-19-exacerbates-effects-water-shortages-women-yemen 398 Hunersen K, Attal B, Jeffery A, Metzler J, Alkibsi T, Elnakib, Courtland Robinson W. 2021. Child Marriage in Yemen: A Mixed Methods Study in Ongoing Conflict and Displacement. Journal of Refugee Studies, feaa144. https://academic.oup.com/ jrs/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jrs/feaa144/6126388 399 OHCHR (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights). 2018. ’I lost my dignity’: Sexual and Gender Based Violence in the Syrian Arab Republic. Conference Room Paper for Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, A/HCR/37/CRP.3. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A- HRC-37-CRP-3.pdf 400 UNHCR (United Nations Refugee Agency). 2020. Gender-based violence on the rise during lockdowns. UNHCR News. November 25, 2020. https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/stories/2020/11/5fbd2e774/gender-based-violence-rise- during-lockdowns.html 401 UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime). 2020. Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Trafficking in Persons: Preliminary findings and messaging based on rapid stocktaking. https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/wp-content/ uploads/2020/05/Thematic-Brief-on-COVID-19-EN-ver.21.pdf 402 Disaster Emergency Committee. 2021. Breaking Point—How the coronavirus pandemic will push fragile states towards catastrophe in 2021. https://breaking-point.dec.org.uk/ 403 UNICEF. 2018. A Profile of Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa. New York: UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/ mena/reports/profile-child-marriage 404 UNICEF 2020. 405 World Bank. 2020-a. World Bank Group COVID-19 Crisis Response Approach Paper: Saving Lives, Scaling-up Impact and Getting Back on Track (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/136631594937150795/World-Bank-Group-COVID-19-Crisis-Response-Approach-Paper-Saving-Lives-Scaling- up-Impact-and-Getting-Back-on-Track; World Bank Development Committee. 2021. From COVID-19 Crisis Response to Resilient Recovery – Saving Lives and Livelihoods while Supporting Green, Resilient and Inclusive Development (GRID). Prepared for the virtual Development Committee Meeting. World Bank Group. April 9, 2021. https://www.devcommittee. org/sites/dc/files/download/Documents/2021-03/DC2021-0004%20Green%20Resilient%20final.pdf 406 UN (United Nations). 2020. United Nations Comprehensive Response to COVID-19 Saving Lives, Protecting Societies, Recovering Better (Updated). September 2020. https://unsdg.un.org/resources/united-nations-comprehensive-re- sponse-covid-19-saving-lives-protecting-societies-0 407 Atef, Suzan. 2021. ‫البرلمان العربي والمرأة العربية يتفقان على تعزيز التعاون ومكافحة العنف‬. AlMasry AlYoum. February 20, 2021. https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2264007 408 NCW (National Council for Women in Egypt). 2020. Policy Paper: Egypt’s Rapid Response to Women Situation During COVID-19 Outbreak. March 30, 2020. http://ncw.gov.eg/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/policypapereng.pdf 409 CGTN Africa. 2020. Tunisia fights violence against women and children amid COVID-19 pandemic. (‫التعهد بالنساء واألطفال ضحايا العنف‬ ّ ‫)جلسة عمل حول‬. CGTN Africa Video. April 10, 2020. 410 UNFPA 2020. 411 World Bank. 2021. Women, Business and the Law 2021. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. https://openknowledge. worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/35094/9781464816529.pdf 412 World Bank 2021. 413 UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2020. COVID-19 Global Gender Response Tracker. https://data.undp. org/gendertracker/ 414 UN Women. 2020-e. COVID-19 and essential services provision for survivors of violence against women and girls – a snapshot from the Arab states. https://arabstates.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/08/covid-19- and-essential-services-provision-for-survivors-of-violence-against-women-and-girls 415 OECD 2020. 416 UN Women. 2020-f. COVID-19 Crisis Update and UN Women response Morocco. April 16, 2020. http://elibrary. arabwomenorg.org/Content/21552_Morocoo.pdf 417 SGBV Sub-Working Group Jordan. 2020. Guidance Note on GBV Service Provision during COVID-19 in Jordan and a forward look to safe resume of services. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/76087.pdf 418 UNDP 2020. 419 Egypt Today. 2020. “Egypt does not accept violence against women: UNFPA representative.” December 8. 2020. https:// www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/95124/Egypt-does-not-accept-violence-against-women-UNFPA-representative EN D NOT ES 185 420 UNFPA.2020-b. UNFPA, EFPA to launch 20 clinics offering services for women and girls subjected to violence. UNFPA News. November 11, 2020. https://egypt.unfpa.org/en/news/unfpa-efpa-launch-20-clinics-offering-services-wom- en-and-girls-subjected-violence 421 UNFPA 2020; UNFPA. 2020-c. Arab States Region COVID-19 Situation Report No.1. April 17, 2020. https://reliefweb.int/ sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ASRO_COVID-19_UNFPA_Sitrep_No.1.pdf 422 UNFPA 2020; UNFPA 2020-c; UNFPA. 2020-d. Arab States Region COVID-19 Situation Report No.2. April 18–30, 2020. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ASRO_COVID-19_UNFPA_Sitrep2_30_April.pdf 423 UNHCR 2020. 424 UNFPA 2020. 425 UNFPA and UNICEF. 2020. COVID-19 Disrupting SDG 5.3: Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation. Technical Note. April 2020. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/COVID-19_Disrupting_SDG.3_Eliminating_Female_ Genital_Mutilation.pdf 426 UNHCR. 2020-a. COVID-19 Emergency Response Update. Regional Bureau for Middle East and North Africa. April 8, 2020. https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/UNHCR%20MENA%20Regional%20COVID-19%20Update%20 -%208APR20_0.pdf 427 UNFPA 2020. 428 UNDP 2020. 429 Ellsberg, Mary, Arango, Diana, Morton, Matthew, Gennari, Floriza, Kiplesund, Sveinung, Contreas, Manuel and Watts, Charlotte. 2014. Prevention of violence against women and girls: what does the evidence say?. The Lancet. 10.1016/ S0140-6736(14)61703-7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268743170_Prevention_of_Violence_against_ Women_and_Girls_What_Does_the_Evidence_Say 430 UNDP 2020. 431 UNHCR, 2020-b. Protecting Forcibly Displaced Women and Girls during the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://reporting.un- hcr.org/sites/default/files/External%20Brief%20GBV-GE%20Covid19%20July%202020%20final.pdf 432 UN Women. 2020-g. Arab States COVID-19 and Gender Equality. June 2020. https://www2.unwomen.org/-/media/ field%20office%20arab%20states/attachments/publications/2020/09/sitrep/un%20women%20regional%20 office%20for%20arab%20states%20covid19%20situation%20report_%20june%202020.pdf?la=en&vs=2004 433 UNDP 2020. 434 UN Women, IDLO, UNDP, UNODC, World Bank and The Pathfinders. 2020. Justice for Women Amidst COVID-19. https:// www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/justice-for-women- amidst-covid-19-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5442 435 Dawuni, Jarpa. 2020. The Gendered Face of COVID-19: Women and Access to Justice. UNODC. April 2020. https://www. unodc.org/dohadeclaration/en/news/2020/04/gendered-face-of-covid19-women-and-access-to-justice.html 436 UN Women Lebanon. 2020. Gender Alert on COVID-19 Lebanon. Issue No. 3. https://www2.unwomen.org/-/media/ field%20office%20arab%20states/attachments/publications/2020/06/lebanon%20gender%20alert%20issue3/ update%20652020/gender%20alert%20on%20covidlebanon%20issue%203english.pdf?la=en&vs=3305 437 UN Women and ESCWA. 2020. The Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in the Arab Region. https://www2.unwomen. org/-/media/field%20office%20arab%20states/attachments/publications/2020/04/impact%20of%20covid%20 on%20gender%20equality%20-%20policy%20brief.pdf?la=en&vs=4414 438 UNESCWA (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). 2019. Women in the Judiciary in the Arab States—Removing Barriers, Increasing Numbers. Beirut: UNESCWA. https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/E/ESCWA/ ECW/2019/2 439 UN Women 2020-c. 440 UN Women and ESCWA 2020. 441 Jordan GBV IMS Task Force. 2020. “Preliminary Analysis of Gender Based Violence trends during COVID 19.” https:// reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/75490.pdf 442 UN Women 2020-c. 443 UN Women and ESCWA 2020. 444 Abufalgha, Mohamed. 2020. Arabs’ Evaluations of their Governments’ Responses to COVID-19. Arab Barometer. Arab Pulse blog. December 17, 2020. https://www.arabbarometer.org/2020/12/arabs-evaluations-of-their-govern- ments-response-to-covid-19/ 445 UN Women and ESCWA 2020. 446 UN Women, et al. 2020. 447 Soliman, Ayat and Kalle, Mirjam. 2020. Treating a silent cancer: How to tackle gender-based violence in MENA. Arab Voices Blog. September 28, 2020. https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/treating-silent-cancer-how-tackle- gender-based-violence-mena 448 Human Rights Watch. 2020. Egypt: Gang Rape Witnesses Arrested, Smeared Personal Data Used in Abusive Prosecutions. Human Rights Watch News. September 11, 2020. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/09/11/egypt-gang- rape-witnesses-arrested-smeared 1 86 END N OTES 449 Abbas, Yasmine. 2020. ‫ «القومى للمرأة» يناشد كل فتاة تعرضت للتحرش بتقديم بالغات‬El Dostor. July 4, 2020. https://www. dostor.org/3136016 450 UN Women. 2020-h. Violence Against Women and Girls Data Collection during COVID-19. https://www.unwomen.org/-/ media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/vawg-data-collection-during-covid-19- compressed.pdf?la=en&vs=2339 451 World Bank. 2021-a. Tip Sheet for Engendering Data in COVID-19 Response Household Surveys. Internal document. 452 UN Women 2020-h. 453 GBV AoR. 2019. Handbook for Coordinating Gender-based Violence Interventions in Emergencies. https://gbvaor.net/ sites/default/files/2019-07/Handbook%20for%20Coordinating%20GBV%20in%20Emergencies_fin.pdf 454 Halim, et al. 2020. 455 World Bank 2020-a. 456 World Bank Development Committee 2021. 457 International Rescue Committee. 2021. One Year On: The state of refugee inclusion in the World Bank’s response to COVID-19. https://www.rescue.org/sites/default/files/document/5809/oneyearonrefugeeinclusioninwbcovid-19re- sponseapril2021.pdf 458 For example, Bahrain, Iraq, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Syria refer to this argument to justify the reservations. Additionally, Egypt has stated that Shari’a law has already provided rights and protections to women, which are equivalent or even superior to the ones, outlined in the CEDAW. Detailed information about country reservations, comments and dates of ratification can be found on the UN General Assembly website. A/RES/34/180. 459 UNDP. 2019a. Gender Justice & Equality Before the Law. New York: UNDP. 460 The following constitutions and their relevant amendments are referred to: Algeria (1989, 1996), Kingdom of Bahrain (2002), Djibouti draft constitution (1992), Egypt (2014), Islamic Republic of Iran (1979), Iraq (2005), Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (year), Kuwait (1962, 1992), Lebanon (1926), Libya (2011), Morocco (2011), Oman (1996), Palestine (2003), Qatar (2003), Syrian Arab Republic (2012), Tunisia (2014), United Arab Emirates (1971), Republic of Yemen (1991). 461 Egypt, Penal Code, Law No. 58 of 1937, Article 267, Article 290, as amended by Law No. 215 of 1980. 462 Algeria Law no. 19 of 2015 on Domestic Violence; Bahrain, Law no. 17 of 2015 on Protection against Domestic Violence; Jordan, Law no. 15 of 2017 on Protection from Family Violence (amending Law no. 6 of 2008); Lebanon, Law no. 293 of 2014 on the Protection of Women and Family Members from Domestic Violence; Morocco, Law no. 103-13 of 2018 on Violence against Women; Saudi Arabia, Law on Protection from Abuse, Royal Decree No. M/52 of 2013; Tunisia, Law no. 58 of 2017 on the Elimination of Violence against Women; the United Arab Emirates Federal Decree No. 10 of 2019 Regarding Domestic Violence. 463 Regarding physical domestic violence, some countries (Bahrain, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia) have a broad definition, which includes physical and sexual abuse, physical and sexual damages and/ or death. In terms of psychological violence, the most common definition, found in the legal frameworks of Algeria, Bahrain, Lebanon, Morocco and Saudi Arabia, includes verbal and emotional harm, psychological abuse, and exploitation. Iraq provides an exhaustive list of psychological abuse, including “humiliating, insulting, belittling, intimidating, psychological pressure, suicide due to domestic violence, cutting off social relations, and marriage to settle feuds”. The economic dimension of domestic violence varies the most across the region, such as economic harm (Morocco), leaving family members without sufficient means to support basic needs (Saudi Arabia), intimidation to deprive of financial resources (Bahrain), economic assault, which leads to economic damage (Tunisia), forced begging and forced sex work (Lebanon), orders to quit employment and forced prostitution (Iraq). 464 Morocco, Law no. 103-13 on Combating Violence against Women 2018. 465 Gender Justice and Equality before the Law, UNDP, 2019, page 47 466 Lebanon, Law 293 of 2014, art 12. 467 Lebanon, Law 293 of 2014, art 12. 468 See Jordan Law on Protection from Domestic Violence, Law no. 15 of 2017, art. 2. Also, Lebanon’s Penal Code (art. 503) explicitly states that rape is “the forced sexual intercourse [against someone] who is not his wife by violence or threat” 469 UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women and UN ESCWA. 2018. Gender Justice and the Law in the Arab States Region. New York, United Nations Population Fund. 470 Lebanon Penal Code, art 503. 471 Syria Penal Code, art 489. 472 Bahrain, Law no. 17 of 2015 concerning Protection against Domestic Violence, art 1. 473 Djibouti Penal Code, art 343. 474 Morocco, Family Code, art 51. 475 UNDP 2019a. 476 Amnesty International. 2015. Assaulted and Accused: Sexual and Gender-based Violence in Tunisia. London: Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde30/2814/2015/en/ 477 UNDP 2019a. 478 It is important to note that in Tunisia, Jordan, and Morocco the divorce procedure is equal for both men and women, while in Algeria and Bahrain, the repudiation of marriage by men can be accepted only though the court, and in case both parties agree to it (Musawah 2019). E ND NOT ES 187 479 Exceptions are Algeria (Family Law of 2005, art. 87) and Tunisia (Personal Statute Code, art. 67), where both divorced men and women can become guards for their children after the marriage dissolution. However, in Algeria post-divorce guard- ianship is annulled, if a woman re-marries, although the same condition does not apply to men (Family Law of 2005, art. 56). Similarly, in Egypt, the law stipulates that if a woman remarries, custody of her children from a previous marriage is transferred to the children’s father or grandmother (Law No. 4 of 2005). 480 Bahrain Penal Code art 344; Djibouti Penal Code art 326; Egypt Presidential Decree Promulgating Law No. 11 of 2011; Kuwait Penal Code art 186; Libya Penal Code art 368, 398; Israeli Penal Law 5735-1977 art 435. 481 Amnesty International. 2014. Algeria: Comprehensive Reforms Needed to End Sexual and Gender Based Violence Against Women and Girls. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/212000/mde280102014en.pdf 482 United States Department of State. 2019b. Trafficking in Persons Report: Qatar. https://www.state.gov/re- ports/2019-trafficking-in-persons-report-2/qatar/ 483 CAPMAS, NCW & UNFPA. 2015. Egypt Economic Gender-Based Violence Survey (ECGBVS). Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics, with United Nations Fund Population and National Council for Women. https://egypt.unfpa. org/en/publications/economic-cost-gender-based-violence-survey-egypt-2015 484 According to the Istanbul Convention, sexual violence and rape are defined as: “a) engaging in non-consensual vaginal, anal or oral penetration of a sexual nature of the body of another person with any bodily part or object; b) engaging in other non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a person; c) causing another person to engage in non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a third person”. The International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) defines rape as a “sexual penetration without valid consent or with consent as a result of intimidation, force, fraud, coercion, threat, deception, use of drugs or alcohol, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of benefits”. 485 Bahrain Criminal Code, art 344; Egypt Penal Code art 267 and 268; Iraq Penal Code art 393; Jordan Penal Code art 292- 295; Morocco Penal Code art 486; Oman Penal Code art 257; and Syria Penal Code art 489. 486 Libya Penal Code art 407; Morocco Penal Code art 486. Related to the definition of rape, according to Djibouti’s Penal Code (art 343), rape is an act of sexual penetration, committed on another person with the use of violence, constraint, or threat. A detailed definition can be also found in the Penal Code of Tunisia, according to which rape is defined as any “act resulting in intercourse, regardless of the nature or the method used, against a female or male without the person’s consent” (art 226(3)). On the contrary, the Criminal Code (art 224) in Iran does not define rape but considers it as a form of adultery or physical assault, depending on the context of the case. 487 Imprisonment is foreseen in Algeria (Penal Code art 336); Bahrain (Penal Code Decree-Law No. 15 of 1976); Djibouti (Penal Code of 1995, art 324 and 325); Egypt (Penal Code 58 of 1938, article 267); Lebanon (Penal Code art 503); Morocco (Penal Code art 486); and Oman (Penal Code sec. 225, 226). See also CEDAW 2017b and UN Human Rights Committee, General comment no. 20: Prohibition of torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (article 7) (1992) (A/44/40). 488 Algeria Penal Code art 326; Iraq Penal Code 1969 art 398; Kuwait Penal Code Law no. 16 of 1960, art 182; Libya, Penal Code of 1953, art. 424. 489 El Feki, S., Heilman, B. & Barker, G. (Eds). 2017. Understanding Masculinities: Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) – Middle East and North Africa. Cairo and Washington, D.C.: UN Women and Pro- mundo-US. https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/5/understanding-masculinities-re- sults-from-the-images-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa 490 UNDP 2019a. 491 UN Women. 2019. Reforming laws that forced women to marry their rapists. July 16, 2019. https://www.unwomen.org/en/ news/stories/2019/6/feature-story-of-change-reforming-laws-that-forced-women-to-marry-their-rapists 492 Except for Tunisia (Penal Code art 214), abortion in criminalized in all other countries in the region, generally with the exception of when the woman’s life and health is at risk. UNDP Gender Justice & The Law publications for Algeria (2018). Egypt (2019), Iraq (2019) and Tunisia (2019). Specifically, in Algeria, abortion is legally prohibited, although, according to the Health Law No. 18-11, it is allowed for rape survivors, as it is recognized that rape might significantly affect psycholog- ical and emotional health of women. In Egypt, a 1998 fatwa on abortion permits abortion for rape survivors on the early months of pregnancy. In Iraq, rape is regarded a legally mitigating circumstance for a pregnant woman to procure an abortion because of shame. In Libya, abortion is prohibited, although the penalty is reduced if it is performed to save the honor of a woman and her family. In West Bank and Gaza, abortion is forbidden, although on practice it is performed, if a pregnancy is the result of incest or rape (UNDP 2019). 493 UNDP 2019a. 494 Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, and State of Palestine ratified the 1950 protocol, while Algeria, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have done so with the reser- vations of some articles. 495 National legislation exists in Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, and Syria. Penal Code provi- sions applicable to trafficking exist in Algeria, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, West Bank and Gaza, and Saudi Arabia. Yemen’s legislation considers slavery as a criminal offense, although no provisions on human trafficking are available under domes- tic law. UNDP 2019. 1 88 END NOTES 496 Mosleh, H. et al. 2015. Advancing Egyptian Society by Ending Violence Against Women. PRB Policy Brief. https://www. prb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/06052015-egypt-violence-against-women-1.pdf 497 UNDP. 2018k. Yemen: Gender Justice & The Law. New York: UNDP. 498 UNDP 2019a. 499 Djibouti data from UNDP 2018. Djibouti: Gender Justice & the Law; Lebanon from CEDAW (2014) CEDAW/C/LBN/4-5; Saudi Arabia information from Devers and Bacon 2010; and Tunisia data from UNDP 2018. Tunisia: Gender Justice & the Law; UAE data from Emirates New Agency 2020 https://wam.ae/en/details/1395302884233. 500 UNDP 2018c. Djibouti: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. 501 UNDP 2019a. 502 Ibid. 503 Jordan Penal Code, art 340. 504 Guessous, H. 2019. Moroccan MP Supports Sexual Freedoms, Calls for Repealing Law Against Abortion. Morocco World News. October 1, 2019. https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2019/10/283792/morocco-sexual-freedoms-law-abor- tion/ 505 UNDP 2018c. 506 Article 19, Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989): “States parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child.” 507 UAE Federal Law No. 3 of 2016 on Child’s Rights (Wadeema’s Law). Article 37. 508 Countries, which have made reservations on the application of Art. 16 of CEDAW are Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Syria, and the United Arab Emirates. 509 Djibouti Family Code 2002 art 13; Iraq Personal Status Law 1959; Jordan Personal Status Law 2010 art 10a and 10b; Egypt Child Law 2008 art 31-bis; Morocco Family Code art 20-21; Oman Personal Status Law Sec. 7; Saudi Arabia Child Protection Law; Syria Law No. 59 Art 16; Tunisia Code du Statut Personnel 2012 art 5 and 6; Gaza The Presidential Decree of 4 November 2019; UAE Personal Status Act Sec. 30. 510 Bahrain Personal Status Code/Family Law (16 years); Kuwait Personal Status Law art 26 (15 for women, 17 for men); Qatar Family Law art 17 (16 for women, 18 for men); Iran Civil Code art 1041. Information on West Bank (15 for girls and 16 for boys), see Azzouni, Suheir (2010) in Sanja Kelly and Julia Breslin, eds., (2010). 511 Algeria Code de la famille 1984, article 7; Libya, Law No. 10 of 1984 on Marriage and Divorce Provisions and the Effects Thereof, art 8. 512 UNICEF 2011 for Lebanon; Human Rights Council 2009 for Saudi Arabia; OECD 2019 SIGI for Yemen. 513 OECD Development Centre. (2019). Lebanon: Social Institutions & Gender Index Report, and UNICEF 2011. For instance, for Catholic religions, the minimum age for men, with a guardian’s permission, is 16 and for women is 14. Without a guardian’s permission, the minimum age is 17 and 15, respectively. Within the Roman (Greek) Orthodox code, a man must be 17 and a woman 15 to marry. All religious communities allow for exceptions for boys and girls if the guardian gives consent, sometimes even below the age of 15. 514 UNFPA. 2017a. Djibouti: Scorecard on Gender-based Violence. 515 Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab Women for Training and Research. 2016. Gender-Based Violence in the MENA Region: Context Analysis. USAID. Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative— MENA Task Order. https://banyanglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/MENA-Context-Analysis.pdf 516 In all countries, marriage below the specified minimum legal age is practiced either due to the decision of the judge or permission of the guardian. 517 Djibouti Penal Code art 333; Egypt Penal Code art 242-bis. FGM/C is also criminalized in Tunisia, Penal Code art 221. In Bahrain, there is no specific legal provision on FGM/C, but the act can be prosecuted as an assault under the Penal Code (art 337). 518 Ghattas, S., Abdel-Tawab, N., Abou Hussein, S. 2016. Ending the medicalization of female genital mutilation/cutting in Egypt, Policy brief. Cairo: Population Council. 519 OECD. 2019c. Social Institutions and Gender Index Djibouti. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/ datasheets/2019/DJ.pdf. 520 CEDAW. 2011. Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Oman, CEDAW/C/OMN/CO/1 521 OECD. 2019k. Social Institutions and Gender Index: United Arab Emirates. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/ uploads/files/datasheets/2019/AE.pdf. 522 Iraq, Penal Code, art 412. 523 In addition, the Bank has contributed to some of these changes in places like Jordan where the Second Equitable Growth and Job Creation Programmatic Development Policy Financing is addressing harassment in public transportation and at the workplace. See https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/jordan/brief/second-equitable-growth-and-job-cre- ation-programmatic-development-policy-financing. EN D NOT ES 189 524 Algeria, Penal Code, Articles 333bis and 341bis; Bahrain, Penal Code, Article 350; Djibouti, Penal Code, Article 326; Egypt, Penal Code, Article 306 bis A; Jordan, Penal Code, Article 305; Kuwait, Penal Code, Articles 191-192; Morocco, Penal Code, Article 503; Qatar, Penal Code, Article 291; Syria, Criminal Code, Articles 505-506; Tunisia, Penal Code, Article 226; United Arab Emirates, Penal Code, Article 358; Yemen, Criminal Code, Articles 270-274. 525 UN Human Rights Council. 2011. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Rashida Manjoo - Addendum - Mission to Algeria, 19 May 2011, A/HRC/17/26/Add.3. https://www. refworld.org/docid/4ef1aa952.html 526 Algeria, Law no 15-19, 2015; Bahrain data from UNDP 2018; Iraq 2015 Labor Law, Article 10; Jordan, Law No. 48 amending the Labor Code, 2008: Section Five; Libya Labor Relations Law, Article 12; Morocco, Labor Code, Article 40; Oman, Royal Decree No. 35/2003 Issuing the Labor Law, Articles 41(3) and 42; Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and UAE data from the OECD 2019 Social Institutions & Gender Index Report. 527 UNDP 2019a. 528 Euromed Rights. 2019. Egypt: Situation report on Violence against Women. https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/ uploads/2017/03/Factsheet-2017-VAW-Egypt-EN.pdf 529 Government of Djibouti. 2019. Rapport d’Examen National Approfondi Etabli à l’occasion du 25ème anniversaire de la quatrième Conférence mondiale de Beijing sur les Femmes Et les 5 ans du Programme de développement durable des Nations Unies à l’horizon 2030.  https://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/uploaded-documents/Beijing25/rapport_ final_beijing_25_vf_djibouti.pdf 530 UNDP. 2018. Gender Justice & The Law regional Report. New York: UNDP. https://www.arabstates.undp.org/content/ rbas/en/home/library/Dem_Gov/gender-justice-and-the-law-study.html 531 UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women and UN ESCWA 2018. 532 Morocco, Labor Code, Article 40; Qatar, Penal Code, Article 291; Tunisia data from OECD (2019). Social Institutions & Gender Index. 533 Iran’s Cyber Crimes Law, Articles 12-17; Jordan Cybercrimes Act (2015), Articles 9-10; United Arab Emirates, Federal Decree No. 5 of 2012 on Cyber Crimes; Iraq Penal Code, Articles Article 369, 396; Egypt Penal Code, Article 306. 534 Baaroo Foundation and Kargar, S. 2016. Online sexual harassment in the eyes of Iranian Internet users. https://baaroo. org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Narrative-Report-Online-Women-Harassment.pdf 535 Basant, S. 2020. Online sexual harassment in Egypt. NAWA Media. June 1, 2020. https://nawamedia.org/newsroom/ posts/online-sexual-harassment-in-egypt/ 536 Egypt Penal Code, Article 306; for Morocco, see Gianaris Kristen 2020. 537 UNDP. 2018b. Bahrain: Gender Justice & the Law. New York: UNDP. 538 UN Human Rights Council 2011. 539 Human Rights Watch. 2019. Submission to the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women on Iraq. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/10/07/submission-committee-elimination-all-forms-discrimina- tion-against-women-iraq 540 Banyan Global et al. 2016. 541 UNICEF 2019. 542 ICMPD. 2019. Project News: Jordanian authorities launch new national strategy and action plan to prevent Human Trafficking. International Centre for Migration Policy Development https://www.icmpd.org/news-centre/news-detail/ project-news-jordanian-authorities-launch-new-national-strategy-and-action-plan-to-prevent-human-tr-1/ 543 UNHCR 2018. 544 UNICEF. 2018. A Profile of Violence Against Children and Adolescents in the Middle East and North Africa: Leaving No One behind. https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/2826/file/VAC%20in%20MENA.pdf 545 Djibouti, Law No. 173/AN/02/4th L. 546 OECD. 2019k. Social Institutions and Gender Index: United Arab Emirates. https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/ uploads/files/datasheets/2019/AE.pdf. 547 In addition, previous efforts include Algeria’s 2008 National Strategy for the Promotion and Integration of Women that contained combating gender-based violence as a core principle (UNDP 2017). Qatar’s National Development Strategy (2011-2016) included a section on domestic violence, and a General Strategy of the Family (2011-2016), with a strategic objective related to violence against women (ESCWA 2016). Yemen’s National Strategy for Women’s Development (2006- 2015) contained “combatting violence against women” as one of its six objectives (OECD 2019).