44275 Principles and Practice of Ecologically Sensitive Urban Planning and Design An Application to the City of Hai Phong, Vietnam The World Bank This paper is the synthesis report of the World Bank's Technical Assistance Program "Vietnam: Ecologically Friendly Urban Planning and Design". It was prepared by the Sustainable Development Department of the East Asia and Pacific Region of the World Bank. Environmental and natural resources management issues are an integral part of the development challenge in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) Region. The Environment Strategy for the World Bank in the East Asia and Pacific Region has provided the conceptual framework for setting priorities, strengthening the policy and institutional frameworks for sustainable development, and addressing key environmental and social development challenges through projects, programs, policy dialogue, nonlending services, and partnerships. This study provides a forum for discussion on good practices and policy issues within the development community and with client countries. Sustainable Development Department East Asia and Pacific Region The World Bank Washington, D.C. June 2007 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978- 750-4470, www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202- 522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 4 Acknowledgments 5 1. Introduction 6 2. Urbanization and the Urban Planning Framework in Vietnam 7 3. Improving Ecological Sensitivity in the Urban Planning Process 9 4. Planning the Hai Phong ­ Do Son Corridor on Ecologically Sensitive Principles 17 5. Problems and Potential Solution in Implementation 23 6. Conclusions and Recommendations 28 List of Figures 1. The City of Hai Phong and the Location of the Case Study Area 17 2. Case Study Area Land Cover Analysis 19 3. Alternative One: Land Use Planning Concept for the Case Study Site 20 4. Alternative One: Land Use Plan Axes 20 3 Abstract Urbanization, which is almost completed ecologically sound planning method to now in developed countries and even in overcome some of these problems and Latin America, is now proceeding in much promote the sustainability of urban of Asia at an unprecedented rate. Many of development, especially in new urban the countries in the region have up to half development areas. The method was then their population now living urban lifestyles applied to an extensive area south of the and increasingly also living in urban regions. existing center of Hai Phong City in The forms that urbanization is taking in the Vietnam that has been suffering from developing countries, however, are random development in recent years. The problematic. Towns and cities that were objective was to provide an ecologically never planned to have large populations are sensitive urban planning and design suffering from overloaded infrastructure. framework for the further development of Development of the fringes is proceeding this area. An outline plan was produced with little or no planning, resulting in even and then a number of planning mechanisms worse problems. Scattered developments, were presented that should help the gradually increasing in density, are authorities to implement the plan. This is, producing intense land-use conflicts and furthermore, seen as a model with potential environmental pollution. Once development application to fringe areas of other cities in has occurred, these areas are difficult to Vietnam and, suitably adapted, to cities in service with efficient infrastructure. other countries of the East Asia region. Lessons from this exercise as summarized in This paper builds on a study that was recommendations at the end of the paper. carried out with the aim of providing an 4 Acknowledgments This summary paper--based on a longer Resources and Environment in Vietnam study entitled Ecologically Friendly Urban (TECOS). Key members of the team were Planning and Design: An Application to Hai Dong Keun Lee, Seung Bin Im, Seong Woo Phong City, Vietnam--was prepared by Lee, Tong Mahn Ahn, Eui June Kim, and Adrian Atkinson and Jian Xie. The peer Young Chan Choe of SNU, and Tran Nhu reviewers were Tim Campbell, Fernando Trung and Nguyen Anh Quan of TECOS. Loayza, and Henry Sharpe. This paper also Jian Xie of the World Bank, who managed benefited from the contributions and the TA project, provided detailed guidance comments of Xinhao Wang, Jaeyong Song, to the production of the final report. and Daniel Sui. Special thanks also go to Bui Quang San, Le The original study was carried out between Son, Vo Quoc Thai, and many others in Hai June 2005 and November 2006 in Phong for their valuable contribution and collaboration with the Vietnam Ministry of in-field assistance to the TA program and to Natural Resources and Environment those participants who attended (MONRE) and the Hai Phong People's consultation meetings and workshops. This Committee. It was commissioned by the paper was prepared under the general World Bank Technical Assistance Program. guidance of Christian Delvoie, Teresa Serra, The program benefited greatly from the Magda Lovei, Rahul Raturi, Hoonae Kim, leadership and active participation of Dr. and Susan Shen at the World Bank. Nguyen Van Thanh, vice chairman of Haiphong People's Committee, and Ms. Finally, we greatly appreciate the financial Tran Thi Minh Ha, director general of the support for the project provided by the Department of International Cooperation of government of Korea through the Korea- the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources World Bank Environmental Partnership in and Environment (MONRE). The final East Asia, and from the government of the report of the TA program was prepared by a Netherlands through the Bank-Netherlands team of experts at the Seoul National Partnership Program. University (SNU) with the assistance of the Consultancy Service and Technology Development Company for Natural 5 1. Introduction The longer study-- Ecologically Friendly The structure of this paper is as follows. Urban Planning and Design: An Application to The urban development and planning Hai Phong City, Vietnam--aimed at context of Vietnam is outlined in Part 2. illustrating ecological urban planning and This is followed in Part 3 by a presentation design principles in the setting of of some principles and tools of ecological contemporary Vietnam.1 The intention was urban planning and design, indicating how to assist in improving the planning of peri- these principles can and should be urban areas in Vietnam by creating a model integrated into existing urban planning or pilot project on the periphery of the City procedures. Ecological planning is not of Hai Phong. The term "ecological" was presented here as a separate or entirely new used in the report, and is applied here, to approach to planning. Our intention is to indicate a focus on environmental suggest ways in which urban planning can sustainability. The emphasis in the original be more effective in implementing report, however, was also on urban design development that enhances environmental (and hence the visual aspects of urban sustainability. development) rather than a broader urban planning approach.2 Part 4 presents the case study from the original report that applies some of the This paper does not simply summarize the principles of ecologically sensitive planning report. While some of the material from the to the Hai Phong­Do Son corridor. This is a original report is used by way of illustrating 14-kilometer strip of land on the southern aspects of ecological urban design principles, periphery of Vietnam's third largest city. the intention here is to outline a general Like so many urban peripheries in the approach to ecologically sensitive urban developing world, it has already been planning and to indicate the value-added of subject to significant unplanned this approach to the urban planning system. development. This plan aims to provide a It then discusses the problems of coherent, sustainable, and ecologically implementing such an approach in the sensitive structure. Part 5 then focuses on Vietnamese setting. Vietnam is by no means the problems of implementing not only this unique among developing countries in plan, but more generally urban plans in the experiencing runaway urbanization in a Vietnamese context. The proposals made to context of inadequate planning frameworks address these problems can create a and systems, so this paper should have framework that enables planners to make-- relevance for planners, urban managers, and and effectively implement--more coherent others responsible for steering urban decisions about urban development. Part 6 development in other countries of the region summarizes the recommendations that are looking for tools and procedures to better contained in various parts of the paper. guide the urbanization process into a sustainable path. 6 2. Urbanization and the Urban Planning Framework in Vietnam The Vietnamese economy has been among Urban Development Direction. Salient policy the fastest growing economies in the world directions include the following: over the past two decades, but this growth started from a very low base. Even today · An overall urban system for the national the country still has a per capita income territory. significantly below that of most other · Municipal targets for social and countries in East Asia. Throughout the economic development and country, economic growth is being environmental management. accompanied by urbanization. Just 20 years The development of appropriate urban ago, the Vietnamese population was · infrastructure. overwhelmingly living in rural areas. The rate of urbanization, although somewhat · Harmonization of new construction with slower than in China and other countries of the existing urban fabric, including the region, has nevertheless been conservation of historic heritage. progressing at a little over 3 percent a year · Ensuring environmental and habitat over the past decade. Currently, about 27 conservation and planning to avoid percent of the population resides in urban natural disasters. areas.3 · The mobilization of local resources for It should be noted that urbanization in this development. context is a complex process. Urban areas are increasingly difficult to define. Urban- In principle, Vietnam possesses a well- type development is occurring in otherwise developed urban and regional planning rural areas on the periphery of urban areas system inherited from communist times. (peri-urban areas), while the inner areas of The system was intended to direct and the larger cities are actually losing control the processes of the urban transition population. Significant numbers of the rural but has encountered serious problems population move temporarily to urban areas following the introduction of a market to work in factories or the informal economy. orientation--under the title Doi Moi--in This might be seasonal or for even shorter 1987. The overall inherited structure of periods. Many of these short-term residents planning remains in place. eventually become permanent residents, either in or on the edge of urban areas. · The key national planning document is Urban regions are thus increasing in density, the Five-Year Socioeconomic and much of the population is making a Development Plan (currently 2006­10) transition from the rural economy to the produced by the Ministry of Planning urban economy. To some degree, these and Investment (MPI). Socioeconomic trends are contributing to a growing plans are also produced at the informal economy. provincial level, adding the local details into the overall national plan. In The general policy framework for principle, these plans provide the Vietnamese urban development is set by the framework for all other plans, including Orientation Master Plan for Urban sectoral plans produced by the various Development to 2020, which was adopted in ministries. 1998, and the subsequently formulated 7 · Land use plans are produced at various responsibility for ensuring the scales by the Ministry of Construction environmental integrity of (or in a few cases by consultants). development--MONRE produces land Traditionally, provincial plans provided use maps independent of the the overall framework. Since the 2005 construction plans--and for protecting planning act, regional plans, which agricultural land from inappropriate include provincial plans, establish the development. overall framework. In addition, plans may be prepared at a larger scale--for The regional--including provincial, urban, example, for groups of provinces--or at and local--plans are made with the a smaller scale, including areas subject participation of and administered by the to development pressures such as provincial and local agencies of the Ministry transport corridors or major industrial of Construction; that is, local Planning estates. These regional plans are Institutes and Departments of Construction. currently under development, and the institutional means to implement them It has been recognized for some years that remains unclear. the planning system takes inadequate account of environmental factors. An · A greater level of detail is provided in environmental impact assessment is general construction plans, which cover required on major projects, but this occurs all urban areas and indicate how these post hoc. By comparison, externally assisted should be extended in future years. projects have incorporated environmental There is no development control factors in plans from the outset. Significant function attached to these plans. In among these was the UNDP-supported principle, they prohibit development on Capacity 21 Program, which incorporated areas not yet developed, but in practice environmental considerations into the they encourage land speculation. There development planning system. This is widespread evidence of unregulated culminated in a joint circular of MPI and construction in many areas covered by MOSTE (the then Environment Ministry) these plans that bears little relation to requiring strategic environmental what is ultimately intended. assessments (SEAs) for plans and major investment projects; in practice, however, · Detailed plans--indicating precise roads, SEAs are not widely applied. Other building plots, and land uses--are the externally financed programs have provided only plans providing a framework for detailed advice concerning the inclusion of development control. These cover environmental and sustainability factors much of the existing and some planned into plans. As yet, however, no detailed urban areas, but the capacity to produce pilot project has set out a complete process these plans is limited. In many areas, of incorporating these factors into the land these plans should exist but do not, and use planning process. This study is intended are thus open to unplanned to describe how such a process might work . construction. · The Ministry of Resources and Environment (MONRE) and Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) also have some 8 3. Improving Ecological Sensitivity in the Urban Planning Process Urban and regional planning developed · Environmental pollution. Urban strongly as a discipline and government development has traditionally been function in the developed countries during strongly associated with environmental the two or three decades after the Second pollution. This can be analyzed in terms World War. The precise procedures and of media--water and air pollution, noise statutory plans that have to be produced etc.--and in terms of sources, including and administered differ somewhat among industry, housing, transport systems, countries, but international exchange has and so on. Much has been done in ensured a common set of tools and recent years to improve knowledge and approaches. There can be little doubt that analysis of pollution problems. On the planning systems have evolved since that whole, however, this has not been time. Since the 1970s, there has been an effectively incorporated into the increased concern that ecological factors planning and decision-making process have hitherto been systematically but rather as a separate set of activities, undervalued in planning processes, and that often after the damage has been done. these processes need overhauling to ensure that ecological factors--and, strategically · Resource conservation. The use of considered, the issue of sustainable urban resources in the construction and development--are taken sufficiently into metabolism of urban areas has until account. recently been seen almost entirely in terms of seeking to satisfy demand-- General Principles of Planning for without considering whether resources Sustainable Urban Development might be limited in the long run or that their overuse might have serious There are several areas in which ecological pollution consequences. Resource factors should be considered and conservation thus becomes a significant incorporated into the planning process. factor in ecologically sensitive planning Here is a short list: in order to address these problems. The concepts that have been developed in · Biodiversity. Biodiversity is declining recent years to address the problem of alarmingly in almost all parts of the balanced resource use are the "carrying world.4 In so far as urban planning capacity" of urban regions and their traditionally displaces and radically "ecological footprint," which registers simplifies ecosystems, this should be of potential overdemand for resources that concern. Ecologically sensitive planning implies the need for proactive should start from an awareness of management. existing ecosystems and wherever possible conserve such systems. In fact · Human physical and mental health. it is even possible in some cases to Although not directly an ecological promote urban development and consideration, human physical and simultaneously enrich local ecosystems, mental health is linked to particularly where there are water environmental health and hence deserve bodies in the urban context. a greater emphasis in the planning process as part of a more ecologically 9 sensitive approach. For example, the mutual educational process regarding what, conservation of historic buildings and in the long run, is good for people in human interventions in nature become achieving sustainable development. more important as a dimension of the consciousness of continuity that is so An ecologically sensitive approach to important to ecologically sensitive planning must also start from the existing planning. Finally, the overall visual situation and current development unity and consistency of urban processes, which often involve past development is an important development that is ecologically unsound. component of an ecological approach to Ecological principles need to be built into planning. the planning process and system, focusing on ameliorating problems inherited from Building Ecological Principles into the the past and ensuring that future Planning Process development takes these principles systematically into account; that is, It might be considered self-evident that reducing negative impacts on biodiversity, building ecological principles and factors reducing environmental pollution, into planning systems must be a task for increasing the conservation of resources, relevant experts. Planning processes and improving the conditions that promote involve various professionals ranging from human physical and mental health. architects to economists and sociologists. What is needed is to have stronger Technical Procedures for Incorporating representation of ecologists (and Ecological Sensitivity into the Planning environmental planners) among planning Process teams and advising on planning law. While true, it is first necessary for the general In the 1960s, with the growth in awareness public to recognize and support this among planning academics and increased focus on ecological factors, professionals, steps began to be taken to especially if these conflict with conventional develop tools to be applied in the goals and aspirations such as consumption framework of urban and regional planning habits. to incorporate ecological factors. For example, the "overlay method"--developed Participation in planning is widely by Ian McHarg and published in Design with advocated today. In the case of ecologically Nature--allowed diverse ecological and sensitive planning, participation is other factors to be mapped and thence important to raise awareness and assessed within a single integrated understanding of the importance of framework. With the advent of GIS systems, ecological factors. Indeed, while plans and this technique has attained a high potential their implementation can improve to be able to assess land suitability for sensitivity to ecological systems, the development, and especially to insert behavior of ordinary citizens in using the information about environmental conditions urban environment is likely to have a and distribution into such assessments. greater effect. Thus participation in planning--to improve sensitivity to With the enactment of the National ecological factors and to change behavior-- Environmental Policy Act in the United is an essential dimension of the planning States in 1970, environmental impact process. It is not simply for planners to assessment (EIA) was launched as a means listen to what people would like, but a of focusing more concerted attention on 10 environmental factors in the design of major Considerable effort has gone into development projects. By the late 1970s, developing computer-based systems to criticism of EIAs was mounting. Critics said carry out analyses of the resource impacts of the process was being used as a means to development. Although little applied, these sometimes justify ecologically unsound are available as tools for application within projects. In addition, the focus on individual urban and regional planning systems to development objects generally obscured the greatly enhance knowledge and control over broader development process and resource use. potentially negative overall ecological effect. For this reason, strategic environmental Urban and regional planning generally assessment (SEA) methodologies were centers on one or two major documents, developed that were capable of assessing including strategic or structural plans, and the environmental soundness of policies and then master plans with more specific plans. direction in terms of land use. In many countries, planning systems allow for Over the past few decades, the growth of subsidiary plans to be made and sometimes increased environmental sensitivity in the even adopted as statutory instruments. developed countries has led to a whole Plans that focus specifically upon ecological range of mechanisms and approaches being factors (the four dimensions described developed and implemented to reduce above) should be produced and provided environmental pollution from all sources. with legal status in any serious move to These are most impressive in the case of introduce ecological factors more industry, where even industrial processes concertedly into the planning process. A are controlled as a measure to reduce related approach is adopted for the plans pollution. These processes and the made by the authors of the report on Hai regulatory instruments are not generally Phong described below. directly associated with urban planning, but clearly are relevant. Their implications Incorporating Ecological Considerations in should be understood as background to the the Planning Cycle plan-making process. The need for a structured planning cycle is More recently, attention has also been by now well-recognized and practiced in all focused on the throughput of resources, plan making. Here we indicate the main particularly energy, both in individual steps and show how ecological factors development interventions and in cities and should be introduced into this cycle. even regions. These analyze both resource demand accumulation in producing Preparation. Preparation for the planning materials and goods that enter the urban process generally involves scooping, which metabolism, as well as the resource identifies the actors and designs the overall demands (such as food and water for the procedure. The dimensions of the plan urban population or energy use in must be defined, including the physical area buildings) of established urban activities, that is to be planned and the disciplines or facilities, and infrastructure. Finally, they themes that will be incorporated. Economic analyze the impacts of waste processing in and social dimensions--and some notion of terms of reuse and recycling or final return what can be invested--are accepted as to nature (disposal). These tools are referred strategic considerations. Infrastructure to respectively as lifecycle analysis (LCA) dimensions generally include the location of and material flow analysis (MFA). industrial and other economic activity, 11 housing (conspicuously absent at the Plan making. Plan making is generally an present time from the Vietnamese planning iterative process where ideas might come process), transport, water supply, and more from many sources, be circulated among generally the management of the water relevant actors, and be subject to both environment (wastewater and drainage) qualitative and quantitative evaluation. It is and energy (currently confined to electricity at this stage that various planning tools are supply in the present Vietnamese planning brought into play, possibly including system). Ecologically sensitive planning transport modeling, housing needs adds dimensions and in some cases alters assessment, and cost-benefit analysis. the approach taken to most of the Overlay methods should also be applied. dimensions. This includes (a) studying and Ecological factors are here included both in planning for ecosystems as a whole; (b) terms of ecological conditions mapping in planning the water cycle as a whole with the framework of land suitability "ecological sanitation" as an overarching assessment. The evaluation of plan concept; and (c) resource management as a elements may be the subject of an EIA or whole, encompassing all dimensions of LCA, and broader plan options subject to an energy use., including energy and transport. MFA or SEA. All these activities should During the preparatory phase, the forums involve civil society groups in and institutional framework through which understanding these processes and the the various actors--ranging from technical answers they produce and then agreeing experts and administrators to various social with the results in terms of what, finally, is groupings--will be involved in the planning accepted by way of plan elements and process must be defined and a time-table for overall plans. the planning process set out. As a first activity, future scenario assessment and Plan adoption and implementation. Adoption visioning exercises should provide the first and implementation involve first the legal step of bringing the actors together to agree process of confirming that the agreed plan on the overall parameters and concept of the will be adhered to by all actors and then that plan to be produced. all actors will play their assigned roles--that is, government departments will build the Information gathering. Information gathering technical and social infrastructure as is the first step in the actual planning planned, private investors will invest where process. While this generally involves and in the form that has been decided upon, research on the part of technical experts and and the general public will be mindful of specialists, constant communication is implementation activities that are important both to ensure the efficiency of compatible (or incompatible) with the plan's this activity, avoid overlaps, and ensure the environmental objectives. While the plan collection of information that will be useful should have incorporated the results of to the plan. Groups from civil society ecological factors, it is most important to should also be involved in providing maintain an ongoing educational process in information and understanding its value as ecological sensitivity involving all actors. part of an awareness-raising and educational process. Information also will Monitoring and Evaluation. Monitoring and be sought for salient ecological factors evalutation are ongoing activities across the identified in the course of the planning plan implementation period. Are projects process. being carried out as intended and are the ecological consequences those expected? Are actors playing their role as originally 12 agreed, and is this having the desired effect biodiversity and also create more pleasant on the ecological setting? For this, environmental conditions. ecological indicators (and also indicators for other aspects of plan implementation) will The water cycle can also be promoted need to be generated as a basis for making through small rainwater harvesting systems periodic assessments. If the desired results and ponds that enhance local biodiversity, are not forthcoming, then plan which can also serve as detention ponds to modifications will be necessary and the reduce or eliminate the incidence of planning cycle initiated and executed anew. flooding. Water bodies relating to different urban functions can have waterfronts A Network approach to ecologically treated in different ways--hard or soft, sensitive urban planning managed or left to develop their own ecology. Completely sealed surfaces should The plans made by the Seoul University be avoided where possible; for instance, car Institute of Regional Planning and parks should have permeable surfaces Landscape Architecture and their allowing rainwater to recharge the Vietnamese partners suggested a network groundwater rather than being channeled. approach to coordinating the various Watercourses comprising the Blue Network aspects of plan making and the in urban areas should be consciously incorporation of ecological factors. This interconnected wherever possible. It is approach puts considerable stress on the imperative that water quality be kept to a visual aspect of planning ("urban design"), high standard (necessitating effective urban which satisfies the requirement of the fourth sanitation and rainwater runoff treatment). principle of ecologically sensitive planning: the question of human physical and mental Wherever possible, all water bodies should health. Five networks are defined and possess riparian green borders of 10 to 15 developed as components of the plan, and meters, which may include footpaths or then integrated into a single planning cycle ways. Other human activities should solution for the plan area. This is presented generally be restricted in these spaces. here as a normative approach to ecologically Where appropriate, they should connect to sensitive planning involving technical the Green Network (see below), including measures. perhaps parks and woodland. Designers should be mindful of ways to encourage Blue Network. This is concerned with diverse habitats for both terrestrial and planning for the water cycle in the plan area. aquatic plant and animal species. Where Water bodies and waterfronts in urban areas watercourses have been canalized, these need not degrade the environment, and can should be restored to a more natural state as be visually more pleasant if the far as feasible. environment is conserved and enhanced. Wetlands, while having no direct urban Green Network. This will clearly follow and function, should be preserved where relate to the Blue Network, but will then possible and appropriate. Waterfronts in need further design as an integral part of the urban areas should be allowed to develop allocation of land for urban uses. There their natural ecology. Such developments should be a hierarchy of park areas should allow water runoff to be collected. supporting various functions, from Planting and encouraging aquatic plants to children's playgrounds and sports fields to spread along waterfronts helps protect cafes and facilities for concerts and other festivities. Above all, it is desirable to 13 interconnect these with green corridors that climates, the winds should be seen as a allow the inhabitants to move throughout means of "air conditioning" the city. In the the area along greenways, including both former case, wind breaks are needed in the cycle paths and footpaths that will bridge form of planting to break the force of the watercourses and perhaps also include wind. In the latter case, the winds need to green bridges over transport arteries. be channeled and encouraged to penetrate the urban fabric so as to reduce the "heat- Landscaping can also enhance buildings as island effect." wall and roof coverings or roof gardens. Roads should also have planting along their Blue Networks already provide routes for length, ranging from formal tree-lining to the wind, although this depends on the green buffers to lower noise and air orientation of the water bodies. In any case, pollution in neighboring developments. water bodies can help to cool the air and Along seashores in urban areas in tropical should be seen in this way in the context of countries such as Vietnam, where these are designing the White Network. Furthermore, not directly used for economic purposes or the Green Network should be used also to beaches, mangroves serve both to protect block the wind in winter and to channel it in the hinterland from storms and as vital hot weather. The layout and height of ecological habitats. Although in general buildings affects the winds, creating Green Networks in cities are not primarily turbulence that might be detrimental or intended to promote biodiversity, this can might help the cooling effect. Thus the also be enhanced in parts of the system and detailed building regulations for each site or should be borne in mind in the design group of buildings should be determined in process. part through the analyses carried out in the design of the White Network. The Green Network is an essential structuring device for the overall master The impact of hard surfaces on heat plan and has to be thought through in a generation and of planting for shade and the comprehensive manner. Although the channeling of the winds are important greening of highways is recommended, considerations in the design of the White these should be distinguished from Network. As well as the waterways, road greenways used by pedestrians and cyclists. and rail networks provide natural channels The edges of busy highways outside urban for the winds. These can be used positively centers are not the most pleasant walking or for this purpose, but can also have negative cycling environment and alternatives effects that need to be considered. It is also should be available. Thus greenways, even important to consider the effect of the winds if designed as efficient ways to traverse the in distributing air pollution, which also can area, should not be thought of exclusively as have negative effects (industrial pollution transit routes but also as recreational and and road traffic fumes being carried into even educational facilities. residential areas) or positive effects in clearing the air. This is a further factor to be White Network: The use of the wind as taken into consideration in the design of the means to ventilate urban areas must be White Network. considered in terms of prevailing wind directions and the function they are Human Network. The intention of this supposed to fulfill. In winter in cold network is to provide access for pedestrians climates, protection is needed against the and cyclists throughout the area. This wind. In summer and generally in hot means separate rights of way. In less 14 densely traversed areas, walkways and in how they can be linked to the Green and cycle paths may be combined. Where there Human Networks. The intention must be to is increased density of use, these should be raise the consciousness of the population to separated. These should be designed in all their own history. Access must therefore be cases to have a width adequate to their use. easy and the monuments should be visible. Except in more densely built-up areas, these There should also be a means of should be independent of the road network communicating the significance of the and free of road traffic pollution. monument, both at the site itself and in local Intersections with roads need special educational institutions. The tourist treatment in the form of grade-separated potential should also be considered, and crossings or mode-specific traffic signals. means should be available for accommodating and informing tourists For bicycle paths or combined footpaths and about the monuments. The monuments will cycle paths, markings are necessary to need to be well-maintained. In the first prevent conflicts. Signposts are also useful. instance, this might mean restoration or Furthermore, facilities for parking bicycles even relocation. It will mean, as part of the and shelters are needed at appropriate awareness-raising of the population, a places. Pedestrian ways also need benches commitment to enhancement of the value in appropriate places. Both cycle paths and and of conservation of the monument itself footpaths should take people as directly as and of the surroundings. possible from where they are coming from to where they want to go, linking especially Visual Landscape Planning and residential areas with public and Management recreational facilities. However, they should also be pleasant to traverse and In general, the planning and development of coincide as far as possible with the Green new urban areas needs to take into and Blue Networks. consideration what is already on the site, and try to accommodate this visually into Cultural Network: In the first instance, the new fabric. In some cases, this might be heritage sites and monuments need to be difficult where inappropriate developments inventoried and classified in countries and have already take place, but the challenge urban areas where this is not the case. This has to be faced. There needs to be a will determine relative importance and coherent design attitude and approach to facilitate the identification of the advertising, street furniture, and generally components of the network. Where these the streetscape, including the placing of are in open countryside, prior to the overhead infrastructure (if it is affordable, construction of the surrounding urban fabric, electric and telephone cables should be thought should be given to creating a buffer placed below ground). zone around the facility that might be open area or gardens or woodland. Where such The methods introduced by Kevin Lynch in monuments are in already built-up areas-- his book Image of the City are useful also in such as a component of a hamlet or designing new developments or new towns. village--then the wider built-up area should Key places need landmarks. This might be incorporated into consideration of how include monuments at the entrance to areas the area should be conserved and managed. marking the entry point. Centers and major intersections might also be graced with a In the context of a network, monuments distinctive element, which could be a should be seen both in terms of clusters and building but might simply be a clock tower 15 or a large sculpture. There need to be others that define the individuality of different scales: elements that help define neighborhoods, such as fountains or planted the overall structure in people's minds and areas that are regularly maintained. 16 4. Planning the Hai Phong­Do Son Corridor on Ecologically Sensitive Principles Hai Phong is the third largest city in made up of a number of hills that extend Vietnam and the port city for the capital, into the sea and has historically been the Hanoi, located 100 kilometers to the west. It subject of tourist development. The has the status of a Class 1 city, equivalent to considerable traffic between Hai Phong and a province and with a considerable rural Do Son has made the 14-kilometer route the perimeter. Like all the larger cities in subject of land speculation and considerable Vietnam, urban development has been development, which led to the city asking spreading into the surrounding landscape in consultants to make a plan to direct further a very unplanned and scattered manner. Do development in the area along ecologically Son, southwest of the city, is a peninsula sound lines. Figure 1. The City of Hai Phong and the Location of the Case Study Area Socioeconomic Analysis water is thus an important component of the environment to be considered in any The study area takes in parts of eleven planning exercise. communes. Information was gathered and analyzed for a larger area. Then a more There is a population of over 30,000 in the confined area comprising 4,577 hectares was area, of which just over half are adopted by the Hai Phong Urban Planning economically active, some 80 percent in Institute (HUPI, the urban planning agriculture/aquaculture. Almost 70 percent department under the Department of of the land is in use for Construction) as the subject of the ecological agriculture/aquaculture, 15 percent in urban planning project. The study area is residential use, and the rest other uses. As almost entirely flat, bordering the sea along yet, there are no public open spaces. There is its eastern boundary. There are no mineral already a significant network of mainly dirt resources, but a significant area comprises roads, along which informal development salt recovery basins; much of the rest of the has been taking place. There are a number area is used for fish farms or paddy. Surface of hamlets, mainly in the larger study area,. 17 These generally possess temples and coastal area and the potential problem of pagodas that merit conservation and hence flooding. It stipulated that there should be a should be incorporated in any plans for the building height gradient, starting with low- area. rise buildings near the coast and higher-rise further inland. The plan is also mindful of Analysis of the Natural Environment encouraging development that will ensure adequate ventilation of the built-up area, The climate is subtropical with a wet, warm regulating the distance between buildings, season and a dry cooler season. The area is and channeling the sea breezes. prone to occasional typhoons. Given that it is entirely flat and almost at sea level, the The plan proposed a system of green areas, area is prone to flooding, which is thus an stipulating minimum standards for green important dimension to be considered in space and the planting of trees. Green any plans for the area. The area is not rich spaces will form a hierarchy from local to in flora or fauna, but much of the coast is in area-wide. A comprehensive road system is mangroves, which are not all in good proposed, and also a public transport condition but are important as an element of system. However, no thought was given to coastal protection. The area has been providing independent footpaths and cycle- largely organized into fields and basins, but ways. All basic physical infrastructure-- is still criss-crossed by meandering including water supply, drainage, and waterways that drain the area. As part of waste disposal--is planned throughout the the planning study, a land cover area. classification was carried out using satellite information. This largely corroborated the Beside the existing developments on the site, land use information, indicating almost two- this study was informed of further thirds of the area in agriculture/aquaculture developments that had been approved for and almost 20 percent in urban uses, construction and needed to be taken into including road cover. A biotope mapping account. This included a 70-hectare mixed exercise and SWOT analysis were carried development of residential and related uses out to gain additional insights into the in the northeast of the site, and a 150-hectare characteristics of the site. golf course in the southwest. Evaluation of the Existing Plan Finally, a land suitability assessment was The case study area has been the subject of a carried out to assess the relative sensitivity planning exercise by HUPI, which is the of all parts of the site to development. This current basis upon which development of suffered from a lack of good detailed the area is in principle being guided. An information that could be used in a GIS appraisal of this plan was carried out in the analysis. Nevertheless, using relatively light of the ecological planning and design coarse analytical criteria, a useful mapping principles set out earlier in this paper. This exercise was carried out indicating needed review concluded that the existing plan was directions for the ecological planning and formulated using some ecological design design exercise. principles. This includes sensitivity to the 18 Figure 2. Case Study Area Land Cover Analysis from Satellite Information Image from Google Earth Alternative Development Plans for the Case the foregoing section of this paper, namely: Study Site Blue (water), Green (green spaces and routes), White (wind paths), Human Three alternative plans were considered in (circulation), and Cultural (connecting some detail, each having its own emphases. cultural heritage sites). The first was produced by the consultants responsible for this study, applying the The Blue Network takes on great ecological planning and design principles importance in this plan simply because the set out in the first part of this paper. The site borders the sea along its long eastern second alternative was the plan produced boundary and a river and is criss-crossed by by HUPI. This was seen by the consultants meandering waterways. In the framework as a pragmatic plan responding to national of ecological planning, these are key and local needs as defined by the Hai Phong structuring devices. It is not intended to re- People's Committee. The third alternative channel these features, but rather to make was again produced by the consultants. them an essential aspect of the maintenance This also used the ecological planning and of ecological diversity and also recreation. design principles, but strongly emphasized There are points on the site where the the development of local economic activity, waterways converge that are seen as essentially by allocating considerably more particularly important. land for industrial use. An evaluation was carried out of the three alternatives aimed at The Blue Network has a strong influence guiding a decision on the part of the also on the Green Network. The Green authorities as to which plan framework Network picks up on whatever areas of might be used as the basis for detailed natural vegetation are deemed to be planning. The first alternative was preserved within the plan. In the case of considered preferable, but the Hai Phong this site with its intensive agricultural and authorities were nevertheless left with the aquaculture activities, there is little by way option to pursue either of the others. of significant vegetation or land forms that might be used to develop natural areas Alternative 1. The general structure of the apart from the mangrove along the coastline. plan for the case study area in this These have been damaged in the past, but alternative is determined by the fitting are an important element in coastal together of the five networks described in protection in the event of storm surges and 19 typhoons. The Green Network becomes an and from the west in the wet summer important part of the plan, providing months. ecological and recreational space. In this case, it can be largely planned to fit in with The Human Network is wholly determined other networks. as a component of the planning exercise and comprises the network of bicycle and The White Network responds to the main pedestrian ways that traverse the site wind direction with the intention of independent of the motorized transport allowing winds to ventilate the buildings network. along wind paths once the site is built-up. The prevailing winds in the case study site The Cultural Network connects the ten are from the east in the dry winter months identified sites of cultural significance in the area, binding them into the other networks. Figure 3. Alternative 1: Land Use Planning Concept for the Case-Study Site The land use plan is developed in transport. However, each part has a accordance with five basic considerations: different thematic emphasis in terms of conservation, functionality, accessibility, major uses. The northern end of the site efficiency, amenity, and flexibility. The land connecting into Hai Phong city center use layout divides the site into three emphasizes business uses. The central part thematic parts. Each embodies a multiple- of the site emphasizes culture and use concept with housing, commerce, public community activity. The southern end of services etc. throughout, with a view to the site, bordering on the recreation area of minimizing the need for motorized Do Son, also emphasizes recreation uses. Figure 4. Alternative 1: Land Use Plan Axes 20 At the same time, three axes are provided these are mixed-use zones, but with each that connect uses over the length of the site. zone emphasizing one land use. Area A, The axis on the sea side is a green axis, adjoining Hai Phong city centre, emphasizes important for the Blue and Green Networks. business and industry. Southeast of this, The middle axis is the business axis, Area B emphasizes local commerce, connecting the subcenters of each of the education, and recreation. Area C then thematic areas. And to the west is the forms the administrative center and cultural axis, which connects the existing includes a residential area destined mainly heritage sites. for foreign residents. Area D, adjoining Do Son, emphasizes recreation extending out Within this framework, other dimensions of from Do Son. It also can accommodate an the plan have been developed. These export processing zone. Again, as with include the following. The road network Alternative 1, the transport network is based builds upon the existing network of roads upon the upgrading of existing roads. along which a certain amount of development has already taken place, with Alternative 3. This alternative is based on the new building height regulations to give a same structure as Alternative 1 in terms of harmonious whole once the site is fully the networks and the three thematic sub- built-up. A rail network is also envisaged. areas and three axes. The difference is in the Industrial areas are planned mainly along increased land given over to industrial use. the coast, with buffer zones located in such a The assumption here is that Vietnam is way as to minimize impact on other uses. developing industrially and land needs to Residential zones are located throughout the be made available to locate new industries. area with easy access to the Green Network, The amount that should be allocated to the with its hierarchy of park areas. Planners case-study site was calculated from will need to consider relocating some parameters concerning needs in the region existing residences and in general in general. Two variants were calculated. minimizing the possibility of impacts from The plan for Alternative 1 makes 2.66 flooding. Business centers are strung all percent of the land available for industry. along the central spine of the case-study Alternative 2 provides 6.07 percent. The two area serving all residential areas and linked calculations made for Alternative 3 allow via the business axis. Public facilities are 6.99 percent and 8.54 percent for industrial accessible via the green axis on foot or land. bicycle. Consideration has also been given to integrating the four planned Conclusion. An evaluation matrix was developments into the plan. produced from a number of earlier planning studies and the three plans were subjected Alternative 2. The general planning concept to these criteria. Six broad criteria were for this alternative is based on four selected, namely: economy and civil safety, principles: modern and convenient living environmental friendliness, civil arrangements, a perfect environment for convenience, environmental welfare, natural culture and relaxation, ecological amenity, and historic and cultural resources. sustainability, and a pollution-free hi-tech Given the strong weight given to ecological industry. As in Alternative 1, the study area and environmental criteria, Alternatives 1 is divided into parts along its length--in this and 3 were seen as an improvement on case four parts. Also as in Alternative 1, Alternative 2. Alternative 3, however, 21 while addressing national and regional negative environmental impacts of excessive economic needs, was seen as inappropriate industry. As already noted, this does not for the particular site for two reasons: (1) necessarily lead to an absolute rejection of this site is not well-located with respect to Alternatives 2 and 3, but rather provides a major transport infrastructure necessary to recommendation to the authorities that support industry; and (2) and the evaluation Alternative 1 is best in meeting the criteria were critical of the potential particular evaluation criteria employed. 22 5. Problems and Potential Solutions in Implementation As this case suggests, implementing · As noted above, the system of land use ecologically sensitive plans in Vietnam face plans and development control two sets of problems. First, awareness of machinery is inadequate to control the the importance of ecological issues--and the location of development, both through need for development to be put on a gaps in the planning procedure and lack sustainable basis--remains low, and there is of adequate trained staff, resulting in little knowledge among planners regarding nonconforming construction on a large how to apply such procedures as land scale. suitability assessment, MFA, SEA, and the kinds of procedures demonstrated in the · Development outside planned areas on above pilot study. Furthermore, the rural land has been encouraged by participatory initiatives outlined earlier in rampant land speculation, which this paper are as yet far from being renders land in urban areas practiced. There is clearly considerable unaffordable and in turns leads to work to be done to develop this knowledge scattering of development in peri-urban and capability and thence to incorporate areas. them into the formal planning process. · A significant proportion of the Second, even conventional planning population migrating into urbanizing procedures suffer from serious problems regions lacks income to obtain formal regarding implementation. If these are not housing. As a result, they resort to improved, then the additional issues informal, unregulated housing involving ecologically sensitive planning construction in areas not intended or also cannot be expected to succeed. Here designated for housing. are the main problems regarding the operation of the planning system in general · Irregularities in granting both planning in Vietnam: and building permission are widespread, seriously weakening the · There has been a major shortfall in ability to use plans and building achieving the objectives of the regulations to guide development into Orientation Master Plan for Urban more efficient and ecologically sensitive Development to 2020 and Urban pathways. Development Direction. Those formulating and executing planning at These problems are by no means unknown the regional and local levels possess to the government; on the contrary, they little awareness of the policies that local have been subject to widespread analysis planning is supposed to achieve. and debate.5 Regarding irregularities in the regulation of planning, there has also been · Population movements and industrial considerable discussion in the public press. development contributing to The current National Five-Year Socio- urbanization have run far ahead of the Economic Development Plan 2006­10 states financial means of the government to that "(U)nlawful land allocation, land lease, provide adequate infrastructure. land reclamation, conversion of land use purposes, which conflict with approved 23 planning, still prevail. Inefficient land various European countries. They are management and use caused losses for the effective ways of promoting and State budget and affected the integrity of coordinating complex urban development many cadres." 6 The government is processes that have potential application attempting to improve the effectiveness of anywhere in the world. the planning system (for example, through the 2005 planning law and related legal The Korean Land Corporation (KLC) is a instruments and moves to eliminate particularly effective version of the urban corruption), there is still some way to go development agency model and merits before an adequate set of instruments and some description. Established in 1975, the procedures is in place that can be used to KLC is jointly owned by the Korean implement plans effectively. government and the Korean Development Bank. It is currently responsible for around Institutional Initiatives to Implement half of residential development and almost Comprehensive Planned Developments all industrial land development in the country. These developments are In the report by the Seoul University predominantly in new towns, major housing Institute of Regional Planning and developments, and industrial estates. The Landscape Architecture upon which this function of the corporation is to develop and paper is based, a number of more strategic sell land for residential and industrial use; initiatives for the implementation of to acquire idle and vacant land for resale; to comprehensively planned development issue land debentures; to reclaim land; and were presented as potential ways to to develop new towns. It possesses all the operationalize ecologically sensitive plans, expertise necessary to carry out these such as those proposed for the Hai Phong­ functions. KLC is in the processes of Do Son corridor. Over the past half century, adopting environmentally friendly a substantial number of mechanisms have approaches to its developments. been developed in various countries to facilitate comprehensive forms of urban In Vietnam, such a corporate approach development such as town extensions and might also be possible. The government new towns. Drawing on the original report, already has substantial planning and land the following paragraphs describe some of development capacity, and this might be these initiatives that have been adopted and extended to the creation of a general Urban further developed in the Republic of Korea Development Agency similar to that in that might be adapted to assist in similar Korea. Another possibility would be to developments in Vietnam and other Asian create an agency specifically for the countries. development of the Road 353 New Urban Development Area, or as a provincial The Development Planning Processes and agency for the development of this and Information Management other projects--a Hai Phong Land Development Agency. Urban Development Agencies. Urban development agencies have a substantial This could link up current planning history behind them, having emerged both functions with the proactive planning and from the post-reconstruction of European development of construction projects. It cities and the construction of new towns in would need to work on the development of the United States since the 1960s. Such a regional economic development plan and institutions are now well-established in formulate business strategies for the 24 development of particular projects. development. Such schemes have not Mechanisms for financing major integrated always found the right balance. In Korea, urban projects, including both internally there was considerable dissatisfaction with generated and equity funding, would have such schemes where landowners received to be developed and this would require less than half their land back. Nevertheless, central government and banking support. It 35 percent of the land in the city of Seoul has would need to be empowered to operate been acquired for roads, parks, etc. via this such schemes as land readjustment mechanism. Difficulties that have to be (described below). which would facilitate its faced include the source of the initial finance operation in acquiring and managing the for the system (generally the public purse) land develop process. It would need in- and how to control possible runaway land house expertise on environmental speculation before the scheme is fully assessment, risk management, and project established. cycle management. Finally, it would have to be able to act as a regular real estate Land management information systems. development company from design through Computer systems for land management are construction and sales. today well-developed and widely used. Thus far, however, they are usually applied Land readjustment/land pooling. Whether in a piecemeal fashion, with one system through the operation of a development used for land registration, another in the agency or simply by extension of the context of urban planning, and another for functions of the local authority, land tax purposes. Local systems are not linked readjustment--sometimes referred to as to national systems. In Korea, a single land pooling--is an extremely useful tool to linked system has been developed that facilitate more complex land developments could be a model for Vietnam and other such as new towns, where land ownership countries. Four interlinked systems have patterns are complex. As with urban evolved in Korea: (1) a national government development agencies, there is now land policy-making support system; (2) considerable experience with this special data management systems for land mechanism; in Germany, for instance, it is a registration (cadastral maps) and taxation; well-established practice. The basic (3) local land use planning support systems; principle is that land owners pool their land and (4) land management business systems. so that it may be planned as a single entity, It should be possible to also include and so that infrastructure can be installed environmental impact management systems. that raises the value of the land. The authorities are able to finance the Systems developed to promote land infrastructure from the sale of the land they development should have open system keep. Landowners receive less land back architecture to facilitate inter-operation of than they put into the pool, but this should different computer software. They must have a total value higher than the value of include a national network to share land their original holding. information; an online network to circulate information on land policies, public The financial calculations have to ensure regulations and incentives; interconnections that the scheme as a whole is profitable for between national and local systems; and an both original landholders and the openness to share land development, zoning government. This depends on the information, and land use data held by the proportion of land taken from landowners local authority with residents and investors. and the success of the resulting There should also be an educational system 25 to inform and train users, and the system would establish a multidisciplinary team to must be able to deal with civil petitions and identify and analyze subprojects. These litigation on land issues. would then undergo a preliminary feasibility study and be ranked and Investment Planning and Development prioritized, with initial projects selected for construction. The approach would include Industry-led new towns. The British new background studies collecting information towns initiated a process whereby industrial on proposed project areas and projects and relocation and development initiatives were consulting with interested parties. A policy planned in conjunction with new town analysis would need to underpin the planning and development. This approach exercise to ensure that the projects conform has been further developed in Korea with to national and local economic and social industries taking the lead, facilitated by plans and would promote balanced regional government. The intention has been to development. Economic and financial provide incentives for both internal and studies would follow, and an overall foreign business investment. The feasibility evaluation would be carried out government provides tax incentives to in accordance with multidimensional initiate the process. Private companies then decision analysis (AHP) methods. undertake the planning and finance the construction. The government collaborates A total project cost management system in the provision of infrastructure. The (TPCM) would be put in place to structure strategy has been to disperse development the process of detailed planning and around the country with particular new construction management to reduce the towns containing clusters of particular likelihood of cost escalation and ensure the industries. long-run financial health of the project. Within this framework, detailed design and In so far as this strategy can be exported to construction of selected projects would be Vietnam or elsewhere, it will be up to the undertaken. government to identify the comparative advantage of regions or cities where such Public-private partnerships. In the past, large- developments can take place. The Road 353 scale integrated development projects were New Urban Development Area could be carried out entirely by governments. Today, such a development. It would be necessary costs are being shared by the private sector, to identify the comparative advantage of which is becoming increasingly involved in Hai Phong as a port city relating to Hanoi, both planning and infrastructure provision, and for the central government to provide as well as their more traditional areas of incentives for industries deemed to be construction investment. While compatible and potentially attracted to the governments must continue to maintain area within this framework. strategic control through regulation, private corporations are willing to take over some The institutional setting for investment responsibilities--as long as governments are programs. A comprehensive project fair in terms of financing operating costs implementation management system is where these are not generated from the needed for large-scale projects such as new operation of the system, and in providing towns. The Korean case can be instructive appropriate incentives and compensation and could be applied to the development of for well-defined risks. the Road 353 New Urban Development Area. The Hai Phong local government 26 Governments thus define those functions to the private sector. Documentation must the private sector might be invited to then be prepared and tenders invited. provide and decide what areas to privatize Concessionaires that win tenders are then (construction, ownership, operation, etc.). responsible for carrying out the works In the Korean case, a value for money and/or activities within specified time (VFM) test can be applied as background to periods. Operations are then re-tendered at deciding which activities should be offered the end of the defined period. 27 6. Conclusions and Recommendations This paper, while based upon a specific enhance the ecology of the area. Nature study carried out to demonstrate aspects of should be seen as an equal partner in ecologically sensitive urban planning and the planning process and not design, goes somewhat beyond the original something to be cleared aside or given study. It provides a broader overview of the a minor role to play. essential elements of ecologically sensitive urban panning and how this adds to · Human physical and mental health are conventional planning concerns and enhanced by the construction of procedures. It takes a close look at the environmentally healthy urban problems of planning and plan developments, necessitating that implementation in Vietnam today, with a environmental planning be given a view to indicating where improvements will high priority. need to be made before any effective planning can be implemented. Ecologically · Cultural heritage in the form of sensitive planning can only succeed in a monuments and buildings from the situation where urban and regional past are an important contributor to planning is effective. human well-being in a fast-changing world; priority should also be given to In summarizing the recommendations, it is heritage conservation in ways that thus first necessary to emphasize that it make this accessible to the general presupposes the existence of basic, effective public. urban planning systems, practices, and capacities. It builds upon these in two ways: · There are by now numbers of specific planning tools that are available to · It deepens the understanding and analyze ecological issues and provide a practice of ecological conservation and basis for taking ecologically sound environmental enhancement in the planning decisions. construction of urban extensions and new towns. All planning exercises go through a cycle of activities from conception through planning, · It moves beyond "passive" urban implementation, and evaluation. planning--represented by master "Ecologically friendly" urban planning planning--to a proactive development- points to certain approaches that need to be led approach in the framework of paid particular attention in the planning effective land-management systems. cycle: Concerning the first of these, the following · In defining the concepts and goals of the general principles need to be adopted and planning process, an "ideal image" of disseminated, both among public and ecological planning needs to be private planning and development actors generated and disseminated to all actors, and the general public: both those responsible for planning and development and to the general public. · New urbanization should be These need to be agreed by all parties undertaken in ways that conserve or 28 before the planning process can The methodology developed and explained effectively start. above for ecologically friendly urban planning focuses on four themes and · Site surveys are a necessary part of all indicates an approach to planning in the planning exercises. While the existing form of networks. This approach facilitates socioeconomic situation must be a sharp focus in the planning process on the understood and existing plans taken key dimensions of ecological conservation, into account, expert resources are healthy living, and heritage conservation as needed to achieve a thorough follows: understanding of the existing geological, climatic, hydrological, and ecological · Not all development sites have systems of the site and its surroundings extensive water environments, but whatever water bodies within the site · Plans need to be generated under the need to be utilized to the full in terms of general heading of "preserving and ecological systems and recreational enhancing nature." New techniques-- potential and as far as possible planned including material flow analysis (MFA), in the form of a Blue Network. ecological mapping, and land suitability analysis (LSA)--need to be applied both · Urban development usually means the in analysis and in evaluating the plans forcing of nature out of the as they are generated. While planning development area or its being confined is often carried out as a technical to marginal, overmanaged areas such as activity by professional planners, it is parks and street trees. Urban essential to ensure participation of all development should, however, take affected people to ensure their place within a matrix of green that education, contribution, and conserves or enhances ecological commitment regarding the planned diversity and provides for ample result. As in any planning system, a recreational potential in the form of strategic plan guides development. Green Networks. Where there are ample Action plans are then produced for surface water resources, the green and different parts of the site and blue networks may often coincide. dimensions of the plan. In all cases, these should include ecological and · Few plans take note of the way in which environmental considerations as a air movement in the city can enhance priority to minimize pollution and human health and well-being. Planning ensure conservation of ecological construction and land form to utilize air integrity and efficient resource movement--again as a network management. approach referred to as the White Network--should become a significant · Monitoring and evaluation has become consideration in the planning of new an accepted procedure during and urban developments. following plan making and implementation. Indicators used for · Although today it is necessary to this purpose must include factors develop new urban areas with full concerned with ecology and vehicle access, at the same time it sustainability. should be possible for pedestrians and cyclists to have full access independent of the vehicle road system. This 29 network is referred to as the Human used, but usually as individual systems Network. for different functions and at different levels of government. The Korean · Many new urban developments take system interconnects different place on sites that have previously been subsystems and also national and local occupied and possess monuments of systems, thus greatly enhancing the archaeological remains of significance. efficiency and effectiveness of such In order to enhance local consciousness systems. of these as well as ensuring accessibility, a Cultural Network connects the sites to · Industry-led new town development is make these into a whole rather then a means to maximize the economic dispersed and fragmented sites. It potential of new urban developments. should also be connected to other Here there is a focus on "industrial networks. clusters" and a proactive attraction of particular industries to particular The second theme of this study concerns the developments with incentives. question of effective implementation of plans and recommends the following · New developments are dependent on measures: attracting funding that should then be efficiently managed to ensure cost- · The basic organizational framework effectiveness and in general control over best fitted for efficient comprehensive the flow of funding. There are now development of new urban quarters or numbers of methods, including multi- new towns is the urban development dimensional decision analysis and total agency. Such agencies have been project cost management systems that established in many countries. The should be consistently applied agency operating in Korea is a possible throughout the development process. model for other Asian countries. In general terms, this is in the form of · In the past, new town development and corporation that undertakes the whole management was assumed to be an development process, from planning exclusively public-sector responsibility. through land acquisition to construction. Today, the private sector is contributing increasingly to the planning and · Land readjustment is a mechanism, management of urban areas in the form again with widespread experience, that of public-private partnerships. These facilitates the consolidation of land need to be encouraged to ensure both holdings in order to plan an area as a the adequacy of financial resources and whole and distribute the benefits among the efficiency with which urban systems existing landowners and the are managed. government branch (or development agency) responsible for the The value of this study is that it development. demonstrates how the ideals that are embodied in ecologically sensitive urban · Land management information systems planning and design can be converted from are computer systems that collect and aspirations and principles to concrete organize information on land relevant planning processes, and then put into to marketing, taxation, planning, and practice through the application of effective land management. These are widely implementation tools that are already 30 available. This requires political will on the will greatly enhance urban development. part of governments. Once this is in place, it Notes 1 Seoul National University. 2006. Ecologically Friendly Urban Planning and Design: An Application to Hai Phong City, Vietnam. A consultant report to the World Bank. Seoul, South Korea: Seoul National UNiversity. 2The original report contained examples of environmental planning initiatives and components from Korea and from a selection of other countries. These are not referred to in this document but may be consulted in the original document. 3Two recent documents provide a substantial overview of the urbanization process, its problems, and planning initiatives in Vietnam: (1) M. Douglass et al. 2002. The Urban Transition in Vietnam. Honolulu, Hawaii: UNCHS, Fukuoka, and Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Hawai'i at Manoa. (2) A. Coulthart, Q. Nguyen, and H. Sharpe. 2006. Urban Development Strategy: Meeting the challenges of rapid urbanization and the transition to a market oriented economy. Washington, DC: World Bank. 4 MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. 5Besides the Douglass and Coulthart et al references cited in note 3, see also: (1) JBIC. 1999. Urban Development and Housing Sector in Vietnam. Tokyo: Japan Bank for International Development; and (2) AusAID. 2000. Vietnam: Land Administration. Working Paper No. 4. Canberra: Australian Agency for International Development. 6MPI. 2006. National Five-Year Socio-Economic Development Plan 2006-2010. Hanoi: Ministry of Planning and Investment. 31