WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 381 14\ Work in progress for public discussion D ec. 1917 I Urban Air Qualitv Management Strategy in Asia - ~~~~~(,, ,,t,r ,- wIumbu,,i R'poi'/ .N i ../AV z ~~~, ,ir /)I Xalttl1 RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 313 Kapur, Airport Infrastructure: The Emerging Role of the Private Sector No. 314 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Ramos, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Ecuador No. 316 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Making the Most of Global Trade No. 317 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Guide to Best Practice No. 318 Taylor, Boukambou, Dahniya, Ouayogode, Ayling, Abdi Noor, and Toure, Strengthening National Agricul- tural Research Systems in the Humid and Sub-humid Zones of West and Central Africa: A Frameworkfor Action No. 320 Srivastava, Lambert, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role in Development No. 321 Srivastava, Smith, and Forno, Biodiversity and Agriculture: Implicationsfor Conservation and Development No. 322 Peters, The Ecology and Management of Non-Timber Forest Resources No. 323 Pannier, editor, Corporate Governance of Public Enterprises in Transitional Economies No. 324 Cabraal, Cosgrove-Davies, and Schaeffer, Best Practicesfor Photovoltaic Household Electrification Programs No. 325 Bacon, Besant-Jones, and Heidarian, Estimating Construction Costs and Schedules: Experience with Power Generation Projects in Developing Countries No. 326 Colletta, Balachander, and Liang, The Condition of Young Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Convergence of Health, Nutrition, and Early Education No. 327 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Martin, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Paraguay No. 328 De Geyndt, Social Development and Absolute Poverty in Asia and Latin America No. 329 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Publications: Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996 No. 330 Echeverria, Trigo, and Byerlee, Institutional Change and Effective Financing of Agricultural Research in Latin America No. 331 Sharma, Damhaug, Gilgan-Hunt, Grey, Okaru, and Rothberg, African Water Resources: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Development No. 332 Pohl, Djankov, and Anderson, Restructuring Large Industrial Firms in Central and Eastern Europe: An Empirical Analysis No. 333 Jha, Ranson, and Bobadilla, Measuring the Burden of Disease and the Cost-Effectiveness of Health Interventions: A Case Study in Guinea No. 334 Mosse and Sontheimer, Performance Monitoring Indicators Handbook No. 335 Kirmani and Le Moigne, Fostering Riparian Cooperation in International River Basins: The World Bank at Its Best in Development Diplomacy No. 336 Francis, with Akinwumi, Ngwu, Nkom, Odihi, Olomajeye, Okunmadewa, and Shehu, State, Community, and Local Development in Nigeria No. 337 Kerf and Smith, Privatizing Africa's Infrastructure: Promise and Change No. 338 Young, Measuring Economic Benefitsfor Water Investments and Policies No. 339 Andrews and Rashid, The Financing of Pension Systems in Central and Eastern Europe: An Overview of Major Trends and Their Determinants, 1990-1993 No. 340 Rutkowski, Changes in the Wage Structure during Economic Transition in Central and Eastern Europe No. 341 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and Chellaraj, Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance: The Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, Volume I No. 342 Webster and Fidler, editors, Le secteur informel et les institutions de microfinancement en Afrique de l'Ouest No. 343 Kottelat and Whitten, Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia, with Special Reference to Fish No. 344 Klugman and Schieber with Heleniak and Hon, A Survey of Health Reform in Central Asia No. 345 Industry and Mining Division, Industry and Energy Department, A Mining Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean No. 346 Psacharopoulos and Nguyen, The Role of Government and the Private Sector in Fighting Poverty No. 347 Stock and de Veen, Expanding Labor-based Methods for Road Works in Africa (List continues on the inside back cover) WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 381 Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia Greater Mumbai Report SELECTED WORLD BANK TITLES ON AIR QUALITY Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles: Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions. Asif Faiz, Christopher S. Weaver, and Michael Walsh. Clean Fuelsfor Asia: Technical Optionsfor Moving toward Unleaded Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel. Michael Walsh and Jitendra J. Shah. Technical paper no. 377. Energy Use, Air Pollution, and Environmental Policy in Krakow: Can Economic Incentives Really Help? Seabron Adarnson, Robin Bates, Robert Laslett, and Alberto Ptotschnig. Technical paper no. 308. Taxing Bads by Taxing Goods: Pollution Control with Presumptive Charges. Gunnar S. Eskeland and Shantayanan Devarajan. Directions in Development Series. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Kathmandu Valley Report. Edited by Jitendra J. Shah and Tanvi Nagpal. Technical paper no. 378. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Jakarta Report. Edited by Jitendra J. Shah and Tanvi Nagpal. Technical paper no. 379. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Metro Manila Report. Edited by Jitendra J. Shah and Tanvi Nagpal. Technical paper no. 380. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Greater Mumbai Report. Edited by Jitendra J. Shah and Tanvi NagpaL Technical paper no. 381. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Guidebook. Edited by Jitendra J. Shah, Tanvi Nagpal, and Carter J. Brandon. Vehicular Air Pollution: Experiencesfrom Seven Latin American Urban Centers. Bekir Onursal and Surhid P. Gautam. Technical paper no. 373. AUTHORS Steinar Larssen Frederick Gram Leif Otto Hagen Norwegian Institute for Air Research Kjeller, Norway Huib Jansen Xander Olsthoorn from the Institute of Environmental Studies at the Free University Amsterdam, the Netherlands K. H. Mehta Maharashtra State Pollution Control Board Mumbai, India Ulhas Joglekar and Rajiv V. Aundhe ADITYA Environmental Services A. A. Mahashur KEM Hospital Mumbai, India iii WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 381 Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia Greater Mumbai Report Edited by Jitendra J. Shah Tanvi Nagpal The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1997 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing December 1997 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the proce- dures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. 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The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which con- tains an alphabetical title list with full ordering information. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Dis- tribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Iena, 75116 Paris, France. Cover illustration by Beni Chibber-Rao. Cover photo by Gopal Shetty, Mid-Day Publications Ltd., Mumbai. ISSN: 0253-7494 Jitendra J. Shah is an environmental engineer in the World Bank's Asia Technical Environment Unit. Tanvi Nagpal, a political economist, is a consultant in the World Bank's Asia Technical Environment Unit. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Urban air quality management strategy in Asia. Greater Mumbai report / edited by Jitendra J. Shah, Tanvi Nagpal. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper ; no. 381) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-4037-9 1. Air quality management-India-Bombay Metropolitan Area. 2. Air-Pollution-India-Bombay Metropolitan Area. 1. Shah, Jitendra J., 1952- . II. Nagpal, Tanvi, 1967- . III. Series. TD883.7.142B668 1997 363.739'25'09547923-dc21 97-28973 CIP TABLE OF CONTENTS LETIER OF SUPPORT .................................................................... ix FOREWORD .................................................... ................4........ ..... x ABSTRACT ..............................................44.....0............................... xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..... ............................................................................. xii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .................................. xiv EXECUTIVE SUNIMARY ........................................................................ 1 1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION .............................. 5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY .............................. 5 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF GREATER BOMBAY ....................................................................... 5 DATA SOURCES ........ ............................................................... 7 THE GROWTH OF BOMBAY, 1981-1991 ....................................................................... 7 POPULATION ....................................................................... 8 VEHICLE FLEET ........ ............................................................... 8 ROAD AND TRANSPORT ....................................................................... 10 INDUSTRIAL SOURCES ....................................................................... 12 FUELCONSUMPTION ....................................................................... 12 AREA SOURCES ........ ............................................................... 14 2. AIR QUALI ASSESSENT ..................................................................... 15 AIR POLLUTION CONCENTRATIONS ....................................................................... 15 AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS IN GREATER BOMBAY ......................................... .............................. 20 DISPERSION MODEL CALCULATIONS FOR GREATER BOMBAY .................................................................... 28 Dispersion conditions ..................................................................... 28 Dispersion model calculations, city background ..................................................................... 30 Pollution hot spots ..................................................................... 33 POPULATION EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION IN GREATER BOMBAY ...................................... ...................... 36 SUMMARY OF THE AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT ....................................................................... 38 IMPROVING AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR GREATER BOMBAY ........................................................ ....... 39 Shortcomings and data gaps ..................................................................... 39 3. AIR POLLUTION: IMPACTS AND VALUATION ................................................................ 43 INTRODUCION .................................................................................. 43 SUMMARY OF STUDIES BY ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION RESEARCH CENTER, (KEM HOSPITAL, BOMBAY) ..................................................................... 44 MORTALY ..................................................................... 49 vii Viii MORBIDITY ................................................................... 49 VALUATION OF HEALTH IMPACTS ................................................................... 50 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................... 52 4. ABATEMENT M1EASURES: EFFECTIVENESS AND COSTS ........................................... 55 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 55 TRAFFIC ................................................................... 56 Introducing unleaded gasoline ................................................................. 56 Improving diesel quality ................................................................. 57 Introduction of low-smoke lubricating oilfor two-stroke, mixed-lubrication engines .................... 58 Implementation of an inspection and maintenance scheme .............................................................. 59 Address the problem of excessively polluting vehicles ................................................................. 60 Fuel switching in the transportation sector ................................................................. 60 Adoption of clean vehicle emission standards ................................................................. 61 Other options ................................................................. 63 Resuspension emission ................................................................. 63 Improving traffic management ............................................................. 63 Construction and improvement of mass-transit systems .................................................. ........... 64 LARGE POINT SOURCES ............................................................... 64 DISTRIBUTED INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL SOURCES ............................................................... 65 REFUSE BURNING AND DOMESTIC EMISSIONS ............................................................... 65 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................... 65 5. ACTION PLAN ............................................................... 67 ACTIONS TO IMPROVE GREATER BOMBAY AIR QUALITY, AND lTS MANAGEMENT ....................................... 67 Actions to improve air quality ............................................................. 67 6s. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEW ORK .............................................................................. 79 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTI1ONS IN BOMBAY ............................................................... 79 AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION ............................................................... 79 The laws and regulations for air environment ............................................................. 81 Air pollution standards and regulations ............................................................. 83 SUGGEST I ON S FOR IMPROVING INSTTUIONS AND POLICIES ............................................................... 84 REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 87 APPENDICES 1. AIR QUALITY STATUS, GREATER BOMBAY ............................................................... 91 2. AIR QUALrrY GUIDELINES ............................................................... 155 3. AIR POLLUTION LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR INDIA AND BOMBAY ................................... ................. 159 4. EMISSION INVENTORY ............................................................... 179 5. EMISSION FACTORS, PARTICLES ............................................................... 211 6. POPULATION EXPOSURE CALCULATIONS ............................................................... 215 7. SPREADSHEET FOR CALCULATING EFFECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSIONS ............................ 219 8. PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS, LOCAL CONSULTANTS ............................................................... 223 LETTER FROM THE GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT MUMBAI, INDIA Many Asian cities are on the threshold of a major environmental crisis in the form of air pollution. The deteriorating air quality in cities is a result of rapid economic expansion, rise in population, increased industrial output and unprecedented growth of passenger vehicles. The impact of air pollution on public health and consequent rising health costs, damage to ecological and cultural properties, deterioration of built environment, etc. is well known. In Mumbai (Bombay) the main contributor of air pollution is the transport sector, followed by power plants, industrial units and burning of garbage. Fuel quality and engine conditions significantly influence the level of air pollution. To arrest this growing problem, a concerted effort with public involvement is essential. Awareness of the issue, proactive policies, economically affordable standards and technologies and effective enforcement are key elements in any effective air quality management strategy. A long-term perspective shows that early adoption of policies for environmentally safer technologies can allow developing countries to resolve some of the most difficult problems of industrialization and growth at lower human and economic cost. Mumbai (Bombay) joined the World Bank-aided Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP) in 1990. At the Inter-country workshop held in Hawaii in 1990, the cities facing air pollution problems sought MEIP intervention to assist in finding solutions. In response to this, Urban Air Quality Management Initiative (URBAIR) was conceived and launched in Mumbai (Bombay) in 1992. URBAIR has assisted the Environment Department, Government of Maharashtra to develop a strategy and time-bound action plan for air quality management in Mumbai (Bombay). For the first time, it brought together the different stakeholders-sectoral,agencies, private sector, NGOs, academics, research bodies and media to formulate a strategy. This group was met as a Technical Comnittee which deliberated over several months with support provided by a team of national and international experts. The outcome is the Action Plan that is presented here. The result is quite impressive and I believe that the Action Plan will catalyze continuous and sustained effort by all the concerned agencies which is absolutely essential to improve the ambient air quality of Mumbai (Bombay). The State Government through its various agencies will wholeheartedly participate and extend necessary support for the implementation of the plan. We will welcome the support of the international community in realizing the goals of the plan. I would like to record our appreciation for the contributions made by various agencies in the development of the strategy and plan, especially to MEIP for facilitating the process. Asoke Basak Secretary to Government of Maharashtra Environment Department Mumbai, India ix FOREWORD In view of the potential environmental consequences of continuing growth of Asian metropolitan areas, the World Bank and United Nations Development Programme launched the Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP) in six Asian metropolitan areas: Beijing, Mumbai (Bombay)1, Colombo, Jakarta, Kathmandu Valley and Metro Manila. MEIP's mission is to assist Asian urban areas address their environmental problems. Recognizing the growing severity of air pollution caused by industrial expansion and increasing numbers of vehicles, the World Bank through MEIP started the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) in 1992. The first phase of URBAIR covered four cities: Bombay, Jakarta, Kathmandu, and Metro Manila. URBAIR is an international collaborative effort involving governments, academia, international organizations, NGOs, and the private sector. The main objective of URBAIR is to assist local institutions in developing action plans which would be an integral part of the air quality management system for the metropolitan regions. The approach used to achieve this objective involves the assessment of air quality and environmental damage (on health and materials), the assessment of control options, and comparison of costs of damage and costs of control options (cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis). From this, an action plan was set up containing the selected abatement measures for implementation in the short, medium, or long term. The preparation of this city-specific report for Bombay is based on data collected and specific studies carried out by local consultants, and on workshops and fact-finding missions carried out in April and August 1993, and May 1994. The Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) and Institute for Environmental Studies (IES) prepared a draft of the report before the first workshop based upon general and city-specific information available from earlier studies. A second draft was prepared before the second workshop with substantial inputs from the local consultants and assessment of air quality, damage and control options, and costs carried out by NILU and IES. The report concludes with an action plan for air pollution. NILU and IES carried out cost-benefit analysis of some selected abatement measures, showing the economic viability of many of the technical control options. It is hoped that this report will form the basis for furdter analysis of air quality data, and formulation of strategies for air pollution control. Local institutions may refer to it as a preliminary strategy and use it in conjunction with the URBAIR Guidebook to formulate policy decisions and investment strategies. Maritta Koch-Weser Division Chief Asia Environment and Natural Resources Division While the consultants and the World Bank recognize the change of name to Mumbai, the city name Bombay is used in this study to more accurately reflect the data collection and the time period during which this study was conducted. x ABSTRACT Severe air pollution is threatening human health and the gains of economic growth in Asia's largest cities. This report aims to assist policy makers in the design and implementation of policies, monitoring and management tools to restore air quality in Mumbai (Bombay), India's financial and commercial capital. Annual average TSP concentration has increased about 50 percent from 1981 to 1990, to reach 270 ,ug/m3. World Health Organization (WHO) and national guidelines for PM1O are frequently and substantially exceeded in Mumbai; 97 percent of the population lives in areas where the WHO air quality guideline for particulate is exceeded. Studies point to the resulting health effects-more cases of colds, chronic bronchitis, asthma and general decline in lung function. Using dose-response equations developed in the United States, this report estimates that air pollution causes 2,800 cases of excess mortality, 60 million respiratory symptom days, and 19 million restricted activity days, at a total cost of Rs. 18 billion per year. Applying the essential components of an air quality management system to the problem in Mumbai, this report suggests an action plan containing abatement measures for the short, medium and long terms. Recommended actions fall under two categories-institutional and technical. A single institution with a clear mandate and sufficient resources should be made responsible for air quality management in Mumbai. In addition, capabilities for data gathering and processing should be improved throughout the city. Technically, it is crucial that clean vehicle standards be established and strictly enforced. The switch from dirty to clean fuel, including to unleaded gasoline and low- sulfur diesel, should be completed. Another option for clean vehicles is the introduction of LPG- and CNG-powered vehicles. The use of low-smoke lubrication oil for 2-stroke engines is also an important policy measure. Gross polluters should be identified and penalized. In addition, general traffic management would reduce congestion and pollution. Awareness raising through public and private organizations including educational institutions is key to bringing about policy change on matters of air pollution. xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to acknowledge the groups and individuals who contributed to this report and the URBAIR process. Core funds were provided by the United Nations Development Program, the Australian Agency for International Development, the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Norwegian Consultant Trust Funds, and the Netherlands Consultant Trust Funds. Substantial inputs were provided by host governments and city administrations. The contribution of the Air Quality Monitoring Section of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) is especially acknowledged; air quality data, as presented in Appendix 1, was made available through Mr. V.S. Mahajan, Deputy City Engineer and Mrs. J.M. Deshpande, Scientist in Charge of Air Quality Monitoring. The city-level technical working groups and the steering committee members gave policy direction to the study team. The National Program Coordinator (NPC) of MEIP-Mumbai, G. N. Warade provided substantial contribution to the successful outcomes. At the World Bank's Environment and Natural Resources Division, Asia Technical Department, URBAIR was managed by Jitendra Shah, Katsunori Suzuki, and Patchamuthu Illangovan, under the advice and guidance of Maritta Koch-Weser, Division Chief and David Williams, MEIP Project Manager. Colleagues from Country Departments (Robert Burns, Richard Cambridge, Harald Hansen, and Peter Nicholas) assisted with the program. Management support was provided by Sonia Kapoor, Ronald Waas, and Erika Yanick. Tanvi Nagpal and Sheldon Lippman were responsible for quality assurance, technical accuracy, and final production. Julia Lutz designed the layout. Many international institutions (World Health Organization United States Environmental Protection Agency, United States Asia Environmental Partnership) provided valuable contribution through their participation at the workshops. Their contribution made at the workshop discussions and follow-up correspondence and discussions has been very valuable for the result of the project. Mumbai URBAIR working groups consisted of the following individuals. Working Group Ifor Air Quality Assessment Head: Mr. V.S. Mahajan, Deputy City Engineer, Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Members: Name Organization Category Dr. K.S.V. Nambi Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Govt. Dr. T.N. Mahadevan Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Govt. Dr. S. Kumar India Meteorological Department Govt. Mr. K.S. Sonawane Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Govt. Undertaking Mr. S.B. Patlh Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Govt. Undertaking Dr. V.N. Patkar Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority Govt. Undertaldng Mr. B.S. Negi Gas Authority of India Ltd. Govt. Undertaking Mr. S.J. Arceivala Associated Industrial Consultants (India) Pvt. Ltd. Consultant Mr. A.K Sahu Econ Pollution Control Pvt. Ltd. Consultant xii URBAIR-Bombay xiii Working Group Ifor Air Quality Assessment Mr. S.V. Athavale Apte Consulting Engineers Consultant Mr. R.V. Aundhe ADITYA Environmental Services Consultant Mr. Mr. K. Mohan Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd. Industry Dr. (Ms). R.S. Pabl Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr. V. Joshi National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) Institution Working Group II,for Economic Valuation Head: Dr. A.A. Mahashur, Prof. & Head-Dept. of Chest Medicine, KEM. Hospital, Municipal Corp. of Greater Mumbai Members: Name Organization Category Dr. V.N. Bapat Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Govt. Ms. S.S. Bhende Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Govt. Undertaking Dr. (Ms.) B.S. Sanghani King Edward Memorial Hospital, Municipal Corporaton of Greater Non-Govt. Undertaking Mumbai Dr. (Ms.) Nandita Sen Non-Govt. Organizaton Dr. V.G. Shirke Non-Govt. Organizaton Dr. S.R. Kamat Non-Govt. Organizaton Ms. J.P. Rezler Coopers & Lybrand, U.K. Consultant Mr. M.G. Rao Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd. Industry Dr. S.R. Asolekar Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr. V.K. Sharma Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Institution Mr. S. Ramaswamy Mumbai Chamber of Commerce & Industry Association Wl orking Group IIILfor Institutional & Policy Instruments Head: Mr. UK Mukhopadhyay, Secretary, Environment Dept. & Chairman, Tech. Committee-MEIP Members: Name Organizatfon Category Captain P.G. Deshmukh Transport Department Govt. Dr. P.S. Pasricha Police Department (Traffic) Govt. Mr. G.N. Warade Environment Department Govt. Mr. D.R. Rasal Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Govt. Undertaking Mr. V.K. Phatak Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority Govt. Undertaking Mr. Debi Goenka Mumbai Environmental Action Group Non-Govt. Organization Mr. A.M. Ranu Environmental Medical Association of India Non-Govt. Organization Dr. Rashmi Mayur Urban Development Institute Non-Govt. Organization Dr. T.R. Saranathan Society for Clean Environment Non-Govt. Organization Mr. Bittu Saigal Mumbai Natural History Society Non-Govt. Organization Mr. B.V. Rotkar Associated Industrial Consultants (India) Pvt. Ltd. Consultant Dr. (Ms). P.P. Paikh Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr. Prasad Modak Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr. S.G. Advani Indian Chemical Manufacturers Association Association/lndustry Dr. Dharmarajan The Times of India Press ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AADT annual average daily traffic MPCB Maharashtra Pollution Control Board AQG air quality guidelines MTBE Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether AQIS Air Quality Information System MTNL Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd AQMS Air Quality Management Strategy NEERI National Engineering and BARC Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Environmental Research Institute BEST Bombay Electric Supply & Transport NGO nongovernment organization Undertaking NH3 ammonia BIS Bureau of Indian Standards NO, nitrogen oxides BMRDA Bombay Metropolitan Region NPC National Program Coordinator Development Authority ONGC Oil & Natural Gas Commission CNG compressed natural gas PM particulate matter CO carbon monoxide PM1o particulate matter of 10 microns or CDC Centers for Disease Control less CPCB Central Pollution Control Board PPM parts per million DOE Department of Environment PCRA Petroleum Conservation Research FO fuel Oil; furnace Oil Association GAIL Gas Authority of India Ltd. RAD restricted activity days GDP Gross Domestic Product RHA respiratory hospital admissions GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring RON research octane number System RPM respirable particles HSD high speed diesel RTO Regional Transport Office liP Indian Institute of Petroleum SKO kerosene 1IT Indian Institute of Technology SO2 sulfur dioxide IMD India Meteorology Department SSI small-scale industries LDO light diesel oil TSP total suspended particles LPG liquid petroleum gas UNDP United Nations Development LSHS low sulfur high stock Programme MCGB Municipal Council of Greater URBAIR Urban Air Quality Management Bombay Strategy MEDA Maharashtra Energy and USEPA United States Environmental Development Authority Protection Agency MEIP Metropolitan Environmental VSL value of statistical life Improvement Program WHO World Health Organization 9g micrograms (l06 grams) WLD work-loss days mg milligrams (10 _3 grams) WTP willingness to pay MOEF Ministry of Environment and Forests xiv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY URBAIR-GREATER MUMBAI (BOMBAY). Larger and more diverse cities are a sign of Asia's increasingly dynamic economies. Yet this growth has come at a cost. Swelling urban populations and increased concentration of industry and automotive traffic in cities has resulted in severe air pollution. Emissions from automobiles and factories; domestic heating, cooking and refuse burning are threatening the well being of city dwellers, imposing not just a direct economic cost on human health but also threatening long-term productivity. Governments, businesses, and communities face the daunting yet urgent task of improving their environment and preventing further air quality deterioration. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy or URBAIR aims to assist in the design and implementation of policies, monitoring and management tools to restore air quality in the major Asian metropolitan areas. At several workshops and working group meetings, government, industry, local researchers, non-governmental organizations, international and local experts reviewed air quality data and designed action plans. These plans take into account economic costs and benefits of air pollution abatement measures. This report focuses on the development of an air quality management system for Greater Mumbai (Bombay) and the resulting action plan. THE DEVELOPMENT OF GREATER BOMBAY AND ITS POLLUTION PROBLEM Greater Bombay's population grew by 38 percent from 1971 to 1981, and another 20 percent between 1981 and 1991 to reach 9.9 million. This growth was accompanied by an increase in the per capita gross domestic product. Expansion of industries, increased foundry production, and a 103 percent increase in vehicles has led to a severe air pollution problem in the city. Annual average Total Suspended Particles (TSP) concentration has increased from about 180 ,ug/m3 (particles per cubic meter) to approximately 270,ug/m3 between 1981 and 1990-an increase of almost 50 percent. Nitrous Oxide (NOJ) increased by about 25 percent, while sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations declined due to increased use of natural gas and low-sulfur coal. The average lead (Pb) concentrations doubled from 1980 to 1987. In general, SO2 and NO2 pollution is not as serious an issue as TSP and PMIo concentrations. The total annual emissions of TSP and PM1o are estimated at 32,000 and 16,000 tons/year. The resulting annual average ambient concentration varies from 118 to 313 ptg/m3 at various locations. World Health Organization's Air Quality Guideline (WHO AQG), as well as the National guideline for PMIo are frequently and substantially exceeded in Bombay; 97 percent of the population lives in areas where WHO AQG is exceeded. TSP exposure is mainly due to resuspension from roads caused by vehicles (40%), emissions from diesel and gasoline vehicles (14%), domestic wood and refuse burning (31%) and others (15%). Drivers, roadside residents and those who live near large 1 2 Executive Summary sources are most severely affected. Studies conducted between 1976 and 1990 conclude that growing concentrations of air pollutants have led to increased cases of chronic bronchitis, colds, and general decline in lung functions. A 1990 study observed that incidence of different respiratory symptoms and cardiac diseases, respiratory tract infections, and skin allergies was 5 to 10 percent higher in communities near factories in Chembur. Similarly, a study of two high density traffic areas in Bombay found a significant correlation between concentrations of air pollutants and frequency of colds and attacks of breathlessness. Past studies, as well as anecdotal evidence, suggest that Greater Bombay residents' health, especially in high density traffic areas or near industries, is under assault. The health impact is estimated at 2,800 cases of excess mortality, 60 million respiratory symptom days, and 19 million restricted activity days, with an estimated health damage cost of Rs18 billion, per year. CONCEPT OF AN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Assessment of pollution, and its control, form two prongs of an Air Quality Management System (AQMS). These components are inputs into a cost-benefit analysis. Air quality guidelines or standards, and economic objectives and constraints also guide the cost-benefit calculation. (See Figure ES. 1) An Action Plan contains the optimum set of abatement and control measures for short-, medium- and long-term enactment. Successful AQMS requires the establishment of an integrated system for continual air quality monitoring. Such a system involves: * An inventory of air pollution activities and emissions; * Monitoring of air pollution and dispersion parameters; * Calculation of air pollution concentrations by dispersion models; * Inventory of population, building materials and planned urban development; * Calculation of the effect of abatement/control Figure ES.): Air Quality Management System measures; and . Establishment/improve Dispersion ment of air pollution modeling Monitoring regulations. In order to ensure that an AQMS is having the Emissions Ar UR desired impact, it is necessary to carry out T surveillance or monitoring. Abatement Control Exposure This requires the measures & options assessment establishment of an Air regulations Quality Infornation System (AQIS) to inform Cost nasl Damage Cost analysis ~assessment authorities and the general public about air quality and URBAIR-Mumbai 3 assess results of abatement measures. AQIS should also provide continuous feedback to the abatement process. ABATEMENT MEASURES AND ACTION PLAN Measures to reduce air pollution in Bombay focus on traffic. Traffic emissions are a clear and major source of air pollution exposure. Abatement measures which address other important pollution sources including refuse and wood burning and resuspension of road dust could not be addressed due to lack of data. While pollution control in industrial areas has not been discussed at length, it must also be promoted through enforcement and regulation. Based on abatement measures, an Action Plan was designed through a consultative process with Bombay URBAIR working groups, the Municipal Council of Greater Bombay, Maharashtra Pollution Control Board, the Transport Commissioner, and local and foreign experts. See Table ES. I for estimated costs and benefits of these measures. Recommended actions fall under two categories: (1) technical and other measures that will reduce exposure to and damage from pollution; and (2) improvements in the database and in the regulatory and institutional basis required to establish an operative system for air quality management in Greater Bombay. It is proposed that the following technical and policy measures be given priority: * Address gross polluters: Existing smoke opacity regulations for diesel vehicles must be strictly enforced. Successful action depends on routine maintenance and adjustment of engines. * Clean vehicle emission standard: Establish state-of-the-art emission standards for gasoline cars, diesel vehicles, and motorcycles. Such standards would be better enforced with the assured availability of lead-free gasoline, at prices below that of leaded gasoline. * Switch to unleaded gasoline: This is an early prerequisite for clean vehicle standards. The health benefits stemming from this action would be substantial. Table ES. 1: Action Plan of abatement measures, Greater Bombay, based on cost-benefit analysis Abatement Avoided Mortality Reduced Annual Annual measure emissions reduction RSD health benefits costs tons million million Rs million Rs PM1@lyr days Vehicles: Unleaded gasoline * * * * 250-360 Low-smoke, lub oil, 2-stroke 450 65 1.5 150 30 Inspection/maintenance 800 110 2.5 250 150-300 Gross polluters 400 50 1.2 125 * Clean vehicle standards - cars and vans 400 50 1.2 125 750 - motor-, tricycles 750 100 2.4 250 600 Diesel quality 250 35 0.75 80 300 CNG replace gasoline 50% 200 25 0.6 75 * Fuel combusUon Cleaner fuel oil (to 2% S) 150 22 0.5 50 450 # Time frame for starting the work necessary to introduce measure. * Not quantified 4 Executive Summary * Use of low-smoke lubrication oil, 2-stroke: Setting and enforcing a standard for oil quality and is important. Taxes and subsidies can be used to set the price of oil according to its quality. * Inspection and maintenance of vehicles: More maintenance stations able to carry our annual or biannual inspections are needed for enforcement of clean vehicle standards. Basic legislation is already in place. The greatest potential to reduce emissions lies in diesel vehicles and initially, agencies could concentrate on these vehicles. * Improving diesel quality: Indian refineries require modification in order to produce low sulfur (less than 0.2 percent) diesel. Economic instruments such as taxes and subsidies can be used to differentiate fuel price according to quality. * Fuel switching, gasoline to LPG/CNG in vehicles: The tax or subsidy structure must be changed in order to make LPG/CNG the preferred fuel. The establishment of distribution and compression systems for CNG are also a key component of this action. * Cleaner fuel oil: A reduction in the sulfur content of furnace oil, initially to less than 2 percent is a prerequisite. * Awareness raising: Public awareness and participation are key to bringing about policy change. Widespread environmental education promotes understanding of linkages between pollution and health and encourages public involvement. Private sector participation through innovative schemes like accepting delivery only from trucks that meet government emission standards; Adopt-a-Street campaigns, and air quality monitoring displays should be encouraged. Media can also participate in awareness raising by disseminating air pollution- related data. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STRENGTHENING AIR QUALITY MONITORING, AND INSTITUTIONS A single coordinating institution with a clear mandate and sufficient resources must be made responsible for air quality management. In order to improve data, it is recommended that there be continuous, long-term monitoring at 5 or more general city sites (or city background sites), 1 to 3 traffic exposed sites, 1 to 5 industrial hot spots. Also, an on-line data retrieval system directly linked to a laboratory database either via modem or fax is recommended for modern surveillance. The analysis in this report calculates health impacts based on average dose-effect relations derived from U.S. cities because of a lack of local data. Such epidemiological data for exposure calculations should be improved. It is suggested that dispersion modeling experts be identified in Bombay and their expertise used by the agencies responsible for air quality management. Current restrictions on the use of coal, the Industrial Location Policy (1984), and the Central Action Plan (1992) to discourage non-compliance have been the most effective regulations. Restrictions on auto-rickshaws (three wheelers) and heavy commercial vehicles have had a positive effect on the air quality. It is important to ensure that institutions dealing with air quality be strengthened through clearer mandates and enforcing powers. Clearly, environmental risks are escalating. If pollution sources are allowed to grow unchecked the economic costs of productivity lost to health problems and congestion will escalate. While working with sparse and often unreliable data, this report sets out a preliminary plan that has the potential to improve air quality and better manage the AQMS in the future. 1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION SCOPE OF THE STUDY2 This city report on air quality management for Greater Mumbai (henceforth referred to as Greater Bombay) has been produced as part of the URBAIR program. A major objective of the URBAIR program is to develop Air Quality Management Systems (AQMS) for Asian cities, and to apply such strategies in the development of Action Plans to improve urban air quality. AQMS is based on a cost-benefit analysis of proposed actions, and measures for air pollution abatement. In general, costs relate to abatement measures while benefits include a potential reduction in the estimated costs of health damage resulting from air pollution. This study emphasizes the damage to the health of those who are exposed to air pollution. Population exposure is based on measured and calculated concentrations of air pollution through emission inventories and dispersion modeling. A general strategy for AQMS is described in the URBAIR Guidebook on Air Quality Management Strategy published by MEIP. In addition to this Technical Paper, others based on city-specific analysis are produced for three MEIP cities: Kathmandu Valley, Jakarta, and Metro Manila (World Bank Technical Paper nos. 378, 379, and 380). These reports outline action plans for air quality improvement (Chapter 5), including estimates of cost-and-benefit figures. The action plans are based comprehensive lists of proposed measures and actions developed by local working groups in consultation with outside experts. The appendices of the report contains more detailed description of the air quality data, the emissions inventory and emissions factors, population exposure calculations and local laws and regulations. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF GREATER BOMBAY Geography. Bombay is located on India's west coast, on a peninsula originally composed of seven islets. Drainage and concentration have caused the islets to join and form the present-day Bombay Island, with the Arabian Sea to the west, and Bombay Harbor and the outlet of Thana Creek to the east. Municipal boroughs and villages of Bombay Island and Salsett Island to the north were joined in 1957 to form Greater Bombay. The Bombay Metropolitan Region (BMR) 2 Except as indicated, adollarse refers to 1992-3 U.S. dollars. All tables and figures, except as indicated, were created by the authors for this report. 5 6 Background Information continued to expand and now includes New Figure 1.1: Bombay Metropolitan Region, and Greater Bombay, Bombay to the east of with main roads, railroads, industrial and commercial areas, and Thana Creek, and modeling area used in this study Bombay Harbor and other areas further to the north and east. In the mid-1980s B oM covered an area of more than 600 square kilometers (km2)i Figure 1.1I shows a map of BMR. Much of Bombay is on a flat Ise plain, one-fourth of which is below sea level. Two north-south ned f ridges flank the flat ThanD area, the highest point &: being Malabar Hill to the south-west, 55 meters above sea level. A4jrpo ~Now Population. The population density of Greater Bombay averages about 16,500 persons per km2 (1991), with more than three times this figure in the older central parts of, Bombay. The total population was about 9.9 million in 199 1. Transportation. Bombay Idsr n is India!s main industrial city with many air- 0 5 :okRala polluting industries located in Chembur, in eastern Bombay. The main roads are congested most of the day, particularly the eastern and western express highways and the Thana Creek Bridge Road. Municipal and commercial activity is concentrated in the city's southern part. Commuting to and from populated areas to the north places a large burden on the road system. The capacity of the road and rail system to accommodate the increasing need for south-north commuting is much too small, leading to chronic day-time congestion. Maximum traffic flow (Annual Average Daily Traffic, AADT) at a URBAIR-Mumbai 7 road section is about 120,000 vehicles per day. Three suburban, surface, electric train systems provide the main public transportation, together with the municipally owned bus fleet. The former carries more than 4 million passengers per day, while the latter transports about 4.5 million people. Bombay Harbor is India's busiest, handling more than 40 percent of India's maritime trade. The land use structure of Bombay has undergone major changes in the past decade. Massive housing developments have arisen in previously non-urban belts along the western corridor and the Bombay-Pune (eastern) rail corridor. New Bombay on the mainland, east of Thane Creek, has become a center of commercial activity. Commercial complexes have been developed in the reclamation area along Mahim Creek and Mithi River on the outskirts of the island city. A new district center- Oshiwara-has emerged in the northern suburbs. (Coopers & Lybrand and AIC, 1994) DATA SOURCES Previous studies. There has been no comprehensive study of the air pollution situation in Bombay, describing air quality, sources, emissions, and exposure. The Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB), the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) and the National Engineering and Environmental Research Institute (NEERI) have presented various data on air quality and emissions. The Bombay air pollution situation is briefly described by the World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme (WHO/UNEP, 1992) based mainly on the three Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) monitoring sites in Bombay, operated by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). The MEIP study, "Environmental Management Strategy and Action Plan for Bombay Metropolitan Region," (Coopers & Lybrand and AIC, 1994) includes the air pollution sector and proposed management options, as it does for other environmental sectors. The recently reported Comprehensive Study of Bombay Metropolitan Region (Atkins, 1993) has provided essential data on the traffic activity in Greater Bombay. URBA4IR data collection. Further data on various aspects of population, pollution sources, dispersion, air quality, and health aspects were collected for URBAIR, starting in April 1993. ADITYA Environmental Services, Bombay, provided data on population, pollution sources, fuel, vehicle and traffic statistics, air quality measurements, and meteorological/dispersion conditions. Dr. A. A. Mahashur of the Environmental Pollution Research Center in Bombay contributed evidence of the health effects of air pollution on the Bombay population, and on associated health costs. (See Appendix 8 for further details.) THE GROWTH OF BOMBAY, 1981-1991 Bombay's population grew by 38 percent from 1971 to 1981, and another 20 percent between 1981 and 1991, to reach 9.9 million. The total number of vehicles increased by about 103 percent from 1981 to 1991, leading to increased consumption of gasoline and diesel oil. Between 1985- 1990, gasoline and light diesel oil consumption increased by 26 percent and 24 percent 8 Background Information respectively, while furnace oil use decreased significantly. The 1990 gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) figure for India is US$350, and the corresponding figure for Bombay is expected to have been much higher. Over the period 1965-1990, the growth rate of GDP/ per capita was 1.9 percent, about the same as for the U.S. Over the last decade the annual increase was 3.2 percent. Figure 1.2 gives a summary of the available data regarding population, vehicles, fuel Table 1.1: Population and growth consumption and air quality, and development over the rate 1981-1991, Bombay. last decade. 1981 1991 Air quality measurements over the last decade show a Island City 3,283,000 3,109,500 definite increase in average total suspended particles Westem Suburbs 2,860,000 3,975,400 (TSP) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) concentrations, while Easter Suburbs 2,100,000 2,824,600 sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) concentrations have decreased. This Pop. density per kM2 13,670 16,430 appears to correspond with the decrease in furnace oil consumption, and increase in traffic emissions. TSP concentrations (annual average, and maximum 24-hours) are much higher than WHO Air Quality Guidelines of 90 Rtg/m3 at many measuring sites. At certain times WHO Air Quality Table 1.2: The age Guideline for SO2 (24-hour averages) is also exceeded. distribution of the Greater Bombay population, 1991. Age % Age % POPULATION 0-9 21.2 40-44 5.7 10-14 10.4 45-49 4.8 Population data for 1981 and 1991 for Greater Bombay, the Island City, 15-19 9.8 50-54 3.6 Western and Eastern Suburbs (1990) is summarized in Table 1.1. From 25-29 10.7 60-64 1.9 1980 to 1990 population grew by 20 percent. The average density in 30-34 8.1 65-69 1.1 1990 was about 16,500 inhabitants per km2. The age distribution in 35-39 7.1 >70 1.5 Greater Bombay is given in Table 1.2 (1991). Almost a third of the population (31.5 percent) was under 15 years of age, and 66 percent were 15-65 years old. VEHICLE FLEET The vehicle fleet in Bombay is Table 1.3: Registered vehiclefleet data in Bombay. categorized by cars (passenger, taxis, Vehicles (Unit 1,000) and light-duty vehicles); trucks and Cars and Utlity Trucks/ Motor- Tricycles Total buses; motorcycles; and auto- taxis vehicles Buses cycles rickshaws (tricycles). Of the 1981 180,334 3,677 41,931 78,474 4,465 308,881 630 illin veicls in1991 481982 192,281 4,035 41,932 94,671 8,487 341,406 630 million vehicles in 1991, 48 1983 204,228 4,393 41,933 110,868 12,510 373,932 percent were cars (including taxis), 1984 216,175 4,751 41,934 127,065 16,532 406,457 39 percent were motorcycles, and 9 1985 228,122 5,109 41,935 143,262 20,555 438,983 1986 240,069 5,469 50,500 159,549 24,577 480,165 percent were trucks and buses. Table 1987 253,215 5,646 51,515 177,577 24,577 512,530 1.3 provides the fleet data from 1981 1988 266,361 5,823 52,530 195,696 24,577 544,987 to 1991. 1989 279,507 6,000 53,545 213,814 24,577 577,443 1990 292,653 6,177 54,562 231,932 24,577 609,901 1991 299,289 6,501 56,086 242,008 24,577 628,461 Source: BMRDA (1990). URBA[R-Mumbai 9 Figure 1.2: Bombay development 1981-1992: Population, vehicle.fleet, fuel consumption and air quality 12.0 12.0 POPULATION 10.0 6.0 ~4.0 0.0 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 800- VEHICLE FLEET 700 0 Motor Cycles e Cars, jeeps, station wagons a Taxi cabs OAutorlckshaws l Trucks, lorries, buses * Utilty vehicles 600 ,500 O _ - , , , '''' 4 400 .300 - F C M 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 -800 ~~~~~~~. . !..B. ..... . ........ ,j 1 ~~. ~~~~ OLow Sulphur High Stock ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~. ...... ... .. .. .. .. .. C 0 G as ...oline . . . .. . . .. . . .I. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 8. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .20 0. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. ..100. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. ..Gas. .. 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 400- 7 00 FULSO2NO TSUPTO 6200 0 300 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 10 Background Information Table 1.4 shows that there was substantial growth in fleet size Table 1.4: Vehicle between 1981 and 1991. The average total annual increase was 7.3 growth rate, annual percent, largest for tricycles and motorcycles (19 percent and 12 average, Bombay percent per year). The number of tricycles which had been stable 1981-1991 between 1986 and 1991, has been on the rise since 1993. % growth In 1991, Bombay had 63 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants. This Passengercars 5.2 includes 30 cars per 1,000 persons; 5.5 trucks/buses per 1,000; and Utility vehicles 5.9 Trucks 2.9 24 motor- and tricycles per 1,000 inhabitants. The percentage of Motorcycles 11.8 diesel-powered cars was estimated at 20 percent. Tncycles 19.0 Total 7.3 Source: BMRDA (1990). ROAD AND TRANSPORT The growth in traffic activity in four cordons: Mid-city (by Mahalakshmi), Island (by Sion); Mid- suburban (by Malad Creek-Pavai Lake); and Outer cordon (by Dahisar-Thane, i.e. Greater Bombay limits), is recorded here. See Figure 1.3. Data for growth in traffic and transport in Greater Bombay are taken from the Traffic Survey in Greater Bombay Report (1988) conducted by the Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA, 1990). Traffic activity and growth during 1978-1988 is Table 1.5: Growth in traffic activities shown in Table 1.5. There has been a 5-6 percent across four cordons across Greater growth in the outer cordons while the growth has Bombay, 1978-1988. been small on Island and Mid-city (1.5-5 percent Traffic Total daily Increase per annum). Cordon vehicle % Growth across the outer cordon has mainly 1988 1978-1988 Annual taken place along the western routes (Western Outer cordon 80,370 58 4.7 Express Highway and Sion Panvel Roads, 192 Mid-suburban 156,400 70 5.5 percent and 124 percent total growth during 1978- MidCity 229,960 20 1.8 1988, respectively). At the mid-suburban cordon, Source: BMRDA (1990). the growth has been more uniform along the four main corridors, about 40-75 percent during 1978-1988. Motorized passenger traffic has increased the most, especially across outer and mid-suburban cordons. Goods traffic has actually declined in the Mid-City, possibly because some wholesale markets have moved out of the Island City. The main increase in passenger vehicle traffic growth (more than 200 percent increase in the outer cordon during 1978-1988) has been due to two-wheeler traffic across all cordons. Private Table 1. 6: Growth rates in Greater Bomnbay car traffic has increased moderately (20-30 _Tacfor vehicle cateories percent over the decade), while auto-rickshaw Growth rate % per annum traffic has to a large extent replaced taxis in the Passenger Goods Cycles and suburbs, indicated by the very large increase in vehicles vehicles other vehicAes number of auto-rickshaws early in the decade. Outer cordon 6.0 4.5 -2.8 The growth rate for various vehicle categories is Mid-suburban 6.8 1.5 2.7 presented in Table 1.6. Island 2.0 0.1 -4.4 Mid-city 3.0 -2.6 -1.85 Source: BMRDA (1990). URBAIR-Mumbai Increased volume has resulted in a substantial Figure 1.3: Four cordons studiedfor growth traffic activity in slowing down of traffic, Greater Bonbay especially on the main corridors. Along the Eastern corridor, the speeds are low (15-30 km/h) and have not changed substantially. However, the average speed along the main Western corridor has \Outer cordon declined from 50km/h in 1962 to 30-40 km/h in the late 1970s, and 20-30 km/h in 1990. Similarly, the average speed in the Eastern corridor has fallen from30km/hin 1962to 20-25 km/h in 1979, and 15 km/h in 1990 (Deshpande et al. 1993). The BMRDA study of the rates of increase in population, registered !O-ZV vehicles, and traffic flow revealed that the large population growth in the suburbs, both immediate i and extended, has caused a considerable increase in traffic flow in these areas. J- In the Island City, however, both population growth and traffic flow N have stagnated (compared to 1962-78), although the ° 1 number of registered vehicles has increased substantially (Table 1.7). Note: Solid bold lines show the main road network of BMR. 12 Background Information INDUSTRIAL SOURCES Table 1. 7: Broad comparison of growth rates of population, registered vehicles and traffic flow Aside from being India's Growth rates, 1978-1988 (%/ p.a.) financial and commercial center, Population Registered Traffic flow Bombay is also the most vehicles industrialized Indian city. There Island City 0.12 6.1 1.8 (Mid-City cordon) are approximately 40,000 small 1.4 (Island City cordon) are approximately Suburbs 2.1 14.6 5.5 (Mid-suburb cordon) and big industries in the city, of Extended suburbs 8.2 4.9 (Outer cordon) which 32 have been classified as Greater Bombay 2.6 8.1 1.7 hazardous (Table 1.8). Industries Source: BMRDA (1990). in the air polluting category include textile mills, chemical, pharmaceutical engineering, and foundry units. Process emissions, and those from fuel consumption, constitute the Table 1.8: Industrial main sources of air pollution. This study does not account for classification in Greater industrial fugitive emissions. Major air pollution sources Bombay include a giant fertilizer/chemical complex; two oil refineries, Type of Industries Number of and a thermal power plant, all based in Chembur, a suburb on industries the eastern coast of the Bombay Island. Mechanical Workshop 3,348 Plastic and Rubber 32 Industrial growth has been concentrated in the Tromby- Pranting Press 1,075 Chembur and Lalbaug areas. In addition, industries have Chemical 523 developed along Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg (Street) passing Textile 531 through the Central suburbs toward Thane; in the Andheri- Pesticide 9 Kurla area in Central Bombay, and along the Western Express Miscellaneous 33,790 highway leading out of Bombay. Figure 1.4 shows a map of Thermal Power Plant 1 major industrial sources in Bombay. As part of this URBAIR Total 40,369 study, emissions data were collected for about 280 large and medium industries in Greater Bombay. FUEL CONSUMPTION Over the period 1985-91, gasoline, high speed diesel (HSD) and low-sulfur high stock (LSHS) consumption increased by 26 percent, 28 percent, and 43 percent respectively. Furnace oil consumption decreased by 26 percent over the same period. The 1992-93 data indicate a further increase. In the LSHS column, the TATA power plant consumption is not fully accounted for in the data for 1985-91, as it is for 1992-93. Available fuel consumption data are presented in Table 1.9. URBAIR-Mumbai 13 Figure 1.4: Position of the industrial sources in Bombay with TSP emissions, mapped in this study -.7 +~~~~~ CD _ f r _ /value< O Y: - ( I lo ~1. ' t * 272 *25 1294 *2581199 0198 265e *197 143 * Stations not monitored J H ~~~Air quality / ) ~~Standard Guideline 14* Bombay WHO L L360 pg/M3 60-90 pg/r3 Note: For site location, see Figure 1, Appendix 1. 18 Air Quality Assessment PMIO air quality guidelines. Figure 2.2: Monthly average TSP concentrations at the The PM1O air quality MCGB Parel site for 1987-1988 and 1992-1993(pg/m3) guidelines applicable to 6 a so Bombay, as well as the oo 2 WHO standard, are given in 500, . NOx Table 2.3. * SPM PMIo has not recently E400 been measured in Bombay. 2 3 However, a 1982-1983, respirable particles, human 2 200 exposure study (WHO, 1984) is summarized in Table 2.4 1 The results of this study o indicate that concentrations JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY of, and exposure to, PM1O in 1992/1993 Bombay in 1982 were much higher than the WHO air quality guideline, with Table 2.2: Results of ambient air monitor (rn3 at dfferent tra;/5/ junctions in Bombay. Monitoring S02 NO2 Site Period # samples AVG MAX. # samples AVG MAX. 1. V.T. 2.12.91 12 89 127 12 175 296 - 6.12.91 2. Nana Chowk 9.12.91 12 60 104 12 124 162 -13.12.91 3. Maheshwari Udyan 20.01.92 12 117 162 12 156 210 -24.01.92 4. Mahim 24.03.92 8 43 120 8 90 107 -26.03.92 5. Worli Naka 22.04.92 9 38 80 9 56 83 -25.04.92 6. Sion Circle 27.04.92 9 90 125 9 117 167 -30.04.92 TSP CO- PPM # samples AVG MAX. # samples AVG MAX. 1.V.T. 2.12.91 12 651 1,072 15 11.1 13.3 - 6.12.91 2. Nana Chowk 9.12.91 12 480 555 23 6.5 7 -13.12.91 3. Maheshwari Udyan 20.01.92 12 1, 309 1, 653 39 7.5 9.7 -24.01.92 4. Mahim 24.03.92 8 1,144 3,170 31 6.2 15.6 -26.03.92 5. Worli Naka 22.04.92 9 542 668 30 5.1 9.6 -25.04.92 6. Sion Circle 27.04.92 9 708 1, 094 30 5.8 9.7 -30.04.92 Source: Correspondence with MCGB. URBAIR-Mumbai 19 maximum values as high as 6 times the guideline. Although Table 2.3: PM1o standards applicable to Bombay long-term concentrations were WHO (pgfm3) Indian (Bombay)( gIm3) below the Bombay air quality Long-term (annual average): - 120* guideline, short-term (24-hour) Short-term (24 hour average): 70 150** concentrations frequently Source: National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Industrial and Mixed Use Areas. Refer to S.O. 384(E) under Air Pollution Control Act, 1981, exceeded the present standard. Government of India. For WHO Guidelines, see WHO/UNEP (1992). * Annual average mean of minimum 104 (24 hourly) measurements in a Lead Lead measurements at year. the 22 MCGB sites (1980- ** Should be met 98 percent of the time in a year. Should not be exceeded on 1987) indicate that it is a two consecutive days. significant pollutant in Bombay. Annual average Table 2.4: Respirable particle concentrations measured in levels ranged from 0.5 ,ug/m3 Bombay, 1982 (average and maximum 24-hour to 1.3 pg/M3. These exceed the concentration) WHO guideline annual Winter Summer Monsoon average (0.5-1 pg/M3, long- Person: personal monitor 127/434 67/188 581138 term) and the Bombay Indoor: in the person's home 118/327 65/231 62/131 guidelin 9gmannl Outdoor: outside the person's home 117/251 65/225 51/106 guideline (1.0 pg/in3, annual Monitoring site: measurements at the 112/204 53/100 44/122 average and 1.5 pg/m3, 24- nearest fixed monitorng site hour average), at all locations. Note: Each average number represents about 100 samples. From 1980 to 1987, average lead concentration in the air nearly doubled. Considering the frequency of measurements, these very high "monthly" averages are likely to represent single, 24-hour values. The Eastern Suburban zone was the most exposed area with monthly average concentrations as high as 17.9 pg/M3. recorded at the Mulund Site in October 1984. Lead concentrations in the Central Bombay area were also high, with the highest monthly average of 8.4 pg/m3 measured at Dadar in January 1985. The Indian standard for maximum lead content of gasoline is 0.56 grams per liter in regular gasoline (Research Octane Number 87 or RON 87) and 0.80 grams per liter in premium gasoline (RON 93). In Bombay, most gasoline sold in the last 8-9 years has about 0.18-0.19 grams per liter. About 30 percent of the gasoline consumed has a high lead content, although it complies with the Indian standard. S02 and 504. Indian (Bombay) and WHO air quality guidelines for S02 are given in Table 2.5. The annual average SO2 concentration in Bombay (MCGB sites) has decreased since the 1980 average of about 45 1pg/M3, to about 25 gg/M3 in 1992/93. This decrease is also apparent at the GEMS sites. Extremely high sulfate concentrations in particles were measured during the respirable particle study in 1982 (WHO, 1984) with average concentrations in the range 20-30 pg/M3, and maximum 24-hour Table 2.5: Bombay air quality guidelines for concentrations as high as 88 pg/M3. Contribution from sea aerosol may at times Indian (Bombay) WHO make considerable additions to these Lagin 50 g/O Long-term (annual) average 80 cgcm3 50 ng/M3 concentrations. Short-term (24-hour) average 120 ,g/m3 125 ,g/m3 Source: S.O. 384(E) under Air Pollution Control Act, 1981, Government of India, and WHO/UNEP (1992). 20 Air Quality Assessment The summary of measurements in 1992V1993,.shown in Figure 2.3, indicates that long-term average SO2 concentrations are fairly low, and less than the WHO and Bombay guidelines at all sites. The maximum 24-hour values probably exceed the air quality guidelines at some sites, although only occasionally. The Pararosaniline (TCM) colorimetric method is used in these measurements. NO,. Bombay air quality standards and WHO Guidelines for NO,, are not directly Table 2.6: Bombay air quality guidelines for comparable since the WHO guideline specifies NO, NO2, while the Bombay standard specifies Indian (Bombay) WHO NO,, as NO2 (i.e. NO+NO2, measured as NO2.) NO, as N02 NO2 Even so, the Bombay NO,, standard is stricter Long term (annual) average 80 pgIm3 than the WHO NO2 guidelines. The guidelines Short term (24 hour) average 120 ijg4m3 150 PjgOO3 for NO2 and NO,, are given in Table 2.6. Source: S.O. 384(E) under Air Pollution Control Act, 1981, The annual average summary of NO,* Govemment of India, and WHO/UNEP (1992). measurements in 1992-93 is shown in Figure 2.4. The highest concentration, 83 pg/m3 at Sion, barely exceeds the Bombay standards. The other stations are well below the standard. The highest 24-hour average concentrations most probably exceeds that standard (120 pg/m3). The annual average NO,, concentration, averaged over all stations in Bombay, has increased from about 25 Pg/M3 in 1981 to about 40 pg/M3 in 1990, and 46 pg/m3 in 1993. The summary of NOx concentrations at MCGB stations in the period June 1992-May 1993 is shown in Figure 2.4. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS IN GREATER BOMBAY Total emissions. A comprehensive emission inventory was developed for Bombay as part of the -URBAIR project. The local URBAIR consultant collected the necessary input data, according to the project description (Appendix 8). The traffic emission distribution was developed on the basis of road and traffic data included in the Comprehensive Transport Plan for Bombay (Atkins, 1993). Appendix 4 describes the development of the emission inventory. The results of the emission inventory are presented in Table 2.7. These are based on the emission factor data given in Table 2.8, and the fuel consumption data in Table 2.9. Traffic activity data are described in detail in Appendix 4. Emission factors for particles are described in Appendix 5. Appendix 7 contains the emission spreadsheet calculations. The inventory covers the main source categories. Figure 2.5 shows the main source contributions. Emission factors recommended by WHO (1993), and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1986) have generally been used, as in the other URBAIR cities (Manila, Jakarta, Kathmandu). Indian emission factors are available for some of the sources, such as vehicles, and for fuel combustion as suggested by the URBAIR Bombay working group on air quality (see Appendix 5). The working groups decided to use the WHO/EPA factors in this first phase of URBAIR. Accepted Indian factors should be used in subsequent analysis processes. URBAIR-Mumbai 21 Figure 2.3: Mean annual SO2 concentrations at MCGB sitesfor 1992-1993 (pg/m3) Bombay 08 K @35 *10 @ 50 a 35 *15 19 * ~~~019 0 . G X i ~~~~~~~* Stations not monitored J p ~~~Air quality / ) ~Standard Guideline / t ~Bombay WHO 80 ,ug/r3 50 pg/r3 Source: Communication with MCGB scientists. Note: For site location see Figure 1, Appendix 1. 22 Air Quality Assessment Figure 2.4: Annual average NOx concentrations at MCGB stations in the period June 1992- May 1993 (pg/rM3) Bombay @ 30 )054S @42 . 33. 039 @ 48 049 40 * ~~*1 * @61 .~~25 / I ~~~Standard / t ~~Bombay 80 pg/r3 (NO as NO2)0_ Source: Communication with MCGB scientists. Note: For site location see Figure 1, Appendix 1. URBAIR-Mumbai 23 Table 2.7: Total annual emission in Greater Bombay, 1992-1993 (tonslyr) Emission sources TSP PM,, S02 NOx Hours of operation - ~ i'~icie Transport sector vl;eW exhaust Gasoline Cars 492 492 160 6,643 12 MC/TC 737 737 250 179 12 Diesel Cars 765 765 395 1,783 12 Buses 445 445 566 2,891 12 Trucks 1,234 1,234 2,120 8,024 12 Sum vehicle exhaust 3,673 3 ,673 3,490 19, 520 12 Resuspension from roads 10,200 2,550 - 12 EnergyTindustry sector.................................................................. ~~~~~~~~~~~~................................................................................ .......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... Power plan ~~~~~~-1,500 -1500 -26,000 -11,200 24 Other fuel combustion Industrial LSHS 140a 84 11,920a 1,690 24 FO 1,652a 1,399 24,480a 2,140 24 LDO 121 6 1,510a 120 24 Diesel 121 6 800a 115 24 LPG 0,5 0.5 - 20 24 Sum industrial 1,817 1,496 38,710 4,085 Domesticlcommercial c Wood 4,395 2,198 69 410 12 (day) Kerosene (SKO) 23 23 1,628 258 10 (day) LPG 14 14 0,7 676 10 (day) Sum domestic 4,432 2,235 1,688 1,344 Industrial processesb Stone crushers 6,053 12 (day) Other Refuge burning Domestic 3,700 3,700 Dumps 408 408 26 153 12 (3 PM-3 AM) Construction Marine (docks) FO 540 459 8,000 750 24 LSHS 16 8 1 120 425 24 Diesel 2 1 120 45 24 LDO 1 1 110 25 24 Sum marine 560 469 9,350 1245 Total 32,343 16,031 79,264 37,547 a) Uncontrolled. b) Process emissions are less important than fuel combustion emissions in Bombay. c) Domestic coal/dung combustion not included, due to lack of volume data. 24 Air Quality Assessment Table 2.8: Emissionfactors usedfor URBAIR, Bombay, 1992 TSP PMioITSP S02 NOx %S max Fuel combustion kgIt) Coal, bituminous, power plant - uncontrolled 5Aa 19.5Sa 10.5 - cyclone 1.25A 0.95 19.5S 10.5 - ESP 0.36A 19.5S 10.5 Residual oil (OF): ind./comm. 1.25S+0.38 0.85 20S 7.0 4 Distillate oil: ind./comm. 0.28 0.5 20S 2.84 LSHS: 1 (LSHS, HSD, LDO): residential 0.36 1.6' 0.5 20S 2.6 HSD: 1 LDO: 1.8 LPG: ind./dom. 0.06 1.0 0.007 2.9 0.02 Kerosene: dom. 0.06 1.0 17S 2.5 0.25 Natural gas: utility 0.06 1.0 20S 11.3 * f - ind./dom. 0.06 20S 2.5 Wood: dom. 15 0.5 0.2 1.4 Refuse buming: domestic 37 1.0 0.5 3.0 - dumps 8 Coal: domestic 10 Dung: domestic 10 kiW W i-es... g"k ... m ).............................................................................................................................................................................................................. Road vehicles (glkm) Gasoline: Cars 0.2 1.0 2.7 87:0.25 - Trucks, light duty 0.33 1.0 83:0.20 - Buses and trucks, heavy duty 0.68 1.0 - MC/TC 0.5 1.0 0.1 Diesel: Cars 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.0 - Trucks, light duty 0.9 1.0 - Buses and trucks, heavy duty 2.0 13 a), A: Ash content, in %; S: sulfur content, in % b) Well -- poorly maintained fumaces Note: For additional information on the compilation of emission factors, see Appendix 5. Emissions from the TATA power plant have been calculated based on the fuel consumption figures of Table 2.5, and assuming ESP emission control. The emissions do not contribute much to ground level exposure due to their tall stacks (278 meters). Dockside emissions are primarily a result of petroleum products sold to ships. It is not known how much of this petroleum is actually burned in the docks. Emissions also come from ships waiting in the bay for dock space. These emissions are substantial and contribute to the extra urban background concentrations, particularly SO2 and SPM. They are calculated from ship counts and waiting time. No specific data on industrial process emissions are available. Emissions from large/medium industries have been collected on a separate file which contains data from about 280 large/medium plants in Bombay. Process and fuel combustion emissions have not been separated. Also, the emission data for some of the plants are based on actual emission measurements, and may not be representative. TSP. Total annual TSP emissions are estimated at about 32,400 tons per year for 1992-1993. Road traffic, particularly resuspension of road dust, wood burning, domestic refuse burning, and URBAIR-Mumbai 25 furnace oil use in industry are the largest sources of TSP Table 2.9: Fuel consumption data for Greater Bombay, emissions. Because these 1992-1993 (April-March) sources exhaust emissions at Category Fuel type 103 metric tonslyear low heights, they contribute TATA Power Plant LSHS 927 significantly to population Coal 298 exposure. Gas 496 In some areas, stone Industrial LSHS 499 279 in Petrochem. industry crushers expose nearby 164 in large/medium industry populations to TSP. Emissions 56 in small scale industry from stone crushers are FO 306 183 in large/medium industry from stone crushers are~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 123 in small scale industry assumed to be uncontrolled and LDO 42 have been worked out Diesel (HSD) 40 separately. The emission figure LPG 7 for domestic refuse burning Domestic Wood 289 refers to commonly burned SKO 480 street litter and leaves, LPG 233 althoug littlisnownManne (port/bay) FO 100 although little is known about LSHS 56 the magnitude of the practice. Diesel 6 A first gross estimate of LDO 3 one kilogram per household Note: For mobile sector fuel consumption and traffic activity, see Appendix 4. per week was used. The emission factor is highly uncertain. Based on WHO (1993) and NILU experiments (Semb, 1986), an emission factor of 37 grams per kilograms (g/kg) has been used. For burning at municipal refuse dumps, 8 g/kg has been used with reference to WHO (1993). An emission figure has not been developed for construction in Bombay due to lack of data, even though the experience of other Asian cities such as Manila leads us to believe that TSP emissions from construction tend to be substantial (Larssen et al., 1995). Table 2.10 lists USEPA suggested emission factors (EPA AP 42) for road dust Table 2.10: USEPA suggested road dust resuspension resuspension. emission factors These factors are valid for dry Road class AADT Emission factor in glkm road conditions. Much of the Local streets <500 15.00 traffic activity takes place on Collector streets 500-10,000 10.00 roads with annual average daily Major streets 10,000-50,000 4.40 traffic (AADT) greater than Freeways/expressways >50 000 0.35 50,000. Assuming the traffic Source: USEPA (1986). activity share on these road are 5 percent (local), 25 percent (collector), 30 percent (major), and 40 percent (freeway/expressway), and that the roads are wet 50 percent of the time, EPA emission factors give an average factor of a little more than 2 grams per kilometer. A recent evaluation of road emission rates supports, in general, the EPA emission factors for paved roads, although the study concludes that more investigation is needed (Claiborn et al., 1995). We select 2 grams per kilometer as an average resuspension emission factor. 26 Air Quality Assessment PM,O. Total PMIo emissions are calculated at about 16,000 tons per annum for 1992-1993. Refuse burning, resuspension, vehicle exhaust from diesel trucks, and fuel oil combustion in industry were the dominant PM1o sources. Source distribution is shown in Table 2.11: Typicalfuel suljur Figure 2.5. cable2T content 502. Emissions of SO2 are calculated on the basis of the Fuel type Sulfur content (%) maximum sulfur contents of fuel as shown in Table Liglt diesel oil (LDO) 1.8 2.11. Distillate (LSHS, HSD) 1.0 Total SO2 emissions are roughly 79,000 tons per Motor diesel 1.0 annum. Industries, fuel oil, LSHS, and the TATA power Kerosene 0.25 plant are the main contributors. The actual sulfur Gasoline:87 RON 0.25 content of fuels, and thus actual SO2 emissions, may be 93 RON 0.20 lower. Figure 2.5: Source contributions to emissions of TSP and PM,1, Greater Bombay, 1992 TSP 0 Tata Termal PM, Tata Termal Power Plant P0 Power Plant E Gasoline 0 Gasoline cars/MC/TC cars/MClTC 14% 6% 5% o Diesel 10% O Diesel | 2 % cars/trucks/buses 23% 8% caOs/trucks/buses 2% 9% 0~~~ Resuspension 0 Resuspension 17%/ 3%1/ 16% B Wood Buming EWood Buming 7 /x 40% 1 %Mane *Marine 10% O Refuse domestic 1 Refuse domestic so, 1E0Tata Termal NOx 0 Tata Termal Power Plant Power Plant ED Gasoline C Gasoline 12% carslMClTC 4% 3% cars/MC/TC 2% , s ' ' ., . i 33% E Diesel 30% O Diesel cars/trucks/buses cars/trucks/buses ES Ind. fuel El Ind. fuel * Domestic SKO - Domestic fuel 41 M n . :Ma:n 34% -: 48% ;..18% CaMarine C Matins URBAIR-Mumbai 27 NO, Total annual NO, emissions are calculated at 37,000 tons per annum Figure 2.6: Exposure modeling area, Greater Bombay with vehicle exhaust, especially from diesel trucks and gasoline cars, and _ l I X I I I X I X X 1 I I X X _ the TATA power plant being the ( s* O Bombay main causes. Spatial emission distribution. A base-line situation for air pollution I exposure was established as a basis / for a cost-benefit or cost- effectiveness analysis of abatement measures for Greater Bombay. In .15 i addition, spatial concentration fields */ over the urban area were demarcated. < 12 7 .I To model the spatial distributions, a >12 14 grid-formed particle emission survey - was designed to measure high . particle concentrations-the main air - 1011i pollution problem in Bombay. The \ calculated total emissions were _ distributed over a square kilometer * (km2) grid net of 42 by 20 km2, covering the area shown in Figure 8 * \ 2.6. - . /a . _ 6Point source emissions were 7* 2C2 distributed according to their actual * 01_ location. Fuel consumption in small , industries, and in households, were ) 21 distributed in relation to the population (See Appendix 4). Traffic )3 emissions on the main road network were based on the locations of various corridors. The remaining / diesel and gasoline used was / distributed among the non-slum _ population distribution. ) _ / /J ~~~~~~~Main road _ Note: 42x20 km2 grid net. Numbers correspond to MCGB monitoring sites. See Figure 1, Appendix 1 for site locations. 28 Air Quality Assessment DISPERSION MODEL CALCULATIONS FOR GREATER BOMBAY Dispersion conditions General description of topography, climate and dispersion. Bombay has a mean elevation of 11 meters above sea level, and it consists of several islands on the Konkan coast. The city has a tropical savanna climate, with monthly mean humidity ranging between 57-87 percent. The annual average temperature is 25.3°C, rising to a maximum of 34.5°C in June and minimum of 14.3°C in January. Average annual precipitation is 2,078 millimeters with 34 percent (709 millimeters) falling in the month of July. In the winter the predominant local wind direction is northerly, while in the summer monsoon season, north-westerly winds predominate. A sea breeze is usual during the day, with mean wind speeds between 1.5-2 meters per second. Nights, between the hours of 22:00 and 06:00, are calm. The mixing depth varies between 30 meters and 3,000 meters (NEERI, 1991). Studies have shown that active monsoon conditions are associated with a lowering of the mixing layer height, an absence of inversion/stable layers, and decreased convective instability in ihe lower layers of the monsoon atmospheric boundary. The reverse is observed on monsoon break days. In weak and break monsoon conditions there is a subsidence and feeding of dry air from the sky. In moderate to active monsoon conditions, the moisture reaches higher levels due to synoptic scale convergence. High pollution concentrations in Bombay usually occur in the winter when adverse meteorological situations, and weak and break monsoon conditions dominate. In the early mornings the inversion layer is lowest (closest to the ground), and leads to poor vertical mixing of pollutants. In the daytime when there is high insulation, a sea breeze blows inland. This wind direction may cause stagnation of the airmass when the monsoon winds run in the opposite direction. Such a condition can usually be seen on winter days and early summer mornings. Dispersion conditions. Dispersion of air pollution emissions is dominated by wind conditions and the vertical stability of the atmosphere. Wind statistics from the meteorological stations at the Santa Cruz airport and Colaba Observatory, at Bombay's southern tip, have been obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). Winds are generally calmer at Colaba than at Santa Cruz indicating that the wind counter has a high starting velocity, or that it is shielded by nearby vegetation or buildings. During the monsoon (August), winds are fairly strong and the dominating directions at Santa Cruz are from west and northwest. At Colaba, the wind direction seems to be shifted some 300 counter- clockwise. During the winter (December) winds are very weak, and the main wind sectors are southeast and north. During the summer (March), the wind speed picks up again and the northerly sector dominates. Figure 2.7 shows wind roses from Santa Cruz for December (winter), March (summer) and August (monsoon conditions) as recorded in 1992/1993. URBAIR-Mumbai 29 Figure 2.7: Wind roses for 1992-1993, Santa Cruz Airport and Colaba Santa Cruz Colaba 30) August '92 20~~~~~~~~~2 December t9272 20 > 6.0 r/s 4.0- 6.0 2.0- 4.0 _0.5- 2.0 I 10-- 10 March'93 8 August 1992 December 1992 March 1993 Average wind speed, rn/s 2.3 0.8 1.3 30 Air Quality Assessment From this data, and from calculations of the stability class based on hourly observations of wind and cloud cover, a combined wind/stability matrix has been constructed. Such a matrix, Table 2 12: WVindlstabilityfrequency matrix), Santa representing the statistics of Cruz Airport, June 1992-May 1993 (% annual) rsprersetion theistatistiy,csn ofus Stability classes Velocity classes (m/s) Frequency of calm dispersion climatology, can be used I - unstable 0.3-2.0 (1.1 W/s average) In unstable class: 10.5% as input to dispersion models for N - neutral 2.04.0 (2.9 rn/s average) In neutral class: 0% calculation of long-term average SS - slightly stable 4.0-6.0 (4.8 rn/s average) In SS class: 4.2% concentrations of pollutants. The S- stable >6.0 (6.8 rn/s average) In stable class: 16.7% combined matrix, based on the Santa Note: The calm frequencies are cistbuted in the direction sectors within Cruz data, is given in Table 2.12. each of the stability classes of the 0.3-2 n/s velocity class, proportional to This matrix is used for the the occurrence of wind. dispersion conditions over the entire modeling area. Dispersion model calculations, city background Model description. The dispersion modeling work in the first phase of URBAIR concentrates on the calculation of long-term (annual) average concentrations, representing averages within square kilometer grids (city concentrations). Contributions from nearby local sources in specific receptor points (streets, industrial hot spots) must also be evaluated. The model used is a multisource Gaussian model that treats area, point, and volume sources separately. Meteorological input to the model is represented by a joint wind speed/direction/stability matrix representing the annual frequency distributions of these parameters. The dispersion conditions are assumed to be spatially uniform over the model area. For point sources, account is taken of plume rise (Briggs equations), the effects of building turbulence, and plume downwash. For area sources, the total emissions in a square kilometer grid are simulated by 100 ground level point sources equally spaced over the grid. McElroy-Pooler classification for low-level area sources, and Brookhaven classification for point sources (stacks) were used as the dispersion parameters. The software package used in the KILDER model system was developed at NILU (Gram and B0hler, 1992). TSP. Calculated annual average TSP concentration distributions are shown in Figure 2.8 for the following source categories: * road traffic (vehicle exhaust); * area sources-domestic fuel combustion (wood, SKO, LPG), fuel combustion in small industries (LSHS, LDO), stone crushers, and burning in refuse dumps; * point sources (emission from 280 large and medium size industrial plants); and, * resuspension from roads. A total background concentration of 60 Vg/m3 has been estimated based on measurements carried out near Vikram and Thal South of Bombay (data provided by M.G. Rao; Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizer, Ltd. and ADITYA). This total also includes resuspension from roads. The concentrations from resuspension are calculated to be about 2.5 times those from exhaust particles, based on emission factors. We estimate that resuspension of dust from roads is the most important source of TSP. URBAIR-Mumbai 31 Domestic burning of refuse has not been added to area Figure 2.8: Calculated average annual TSP concentration sources when calculating the distibutions, Greater Bonbay, June 1992-May 1993 concentrations. The rough Traffic (vehicle exhaust) Area sources estimate of emissions from . . ' _____I_'' __' __'' __' __'' _'' __'__''_ refuse burning is about the '1 same as from vehicle exhaust. This emission should be distributed according to the I ; 0 population burning refuse. : Contribution from refuse 4 burning would be about the ' same as from traffic, about 20- l6 30 gg/m3 in the maximum I \ zone. The concentration peaks correspond to stone crushers (in the area source distribution), and to specific industrial I., sources (in the point source distribution). v t\P In Figure 2.9, measured v annual TSP concentrations are of plotted (from Figure 2.1). The . x... ' I calculated and measured values I......r'''r1II Point sources Sum of all sources are generally of the same . ....... . . * , * La magnitude. Many of the sites with high measured values were , seen to be situated in industrial ' Q areas, indicating possibilities of ' contributions from local , . 1 K, sources. In this comparison it : 4' c (f; ' should be noted that TSP from 'V , refuse burning is in addition to I . : the calculated concentrations. . PMo. Concentration - II , distributions for PM,0 have not been calculated, but can be * O ,, - , : . / estimated based on calculated (' TSP concentrations and PM10/TSP ratios. Estimated . / PMIo concentration ,,' . / contributions in the maximum ./ concentration distribution zone (Dadar-Sion) are tabulated in Note: Calculated and measured values at MCGB and GEMS sites. Table 2.13. See Figure 1, Appendix 1 for site locations. 32 Air Quality Assssment Figure 2.9: Annual average TSP, Greater Bombay, June 1992-May 1993 _I I I I 7 I I I I I1 I I I I Note: Calculated and measured values at MCGB and GEMS sites. See Figure 1, Appendix 1 for site locations. URBAIR-Mumbai 33 Annual average PMIo concentrations of about 100 Vg/m3 Table 2.13: Calculated TSP represent about 50 percent of the TSP concentrations in the and PM10concentrations Dadar-Sion area for 1992. This is slightly higher than the Concentraton PMIo concentrations reported in Table 2.2, as measured in level (aglm3) 1982. It can be expected that the PM1o concentrations have TSP PMio increased since 1982. Vehicle exhaust - 30 - 30 Resuspension - 80 - 20 Area sources - 30 -15 SO2. Dadar-Parel (excluding peaks near specific industries) Point sources - 5 - 3 has the highest calculated annual average SO2 at 70 Lg/m3. Extra-urban 60 - 30 This is significantly higher than the measured SO2 background concentration which ranges from 30-40 ,ug/m3. The Sum -205 -100 discrepancy can be mostly accounted for by the maximum sulfur content of fuel. Actual sulfur content is less and, therefore, the SO2 concentrations should also be less. Figure 2.10 shows calculated S02 concentration distributions (annual average, June 1992-May 1993). In this case, the distribution represents the sum from traffic (vehicle exhaust), area sources (fuel combustion) and point sources with no extra-urban background added. Vehicle exhaust from traffic is the most important source for ground level SO2 concentrations in Bombay. N.,, Figure 2.11 shows the calculated NO,, concentration distributions from vehicle exhaust, fuel combustion in area sources, and point sources. Calculated concentrations of around 200 ,ug/m3 are highest in the Dadar-Sion area. Measured NO. concentrations are about 100 ,ug/m3, roughly half the calculated concentrations (see Appendix 1). Vehicle exhaust is the most important source for ground-level NOx concentrations. Pollution hot spots Pollution hot spots are areas with large concentration contributions. They are generally located along main roads, and near industrial areas with significant emissions from low stacks. The calculated concentration distributions of Figures 2.8, 2.9 and 2.10 indicate industrial pollution hot spots, including stone crushers. The measurements described in Figure 2.1 and in Table 2.2 show that the highest concentrations measured are indeed in industrial zones (e.g. Maravali) and near road crossings. Such hot spot pollution areas may contribute significantly to air pollution exposure. 34 Air Quality Assessment Figure 2.10: Calculated annual average SO2 concentration distributions, Greater Bombay, June 1992-May 1993 Traffic (vehicle exhaust) Area sources Point sources Sum of allsou,rc,e,s ~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . ...,................... .. . 0 Note: Calculated and measured values at MCGB and GEMS sHtes. See Figure 1, Appendix 1 for site locations. URBAIR-Mumbai 35 Figure 2.11: Calculated annual average NO. concentration distributions, Greater Bonbay, June 1992-May 1993 Traffic (vehicle exhaust) Area sources . * ,.,,. .......... .... . , .i... ,,. .............. Point sources Sum of all sources 4 -~~~~~~- .,, /''- . . . *XE I I@ .. p I, .. Note: Calculated and measured values at MCGB and GEMS sites. See Figure 1, Appendix 1 for site location. 36 Air Quality Assessment POPULATION EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION IN GREATER BOMBAY People are generally exposed to air pollutants at home, on roads, and at work. Population exposure is defined as the number of inhabitants experiencing concentrations ofpollution compounds above certain concentrations. The cumulative population exposure distribution gives the percentage of the total population exposed to concentrations above given values. Correct mapping of pollution exposure requires data on: * Concentration distributions and their variation with time- - at residences (general urban air pollution, city background); - along main roads; - near other hot spots, such as near industrial areas; and, * Population distribution (residences and workplaces), the number of commuters and time- dependent travel habits. The methodology used for calculating population exposure is described in Appendix 6. Briefly, it can be described as follows: * calculate concentration distribution from all sources (except from domestic refuse burning); * add exposure for residents close to the main roads; * calculate residence exposure from this concentration distribution and the km2 population distribution; and, * add exposure for commuters and drivers traveling on roads. This method gives a rough estimate of actual population exposure in Bombay. Industrial hot spot exposure is not accounted for, except near stone crushers. TSP. Population exposure to TSP, the major air pollution problem in Greater Bombay, is an input into health damage analysis. This is not to diminish the importance of exposure to high short- term concentrations of suspended particles and other pollution compounds in hot spots. Calculating such exposure requires a more extensive database than was available for Greater Bombay. In addition, although air quality guidelines have been set for short-term exposures, comprehensive dose-effect relationships regarding health have not yet been developed for such exposures. The results of the population exposure calculations for annual average TSP in Greater Bombay (present conditions 1992-1993) are shown in Figure 2.12 and can be summarized as follows: * about 97 percent of the population is exposed to TSP concentration above the WHO AQG (90 ,Lg/m3); * approximately 8 percent of the population is exposed to TSP more than twice the WHO AQG (180 g.g/m3), including an estimated 300,000 drivers; * most seriously exposed are roadside residents and public transport drivers, policemen and other roadside workers (estimated at 300,000 or 3 percent of the population), and residents near stone crushers. Exposure to TSP in homes is due to resuspension from roads, domestic wood combustion and refuse burning, and exhaust from diesel vehicles. URBAIR-Mumbai 37 Figure 2.12: Calculatedpopulation exposure distribution, Greater Bombay nwdeling area, TSP, 1992-1993, annual average 100 ReudeWia pmipose --Tota expowmr 80 70 seo E C3 40 30-- 0 j 55 75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 235 255 275 295 315 335 TSP (Ug/m3) 30 25 CTota e*cpeum 20 15 10 5 56 75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 235 255 275 295 315 335 TSP (ug/m3) 38 Air Quality Assessment PM1O. Corresponding population exposure to PM1o can be estimated by multiplying the TSP axis in Figure 2.12 by 0.5. The long-term WHO AQG for TSP, 90 ,ug/m3, is exceeded to a larger extent than the corresponding PM1o guideline of 60 Pg/m3. Thus, for long-term exposure to particles, TSP is the limiting parameter. Main sources of PM1o exposure at residences are diesel vehicles, domestic refuse and wood burning, and resuspension of road dust. Additional exposure in hot spot areas near industries may be significant. SUMMARY OF THE AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT Greater Bombay air quality. Total annual emissions (1992-93) are the following: * 32,343 tons TSP * 79,264 tons SO2 * 37,547 tons NOx . 16,031tonsPMI0 For many years, concentrations of TSP, SO2 and NO, have been measured regularly at more than 22 fixed locations for a few days each month. The locations are distributed among area- representative stations, street-side locations and in industrial areas. Despite its limitations, this database shows: * TSP frequently exceeds the WHO air quality guideline at all stations; * concentrations at street crossings are sometimes extremely high, exceeding the WHO air quality guideline by a factor of 10 or more; * relative to their respective air quality guidelines, TSP and PM1o are the most important pollution parameters in Bombay; and * it is desirable to substantially improve the air quality monitoring system of Greater Bombay. Emission sources. Large amounts of suspended particles come from road traffic, exhaust (particularly from diesel vehicles), and resuspension of road dust. Other particle sources are domestic refuse burning Table 2.14: Estimated contributions of (roughly estimated), wood combustion, and emissions from differenct sources industrial and marine fuel oil combustion. Source Percentage Road traffic dominates NO, emissions, TSP Resuspended road dust 40 (rough estimate) while power plant and industrial fuel oil Wood combustion 17 combustion dominate S02 emissions. Diesel vehicle exhaust 9 Domestic refuse buming 14 (rough estimate) Improvements are needed in the emissions Industrial fuel combustion 7 inventory, especially with respect to PM10 Diesel vehicle exhaust 16 industrial emissions, domestic refuse Domestic wood 14 burning, resuspension, and construction. Domestic refuse buming 23 Estimated contributions from different Resuspension from roads 16 Gasoline vehicle exhaust 8 sources are shown in Table 2.14. S02: Industrial fuel combustion 82 (incl. power plant 33%) Diesel vehicle exhaust 4 Population exposure. Calculations show that Marine fuel combustion 12 about 97 percent of the population is NOx Industrial fuel combusion 41 exposed to annual average TSP Gasoline vehicle exhaust 18 Diesel vehicle exhaust 34 URBAIR-Mumbai 39 concentrations exceeding the WHO air quality guideline. Of this, 8 percent of the population is exposed to TSP that is double the guideline. This includes approximately 300,000 drivers, other roadside workers, roadside residents, and those who live near stone crushers. Main sources of TSP exposure are resuspension from roads, domestic wood combustion, diesel vehicles, and domestic refuse burning. Diesel vehicles, domestic wood and refuse burning, and resuspension are the main sources of PM1O . Additional exposure in industrial hot spots may also be significant. Methodfor calculating effects of abatement measures on population exposure. A simple procedure for calculating emissions, and population exposure has been programmed into spreadsheets to estimate the effects of various abatement measures on exposure distribution. IMPROVING AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR GREATER BOMBAY Shortcomings and data gaps Air quality. The present measurement system operated by MCGB can be briefly characterized as follows: * 24 hour (3x8 hours) samples of TSP, S02, N02 and NI{3 collected infrequently (1-4 days per month); * PM10, lead, CO and 03 and other compounds not routinely measured; D Monitoring on rooftops (4-12 meters above ground); - No stations are monitored as frequently as required under the Indian AQG (at least 104 days per year); and, 3 Many of the measurement sites are not clearly defined in terms of their representativeness, as: - city stations (commercial, industrial, and residential); - traffic exposed (street side) stations; and, - industrial hot spot stations. It is clear that the MCGB air monitoring laboratory operates under considerable financial constraints. Although the analyses are good, financial constraints affect methodological and manpower capacities. It is important to improve air quality monitoring in Greater Bombay by including: at least 5 city sites, covering areas of typical, and maximum concentrations; * 1-3 traffic exposed sites (to monitor street level pollution); 1-5 industrial area and hot spot sites; * 1 background site; * continuous monitors for PM,o, CO, NO,, S02, 03, depending upon the site; and, * an online data retrieval system linked to a lab database, via telephone or modem. Emissions. The main shortcomings of the emission inventory are: * industrial emissions (use and combustion of fuel, process emissions); * resuspension from roads; 40 Air Quality Assessment * other coarse particle sources, such as construction; * domestic refuse burning; * consumption patterns for domestic and commercial fuel use; and * absence of local emission factors. Less important shortcomings regard traffic distribution data which forms the background for the car exhaust emission distribution. It is necessary to fill the data gaps and upgrade the inventory. It is necessary to fill the data gaps and upgrade the inventory. Population exposure. Population exposure from various sources is determined by a combination of dispersion modeling and air pollution monitoring. It is vital that the population exposure distribution be reliable, since it forms the basis for assessing damage to health and the costs stemming from such damage. Further, it feeds into the cost-benefit analysis of measures to reduce exposure. In order to make improvements to the population exposure calculations that have been developed in the first phase of URBAIR, dispersion modeling expertise in Bombay should be identified, and the use of dispersion modeling integrated into the control agencies' Air Quality Management work. Dispersion modeling expertise and appropriate models for air pollution management and control strategies should be based in Bombay. Proposed actions to improve air quality assessment are summarized in Table 2.15. URBAIR-Mumbai 41 Table 2.15: Proposed actions to improve air qualit assessment AcUons Time Schedule Air Q uality M onit ing ............................................................................................................................................................... Design and establish a modified/ improved/extended This activity should start immediately, and a proposed schedule ambient air and meteorological/dispersion monitoring system is as follows: - evaluate sites; number (at least 10) and locations; Now: - select parameters (CO, NOx, 03,HC, TSP and PM1o Finalize plan for an upgraded air quality monitorng system, recommended) /methods/monitors/operation schedule; including plans for laboratory upgrading. - upgrade laboratory facilities, and manpower capacities. Within one year: Establish of 1-2 new modem monitoring stations; and Carry out first phase of laboratory upgrading . Design and establish a Quality Control/Quality Assurance This activity should also start immediately, phased in with the System improved.monitoring system, and the laboratory upgrading. .................................................................... ,m e ,q y. g ......... Design and establish an Air Quality Information System, including - database; and - informaton to control agencies; lawmakers; and public. ................. ............................ ................................................ ..................................................................................................................................... Emissions .... ... ..... . .. .. .......................................... *.Improve emission inventory for Greater Bombay * Priority: a) Improve industrial emissions inventory (location, - industrial emissions inventory process, emissions, stack data) - study of resuspension from roads b) Improve road and traffic data inventory - start developing an emission inventory procedure. c) Improve domestic emissions inventory d) Study resuspension - from roads - from other surfaces e) Estimate contribution from construction and refuse buming. .Est~ab.is. emission factors for Indian conditions. ............ ........................................... ............................................................................................................................................................ * D.evelop an integrated and comprehensive emission inventory procedure, include emission factor review, update and quality assessment procedures. * Improve methods and capacity for emission . mt;easurements. Populaifon exposure * Assess current modeling tools/methods, and establish appropriate models for control strategy in Greater Bombay. ¢ 3. AIR POLLUTION: IMPACTS AND VALUATION INTRODUCTION As large cities in Europe and North America industrialized, and the energy used by industries and homes increased, so did pollution. Air pollution in urban areas became a major public health concern, as exemplified by the killer fogs that claimed thousands of lives in London in 1952 and 1956 (Lave and Seskin, 1977). Economic development in Asia has had similar consequences, and air pollution problems have become endemic in Asian cities. This chapter presents an overview of major impacts of air pollution in Bombay, including a rough estimation of the monetary value of these damages. As concluded in Chapter 2, high concentrations of suspended particles and lead are the leading problems in air pollution. This chapter details the impact of PM10. A frequency distribution of the PM1o exposure of Bombay's population is summarized in Figure 3.1. Unfortunately, current data on lead exposure were not available. Health impact estimates are based on research conducted in the United Figure 3.1: Frequency distribution of the PM10 exposure of the States(Ostro, 1994), and Bombay population (1991) their methodology is Bombay populaton described in the URBAIR Percentage of population Guidebook. Although damage to human health is 14 not the only adverse effect of air pollution, lack of 12 - appropriate data prevented 10 us from quantifying other impacts such as a reduction 8 in the economic life of capital goods, tourism, crop production, and other 4 intangible impacts. This chapter 2 summarizes health studies carried out in Bombay; °; ti;t i,lt TIT ,9 ,lT t ta, addresses the calculated Average concentration PM,o (pg/rn3) 43 44 Air Pollution: Impacts and Valuation impacts on health and mortality in Bombay; and calculates the costs that can be attributed to these impacts. SUMMARY OF STUDIES BY ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION RESEARCH CENTER, (KEM HOSPITAL, BOMBAY) In addition to inadequate housing and sanitation, Bombay's urban population (of which 50 percent lives in slums) is exposed to rising levels of air pollution. It has been experimentally established that air pollutants like SO2, ozone, oxides of nitrogen, benzopyrene, and suspended particulate matter (SPM) result in incidence if respiratory diseases. High S02 levels have been shown to cause increased incidence of chronic bronchitis, frequent colds, and decline in lung functions. In order to determine the actual impact of pollution on health in Bombay, the Environmental Pollution Research Center (EPRC), KEM Hospital has conducted studies since 1976, correlating air pollution to morbidity. In 1978, when automobile fuel had higher concentrations of lead and sulfur, EPRC conducted a study on 1,008 subjects (522 male and 486 female) from a residential community in Parel, in Central Bombay. Because of a coal gas factory and many textile mills, together with main arterial roads and heavy traffic, levels of pollution in Parel were very high. The incidence of respiratory symptoms (coughing and dyspnoea) was observed to be higher in this suburb than in Chembur. Chembur is surrounded by chemical and fertilizer factories, and a thermal power station, but has comparatively low vehicular traffic. In 1990, following a decline in the sulfur content of fuel, and the closing of the coal gas factory and many textile mills, SO2 levels in Parel dropped from 103 ,ug/m3 to 29 .tg/m3. At the same time due to increases in vehicular traffic, NO2 levels Table 3.1: Pollution trend and nwrtality rates in increased from 16 Rig/m3 to 54 ,ug/m3, and Parel P n) SPM levels increased from 242 ,ug/m3 to Pollut1on 98ends (1g8m1 304 gtg/m3. Different studies conducted in Pollubnts 1978 1982 1986 1990 this area suggested that although frequent NO2 16 41 52 54 colds, headaches and eye irritation were SPM 242 219 326 304 less common, cough, dyspnoea and Mortality rate Affected Population (100,000) hypertension had increased. Similarly, Respiratory diseases 117.0 109.6 129.1 113.7 while the prevalence of bronchitis had Heart diseases 156.7 263.2 164.5 170.7 decreased, cardiac disease had increased. Cancer 51.8 48.2 35.5 40.8 Table 3.1 shows SO2, NO2 and SPM mean levels in different years in Parel, along with the mortality rate due to respiratory diseases, heart diseases and cancer. A 1988 cross sectional study examined symptom and disease patterns in four localities: * 421 subjects (194 male and 227 females) of a community located about 2 kilometers from a large fertilizer factory (Tolaram Nagar); * 397 subjects (185 males and 212 females) of a locality with comparatively low pollution (Telecom township);and URBAIR-Mumbai 45 297 subjects (131 males and 166 females) of Parel (central suburb); and 430 subjects (209 males and 221 females) of Dadar (central suburb). It was observed that coughs and dyspnoea were higher in Tolaram and Parel compared to Dadar and Telecom. Also, bronchitis, tuberculosis, cardiac diseases, and restrictive lung diseases were more prevalent among subjects of Parel and Tolaram Nagar as compared to the other two localities. A 1978 study in Chembur examined 586 males and 536 females living near fertilizer and chemical factories and thermal power stations. Automobile traffic added to the pollution in this, area. To check for the effect of increased pollution, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 1990 on: * 409 subjects (161 males and 248 females) of a community near the fertilizer factory; * 342 subjects (144 males and 198 females) of a community about 2 kilometers away from the factory; and, * 341 subjects (167 males and 174 females) in another community devoid of industrial pollution. The results showed that the incidence of respiratory symptoms like coughs and dyspnoea had increased by 8 to 13 percent. Further, the incidence of bronchitis (4.5 to 7.6 percent), cardiac diseases (4.3 to 6.7 percent), and other chest disorders (0.1 to 4.4 percent) had also risen between 1978 and 1990 (Table 3.2). It was also observed that different respiratory symptoms and cardiac diseases, respiratory tract infection, and skin allergy were about 5 to 10 percent higher among people of the communities near the factory. The lung functions of study subjects in both these communities were about 5 to 8 percent lower than the subjects of the control community. In 1990, an awareness survey was conducted in communities near the chemical and fertilizer factories of Chembur. More than 95 percent of the population complained of strong smells that caused discomfort. The incidence of symptoms declined as distance from the chemical factories increased. For example, 80 percent of the sample complained of headache and eye irritation in Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB) colony, just about 100 meters away from the Oswal Agro chemical factory; 73 percent reported similar symptoms in Railway Colony, about 500 meters away from the Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizer, Ltd. factory; as did 50 percent in Tolaram Nagar about 2 kilometers away from the Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizer, Ltd. factory. In 1980-1981, a similar study of food and water was carried out in two middle-class communities in central Bombay. A community of 552 subjects near a wholesale vegetable market with fairly dirty ground conditions and bad ventilation was compared to 671 subjects in a comparatively clean location. The results suggested that contamination of the food supply was due to unhygienic handling, and water supply contamination was due to sanitary effluent. The prevalence of respiratory diseases was about 3 to 4 percent higher in communities near the market, compared to the control site. From 1986 to 1988, a three-year prospective study was conducted of two high-density traffic areas of Bombay (King Circle and Peddar Road) with 383 subjects (164 males and 219 females) from King Circle, and 473 subjects (241 males and 232 females) from Peddar Road. Observed mean levels of CO were 9 to 18 PPM, reaching a maximum of 63 PPM in these two areas, contributing to a high incidence of coughs, bronchitis, and cardio-respiratory disorders. A significant correlation was also observed between SPM levels, the frequency of colds, attacks of breathlessness, and NO2 and SPM levels. The prevalence of cardiac diseases had increased in these localities (Table 3.2). 4~, Table 3.2: Summary of EPRC studies along with air pollutant levels Pollutant Levels Symptoms Disorder Prevalence Locality Year SO2 NO2 SPM Cough Colds Dyspnoea Bronchitis TB Cardiac Other chest Chemburn=1122 1978 . 51 12 196 3.0 21.9 5.9 4.5 0.2 4.3 0.1 Chemburn--751 1990 12 53 372 16.2. 10.9 13.1 7.6 0.5 6.7 4.4 n=341 Telecom (control) 1990 18 40 231 7.4 5.6 7.6 1.2 0.3 2.1 6.5 Pareln=1008 1978 103 16 242 5.4 17.3 7.9 4.5 0.9 6.8 1.0 Pareln=757 1979 90 25 264 6.1 7.6 6.4 5.0 0.3 7.6 * Parel n=676 1980 * * * 11.6 7.5 6.5 * * * * Parel n=349 1986 37 52 326 6.9 29.0 17.0 2.1 0.9 4.0 4.6 Parel n=297 1987 29 53 339 12.1 13.5 12.5 3.3 1.3 10.1 6.7 Pareln=297 1988 38 59 323 5.7 22.0 14.7 4.1 0.0 11.0 5.3 Pareln=492 1991 29 54 304 7.9 11.6 10.8 2.4 0.6 4.1 * ~~~~~~~~~~~~................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... PeddarRoadn=473 1986 * 11.0 14.0 13.0 5.7 2.3 5.6 9.1 PeddarRoadn=291 1987 11 8.0 12.0 9.0 3.0 1.0 7.0 5.0 Peddar Road n=236 1988 * 5.1 9.7 9.8 3.0 1.7 7.2 3.0 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. :.. :.................... ................................. CO (PPM) King Circle n=383 1986 * 9.9 16.0 17.0 4.1 0.8 7.0 5.5 King Circle n=283 1987 13.3 7.0 12.0 9.0 2.0 1.0 11.0 1.0 Km.gCirclen=210 1988 * 8.1 17.6 10.4 3.3 0.9 8.6 1.9 ........ .............................................................................................................................. Quarries SPM qi/m) Amboli n=506 1988 2,016 24.0 * 22.6 1.5 0.9 1.1 Kandivli =n5., 1991 618 8.5 9.7 7.2 2.6 0.3 1.5 Check Posts Dahisarn=211 1991 14.2 6.6 7.6 6.2 * 1.9 BPHn=198 1991 8.6 7.1 8.6 2.5 * 9.1 ................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................................:........................................... SO2 NO2 SPM Navy Nagarn=413 1990 6 11 107 8.7 6.3 8.5 2.2 0.4 2.4 URBAIR-Mumbai 47 In 1988, 507 subjects (144 males and 203 females) who lived near Amboli quarry where mean SPM level is 2,016 pg/M3, were studied. A similar study involving 587 subjects (246 males and 341 females) was conducted in 1991 near Kandivili quarry where the mean SPM level is 618 1Ig/m3 . It was observed that the people living near these two quarries were more affected than the quarry workers. Although the incidence of respiratory symptoms like cough and dyspnoea were higher among workers, the lung functions of residents were about 5 to 15 percent lower than workers. About 10 percent of radiographs of workers showed either vascular markings or nodular shadows. Dahisar and BPH employees were examined in 1992 to look for the effect of CO gas on carboxyhemoglobin. The study included 211 male employees from Dahisar and 198 male employees from BPH. In addition, another study examined 45 traffic police and 75 vendors working at six traffic junctions in Bombay. The mean COHb levels of non-smokers at Dahisar and BPH check posts was 1.7 percent, and that of traffic police was 2.3. percent. Among check post employees, occupational history showed significant correlation with COHb levels. The traffic junction study showed a significant correlation between ambient CO levels and COHb levels. Table 3.2 summarizes EPRC studies, along with pollutant levels, incidence of different respiratory symptoms, and prevalence of respiratory diseases. A similar type of study was conducted in Navy Nagar, a comparatively clean area devoid of vehicular or industrial pollution. Table 3.2 shows that, compared to residents of Navy Nagar, the incidence of various respiratory symptoms is higher in communities near quarries, and among traffic police, employees of check posts, and the residential Chembur population near chemical factories. Furthermore, the prevalence of bronchitis and cardiac diseases was significantly higher among traffic police, compared to other localities. Similarly, people living near fertilizer factories or heavy traffic had a higher incidence of bronchitis and cardiac diseases compared to the control area, Navy Nagar. Table 3.3 shows that lung function levels of Telecom (the control area of Chembur) subjects were higher than Chembur subjects who lived near the fertilizer and other chemical factories. There was no difference observed in lung functions of Parel subjects over the years. Overall, however, Parel residents had significantly worse lung function than that of Navy Nagar subjects (the Bombay control area). Peddar Road and King Circle subjects showed significant deterioration in lung function levels (by 200 to 500 milliliter) in a 1988 study, compared to a 1986 study. Also, BPH and Dahisar check post employees showed low lung function levels compared to Navy Nagar. Table 3.3: Gender distribution of age and summary of lungfunction levels Age Groups (%) FVC FEV1 Localit. Year Sex 1-10 11-20 2044 45+ 7-19 >19 7-19 >19 ..........................................................................~i............. ....... ......................................................................................................................................................... Chembur 1978 Male 20.5 24.5 34.9 20.1 2.19±0.73 3.20i0.76 1.98+0.64 2.66*0.61 Female 17.5 24.7 44.2 13.6 1.71*0.51 2.04*0.46 1.61±0.45 1.84*0.62 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 1990 NMae 22.0 27.2 28.5 40.6 2.64±1.09 3.24*0.88 2.40*1.02 2.82*0.63 _- - - _Female 15.0 18.4 44.8 21.7 _ 2.11*0.59 _ 2.08*0.64 - 1.9740.58 1.86+0.63 Telecom (control) 1990 NMae 17.4 38.3 26.3 18.0 2.7141.04 3.31+0.73 2.56*0.97 3.05+0.69 Female 13.8 27.6 42.0 16.7 2.04*0.59 2.12*0.52 1.94*0.57 1.95+0.54 Parel 1978 Male 20.5 24.5 34.9 20.1 2.11+0.75 3.13*0.60 1.94*0.66 2.62*0.57 Female 17.5 24.7 44.2 13.6 1.73*0.84 2.02*0.52 1.73*0.81 1.77*0.45 1986 NMae 14.2 25.9 37.7 22.2 * 3.39*1.10 * 2.87i0.95 Female 8.1 15.1 47.8 29.0 * 2.59*0.40 * 1.90*0.40 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1991 Male 17.6 29.2 33.8 19.4 2.45+0.89 3.05*0.72 2.27*0.86 2.63+0.63 Female 14.5 18.1 39.9 27.5 1.94i0.46 2.00*0.43 1.80*0.44 1.77*0.44 Peddar Road 1986 Male 16.6 18.3 45.6 19.5 * 3.36*0.57 * 2.84*0.53 Female 15.5 15.1 42.2 27.2 * 2.27*0.40 * 1.96*0.36 .....................I.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1988 NMae 17.2 28.0 30.1 24.7 2.56*1.02 2.84*0.57 * 2.61+0.57 Female 11.9 22.4 37.1 28.7 1.82*0.49 1.83*0.37 * 1.74*0.34 King's Circle 1986 Male 14.6 20.7 34.8 29.9 * 3.34i0.65 * 2.88*0.55 Female 15.5 11.9 40.8 32.4 * 2.2540.72 * 1.62*0.45 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1988 NMae 17.1 29.3 26.8 26.8 2.75*0.81 2.45*0.45 * 2.23*0.46 Female 11.7 18.8 38.3 31.3 2.13*0.64 1.96*0.36 * 1.78i0.35 Kandivli 1988 Male 7.7 41.5 42.3 8.5 2.67*0.57 3.41*O.79 2.45*0.53 2.97*0.77 Female 2.9 29.3 55.7 12.0 1.78*0.42 2.20iO.52 1.64*0.40 1.95*0.49 NavyaNagar 1990 M-ale 11.3 40.5 36.9 11.3 2.87*0.91 3.78*0.58 2.69*0.89 3.39*0.56 - - - - - - - - - - -…- - - - - Female 4.7 21.5 64.9 8.9 _ 2.22*0.65 - 2.49*0.86 - 2.12*0.59 2.23*0.84 Lociity Age Groups (F) FVC FEV1 Check Posts Year Sex 15-25 26-35 36-45 45+ Non-smoker Smoker Non-smoker Smoker Dahisar 1991 Male 13.3 37.4 37.4 11.8 3.20*0.64 3.22iO.78 2.28*0.60 2.76+0.65 URBAIR-Mumbai 49 MORTALITY Health impacts are divided into mortality (excess deaths) and morbidity (excess illness). Mortality and morbidity numbers are derived from air quality data using dose-effect relationships. In principle, such relations are found by statistically comparing death rates and morbidity in urban areas, with different air quality. Appropriate dose-effect relations have been estimated by Ostro (1994). Admittedly, these dose-effect relations are derived from studies of U.S. cities and it is speculative to apply them to Bombay. However, until specific dose-effect relations for tropical conditions are derived, Ostro's relations are useful for preliminary estimates. Further, while it is clear that indoor air pollution such as that caused by cooking, can also damage health, this analysis was limited to outdoor air pollution. Mortality due to PM1O. The relationship between air quality and mortality, where P equals the number of people exposed to a specific concentration; c equals the crude rate mortality (0.0076 in Bombay); and PM1O stands for its annual average concentration (1Lg/m3), can be represented as follows: Excess death = 0. 00112 x ([PM,o] - 41) x P x c The PM1o benchmark is 41. Above this benchmark, mortality increases corresponding to the -WHO guideline of 75 [tg/m3 TSP (PM1O /TSP ratio of 0. 55) on a yearly basis (section 2.1). From this relation and the data presented in Chapter 2 (also Figure 4.1), it was estimated that the excess mortality due to PM,0 (and TSP) was about 2,765 cases and of an exposed population of 9.8 million. MORBIDITY Inhaling particles can lead to chronic bronchitis, restricted activity days, respiratory diseases that Table 3.4: Estimated impact of PM,0 air require hospitalization, emergency room visits, Tollt on Eath imbac , 199 bronchitis, asthma attacks and respiratory pollution on health in Bomba, 1991 symptoms days. The estimated impact of PMIo on Type of health impact Number of cases health in Bombay is illustrated in Table 3.4. C ithousands) The following dose-effect relationships for Restricted activy days 18,680 impact estimation are described in the URBAIR Emergency room Visits 76 Guidebook. Bronchitis in children 190 * Change in yearly cases of chronic bronchitis Asthma 741 per 100,000 persons is estimated at 6.12 per Respiratory symptom days 60 (millions) ptg/m3 PM,'. The total number of yearly cases Respiratory hospital admissions 4 of chronic bronchitis per 100,000 persons is thus 6.12 x ([PM10] -41). * Change in restricted activity days per person, per year, per 1ig/m3 PM1o is estimated at 0.0575. If the WHO standard is used, the change is 0.0575 x ([PMIo] - 41). 50 Air Pollution: Impacts and Valuation * Change in respiratory hospital diseases per 1 00,000 persons is estimated at 1.2 per jig/m3 PMIo. Using the WHO standards, respiratory hospital diseases per 100,000 persons are estimated at 1.2 x {[PM1o] - 41). * Number of emergency room visits per 100,000 persons is estimated at 23.54 per [tg/m3 PMIo, and the total number per 100,000 persons at 23.54 x ([PM10] - 41). * Change in the annual risk of bronchitis in children below 18 years is estimated at 0.00169 x ([PMIo] - 41). Approximately 35 percent of the total population is under 18 years of age. The change in daily asthma attacks per asthmatic person is estimated at 0.0326 x ([PM10] - 41). The number of asthmatic persons is estimated at 7 percent of the population. * Respiratory symptoms days per person, per year, are estimated at 0.183 x ([PMio] - 41). VALUATION OF HEALTH IMPACTS Mortality. Placing a monetary value on mortality is admittedly debatable. Many argue that such a valuation cannot be made ethically. By deleting mortality, however, we would seriously underestimate the total damage that air pollution causes. A case (single instance) of mortality can be valued in two ways. The first is based on "willingness to pay," the other on "income potential." The "willingness to pay" approach is described in detail in the URBAIR Guidebook. In the United States a value of about US$3 million per statistical life is often used. Although such a valuation is not readily transferable from one country to another, an approximation can be derived by correcting the U.S. figure by a factor of purchasing power parity in India, divided by the purchasing power in the United States. This factor is 970/21,900 = 0.044 (Dichanov, 1994). At an exchange rate of Rs 1 = US$0.032, this results in a value of Rs 4.25 million per statistical life in India. The second approach is based on income lost income due to mortality. The value of a statistical life (VSL) is then estimated as the discounted value of expected future income at the average age. If the average age of population is 24 years and the life expectancy at birth is 62 years, the VSL formula is: 38 VSL = w/ (1 +d)t t=o In the formula, w = average annual income, and d = the discount rate (Shin et al., 1992). In this approach, the value of persons without a salary (e.g. housewives) is taken to be the same as the value of those with a salary. If we estimate the daily wage in Bombay at Rs 75 per day (average, chief wage earner) and assume 200 working days in a year, using d = 5 percent as the discount rate, the value of a statistical life is VSL = Rs 250,000. For comparison, the highest compensation in the Bhopal case amounted to Rs 200,000. Considering both approaches to the valuation of premature death, the cost figure associated with increased mortality due to PMio air pollution in 1990 ranges from Rs 0.7 billion to Rs 12 billion. URBAIR-Mumbai 51 Morbidity. A summary of the valuation of illness is presented Table 3.5: Valuation of health impacts in Table 3.5. It presents Type of health impact Specific costs Rs Total costs million Rs estimated health cost figures Effects of PM10 and the evolving total costs, by Mortality 4.25 million (US WTP) 11,753 combining the figures for 250,000 (lost salary) 691 Restrcted activity day 28 523 mortality and illness. Emergency room visit 260-310 22 Bronchitis (children) 320 61 Restricted activity days. Ostro's Asthma attacks 1,000 741 (1992) calculation of 20 Respiratory symptoms day 20 1,189 percent work loss (valued at Hospital admission 9,646 38 average wage), and 80 percent Chronic Bronchifis 161,000 3,201 lower productivity (valued at Total Cost 18,219 one-third of average wage) was used. The average wage is about Rs 60 per day. The estimate is thus: 0.2 x 60 + 0.8 x 20 = Rs 28. Emergency room visit. Private hospitals charge Rs 100 to 150 for an emergency room visit. This includes the doctor's bill, and medication. To this is added the cost of the loss of one work day (Rs 60), cost of transport (2 x Rs 50), resulting in a total of Rs 260 to 310. Respiratory symptoms day. No surveys on willingness to pay to prevent a respiratory symptom day have been carried out in India. Therefore it is difficult to make a reliable valuation. Considering the valuation in Jakarta (US$2), India's lower per capita income, and the restricted activity days valuation above, an estimate of Rs 20 seems appropriate. Cases of bronchitis in children may be high because doctors often don't want to use the more ominous word "asthma". The duration of bronchitis averages 13.2 days,. and is valued at respiratory symptoms day (Rs 20). Ostro's figure of 2 days of a parent's restricted activity, valued at Rs 28 per day, was used. The total loss is calculated as follows: 13.2 x 20 + 2 x 28 = Rs 320. A severe asthma attack lasts on average 9.1 days. The daily hospital fee in private hospitals is about Rs 1,000; to this we add 9.1 lost working days. The total for a severe attack is thus 9.1 x (1,060) = Rs 9,646. For a milder attack, the same figure as for an emergency room visit (Rs 260 to 310) could be used. For still milder attacks only the medication costs apply; aerosols and tablets cost approximately Rs 200.'Depending on the severity, the cost of an asthma attack can range from Rs 200 to Rs 9,646. Considering that milder attacks are more frequent, the average valuation is estimated at Rs 1,000 per attack. Respiratory hospital admission. The valuation is the same as for a severe asthma attack (Rs 9,646). Chronic bronchitis becomes more serious as people age. Elderly people and younger smokers are especially vulnerable to chronic bronchitis. The average age at which people become chronically ill with bronchitis is 35 years. Average life expectancy at birth is 62 years. It is estimated that the number of work loss days per year is about 50. Work days lost are valued at Rs 60 per day, 52 Air Pollution: Impacts and Valuation resulting in Rs 46,000 if discounted at 5 percent. To this we add the costs of hospital visits, which are estimated at 0.5 times per year. Such a visit would average 13.1 days at a fee of Rs 1,000 per day. Discounted at 5 percent, total hospital costs amount to Rs 100,000. Finally, yearly expenditure on medication is about Rs 1,000-totaling a discounted amount of Rs 15,200 over 27 years. The valuation of a case of chronic bronchitis is thus Rs 46,000 + Rs 100,000 + Rs 15,000 = Rs 161,000. CONCLUSIONS Air pollution damages human health, vegetation and crops, buildings and monuments, ecosystems and tourism. Assessing these impacts is hampered by incomplete and missing data. Nevertheless, the mortality and morbidity resulting from excess concentrations of PM1O have been estimated using dose-effect relationships derived for U.S. cities. The lack of data for airborne lead prevented an estimate of its health impact, which includes increased mortality, IQ point loss in children, hypertension, and coronary heart disease. It is difficult to estimate the monetary value of a lost life. The value of a statistical life is Rs 250,000; a figure estimated by the human capital approach (earnings lost due to premature death) is used in this analysis. Costs of morbidity (illness) are relatively more reliable. They consist of foregone wages, and medical treatment costs. This valuation of damage to human health tends to underestimate the suffering due to illness or premature death. Table 3.6 provides preliminary information for calculating the benefits of measures to reduce emissions. Benefits of the emission reduction are estimated by potential health costs avoided by the absolute emission reduction. The table shows also "marginal" benefits from addressing each category of emissions. It appears that addressing emissions from industry is the most effective in terms of benefits per ton of emission reduced. This relates to the high estimated PM1O Table 3.6: Reduction of emissions and related benefits. Situation 1991, 9.8 million inhabitants in Bomnbay modeling area Source category Emissions Mortality Respiratory Health costs "Marginal" (tons) (cases) symptom days (Rs million) benefits (Rs (million) million per ton) All source reference 2,765 60 6,467 Industry 706 Domestic 6 443 Traffic 6,286 Reducton of industry sources Avoided Avoided Avoided Avoided 25% 176.5 64 1.4 151 0.85 50% 353.0 121 2.6 284 Reduction of domestic sources 25% 1610.75 466 10 1091 0.34 50% 3221.50 971 21 2271 Reduction of traffic sources 25% 1571.50 216 4.6 505 0.67 50% 3143.0 421 9 985 Note: Mortality valued according to the lost salary method (see Table 3.5). URBAIR-Mumbai 53 concentrations near stone crushers. However, considering industry's limited share of total emissions, the scope for improving Bombay's air quality by addressing industrial emissions is small. Not taking into account costs of measures, and only considering the health benefits, domestic emissions followed by traffic emissions should be targeted first. I 4. ABATEMENT MEASURES: EFFECTIVENESS AND COSTS INTRODUCTION This chapter outlines measures for reducing air pollution in Bombay, and for drafting an action plan that would translate these measures into practice. Information is organized by pollution source category: traffic, large point source power plants, fuel combustion other than in power plants, industrial/commercial sources, and refuse burning and domestic emissions. For the main source categories, characteristics of appropriate measures are described: D effectiveness in terms of both emission reduction and reduced impacts in the year 1990 (using Table 3.6). On average, 1.35 excess deaths are avoided by reducing 10 tons of PM1o. The reference data include: mortality (2,765 due to PM,o), number of respiratory symptom days (60 million in 1990), and total health costs (Rs6.5 billion); 3 costs (mostly annual costs at the societal level); - benefits estimated by interpolating figures from the Table 3.6; - policy instruments that might be used to implement measures; and - term for emissions reduction: short-term (less than 2 years), mid-term (2-5 years), or long term (more than 5 years). Identifying measures to address traffic emission, for example, is straightforward because the major causes of air pollution are commonly known. Policy measures that are especially cost efficient include: an inspection and maintenance scheme, and the introduction of unleaded gasoline and low-smoke lubricating oil. Other measures with less clear cost-benefit ratios (due to lack of data or methodological problems) are: improving automotive diesel fuel quality; clean car standards; increased consumption of natural gas for automotive and stationary use; and improving the public transportation system. A similar list of measures addressing pollution sources, other than traffic, was not possible due to lack of information. In particular, refuse burning and cooking with wood, appear to be more important to PM10 exposure in Bombay than traffic sources (Table 3.4). The list of measures is derived from the information presented by the local URBAIR working group, the URBAIR Guidebook, and from earlier plans (see Chapters 3 and 6) addressing problems in Bombay. 55 56 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs TRAFFIC This section describes the effectiveness of abatement measures for reducing emissions and, to the extent possible, the benefits of measures such as: * introducing unleaded gasoline; * implementing a scheme for inspection and maintenance; * addressing excessively polluting vehicles; * improving diesel fuel quality; * improving quality of lubricating oil in two-stroke engines; * switching fuel (gasoline to or LPG/CNG) in the transportation sector, induced by price shifts; * adopting clean vehicle emission standards; and * other measures. Introducing unleaded gasoline Unleaded gasoline Table 4.1: Introducing low lead and unleadedfuel addresses the Effectiveness: Depending on rate of introduction. ambient lead Costs: Costs at refinery Rs 0.7 to 1 per liter unleaded fuel (corresponding with problem and is a Rs 250-360 million-1990. prerequisite for Benefits: Unknown in Bombay, Unleaded fuel required when catalytic-exhaust gas control is introduced; introducing Need to control of benzene and aroma tics, to not offset benefits. strict emission Instruments/instiutions: standards, and Term: Two to five years. for the use of an Target groups: Oil and gasoline industry. exhaust catalyst Note: Sales of gasoline in 1990 were 362 millions liters (Table 1.9), corresponding with Rs. 250-360 (see summary in million. Table 4.1). An "intermediate" approach is to reduce the permitted lead content of gasoline. Current plans call for reducing the maximum lead content to 0.15 grams per liter. The present level is 0.18 to 0.19 grams per liter for gasoline supplied from Bombay refineries, about 70 percent of the total supply. The remainder has a lead content of 0.56 to 0.80 grams per liter. Assuming simultaneous introduction of vehicles with catalytic converters, unleaded gasoline would require a separate fuel distribution system that does not mix leaded with unleaded fuel. Retailers usually sell both fuels. Older engines may require leaded fuel because of the lubrication required for their valve seats, or because of its higher RON-number. Unleaded gasoline is widely available in many countries, so technical obstacles should not be a major constraint. Removing the lead compound in gasoline may require reformulation in order to maintain ignition properties (octane number). This can be done by increasing the aromatics content or adding oxygenated compounds such as MTBE (methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether). Aromatics include benzene, a carcinogenic compound. This is an environmental concern, both due to the evaporation of gasoline (at production, storage and handling) and from the possible increase in benzene in exhaust gases (Tims et al, 1981, Tims, 1983). A limit on the amount of benzene and total aromatics in gasoline is necessary. A decision on the scale of the limit requires data on benzene as it relates to current air quality (ALAM, 1994). Experience in other countries indicates URBAIR-Mumbai 57 that this issue can be resolved. It should be noted that catalytic devices effectively destroy benzene in exhaust, so any net outcome in airborne benzene will probably be small. Unleaded gasoline with a high RON-number is usually produced by adding MTBE, which may be imported or produced in India. Effectiveness. Reduction in emissions is proportionate to the eventual market shares of unleaded and low-lead gasoline and, in case of low-lead gasoline, also to the lead content. Costs of the measure. Reduced-lead gasoline must be reformulated in order to retain the RON number. The lead is replaced by oxygenated compounds; MTBE is a preferred substitute. These changes increase production costs by Rs 0.7-Rs 1 per liter of gasoline, depending on the local market for refinery products, the required gasoline specifications, and the costs of MTBE (Turner et al, 1993). Policy instruments and target groups. Lowering the maximum allowed lead content of gasoline is the first step. In countries where gasoline is taxed, unleaded gasoline may be taxed less and leaded fuel taxed more so that the fiscal authority's net yield does not change. The oil industry and gasoline distribution firms will have to produce unleaded gasoline. The oil industry is the main actor in the process (AIAM, 1994). Term. Since it is relatively simple to produce, unleaded fuel can be commonly available within 5 years. Im,proving diesel quality Diesel's ignition and combustion properties are important parameters Table 4.2: m for PMIo emissions from diesel T . oving dieselfuel qualit engines (Hutcheson and van Effectiveness: 250 tons PMIo (1990). Paassn, 190, Thrby e al, 992). Costs: Rs 0.3 per liter (about Rs 300 million annually). .-aassen, 1990, Tharby et al, 1992). Benefits: Less mortality, 35; less RSD, 0.75 million; Its volatility (boiling range), avoided health costs Rs 80 million; reduction of viscosity, and cetane number (an S02 emissions. indicator of its ignition properties) Instruments/institution: Energy authorties. determine these properties and, Terms: Two-five years. consequently, PM1o emissions. A Target groups: Petroleum industry. minimum cetane number of 42 is required in Bombay for automotive purposes. In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan the corresponding quality varies from 48 to 50. Another factor is the presence of detergents and dispersants in diesel fuels. These additives keep injection systems clean and have discernible efficiency effects (Parkes, 1988). The Indian automobile manufacturing industry advocates an improvement in fuel quality (AIAM, 1994). See summary in Table 4.2. 58 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs Effectiveness. It is assumed that an improvement in fuel properties, as expressed by an increase in the cetane number2 and the addition of detergents, results in a 10 percent or about 230 ton reduction (1990) in PM,o emissions (AIAM, 1994, Mehta et al, 1993). A reduction in the sulfur content of fuel would not result in a proportional decline in SO2 emissions, it would also lead to a fall in PM1O emissions. This is because a part of the PM1o particle consists of sulfates. Costs. The cost of improving diesel fuel, in particular increasing the cetane number, is determined by the oil-product market, the refinery structure (capacity for producing light fuels/visbreaking/hydrotreating etc.), and Government. The latter eventually determines the at- the-pump-price for fuels. The cost of reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel stems from the extensive desulfurization that must occur at the refinery. The costs for a reduction from 0.7 percent to 0.2 percent sulfur are about Rs 0.3 per liter. Combustion of sulfur in diesel fuel also leads to the formation of corrosive sulfuric acid. Therefore, reducing the sulfur content also lowers the costs of vehicle maintenance and repair. Policy instruments and target groups. Improving the quality of diesel fuel should be a part of India's energy policy. The oil industry should take the necessary steps to expand its capacity for producing better quality diesel fuel. Term. The typical period for adjusting refineries (such as extension of visbreaking capacity) is about 3 to 5 years. Introduction of low-smoke lubricating oilfor two-stroke, mixed-lubrication engines Bombay traffic has a large share of motorcycles and auto- Table 4.3: Low-smoke lubricating oilfor two-stroke, mixed- rickshaws, both equipped with l nie two-stroke mixed-lubrication -biao- - engines. These vehicles cause Effectiveness: 450 tons PM10 (1990). engines. These vehicles cause Costs: Rs 30 million. about a third (2,700 tons) of Benefits: Less mortality,65; less RSD, 1.5 million; avoided health PM1o emissions from traffic costs, Rs 150 million. exhaust. A substantial fraction Instrumentsfinstitution: of the particles emitted by Term: Two years. these vehicles are micro- Target groups: Petroleum industry. droplets of unburned lubrication oil. According to Shell Oil Company (private communication, 1993) the lubricating oil used in most Southeast Asian countries is cheap and has poor combustion qualities. See summary in Table 4.3. 2 The physico-chemical properties-as expressed in the cetane number-of diesel fuel influence the magnitude of the TSP emissions of diesel-powered vehicles. The relation between these propertes (such as volatility and viscosity) and the production of TSP in a diesel motor is not straighfforward; the characteristcs of the diesel motor, its load and its injection timing plan are other important parameters. , URBAIR-Mumbai 59 Effectiveness. It can be assumed that a better-quality lubrication oil will decrease emissions by half (1,350 tons reduction). Costs. Annually, 1,000 cubic tons of poor quality lubricating oil is consumed. Introducing better oil is estimated to double the expenditure on lubricating oil. A rough estimate of the total costs of low-smoke oil is Rs 30 million. Policy instruments and target groups. A standard should be set for the quality of lubricating oil. The oil industry and lubricating oil importers are the main target groups. Implementation of an inspection and maintenance scheme Effectiveness. Maladjusted fuel injection systems or injcarburetors, s a orn-out Table 4.4: Inplementation of an inspection and carburetors, and worn-out maneac schem motor parts present a threat to mnaintenance scheme traffic safety, increase fuel Effectiveness: 35% reduction, 800 tons PM1O traffisafey,inrease fueCosts: Rs 150-300 million. Maintenance costs are expected to be consumption and thus costs, offset by improved fuel efficiency. and lead to traffic emissions. Benefits: Less mortality, 110; less RSD, 2.5 million; The semi-annual inspection and avoided health costs, Rs 250 million; reduction of CO, VOC maintenance of vehicles will emissions, improvement of road safety (if roadworthiness is probably result in a substantial included in the scheme). reduction of PMIo, VOC, and Term: Two to five years. CO emissions. An accurate Target groups: The scheme could be canried out by the pnvate sector. assessment of emission reduction, associated with an inspection and maintenance scheme, requires statistical data about emission characteristics of the Bombay vehicle fleet relative to its state of maintenance. This information is not available. The proposed inspection and maintenance scheme, would lead to 35 percent reduction in tail pipe emissions of PM1o, VOC, and CO. This is in line with an estimate by the Association of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (AIAM, 1994) and the World Bank estimate for Manila (Mehta, 1993). See summary in Table 4.4. Costs of an inspection and maintenance scheme. The present capacity for vehicle-emission testing is insufficient. In order to circumvent capacity problems in government agencies, testing can be done by private firms4. Such a scheme, involving all vehicles, may have a total cost of approximately US$5-10 million or Rs 150-300 million for vehicle owners (US$2-5 or Rs 60- 4 Such a scheme might include the following actions: - private firms would be licensed to carry out inspections. - authorities would spot-check the firms to oversee inspections. - vehicles that pass the test would get a sticker valid for a specific period, and drivers would show a test report on request. - vehicles would be spot-checked. 60 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs 150 per test', 1.5 million vehicles, environmental inspection part of roadworthiness test). Better engine performance and the resulting reduction in fuel costs would offset the maintenance cost. Term. An inspection and maintenance scheme can be implemented within 5 years. Address the problem of excessively poluting vehicles Almost a quarter of all vehicles are estimated to emit Table 4.5: Address excessively polluting vehicles excessive exhaust. These Effectiveness: 400 tons PM1o vehicles are badly Costs: maintained, use worn-out Benefits: Less mortality, 50; less RSD 1.2 million; avoided health engines, or have maladjusted costs, Rs 125 million. engine controls. A program Instrumentrinstitution: Motor Vehicles Act (1988) and Environment Protection Act (1986), second amendment Rule (1990), Ministry of focusing on these vehicles SurFace Transport and State Transport Department. would result in an emissions Term: reduction equaling 400 tons Target groups: Traffic authoritiesNehicle owners. of PM,0 (15 percent reduction in total tailpipe emissions). This measure may include a system of spot-checks of vehicles on the road, in combination with a penalty system. Awareness campaigns would enhance the feasibility of such a measure. See summary in Table 4.5. Fuel switching in the transportation sector Using gaseous fuels such as LPG (Liquid Petroleum Table 4.6: Introduction of CNG to replace 50% of gasoline Gas) and CNG consurnption (1990 situation) in passenger cars (Compressed Natural Gas) Effectiveness: 200 tons PM1o. is an option for addressing Costs: Costs for vehicle owner depends on the price differential air pollution from PMIo between gasoline and CNG (natural gas is cheaper). emissions from vehicles. Benefits: Less mortality, 25; less RSD, 0.6 million; avoided health costs, Rs 75 million. Trade-off: Increased emissions of methane (greenhouse gas), the in areas where supply is main constituent of natural gas. abundant and fuel taxes Instrumentsrinstitution: Department of Energy. favor its use. The use of Term:r LPG or CNG requires Target groups: I Energy authorities. adapting the engine and its controls. Such a switch will only pay off when LPG or CNG prices are lower than those of gasoline or diesel. CNG has already been introduced as an automotive fuel in Bombay. The lack of filling stations is a major impediment. See summary in Table 4.6. S Order of magnitude. Cost in Manila estimated at US$3. Cost in the Netheriands (including roadworthiness) is US$30. URBAIR-Mumbai 61 LPG can be used as a clean alternative to both gasoline and diesel. Its advantage over CNG is that it can be more easily transported in tanks, and its energy density (energy per volume of fuel) is higher, resulting in better mileage. Its market price is a disadvantage. Effectiveness. CNG is used as a fuel substitute in four-stroke gasoline cars. It can effectively reduce PM10 emissions by 90 percent. If all gasoline cars had been modified to use CNG in 1990, PM1o emissions would have been less by 400 tons. Costs. Whether these investments are made depends ultimately on the price difference between CNG and gasoline. Wider use of CNG requires investments in natural gas distribution (connection filling stations with the piping grid); compressors at the filling station; and conversion kits for the vehicles. Policy instruments and target groups. The main bottleneck for introducing CNG and LPG seems to be the lack of filling stations, which is in turn relates to a limited gas distribution system. Connecting a filling station to the gas distribution grid requires large investments. A scheme for subsidies or cheap loans might facilitate this. The viability of the scheme will increase as use of natural gas in other sectors increases, thus justifying extending the distribution grid. The country's energy policy will have a bearing on this measure. Adoption of clean vehicle emission standards Many countries have adopted standards for Table 4.7: Adoption of clean vehicle standards. Gasoline passenger permissible cars and vans emissions from Effectiveness: 80% effectiveness per (gasoline) vehicle (for 1990 in total 400 tons). vehicles. These Costs: Rs 3,000 per vehicle (including costs of unleaded fuel). In total, Rs standards require that 750 millions annually. vehicles with four- Benefits: Less mortality, 50; less RSD, 1.2 million; stroke gasoline avoided health costs, Rs 125 million (hypothetical situation in 1990). Reductions of emissions of lead, co, NO, and VOC are the engines be equipped justification for introducing these systems, in other countres. with exhaust gas Instrumentsfinstitution: control devices based Term: Two to five years. Tied to the renewal of the car fleet. on the use of three- Target groups: Oil industry - the first move is to make unleaded fuel available, way catalysts vehicle importers, vehicle manufacturers. (closed-loop systems). A few countries, including Austria and Taiwan, have also set standards for motorcycle emissions, requiring two-stroke engine-powered vehicles to be equipped with open-loop catalysts. Such devices control VOC, PM1O emissions, and CO, but not NO,. See summary in Tables 4.7 and 4.8. Diesel-powered vehicles are also subject to regulations. The emission requirements are met by adjusting the motor design. Tailpipe emission treatment may also be used, and existing buses retrofitted with new equipment. If the last method is employed, the diesel must be of a much better quality than is presently used in Bombay (sulfur content below 0.02 percent). This type of standard is now being introduced in some parts of the world. 62 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs The catalyst technology uses Table 4.8: Adoption of ckan vehicle standards for motorcycles and unleaded gasoline, ticycles the sulfur content of Effeefveness 80% effectveness per vehicle (for 1990 in total 750 tons) which should be less Costs: Rs 230 per vehicle (including costs of unleaded fuel). In total, Rs than 500 PPM. 600 million Therefore, Benefits: Less mortality, 100: less RSD 2.4 million; avoided health costs, Rs introducing such 250 million (hypothetical situaton in 1990). Reductons of emissions of lead, CO, NOx and VOC are the main justificabon for standards requires introduction of these systems in other countries. infrastructure for Instrumentsfinstitution: producing and Term: Two to five years. The result of such measures is the renewal of distributing unleaded the fleet. gasoline Target groups: Petroleum industry, vehicle importers, vehicle manufacturers. Note: Standards include two-stroke engines, either requiring catalytic converters or four- Effectiveness, stroke engines. Catalytic devices for treating exhaust gases require the use of unleaded gasoline. Thus such devices not only result in cleaner emissions but also in a reduction in lead pollution. With closed-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases (three-way catalysts) from gasoline-engine vehicles, emissions of NO,, CO and VOC are reduced by about 85 percent. In addition lead emissions are reduced by 100 percent, as unleaded fuel is a prerequisite for this type of standards. Open-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases from two-stroke motorcycles reduces CO, VOC, and PM10 (oil mist) emissions, by as much as 90 percent. Successful use of these catalysts also requires unleaded gasoline. An alternative is using well designed and adequately maintained four- stroke engines. A similar emission reduction can be obtained by following this approach. Costs. The cost of closed-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases stems from the increased purchasing costs of vehicles. In the United States, this increase averages about US$400, ranging from US$300 to $500 (Wang et al, 1993). While catalytic devices have minor adverse effect on fuel economy, this cost is compensated by an increase in the life-time of replacement parts such as the exhaust system. The total annual cost per automobile is estimated at US$100 (US$50 depreciation per car and US$50 extra fuel costs) or Rs 3,000. The cost of open-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases of two-stroke motor cycles is related to increased equipment costs. Benefits include lower fuel cost due to improved engine operation. Taiwan adopted standards that require the use of open-loop catalytic devices which result in a US$60 to US$80 cost increase. This is offset by fuel savings (Binnie & Partners, 1992). Total annual cost is estimated at US$75 or Rs 230 per vehicle (depreciation plus increased fuel costs). It is assumed that the cost of motorcycles is similar to the cost of four-stroke engines. The higher price of unleaded gasoline, due to increased production costs and adjustments to the logistic system (modification of pump nozzles) should also be included here. A very rough estimate of the cost is Rs 3,000 annually, per car (Rs 1,500 depreciation of control system, plus a Rs 1,500 increase in fuel costs, depending on subsidies and levies on gasoline). 6 A single gram of lead will contaminate the catalyst and render it useless. In addition, lead destroys the oxygen sensor of the fuel injection system. URBAIR-Mumbai 63 Due to methodological problems it is not possible to calculate the total cost of introducing this standard in Bombay. However, as explained above, costs can be estimated on a vehicle-by- vehicle basis. Policy instruments and target groups. The groups involved in introducing "clean" vehicles are: * petroleum industry, and gasoline retailers (clean cars require unleaded gasoline); * car and motorcycle industry; * repair shops/garages (proper skills required to maintain clean vehicles); and * vehicle owners (must pay the price). Term. In practice, standards are set only for new cars and motorcycles. It is expensive to equip existing vehicles with the necessary devices. Practically all vehicles currently sold on the world market are designed to be equipped with catalytic converters. This will affect the replacement rate of existing vehicles. Other options The United States and the European Union are discussing ways to tighten standards by: * improving current abatement techniques; * improving inspection and maintenance, since a small number of maladjusted and worn-out cars cause disproportionately large emissions; and * enforcing the use of "zero-pollution" vehicles, especially electric vehicles, in downtown areas. Diesel engines are a bottleneck in decreasing automotive air pollution. This is because treating exhaust from diesel engines is not easy. Resuspension emission Resuspension of road dust is clearly a high-priority issue. Unfortunately, there is a lack of quantitative information about control measures appropriate to Bombay. Further analyses should give priority to measures dealing with resuspension. In general, all methods for reducing entrainment should be evaluated and applied. Controlling resuspension of road dust may be the most cost effective way of reducing TSP exposure. Inproving traffic management Traffic management includes a variety of measures including: traffic control by policemen or traffic lights, one-way streets, new roads, and road-pricing systems. One of the major aims of traffic management is to solve the problem of congestion. Curb-side traffic management may improve air quality7, but it may also increase emissions because it usually results in increased use of the transport system. In terms of exposure, traffic management leads to an improvement in the Accelerating vehicles, a dominant feature of congested traffic, emit disproportionaly large amounts of pollutants. 64 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs downtown air quality, and a reduction in road exposure. In terms of total exposure, however, the net result may be small. Improved traffic management may have other environmental benefits such as reduction of noise and congestion. More detailed analysis is needed, but traffic management seems to be a cost-effective policy. Construction and improvement of mass-transit systems In BMR, almost 80 percent of passenger trips are made by public transport: 44 percent by bus and 36 percent by suburban trains (Cooper & Lybrand and AIC, 1994). This compares favorably with many other Asian cities. However, the present public transport system is overstretched and inadequate to meet rising demand, resulting in a shift toward the use of private vehicles. Assessing the costs and effectiveness of measures to improve the Bombay public transport system involves: * describing a future system appropriate to Bombay; * appraising the performance of a such system; * assessing the construction costs; * specifying the baseline (future situation without such system); * avoiding emissions; * calculating non-environmental benefits; and * designing a scheme to identify costs and benefits to impute to the environmental aspects. The costs of constructing mass-transit systems are high, and projects cannot be justified from an air pollution point of view alone. However, mass-transit systems have a variety of other benefits, including a reduction in congestion. LARGE POINT SOURCES Cleaner fuels in existing power plants. Under special weather conditions, power plants in Bombay may have a significant impact on concentrations. On a yearly average basis they do not contribute much to the air pollution problem. The use of cleaner fuel (low sulfur oil or coal) or natural gas might be contemplated, but the benefits relate to SO2 or CO2 emissions that are regional and global. Other point sources. Furnace oil (residual fuel oil or bunker fuel) with a sulfur content of about 4 percent (by weight) contributes about 75 percent of emissions from large point sources. The obvious measure is to reduce the sulfur content. The order of magnitude of the costs to use 2 percent, instead of 4 percent sulfur fuel, is about Rs 750 million (fuel consumption 200,000 tons annually). As these point sources contribute little to ambient PM1O, the estimated benefits are small. URBAIR-Mumbai 65 DISTRIBUTED INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL SOURCES The combustion of furnace oil by small industries is the main source of PMIo emissions (source category domestic). This emission is estimated at 300 tons (see Chapter 2). Halving these emissions by using 2 percent sulfur oil would cost approximately Rs 450 million. It would, however, lead to a decline in excess mortality by 22, 0.5 million fewer RSD, and Rs 50 million less in health damage (derived from Table 4.6, reduction of domestic and distributed sources). REFUSE BURNING AND DOMESTIC EMISSIONS Refuse burning and domestic emissions, together with resuspension, are the main sources of air pollution in Bombay. Refuse burning can be avoided by extending the public refuse collection system. This may require an increase in municipal taxes, or overall management. Domestic emissions are caused by cooking on traditional stoves or "chullas." These stoves are a major cause of indoor air pollution and pose a special threat to the health of women and children. In addition, they are energy inefficient, have an adverse impact on the overall air quality in the city. CONCLUSIONS This chapter describes measures for improving Bombay's air quality, their effectiveness, costs, benefits, implementation, and the institutions and authorities that would be responsible for each of the measures. A comparison of the costs and benefits leads to the prioritization of the measures. Identifying measures to address traffic emissions is straightforward because the major causes of air pollution are obvious. From a cost-benefit point of view the measures that should receive priority are: * an inspection and maintenance scheme; * introducing unleaded gasoline; and, * introducing low-smoke lubricating oil. Other measures for which it is difficult to tabulate cost-benefit ratios because of lack of data or methodological problems are: * improving automotive diesel fuel quality; * clean car standards; * increased use of natural gas for automotive and other use; and * improving the public transport system. Although other sources of pollution such as domestic cooking with wood, appear to be very important, measures to deal with these are not reported due to a lack of data. Resuspension of road dust constitutes a large part of TSP and controlling it would probably be one of the most cost effective ways of reducing ambient TSP exposure. 5. ACTION PLAN The following action plan is based on the cost-benefit analysis of various measures that reduce air pollution and the damages that result from it. This plan is based on available data, the shortcomings of which are identified throughout the text. Improving the database is necessary in order to extend the action plan to include additional measures. The "actions" fall into two categories: * Technical and other measures that will reduce exposure and damage. * Improving the database, and the regulatory and institutional basis for establishing an operative System for Air Quality Management in Greater Bombay. The time frame in which the actions/measures could be implemented and will be effective, is indicated as short (less than 5 years), medium (5 to 10 years) or long-term (more than 10 years). ACTIONS TO IMPROVE GREATER BOMBAY AIR QUALITY, AND ITS MANAGEMENT Actions to improve air quality Actions and measures have been formulated and Table 5.1: Measures proposed by the URBAIR working group proposed by the Bombay Vehicular polluton: Exhaust monitoring, Use of CNG, URBAIR working groups Expiration of PUC Certificate, Traffic flow, (Table 5.1), and consultants. Adulterated fuels, Pedestrian flow, Technical measures, to be High polluton vehicles, Inspection/maintenance, Fuelq quliy. polic (g.asoline/diesel). Mass transit. introduced in the short term, Monitoring: Air-quality monitoring, are prioritized in Table 5.2. Meteorological monitoring, For m ost of these m easures, Health monitori ....................................................................................... n, the estimated benefits as well Industrial pollution: Reporting format, as the estimated costs are Emission factors, substantial. Clean vehicle Stone crushers, . . > ......~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......... ................................................... ............................................................................................. standards for cars and vans Community sources: Refuse buming, Emission inventory, are the exception. Lowering- Wood buming, Energy demand, the lead content of gasoline Dust resuspension, Organization. is an important measure in Decongestion. 8 It should be noted that the additional road side exposure for commuters and drivers has not been considered in the present analysis. This means that the benefits are underestimated. 67 68 Action Plan Table 5.2: Action plan of abatement measures, based on cost-benefit analysis rime frame Abatement measure Avoided Mortality Reduced Annual health Annual costs Introduction of Effect of emissions reduction RSD benefits (million Rs) measurea measure (tons (million (million Rs) PM1olyr) days) Vehicles Unleaded gasoline: NQ NQ NQ NQ 250-360 Immediate 2-5 years Low-smoke lub. oil, 2- 450 65 1.5 150 30 Immediate 2 years stroke: lnspection/ 800 110 2.5 250 150-300 Immediate 2-5 years maintenance: Address gross polluters: 400 50 1.2 125 NQ Immediate 2 years Clean vehicle standards Cars and vans: 400 50 1.2 125 750 Immediate 5-15 years Motorcycles and 750 100 2.4 240. 600 Immediate 5-10 years tricycles: Improved diesel quality: 250 35 0.75 80 300 Immediate 2-5 years CNG replace gasoline, 200 25 0.6 75 NQ Immediate 5-10 years 50%: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Fuel combustion Cleaner fuel oil (FO to 150 22 0.5 50 450 Immediate 2-5 years 2% S): a: Time frame for starting the work necessary to introduce measure. NQ: Not quantified. itself as it leads to a reduction in lead concentrations. In addition it is also a prerequisite for clean vehicle standards. The success of these measures rests with enforcement. It is important to ensure that necessary technical improvements and adjustments such as workshop capacity and capability for adjusting engines, and the availability of reasonably priced spare parts can be assured. The action plan incorporates the following measures (as discussed in Chapter 4): * Introducing unleaded gasoline; * Improving diesel quality; * Introducing low-smoke lubrication oil for 2-stroke, mixed lubrication engines; * Implementing an inspection/maintenance scheme; • Addressing excessively polluting vehicles; * Fuel switching in the transportation sector, gasoline to LPG or CNG in vehicles; * Adopting clean vehicle emission standard; * Improving diesel quality; * Improving abatement and other propulsion techniques; * Improving traffic management; * Constructing, and improving mass-transit systems; and * Using cleaner fuel oil: Table 5.3 lists abatement measures for which cost-benefit analysis has not been performed. These could also be introduced in the short- to medium-term., and would benefit air quality. URBAIR-Mumbai 69 Table 5.3: Additional measures for short- to medium-term introduction TIme frame Abatement measure/action Introduction of Effect of measure measure Vehicles Address dilubon and adukteration of fuel: Short term Short term Restrict life time of public UVs and buses: Short term Medium term .f i W .;........... ......................... . ............ Tlraffc management Improve capacity of existing road network: * improve surface Short term Medium term * remove obstacles * improve traffic signals Extendidevelop road network, Shortmedium term Medium term Improvele!iminate bottlenecks:. Transport demand management Improve existing bus and rail system: * improve time schedules Short term Medium term * improve junctions/stations * make integrated plan Develop parking policy: * restrictions in central area Short term Short term * parking near mass transit terminals Short term * car-pooling Short term Table 5.4 lists actions to improve the Air Quality Management System. These apply to: * air quality assessment; - assessment of damage and costs; * the institutional and regulatory framework; and - building social awareness. Table 5.4: Actions to improve the air quality assessment of Greater Bombay Air Quality Monitoring: * Improve the ambient air quality monitorng system; * Upgrade laboratory facilities and manpower capacities; * Establish, and improve a quality control system; and * Establish a database suitable for providing air quality information to the public/control agencies/law makers. Emissions: * Improve inventory of industrial emissions; * Develop integrated, comprehensive emission inventory procedure; and eStudy ~~ eupnion on roads. .............................................. ............................................... ........... .............................................................................................................................................. Population exposure: * Establish appropriate dispersion modeling tools for control strategy in Greater Bombay. The list of measures proposed by the Bombay URBAIR working group is presented in Table 5.5. Table 5.6 lists additional measures suggested by consultants that are not in the Bombay Working Groups' action plan (Table 5.5). This list includes low smoke lubrication oil for 2-stroke vehicles (already on the market in Bombay), ban of further sales of new 2-stroke motorcycles, and parking 70 Action Plan restrictions. The MCGB, MPCB and the Transport Commissioner have presented lists of additional action items. These are presented as Annexes to Table 5.5. Table 5.5: Categorized action plan for Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Prioriy Agency EsUmate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) VEHICULAR POLLUTION 1. Exhaust Monitoring: Stricter enforcement of existing legal Transport 342.81 1 year provisions. Dept. Compliance to be checked: a) Four wheelers: at annual tax payment; b) Three wheelers: vigilance monitoring; c) Two wheelers: awareness campaign. At all transactons, e.g. Transfer/Hypothecaton tax payment, etc. 2. Expiration of PUC Month of expiration of validity should be Transport Certificate prominently displayed on each PUC certificate. Dept. This will enable the enforcement agency to detect defaulters. 3. Adulterated Fuels increased vigilance to prevent sale of Oil Cos. adulterated fuels. Set up a cell to receive BIS complaints and take prompt acton. Make public the names/ addresses of retail outlets ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4. High Polluting Identify high pollutng vehicles (especially Transport. Vehicles commercial transport vehicles such as Dept/ trucks/tempos, etc.) and levy stiff penalties. Traffic Prevent entry of such vehicles into the city by Dept. asking for a PUC certificate and by postng staff at entry points. ......................................................... .......... ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5. Policy on fuel Petol: Oil Cos. quality (a) Reduce content of lead in petrol to 0.15g/lt; BIS (b) Provide lead free petrol (0.915g/lt.); (c) Use of catalytic converters to be made compulsory for all vehicles; (d) Reduce sulfur content to 0.15% as per US/European standards. .....................................................i...................................................................................................................................................................... 6. Use of CNG Increase use in taxis/cars. Provide more filling GAIL stations. Increase awareness about its use. ................. ........................... ......................................................................................................................................................................... ... 7. Traffic Flow (a) Improve traffic speed by ensuring proper MCGB repairs/ maintenance of roads. Ensure better utiization of existing road network by clearing roads and footpaths. Ensure that utility companies carryout proper resurfacing of roads whenever any cigging is canied out. (b) Provide additional sets of signals at Traffic elevated locations to ensure free flow of traffic. police ....................................................................................................................................................I........ ............................................................................... 8. Pedestrian Flow Provide and maintain footpaths, remove hawkers and other encroachments... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. URBAIR-Mumbai 71 Table 5.5: Categorized action planfor Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Prioty Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) 9.Inspection & Lower time span for fitness certfication of Transport 91.0 1 yr. Maintenance vehicles to 10 years from the present limit of 15 years. In addition to existing requirement, specify engine performance criteria and establish standard practices for fitness testing. Appoint/nominate pnvate garages for fitness determination as authorized agencies, or initiate procedure for approval of garages to ensure quality and explore possibility of prvate agencies checking PUC Certificates. ............................. ..................................... i iWpre........................... ......................... .................................................................................................................... 10. Mass Transit Improve present Mass Transit facilities. BMRDAIM Provide additional mode of mass transit that CGB/ will effectively reduce vehicular emissions Railways ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................................. ............................................................................................. MONITORING i 1. Air Quality (a) Make daily monitoring data publicly Monitoring available (b) Rationalize ambient air quality monitoring MCGB locations by reducing and/or relocating some stations to provide increased frequency of monitoring network to provide better coverage of impacted areas. The frequency of monitoring should conform to the CPCB standards (c) Optimize sampling station height and MCGB identify locations for extended monitoring through rapid surveys. Ensure better coordination among monitoring agencies and optimize resource use through sharing monitoring locations. Monitor additional parameters: HC & Pb at 2 locations. Locations to be determined through rapid surveys. Monitoring of PMio and CO should be carried out regulardy. (d) Standardize data collection/analysis MCGB methods and reporting formats. Provide for better training facilities. Establish procedures for quality assurance. Arrange for data sharing and common processing facilities. Introduce ...... q audit for monitoringanalysis activities. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12. Meteorological Establish meteorological monitoring stations MPCB Monitoring with automatic recording facility in the city to Environ. provide data for air quality modeling at four Dept. locations (Chembur, Central Bombay, Westem suburb and Central suburb) as recommended by the expert sub-committee. Procure one SODAR for conducting low level inversion studies. ......................... ............................. ................................................................................................ 72 Action Plan Table 5.5: Categorized action plan for Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Priority Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) 13. Health Monitoring Strengthen present health monitoring carnied KEM out by KEM Hospital. Provide necessary Hospital equipment to other hospitals in Bombay for monitoring health effects of air pollution throughout the city of Greater Bombay. Improve and standardize maintenance of records in hospitals. Make arrangements to pool and analyze the gathered data. Evaluate indoor air quality by rapid surveys to MCGB 5.0 14 medium estimate health damage. MPCB mths prority ............................... ...................................................... .............................................................................. ... p INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION 14. Reporting format Standardize formats for industrial emission MPCB data. Standardize industry specific monitoring/analysis methods as per intemational procedures. Introduce compulsory quality audit. 15. Emission factors Create database of fugitive/process emissions MPCB through rapid surveys of targeted industries to MCGB establish industry specific emission factors. CPCB Change to cleaner fuels. ~~~~~~~~.................... ........................................... ........................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 16. Stone crushers Take punitive action against units that violate MPCB environmental laws through better coordination among agencies. 17. Waste buming Disallow industrial solid, hazardous waste buming by road sides or close to factory premises. ........................................... 1E m s s CoMMUNITY SOURCES 18. Refuse buming Discourage practice of refuse buming on MCGB dumps through stricter vigilance. Conduct MPCB special surveys to determine magnitude of the problem and to establish emission factors for Indian conditions. 19. Wood burning increase use of electi city in crematr ia. Invite MCGB/ participation of social organizations for BMRDA increased awareness about need of forest conservation and to influence public opinion for change in religious practices. All crematoria should be provided with efficient pyres. Encourage bakeries and other commercial MCGB/ establishments to switch to cleaner fuels. BMRDA Provide incentives to so the same. ................. ..if .................... ........ .... ................................................................................................... .................................................................... 20. Dust resuspension Establish contibution of road dust MPCBI resuspension, road repair activity and MCGB construction debris in air pollution problem. Remove accumulated dirt from road side................................................................. URBAIR-Mumbai 73 Table 5.5: Categorized action plan for Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Priority Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) 21. Decongestion Decongest business areas through ehtry Levy MCGB/ a toll tax/high parking fees, and area licensing. BMRDA An entry tax should be high enough to discourage use of private vehicles in busy districts. ...~~~~~~~~......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22. Emission inventory Complete and upgrade emission inventory for MPCB/ Bombay for S02, NOx, TSP, HC, PMio, etc. MCGB ........................................ . ............ .................................................................. .......................................................... ......................................................... 23. Energy Demand Identify energy demand and consumption MPCB/ pattems for domestic (slum and non-slum) and MCGB commercial sectors. ....... ... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................................................................ 24. Organization Designate coordinating agency for AQMS. MPCB/ Such an agency should coordinate the MCGB/ operations of concemed Govt/Semi-govt. BMRDA/ agencies; should oversee this action plan's Transport progress and implementation. Dept. Signatures of Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) concerned major Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) agencies: Environment Department Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) Transport Department Traffic Police Bhaba Atomic Research Centre Table 5. 5: Anne-x I Action Timeframe Concerned Estimate Departments (months) 1. Improve traffic speed by ensuring proper repairs, and maintenance of roads, and 6-12 Traffic & Roads better utilization of available roads through removal of vehicles that have broken down. 2. Decongest business areas through entry tax/cordon pricing and area licensing. Such 6-12 Traffic & Roads entry tax should be high enough to discourage use of private vehicles in busy districts. 3. Reduce and/or relocate some stations to provide increased frequency of monitoring 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. and extended monitoring network to provide better coverage of impacted areas. 4. Monitor additional parameters viz. PM1o/CO Pb/03, optimize sampling station height 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. and identify locations for extended monitoring through rapid surveys. Ensure better coordination among monitoring agencies and optimize resource use through sharing monitoring locations. 5. Establish meteorological stations with automatic recording facility for air quality 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. modeling data at four locations (Chembur, Central Bombay, Westem suburb, and Central suburb) as recommended by expert sub-committee. Procure one SODAR for conducting low-level inversion studies. 74 Action Plan Table 5.5: Annex I Action rimeframe Concerned Estimate Departments (months) 6. Standardize data collection/analysis methods and reporting formats. Provide for better 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. training facilities. Establish procedures for quality assurance. Arrange for data sharing and common processing facilities. Introduce quality audit for monitoring/analysis activities. 7. Strengthen present health monitoring carried out by KEM Hospital. Provide necessary 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. equipment to other Bombay hospitals for monitoring health effects of air pollution. Improve and standardize maintenance of hospital records. Make arrangements to pool and analyze the data. 8. Standardize reporting formats for industrial emission data. Standardize industry 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. specific monitoring/analysis methods. Methods as per intemational procedure (for MPCB approved laboratories) introduce compulsory quality audit. 9. Identify tgrget industries to generate database of fugitive/process emissions through 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. rapid surveys to establish industry specific emission factors. 10. Identify energy demand for domestic and commercial establishment. Quantify 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. consurmption of fuels (Wood/Charcoal/Kerosene etc.). Generate adequate database for establishment of emission factors for Indian conditions. i1. Discourage practice of refuse buming on dumps through stricter vigilance. Conduct 6-12 Solid Waste special surveys to determine magnitude of this problem and to establish emission factors for Indian conditions. 12. Stop unauthorized stone crushing units. Take punitive action against authorized units 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. which violate environmental laws through better coordination among agencies. 13. Conduct study to establish contribution of road dust resuspension in air pollution 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. problem. Remove accumulated dirt from the roadsides regularly. 14. Establish contribution of road repair activities and constructon debris in air pollution 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. problem. 15. Conduct rapid surveys to evaluate indoor air quality. Such data will have direct 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. bearing on estimation of health damage. 16. Increase use of electricity in crematoria. Invite participation of social organizafions for 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. increased awareness about need of forest conservation and to influence public Eng. M&E opinion for change in religious practices. All crematoria should be provided with efficient pyres to reduce wood consumption 17. Fill data gaps by implementing the projects and actions recommended during the 6-12 Dy. C.E. (C) E.S.P. second phase of URBAIR to prepare a comprehensive emission inventory for Greater Bombay. Update inventory to assist authorities in planning strategy for better Air Quality Management URBAIR-Mumbai 75 Table 5.5: Annex II Activity Action Cost Time Frame 1. Standardize data (1) Standardize analysis methods for pollutants in 50,000 3 months collection/analysis methods ambient air; MPCB-funded and reporting formats. Provide (2) Standardize data collection and reporting formats. for better training facilities. Circulate both to Industrial Association and MPCB, Establish procedures for approved laboratories; quality assurance. Arrange for (3) Arrange for data sharing and common processing 3 lakhs 6 months data sharing common facilities. processing facilities. Introduce After agency for coordinating the data collection, e.g.: 1 lakh quality audit for MPCB has BWRDA/MPCB is selected earmarked monitoring/analysis activities. facilities like computer hardware & software & related infrastructure will have to be developed. Data supplied to agencies (other than contributors) shall be at nominal charge for genuine use. ............................................................................................................................. ........................................ .................................................................................... ............................................ 2. Established meteorological Site selection for establishing meteorological Capital: 20 stations with automatic monitoring stations at four locations. lakhs recording facility in the city to Recurring: 1 provide data for air quality lakh/yr. modeling at four locations (M&R of (Chembur, Central Bombay, equipment; data Westem suburb, and Central collection and suburb) as recommended by processing). the expert subcommittee. Capital: 5 lakhs Procure one SODAR for SODAR equipment installation and operation in Recurring: 2 conducting low level inversion cooperation with experts from Met Dept./BARC lakhst year studies. Frequiency ofo9pra!n Once a week. ........................................................ ........ . ....... . . ............................... . ........................................................................................................................................ 3. Evaluate indoor air quality by Project Proposal: 5 lakhs/ year rapid surveys to estimate (1) Select about 100 families of lower income group health damage for first year; (2) Same number of families of middle income group for second year; (3) Same number of families of higher income group for third year. Monitor 40 families/month and cover all every 3 months. Cost of monitoring of CO, RPM, PM, S02, NOx is about Rs 1,000 per set of samples. 4. Reporting Format (1) Identify type of industries; 50,000 (2) Identify type of pollutants in each with point of MPCB funded emissions; (3) Standardize methods of monitoringlanalysis; (4) Standardize formats for (i) Utilities, (ii) Process emissions, (iii) Fugitive emissions. Circulate to concerned agencies. 76 Action Plan Table 5. 5. Annex II Activity Action Cost Time Frame 5. Identify target industries to (1) Identify the type of industries & type of emissions; 5 lakhs 3 years generate database of (2) Decide methodology to monitor the missions; CPCB funded fugitive/process emissions (3) Survey 3-4 industries of same type with different through rapid surveys to capacities with and without control equipment and establish industry specific different types of control systems; emission factors. (4) Related data collection and compilation per type of industry.( Rs 5,000. ...... ...................................... ........................ ......... ........................................................................................ ... ........................................................................................... 6. Take punitive action against (1) Preliminary survey to identify the no. of crushers; 350,000 6 months units which violate (2) Data collection for each crusher; environmental laws through (3) Survey area-wise of crushers; better coordination amongst (4) Employ staff of 3 persons/crusher, Approx. 10 agencies. persons/day for one month/ward and pay Rs 40/day. Table 5.5: Annex III Sr. Action Cost Timefra Remarks No. (Rs) me Estimate VEHICULAR POLLUTION 1. Exhaust Monitoring Stricter enforcement of existing legal provisions. (1) Four wheelers at annual tax 342.81 1 year There are 33 lakhs Motor Vehicles (MV) in Maharashtra State as of payment lakhs 31 March 1994. Earlier it was compulsory for MV Department to routinely check exhaust emissions, but by amendment of CMV Rules 1989 which came into effect from 28th March 1993, canying of PUC Certificate has been made compulsory. The MV Dept now has to check validity of PUC Certificate, and only randomly check exhaust emissions. (2) Three wheelers vigilance Although there is no legal provision to make it compulsory to check monitoring the PUC Certificate at the time of acceptance of tax, this is usually done. PUC s are checked when MVs are inspected for a fitness certificate. (3) Two wheelers awareness There are six mobile auto pollution control squads. These squads campaign check the PUCs of all Mvs, including three wheelers. (4) At all transactions e.g. transfer, All offices of MV Department conduct awareness campaigns in hypothecation, tax payment, etc. respect of auto-pollution. Press notes are issued and banners are exhibited. Publicity is given through radio and television media. Instructions are being issued to all concemed officers to check PUC Certificate before any transaction (transfer, HPA etc.) pertaining to MV is effected in MV Dept. URBAIR-Mumbai 77 Table 5.5: Annex III Sr. Action Cost Timefra Remarks No. (Rs) me Estimate 39 more mobile auto pollution control squads are needed. The details are as under: PUC PROPOSED RTO SQUADS EXISTING REMAINING OFFICES REQUIRED SQUADS SQUADS 10 2x10=20 6 14 AKTO/Dy.RTO OFFICES 25 1 x25=25 0 25 Total: 39 Constitution of one PUC Sauad Average Cost (Rs). 1 Motor Vehicle 300,000 2 Inspectors of Motor Vehicles 130,000 1 Drver 34,000 1 Operator 28,000 i Jr. Gr. Clerk 34,000 i Petrol Equipment (testing machine) 130,000 i Diesel Equipment (testing machine) 225.000 Total Average cost of one PUC squad 879,000 ...........................T..................................................................................................otal cost for 39 .PUC squads 342.81 lakhs........................... 2. Expiration of PUC Certificates Transport Commission's Office has already initiated new PUC Month of expiration of validity sticker scheme. Under this scheme sticker with digit of month should be prominently displayed on showing validity of PUC is displayed on Motor Vehicle. These PUC Certficate. This will enable the stickers are issued by Authorized Pollution testing stations along enforcement agency to detect with PUC certificates. With this scheme it will be possible to check defaulters. more vehicles with limited staff. Comparative Figures Before introduction After introduction of stickers (1-5-93 to stickers (1-5-94 to 30-11-93) 30-11-94) Mvs. Mvs. Mvs. MVs. Checked Detected Checked Detected 108,850 8,228 267,778 11,912 3. High PolluUing Vehicles As per legal provisions, in case a vehicle is found without PUC Identify high polluting vehicles Certificate, seven days show cause notice is issued, directing the (especially commercial vehicles vehicle owner to produce the PUC Certificate. In case of the such as truck/tempos, etc.) and levy owners non-response, the court imposes a penalty of Rs 1,000. For stiff penalties. Also prevent entry of a second offense, the fine is Rs 2,000, and the vehicle cannot such vehicles into the city by operate on the operate pending a PUC certificate. Non-produetion of posting staff at entry points. valid PUC certificate at the time of checking is punishable under section 177 with fine up to Rs 100 for first offense, and up to Rs 300 for subsequent offenses. 78 Action Plan Table 5.5: Annex III Sr. Action Cost Timefra Remarks No. (Rs) me Estimate 4. inspection and Maintenance 91 iakhs 1year Registatoncerificateissuedtovehiclesot tha tansport Lower time span for fitness vehicles is valid for 15 years from the date of issue. For renewal or certification of vehicles to 10 years registration, application shall be made not more than 80 days before from the present limit of 15 years. the date of expiration of registration. In addition to existing requirement, (See section 30 of Motor Vehicle Act, 1988 and Rule 52 of Central specify engine performance criteria Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989). and establish standard practices for fitness testing. Appoint/nominate private garages as authorized agencies for determination of fitness, or initiate procedure for approval of garages to ensure quality. Table 5.6. Additional proposed acions and measures, introduced by the URBAIR consultants. Introduce policies to increase use of low-smoke lubrication oil in 2-stroke motorcycles. Ban further sales of new 2-stroke motorcycles. Begin Public campaign to educate owners to maintain their vehicles to reduce smoke emissions (e.g. cleaning fuel injectors, etc.), resulting in fuel cost savings. Reduce sulfur contents of fuel oils and motor diesel. Price fuels to reflect their quality. Restrict lifetime of public utility vehicles, and buses. Develop parking policy for Central and South Bombay business districts. Develop public awareness campaigns regarding the effects of air pollution, and individuals' responsibility and behavioral options. Develop the dispersion/exposure model capability and capacity by investing in local institutions and consultants. 6. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN BOMBAY At the Central Government level, the main law-enforcing body is the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in the Ministry of Environment and Forests. At the State level, the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) is responsible for monitoring and enforcing all pollution control regulations, and issuing permits for new projects and activities. Motor vehicle regulations are an exception. They are enforced by the Transport Commissioner. At the city level, responsibility for monitoring air quality is shared by the MPCB and the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB), with the latter monitoring within the city limits. Figure 6.1 depicts a flowchart of environmental institutions in Bombay. Functions of various boards are described in the following section. AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION The Government of India has legislated constitutional provisions-for protecting and improving the environment. The Indian Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Factories Act, Wild Life Protection Act, Forests Conservation Act, Merton Shipping Act, Mines and Minerals (Regulation & Development) Act, Atomic Energy Act, as well as laws relating to local bodies and corporations, etc. contain provisions to regulate and take legal action with respect to specific environmental issues. All these enactments include specific provisions for environmental regulation and legal action. As India continues to experience industrialization, modernization, and urbanization, the existing laws have proven to be ineffective in controlling environmental degradation. Following the Stockholm Conference on Human Environment in June 1972, it was considered appropriate to create a uniform national legal code that would tackle environmental problems. The Indian Parliament brought into operation specific and comprehensive legislation simultaneously institutionalizing the regulatory agencies for controlling pollution of various categories. There have been number of amendments to these Acts and a set of Rules also have been laid down for the efficient enforcement of these legislations. Environmental legislation falls under: * Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. * Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977. * Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. 79 Figure 6.1: Organizational schedule |Central Govt Acts, .Standards |Govemment of Maharashtra §o and Guidelines 0 0| I~~~~~~~~~~~~ .00 Env. Avsr .. _ Expe~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rts Transport & MPCB DUrpt. bUan Natural Dept. of Traffic Depts. | Environment Development Research & Industries & Health Depts. Labour Heath, Statewide Ambient & EIA Statewide Env. Agriculture Grant of Specific Policy & Strategic Forests, Consents & Monitoring as Planning Wetlands, Enforcement necessary Wildlife, etc. Inter Depadmental Coordination -Air, Water, I Soils, Noise; Hazardous Wastes LBMRDA L Hazardous Wastes ~~~~~~~~Planning & Env. Dept. : ~~~~~.............................................. .. Indust.ial Emission Env. l MI ~~~~~. ............................................. ... D p ....L . r . | ~~~~~~~~~Thane . ,. ..~~~~~......... .................................... = 1 unc.... Cor . ff ~~~~~~~~~trouah BMRDA Othe ara .~~~~~~~~~~~~i BMRI Monitodng fo .. | ndustfial Emission MID Monitoring for | | Control & Natural Vehicular Resources Protection Emissions ........................ DISH Source: Coopers & Lybrand and AIC (1994). URBAIR-Mumbai 81 * Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. * Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991. These Acts prescribe the Environment and Forests Agency as the nodal regulatory agency at the central level. It is in charge of policy formulation, planning, and coordination of all issues and programs related to environmental protection. The Central Pollution Board is the law-enforcing body at the Central level. It is entrusted with the work of enforcement of environmental legislations in Union Territories. It also has the role of coordinating the activities of State Boards, establishing environmental standards, planning, and executing a nationwide program for prevention control and abatement of pollution, etc. Pollution Control Boards, under the administrative control of various Departments of Environment, enforce environmental legislations at the state level. The laws and regulations for air environment The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. This Act provides for prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution. It can apply to a specific area by issuing a gazette notification. Once an area is notified under this Act, no industrial or other pollution-causing activity can commence or be carried out without the permission of the concerned State Pollution Control Board. Functions of the Central Board 3 Advise the Central Government on matters concerning air quality improvement, and the prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution. - Plan and arrange to execute a nationwide program for the prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution. - Coordinate the activities of the State Boards. * Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution, and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution. * Establish air quality standards. Functions of State Boards * Plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution, and secure its execution. * Advise the State Government on matters concerning the prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution. * Collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution. * Collaborate with the Central Board to organize training for people who are, or will be, engaged in air pollution prevention and control programs; and organize related mass- education programs. * Inspect control equipment, industrial plants, or manufacturing processes, and give directions to responsible persons to take necessary steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution. * Inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as necessary, assess the quality of air and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such areas. 82 Institutional Framework * Establish emission standards for industrial plants, automobiles, or other sources (with the exception of ships and aircraft) that discharge any pollutant into the atmosphere. This is done in consultation with the Central Board and its standards for air quality. Under this clause, different emission standards may be established for different industrial plants, depending on the quantity and composition of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. * Advise the State Government on the geographic location of a potentially pollution-generating industry. • Perform such other functions as may be prescribed, or as may be entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government, from time to time. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and Environment Protection rules formed under the Act. The Environment (Protection) Act is an umbrella Act. It empowers the Central Government to take necessary measures for a) protecting and improving the environment; and for b) prevention, control and abatement of pollution. Under the provisions of this Act, the Government is empowered to set standards for environmental quality, and limits for emissions/discharges of pollutants from various specified sources. This Act also empowers the Government to prohibit and/or restrict certain activities, industrial or otherwise, in specified areas to ensure protection of environment; and it also confers enforcement agencies with necessary punitive powers to restrict any activity detrimental to environment. The Motor Vehicles Act 1988, and The Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989. Although the Air Act, and the Environment (Protection) Act provide for the prescription of automobile emissions standards by the Central Pollution Control Board, or Ministry of Environment and Forests, implementation and enforcement of these standards is the responsibility of the transport commissioner. (His office is responsible for registration of motor vehicles, and hence better equipped for enforcement.) The Bombay Smoke-Nuisances Act 1912 and Rules under the act. * No stack can be erected or modified unless it conforms to the regulations of the above Act. * No furnace, flue, or chimney may be erected, altered, added to, or re-erected except in accordance with plans and for the purpose approved by the commission. * No furnace, flue, or chimney shall be used for a purpose other than that which has been approved by the commission. Exceptions may be granted by the Commission for particular cases. * A furnace at a lower altitude than 100 feet (30 m.) is not permitted to emit smoke from the firing floor level (unless specifically exempted). The Bombay Municipal Corporation Act, 1818 (section 63 [amended] and section 390). As a part of its civic duties, the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay conducts air quality monitoring. URBAIR-Mumbai 83 Air pollution standards and regulations National ambient air quality standards have been established by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Standards are established for different types of areas (industrial, residential, and sensitive) (Appendix 2). Emission standards are industry specific, and include stack height. These standards are mandatory for industries. As of June 1992, the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board had granted about 7,500 permits to industries in Bombay. Vehicle emission standards are implemented by the Office of the Transport Commissioner. Regular emission tests, performed by authorized agents, are mandatory (Appendix 3). Environmental audit. Industries are required to submit an annual "Environmental Audit" report whose purpose is to improve compliance survey techniques. Central Action Plan (1992) has been promulgated by the Government of India to speed up enforcement against non-compliance with emission standards. Chembur, Bombay, has been selected one of the 15 sensitive areas that fall under the "Sensitive Area Approach" of this plan. Eight industry categories have been identified as highly polluting. These are: cement, thermal power plants, iron and steel, fertilizer, zinc/copper/aluminum smelters, oil refineries. Under the Central Action Plan, strict compliance with Environmental Standards and Minimal National Standards must be achieved within set time limits. Monthly progress reports are required. Licensing of industries. According to the Pollution Acts, industry-specific discharge and emission standards commonly referred to as MINAS (Minimum National Standards), have been prescribed. All industries, including small scale units, must comply with MINAS. State Pollution Control Boards have the responsibility of enforcing compliance with the Acts. The units under their jurisdiction obtain either a permission to operate, or a consent to discharge pollutants. All existing units must obtain the consent of their respective Boards. New units must obtain an NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the relevant Board before they can start operations. Financial institutions and banks demand proof of an NOC before disbursing loans, even though the loans may have been sanctioned on the basis of the project's techno-economic feasibility. In order to obtain an NOC from a Pollution Control Board, an application must be made with a complete project-report, including the proposed pollution control measures. Since pollution control is site specific, the Pollution Control Board must also be appraised of the proposed project site and, if appropriate, ask for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for site clearance. The Boards have declared some areas as "sensitive regions" because of their fragile environmental condition. New industries, especially pollution-intensive ones, may not be allowed in sensitive areas or may be prescribed much stricter standards. Proximity to protected monuments, national wildlife parks or sanctuaries are also reasons for industries to seek out a prior site clearance. Non-compliance invites prosecution, fines, penalties, and even imprisonment. Under the Environmental Protection Act of 1986, Pollution Control Boards are empowered to close a unit if they believe it is in the public interest to do so. Without going to a court of law, they can 84 Institutional Framework implement closure decisions by directly ordering concerned authorities to cut power and water supply to violating units. State and local institutions andpolicies on environmental protection in Maharashtra and Bombay include: * The Environmental Safety Committee, established after the Bhopal accident, provides experts for safety inspection of major plants; * Industrial Location Policy, 1984, for Bombay Metropolitan Region. This policy disallows the expansion of large and medium scale units in Bombay. Restrictions also exist for small-scale unit development; and * Restriction on the Use of Coal, 1979, Urban Development Department, Government of Maharashtra. Ban on issuing new permits for using coal in Bombay. * Ban on operation of three wheelers in Central Mumbai. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING INSTITUTIONS AND POLICIES The following suggestions for improvement are extracted from the Bombay EMS Study (Coopers & Lybrand and AIC [1994], Preferred Options for EMS), and discussions held by URBAIR working groups in Bombay. * The State Environment Department should have a stronger role in environmental policy making. * The environmental wing within BMRDA must have the responsibility for environmental planning. * Establish, at the metropolitan level, an organization responsible for strategic environmental planning for BMR. Create "environmental cells" in all sectoral organizations to include environmental considerations in their decision making. * Establish a dedicated BMR transportation authority with representation from all relevant agencies and organizations. * Use a charge on fuels to raise environmental management funds. Make environmental regulation more effective by tightening emission standards, and introducing fees and fines for pollution offenses. * Give the Department of Environment a role in the BMRDA Policy/Executive Committee so that environmental issues will receive proper consideration at the planning stage. (Note: This has already been implemented). • The State Environment Department should receive proper orientation for strategic air quality management. It should outline priorities for air quality imperatives and goals. Targets should be identified, and a timetable for implementation should be prescribed. The Department of Environment should provide leadership and professional management to achieve these goals. * The activities of MPCB, MCGB, and other organizations concerned with air quality monitoring and air pollution control are uncoordinated, largely sector-driven, not systematically integrated, and often duplicated. Cross-sectoral issues between environment, development and investment are not properly addressed. As a nodal agency, this should be done by the State Environment Department. URBAIR-Mumbai 85 * MPCB needs finance, equipment, and adequately trained and technically qualified personnel. * The Department of Environment would benefit from a special Advisory Committee to help with policymaking and program development. The same Committee can also help to coordinate the functions of air quality management agencies. * The Air Act (1981) permits action against defaulting industries. However, this action is time consuming since the complaints filed in law courts are not dealt with expeditiously. Closing polluting industries may be too harsh and other departments, especially Labor, often oppose such action. It is therefore necessary that MPCB should be able to penalize the defaulter on the spot, in keeping with the "Polluter Pays" principle. This provision should be included in future legislation. Special courts for trying cases under The Air Act (1981) and the Environment Protection Act (1986) are necessary (Central Environment Ministry). * There is a dire need to establish an "Environmental Training and Information Center" for decision makers and managers in governmental departments, industries and NGOs. Such a Center should be equipped with a database, environmental status and survey reports, and other information that may be vital to decision making by the Department of Environment and other agencies. * MCGB's air quality monitoring and research laboratory needs strengthening. This is necessary in order to undertake the monitoring of air pollutants related to global warming and ozone depletion. This would require staff training, and the provision of sophisticated instruments and equipment. - Effective monitoring and work reviews are necessary to improve MPCB and MCGB operations. * Present procedure requires checking vehicles and issuing "Pollution Under Control" certificates only through approved centers. These centers should be checked unannounced by the Regional Transport Office, at least occasionally. This would increase identification of defaulters and help create awareness. The Transport Department would need more manpower and equipment to carry this out. mI REFERENCES Association of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (AIAM). (1994). "Letter from Association of Indian Automobile Manufacturers to various Indian Ministries 28/02/1994." AIAM, New Delhi. Atkins International (1993). "Comprehensive Transport Plan for the Bombay Metropolitan Region." Report submitted to BMRDA, Bombay, Atkins International, Mumbai. Baker J. et al. (1992). "Final Report for Vehicular Emission Control Planning in Metro Manila." T.A. No. 1414 - PHI, Asian Development Bank, Manila. Baker, J., R. Santiago, T. Villareal, and M. Walsh. (1993). "Vehicular Emission Control in Metro Manila." Report PPTA 1723, Asian Development Bank, Manila. Binnie and Partners. (1992). "Modernization of Environmental Monitoring Facilities and Capabilities in Response to Philippines' Energy Development Project." Interim Report to EMB, Binnie and Partners, Mumbai. Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA). (1990). Traffic Survey in Greater Bombay (1988). Volume I: Classified Traffic Volume Survey, Part 1: The report. BMRDA, Transport & Communication Division, Mumbai. Central Pollution Control Board. (1993). Communication to the World Bank dated 20/08/1994, CPCB, New Delhi. Claiborn, C. et al. (1995). "Evaluation of PM1o Emission Rates from Paved and Unpaved Roads using Tracer Techniques." Atmospheric Environment 29:1075-1089. Coopers and Lybrand, and Associated Industrial Consultants (1994) "Preferred Options for Environmental Management Strategy." Report to the Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, Coopers and Lybrand, London. Despande et al. (1993). Reports on Air Pollution Related to activities by Bombay Municipal Corporation (Internal Reports). Dichanov, Y. (1994). Sensitivity of PPP-based Income Estimates to Choice ofAggregation Procedures. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Economopoulos, A. P. (1993). Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land Pollution. A Guide to Rapid Source Inventory Techniques and their Use in Formulating Environmental Control Strategies. Part I: Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO/PEP/GETNET/93. 1-A). Gram, F. and T. B0hler. (1993). "User's Guide for the "KILDER" Dispersion Modeling System." Report TR 5/92, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Lillestr0m, Norway. Hutcheson, R. and C. van Paassen. (1990). "Diesel Fuel Quality into the Next Century." Shell Public Affairs, London. Lave, L.B. and E.S. Seskin. (1977). Air Pollution and Human Health. Baltimore/London: Johns Hopkins University Press. 87 88 References McGregor, D.B. and C.S. Weaver. (1992). "Vehicle I/M test Procedures and Standards." Draft Report. Engine, Fuel and Emissions Engineering, Sacramento, California. Mehta, K.H. (1993). "Air Pollution Control Measures and Strategies for Bombay." Paper presented at the International Conference on Computerized Air Quality Management: Monitoring, Modeling and Emission control strategies, Bangkok 1993. Available from Maharashtra Pollution Control Board, Bombay. Midgely, Peter. (1993). Urban transport in Asia: An Operational Agenda for the 1990s. Technical Paper No. 224. Asia Technical Department Series. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Ostro, Bart. (1994). Estimating the Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with Application to Jakarta." Policy Research Working Paper 1301, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Ostro, Bart. (1992). "Estimating the Health and Economic Effects of Air Pollution in Jakarta: A Preliminary Assessment." Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the International Society of Environmental Epidemiology, Cuernavaca, Mexico. Paassen, C.W.C. van et al. (1992). "The Environmental Benefits and Cost of Reducing Sulfur in Gas Oils." Oil Companies European Organization for Environmental Protection and Health (CONCAWE), Brussels. Parkes, D. (1988) "Matching Supply and Demand for Transportation in the Pacific Rim Countries post-1990." Selected Papers. Shell Oil Company, London. Perissich, R. (1993) "Auto Emissions 2000: "Stage 2000" of the European Regulations on Air Polluting Emissions of Motor Vehicles." Proceedings of the Symposium, Commission of the European Communities UCSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels. Semb, A. (1986). "Measurement of Emissions from Open Burning." NILU Report AS/SBH/0- 8622/10, Lillestr0m, Norway. Shah, Jitendra, Tanvi Nagpal and Carter Brandon eds. (1997) Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia (URBAIR), Guidebook. Washington, D.C. :World Bank. Shah, Jitendra and Tanvi Nagpal eds. (1997) Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia (URBAIR): Metro Manila Report, Technical Paper No. 380. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Shin, E., R. Gregory, M. Hufschmidt, Y-S Lee, J.E. Nickum, and C. Umetsu. (1992). Economic Valuation of Urban Environmental Problems. Washington D.C.:World Bank. Tharby, R.D., W. Vandenhengel, and S.Panich. (1992). "Transportation Emissions and Fuel Quality Specification for Thailand." Draft Report, Monenco Consultants Ltd., Oakville, Canada. Tims, J.M. et al. (1981). Exposure to Atmospheric Benzene Vapor Associated with Motor Gasoline. CONCAWE Report 2/81, Brussels: CONCAWE. Tims, J.M. (1983). Benzene Emissionsfrom Passenger Cars. CONCAWE Report 12/83, Brussels: CONCAWE. Turner et al. (1993). "Cost and Emissions Benefits of Selected Air Pollution Control Measures for Santiago, Chile." Report to the World Bank. Engine, Fuel and Emissions Engineering, Sacramento, California. United State Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1986). "Fuel Oil Combustion." In: Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 4th ed, Suppl. A. Research Triangle Park, NC:EPA. pp. 1.3-1- 1.3-11. URBAIR-Mumbai 89 Wang, Q., C. Kling and D. Sperling. (1993). "Light-duty Vehicle Exhaust Emission Control cost Estimates Using a Part-pricing Approach." Journal of Air Waste Management Association. 43: 1461-1471. Weaver, C.S. and P.E. Lit-Mian Chan. (1993). "Motorcycle Emission Standards and Emission Control Technology." Draft Report Submitted to the World Bank and the Thai Government. Engine Fuel and Emissions Engineering, Sacramento, California. World Bank (1993). Philippines Environmental Sector Study: Toward Improved Environmental Policies and Management. Sector Report No. 11852-PH, East Asia, Country Department 1, World Bank, Washington D.C. World Health Organization (WHO)/United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (1992). Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishers. W.S. Atkins International. (1993). "Comprehensive Transportation Study for Bombay Metropolitan Region." Technical Working Paper No. 3, Mumbai. URBAIR-Mumbai 91 APPENDIX 1 AIR QUALITY STATUS, GREATER BOMBAY CONTENTS 1. Description of past and present measurements programs 2. Analysis of measurement results 3. References ANNEX 1. Intercomparison of gravimetric weighing analysis of glass-fibre high-volume filters between MCGB and NILU laboratories. ANNEX II. Monthly averages for SO2, TSP, NO, and NH3, MCGB sites, for the period 1978- 1990. ANNEX III. Monthly average SO2, NO, and TSP at MCGB and GEMS (NEERI) stations, for the URBAIR period June 1992 to May 1993. 92 Appendix 1 DESCRIPTION OF PAST AND PRESENT MEASUREMENT PROGRAMS Stations andparameters. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) monitors air quality within the city limits, and Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) monitors air quality in the rest of Bombay Metropolitan Region (BMR). MCGB has adapted the method designed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to establish an air quality monitoring program. This includes determining the frequency and procedure of sampling and analysis of the samples. MCGB has measured ambient air quality regularly at 22 stations in Greater Bombay over 15 years now. The pollutants measured are sulfur dioxide (SO2), total suspended particles (TSP), oxides of nitrogen (NOJ) and ammonia (NH3). Ambient air quality is also occasionally measured at selected traffic junctions in Bombay for SO2, NO., carbon monoxide (CO) and benzo(a)pyrenes from total and respirable particulates. The MCGB air quality monitoring network in Bombay is shown in Figure 1. There are few details available as to the location of these measuring sites, except that they are located at fixed points, most of them on terraces of municipal buildings, 10 to 12 meters above the ground. A few stations are located 3-4 meters above the ground. The stations are visited once a week and operated continuously for 24 hours, but the sampling period is 8 hours, giving three samples in 24 hours. Sampling is performed 1-4 days a month and not necessarily on a fixed weekday. Since 1978 NEERI (National Environmental and Engineering Research Institute) has operated United Nations GEMS (Global Environment Monitoring System) air monitoring stations in Bombay. These sites are also shown in Figure 1. At these sites S02, TSP and NO2 is measured. Monitoring was discontinued in 1988 and recommenced in January 1990. Both MCGB and NEERI monitor-at Parel. The results are somewhat different, as shown e.g. in Annex I, since the sites are not exactly the same, measurements are done on different days, and analysis is done in different laboratories. In 1991 and 1992 an air quality monitoring program was performed at 7 stations around the Thal RCF industrial complex south of Bombay. This study was coordinated by Projects and Development India (PDIL) and RCF. The measurements included TSP, SO2, NO, and NEI3 on an 8 hourly basis. Also in 1991 and 1992 measurements of air quality was performed at 5 stations even further to the south around the Vikram Ispat Ltd, Salav Project site. The measurements included TSP, SO2, NO., THC and CO on an 8 hourly basis 8 days in each two month periods. The measurement stations were located 1-7 kilometers from the plant. There are no information as to which agency actually did the analysis. URBAIR-Mumbai 93 Figure 1: MCGB and GEMS air quality monitoring network in Greater Bombay I-fi ,*. 4 Bombay 16 0 .1J2/ . '0.2/Z 1 ) MCGB < t/ * /< { ,J / ~~~~~~1. Colaba (C/R) 2. Babula Tank (IVR) 14 )g .2 / //t/ 3. Worli Naka (C) l f * : // / \X 4. Dadar (C) U (J l C ( / 75. Pare] (I/C/R) 4\ 00b *11 ).,[T 6. Sewree (I) * a ~~~~~~~~~7. Sion (C) 8. Khar (C/R) ) /t {Z 13/>\ 9. Supari Tank (R) 10. Andheri (I/C) 11. Saki Naka (I) ) 8 ol 2'f **2 (/ X 12. Jogeshwari (I) gromi t '8/@18 >' ) 13. Ghatkopar(IC/R) . 7e , 22".. 14. Bhandup (I) (t S ,i/ , * 19 SS 15. Mulund (I) ) tJ :A0\\20 > 16. Borivali (R) .1b - /4 ,^// ) , 4117. Tilaknagar (C) ) I* 5,.,// | /; . *21 18. Chembur Naka (C/R) 19. Maravali (l) 20. Aniknagar (I) h ,J ( 6gb 21. Mahul (l) 22. Mankhurd (R) GEMS I: Parel II: Kalbadevi inl: Bandra -1 // Main road -------- Railway l: Industrial C: Commercial R: Residential 94 Appendix I Measurement and Tabl 1: Measurement methods used by MCGB in Bombay analysis methods. The Parameter Analysis method measurement methods Suspended particulates (TSP) Gravimetric. High volume sampler. used by MCGB are listed Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Pararosaniline method. in Table 1. SO2 is collected in midget impinger and absorbed in As p of the a solution of TCM (Potassium Tetrachloromercurate) As part of the Nitrogen oxides as NO2 TGS Ansa Method. Midget impinger. URBAIR study, a comparison of results of gravimetric weighing of glass-fibre high-volume filters were carried out. Pre-weighted filters from NILU were brought to Bombay, weighted, exposed (24-hour sampling), weighted again and returned to NILU for last weighting. Also MCGB-type filters went through the same procedure. The results were quite good, in that the net particle weight on 6 filters (net weight range 66.4- 131.6 mg) (NlLU figures) deviated on the average about 4 percent (highest at NILU). Maximum difference was about 15 percent. ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT RESULTS The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) has operated 22 measuring stations in Greater Bombay for the last 15 years. In addition NEERI has operated 3 GEMS stations in the same period. At all stations SO2, TSP and NOx is measured and in addition NH3 at the MCGB stations. The MCGB stations are operated once a week, 1-4 days a month. There are few details about the results other than annual mean concentrations. Annual mean values for fixed 8 hour periods (1200-2000 hrs, 2000-0400 hrs, 0400-1200 hrs) for the period June 1992-May 1993 are also given. Total suspended particles (TSP). Annual mean and 98th percentile TSP levels from the GEMS/NEERI stations are shown in Figures 2 and 3. The TSP concentrations are well above the VVHO guidelines. In 1990 annual TSP levels were about 170-220 ,ug/m3 and 98th percentile levels about 400-500 .g/m3 at these stations. Annual TSP levels at the MCGB stations are shown in Figure 4, for the period 1978-1990. These values are probably mean values from all the 22 stations in operation. The 1990 level was 243 pg/m3, a little higher than at the NEERI stations. The 1990 level was the lowest since 1984. The highest level, 383 ug/m3, was recorded in 1987. Data from 18 stations from the period June 1992-May 1993 show a mean value of 207 pg/m3, that means an even lower level than in 1990, and about the same level as during the period 1978-1984, see Figure 5. URBAIR-Mumbai 95 Figure 2: Annual mean suspended particulate matter (TSP) at GEMSINEERI stations (4ug/m3) 300 : C~~~~~~~~~ tItSO o 100 C, 50 9 Sadra (R*sidwn) Kamx. (COmfiaI) _mm LUna, (Comme Pam (Inibil * WHO Gui Figure 3: Annual 98 percentile suspended particulate matter (TSP) concentrations at GEMS/NEERI stations (ug/ln) 600. p 2000 0 a 300 0 Bandra (ResidesnW) & Pans (Irdusbial) Kabdem (conrerica) U WHO GuideIne Figure 4: Annual mean concentrations of SO2, NO2, and TSP at MCGB stations (Pg/rm3) S 502 concentration 400- L NO. concentration 350s U TSP concentration 300- 250- ~,200- 150- 100- 50- 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1992/199 Year June-May URBAIR-Mumbai 97 Data tables for all stations, with monthly average SO2, TSP, NO, and Figure 5: Mean TSP concentrations at MCGB NH3 values are enclosed as Annex II to stations during June 1992-May 1993 (ug/m3) this Appendix. - -f B Figure 5 shows the highest annual v concentration at the Maravali station (313 ,ug/m3) situated in an industrial area. 0208 The Colaba, Sewree, Mahul and Mankhurd stations observed the lowest concentrations (118-144 ,ug/m3). Compared to the year 1987, 1993-92 TSP concentrations has fallen 20-30 percent at the Worli Naka, Dadar, Parel, 247 Sewree and Saki Naka stations, while there is no change in the TSP level at the 0237 0177 Sion and Chembur Naka stations. Figures 6 and 7 show, as examples, the monthly averages at two selected sites, Parel and Saki-Naka, for 1987/88 0 227 0 203 and 1992/93. Similar figures for all available MCGB sites for 1992/93 are 1900 enclosed in Annex III to this Appendix. There is a considerable variation in the * * monthly mean TSP concentrations as shown in Figures 6 and 7. The lowest 1* 0258 0 129 concentrations are measured during the 3272 months July-September, the monsoon 0199 season. The highest concentrations are 0198 usually measured during the months 265* November-March. During the rainy season mean concentrations are usually 0197 lowered by a factor between 2 and 3 compared to the dry season. There is a very little information available as to maximum 8 hour TSP *Stations not monitored levels. Data from April 1992, however, Air Ia show maximum values much higher than StAnr quality the monthly mean values, see Table 2. Stand Bombay WHO During April 1992 maximum 8 hour ( WH values varied between 265 ug/m3 and 360 pg/M3 60 -90 pg/M3 1 365 ,ug/m3. Maximum values seems to Note: Forsite locatons, see Figure 1, Appendix 1. be between 1.5 and 3 times higher than monthly mean values. Figure 8 shows that TSP concentrations usually is about 30 percent higher during the hours 1200-2000 than during the night time and during the morning period. This is probably due to the 98 Appendix 1 general activity pattern. Why NO, and SO2 do not follow this pattern, cannot be explained by available information. Figure 6: Monthly mean SO2, NO. and TSP concentrations at the Parel station during the periods June 1987-May 1988 and June 1992-May 1993 Ambient air quality data Parel (pg/m3) 600 r-I S02 1987/88 500 - NOx we 30 lSPM c- 400 _300 O 200 100 0- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 1992/93 600 - S02 500 - NOx E SPM R 400 _300 0 O200 100 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY URBAIR-Mumbai 99 Figure 7: Monthly mean S02, NO,, and TSP concentrations at the Saki Naka station during the periods June 1987-May 1988 and June 1992-May 1993 Ambient air quality data Saki-Naka (pg/m3) 1987/88 600 OSI 02 500 - NOx R 400 - SPM E c 300 C 200 100 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 600 - -lO S02 1992/93 500 - NOx |E1SPM R 400 c 300 C 200 100 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 100 Appendix 1 Table 2: Concen*ations of SO2, NO2, NH3 and TSPfrom MCGB stations in April 1992 (Ug/m3) Sites S02 N02 NH3 TSP A.M. MAX AM. MAX AM. MAX AM. MAX 1. Colaba 8 20 26 36 37 57 176 265 2. Babula Tank - - - - - - - - 3. Worli 13 90 43 78 56 96 281 645 4. Dadar 9 28 31 54 60 79 238 408 5. Parel 23 72 37 61 41 65 360 834 6. Sewree 39 91 31 59 50 82 225 393 7. Sion 18 60 89 126 59 87 465 1,365 8. Khar - - - - - - - 9. Supan Tank - - - - - - 10. Andheri 20 55 32 90 55 97 348 659 11. Sakinaka 16 28 41 93 38 77 273 504 12. Jogeshwadi 7 13 26 49 61 109 337 495 13. Ghatkopar 11 29 25 52 48 104 353 556 14. Bhandup 50 96 29 62 56 106 320 662 15. Mulund 7 20 20 38 43 65 275 533 16. Borivali 6(?) 6 15 28 37 44 199 291 17. Tilaknagar - - - - - - - 18. Chembumaka 14 31 45 83 57 88 319 496 19. Maravali 12 54 55 119 73 165 207(?) 381 20. Anik Nagar 23 63 36 59 97 168 259 379 21. Mahul - - - - - - - - 22. Mankhurd 14 56 39 85 46 94 250 395 Note: A. M.: Monthly average conc. Max.: Maximum 8-hour conc. There are only a few TSP data available from highly Figure 8: 8-hour mean annual TSP, NO. and SO2 values exposed traffic sites in (18 stations) for the period June 1992-May 1993 (pg/mi) Bombay. In 1991 and 1992, 3 or 4 days measurements of 250 S02, NO, TSP and CO were performed at 6 traffic junctions in Greater Bombay. TSP mean 200 TSP values ranged from 480 ,ug/m3 to more than 1,300 1g/m3 and 150 maximum 8 hour values E ranged from about 550 g.g/m3 to more than 3,100 ,ug/m3. 100 These values are considerably higher than from the stations in 50 - NOx the MCGB air quality monitoring network and show 2-- that TSP could be a very 0o - serious problem close to the 0 1 2 3 4 main roads. These high values Note: 1I 1200-2000 hrs, 2 2000-0400 hrs, 3=0400-1200 hrs URBAIR-Mumbai 101 are probably caused by resuspension of road dust and not so much by direct exhaust emissions from the cars. In 1989-1990 Sharma and Patil (1991, 1992) did some measurements of mass concentration of size-distributed aerosols using a quartz crystal microbalance cascade impactor (QCM-CI). The instrument operates at a low flow rate (0.24 /min) and separates the aerosols into 10 size fractions. The 50 percent cut-off sizes varies from 25 gm to 0.05 gm. For comparison conventional High Volume Sampler was also used. These samples were analyzed for size distribution by a Centrifugal Analyzing System (CAS) and Image Analyser System (IAS). Samples were taken one day on hourly basis each week at two sites. Site I (CESE, IIT, Bombay) is a relatively clean area and Site 2 (Hindustan Ciba-Geigy Ltd, Bhandup) is a "mixed region" with highly polluting industries surrounded with dense population. Site 2 was along the highway Lal Bahadur Shastri (LBS) Marg with a peak traffic density of about 2 000 vehicles per hour. It is not clear if the Bhandup site is the same as the Bhandup site in the BMC network, but from maps it is obviously in the same region. The TSP values collected by the high volume sampler were much higher than total particulate collected by QCM-CI (< 25 gm) for both sites: 180 and 541 pg/m3 by high volume sampler as compared to 86 and 110 ,g/m3 by QCM-CI. But the cumulative percentage of particulates <25 gim was approximately equal by the two instruments. PM,0 values (particles with diameter < 1O gm) were about 85-90 percent of total mass collected by the QCM-CI Table 3: Annual average TSP and measurement method and the mass segregated by the its conmonents (ngnr3) CAS/IAS analyzer system (s 45 gm) on high volume Component Site1Mean Site2Mean samples. This shows that PMIo levels are much lower than TSP* 130.21 800.71 TSP levels and that the difference is highest in the most Al* 2.31 10.54 polluted areas where the mass of particles > 45 pum As 273.60 695.50 dominates. Br 244.20 384.40 TSP high volume samples at Site 1 and Site 2 in 1989 Ca* 4.82 8.43 -were analyzed for 27 chemical species using inductively Cd* 9.13 11.08 coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP-MS), energy Co 25.70 30.50 dispersive x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and Cr 39.00 104.10 UV/VlS spectrophotometry. Factor analysis applied on 19 Cu 290.80 436.20 marker elements extracted 7 factors indicating 7 major Fe* 2.95 5.06 source types contributing to aerosol mass at the sampling K* 1.27 2.27 sites. It was found that soil related elements were attached La 36.70 48.20 with more than one factor indicating collinearity of Mn 401.90 635.00 sources. However, results obtained indicated many Na* 5.87 8.20 anthropogenic sources present in the region like ferrous Ni 35.00 79.10 and non-ferrous industrial emissions, combustion Pb* 0.55 1.21 processes such as refuse buming, oil and coal burning, S* 0.94 4.75 road transport and secondary emissions. S36590 9.°448°° Table 3 shows the annual average concentrations of Sn 95.10 189.10 TSP and the 27 analyzed elements at the two sites for Ti 471.50 661.00 1989. The concentrations were much higher at Site 2 than v 109.50 311.00 at Site 1, especially for TSP, Al, Cr, S, Si, V, and Zn. Zn 204.90 785.50 S047- 1.59 1.77 N03* 1.03 1.14 NH4- 739.90 868.90 102 Appendix 1 Background TSP levels. There are no data available from real background stations, but measurements are performed south of Bombay both around the Thal RCF industrial Complex and during the Vikram Ispat Ltd. Salav Project. Especially the Thal RCF data are interesting. During the 1991/92 Thal RCF project TSP, SO2, NO, and NH3 were measured at 7 locations. The number of 8 hour observations ranged between 84 and 141. Arithmetic mean TSP values ranged between 79.8 gg/m3 and 117.6 gg/m3 and maximum 8 hour mean values ranged from 164 [tg/m3 to 234 11g/m3. Even though local industrial emissions are supposed to contribute, the measured TSP levels around the Thal RCF Complex are quite lower than at all MCGB stations in Greater Bombay, pointing out the great importance of local emission sources in Bombay. Sulfur dioxide (SO;). Annual mean SO2 concentrations from the GEMS/NEERI Figure 9: Annual mean sulfur concentrations at sites are shown in Figure 9. The GEMS/NEERl stations (pg/m3) concentrations dropped significantly between 1980 and 1987 to well below 70 WHO annual guideline levels, and -. - increased substantially again in 1990, but 5 s - are still within the WHO guideline range. i 40 Annual SO2 levels at the MCGB sites 030 are shown in Figure 4. These values are mean values from all the 22 stations in 20 operation. The 1990 level was 18 ig/m3, 10 well below that at the NEERI stations. 0 The 1990 level was the same as in 1987, -509 while the SO2 concentrations at the NEERI sites increased substantially from San sa (Reasamftw) -O Kabadi (Co ) 1987 to 1990. The reason forthis |i Una (UrnvercI) * PamI (c_>sUp difference between NEERI and MCGB I yi WI4OGum*I sites is not known. The MCGB data from the period June 1992-May 1993 show a mean value of 22 pg/m3, that is a little bit higher than in 1990. Figure 10 shows annual mean S02 levels for the period June 1992-May 1993. These levels are ranging from 7 Vg/m3 at the Mankhurd station to 50 g.g/m3 at the Bhandup site. These values are all within the WHO guideline of 50 gg/m3. As shown in Figures 6 and 7, there is a quite similar seasonal variation for S02 and TSP at the Saki Naka station, while this seasonal variation is not so clear for S02 at the Parel station. The reason for this is not known. It is also difficult to explain why S02 levels at most stations usually are higher during the late night and morning period than during the rest of the day as shown in Figure 8. Available data from April 1992 from 17 MCGB stations show maximum S02 values (8 hour mean values) between 13 ,ug/m3 and 96 pg/M3, see Table 2. A few measurements at traffic junctions in 1991 and 1992 show mean values ranging from 38 pg/m3 to 117 gug/m3 at 6 stations and maximum 8 hour values from 80 ,ug/m3 to 162 R.g/m3. S02 concentrations at traffic junctions therefore seem to be considerably higher than at the MCGB network. The Indian Guideline value for short-term (24 hourly) in Industrial & Mixed Use areas is 120 ,ug/m3. URBAIR-Mumbai 103 Air quality data around the Thai RCF Complex in 1991 and 1992 show mean Figure 10: Mean SO2 concentrations (,g/rn3) at values from 2.3 ,ug/m3 to 5.7 ,ug/m3 and MCGB stations in the period June 1992-May 1993 maximum 8 hour values from 11.4 p.g/m3 to 24.8 g&g/m3 at 7 stations. These values - -* * .. Bombay are considerably lower than in the - Greater Bombay area. ; '. * Nitrogen oxides (NOX as NO2). Annual 98th percentile NO2 levels at GEMS/NEERI sites are shown in Figure 11 (annual mean levels are not shown in reports available at NILU). Annual 98th percentile levels have dropped 935 significantly from 1987 to 1990. Concentrations are relatively consistent .10 0 so suggesting NO2 concentrations to be evenly distributed throughout the city. Annual mean concentrations at @ 35 015 MCGB sites are shown in Figure 4. These values are probably mean values from all 22 stations. The mean value in 190 1990 was 40 jig/m3, and the level has varied between 30 ,ug/m3 and 44 ,ug/m3 * * the last ten years. MCGB sites NO, level * 019 has increased about 10 percent from 1987 021 *7 to 1990, while 98th percentile values at GEMS/NEERI sites have dropped 021 significantly from 1987 to 1990. As very little details about monitoring 3 methodology and site location are 028 available for both monitoring networks, 44 direct comparison of the data is not attempted. MCGB data from June 1992- May 1993 show a mean of 46 ug/m3 * S indicating that the NO,, level still is *Stations not monitored rising. Air quality Figure 12 shows mean NOx, Standard Guideline concentrations for the period June 1992- / Bombay WHO May 1993. The levels are ranging from 80 pg/m3 50 pg/m3 20 gg/M3 at the Mahul site to 83 glg/M3 at .- 20e Sion3 at the Mahul site.to 83 ig/m3 at Note: For site location, see Figure 1, Appendix 1 the Sion site. 104 Appendix 1 As shown in Figures 6 and 7 the seasonal NO,, variation seems to be quite Figure ll: Annual 98 percentie nitrogen oxWde similar as for TSP. The NO, levels concen*ations (,ug/m3) at GEMS/NEERI stations usually are highest during the night time (Figure 8), while TSP concentrations are 250 highest at daytime and S02 concentrations are highest at late night 200 and morning hours. I Available data from April 1992 from l 17 MCGB stations show maximum NO,, d / values (8 hour mean values) between 28 0 100 ,ug/m3 and 126 ,ug/m3, see Table 2. The 8 so Indian guideline value for 24 hours in industrial areas is 120 ,ug/m3. o . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991 and 1992 NO, measurements at I'll o1s some traffic junctions show mean values from 56 pig/m3 to 175 pg/m3 and maximum 8 hour values from 83 pug/m3 anda (Ra_enuaI) Pau (Inilh) (Worli Naka site) to 296 ,ug/m3 (VT site). oae"dw, (Com. woa) - - WHO Guade As for TSP and S02 these values are much higher than at the MCGB monitoring stations, indicating traffic emissions to be very important. Air quality data around the Thal RCF Complex in 1991 and 1992 show mean NO,, values between 10.2 ,ug/m3 and 17.0 ,ug/m3 and maximum 8 hour mean values between 28.0 ,ug/m3 and 52.2 pg/n3 at 7 stations. These values are considerably lower than in the Greater Bombay area. Lead (Pb). Monthly mean concentrations of lead during the Air pollution survey of Greater Bombay in 1971-1973 ranged from 0.4 pg/m3 to 2.4 pg/m3. Lead was monitored at the 22 MCGB sites during the years 1980-1987. The Greater Bombay area was divided into 6 sub-areas; South Bombay, Central Bombay, Westem Suburb, Eastem Suburb, Petrochemical Complex and Urban Clean (Borivali station). This study showed an increasing trend in the whole area and the highest levels in the Eastern Suburb zone. The annual mean levels ranged from 0.5 ,ug/m3 to 1.3 jig/m3. The highest monthly mean level was 17.9 ,ug/m3 at the Mulund site in October 1984. As an example annual mean Pb concentrations in the Central Bombay area are shown in Figure 13. Annual mean concentrations for 4 stations range from 0.2 ,ug/m3 to 1.1 ,Ig/m3. The highest level (probably mean monthly value) was 8.4 ,ug/m3 at Dadar in January 1985. The second highest level of 6.2 ,ug/m3 was recorded during February 1987 at Parel. The annual mean levels of Pb in this area showed an increasing trend during the years 1980-1987. From 1980 to 1987 the annual mean Pb level nearly doubled. URI AUR-Mumbai 105 Figure 12: Mean NO. concentrations at MCGB stations in the period June 1992-May 1993 (pgIM3) r - (pg/m -- 'S. - " - - Bombay @ 30 () @) 42 @ 33 @ 39 @ 48 949 40@ I d* @25 @ 50 @59 * Stations not monitored Note: Site lctosaegvnir quality / 2 ~~~Standard / t ~~Bombay L 80 pg/M3 (NOx Ls NO2) Note: Site locations are given in Figure 1, Appendix 1. 106 Appendix 1 There is no information available Figure 13: Annual trend of lead in Central Bombay during the years about Pb monitoring at 1980-1987 (ug/ms) the MCGB stations Lead after 1987. (ig/m3) Monitoring 8 undertaken in 1990 at : the GEMS/NEERI sites indicates that annual Max airborne Pb levels have fallen significantly 6 since the 1970's to between 0.25 gg/m3 . and 0.33 ug/m3, well below the WHO .*. guideline of 1 gg/m3. It 4 - . . is likely that curbside *. . * levels will be much . *. , higher. As shown in the TSP paragraph annual 2- Pb levels at two sites in 1989 were 0.55 11g/m3 Average and 1.21 gg/m3, the latter site being close to aroad. Inthemost 0- heavily traffic-exposed 1980 1982 1984 1986 city center streets it is Note: Data is from Worli Naka, Dadar, Parel and Sewree stations. likely that Pb levels are even higher. Carbon monoxide (CO). Some short-term CO roadside surveys have been undertaken between 1984 and 1987. Monitoring was performed at several roadside sites during periods of peak traffic flow. 8 hour mean values ranged between 4 mg/m3 and 21 mg/m3. A maximum hourly concentration of 50 mg/m3 was recorded at the Haji Bachoo Ali Hospital. Maximum hourly concentrations were generally around 23-29 mg/m3, close to the WHO guideline of 30 mg/m3. These roadside surveys are not representative of ambient background levels which are likely to be much lower. CO has also been measured at 6 traffic junctions on a few days in 1991 and 1992. Mean values ranged from 5.1 mg/m3 (Worli Naka) to 1 .1 ±g/m3 (VT station) and maximum values ranged from 7 mg/m3 (Nana Chowk) to 15.6 mg/m3 (Mahim). CO was also measured during the Vikram Ispat Ltd. Salav project south of Bombay in the period January 1991-June 1992. The values usually ranged from 0.3 mg/m3 to 0.5 mg/m3, and only a few 8 hour values were above 1 mg/m3. These values seem to represent ambient background levels. URBAIR-Mumbai 107 Ozone (03). Ozone is not measured in Bombay. Some monitoring should be started to identify the levels of ambient urban 03 in and near Bombay. Ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is routinely measured at the MCGB sites, but information about the results are very limited. The April 1992 report shows mean values between 37 ,ig/m3 and 97 Vg/m3 and maximum values between 44 ,ug/m3 and 168 Vg/m3. The highest observed 24 hour maximum NH3 value was 1 995 Vg/m3 at the Maravali station in 1985. There is no available information on NH3 standards. Air quality data at 7 stations around the Thal RCF Complex in 1991 and 1992 show mean NH3 values ranging from 5.5 [ig/m3 to 46.7 Vg/m3. Maximum 8 hour values ranged from 15 i g/m3 to 233 [tg/m3. These values are somewhat lower than in the Greater Bombay area. Benzo(a)pyrenes. Occasionally samples of total and respirable TSP are taken at traffic junctions with heavy traffic. The level of benzo(a)pyrenes from total TSP ranges between 2.7 ,ug/m3 and 13 ,ug/m3, and the level of benzo(a)pyrenes from respirable TSP ranges between 2.3 jig/m3 and 8.4 jig/m3. There are no information on standards for benzo(a)pyrenes, but the measured levels seem to be quite high. REFERENCES Sharma, V.K. and R. S. Patil. (1991). "In situ Measurements of Atmospheric Aerosols in an Industrial Region of Bombay." Journal of Aerosol Science. 22:501-507. Sharma, V.K. and R. S. Patil. (1992). "Size Distribution of Atmospheric Aerosols and their Source Identification using Factor Analysis in Bombay, India." Atmospheric Environment. 26B: 135-140. Sharma, V.K. and R.S. Patil. (1992). "Chemical Composition and Source Identification of Bombay Aerosol." Environmental Technology. 13:1043-1045. 108 Appendix 1 ANNEX I INTERCOMPARISON OF GRAVIMETRIC WEIGHING ANALYSIS OF GLASS-FIBRE HIGH-VOLUME FILTERS BETWEEN MCGB AND NILU LABORATORIES f URBAIR-Mumbai 109 NORSK INSTMTtr FOR LUFrFORSKCNrNG - NORWEGrAN INSTITUTE FOR AIR RESEARCH POSTBOKS 64. N-2001 Lr T TR0M N I Office of the Dy. City Engineer (Civil) Env. Sanitation & Projects New Transport Garage Bldg. 3rd Floor Dr. E. Moses Rd. Worli BOMBAY 400 018 INDIA Att.: Mr. V.S. Mahajan, Dy. City Engineer Deres ref.fYour ref.: Var ref.lOur ref.: Dato/Date: STL/EMN/0-921 17 20 August 1993 Dear Sir, with reference to your letter of 4 May this year I hereby enclose Tables and Figures giving the results of our comparison of weighing results on the High volume sampler filters performed by your laboratory, and by NILU, as also handed over to you in Bombay on 4 AugusL T'he comparison of weighing results comes out quite favourably. The results show the following main features: * The weights recorded at your laboratory are on the average about 4 mg higher than those recorded at NILU, varying between -15 mg and + I1 mg = The net weights recorded at NILU were also on the average somewhat higher than recorded by MCGB. NILU net weights were on the average 4.9% higher than MCGB net weights (for 6 samples), varying between +15.3% and -8.8%. * Comparison of results from co-located samplers, one with MCGB filter paper, and one with Whatman GF/A filter paper (used by NILU) show that the MCGB filters give somewhat higher concentations. This is an interesting result. The reason for this effect cannot be determined from this experiment. It may possibly be connected with irreversible absorption of water wapor in the M,CGB filters, or to loss of fibers from the Whatman filters. The rsesults from this limited experiment supports the good quality of the particle weight data given by your laboratory. Sineeeyyuf Steimar Larss~ Head of department LOCAL AIR QUALITY 0 BOMBAY TSP, Test filters I _Welght b fore Weight after Net weigtt, mg m3 MS I/m3 Stotion _ Filter no. NILU MCGB NILU MCGB NIW MCGB _ MC GB 1 4219.1 4225.6 4308.3 4309.2 89.2 83.6 303.6 275 SION _ 2 4184.3 4187.5 4250.7 4247.8 66.4 60.3 331.2 182 SION 3 4259.1 4259.0 4369.1 4354.4 110.0 95.4 393.6 242 JOGESHWARI 4 4269.6 4273.3 4355.1 4367.0 85.5 93.7 412.8 227 JOGESHWARI 5 4266.0 4267.9 4397.6 4397.9 131.6 130.0 379.2 343 MARAVU | 6 4238.6 4244.4 4328.9 4330.2 9.3 85.8 379.2 226 MARAVUI_ 7 4245.3 4253.4 4249.8 4.5 unexposed 8 4202.8 4213.7 4210.9 8.1 * _ 9 4224.3 4234.5 4232.7 8.4 l 10 4228.8 4236.5 4234.3 5.5 l K-488 2712.8 2854.4 2859.4 146.6 493.5 297 JOGESHWARI K-489 2708.9 2815.9 2821.3 112.4 528.0 213 JOGESHWARI K-500 2735.9 2928.0 2934.8 198.9 475.2 419 MARAVU K-501 2733.3 2852.1 2860.9 127.6 480.0 24 MARAVUI K-506 2742.3 2887.1 2892.2 _149.6 435.6 343 SIONA | K-507 2740.0 2823.1 _2828.8 88.8 480.0 185 SION | K-544 2762.0 2766.9 _ _ unexposed K-545 2753.3 2756.5 l Weight before, filter 1-6 -11 4280.0 4270.0 4260.0 4250.0 * 4240.0 4230.0 4220.0 4210.0 4200.0 41°.0.0 . 4180.0r , 4180.0 4190.0 4200.0 4210.0 4220.0 4230.0 4240.0 4250.0 4260.0 4270.0 NIW Weight after, filter K-488, K-489, K-500, K-501, K-506 and K-507 2940.0 - 2920.0 2M0.0, : 2880.0 2860.0 2840.0 2820.0 2800.0 2800.0 2820.0 2840.0 2860.0 2880.0 2900.0 2920.0 2940.0 NILU Weight after, fiter 1 - 6 4400.0 - 4380.0 4360.0 4340.0 4320.0 4300.0 4280.0 4260.0 4240.0 4240.0 4260.0 4280.0 4300.0 4320.0 4340.0 4360.0 4380.0 4400.0 NILU 112 Appendix 1 Net weight, filter 1 - 6 (mg) 140.0 130.0 120.0 110.0 j 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 150.0- 4 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 120.0 130.0 140.0 NILU .m ISO 380 0 so l15 m 200 250 300 350 450 NILU filters 1-6 lJg/M3 URBAIR-Mumbai 113 ANNEX II MONTHLY AVERAGES FOR SO2, TSP, NOX AND NH3, MCGB SITES, FOR THE PERIOD 1978-1990 114 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Colaba (Al) Units: pg/r3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1981 36 159 42 1981 70 283 55 1982 44 157 56 1982 35 143 33 1983 105 249 69 1983 31 142 44 1984 69 195 93 1984 73 211 77 1985 50 216 50 1985 49 218 63 1986 39 264 64 96 1986 13 210 71 82 1987 12 235 64 131 1987 12 297 60 171 1988 21 240 93 64 1988 21 302 68 88 1989 13 238 87 68 1989 16 273 74 70 1990 26 299 93 70 1990 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1981 1981 1982 30 132 39 1982 9 95 11 1983 17 137 21 1983 21 133 19 1984 31 241 48 1984 9 175 37 1985 25 233 32 87 1985 35 205 29 52 1986 20 225 43 87 1986 17 154 39 96 1987 8 271 32 108 1987 10 240 35 90 1988 8 227 40 67 1988 11 225 17 54 1989 9 260 53 35 1989 10 174 29 67 1990 1990 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1981 1981 1982 9 86 14 1982 13 89 10 1983 14 98 13 1983 15 90 12 1984 12 157 18 1984 9 91 10 1985 10 120 13 43 1985 6 82 11 23 1986 16 205 27 72 1986 8 126 32 75 1987 6 218 29 129 1987 6 144 20 81 1988 19 116 10 56 1988 6 126 20 42 1989 14 176 23 47 1989 6 112 18 29 1990 1990 URBAIR-Mumbai 115 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Colaba (Al) Units: _g/nm3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1981 6 91 5 1981 6 71 6 1982 6 82 6 1982 6 74 8 1983 13 119 15 1983 10 112 15 1984 9 92 11 1984 12 118 8 1985 6 113 10 37 1985 6 115 9 20 1986 7 151 14 64 1986 7 102 20 89 1987 9 89 18 20 1987 6 77 17 74 1988 7 133 14 33 1988 6 106 10 32 1989 6 88 17 27 1989 6 66 14 30 1990 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOX NH3 1981 22 83 17 1981 48 99 35 1982 7 74 14 1982 52 128 61 1983 11 105 12 1983 19 134 30 1984 17 90 29 1984 33 131 51 1985 1985 27 149 27 55 1986 7 115 29 82 1986 6 158 30 20 1987 19 81 32 52 1987 6 154 35 78 1988 8 62 29 22 1988 12 188 69 31 1989 12 95 29 25 1989 13 133 42 44 1990 1990 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1981 58 105 48 1981 72 193 56 1982 49 113 58 1982 71 233 60 1983 57 227 74 1983 71 206 92 1984 57 160 62 1984 68 210 76 1985 50 219 40 110 1985 41 234 45 35 1986 14 284 52 178 1986 10 269 77 152 1987 10 242 71 68 1987 9 313 60 66 1988 13 215 89 24 1988 28 214 57 28 1989 22 178 61 78 1989 24 209 70 82 1990 1990 116 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Babula Tank (A2) Units: pg/rn3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year SO2 SPM NOx NH3 1980 112 548 49 1980 1981 95 328 60 1981 70 283 55 1982 11 274 39 1982 35 143 33 1983 213 380 92 1983 31 142 44 1984 109 298 95 1984 73 211 77 1985 88 323 56 1985 49 218 63 1986 56 521 68 158 1986 13 210 71 82 1987 66 388 92 125 1987 12 297 60 171 1988 26 476 90 92 1988 21 302 68 88 1989 27 400 94 74 1989 16 273 74 70 1990 20 458 101 1990 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year SO2 SPM NOx NH3 1981 1981 1982 30 132 39 1982 9 95 11 1983 17 137 21 1983 21 133 19 1984 31 241 48 1984 9 175 37 1985 25 233 32 67 1985 35 205 29 52 1986 20 225 43 87 1986 17 154 39 96 1987 8 271 32 108 1987 10 240 35 90 1988 8 227 40 67 1988 11 225 17 54 1989 9 260 53 35 1989 10 174 29 67 1990 1990 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOX NH3 1981 1981 1982 9 86 14 1982 13 89 10 1983 14 98 13 1983 15 90 12 1984 12 157 18 1984 9 91 10 1985 10 120 13 43 1985 6 82 11 23 1986 16 205 27 72 1986 8 126 32 75 1987 6 218 29 129 1987 6 144 20 81 1988 19 116 10 56 1988 6 126 20 42 1989 14 176 23 47 1989 6 112 18 29 1990 .1990 URBAIR-Mumbai 117 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Babula Tank (A2) Units: pg/rm3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3. 1980 1980 1981 6 91 5 1981 6 71 6 1982 6 82 6 1982 6 74 8 1983 13 119 15 1983 10 112 15 1984 9 92 11 1984 12 118 8 1985 6 113 10 37 1985 6 115 9 20 1986 7 151 14 64 1986 7 102 20 89 1987 9 89 18 20 1987 6 77 17 74 1988 7 133 14 33 1988 6 106 10 32 1989 6 88 17 27 1989 6 66 14 30 1990 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NHs Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1981 22 83 17 1981 48 99 35 1982 7 74 14 1982 52 128 61 1983 11 105 12 1983 19 134 30 1984 17 90 29 1984 33 131 51 1985 1985 27 149 27 55 1986 7 115 29 82 1986 6 158 30 20 1987 19 81 32 52 1987 6 154 35 78 1988 8 62 29 22 1988 12 188 69 31 1989 12 95 29 25 1989 13 133 42 44 1990 1990 November December Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NN3 1981 58 105 48 1981 72 193 56 1982 49 113 58 1982 71 233 60 1983 57 227 74 1983 71 206 92 1984 57 160 62 1984 68 210 76 1985 50 219 40 110 1985 41 234 45 35 1986 14 284 52 178 1986 10 269 77 152 1987 10 242 71 68 1987 9 313 60 66 1988 13 215 89 24 1988 28 214 57 28 1989 22 178 61 78 1989 24 209 70 82 1990 1990 118 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Worli-Nak (A3) Units: pg/M3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOX NH3 1980 1980 1981 119 284 49 1981 77 345 44 1982 92 213 49 1982 40 250 25 1983 135 365 51 1983 79 299 31 1984 108 374 55 1984 132 324 52 1985 109 273 5 241 1985 61 245 84 85 1986 65 418 65 178 1986 37 398 52 44 1987 36 400 77 140 1987 19 310 64 170 1988 40 364 108 113 1988 41 334 95 74 1989 27 400 102 98 1989 12 246 67 80 1990 73 444 119 1990 45 311 87 March April Year SO2 SPM NOX NH3 Year SO2 SPM NOX NH3 1981 66 264 29 1981 1982 39 303 32 1982 55 304 18 1983 36 304 25 1983 17 211 13 1984 95 305 48 1984 56 228 18 1985 72 376 76 20 1985 41 245 28 102 1986 22 233 40 50 1986 42 236 38 103 1987 16 278 49 95 1987 26 235 28 114 1988 37 318 58 40 1988 8 205 35 50 1989 10 277 57 23 1989 32 278 40 78 1990 35 247 53 1990 19 267 66 1991 1991 10 214 28 May June Year SO2 SPM NOX NH3 Year SO2 SPM NOX NH3 1980 180 11 1980 22 171 17 1981 20 202 8 1981 38 247 8 1982 12 225 16 1982 22 171 10 1983 43 190 17 1983 80 154 17 1984 15 264 9 1984 45 162 10 1985 21 153 21 37 1985 8 236 16 28 1986 20 239 24 64 1986 11 206 18 73 1987 9 202 28 69 1987 7 216 26 51 1988 40 231 25 63 1988 11 206 34 64 1989 1989 1990 10 178 24 1990 6 215 18 URBAIR-Mumbai 119 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Worli-Nak (A3) Units: pg/m3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 179 148 6 1980 21 198 5 1981 51 163 11 1981 49 163 7 1982 14 148 9 1982 11 91 10 1983 40 131 17 1983 39 68 17 1984 88 130 10 1984 164 167 17 1985 7 189 11 38 1985 6 210 13 29 1986 7 217 14 61 1986 28 172 18 79 1987 13 186 28 44 1987 12 143 33 95 1988 6 146 23 38 1988 6 153 24 28 1989 1989 1990 6 160 15 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 43 143 9 1980 74 272 16 1981 79 126 23 1981 118 150 33 1982 17 108 16 1982 77 257 56 1983 46 115 14 1983 92 31 1984 49 158 17 1984 28 201 19 1985 41 176 25 45 1985 69 243 42 86 1986 22 193 31 58 1986 40 309 58 128 1987 8 167 31 95 1987 19 221 51 114 1988 13 129 47 30 1988 57 272 82 42 1989 1989 1990 1990 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 106 281 48 1980 176 341 48 1981 141 247 48 1981 172 336 48 1982 135 159 79 1982 92 283 79 1983 104 369 77 1983 141 372 77 1984 73 226 1984 1985 81 370 46 191 1985 47 366 46 139 1986 95 345 70 79 1986 53 376 70 165 1987 51 352 94 109 1987 47 355 94 128 1988 70 300 95 73 1988 53 371 95 98 1989 1989 1990 1990 120 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Dadar (A4) Units: pg/M3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 44 294 29 1980 46 453 30 1981 59 245 46 1981 40 317 43 1982 45 212 47 1982 40 227 40 1983 58 333 50 1983 32 262 38 1984 65 232 73 1984 55 250 61 1985 56 327 74 1985 44 290 62 1986 50 323 67 116 1986 34 338 68 51 1987 21 371 69 158 1987 14 350 45 108 1988 22 413 97 63 1988 27 347 68 75 1989 34 355 70 67 1989 31 331 64 78 1990 33 411 88 1990 39 366 94 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 37 241 20 1980 51 339 32 1980 44 216 18 1981 40 217 33 1981 27 211 22 1982 28 255 41 1982 16 145 21 1983 12 221 26 1983 27 158 28 1984 63 220 56 1984 21 214 31 1985 63 283 47 23 1985 22 200 27 40 1986 36 315 42 72 1986 39 253 43 157 1987 14 294 37 104 1987 8 205 26 720 1988 15 322 41 56 1988 20 285 23 75 1989 13 267 37 46 1989 17 258 31 74 1990 9 202 47 1990 9 176 28 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NHs Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 26 243 20 1979 18 195 15 1980 20 104 11 1980 21 115 22 1981 11 125 14 1981 19 137 9 1982 17 129 18 1982 18 128 12 1983 26 112 22 1983 35 138 21 1984 12 163 21 1984 55 121 20 1985 38 173 22 178 1985 29 139 18 50 1986 36 373 21 20 1986 60 190 26 48 1987 13 231 22 86 1987 11 190 32 55 1988 20 180 15 62 1988 10 146 22 36 1989 17 238 28 30 1989 22 1278 22 46 1990 7 161 19 1990 7 164 31 URBAIR-Mumbai 121 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Dadar (A4) Units: pg/M3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 33 150 15 1979 1980 105 176 7 1980 42 154 11 1981 36 116 14 1981 41 135 8 1982 12 108 16 1982 36 100 12 1983 26 223 20 1983 7 93 12 1984 42 131 16 1984 30 99 28 1985 44 136 18 60 1985 66 177 18 1986 19 162 20 71 1986 41 165 24 30 1987 13 141 21 60 1987 11 99 25 86 1988 9 146 25 28 1988 8 99 25 73 1989 23 116 29 42 1989 15 141 20 25 1990 9 131 21 1990 17 87 21 22 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 52 128 19 1979 58 279 27 1980 45 70 11 1980 23 191 19 1981 46 101 21 1981 65 144 33 1982 19 90 24 1982 48 227 65 1983 39 121 29 1983 33 184 40 1984 35 99 32 1984 31 193 45 1985 1985 44 195 32 100 1986 11 125 30 78 1986 34 300 48 107 1987 12 157 36 100 1987 17 266 52 100 1988 22 87 28 26 1988 26 368 55 34 1989 42 97 31 41 1989 48 195 45 87 November December Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 62 169 28 1979 51 226 32 1980 68 256 31 1980 53 297 42 1981 76 161 43 1981 69 201 43 1982 34 163 46 1982 63 269 71 1983 69 229 74 1983 114 317 97 1984 61 244 65 1984 48 270 58 1985 51 298 38 161 1985 31 319 39 113 1986 31 298 53 101 1986 31 361 43 99 1987 14 276 57 71 1987 20 322 78 43 1988 39 378 53 29 1988 1989 40 291 72 195 1989 42 351 82 197 122 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Parel (A5) Units: pg/M3 January February Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 158 348 42 1978 141 217 34 1979 100 346 10 1979 122 314 13 1980 109 291 33 1980 105 349 35 1981 84 247 49 1981 154 339 53 1982 75 318 43 1982 75 315 28 1983 98 330 26 1983 52 322 41 1984 84 418 101 1984 79 438 80 1985 1985 1986 44 463 63 239 1986 31 507 64 67 1987 29 476 90 166 1987 18 483 83 177 1988 33 509 103 108 1988 57 575 85 47 1989 36 426 57 130 1989 37 487 66 101 1990 56 315 123 1990 33 432 92 March April Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 1978 94 318 32 1978 85 222 12 1979 99 308 9 1979 76 328 23 1980 123 353 30 1980 84 249 21 1981 99 234 39 1981 89 251 22 1982 57 246 35 1982 1983 30 278 37 1983 61 173 18 1984 130 307 73 1984 56 272 37 1985 1985 72 266 37 83 1986 29 413 47 65 1986 46 318 45 85 1987 20 438 52 123 1987 24 372 48 105 1988 42 487 56 73 1988 42 369 30 71 1989 37 420 48 54 1989 38 277 36 91 1990 31 355 63 1990 24 288 38 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 65 184 5 1978 107 243 11 1979 126 301 19 1979 89 274 18 1980 86 158 18 1980 96 123 21 1981 46 221 17 1981 82 262 11 1982 31 201 24 1982 61 114 14 1983 65 132 24 1983 109 140 25 1984 25 221 21 1984 83 138 15 1985 74 187 19 36 1985 45 139 21 38 1986 27 322 35 68 1986 25 148 32 121 1987 24 391 34 107 1987 30 223 37 65 1988 50 279 32 52 1988 21 216 50 69 1989 36 317 32 41 1989 51 263 26 45 1990 28 297 33 1990 17 158 30 URBAIR-Mumbai 123 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Parel (A5) Units:_pg/M3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 164 211 6 1978 91 277 5 1979 49 241 15 1979 41 246 14 1980 64 133 8 1980 72 107 6 1981 41 156 12 1981 54 234 15 1982 48 154 16 1982 18 126 11 1983 56 160 22 1983 54 169 24 1984 82 160 24 1984 81 160 23 1985 28 131 14 26 1985 63 163 27 52 1986 30 183 25 68 1986 47 152 25 38 1987 31 147 30 62 1987 30 153 29 47 1988 24 123 24 43 1988 20 135 24 30 1989 27 143 19 52 1989 52 128 25 33 1990 18 143 27 1990 September October Year SO2 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 100 178 8 1978 97 258 16 1979 84 205 34 1979 137 236 34 1980 151 129 14 1980 117 223 30 1981 74 158 20 1981 154 218 48 1982 51 140 29 1982 91 230 80 1983 68 174 25 1983 71 139 44 1984 57 135 37 1984 62 243 53 1985 1985 67 225 43 100 1986 42 216 41 82 1986 47 354 70 163 1987 48 185 35 127 1987 41 285 49 117 1988 36 128 32 30 1988 37 302 43 94 1989 77 145 26 36 1989 67 253 47 90 November December Year SO2 SPM NOX NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 54 260 14 1978 67 358 12 1979 82 239 35 1979 79 367 36 1980 125 240 36 1980 144 290 62 1981 85 246 57 1981 107 177 55 1982 91 232 81 1982 84 327 94 1983 75 304 67 1983 105 368 101 1984 1984 1985 84 385 50 157 1985 74 405 68 318 1986 49 411 78 99 1986 29 426 104 290 1987 21 479 61 209 1987 29 450 90 249 1988 60 369 65 199 1988 47 387 69 186 1989 46 325 56 217 1989 40 441 70 202 124 Appendix I Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Sewree (A6) Units: pg/m3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 1980 1981 45 280 40 1981 83 429 55 1982 47 179 41 1982 42 202 23 1983 83 278 54 1983 46 212 28 1984 44 255 50 1984 65 296 49 1985 71 255 42 75 1985 102 311 56 71 1986 52 276 52 162 1986 58 258 50 124 1987 21 258 55 156 1987 18 296 55 156 1988 25 327 84 82 1988 63 290 84 82 1989 36 260 62 57 1989 29 360 57 57 1990 30 326 71 1990 24 260 71 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year SO2 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 1980 1981 89 226 34 1981 49 244 22 1982 48 234 35 1982 33 136 11 1983 33 179 26 1983 50 168 19 1984 64 254 40 1984 43 223 22 1985 93 217 32 49 1985 112 142 24 65 1986 63 321 45 149 1986 60 220 32 120 1987 20 253 29 111 1987 22 356 35 110 1988 51 247 43 46 1988 52 301 36 73 1989 21 221 55 51 1989 33 221 36 69 1990 38 240 41 1990 26 217 30 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NHs Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 56 140 21 1980 50 125 11 1981 40 161 13 1981 56 129 9 1982 36 122 13 1982 42 85 8 1983 28 127 9 1983 46 117 13 1984 21 183 12 1984 22 104 8 1985 106 197 16 30 1985 13 133 10 25 1986 49 216 19 75 1986 37 160 26 86 1987 21 228 22 110 1987 18 152 22 69 1988 48 176 15 58 1988 13 117 12 65 1989 37 251 23 53 1989 10 180 11 67 1990 14 92 15 1990 22 127 17 URBAIR-Mumbai 125 Anbient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Sewree (A6) Units: pg/m3 ,_ , _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _.. July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 110 176 9 1980 115 255 8 1981 33 115 13 1981 28 111 11 1982 36 76 8 1982 24 107 13 1983 13 107 13 1983 39 125 16 1984 57 101 11 1984 56 142 10 1985 29 130 13 102 1985 39 175 12 45 1986 49 171 22 89 1986 73 133 25 88 1987 26 123 16 43 1987 25 132 22 82 1988 18 104 19 30 1988 25 89 20 32 1989 27 96 21 62 1989 40 98 27 43 1990 20 126 16 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NHs 1979 1979 1980 79 160 10 1980 76 294 20 1981 28 87 18 1981 47 116 26 1982 15 94 16 1982 66 93 38 1983 20 95 13 1983 23 106 20 1984 42 112 17 1984 36 200 32 1985 1985 23 130 19 126 1986 46 120 33 87 1986 20 179 38 62 1987 24 91 18 100 1987 25 187 27 117 1988 21 83 19 22 1988 28 174 36 42 1989 39 137 22 49 1989 40 188 50 84 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 76 263 26 1980 50 267 36 1981 59 171 26 1981 60 190 41 1982 36 110 33 1982 58 161 46 1983 37 136 42 1983 54 251 51 1984 41 199 44 1984 58 254 42 1985 62 257 44 229 1985 49 285 30 109 1986 20 247 47 147 1986 26 266 64 245 1987 14 196 41 155 1987 16 208 40 81 1988 43 174 40 67 1988 33 259 69 57 1989 29 176 38 106 1989 24 236 59 94 126 Appendix :1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Sion (A7) Units:-Ugam3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 1980 1981 49 303 48 1981 71 421 50 1982 34 354 39 1982 44 236 31 1983 82 342 51 1983 47 249 43 1984 48 304 69 1984 49 308 55 1985 83 374 137 83 1985 50 365 80 72 1986 41 363 65 97 1986 33 352 63 65 1987 33 412 74 123 1987 18 432 77 100 1988 32 428 128 87 1988 23 360 86 70 1989 1989 1990 43 527 127 1990 26 522 121 March - April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 1980 1981 50 275 40 1981 32 277 25 1982 34 331 23 1982 16 189 17 1983 29 229 38 1983 29 146 22 1984 63 301 50 1984 21 302 26 1985 46 267 49 50 1985 38 234 39 119 1986 33 363 40 50 1986 27 279 34 89 1987 10 365 51 89 1987 9 283 40 73 1988 14 417 63 45 1988 24 349 42 62 1989 1989 1990 12 300 77 1990 11 284 65 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOX NH3 1979 1979 1980 1980 26 100 31 1981 11 182 14 1981 12 310 10 1982 18 193 15 1982 13 318 10 1983 17 122 14 1983 31 129 13 1984 9 165 20 1984 24 134 12 1985 30 273 19 20 1985 16 103 25 22 1986 22 245 26 47 1986 22 196 28 64 1987 14 291 39 49 1987 8 151 28 64 1988 23 249 42 56 1988 7 197 29 79 1989 1989 1990 11 249 30 1990 7 201 32 URBAIR-Mumbai 127 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Sion (A 7) Units: pg/m3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NHs Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 12 171 9 1980 17 127 9 1981 16 235 15 1981 11 102 11 1982 13 103 10 1982 .8 105 11 1983 15 89 17 1983 15 107 20 1984 20 101 14 1984 33 148 20 1985 10 251 17 20 1985 48 163 28 20 1986 8 206 20 66 1986 12 145 19 98 1987 8 163 30 86 1987 7 124 25 86 1988 1988 1989 1989 1990 7 173 25 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 24 98 10 1980 50 253 20 1981 31 115 21 1981 71 178 35 1982 19 135 24 1982 61 213 53 1983 20 87 20 1983 41 211 33 1984 24 122 27 1984 34 214 50 1985 1985 48 281 41 54 1986 17 185 39 64 1986 31 278 52 102 1987 7 182 45 92 1987 18 299 63 89 1988 1988 1989 1989 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 65 283 32 1980 65 317 52 1981 72 214 44 1981 73 264 43 1982 66 219 54 1982 81 262 69 1983 66 198 47 1983 66 358 66 1984 56 269 61 1984 41 1985 76 362 57 230 1985 21 489 80 98 1986 53 324 62 94 1986 336 62 110 1987 15 264 83 90 1987 30 290 62 53 1988 1988 1989 1989 405 81 54 128 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Santacruz (A9) Units:_pg/r3 ._v_ _ January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 34 181 23 1978 52 206 23 1979 28 261 8 1979 28 163 9 1980 46 297 27 1980 44 348 21 1981 44 241 43 1981 52 304 34 1982 53 233 39 1982 33 191 26 1983 37 224 26 1983 24 270 23 1984 48 309 49 .1984 51 250 35 1985 41 267 44 1985 26 266 35 1986 26 271 36 50 1986 18 278 24 35 1987 32 350 49 92 1987 11 351 53 13 1988 21 424 87 89 1988 14 375 78 77 1989 8 339 58 76 1989 8 267 44 30 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NHs 1978 25 226 40 1978 29 164 5 1979 24 205 14 1979 14 173 11 1980 29 258 17 1980 14 215 9 1981 30 189 23 1981 20 158 12 1982 39 203 26 1982 8 144 10 1983 9 194 11 1983 9 164 10 1984 47 237 30 1984 16 183 12 1985 31 301 53 58 1985 27 241 16 72 1986 18 357 26 136 1986 18 243 24 75 1987 6 326 28 26 1987 6 294 25 128 1988 7 403 22 39 1988 13 334 18 108 1989 7 381 31 53 1989 6 293 24 81 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NO. NH3 1978 18 129 5 1978 35 134 9 1979 16 163 8 1979 8 456 6 1980 10 12 9 1980 10 112 9 1981 7 129 6 1981 7 137 5 1982 7 137 7 1982 9 94 10 1983 7 91 9 1983 11 127 11 1984 8 132 7 1984 10 119 6 1985 12 145 8 44 1985 7 128 7 29 1986 18 172 24 117 1986 22 211 24 83 1987 6 227 17 64 1987 6 166 25 68 1988 18 246 8 88 1988 URBAIR-Mumbai 129 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Santacruz (A9) Units: _ug/m3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NHs 1978 15 135 6 1978 8 118 6 1979 6 133 6 1979 7 149 6 1980 6 108 5 1980 8 168 5 1981 6 113 5 1981 6 64 5 1982 7 61 7 1982 7 84 7 1983 10 136 9 1983 16 101 24 1984 9 119 7 1984 18 125 5 1985 7 129 8 41 1985 8 156 9 29 1986 6 190 9 20 1986 1987 8 160 8 49 1987 6 120 11 64 1988 6 138 6 45 1988 6 144 20 20 1989 1989 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 30 88 9 1978 36 189 11 1979 16 136 8 1979 34 170 15 1980 18 78 7 1980 44 153 15 1981 22 82 14 1981 57 124 29 1982 19 88 20 1982 27 182 42 1983 15 45 27 1983 39 243 31 1984 15 105 17 1984 12 196 14 1985 1985 36 222 31 50 1986 1986 1987 8 151 20 64 1987 22 270 47 69 1988 7 89 11 27 1988 10 287 49 20 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 42 235 14 1978 39 265 8 1979 46 154 24 1979 49 208 23 1980 48 164 23 1980 49 204 45 1981 62 140 36 1981 46 228 38 1982 26 128 42 1982 64 215 60 1983 51 267 35 1983 89 355 59 1984 49 226 40 1984 49 280 52 1985 48 356 38 122 1985 44 411 51 34 1986 36 337 62 64 1986 40 356 64 234 1987 8 254 46 49 1987 24 352 80 71 1988 45 322 66 27 1988 18 355 60 50 130 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Sakinaka (All) Units: pgrm3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH1 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 69 387 22 1980 41 352 14 1981 61 233 29 1981 67 358 34 1982 73 233 36 1982 17 228 44 1983 89 385 41 1983 58 320 31 1984 118 298 59 1984 1985 60 314 33 1985 32 266 19 1986 1986 32 384 37 55 1987 25 438 30 156 1987 16 341 30 115 1988 19 380 37 106 1988 30 365 43 78 1989 26 393 63 28 1989 22 389 42 29 1990 33 487 55 1990 23 353 43 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 31 229 20 1980 23 285 12 1980 43 262 17 1981 48 266 21 1981 37 325 18 1982 58 337 24 1982 38 163 22 1983 21 311 16 1983 46 244 26 1984 1984 1985 25 351 37 41 1985 34 244 16 133 1986 37 384 27 53 1986 43 346 28 91 1987 13 465 28 103 1987 7 308 22 79 1988 20 340 31 46 1988 22 430 32 53 1989 14 366 48 39 1989 15 356 38 72 1990 12 323 28 1990 8 328 28 May June Year' S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 17 251 16 1979 14 140 15 1980 28 153 11 1980 43 119 16 1981 17 200 8 1981 55 145 8 1982 14 230 18 1982 28 114 8 1983 33 159 17 1983 27 182 11 1984 1984 1985 20 229 11 31 1985 1986 25 257 18 69 1986 17 147 21 67 1987 20 234 24 31 1987 7 161 25 41 1988 18 241 25 56 1988 9 172 30 62 1989 15 308 26 20 1989 8 208 26 37 1990 9 212 17 1990 6 174 21 URBAIR-Mumbai 131 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Sakinaka (All) Units: pg/rM3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 30 133 15 1979 25 167 10 1980 6 110 6 1980 27 121 7 1981 19 134 10 1981 9 124 7 1982 34 107 17 1982 12 106 9 1983 12 86 14 1983 19 151 19 1984 1984 17 166 12 1985 1985 1986 8 170 14 58 1986 23 129 19 53 1987 7 148 21 46 1987 7 108 29 88 1988 8 126 28 25 1988 6 176 19 29 1989 6 127 15 58 1989 6 128 27 38 1990 6 152 24 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 67 94 20 1979 69 209 18 1980 52 91 9 1980 73 185 12 1981 55 105 14 1981 95 146 17 1982 38 143 24 1982 81 210 62 1983 27 121 25 1983 39 162 23 1984 18 125 18 1984 65 41 33 1985 1985 1986 43 180 28 52 1986 49 329 33 104 1987 9 154 15 81 1987 22 266 31 53 1988 10 130 28 28 1988 28 241 43 26 1989 27 182 27 55 1989 31 200 32 57 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 82 198 18 1979 65 311 23 1980 67 180 20 1980 91 237 27 1981 99 173 37 1981 102 230 23 1982 121 223 41 1982 110 340 51 1983 67 221 33 1983 76 316 39 1984 59 262 30 1984 36 267 26 1985 1985 50 332 18 66 1986 30 303 30 71 1986 38 384 25 92 1987 23 280 31 55 1987 48 447 39 71 1988 51 295 53 34 1988 29 349 48 50 1989 24 292 39 44 1989 29 416 51 51 132 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Ghatkopar (A13) Units:_gr3 p January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 72 304 11 1979 71 288 8 1980 100 452 27 1980 67 327 30 1981 96 246 35 1981 137 300 49 1982 102 216 30 1982 46 281 22 1983 140 286 52 1983 67 253 32 1984 78 400 58 1984 69 391 41 1985 33 349 53 1985 57 339 31 1986 75 480 51 66 1986 35 433 48 48 1987 52 438 69 156 1987 52 505 47 131 1988 32 445 63 86 1988 34 350 40 86 1989 40 364 59 57 1989 39 471 64 73 1990 38 498 58 1990 37 468 70 March April Year SO2 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 75 355 8 1979 38 279 12 1980 73 416 28 1980 60 277 19 1981 54 243 21 1981 48 365 22 1982 49 269 22 1982 24 217 15 1983 56 290 39 1983 31 196 21 1984 46 372 36 1984 10 280 27 1985 105 311 45 1985 1986 46 428 45 66 1986 44 407 35 136 1987 21 438 26 135 1987 7 312 29 142 1988 47 225 40 39 1988 27 491 23 67 1989 19 437 37 60 1989 19 343 30 84 1990 10 329 65 1990 11 339 26 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NHa Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 15 322 16 1979 15 140 16 1980 45 183 12 1980 29 129 14 1981 10 191 14 1981 9 163 7 1982 19 140 18 1982 18 101 8 1983 29 181 13 1983 22 107 14 1984 12 267 23 1984 12 121 12 1985 1985 1986 32 343 25 73 1986 13 172 17 82 1987 7 266 20 111 1987 6 122 18 134 1988 21 265 23 59 1988 7 223 71 108 1989 25 312 33 60 1989 13 366 17 56 1990 7 216 19 1990 6 153 25 URBAIR-Mumbai 133 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Ghatkopar (A13) Units: pg/m3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 11 143 12 1979 10 178 10 1980 9 116 6 1980 32 78 8 1981 9 82 9 1981 7 88 7 1982 14 105 9 1982 9 79 18 1983 11 110 18 1983 17 160 22 1984 7 98 13 1984 14 112 13 1985 1985 1986 6 211 14 51 1986 26 148 26 63 1987 6 130 17 50 1987 6 98 22 69 1988 6 104 20 53 1988 6 122 14 21 1989 9 128 21 55 1989 7 97 22 32 1990 6 117 11 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 40 325 9 1978 34 211 10 1979 78 184 16 1979 100 211 21 1980 60 97 10 1980 64 209 17 1981 51 101 17 1981 84 131 22 1982 19 112 17 1982 83 215 51 1983 16 97 22 1983 81 31 1984 19 141 20 1984 19 162 24 1985 1985 1986 37 135 38 57 1986 33 308 39 46 1987 9 167 18 67 1987 15 237 34 90 1988 11 113 28 22 1988 64 294 53 25 1989 28 145 29 33 1989 82 255 37 55 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH, 1978 35 245 10 1978 60 295 8 1979 106 154 27 1979 91 249 32 1980 83 207 22 1980 99 259 36 1981 81 154 31 1981 100 218 18 1982 92 218 45 1982 125 315 55 1983 73 345 51 1983 102 287 60 1984 48 203 33 1984 73 311 41 1985 1985 47 431 48 166 1986 1986 66 408 55 177 1987 27 276 41 45 1987 43 337 48 43 1988 88 334 67 23 1988 50 397 64 53 1989 61 323 59 66 1989 51 398 58 61 134 Appendix I Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Staton: Mulund (A15) Units: pglm3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NHs 1981 96 267 31 1981 143 399 35 1982 92 252 26 1982 99 281 23 1983 136 290 30 1983 94 332 30 1984 125 387 61 1984 73 319 33 1985 52 334 25 1985 21 361 16 1986 41 385 29 80 1986 27 382 29 50 1987 32 405 43 96 1987 24 362 22 87 1988 41 361 31 76 1988 34 382 31 83 1989 58 363 57 85 1989 47 389 58 83 1990 55 432 39 1990 45 357 39 March April Year S02 SPM NOx Nil Year SO2 SPM NOx NH3 1981 83 248 26 1981 47 361 14 1982 53 252 18 1982 25 175 24 1983 44 317 28 1983 17 223 14 1984 31 320 20 1984 14 266 21 1985 125 345 30 20 1985 100 231 19 154 1986 36 341 30 93 1986 33 297 20 89 1987 11 345 24 165 1987 23 371 17 118 1988 29 331 20 53 1988 26 339 16 62 1989 15 306 35 35 1989 16 214 20 47 1990 19 309 46 1990 11 259 28 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 1979 1980 1980 27 78 12 1981 20 170 11 1981 10 140 6 1982 33 178 16 1982 20 89 6 1983 15 176 10 1983 10 138 12 1984 1984 16 122 9 1985 28 202 10 20 1985 17 155 9 20 1986 14 269 16 49 1986 22 165 12 56 1987 16 218 20 138 1987 9 122 15 38 1988 26 209 9 73 1988 8 130 16 41 1989 34 280 21 61 1989 6 129 24 20 1990 8 183 13 1990 134 14 URBAIR-Mumbai 135 Ambient Air Quality in Bomnbay Station: Mulund (AIS) Units: pglm3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 7 150 6 1980 29 102 7 1981 10 83 5 1981 13 75 6 1982 1982 8 82 9 1983 8 143 9 1983 16 105 26 1984 6 10 9 1984 12 125 9 1985 7 5 7 65 1985 9 141 9 39 1986 8 100 8 54 1986 9 135 11 54 1987 9 166 16 70 1987 8 90 16 60 1988 6 112 8 40 1988 9 113 15 28 1989 10 110 21 52 1989 8 112 15 45 1990 6 105 19 1990 1991 152 1991 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 62 110 10 1980 125 196 16 1981 48 96 10 1981 116 102 15 1982 42 150 19 1982 139 225 50 1983 9 86 19 1983 44 104 31 1984 14 133 13 1984 20 231 27 1985 1985 55 198 18 20 1986 11 161 19 51 1986 28 289 21 93 1987 19 195 18 89 1987 29 264 32 70 1988 16 85 19 21 1988 46 190 36 25 1989 22 112 30 29 1989 31 179 32 33 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1980 122 216 24 1980 129 302 38 1981 103 160 30 1981 112 188 30 1982 181 221 49 1982 122 259 41 1983 69 270 37 1983 98 298 52 1984 49 266 24 1984 49 310 18 1985 69 379 16 34 1985 98 442 22 23 1986 36 347 30 59 1986 39 374 33 139 1987 22 305 29 61 1987 32 336 32 41 1988 70 332 47 21 1988 49 339 55 45 1989 49 232 35 29 1989 68 311 41 44 136 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Borivali (A16) Units: _uglm3 l January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 9 214 4 1979 7 226 5 1980 8 271 21 1980 7 278 19 1981 7 230 21 1981 8 285 20 1982 12 205 23 1982 13 244 20 1983 31 283 24 1983 13 276 18 1984 18 288 34 1984 1985 13 341 32 1985 8 298 27 1986 8 348 23 90 1986 8 373 31 57 1987 8 320 39 103 1987 7 352 40 138 1988 7 440 38 68 1988 11 408 42 57 1989 6 374 61 73 1989 9 310 32 42 1990 10 503 68 1990 8 381 38 1991 1991 11 March April Year S02 3PM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 8 208 5 1979 6 140 1980 14 283 15 1980 18 257 13 1981 9 244 18 1981 9 238 9 1982 10 240 25 1982 9 164 12 1983 11 180 14 1983 12 182 12 1984 13 216 19 1984 10 179 11 1985 13 282 27 46 1985 10 218 13 136 1986 13 431 28 67 1986 22 331 17 110 1987 6 287 15 67 1987 6 225 13 47 1988 11 295 18 45 1988 14 351 8 67 1989 8 256 22 69 1989 7 224 16 52 1990 7 314 27 1990 6 255 25 URBAIR-Mumbai 137 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: 7ilaknagar (Al 7) Unifts:pg/rn3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 63 271 28 1978 59 254 26 1979 38 420 9 1979 50 458 9 1980 56 404 34 1980 53 468 42 1981 43 356 44 1981 94 539 68 1982 47 198 35 1982 54 308 49 1983 63 356 58 1983 64 235 34 1984 81 417 83 1984 58 367 55 1985 55 444 60 1985 61 478 65 214 1986 49 585 58 125 1986 37 512 51 124 1987 37 533 76 105 1987 22 608 63 100 1988 28 571 82 74 1988 32 541 76 77 1989 34 426 68 104 1989 32 316 66 99 1990 74 440 97 1990 45 362 77 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 32 238 23 1978 45 273 14 1979 30 398 11 1979 31 289 22 1980 35 432 30 1980 37 368 27 1981 43 325 45 1981 41 292 36 1982 51 300 46 1982 1983 41 282 34 1983 32 274 34 1984 79 348 39 1984 54 283 49 1985 1985 35 360 36 123 1986 51 428 48 160 1986 40 329 33 98 1987 16 529 43 122 1987 11 389 45 168 1988 31 513 49 64 1988 21 396 24 87 1989 17 443 40 66 1989 1990 35 295 54 1990 22 250 27 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 1978 54 265 10 1978 81 184 13 1979 33 311 28 1979 22 231 12 1980 15 193 21 1980 52 99 15 1981 15 220 20 1981 9 156 14 1982 26 275 23 1982 18 138 9 1983 36 194 22 1983 19 132 18 1984 18 309 24 1984 15 128 24 1985 26 193 26 130 1985 11 151 22 33 1986 27 294 28 1986 26 199 36 131 1987 13 416 27 69 1987 9 232 43 155 1988 27 332 20 85 1988 6 230 37 96 1989 62 1989 1990 14 193 19 1990 138 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Tilaknagar (A17) Units: pg/lm3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 94 207 9 1978 25 198 4 1979 12 196 14 1979 49 201 14 1980 11 105 12 1980 31 119 11 1981 10 74 7 1981 6 104 9 1982 27 100 13 1982 8 109 10 1983 16 347 31 1983 19 124 23 1984 17 67 16 1984 44 208 29 1985 10 161 17 47 1985 18 146 21 59 1986 10 206 25 89 1986 8 128 22 64 1987 7 167 32 123 1987 7 154 29 171 1988 6 146 45 63 1988 7 151 24 26 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 25 173 12 1978 30 235 12 1979 55 224 22 1979 48 214 25 1980 55 134 12 1980 51 259 23 1981 20 116 19 1981 40 219 33 1982 20 131 30 1982 61 279 78 1983 22 87 18 1983 40 348 32 1984 27 187 30 1984 61 256 65 1985 51 1985 51 208 27 66 1986 30 265 37 57 1986 44 467 62 112 1987 9 260 33 124 1987 17 368 48 101 1988 13 139 48 51 1988 36 422 55 30 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 26 297 12 1978 28 345 5 1979 29 240 18 1979 29 216 22 1980 51 306 29 1980 59 302 49 1981 94 155 34 1981 59 219 28 1982 45 283 66 1982 33 434 62 1983 71 263 69 1983 87 412 68 1984 86 367 61 1984 56 387 49 1985 58 494 50 177 1985 52 466 35 93 1986 51 425 60 112 1986 54 457 58 74 1987 16 421 58 86 1987 48 392 57 41 1988 50 460 60 27 1988 40 474 88 52 URBAIR-Mumbai 139 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Chembur Naka (A18) Units: pg/M3 January February Year S02 SPM NO. NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 42 322 52 1979 64 277 52 1980 71 348 28 1980 60 368 28 1981 52 274 38 1981 92 416 38 1982 62 255 48 1982 71 230 48 1983 71 334 44 1983 51 315 44 1984 62 324 54 1984 48 311 54 1985 47 358 50 20 1985 33 328 50 20 1986 22 434 40 95 1986 21 374 40 95 1987 15 388 35 83 1987 16 377 35 83 1988 23 368 65 79 1988 39 389 65 79 1989 28 435 82 64 1989 51 461 82 64 1990 62 504 94 1990 29 455 94 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 43 347 8 1979 29 185 23 1980 48 237 26 1980 37 193 19 1981 61 269 43 1981 19 241 23 1982 27 227 26 1982 18 170 25 1983 36 281 37 1983 26 217 26 1984 61 291 41 1984 22 242 35 1985 41 315 43 90 1985 33 225 34 115 1986 29 406 49 116 1986 22 273 31 118 1987 9 396 27 64 1987 12 358 43 113 1988 23 296 50 50 1988 34 329 49 254 1989 19 370 65 60 1989 22 292 47 95 1990 21 333 69 1990 9 300 44 May June Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1979 9 190 18 1979 13 146 18 1980 16 142 12 1980 49 114 19 1981 9 199 18 1981 15 128 11 1982 25 166 30 1982 27 130 17 1983 24 171 26 1983 30 178 26 1984 12 197 23 1984 31 163 27 1985 52 200 31 119 1985 11 151 38 71 1986 24 240 38 82 1986 14 147 34 94 1987 17 293 244 113 1987 6 155 25 95 1988 20 214 23 53 1988 15 191 53 227 1989 18 249 34 107 1989 7 264 57 689 1990 9 233 29 1990 7 170 42 140 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: ChemburNaka (Al8) Units: pg/m3 July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NO, NH3 1979 13 116 18 1979 29 226 16 1980 14 151 8 1980 39 126 12 1981 9 98 9 1981 11 401 12 1982 19 113 26 1982 7 117 13 1983 20 140 34 1983 11 203 31 1984 29 149 23 1984 41 183 26 1985 7 143 31 51 1985 9 169 29 55 1986 7 223 32 85 1986 8 144 24 61 1987 10 125 33 247 1987 8 111 19 177 1988 12 115 32 162 1988 13 148 39 34 1989 8 116 35 134 1989 9 134 31 129 1990 6 185 33 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 26 201 8 1978 22 212 7 1979 53 189 19 1979 63 145 23 1980 52 96 11 1980 66' 230 18 1981 40 102 19 1981 58 123 30 1982 27 124 24 1982 58 187 49 1983 8 198 27 1983 26 216 30 1984 39 150 32 1984 32 184 39 1985 24 156 27 54 1985 28 233 31 25 1986 12 163 33 56 1986 22 369 64 154 1987 10 152 27 65 1987 16 259 49 133 1988 9 132 47 128 1988 33 261 62 48 1989 25 134 39 83 1989 45 207 51 46 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 21 9 1978 38 9 1979 45 95 26 1979 56 414 27 1980 68 218 24 1980 81 236 38 1981 43 130 36 1981 99 232 32 1982 70 210 45 1982 68 258 51 1983 36 340 42 1983 76 299 65 1984 40 277 38 1984 58 336 43 1985 37 361 33 105 1985 36 431 31 64 1986 17 299 37 124 1986 23 40 40 199 1987 23 258 48 77 1987 23 4227 49 82 1988 43 261 52 35 1988 37 369 71 44 1989 27 306 61 65 1989 27 323 60 61 URBAIR-Mumbai 141 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Aniknagar (A20) Units: _g/M3 January February Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 65 176 24 1978 81 237 4 1979 47 206 5 1979 40 132 9 1980 36 154 16 1980 53 249 21 1981 25 160 18 1981 39 308 23 1982 43 135 19 1982 24 171 11 1983 1983 1984 26 263 61 1984 23 391 43 1985 37 332 59 152 1985 33 304 55 1986 27 238 59 327 1986 30 352 42 156 1987 19 327 51 192 1987 22 318 50 320 1988 47 360 89 176 1988 62 287 61 120 1989 1989 39 348 63 205 1990 27 409 55 1990 40 3220 72 March April Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 27 190 18 1978 48 179 10 1979 30 182 5 1979 27 166 15 1980 30 220 16 1980 30 223 15 1981 43 164 22 1981 31 183 11 1982 86 169 18 1982 1983 1983 1984 65 261 45 1984 13 258 25 1985 1985 46 272 38 141 1986 41 387 39 200 1986 40 297 46 154 1987 14 290 37 208 1987 17 345 23 145 1988 39 493 37 160 1988 32 267 19 140 1989 18 306 38 274 1989 22 236 41 181 1990 23 231 53 1990 24 256 32 Year S02 SPV NOx NH3 Year S02 WM NO. NH3 1978 43 145 8 1978 105 233 11 1979 43 205 17 1979 42 186 10 1980 18 159 18 1980 68 156 11 1981 28 126 14 1981 1982 1982 1983 1983 1984 14 133 26 1984 29 154 17 1985 34 193 24 84 1985 19 95 28 95 1986 27 332 28 102 1986 22 144 24 111 1987 9 202 28 265 1987 36 181 21 20 1988 23 194 19 137 1988 52 173 32 113 1989 18 257 27 115 1989 37 229 16 46 1990 9 90 18 1990 20 125 21 142 Appendix 1 Ambient Air Quality in Bombay Station: Aniknagar (A20) Units:_pg/r3 ___ July August Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 92 273 7 1978 29 219 8 1979 20 324 16 1979 28 320 13 1980 43 127 15 1980 37 115 13 1981 14 47 6 1981 12 143 7 1982 22 122 9 1982 9 100 15 1983 1983 38 112 23 1984 38 121 27 1984 34 115 27 1985 20 126 22 49 1985 26 112 20 45 1986 11 134 22 72 1986 15 113 19 84 1987 15 119 20 90 1987 26 104 26 82 1988 33 97 27 51 1988 15 136 21 34 1989 19 75 20 157 1989 17 73 24 55 1990 27 141 27 1990 September October Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 34 157 9 1978 32 230 8 1979 25 127 11 1979 33 141 12 1980 58 104 10 1980 43 144 12 1981 23 74 8 1981 16 56 9 1982 24 121 36 1982 40 162 58 1983 19 66 26 1983 40 225 48 1984 41 134 32 1984 35 224 43 1985 1985 38 284 35 54 1986 17 125 26 104 1986 36 245 53 175 1987 16 190 31 199 1987 67 171 20 119 1988 14 93 17 35 1988 28 171 35 42 1989 38 110 26 67 1989 60 206 46 145 November December Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 Year S02 SPM NOx NH3 1978 25 173 9 1978 30 181 7 1979 29 101 9 1979 34 128 14 1980 32 129 14 1980 66 155 24 1981 12 83 9 1981 19 115 13 1982 1982 1983 35 50 1983 58 277 64 1984 25 213 34 1984 75 253 46 1985 31 290 30 131 1985 46 333 39 123 1986 23 249 34 154 1986 29 266 53 196 1987 22 229 44 103 1987 29 240 36 92 1988 51 270 54 23 1988 34 256 49 33 1989 31 233 45 128 1989 26 315 54 34 URBAIR-Mumbai 143 ANNEX III MONTHLY AVERAGE SO2, NOX AND TSP AT MCGB AND GEMS (NEERI) STATIONS, FOR THE URBAIR PERIOD JUNE 1992-MAY 1993 144 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - COLABA KOHITOINOG AGENCY: M.C.G.B. 500e. I (a ) 40 -0 300 200 100 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 1 93 SOZ NOx g SPM MI yasmlu a MiAbog,mfeam. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - WORLI NAKA MONYTORING AGENCY: H.C.0m. Ceac. i (ug/mS) 500 400 - 300 200 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN EE MMAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx s SPM *3w1 ulu La Laqr/eu.i URBAIR-Mumbai 145 AMBIENT AIR QUAUTY DATA - PAREL KONtTORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 400 S 300- 200 - 100'- -- - - 0' JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx SPM AU mu want in onopmm/aoum. AMBIENT AIR QUAUTY DATA - PAREL MONITORING AGENCY: NEEPI CEMS) Conan. in (ug/m3) 400 - 300 . 200 - . ..... --.. 100- - - - - - -- 100 _- t_g__ _ t, JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 I 93 S02 N02 s SPM AU values In wwogram/o-m. 146 Appendix I AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - DADAR WONIT081G AGENCY: M.C.G.3. Conen. in (ug/in3) 500 300 200 100 - - JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAE APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx X sPM AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - SEWREE MONITORING AGENCY: I.C.G.8. Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 400 300 - 200 - 100 |tJJX 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MAR APR MAY 92 I 93 2 S02 NOx 3 SPM AU value. la Mliam/culm URBAIR-Mumbai 147 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - SION MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 - 400 - 300- 400 -- _________________ 300 -- 0 MUN 92DEC FEB Ka 9 APE MAY 77S02 MNOx c SPM AU v.Jua in MIdereoam/cn.m. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - ANDHERI KONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. 50Conan. in (ug/m3) 400- 300- 200- - _ _ _ _ _ _ JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx S PM AU valnes in M1arogram/eum.w 148 Appendix 1 AMIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - SANI NAKA KONUTORIGN AGENCY: Y.C.r9. Cona. in (ug/=3) 500 - 400- 200 -t JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 SOZ NOx E SPM all v. Xn we AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - JOGESHWARI MONITORING AGENCY: I.C.G.B. Conon. in (us/m3) 500 - 400 300- 200 100 0-- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MR APR MAY 92 . 93 0 z S02 NOx . SPM An valum in Utcroam/cIm. URBAIR-Mumbai 149 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - GHATKOPAR MONITORING AGENCY: 1.C.G.E. Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 400 300 200 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 92 1z1 S02 NOx z SPM AU vaue. La lorpasm/ou.m AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - BHANDUP MONITORING AGENCY: I.C.G.B. Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 400 200 .0.... 300 - ____._ _ . _____ ____ . 100 _M JUN JUL AUG SEP NOV DEC JAN 92 93 S02 NOx m SPM AU values In ela ram /cum. 150 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - MULUND MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conan. in (ug/=3) 500 - 400 - 300 - 200 1 00 - JUN JL AUG SEP OCT N FEB MAR APR MY 92 93 S02 NOx a SPM An valueIn lb irogwam/euit AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - BORIVALI MITORING AGENCY: I.C.G.B. Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 400- . ___- 300 - 200 -- 100 -- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 SOZS02 NOX a SPM AU value In XldrWs=/c.iJ. URBAIR-Mumbai 151 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - CHEMBUR NAKA MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.8. conon. in (ug/m3) 800 500 -- 400 300 . - ____ _. _ 200 100 - 0- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC FEB MAE AP1t MAY 92 I 93 S02 NOx SPM Au nvan lea NImpgm/eLm. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - MARAVALI MONITORING AGENCY: I.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/mS) 500 400 - -- - - - - - - * - - * - - -- 300 -----------. - T- 200 - - - - - - . - -- *- - -*- 100- ._ --- --. --- - 0 I JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC FED MMR APR MAY 92 I 93 S02 NOx SPM AU values ln Iacrogrpam/ m. 152 Appendix I AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - ANIKNAGAR MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Couen. In (ug/m3) 800' 400 300 200 100 0* JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx SPM £3vlmin WAwropa/mi/u. AMBIENT AIR QUALlTY DATA - XAHUL ILONITORDNG AGENCY: bf.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 400 - 300 - ..... 200 - 1 00 - - * 0- AUG SEP OCT MAY 92 I 93 SO2 NOx SPM AU val a in M,oMPAW/oLm. URBAIR-Mumbai 153 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - BANDRA MONITORING AGENCY: NEER! Conan. in (ug/m3) 500 - _ 400 - 200- _ .-*.- _ JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN 92 93 S02 N02 s SPM An vasin Xa Urwa/cuu. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - KALBADEVI MONITORING AGENCY: NEERI ConCOM. in (ug/m3) 400 -. - - . 300 - 200- - * - - -- - - - - -- … 100--- - - - 0 -~~~- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB NAR APR MAY 92 I93 s02 N02 SPM AU valuea La Mclrogam/cum. a APPENDIX 2 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 155 156 Appendix 2 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES National ambient air quality standards in India. These were established in 1994 and are given in Table 1 below. The Indian Standards differentiate between Industrial, Residential and Sensitive areas. Bombay is considered an Industrial area. The Indian Standards for industrial areas are less restrictive than the WHO guidelines (Table 2) for SO2 annual average, and especially for TSP and PM1O (the WHO recommended guideline for PMIo is 70 ,ug/m3, as 24 hour average). For NO2, the Indian standards are stricter than WHO. Table 1: National Ambient Air Quality Standards Concentrion in amblent air Pollutants Time weighted Industrial Residential, Sensitive of Method of measurements average area Rural and Area other areas Sulfur Dioxide S02 Annual average* 80 pgl m3 60 pg/m3 15 pg/m3 1. Improved West and 24 hours" Geake method 120 pg/rm3 80 pg/M3 30 pg/m3 2. Ultraviolet fluorescence Oxides of Nitrogen as Annual averaget 80 pg/ m3 60 pg/m3 15 pg/m3 1. Jacob & Hochheiser NO2 modified (Na-Arsenite) Method 24 hourst 120 pg/m3 80 pg/m3 30 pg/M3 2. Gas Phase Chemiluminescence Suspended Particulate Annual average* 360 pg/rm3 140 pg/rn3 70 pg/m3 High Volume sampling, Matter (SPM) 24 hours* 500 pg/rm3 200 pg/m3 100 pg/M3 (Average flow rate not less than 1.1 m3/minute) Respirable matter (size Annual average* 120 pg/M3 60 pg/m3 50 pg/M3 Respirable particulate less than 10 pm) (PM,o) 24 hourst* 150 pg/rM3 100 pg/M3 75 pg/m3 matter sampler Lead (Pb) Annual average* 1.0 pg/m3 0.75 pg/m3 0.50 pg/rm3 ASS method after sampling 24 hours** 1.5 pg/m3 1.00 pg/m3 0.75 pg/m3 using PM 2000 or equivalent Filter paper Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8 hours** 5.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/r3 1.0 mg/r3 Non dispersive infrared 1 hour 10.0 mg m3 4.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/ m3 spectroscopy Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval. 24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of the Ume in a year. However, 2% of the time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days. NOTE: 1. National Ambient Air Quality Standard: The levels of air quality with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health, vegetation and property. 2. Whenever two consecutive values exceed the limit specified above for the respective category, it would be considered adequate reason to institute regular/continuous monitoring and further investigations. 3. The State GovemmentVState Board shall notify the sensitive and other areas in the respective states within a period of six months from the date of Notification of National Ambient Standards. URBAIR-Mumbai 157 Table 2: WHO Air Qualit Guidelines (WHO, 1977a, 1977b, 1978, 1979, 1987) Parameter 10 15 30 1 hour 8 hours 24 hours 1 year Year of minutes minutes minutes standard S02 p4gIm3 500 350 125a 50a 1987 S02 H4/m3 100-150 40-60 1979 BSb pigm3 125 a 50a 1987 BSb p4ym3 100-150 40-60 1979 TSP 4g/m3 120a 1987 TSP 4g/m3 150-230 60-90 1979 PM10 Rg/m3 70a 1987 Lead gg/m3 0.5-1 1987, 1977b CO mg/m3 100 60 30 10 1987 N02 Mg/r3 400 150 1987 N02 jg/m3 190320C 1977b 03 g/rM3 150-200 100-120 1987 03 Pjg/mr3 100-200 1978 Notes: a) Guideline values for combined exposure to sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter (they may not apply to situations where only one of the components is present). b) Application of the black smoke value is recommended only in areas where coal smoke from domestic fires is the dominant component of the particulates. It does not necessarly apply where diesel smoke is an important contributor. c Not to be exceeded more than once per month. Suspended particulate matter measurement methods BS = Black smoke; a concentration of a standard smoke with an equivalent reflectance reduction to that of the atmospheric particies as collected on a filter paper. TSP = Total suspended particulate matter; the mass of collected particulate matter by gravimetric analysis divided by total volume sampled. PM1o = Particulate matter less than 10 jim in aerodynamic diameter; the mass of particulate matter collected by a sampler having an inlet with 50 per cent penetration at 10 uim aerodynamic diameter determined gravimetrically divided by the total volume sampled. TP = Thoracic particles (as PMio). IP = Inhalable particles (as PMio). Source: (WHO/UNEP 1992) . I APPENDIX 3 AIR POLLUTION LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR INDIA AND BOMBAY CONTENTS 1. Legal aspects of pollution control-operational requirements. A note prepared by Mr. U. Joglekar, ADITYA, Bombay 2. Mass emission standards for motor vehicles, effective from 1/4/1995 3. Fuel specifications for India 159 160 AppendiX 3 LEGAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL-OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS The Government of India has promulgated 3 important Acts in the field of pollution control: i. The Water Pollution (Prevention & Control) Act, 1974. ii. The Air Pollution (Prevention & Control) Act, 198 1. iii. The Environment Protection Act, 1986. According to these Acts, industry-specific discharge/emission standards called MINAS (Minimum National Standards) have been prescribed. A few general standards as applicable to SSI units for air pollution are given in Annexure. All industries including SSI units are to comply with these standards and meet other stipulation laid down in these Acts. The responsibility of enforcing the provisions of these Acts rests with the Central/State Pollution Control Boards. Depending on the location of unit, the concerned State Boards expect that the units in their jurisdiction will obtain their permission to discharge the pollutants, or their 'CONSENT.' The legal position, is that all the existing units are to obtain the CONSENT of their respective Boards. New units, even before they start putting up the industry, have to obtain a NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the Board. In fact, now, financial institutions and banks, too, demand production of NOCs before disbursement of loans even though the loans may have been sanctioned on the basis of the techno-economic feasibility of the project. In order to obtain the NOC from a Pollution Control Board (PCB), application is to be made with a complete project-report, including the proposed measures of controlling pollution. Since, pollution control is site-specific, the PCBs also have to be apprised of proposed project site and, sometimes, depending on the need, Board may even ask for EIA (Environment Impact Assessment) reports for site clearance. The Boards, because of fragile environmental condition, have declared some regions as sensitive. New industries, especially pollution-intensive types, may not be allowed in sensitive areas or may be prescribed much stricter standards. Proximity to protected monuments, national wildlife parks or sanctuaries could also be the reasons for industries to obtain a prior site- clearance. Non-compliance with the legal stipulation invites prosecution with fines and penalties and even imprisonment. Under EPA 86 the PCBs are even empowered to order closure of an unit if they believe it to be in public interest. Without going to the court of law, they can implement closure decisions by approaching the authorities concerned directly to cut power and water supply to the violating units. URBAIR-Mumbai 161 SALIENT FEATURES OF POLLUTION RELATED ACTS The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, given assent by the President of India on March 29, 1981. The Act has the following chapters: I. Preliminary II. Central and State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution III. Powers and Functions of Boards IV. Prevention and Control of Air Pollution V. Fund, Accounts and Audit VI. Penalties and procedure VII. Miscellaneous Salient features This Act is applicable to the whole of India. Central and State Boards for the prevention and control of air pollution Constitution of State Board: a. The State Government will appoint a Chairman, member representing institutions, industries, government departments and social bodies etc. and a member secretary as executive head. b. In union territory Central Board is to act as State Boards. c. The Board may appoint officers and other employees as it may fit for efficient functioning of the Board. Functions of Central Board: a. Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air and the prevention and control of abatement of air pollution, b. Plan the nation-wide programme for air pollution abatement, G. Coordinate the activities of State Boards, d. Provide guidance and technical assistance to the State Boards, e. Plan and organize training of persons engaged in air pollution abatement programmes, f. Organize through media abatement plans, g. Collect, compile, and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution, h. Lay down standards for the quality of air, i. To establish and recognize a laboratory to enable it to perform its function under this Act. 162 Appendix 3 Functions of State Boards: a. to plan comprehensive programmes for air pollution abatement, b. to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the air pollution abatement, c. to collaborate with Central Board, d. to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution, e. to inspect industrial plants at intervals as it may consider necessary and to give directions to related persons for air pollution abatement, f. to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board, standards for the quality of air, standards for emissions of air pollutants into the atmosphere for industrial plants, automobiles, and other sources excluding ships and air crafts. g. to establish or recognize a laboratory/laboratories to enable it to perform its functions efficiently. Powers to give directions: a. Central Board shall be bound by written direction issued by Central Government; and b. State Board shall be bound by written direction issued by Central Board or the State Government. Prevention and control of air pollution The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board by official Gazette notification declare: a. any area or areas within the State as "Air Pollution control Area or Areas" for the purposes of this act, b. alter any air pollution control area, c. prohibition of usage of any fuel other than the approved fuel in air pollution control area, d. prohibition of burning of any material (other than fuel) in any air pollution control area or part of it. Restriction or use of certain industrialplants: a. No person shall without the prior consent of the State Board, operate any industrial plant for the purpose of any industry specified in the schedule in an air pollution control area; b. An application for the consent of the Board shall be accompanied by prescribed fee and shall be made in the prescribed form and shall contain the particulars of the industrial plant and other prescribed particulars; c. The State Board may make such inquiries at it may deem fit in respect of the application for consent and shall follow the prescribed procedures; d. Within a period of 4 months after the receipt of consent application the State Board shall by order in writing either grant or refuse it, for reasons recorded in the order; e. Every person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board shall comply with the following conditions; URBAIR-Mumbai 163 i. The prescribed control systems shall be installed and operated in existing/proposed industry. ii. The existing control equipment if any shall be altered/replaced in accordance with the directions of State Board. iii. The control system as per clause (i) or (ii) will be kept under good conditions. iv. Chimney wherever necessary of prescribed specifications, shall be erected or re-erected in the premises. v. And the condition prescribed from (i) or (iv) complete within the prescribed period. f. If due to technological improvement, State Board may alter as a whole or part, of the conditions mentioned above; h. In case of the transfer of the unit from one person to the other person the consent will deemed to be transferred with conditions. Persons carrying on industry etc. not to allow emission of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by State Board. No person carrying on any industry specified in the schedule or industrial, plants in any air pollution control area shall discharge or cause or permit to be discharged, the emission of any air pollutants in excess of the standard laid down by the State Board. Power of entry and inspection Any person empowered by a State Board shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with necessary assistance, any place: a. for the purpose of performing any of the function entrusted to him, b. for the purpose of examination of control system, inspection of related documents, to conduct search and to check whether all directions/ instructions, issued time to time are being followed, c. all persons carrying on any industry specified activities in the schedule are bound to render all assistance to the persons empowered by the Board and delay or non-cooperation shall be an offense under this Act. Power to obtain information The State Board or its empowered person may ask for any information like the type of pollutants and the level of emission from the occupier or the person carrying on any industry and can inspect the premises/control equipment for verifying purposes. The State board or any officer empowered by it shall have power to take, for analysis purpose sample of air or emission from any chimney, flue, duct or any other outlet in prescribed manner. Where a sample of emissions has been sent for analysis by Board to the laboratory established or recognized by the State Board the Board's analyst shall analyze the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form. 164 Appendix 3 State Air Laboratory State Government may, by official notification, establish or specify one or more laboratory or institutions as state laboratory. Analyst The State Government may by official Gazette notification appoint a Government Analyst. Report of Analysts The report of a Government Analyst may be used as evidence in the court of the law. Appeals Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board may appeal to an appropriate Appellate Authority within 30 days of the action. Fund, accounts, and audit a. The Central Board and every State Board shall have its own fund funded by Central Government/State Government. b. The Central Board and every State Board shall prepare annual budget and annual report duly audited by a competent authority. Penalties and Procedtires Failure to comply with the orders or directions of the Board issued under the Act: a. Whoever fails to comply with the provisions mentioned above is punishable with imprisonment up to 3 months or fines up to Rs 10,000 or both. And in case the failure continues, with an additional fine up to Rs 10/- day during which the failure continues after the conviction for the first such failure. b. If the failure continues beyond 1 year after the date of conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment up to 6 months. URBAIR-Mumbai 165 Penalties for certain acts Whoever damages the Board's property, fails to furnish information asked for, obstructs any Board's officer from performing his duty or makes false statements etc., shall be punished with imprisonment up to 3 months or fine up to Rs 500/ or both. Penalty for contravention of certain provisions of the Act For any contravention of any the provisions of the act for which no penalty has been else where provided in this Act shall be punishable with a fine of up to Rs 5000/- and with continuation of contravention a fine Rs 100/day after conviction for first contravention. Offenses by Companies and Government Departments Where an offense under this act has been committed by a company/ government department, every person who was at that time directly in charge of the company/department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offense and shall be liable to be prosecuted and punished accordingly unless he proves that the offense was made without his knowledge. Miscellaneous a. State Central Government/State Government may supersede Central Board/State Board respectively. b. The Central Government may amend the schedule of industries. THE SCHEDULE 1. Asbestos and asbestos product industries, 2. Cement and cement products industries, 3. Ceramic and ceramic product industries, 4. Chemical, 5. Coal and lignite based chemical industries, 6. Engineering industries, 7. Ferrous metallurgical industries, 8. Fertilizer industries, 9. Foundries, 10. Food and agricultural product industries, 11. Mining industries, 12. Non-ferrous metallurgical industries, 13. Ores/mineral processing industries including benefaction, pelletization etc., 14. Power (coal, petroleum and their products) generating plants and boiler plants, 166 Appendix 3 15. Paper and pulp (including paper products) industries, 16. Textile processing industries (made wholly or in part of cotton), 17. Petroleum refineries, 18. Petroleum products and petrochemical industries, 19. Plants for recovery from and disposal of wastes, 20. Incinerators. URBAIR-Mumbai 167 CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA) No-B-3 1012/2/91/PCI -II September 17, 1992 DIRECTIONS FROM THE CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD UNDER CLAUSE (b) OF SUB-SECTION 1 OF SECTION 18 OF THE AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981 Whereas Clause (g) of Sub-section 1 of Section 17 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 establishes standards by a State Pollution Control consultation with Central Pollution Control Board for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles. And whereas the mass emission standards for petrol, and diesel driven vehicles as given in Annexure I & II respectively, have been evolved and proposed to be made effective from the first day of April, 1995. As where it is further proposed to strive to attain the indicative standards by all the petrol and diesel driven vehicles as given in Annexure III & IV respectively for the year 2000. Now, therefore, in exercise of the power vested with the Central Pollution Control Board under Clause (b) of sub-section I of Section 18 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, the following directions are issued herewith: - "State Council Board shall ensure that on and from the 1st day of April 1995 all petrol and diesel driven vehicles shall be so manufactured that they comply with the mass emission standards as specified in Annexure I and II respectively given herein above; "The State Pollution Control Board shall also ensure to strive to attain the indicative standards by the petrol and diesel driven vehicles for the year 2000 as given in Annexure III and IV respectively." (A. BHATTACHARIYA) Chairman 168 Appendix 3 Annexure I MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR PETROL DRIVEN VEHICLES EFFECTIVE FROM 1/4/1995 Type approval tests 1. Passenger cars Reference mass CO HC + NOx R(Kg) g/Irm R < 1020 5.0 2.0 1020 < R < 1250 5.7 2.2 1250 < R < 1470 6.4 2.5 1470 < R < 1700 7.0 2.7 1700 < R < 1930 7.7 2.9 1930 < R < 2150 8.2 3.5 R>2150 9.0 4.0 Note: 1. The test will be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start 2. There should be no crankcase emission. (To be implemented from 1/11/1994) 3. Evaporative emission should not be more than 2.0 g/test. (To be implemented from 1/1/1994) 2. Two-wheelers (for all categories). The test will be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. CO - 3.75 g/km * HC - 2.40 g/km 3. Three-wheelers (for all categories). The test will be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. * CO - 5.6 9/km * HC - 3.6 g/km Conformity ofproduction tests Passenger Cars (For all categories). * A relaxation of 20% for CO & 25% for combined HC+NOX for the corresponding values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted. Two & Three Wheelets (For all categories). * A relaxation of 20% for CO and 25% for HC for the values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted. URBAIR-Mumbai 169 Annexure H MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR DIESEL VEHICLES EFFECTIVE FROM 1/4/1995 Type approval tests Vehicle category HC* CO* NOX Smoke (glkWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh) Medium &Heavy 2.4 11.2 14.4 over 3.5-Ton/GVW Light diesel 2.4 11.2 24.4 up to 3.5 Ton GVW or Reference mass CO** HC + NO, R(Kg) p/km g/km R <1020 5.0 2.0 1020< R < 1250 5.7 2.2 1250< R <1470 6.4 2.5 1470< R < 1700 7.0 2.7 1700 < R < 1930 7.7 2.9 1930< R <2150 8.2 3.5 R >2150 9.0 4.0 Note: - The test cycle is as per 13 mode cycle on dynamometer. '* The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. The emissions of visible pollutants (smoke) shall not exceed the limit values to smoke density, when expressed as light absorption coefficient given at Page 2 of Annexure II for various nominal flows when tested at constant speeds over full load. Conformity ofproduction tests A relaxation of 10% for the values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted. 170 Appendix 3 Nonmnalflows tested at constant speeds over fuUl load Nominal Flow Ught Absorption G (its) Coefficient (K (m1) 42 2.00 45 1.91 50 1.82 55 1.75 60 1.68 65 1.61 70 1.56 75 1.50 80 1.46 85 1.41 90 1.3 8 95 1.34 100 1.31 105 1.27 110 1.25 115 1.22 120 1.20 125 1.17 130 1.15 135 1.13 140 1.11 145 1.09 150 1.07 155 1.05 160 1.04 165 1.02 170 1.01 175 1.00 180 0.99 185 0.97 190 0.96 195 0.95 200 0.93 URBAIR-Mumbai 171 Annexure m MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR PETROL DRIVEN VEHICLES EFFECTIVE FROM 1/4/2000 Type approval test 1. Passenger cars (for all categories). The test-should be as per Indian start. * CO - 2.72 g/km * HC + NOx - 0.97 g/km 2. Two-wheelers (for all categories). The test start should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start e CO - 2. 0 g/km - HC -1. 5 g/km 3. Three-wheelers (for all categories). The test start should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. - CO - 4.0 g/km * HC - 1.5 g/km Conformity ofproduction tests 1. Passenger Cars (For all categories) * A relaxation of 16% for CO & combined HC + NOx for corresponding values of Type Approval Test would be permitted. 2. Two- & Three-Wheelers (For all categories) * A relaxation of 20% for CO as well as HC for the values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted. 172 Appendix 3 Annexure IV MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR DIESEL VEHICLES EFFECTIVE FROM 1/4/2000 Type approval tests Vehicle category HC* CO* NOx * FM* Smoke (g1kWh) Medium & Heavy over 3.5 1.1 4.5 8.0 0.36 ton GVW Light diesel up to 3.5 ton 1.1 4.5 8.0 0.61 GVW or CO** HC + NOx** PM* glkm g/km 2.72 0.97 0.14 Note: * The test should be as per 13 mode cycle. ** The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. The emission of visible pollutants (smoke) shall not exceed the limit values of smoke density, when expressed and light absorption coefficient given at Page 2 of Annexure IV for various nominal flows when listed at constant speed over full load. Conformity ofproduction tests A relaxation of 10% for the values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted for Conformity Of Production Test for all vehicles. URBAER-Mumbai 173 Various nominal fows listed at constant speed over full load Nominal Flow Light Absorption Coefficient K(mr') G (1is) 42 2.00 45 1.91 50 1.82 55 1.75 60 1.68 65 1.61 70 1.56 75 1.50 80 1.46 85 1.41 90 1.38 95 1. 34 100 1.31 105 1.27 110 1.25 115 1.22 120 1.20 125 1.17 130 1.15 135 1.13 140 1.11 145 1.09 150 1.07 155 1.05 160 1.04 165 1.02 170 1.01 175 1.00 180 0.99 185 0.97 190 0.96 195 0.95 200 0.93 174 Appendix 3 Requirements of liquefied petroleum gases Sr. Requirements No Characteristics Commercial Commercial Commercial Method of Test Butane Butane Propane Propane Ref. To (P) of Mixture IS-1448 i. Vapour Pressure @ 65°C, kgf/cm2 10 max. 16.87 max 26 max. P:71 (see note 1) (see note 2) ii. Volatility evaporate temperature in °C, 2 2 -38 P:72 'or 95% vol. @ 760 mm. pressure, max. iii. Total volatile sulphur, % by mass, max. 0.02 0.02 0.02 P:34 iv. Copper strip corrosion @ 380C for one Not worse than no. 1 P:15 hour. v. Hydrogen Sulfide absent absent absent P:73 vi. Dryness No free entrained No free entrained shall pass the P:74 water water test (see note 3) vii. Odour (See note 4) Level 2 Level 2 Level 2 P:75 NOTE 1: Vapour pressure may be determined at any temperature and convened to 65'C by means of suitable vapour pressure temperature graph. The same can also be determined by analyzing the gas by means of gas chromatograph and then using the composition. The vapour pressure can be calculated @ 65°C from the standard value of vapour pressures at various temperatures. NOTE 2: Each consignment of commercial butane - propane mixture shall be designated by its maximum vapour pressure in kgf/cm @ 650C. Further, if desired by the purchaser and subject to prior agreement between the purchaser and the supplier, the minimum vapour pressure of that mixture shall not be lower than 2 kgf/c m2 gauge compared to the designated maximum vapour pressure and in any case the minimum for the mixture shall not be lower than 10 kgf/cm2 @ 650C. NOTE 3: The presence or absence of free entrained water in commercial butane or commercial butane - propane mixture shall be determined by visual inspection of the sample. NOTE 4: Subject to agreement between the purchaser and the supplier, odour requirements of LPG may be changed for certain applications where unodourised LPG is required. CONFORMS TO IS:4576-1978 FOR LPG. URBAIR-Mumbai 175 Specification of mwtor gasoline Requirements Sr. Characteristics Test Method IS:1448 87 OCTANE 93 OCTANE No. i. Colour, Visual Orange . Red ii. Copper Stip Corrosion for 3 hours at P: 15 Not worse than No. 1 Not worse than No. 1 500C iii. Density at 15°C, g/mi P:16 iv. Distillation P:18 Initial Boiling point IC To be reported To be reported Recover upto 70°C, % v, min. 10 10 Recovery upto 125°C, % v, min. 50 50 Recovery upto 180°C, % v, min. 90 90 Final boiling point °C, max. 215 215 residue, %ov, max. 2 2 v. Octane number (Research Method) P:27 87 93 min. vi. Oxidation Stability in Minutes, min. P:28 360 360 vii. Residue on Evaporaton, mg/100 ml, P:29 (Air-Jet, Solvent 4.0 4.0 max. Washed) viii. Sulphur, % wt max. P:34 0.25 0.20 ix. Lead content (as Pb), g/l max. P:38 0.56 0.80 x. Reid Vapour Pressure at 36°C, P:39 0.70 0.70 kgf/cm2. max. CONFORMS TO IS:2796-1971 SPECIFICATIONS FOR MOTOR GASOLINES 176 Appendix 3 Specification of dieselfuels Sr. Characteristics Test Method HSD LDO No. IS:448 1. Acidity, inorganic P:2 Nil Nil 2. Acidity, total, mg KOH/g, max. P:2 0.50 - 3. Ash. % wt., max. P:4 0.01 0.02 4. Carbon residue (Ramsbottom), % wt.. max. P:8 0.20 1.50 5.* Cetane number, min. P:9 42 6.- tPour Point, 0C, max. P:10 6 Winter 12t*t Summer 18 7. Copper strip Corrosion for 3 hrs. at 100°C P:15 Not worse than No. 1 Not worse than No. 2 8. Distillation, percentage recovery at366°C. min. P:18 90 - 9***t Flash Point a) Abel IC. min. P:20 32 b) PMCC 0C. min. P:21 - 66 10. Kinematic Viscosity cSt at 380C P:25 2.0 to 7.5 2.5 to 15.7 11. Sediment, % wt., max. P:30 0.05 0.10 12. Total Sulphur, % wt., max. P:33 or P:35 1.0 1.8 13. Water Content, % V. max. P:40 0.05 0.25 14. Cold Filler Plugging Point (CFPP) °C, max. IP 309/76 To be reported - 15****t Total Sediments, mg/100 ml. max. AppendixAof 1.0 Specification Notes: Cetane Number. Diesel Fuel for Naval applications shall have a cetane number of 45, min. When an engine for determination of celane number is not available, desel index determined by IS:1448-1960. Methods of test for petroleum and its products P:17. Diesel Index may be used as a rough indicaton of ignition quality. A cesel index of 45 is normally considered sufficient to ensure a minimum cetane number of 42. This approximate correlation holds good only in case of fuels which are of petroleum origin and contain no additives. For arbitrafton purposes, the direct determination of cetane number by means of the standardized engine test shall be used unless the buyer and the seller agree otherwise. *t Pour Point: Subject to agreement between purchaser and supplier, a lower or higher maximum pour point may be accepted. The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas issues instructions periodically to the refineries to reducerincrease pour point of HSD according to ambient temperature condtions. Winter shall be the period from November to February (both months inclusive) and rest of the months of the year shall be., called as summer. **** Flash Point Diesel Fuel for Naval applications and for Merchant Navy shall have a flash point of 660C, min. when tested by the method prescribed in IS:1448 (P:21)-1970. Methods of test for petroleum and its products P:21 Flash Point (Closed) by Pensky-Manens apparatus (first revision). Total Sediments: This test shall be carried out only at the refinery or manufactureres end. CONFORMS TO IS:1460-1974 SPECIFICATIONS FOR DIESEL FUELS URBAIR-Mumbai 177 Specification of diesel high p!our point-a Sr. No. Characteristics Requirements 1. Colour, ASTM, max. 3.5 2. Flash Point. min. 550C (Navy - min. 650C) 3. Cetane No., min. 45 4. Diesel index, min. 48 5, Distillation: % recovered upto 3570C. min. 90% F.B.P., max. 3850C Residue. % vol., max. 2.0 6. Total Sulphur. % wt., max. 0.5 7. Olefins, % vol., max. 5.0 8. Aromatics, % vol., max. 20.0 9. Carbon (Ramsbottom on 10% residue), max. 0.2 OTHER REQUIREMENTS AS PER IS: 1460-1974 SPECIFICATIONS FOR HSD Specification of furnace oil Requirements Sr. Characteristics Test Method Grade Grade Grade Grade No. IS:1448 LV MVI MV 2 HV 1. Acidity, inorganic P:2 Nil Nil Nil Nil 2. Ash, % wt., max. P:4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 (Method A) 3. Gross. calorific value, cal/g. P:6 or 7 Not limited, but to be reported (typical -1.0260) 4. *Relative density at 15/150C. P:32 Not limited, but to be reported (typical -1.950) 5. Flash point, (PMCC) C, min. P:21 66 66 66 66 6. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes at P:25 80 Max. 80-125 125 - 180 180-370 500C. 7. Sediment, % wt., max. P:30 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 8. **Sulphur, total, % by wt., max. P:33 or P:35 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 9. Water content, % by vol., max. P:40 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Note: * Fumace oil for marine uses in diesel engines shall not exceed a limit of 0.99 ** Sulphur Content: Recognizing the necessity for low-sulphur fuel oils in some specialized use, a lower limit may be specified by mutual agreement between the purchaser and the supplier. CONFORMS TO IS:1593-1988 SPECIFICATIONS FOR FUEL OIL APPENDIX 4 EMISSION INVENTORY INTRODUCTION Several attempts have been made to establish a comprehensive survey of air pollution emissions for the Bombay area (refs). The most recent survey was worked out by Coopers & Lybrand and AIC, as part of their Study on Environmental Strategy and Action Plan for Bombay Metropolitan Region (Government of Maharashtra, 1993). For the URBAIR project for Bombay, a more through procedure was conducted to work out the best Most of the data collection and emission calculations was performed by Aditya Environmental Services of Bombay. The production of gridded emission files (emissions distributed in a km2 grid net) was done using the supporting software programs for the KILDER dispersion modeling program system developed by NELU. The road traffic activity and emissions distribution was calculated by NILU, based on traffic and road data provided by W. S. Atkins 1993, produced in connection with their Comprehensive Transportation Study for Bombay Metropolitan Region. The area selected for air quality modeling, and thus for emission inventorying, is shown in Figure 1. It consists of 42x20 km2 grid squares, covering the area from the tip of Colaba in the South to Bassein Creek in the North, and from the ocean in the West to Thane Creek in the East. It includes the Chembur-Thane industrial area. In the following, the data sources and methods for distributing the consumption and emissions is described, and then the calculated emissions are presented. An evaluation of data gaps and short-comings is presented at the end of this Appendix. POPULATION DISTRIBUTION The spatial distribution of the population within the grid system is important information when the fuel consumption, especially domestic fuel consumption, is to be distributed within the grid system. The fuel consumption practices differ for the non-slum and slum populations. For Bombay, separate spatial distributions has thus been worked out for the two populations. 179 180 Appendix 4 The total population for the URBAIR modeling area for Table 1: Total Bombay, for the year 1991, is given in Table 1. population of Bombay Details of the procedure for distribution of the population is URBAIR modeling area given in Annex 1. Non slum population 7,056,760 The distribution of the total population is given in Figure 2. Slum population 2,806,260 Total population 9,863,020 URBAIR-Mumbai 181 Figure 1: Greater Bombay air quality modeling area 81 b Bombay da7 Area selected I for dispersion /exposure miodelling Arabian Sea N N - - k - ) -nd-s-r-a-d .~~~~~~~~~~Idsr an 00 . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . a.. . . . .. .4 . .4 . - . 4. . 4. .4. u 8 X t 4 - U ! .4 . a. & . * . .; - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . . . 4. . 4 . - 5 Id 1..4.I. . . . . . 4 ' 55 . 4 . fi~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . .. . . . . . . . ~~ ~~~ii .. .. ....- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IIL xt..i; a d a e S t ti e " £ 4 " X ! M u; u 8 e a; 4 X p X |~~~~0 a ^ 8 4 t ^" t t X 8 e4 ; 8 ^ u URBAIR-Mumbai 183 FUEL CONSUMPTION The consumption of various petroleum fuels by industries is available from four Petroleum Refineries selling their products in Bombay. Data for LPG and SKO (Kerosene) consumption for domestic purposes is available from the Rationing Office of Bombay. Consumption of wood was considered for the slum population, and for bakeries and crematoria, according to information and evaluation from various agencies. The evaluation and considerations made by Aditya E.S. Inc. regarding the calculation and distribution of the fuel consumption for domestic purposes and for industries, are given in Annexes II and V of this Appendix. The resulting fuel consumption data are given in Table 2. (Fuel consumption for road traffic is Table 2: Fuel consumption data for Greater Bombay considered in Chapter 4 of this for 1992-93 Appendix). Category Fuel type 103 Metric tonslyr Tata Power Plant LSHS 927 Coal 298 Gas 496 COMMENTS Industrial LSHS 499 279 in Petrochem. ind. 164 in large/medium ind. 56 in small scale ind. Domestic: FO 306 183 in large/medium ind. * LPG: was distributed grid-wise 123 in small scale ind. in the non-slum population. LDO 42 Combustion takes place during Diesel (HSD) 40 10 hours of the day. . LPG 7 * SKO: was distributed gridwise in SKO 480 the total population. Combustion LPG 233 takes place during 10 hours of Marine (porUbay) FO 100 the day. LSHS 56 Diesel 6 Wood consumption: LDO 3 Wood cokeriesump tiota of440tons/day, Note: Data for industry, domestic purposes, and by ships in Bombay *Bakeries: a total of 440 tons/day, portAbay area. in 1100 bakeries, distributed in the total population, 12 hours per day. * Crematoria: a total of 87.5 tons/day in 76 crematoria, distributed in the total population, 24 hours per day. * Combustion in slums: a total of 276 tons/day, distributed in the total population, 10 hours per day. Industrial: * There are some 40,000 commercial establishments and industries in Bombay of which 400- 500 use fuel for combustion. * A total of 280 large- and medium-scale industries were identified and located, based on the following criteria: 184 Appendix 4 - LSHS consumption greater than 500 tons/year - FO consumption greater than 200 tons/year The industries were mainly in the categories engineering (10-15 large industries), chemical, pharmaceutical and textile. For these industries, emission data were given based on reported measurement data, and, where not available, emissions were calculated based on emission factors. Stack data were also given. This list of industries included the Tata Power Plant, three chemical/ petrochemical plants and a fertilizer plant, all in the Chembur area. The gridwise distribution of the fuel consumption was done in the following manner: * The fuel consumed by the identified large/medium sources was assigned to the grids where the industries were located. * The remainder (balance) fuel was distributed in the grids according to the number of medium/small industries in the grid for which data was not available. TRAFFIC ACTIVITY, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND EMISSIONS The basis for the calculation of vehicle exhaust emissions, and their spatial distribution, is the file with traffic and road data provided by Atkins Inc., produced within their Comprehensive Transportation Study for Metropolitan Bombay Region. This file basically contained: * the main road network, separated into links (a total of 275 links), with the link endpoint co- ordinates (nodes) fixed in an arbitrary co-ordinate system * traffic data for each link, for morning rush hour (10-1 1 A.M.): - light duty traffic (cars + MC/TC), in passenger car units (PCU); - truck traffic, in PCU (1 truck = 2.4 PCU); - bus traffic, in PCU (1 bus = 3.4 PCU); and traffic speed. It was considered that the morning rush hour (10-11 A.M.) accounted for 6 percent of the annual average daily traffic. The traffic activity, for each vehicle class, has been calculated separately for the "Island" Area and "Suburb" area (see Figure 1), and distributed in the km2 grid. Additional data from the Atkins' report, and from Aditya were used to estimate the overall distribution of traffic activity between the vehicle classes, and the gasoline/diesel mix (Table 3): The total fuel consumption for road traffic in Greater Bombay used in this analysis, is, as provided by Aditya: Table 3: Vehicle classes and gasoline and diesel * Gasoline: 248,578 tons/year. consumption * Motor diesel: 243,444 tons/year. Vehicle classes Gasoline/diesel Fuel cons. (Ukm) The calculated traffic activity for Passenger cars 80% gasoline/20% diesel 0.1 separate classes/road systems is Motorcycles/tricycles 100% gasoline 0.067* Trucks 100% diesel 0.3 given in Table 4. Buses 100% diesel 0.3 * Based on: Motorcycles: 40% 0.05 Uakm Tricycles: 50% 0.075 Uakm URBAIR-Mumbai 185 The methodology used was as follows: Table 4: Traffic activity (IOu vehicle km/day), Greater Bombay 1. The traffic activity on 1992 the main road Cars MCITC Trucks Buses Total (Atkins') network, and Traffic activity the associated fuel Main roads (Atkins' data) consumption was 'Island' 1 827 457 306 177 2 767 calculated. was'"Suburbs' 1 353 1 793 833 234 4213 calculated. Sub-total 3180 2250 1 139 411 6980 2. The traffic activity Additional ("small") roads was distributed in the "Island" 2 097 480 148 86 2 811 km2 grids, according "Suburbs" 1 771 2 160 177 113 4221 to the location of the Sub-total 3 868 2 640 325 199 7 032 road links. Total 7 048 4 890 1 464 610 14 012 3. The fuel consumption not accounted for by this main road traffic, was calculated by difference (total minus main road fuel consumption). Table 5: Exhaust Particles and NOQ 4. This balance fuel consumption was used to Emission factors (glkm) Exhaust particles NOX distribute the balance traffic activity, Cars, gasoline 0.2 2.7 assuming: Cars, diesel 0.6 1.4 - the same vehicle composition in the MC/TC, gasoline 0.5 0.1 Trucks, diesel 2.0 13.0 traffic as on the main road system. Buses, diesel 2.0 13.0 - the spatial distribution of this balance traffic activity within the km2 grid Table 6: Exhaust emissions from road traffic, Greater system is as the distribution Bombay, 1992 (kg/h, averaged over the year, all hours) of the non-slum TSP NOX population. main roads "small" roads main roads "small" roads Using the following Gasoline emission factors, the calculated Cars 26.5 29.7 358 401 emissions of TSP (e.g. exhaust Diesel particles) and NO, from traffic Cars 79.5 7.7 186 18 is as given in Table 5. Trucks 94.9 46.0 617 299 Buses 34.2 16.6 222 108 Total 264.2 155.0 1,392 826 186 Appendix 4 Table 7: Total annual emission in Greater Bombay, 1992 (m ic tons/year) Vehicles TSP PMiO S02 NOx Hours of operation Gasoline Cars 492 492 160 6 643 12 MC/TC 737 737 250 179 12 Diesel Cars 765 765 395 1 783 12 Buses 445 445 566 2 891 12 Trucks 1 234 1 234 2 120 8 024 12 Sum vehicle exhaust 3 673 3 673 3 490 19 520 12 Resuspension from roads 10 200 2 550 - - 12 Power plant -1 500 -1 500 -26 000 -11 200 24 Fuel combustion Industnal LSHS 1401 84 11 9201 1 690 24 FO 1 6521 1 399 24 4801 2 140 24 LDO 121 6 1 5101 120 24 Diesel 121 6 8001 115 24 LPG 0,5 0.5 - 20 24 Sum industnal 1 817 1 496 38 710 4 085 Domestic Wood 4 395 2 198 59 410 12 (day) Kerosene (SKO) 23 23 1 628 258 10 (day) LPG 14 14 0,7 676 10 (day) Sum domestic 4 432 2 235 1 688 1 344 Marine (docks) FO 540 459 8 000 750 24 LSHS 16 8 1 120 425 24 Diesel 2 1 120 45 24 LDO 1 1 110 25 24 Sum marne 560 469 9 350 1 245 Industrial processes2 Refuse buming Domestic 3 700 3 700 Dumps 408 408 26 153 12 (3 PM-3 AM) Construction Stone crushers 6 053 12 (day) 1 Uncontrolled 2 Emissions from processes in Bomnbay is considered less important than to the fuel combustion emissions. EMISSION FACTORS The emission factors used in this URBAIR calculation for Bombay were selected based on the following sources of data: * USEPA emission factors of AP42 publication. * Emission factors of the WHO publication: "Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land Pollution", Part I: Rapid inventory techniques in Environmental Pollution (Geneva, 1993). * Emission factors worked out by the Bombay Urbair Working Group I (on Air Quality Assessment), shown in Table 8. * Emission factors for road vehicles described in Appendix 5. * Emission factors from Indian vehicles (IIP, 1985; Luhar and Patil, 1986). The selected emission factors for fuel combustion and road vehicles are shown in Table 7. URBAIR-Mumbai 187 Table 8: Emission factors usedfor URBAIR, Bombay, 1992 TSP PM,/TSP S02 NOx %S max. Fuel combustion (kg/t) Coal, bituminous, power plant - uncontrolled 50 19.5Sa) 10.5 - cyclone 1.25A 0.95 19.5S 10.5 - ESP 0.36A 19.5S 10.5 Residual oil (FO) indJcomm. 1.25S+0.38 0.85 20S 7 4 Distillate oil ind./comm. 0.28 0.5 20S 2.84 LSHS: 1 (LSHS, HSD, LDO) residential 0.36 -+ 1.6b) 0.5 20S 2.6 HSD: 1 LDO: 1.8 LPG ind./dom. 0.06 1.0 0.007 2.9 0.02 Kerosene dom. 0.06 1.0 17S 2.5 0.25 Natural gas utility 0.061 1.0 20S 11.3 f indJdom. 0.061 20S 2.5 Wood dom. 15 0.5 0.2 1.4 Refuse buming, open 37 1 0.5 3 Road vehicles (g/km) Gasoline Cars 0.2 1 2.7 87:0.25 Trucks, light duty 0.33 1 83:0.20 Buses and trucks, heavy duty 0.68 1 MC/TC 0.5 1 0.1 Diesel Cars 0.6 1 1.4 1 Trucks, light duty 0.9 1 13 Buses and trucks, heavy duty 2.0 a) A: Ash content, in %; S: sulfur content, in % b) Well -) poorly maintained fumaces Table 9: Emission factors as worked out by the Bombay URBAIR Working Group I on air quality assessment Type of Source Fuel Bumed Unit Particulates (kgtunit) S02 (kg/unit) NOx (kg/unit) Power plants Coal t 8(A) 19(S) 9 Fuel Oil t 1.04 (controlled) 19.9(S) 13.2 Natural Gas 103m3 0.24 16.6(S) 9.6 t 0.29 19.9(S) 11.5 Industrial & Commercial Coal t 6.5(A) 19(S) 7.5 Fumaces Fuel Oil t 2.87 19(S) 7.5 Oil, distillate t 2.13 20.1(S) 7.5 LPG m3 0.21 0.01 (S) 1.43 t 0.38 0.02(S) 2.6 Natural Gas 103 m3 0.29 6.6(S) 3 t 0.34 20(S) 3.6 Domestic Furnaces Coal (hand fired) t 10 19(S) 1.5 Wood t 13.7 0.5 5 Kerosene t 3 17(S) 2.3 LPG m3 0.23 0.01 (S) 1 t 0.42 0.02(S) 1.8 Solid Waste Dumps Refuse t 8 0.5 3 Wood t 13 0.1 4 Rubber Tires t 138 - - Municipal Refuse t 37 2.5 Note: A is % ash content (combustible by wt.); S is % sulfur content (combustible by wt.); Coal used in Bombay by Industries and for Domestic purposes is of Bituminous type. 188 Appendix 4 The selected factors for fuel combustion is in some cases somewhat different from those worked out by the Bombay Working Group I. The factors in Table 7 (from EPA AP42) were used because factors from the AP42 reference were used also in the other URBAIR cities (Manila, Jakarta), and because the Bombay factors were worked out a bit late in the process, after dispersion calculations were well under way. The Bombay factors would modify the emission inventory and calculated concentrations somewhat, but would not change the main results from the calculations. The emission factors for Indian vehicles referenced, include: For NO,,, these are in fair agreement with the selected factors in Table 7. For "TSP" (presumably exhaust particles) from buses and trucks, they are Table 10: Emission factors for Indian considerably lower, and seem quite a bit too low vehicles compared to all other references. Light duty, gasoline 2.1 gAcm at 30 WiAh MC/3-wheelers 0.06 glkm at 30 WmAh. Total emissions. Table 10 gives the total annual NOx TSP emissions of TSP, PM10, SO2 and NO,, associated Buses, suburban 11.1 0.37 urban 8.52 0.28 with the various source categories, fuels and vehicle Trucks 6.5 0.22 types. Those emission figures were calculated by Ught commercial vehicles 2.5 0.1 multiplying the fuel consumption with the emission factor. The table also gives the operation hours of the various sources. Comments to Table: * There is no specific file of data available regarding industrial process emissions. Based on their survey work in Bombay, Aditya is of the opinion that the process emissions are not significant totally in Bombay, compared to emissions from fuel combustion. Still, process emissions will in many cases give significant exposure in areas near industrial process plants. i There is a large discrepancy between the calculated emissions of SO2 and NO,, in Table 11, and those from the emission data file Table 11: Discrepancies between produced by AES Inc. for the input to the emissions KILDER model (see below), regarding Emissions In Emissions from the AES industrial emissions. The discrepancy is as Table 6 Point source file follows: 802 (tWyr) 66,710 18,290 * Part of the discrepancy may be explained as N0X (t/W) 15,285 5,590 follows: - In the AES point source file, results from actual emission measurements were used, where available. Where not available, a calculation of the emissions was based on fuel consumption and emission factors. - Table 5 is based on the maximum S contents of oil, while the average actual S contents may be considerably lower. * Refuse burning, open burning on dumps. URBAIR-Mumbai 189 AES has estimated the total emissions from the Dumps Deonar, Chincholi + Gorai, and Mulund. The estimation was based on TSP, S02 and NO. measurements carried out by MCGB near Deonar, by means of box model. The details are described in Annex IV to this Appendix. NEERI has also estimated total emissions of the same compounds from open burning on dumps in Bombay, based on some measurements of their own. Table 12 below summarized the results. There is a fair agreement between these estimates, considering that the burning mainly Table 12: Summary of estimates of emissions takes place during IO-15 hour periods from open burning on dunms in Bombay evening-nights. TSP S02 NOx The AES estimates have been used in AES kg/hr 54.3 3.4 20.4 Table 6. NEERI kg/day 950 71 175 Refuse burning, domestic. Several discussions within the URBAIR groups have not led to a conclusion regarding the amount of refuse burnt domestically (street sweepings, vegetation debris, domestic refuse) in Bombay. It might be estimated that a total of 2 mill households in Bombay each burn 1 kg of refuse per week. Using a SPM emission factor of 37 g/kg, this produces annually some 3 700 tons of SPM. Stone crushers. The SPM emissions from 47 registered stone crushers in Greater Bombay has been estimated by AES, as described in Annex V to this Appendix. Spatial emission distribution The total emissions from each source category has been Table 13: Spatial emission distribution distributed within the km2 grid Fuel consumption Operating time Distribution system based on (hrsiday) * the actual location of point Road traffic, gasoline 12 According to traffic activity on sources roads, and non-slum population * the population distribution, Road traffic, diesel 12 According to traffic activity on separate for non-slum and roads, and non-slum population separate for non-slum and LPG, domestic 10 (day) Non-slum population slum populations SKO, domestic 10 (day) Total population * the traffic activity Wood, domestic 10 (day) Slum population distribution. Wood, bakeries 12 (day) Total population AES and NILU has produced Wood, crematoria 24 Total population the spatial emission distributions Refuse buming, dumps 12 (evening-night) 3 dumps listed below. For each Stone crushers 12 47 units Balance fuel 24 Non-slum population distribution, an average emission Point sources 24 Actual locations rate was calculated for each grid square, in kg/hr, representing the average emission during the operating hours of the source. For some further details, see Annex VII of this Appendix. 190 Appendix 4 References Luhar, A.K. and R. S. Patil. (1986). "Estimation of Emission Factors for Indian Vehicles." Indian Journal of Air Pollution Control. 1 7 (4). New Dehli. Tata Energy Research Institute (1992). Environmental Effects of Energy Production, Transportation and Consumption in National Capital Region, 1992. TERI: New Delhi. URBAIR-Mumbai 191 Annexure I DATA ON POPULATION DISTRIBUTION-GRID-WISE Total population Data available: * Total population and area of each Census District obtained from BMRDA. (There are a total of 88 Census Districts in Bombay). * Map of Bombay. Distribution ofpopulation: * Population Density per sq. km. area was calculated using data obtained from BMRDA. However, it was noticed that area with no possible human habitation (like waterbodies/marshy lands/airport/ industrial area etc.) was also included in many of the census districts. Hence, new population densities were derived after deducting such areas. * Actual habitable area of each of the census districts in a grid was measured and multiplied by population density to arrive at population per grid. Data Constraints: * Non-availability of Specific Zoning Maps showing clearly the land use pattern. Slum population Data Available: * Wardwise list of slums in Bombay on Private land/Central Govt. lands/State Govt. lands/BHADA (Bombay Housing and Area Development Authority) and M.C.G.B. land giving number of tenements in each slum pocket. List obtained from Slum Improvement Dept., M.C.G.B. and is for the year 1985. (No updated list was available from the Dept.). * Map of Bombay from MHADA (Maharashtra Housing & Area Development Authority) showing positions of these slums. Slum population distribution: * No figures were available on actual population in the slums. Also distribution of slums in each Census District was not available. 192 Appendix 4 * Available data on total population and number of households obtained from BMRDA and discussions with faculty of Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Deonar indicates average number of persons per tenement as 5. Hence total slum population was derived as: Number of Tenements 561,252 Average no. of persons per tenement x 5 Total Slum Population 2,806,260 The slum population was then distributed in the grids based on number of tenements in each grid. Data gaps: * Conflicting reports exist on total population of Bombay residing in slums. Estimates indicate upto 40-45% (of total population) as total slum population. * The Book "Slums Squatter Settlements & Organised Sector Worker Housing in India some Affordable Myths" authored by R.M. Kapoor and M.S. Mitra published by the Times Research Foundation (1987) puts Task Force Estimates on slum population for million plus cities for 1981 (based on 1981 population) as varying from a low of 40% to a high of 45% of total population. * It is suspected that data given by Slum Improvement Dept. gives number of registered slums only and hence total slum population as worked outfor URBAIR is only 28.5% of total population. This is a major data gap as this will affect the consumption pattern of SKO/Wood in the grids. Non-slum population The slum population in each grid was substracted from total population in that grid to arrive at non-slum population in that grid. URBAIR-Mumbai 193 Annexure H DATA ON DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION Data available * LPG Consumption for Domestic purposes as indicated by Rationing Office * SKO Consumption for Domestic purposes as indicated by Rationing Office. (Data on LPG/SKO consumption for domestic purposes was not separately available for one of the Petroleum Companies and hence data from Rationing Inspectorate was used). * Total Population/Slum Population/Non-slum population gridwise from POPDISTl.WK1 files. Basis for distribution of data LPG consumption: Total LPG consumption per day for domestic purposes as indicated by Rationing Inspectorate is 639 MT/d. As this is predominantly used in well-to-do households, the entire LPG consumption was distributed gridwise in the non-slum population. Daily use of LPG is for cooking purposes and hence restricted to 10 hours/day; LPG consumption in Kg/hr was calculated for this period. SKO consumption: The total SKO consumption for domestic purposes and by establishments is 1,236 KL/d or 1062.96 T/d. This was distributed in the grids according to total population in that grid. Daily use of SKO is mainly for cooking and to some extent water heating. Total daily period of such use is restricted to 10 hours. Hence, SKO consumption in Kg/hr was calculated for this period. Wood consumption: Major wood consumers in Bombay were identifid as bakeries, other small establishments, domestic households (slums/pavement dwellers) and crematories. WOOD CONSUMPTION IN BAKERIES/SMALL ESTABLISHMENTS Data available No figures were available on wood consumption by small establishments. The Indian Bakers Association indicated that there are about 1,100 bakeries in the city which are using wood for their fuel needs. The average wood consumption in each bakery was estimated by them as ( 400 kg/day. (Large bakeries in the city are not using wood, but are using HSD or electricity). Based on these figures the total wood consumption by bakeries works out to be 440 T/day. 194 Appendix 4 Basis for distribution The bakeries are more or less evenly spread out in the city and hence wood consumption was distributed based on % of total population in a particular grid. WOOD CONSUMPTION IN CREMETORIA Data available * Wardwise list of Hindu cremetoria. * Death figures for 1991 from Health Dept., M.C.G.B. * Wood consumption per dead body 500 Kg (obtained from a visit to cremetoria). Data derived * Deaths in Bombay: 80,000 (1991). - Hindu Deaths (approx. 80%): 64,000. - Deaths/day (approx.): 175. Deaths per day: 175 Wood required per body: 500 Kg/day Total wood consumption: 87,500 kg/day or 87.5 T/day * No. of cremetoria (Pvt. & Municipal): 76 Hence, the total wood consumption was distributed in the wards based on location of cremetoria in the wards. Daily use of wood in cremetoria is for purpose of burning dead bodies. Such use covered whole 24 hours period. Hence use of wood in Kg/hr was based on 24-hours usage period. WOOD CONSUMPTION IN SLUMS Data available Discussions with faculty members of Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Deonar showed that wood and not charcoal (as shown by the E.M.S. study) was used as fuel in slums. However, no figures were available to substantiate the total slum population using wood or the per capita wood consumption. URBAIR-Mumbai 195 Data derived A study on "Energy Consumption in Pune City" conducted by S.P. College, Pune (1989) indicates that 20% of slum dwellers use firewood and average consumption is 180-200 Kg/capita/year. Since Pune city has a colder climate compared to Bombay, the lower figures of 180 kg/capita/year was assumed for Bombay city. Based on the above, the total wood consumption by this source per day works out as given below: Total Slum Population: 28 lakhs 20% population assumed using wood: 5.6 lakhs 560,000 (persons) x 180 (kf/capitalday) Total wood consumption per year 100,800 T/year Total wood consumption per day 276 T/day This was distributed in the grids based on slum population in the grid. Daily use of wood in slum is extended over 10-hours period. Hence, to calculate the load in kg/hr this period was considered. Total wood consumption Since, bakeries and crematoria are situated in predominantly domestic areas the total wood consumption by these sources was added to wood consumption by slum population for estimating total wood consumption for Bombay city. Wood consumption (T/day) for cemetaries: 87.5 for bakeries: 440.0 for slums: 276.0 Total wood consumption (T/day): 803.5 Gridwise distribution of wood was added to arrive at total wood consumption per grid. Data gaps From the available data no energy consumption pattern could be derived for the urban population of Bombay. Attempts to derive energy consumption pattern gave rise to very conflicting results. The S.P. College, Pune, showed the fuel consumption pattern in slums is as below: 196 Appendix 4 Energy requirements in slums: SKO 70% Wood 20% LPG/others 10% The per capita consumption of SKO is indicated by the study as 50 L/capacity/year. This works out to a average figure of 135 ML/capita/day. Assuming a higher value of 150 ML/capita/day, the consumption pattern of SKO works out as follows: Slum population: 28 lakhs Population using SKO (@70%): 20 lakhs SKO used in slums @ 150 ML/capita/day: 300 KL/day Available data indicates total domestic consumption for SKO as 1,198 KL/day. Balance SKO of 898 KL/day when distributed on the basis of 150 ML/capita/day shows a total of 59.86 lakhs people using SKO. This means about 85% of non-slum population uses SKO which is a unreasonably high figure. Even assuming 45% of total population as slum population (i.e. including the non-registered slums) the total SKO consumed by slums works out as below: Total population: 98 lakhs Slum population: 44.1 lakhs SKO users: 30 lakhs SKO consumed: 463 KL/day (based on 150 ML/cap/day) The balance 735 KL/day when distributed ® 150 ML/cap/day shows 49 lakh non-slum population using SKO which also works out to a high figure of 70%. The LPG consumption for domestic purposes has been indicated by Rationing Inspectorate as 233,235 MT/year (16,425,000 cylinders/year). Assuming requirement of each household as 1 cylinder/month or 12 cylinders/year. No. of households using LPG works out to 16,425,000 divided by 12 cylinders/year equals 13.69 lakhs. Assuming average size of each household as 5; total population using LPG works out to @ 68 lakhs which is ( 70% of Bombay's total population which is a very high figure. The SKO consumption by establishments (Hotels/Restaurants) has been shown as 38 MT/day which is a very low figure considering numerous such establishments in the city. Available data for Pune indicates that charcoal is used in slums by a very small amount of population (<5%). However, no quantification exists for Bombay. Considering the above, it is very much apparent that data on fuel distribution by domestic sector is very much rudimentary and there is an urgent need to study the pattern of usage in these sectors and consider cost effective alternatives to reduce pollution from this sector. URBAIR-Mumbai 197 Annexure III EMISSION FROM DOMESTIC SOURCES Data available Fuel consumption by Domestic Sources for Total SKOALPG and Wood consumption (inclusive of usage by establishments). Emission Factors used: Type of Fuel burned Unit Particulates SO2 NO, Source (Kg/unit) (Kg/unit) (Kg/unit) Domestic Wood t 13.7 0.5 5.0 Kerosene t 3.0 17.0 (s) 2.3 Furnaces LPG t 0.42 0.02 (s) 1.8 SOURCE: Rapid Assessment of sources of Air/Water and Land Pollution, WHO Offset Publication No. 62. 198 Appendix 4 Annexure IV EMISSIONS FROM REFUSE BURNING Data available Total quantity disposed: 4,000 T/day. Site Quantity (T/day) Available Area Deonar 2526.5 200 acres Mulund (Checknaka) 631.5 50 acres Chincholi 421.0 60 acres Gorai Rd. (Borivali) 421.0 20 acres Total quantity disposed 4,000.0 Source: Mr. D. K. Dhokale (Asst. Engineer), Solid Waste Management, M.C.G. B. The Bombay Solid Waste has the following composition: Moisture: 40% (by wt) Combustible: 22% (by wt) Ash content: 38% (by wt) Total 100% Physical Composition: Paper: 10% (by wt.) Glass: 0.2% (by wt.) Metal: 0.2% (by wt.) Plastics: 2% (by wt.) Textile: 3.6% (by wt.) Wood/Grass: 20% (by wt.) Ash/Soil: 38% (by wt.) Others: 26% (by wt.) TOTAL 100% Although municipal officials claim that no refuse burning takes place (or is very negligible), a number of complaints are received and the fact that refuse burning does take place is definitely established. The Air Quality Monitoring laboratory of the M.C.G.B. (Environmental Sanitation & Projects Dept.) has carried out air monitoring near the solid waste dump site at the time of refuse burning. The reports are as given as follows: URBAIR-Mumbai 199 Parameters Concentration Sampling Period TSP 2011 jg/mr 16:30 to 22:15 hrs. SO2 702 g/rM3 19:00 to 22:15 hrs. NO2 164 g/rM3 19:00 to 22:15 hrs. NH3 1014 ig/nm3 19:00 to 22:15 hrs. Source: MCGB (Environmental Sanitaton & Projects Dept. There is no documented data on rate of burning; area of dump which is burnt or the emission factors. To find out the rate of burning of the Solid Wastes it was decided to develop a Box Model and back calculate from the ambient monitoring data. To find out total emissions from refuse burning discussions were held with residents in the neighbourhood, NGOs and factory owners near the Deonar dump. The findings from this discussions are as follows: 1. Refuse burning is an unauthorised activity of rag pickers operating at the dumps. Objective is to recover metallic scrap, glass and other valuables. 2. Fresh refuse is high in moisture content and is left to dry for 10-15 days. Generally the dry refuse is lighted at 4-5 p.m. and bums till late night 2-3 a.m. 3. The nuisance of the smoke is felt upto 3rd/4th floors and, hence, height of smoke plume can be guessed as 10-15 m. Nuisance is felt upto a downwind distance of 3-4 km. BOX MODEL CALCULATIONS From the above, the emissions (Qj) from refuse burning (from Deonar site) were back calculated as below: Cj = Qj/uWD It is assumed in the development of the box model that: 1. Air is transported through the volume with a face velocity of u and 2. The pollutants are assumed to be instantaneously and uniformly mixed throughout the volume of the box. From the available data the following values were assigned to various variables: u = Avg. wind velocity = I m/sec. (Observed for night time from Santacruz data) W = Width of box normal to wind direction = 500 m. D = Depth of box normal to wind direction = 15 m (Elevation of 4 storeyed building) Cj = Concentration recorded = 2,011 ug/m3 = 2,011 x 10-6gm/M3 200 Appendix 4 Therefore: 2,011 x 106 = 0j/(1 x 500 x 15) 0 = 15.0825 gm/sec. or 54.297 Kg/hr. Assuming WHO emission factor 8 Kg/T for SPM from Refuse burning, Quantity of Refuse burnt was calculated: Quantity burnt/hour = 54.297 / 8 = 6. 787 T/hr. Further calculations were carried out by applying WHO Emission Factors for S02/NO (by assuming above rate of burning). Thus emissions at Deonar for SO2 and NO, are estimated as: SO2 = 3.393 Kg/hr. NO. = 20.361 Kg/hr. As no details regarding other sites are available, it is assumed that refuse burning is proporional to daily quantity of waste dumped. Applying WHO emission factors the emission from these dumps are calculated as below: Grid No. Site Wastes SPM SO2 NO, dumped/day (kg/hour) 16-17 Deonar 2056.0 54.29 3.39 20.36 6-36 Chincholi + 842.0 22.22 1.39 8.34 Gorai 17-30 Mulund 631.5 16.66 1.04 6.25 Data gaps No specific studies have been carried out as burning of refuse and the air pollution impact of these. NEERI is currently carrying out a study under MEIP on this aspect. Results of this study will be shortly available. URBAIR-Mumbai 201 Annexure V STONE CRUSHER EMISSION Data available Data on capacity of stone crushers was obtained from M.P.C.B. records. The data collected shows that there are 19 registered stone crushers in Kandivali (Ward 'R'/North); 21 registered crushers in Dahisar (Ward R/North) and 7 in Andheri (Ward K/W) area. No data is available of any air monitoring carried out close to these sites. Enmssions from crushers Emissions from stone crushers were calculated by using EPA emission factors as outlined below: Type of Process Suspended Dust Emission Dry Crushing Operation (Kg/MT) Primary Crushing 0.05 Secondary Crushing/Screening 0.30 Tertiory Crushing/Screening 1.80 Recrushing & Screening 1.25 Fines Mill 2.25 Source: EPA. The capacity of each crusher and the emission from them work out to very high loads as indicated in enclosed sheets. Hence, seperate box file has been prepared for this source. Preparation of box file While preparing box files, the following assumption were made: 1. The exact locations of the crushers on map were not known, but as it is well known that these crushers are very close to each other, they have been clubbed together and total emission has been shown from one particular grid only. 2. Micro-level details of each crusher like the types of control measures existing, the method of transfer of rock, the moisture content of rock, etc. are not known and it is assumed in preparation of the box file that all crushers have no installed control systems. 3. It has been assumed that crusher operates for 24 hours and suspended particulate emissions reported as Kg/hour accordingly. However, normalperiod of operation of crushers is between 8:00 hrs. and 19:30 hrs. and emissions should be corrected for further accuracy in the boxfile. 202 Appendix 4 Annexure VI BALANCE FUEL EMISSION FILE Data available The consumption of various Petroleum fuels by industries in Bombay is available from four Petroleum Refineries selling their products in Bombay. The data on fuel consumption obtained from emission inventory carried out for URBAIR was compiled and used to prepare box file (area files) for industries for which adequate data was not available and for small scale industries. Emission inventory Data available thus far from emission inventory indicates the following: 1. There are about 40,000 odd commercial establishments and industries in Bombay. About 500-600 of these use fuel for combustion. (Very small scale and tiny units are not considered in preparing this estimate). 2. The data indicates the following.pattern of fuel use: Industry Type Estimated Nos./Area Where Present Fuel Large scale 3 (Chembur) LSHS/Gas (Chemical/Petrochemical) Large (Engineering) 10-15 (Western/Central Suburbs) LDO/LPG& small quantity LSHS. Medium scale 250-275 (Western/central Suburbs) FO/LSHS small (Chemical/Pharmaceutical/ (Textile Industires:Bombay Island) quantity LDO. Textile) Medium scale 50-75 (Western/Central Suburbs) FO (Dyeing/Printing/Bleaching works) Small scale 100-150 (Western/Central Suburbs) FO/LDO In general, usage of LPG and SKO is restricted to Engineering industries. Usage of HSD is generally in diesel generators/compressors and in large bakeries. Fuel usage Furnace Oil: About 839 T/d of Furnace Oil was sold in Bombay city in 1992-93. F.O. is used by industries in boilers for steam generation; of this 500 T/day was accounted for in the emissions inventory data gathered for preparation of POISOURC.DAT file. The balance 339 T/d was URBAIR-Mumbai 203 distributed in the grids based on number of industries in each grid for which adequate data is not available. LSHS: The two Petroleum Refineries, Fertilizer Plant and the Power Plant together account for more that three-quarters of the LSHS consumption in the city. These units are not allowed to burn Furnace Oil and use Associated Gas (available through pipeline from GAIL/ONGC) alongwith LSHS. For some part of the year, the Associated Gas supply from ONGC was affected and, consequently, LSHS consumption in the city has increased considerably. LSHS consumption by Tata Thernal: Tata Thermal has 6 units for power generation at Chembur. Unit Nos. 1,2, and 4 are normally on stand-by and used for peaking the supply. Unit 3 has been decommissioned and is not in use. Units 5 & 6 are of 500 MW capacity each. All units have multi-fuel capabilities. Unit 5 can fire LSHS/Coal/Gas, whereas Unit 6 can fire LSHS and Gas. The total daily heat requirement at Tata Thermal is estimated at 5.25 x 1010 KcaWd and the fuels burnt for this consumption for 1992-93 work out as an average daily basis as (please refer enclosed sheets): Consumption based on annual sales figures of product Oil (LSHS) 2710 T Gas 1448 T Coal 870 T The higher LSHS requirement may be due to reduced supply of gas during the year form ONGC. LSHS Consumotion by refineries: The Refineries (BPCL & HPCL) have daily usage of LSHS as 230 T and 534 T, respectively, (based on MPCB Consent figures). Fertilizer Factorv (RCF): RCF uses associated gas for steam generation and as feedstock for their plants. They have no consented LSHS usage. Emission Inventory for URBAIR: The emission inventory could account for additional 450 T of LSHS usage by other Large/Medium Industries. LSHS Consumption from Refinery Sales Figures: The total average per day sale for LSHS is put at 3,312 T/day. The difference between the consumption figures (indicated above) and average sale per day comes out as follows: Difference between consumption and average sale per day Estimated average supply LSHS 3,312 T/day - Tata Thermal - 2,710 - Emission inventory - 450 152 T/day 204 Appendix 4 Average daily usage of LSHS Estimated average supply LSHS 3,312 T/day Consumption by refineries + 534 + 230 4,076 T/day Comments: LSHS consumption in Bombay is highly variable, the daily consumption being governed by the four large factories in Chembur. The availability of Associated Gas changes the entire consumption pattern of all these four units. This makes it very difficuilt to arrive at the average daily consumption figure based on yearly consumption/sales dates. Considering the above, the balance LSHS of 152 T/d has not been distributed in the grids while preparing Balance fuel distribution files (*FUE.DAT). LDO Consumption: About 135 T of LDO was supplied per day in 1992-93. Of this about 67 T/d could be accounted for in the Emission Inventory. The balance 69 T was distributed in the grids based on number of industries in each grid (for which adequate data is not available). HSD Consumption:-About 127 T/d of HSD was supplied on an average basis in 1992-93. Of this about 30 T could be accounted for in the Emission Inventory. The balance 97 T was distributed in grids based on number of industries in each grid for which adequate data is not available. CALCULATION FOR TATA THERMAL 2 units, 500 MW each Each 500 MW requires 5,000 T/d Coal, or 2,500 T/d Oil. Therefore, total requirement of fuels works out as 10,000 T Coal or 5,000 T Oil; total heat requirement works out as follows: Quantity in tons 5,000 x Kcal/kg x 10,500 x Conversion factor to Kg x 1,000 Total Heat Requirement (Kcal/day) 5.25 x 10 Tata have reported annual purchase of fuels as follows: LSHS: 926,886 T Gas: 495,082 T Coal: 297,556 T URBAIR-Mumbai 205 Corresponding Heat load/year works out as: LSHS 9.73 x 10 12Kcal/yr. Gas 6.67 x 1012 Kcal/yr. Coal 1.56 x 1010 Kcal/yr. TOTAL i1.796 x io's Kcal/yr For a total of 342 working days this gives a heat load/day as 5.25 x 1010. Therefore: Total Oil required/day: 2710 T/d Total Gas supply/day: 1448 T/d. Total Coal supply/day: 870 T/d. Comments This has been worked out considering that total fuel purchased by the plant in the year has been utilized. Quantities in stock have not been considered and daily average consumption may vary to that extent. 206 Appendix 4 Annexure VII BASIS OF PREPARATION OF POISOURC.DAT Data available Data on emissions from industries was gathered from the applications made by them to obtain MPCB consents. Data was gathered for about 210 industries belonging primarily to large and medium sector. Data was collected on the basis of following criteria: F. O. consumption > 200 T/year; LSHS consumption > 500 T/year. Data collected included physical details of stacks and data on type of emisions, velocity, flow rate and monitoring data wherever available. Preparation ofpoisourc.datfile This is on following basis: 1. Wherever possible monitoring data (as submitted by Industries) has been used to calculate emission load. Only where monitoring data was entirely absent, emissions were calculated from fuel quantity. 2. No data is required to be submitted by Industries on total NO, emission and hence this data was entirely computed from emission factors. 3. Emission Factors used for calculations are as given below, where A = % Ash, S = % Sulphur by wt. Type Of Fuel Unit Particulates SO2 NOX Bituminous Coal t 6.5 (A) 19 (S) 7.5 Fuel Oil t 2.87 19 (S) 7.5 LPG t 0.38 0.02 (S) 2.6 Natural Gas t 0.34 20 (S) 3.6 There is only one power plant in Bombay and emissions were directly taken from actual monitored levels at the plant. Process emissions in Bombay are unimportant compared to the large number of stacks connected to fuel sources. Wherever available data from such sources is collected and complied in Poisour.dat file. URBAIR-Mumbai 207 4. Building heights and widths were not available for buildings nearest to the chimney and, hence, default width and heights of 30 m and 10 m were given in the file. Data gaps A wide variation is observed in the monitored data and data calculated from emission factors. This may be because of any of the following reasons: 1. Low amount of sulphur in fuels compared to those available in standard specifications. For example: BPCL specifications for FO shows Sulphur content between 3.5-4% whereas actual observed level is between 2.5-3%. Similarly for LSHS actual % observed is between 0.5- 0.7% whereas specifications shows sulphur content of 1%. 2. Greater amount of excess air used by the industries. 3. Inaccurate monitoring practices adopted. The type of data in MPCB files is not up-to-date and should be improved. NO, monitoring is not required by MPCB, even when there is a ambient air standard prescribed for the same. 208 Appendix 4 Annexure VIII BASIS FOR DATA FILES Sr. File Name Basis Source Additional No. details WORKSHEET FILES 1. popdistl.wkl Census districtwise population BMRDA Annexure 1 distribution for year 1991. Distribution into grids based on actual area of census districts in each grid. 2. fuelcond.wkl Annexure II LPG (Domestic) Total Usage: 639 TPD. Rationing - Period of use: 10 hrs/day. office User: Non-slum population. SKO (Domestic) Total usage: 1,236 KL/day. Rationing - Period of Use: I0hrs/day. office User: Slum/non-slum population. Wood Total usage: 276 TPD. S.P.College - (Domestic) Period of Use: 12 hrs/day. Pune study User: 20% slum population. Wood (Bakeries) Total usage: 440 TPD. Bakeries - Period of Use: 12 hrs/day. association User: Bakeries. Wood Total usage: 87.5 TPD. Health - (Crematoria) Period of Use: 24 hrs/day. Dept.fBMC User: Crematoria. & visits to crematoria Total Wood Gridwise addition of wood - consumption by domestic source + bakeries + crematoria. 3. emisndom.wkl Emissions from Domestic fuel Fuel data Annexure usage. from I FUELCON D.WK.1 Emission factors - WHO BOX FILES 4. popdist.dat Population distribution in box. Data from Annexure I POPDISTI. WK1 URBAIR-Mumbai 209 Sr. File Name Basis Source Additional No. details 5. slumdist.dat Slum population distribution in Data from Annexure I box POPDISTI. WK1 6. bldg-ht.dat Average building height in grid Own observation .............. 5 ja.................................................................................................... ................................................................................................... 7. DOMESTIC DATA FILES 7.1 spmardom.dat Area source SPM from Data from LPG/SKO/total wood FUELCON D.WKI & EMISNDO M.WKI 7.2 so2ardom.dat Area source S02 from Data from LPG/SKO/Total wood FUELCON D.WK1 & EMISNDO M.WKI 7.3 noxardom.dat Area source No, from Data from LPG/SKO/Total wood FUELCON D.WKl & EMISNDO M.WKI ............................RE F U SE..........................................................................................BU R N.................................................................N G......................... 8.1 spmarsw.dat Area source SPM from Solid Box model Annexure Waste (refuse burning). calculations IV E.F. - WHO & monitoring data from MCGB. 8.2 so2arsw.dat Area source SO2 from Solid Box model Annexure Waste (refuse buring). calculations IV E.F. - WHO 8.3 noxarsw.dat Area source NO, from Solid Box model Annexure Waste (refuse buring). calculations IV E.F. - WHO .... .......................................... ...................................... I.............................................................................. .................................... ..STONE CRUSHERS 9.0 spmarcru.dat Area source SPM from stone E.F. - EPA Annexure crushers capacity of V crushers MPCB files .... A C FD............T.. .. .. .......................................................................................................................................................... 10.BALNCEFUE DSTRIBUTION 210 Appendix 4 Sr. File Name Basis Source Additional No. details 10.1 smparfue.dat Area source SPM from Balance Total fuel Annexure fuel consumption consumption VI from POISOURC .DAT and sale figures from petroleum companies 10.2 so2arfue.dat Area source SO2 from Balance Total fuel Annexure fuel consumption consumption VI from POISOURC DAT and sale figures from petroleum companies 10.3 noxarfue.dat Area source NO. from Balance Total fuel Annexure fuel consumption consumption VI from POISOURC .DAT and sale figures from petroleum companies 11. POINT SOUCE DAT IE 11.0 poiscourc.dat Emission from industries MPCB files Annexure (monitoring VII data submitted by industries) + E.F. - WHO APPENDIX 5 EMISSION FACTORS, PARTICLES INTRODUCTION Emission factors (emitted amount of pollutant per quantity of combusted fuel, or per kilometers driven, or per produced unit of product) are important input data to emission inventories, which again are essential input to dispersion modeling. The knowledge of emission factors representative for the present technology level of Asian cities is limited. For the purpose of selecting emission factors for the URBAIR study, references on emission factors were collected from the open literature and from studies and reports from cities in Asia. This appendix gives a brief background for the selection of emission factors for particles used in the air quality assessment part of UTRBAIR. Motor vehicles The selection of emission factors for motor vehicles for use in the URBAIR project to produce emission inventories for South-East Asian cities, was based on the following references: * WHO (1993) * USEPA (EPA AP42 report series) (1985) * Vehicles Emission Control Project (VECP), Manila (Baker, 1993) * Indonesia (Bosch, 1991) * Williams et al. (1989) * Motorcycle emission standard and emission control technology (Weaver and Chan, 1993) Table 1 gives a summary of emission factors from these references for various vehicle classes. From these, the emission factors given in Table 2 were selected, for use as a basis for URBAIR cities. Taking account of the typical vehicle/traffic activity composition, the following vehicle classes give the largest contributions to the total exhaust particle emissions from traffic: * Heavy duty diesel trucks * Diesel buses * Utility trucks, diesel * 2-stroke 2- and 3-wheelers. Thus, the emission factors for these vehicle classes are the most important ones. 211 212 Appendix 5 COMMENTS Table 1: Emission factors (g/km) for particle It is clear that there is not a very solid basis in emissionsfrom motor vehicles actual measurements on which to estimate Fuel and Vehicle Particles (gflk) Reference particle emission factors for vehicles in South- Gasoline East Asian cities. The given references Passenger-cars 0.33 USEPA/WHO tlable basis. Comments 0.10 VECP, Manila represent the best availal 0.16 Indonesia (Bosch) are given below for each of the vehicle 0.07 Williams classes. Trucks, utility 0.12 VECP, Manila 0.33 USEPA Gasoline: USEPA * Passenger cars: Fairly new, normally well Trucks, heavy duty 0.33 USEPA maintained cars, engine size less than 2.5 3-wheelers, 2-stroke 0.21 USEPANVHO 1, without 3-way catalyst, running on 2.001 VECP, Manila leaded gasoline (0.2-0.3 g Pb/l), have an 0.21/0.029 Indonesia VWS emission factor of the order of 0.1 g/km. 0.28/0.08 Weaver and Chan Older, poorly maintained vehicles may Diesel have much larger emissions. The Car, taxi 0.6 VECP, Manila USEPA/WHO factor of 0.33 g/km can be 0.45 USEPAiWHO used as an estimate for such vehicles. Trucks, utility 0.9 VECP, Manila a Utility trucks: Although the VECP study 0.93 EPA (Manila) uses 0. 12 g/km, we select the Trucks, heavy/bus 0.75 WHO EPA factor of 0.33 g/km was selected for 1.5 VECP, Manila such vehicles, taking account of generally 0.93 USEPA poor maintenance in South-East Asian 21 Williams cities. iNote: Relevant as a basis for selection of factors to be used in - Heavy duty trucks: Only the USEPA have South-East Asian cities. given an estimate for such vehicles, 0.33 g/krn, the same as for passenger cars and utility trucks. * 3-wheelers, 2-stroke: The USEPA and WHO suggest 0.2 g/km for such vehicles. Table 2: Selected emission factors * Motorcycles, 2-stroke: The Weaver report supports (g/km) for particles from road the 0.21 g/km emission factor suggested by vehicles used in URBAIR study USEPA/WHO. In the VECP Manila study a factor of Vehicles class Gasoline Diesel 2 g/km is suggested. This is the same factor as for Passenger cars/taxies 0.20 0.6 heavy duty diesel trucks, which seems much too Utility vehicles/light trucks 0.33 0.9 high. Motorcycles/tricycles 0.50 Visible smoke emissions from 2-stroke 2- and 3- Trucksbuses 2.0 wheelers is normal in South-East Asian cities. Low- quality oil as well as worn and poorly maintained engines probably both contribute to the large emissions. The data base for selecting a representative emission factor is small. In the data of Weaver and Chan (1993), the highest emissions factor is about 0.55 g/km. For URBAIR, we choose a factor of 0.5 g/km. Realizing that this is considerably higher than the factor suggested by USEPA, we also have a view to the factor 2 g/km used in the VECP study in Manila, which indicates evidence for very large emissions from such vehicles. URBAIR-Mumbai 213 * Motorcycles, 4-stroke: The emission factor is much less than for 2-stroke engines. The Weaver report gives 0.08 g/km, while 0.029 g/km is given by the VWS study in Indonesia (Bosch, 1991). Diesel: * Passenger cars, taxis: The factor of 0,6 g/km given by the VECP Manila is chosen, since it is based on measurements of smoke emission from vehicles in traffic in Manila. The 0,45 g/km of USEPA/WHO was taken to represent typically maintained vehicles in Western Europe and the United States, as also measured by Larssen and Heintzenberg (1983) on Norwegian vehicles. This is supported by the Williams' factor of 0.37 g/km for Australian vehicles. * Utility trucks: The USEPA and the VECP Manila study give similar emission factors, about 0.9 glkm. * Heavy duty trucks/buses: The factors given range from 0.75 g/km to 2.1 g/km. It is clear that "smoking" diesel trucks and buses may have emission factors even much larger than 2 g/km. In the COPERT emission data base of the European Union ( ), factors as large as 3-5 glkm are used for "dirty" city buses. Likewise, based on relationships between smoke meter reading (e.g. Hartridge smoke units, HSU) and mass emissions, it can be estimated that a diesel truck with a smoke meter reading of 85 HSU, as measured typically on Kathmandu trucks and buses (Rajbahak and Joshi, 1993), corresponds to an emission factor of roughly 8 g/km! As opposed to this, well maintained heavy duty diesel trucks and buses have an emission factor of 0.7-1 g/km. As a basis for emission calculations for South-East Asian cities we choose an emission factor of 2 gfkm. This corresponds to some 20 percent of the diesel trucks and buses being "smoke belchers". A larger fraction of "smoke belchers", such as in Kathmandu, will result in a larger emission factor. FUEL COMBUSTION Oil. The particle emission factors suggested by USEPA (AP 42) is taken Table 3: Emission factors for oil combustion (kg/m3) as a basis for calculating emissions Emission factor from combustion of oil in South-East Uncontrolled Controlled Asian cities. The factors are given in Utility boilers: Table 3. Residual oila) Grade 6 1.25(S)+0.38 xO.008 (ESP) Grade 5 1.25 xO.06 (scrubber) Grade 4 0,88 xO.2 (multicyclone) IndustriaVcommercial boilers: Residual oil (as above) xO.2 (multicyclone) Distillate oil 0.24 Residental fumaces: Distillate oil 0.3 Note: S: Sulfur content in % by weight a): Another algorithm for calculating the emission factors is as follows: 7,3xA kg/m3, where A is the ash content of the oil. Source: USEPA (1985). 214 Appendix 5 References Baker, J., Santiage, R., Villareal, T. and Walsh, M. (1993) Vehicular emission control in Metro Manila. Draft final report. Asian Development Bank (PPTA 1723). Bosch, J. (1991) Air quality assessment in Medan. Extract from Medan urban transportation study. Final Report. Washington D.C., World Bank. Larssen, S. and Heintzenberg, J. (1983) Measurements of emissions of soot and other particles from light duty vehicles. Lillestr0m (NILU OR 50/83). (In Norwegian). Rajbahak, H.L. and Joshi, K.M. (1993) Kathmandu Valley vehicular transportation and emission problems. Metropolitan Environment Improvement Program. Urban Air Quality Management Workshop (URBAIR), December 2, 1993. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1985) Compilation of air pollutant emission factors, 4th ed. Supplement A. Research Triangle Park, NC, EPA (Environmental Protection Agency; AP-42). Weaver, C.S. and Chan, L.-M. (1993) Motorcycle emission standards and emission control technology. Draft report. Sacramento, CA., Engine, Fuel, and Emissions Engineering, Inc. Williams, D.J., J. W. Milne, D. B. Roberts, and M. C. Kimberlee. (1989). Particulate emissions from 'in-use' motor vehicles - I. Spark ignition vehicles. Atmos. Environ., 23, 2639-2645. Williams, D.J., S. M. Quigley, J. W. Milne, D. B. Roberts, and M. C. Kimberlee. (1989). Particulate emissions from 'in-use' motor vehicles - II. Diesel vehicles. Atinos. Environ., 23, 2647-2662. World Health Organization (1993) Assessment of sources of air, water, and land pollution. A guide to rapid source inventory techniques and their use in formulating environmental control strategies. Part One: Rapid inventory techniques in environmental pollution. By A.P. Economopoulos. Geneva (WHO/PEP/GETNET/93. 1-A). APPENDIX 6 POPULATION EXPOSURE CALCULATIONS The basis for the calculations of the exposure of the Bombay population to TSP is the following: 1. The population distribution, calculated per km2 as described in Appendix 2, Chapter 2, and shown in Figure 2 in that appendix. 2. The TSP distribution in Bombay, calculated by dispersion modeling as annual average concentration in km2 grids (city background) described in the main report. These two distributions are combined, and give an estimate of the residential exposure frequency distribution shown in Table 1 of this Appendix, Columns 1. and 2. This residential exposure is modified to account for additional roadside exposure experienced by drivers, commuters and roadside workers. This modification is done in the following way -- * 300,000 drivers are given fairly high annual exposures, - l00,000 at 195 pgfm3 - 100,000 at 205 Og/m3 - 100,000 at 215 ,ug/m3 * 1,500,000 commuters are given a moderately high annual exposure (see 3rd column, Table 1), - 500,000 at 125 ug/m3 - 500,000 at 155 ug/m3 - 500,000 at 175 jg/m3 --which is thought to correspond to commuting on intermediate, high and very high traffic density roads. These 1.8 million people are then subtracted from the residence distribution, somewhat arbitrarily at equal rate from exposure classes between 95 jig/m3 and 185 pg/m3 (see 4th column, Table 1), i.e. the residents of the commuters and drivers are thought to be in moderately-to-fairly highly exposed areas. This modification gives the total exposure frequency distribution of Table 2, column 5. Columns 6 and 7 of Table 1 give the resulting cumulative distributions. Figure 1 shows the calculated exposure distributions. The residential distribution show that most people are exposed to annual concentrations between 110-140 pg/m3 (annual average TSP). Small fractions of the population are exposed to higher concentrations near specific particle sources, which are stone quarries. The roadside exposure causes a considerably increased exposure for a considerable part of the population. 215 216 Appendix 6 Table 1: Calculated distributions of population exposure to TSP in Bombay, 1993 (annual average, pg/nm3) Exposure class (TSP, Residential Traffic exposure Total Cumulative distr. pgIm3) exposure, modification exposure freq. distr. freq.distr. Add. Subtr. Residential Total 55 0.0 0.0 99.843 99.873 65 0.0 0.0 99.843 99.873 75 1.085 1.085 99.843 99.873 85 6.007 6.007 98.758 98.788 95 8.405 1.83 6.575 92.751 92.781 105 10.800 1.83 8.970 84.346 86.206 115 19.008 1.83 17.178 73.546 77.236 125 22.662 5.09 1.83 25.922 54.538 60.058 135 19.600 1.83 17.770 31.876 34.136 145 3.900 1.83 2.070 12.276 16.366 155 1.100 5.09 1.83 4.360 8.376 14.296 165 1.400 1.83 -0.430 7.276 9.936 175 0.846 5.09 1.83 4.106 5.876 10.366 185 1.868 1.83 0.038 5.03 6.260 195 0.143 1.02 1.163 3.162 6.222 205 0.218 1.02 1.238 3.019 5.059 215 0.466 1.02 1.486 2.801 3.821 225 0.302 0.302 2.335 2.335 235 0.606 0.606 2.033 2.033 245 0.093 0.093 1.427 1.427 255 0.518 0.518 1.334 1.334 265 0.108 0.108 0.816 0.816 275 0.0 0.0 0.708 0.708 285 0.020 0.020 0.708 0.708 295 0.270 0.270 0.688 0.688 305 0.152 0.152 0.418 0.418 315 0.266 0.266 0.266 0.266 325 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 335 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 URBAIR-Mumbai 217 Figure 1: Calculated distributions ofpopulation exposure to TSP in Bombay, 1993 (annual average) 100 t900 - | Resdentr expowre 25 - . l *Total exposure 70 ~40 30 20 10 0 55 75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 235 255 275 295 315 335 TSP (uglm3) 30 25 UResdertial exposre CTotal exposure 20 15 10 5 *55 75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 235 255 275 295 315 335 -5 TSP (uglm3) APPENDIX 7 SPREADSHEET FOR CALCULATING EFFECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSIONS 219 220 Appendix 7 SPREADSHEET FOR CALCULATING EFFECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSIONS Emissions spreadsheet The spreadsheet is shown in Figure 1. (Example: TSP emissions, Greater Bombay, Base Case Scenario, 1992.) Figure 2 shows emission contributions in absolute and relative terms. The purpose of the spreadsheet is to calculate modified emission contributions, due to control measures, such as: * new vehicle technology * improved emission characteristics, through measures on existing technology a reduced traffic activity/fuel consumption * other. The emissions are calculated separately for large point sources (with tall stacks) and for area sources and smaller distributed point sources. The reason is that air pollution concentrations and population exposures are calculated differently for these two types of source categories. The columns and rows of the worksheet are as follows: Columns: a) q: Emnission factor, g/km for vehicles, kg/m3 or kgton for fuel combustion and process emissions. For vehicles, emission factors are given'for "existing" and "new" technology. b) F,T: Amount of "activity" - T (vehicle km) for traffic activity - F (m3 or ton) for fuel consumption in industrial production. c) qT,qF: Base case emissions, tons, calculated as product of columns a) and b). d) fq, fF, fT, f-: Control measures. Relative reduction of emission factor (fq), amount (fF, fI) or other (f-) resulting from control measures. e) qFfqfFf-: Modified emissions, due to control measures. f) d(qFfqfFf-): Relative emission contributions from each source, per source category: - vehicles - fuel combustion - industrial processes - miscellaneous g) d(qFfqfFf): Relative emissions contributions, all categories summed. Rows: a) Separate rows for each source type and category, "existing" and "new" technology. b) "Background": Fictitions emissions, corresponding to an extra-urban background concentration. c) Modified emission/emissions: Ratio between modified and base case emissions. URBAIR-Mumbai 221 Figure 1: URBAIR spreadsheetfor emissions calculations, Greater Bombay, TSP base case, 1992 Emission Amount Bes. Control measures Modifed Relative Relative factor ca emiisons emleslons emisions Enaions p c _ total LARGE POINT SOURCES . q F qF fq fF f- qF fq fF f (dqF fq fFf) (dqF fq fFf)tot kgll (I1OE3V.) (tOnn.) . (IOE31-orm.) (Pe) t0c.nl Power plant LSHS 0.10 927 93 1.00 1.00 1.00 93 6.7 Coal 0.50 298 149 1.00 1.00 1.00 149 10.8 Gas 0.06 496 30 1,00 1.00 1.00 30 2.2 Petrochem. Wd. LSHS 0.28 279 78 1.00 1.00 1.00 78 5.6 Lameed. ind. LSHS 0.28 164 46 1.00 1.00 1.00 46 3.3 F0 5.40 183 988 1.00 1.00 1.00 988 71.4 Sum lwg point sourcee 184 13tl4 100.0 Med _ s pohti sou _ 1 DISCRETE AREA SOURCES Wasts dumps 1.00 1.00 1.00 stone cushas 1.00 1.00 1.00o Surn discr e sr wc 0.00 0 Modified melaslenosione, diacr. area c DISTRIBUTED AREA SOURCES .- Vehicbs q T qT fq fT f- qTfqfm (dqT fq fT) (dqT fq tTf _ _m_, _10___h____ _w__), u (IE3wwe) (Pl w"Ioc.h S) GasoNine xut Cars, taxis 0.20 2.46 492 1 1 1 492 13.4 2.0 MCGTC 0.50 1.47 735 1 1 1 735 20.0 3.0 Sun gasoline 1227 1227 5.0 Modifled emissinsteamissions. gasoline I Di exhaust Cars, taxis 0.6 1.27 762 1 1 1 762 20.8 3.1 Tnucks 2.0 0.62 1240 1 1 1 1240 33.8 5.0 Busus 2.0 0.22 440 1 1 1 440 12.0 1.8 Sun diese 2442 2442 100.0 9.9 Modified emissions/emissions, disel 1 Sun total vehicle exhaust 3669 3669 14.8 Modified emi sions/emissions, total vehicle exhaust 1.00 RIf_spensIon I .0 6.C4 12080 1 1 1 12080 48.8 Sum total vehicles (exh +meup.) 1 15749 15749 63.7 |Modled enmlsonsremisslons. totad vehIcls (exhw.ssup.) 1.00 Fuel combustion q F qF fq fF t- qF fq tF t (dqF fq fFfltu (dqF fq tFf)tot (lt (t00 alOES m e) _o__ 1sn) (Pocan 1M) LHSH 0.28 56 15.68 1.00 1.00 1.00 15.68 0.2 0.1 F0 5.40 123 664.20 1.00 1.00 1.00 664.20 7.4 2.7 LDO 0.28 42 11.76 1.00 1.00 1.00 11.76 0.1 0.0 Oies (HSD) 0.28 40 1120 1.00 1.00 1.00 11.20 0.1 0.0 LPG 0.06 7 0.42 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.42 0.0 0.0 Sum industral 703.26 703.26 2.8 Modified emissionstemissions, industrial 1.00 Domec Wood 15.00 293 4396.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4395.00 48.9 17.8 SKO 0.06 480 28.80 1.00 1.00 1.00 28.80 0.3 0.1 LPG 0.06 ' 233 13.98 1.00 1.00 1.00 13.98 0.2 0.1 Coal 10.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 Dung 10.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 Refuse 37.00 104 3848.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3848.00 42.8 15.6 Sum domestic 82S5.78 8285.78 33.5 Modiied emissionsfemisslons. domestic 1.00 Suan fuel corrust_on SO0" 09.04 100.0 36.3 Modfied fuel 1.00 MIsceibneous q M qM tq tM t- qMfqfMft (dqM fq fM)msc (dqM tq fMpto oiwnhfodODIV/-1 - - Sum total distributed aea sources 24735.04 24738.04 100.K Modified missionslemisslong, dstr. area sources 1.00 222 Appendix 7 Figure 2: Emissions contributions from various source categories 14000 [3 Present CD12000 Ndie C c ° 10000 .0 .g 6000 E 0 4000 0.2000 0 Large Discr. Gasobne Diesel Resusp. hd. fuel Domestic Misc. point area corrb. fuel sources sources corrb. APPENDIX 8: PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS, LOCAL CONSULTANTS PROJECT DESCRIPTION REGARDING AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT Information should be collected regarding the items described below. The information to be collected shall go beyond the information contained in the material referenced in the Draft Report from NILU and Institute of Environmental Studies (IES) of the Free University of Amsterdam prepared for the Workshop, and summarized in that report. Available information shall be collected regarding the following items, and other items of interest for Air Quality Management System Development in Bombay: * Meteorological measurements in and near the city. * Activities/population data for Bombay: - Fuel Consumption data: Total fuel consumption (1) per type (high/low sulfur oil, coal, gas, firewood and other biomass fuels, other) and (2) per sector (industry, commercial, domestic) - Industrial plants: Location (on map), type/process, emissions, stack data (height, diameter, effluent velocity and temperature) - Vehicle statistics: 1. number of vehicles in each class (passenger cars, small/medium/large trucks, buses, motorcycles (2- and 3-wheels, 2- and 4-stroke); 2. Age distribution; 3. Average annual driving distance per vehicle class. - Traffic data: Definition of the main road network marked on map. Traffic data for the main roads: 1. annual average daily traffic (vehicles/day) 2. traffic speed (average, and during rush hours) 3. vehicle composition (passenger cars, motorcycles, trucks/buses). - Population data: Per city district (as small districts as possible) 1. total population; 2. age distribution. 223 224 Appendix 8 * Air pollution emissions -Emission inventory data (annual emissions) 1. per compound (SO2, NO,, particles in size fractions: <2 pg, 2-10 pg, >10 jig, VOC, lead); 2. emissions per sector (industry, transport, domestic, etc.). * Air pollution data: -concentration statistics per monitoring station: 1. annual average, 98 percentile, maximum concentrations (24-hour, 1 hour); 2. trend information; 3. methods description, and quality control information on methods. * Dispersion modeling: Reports describing studies and results. * Air pollution laws and regulations: Summary of existing laws and regulations. * Institutions: - Description of existing institutions working in and with responsibilities within the air pollution sector, regarding: 1. monitoring, 2. emission inventories, 3. law making, 4. enforcement. -The information shall include: 1. responsibilities and tasks of the institution, 2. authority, 3. manpower, 4. expertise, 5. equipment (monitoring, analysis, data, hard/software), 6. funds. It is important that the gathering of information is as complete as possible regarding each of the items, so that we have a basis of data which is as updated and complete as possible. Remember that this updated completed information database is to form the basis for an action plan regarding Air Quality Management in Bombay. Such an action plan will also include the need to collect more data. In that respect, it is very important that the gathering of existing data is complete. URBAIR-Mumbai 225 PROJECT DESCRIPTION REGARDING DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC VALUATION URBAIR: topics for research Physical impacts 1. Describe available studies on relations between air pollution and health. 2. Decide on the acceptability of dose-effect relationships from U.S.A. a) Mortality: 10 ,ug/m3 TSP leads to 0.682 (range: 0.48-0.89) percentage change in mortality. b) Work loss days (WLD): 1 Pg/M3 TSP leads to 0.00145 percentage change in WLD. c) Restricted activity days (RAD): 1 pg/m3 TSP leads to 0.0028 percentage change in RAD per year. d) Respiratory hospital diseases (RHD): 1 jg/m3 TSP leads to 5.59 (range: 3.44-7.71) cases of RHD per 100,000 persons per year. e) Emergency room visits (ERV): 1 Pg/M3 TSP leads to 12.95 (range: 7.1-18.8) cases of ERV per 100,000 persons per year. f) Bronchitis (children): 1 pg/m3 TSP leads to 0.00086 (range: 0.00043-0.00129) change in bronchitis. g) Asthma attacks: 1 jig/m3 TSP leads to 0.0053 (range: 0.0027-0.0079) change in daily asthma attacks per asthmatic persons. h) Respiratory symptoms days (RSD): 1 Pg/M3 TSP leads to 1.13 (range:0.90-1.41) RSD per person per year. i) Diastolic blood pressure (DBP): change in DBP = 2.74 ([Pb in blood]oId-[Pb in blOod]new) with [Pb in blood] is blood lead level (jig/dl). j) Coronary heart disease (CHD): change in probability of a CHD event in the following ten years is -- [1 + exp - (-4.996 + 0.030365(DBP)Jr' - [1 + exp - (-4.996 + 0.030365(DBP2)Jj1 i) Decrement IQ points: IQ decrement = 0.975 x change in air lead (jig/M3) Calculation example: * Let population be 10 million people. * Let threshold value of TSP be 75 pg/m3 (the WHO guideline). * Let the concentration TSP be 317 jig/m3. = Concentration - threshold = 317 - 75 = 242 = 24.2 (10 pg/m3). = Change in mortality = 24.2 x 0.682 = 16.5%. * Let crude mortality be 1 % per year. => Crude mortality = 100,000 people per year. => Change in mortality due to TSP = 16.5% of 100,000 people = 16,500 people per year. 3. For those dose-effect relationships that are acceptable, base value must be gathered, e.g.: a) crude mortality b) present work days lost 226 Appendix 8 Valuation 1. Mortality. a) Willingness to Pay. In the United States, research has been carried out on the relation between risks of jobs and wages. It appeared that 1 promille of change in risk of mortality leads to a wage difference of ca. US$1,000. If this figure is applicable to all persons of a large population (10 million), the whole population values 1 promille change in risk of mortality at US$1,000 x 10 x 106 = $10 billion. An increase in risk of 1 promille will lead to ca. 10,000 death cases, so per death case the valuation is US$1 million. It should be decided if in other countries, c.q. cities, this valuation should be corrected for wage differences (e.g. if the average wage is 40 times lower than in the United States the valuation of 1 death case is US$25,000). If this approach is acceptable, the only information needed is average wage. b) Production loss. If the approach of willingness to pay is not acceptable, the alternative is valuing human life through production loss, i.e. foregone income of the deceased. Again. the information needed is average wage. Moreover, information is needed on the average number of years that people have a job. However, those without a job should also be assigned a value. An estimate of the income from informal activities- can be an indication. Otherwise a value derived from the wages (e.g. half the average wage) can be a (somewhat arbitrary) estimation. 2. Morbidity. Estimates are needed for all cases of morbidity of the duration of the illness, so as to derive an estimation of foregone production due to illness. Just as in the case of mortality (B. 1 .b) wages can be used for valuation of a lost working day. Moreover, the hospital costs and other medical costs are to be estimated. These costs still do not yet include the subjective costs of illness, which can be estimated using the willingness-to-pay approach to pay to prevent a day of illness. 3. Willingness to pay to prevent a day of illness. Valuation in the United States, based on surveys among respondents, indicate that the willingness to pay to prevent a day of illness is ca. US$15. This amount could, just like the amount of willingness to pay for risk to human health, be corrected for wage differences. The acceptability of such a procedure is, perhaps, somewhat lower. 4. IQ points. Loss of IQ of children may lead to a lower earning capacity. A U.S. estimate is ca. US$4,600 per child, per IQ point, summed over the child's lifetime. If this is acceptable, the figure could be corrected for wage differences between the United States and the city. Other impacts 1. Buildings. An estimate by Jackson et al is that prevented cleaning costs per household per year are US$42 for a reduction in TSP concentration, from 235 Pg/m3 to 115 pg/m3. This would imply a benefit of US$0.35 per household per pg/m3 reduction. This figure could be corrected for wage differences between the United States and the city. If that is acceptable, the information needed is the number of households in the city. 2. Monuments. It is difficult to say which value is attached to monuments, as they are often unique and their value is of a subjective character. Nevertheless, the restoration and cleaning costs of monuments could be an indication of the order of magnitude of damage to monuments. Revenue of tourism might also give a certain indication of valuation of future damage to monuments. URBAIR-Mumbai 227 Remark * In most cases, the valuation of damage is not very precise, and certainly not more than an indication of the order of magnitude. Technological reduction options. To give a reliable estimate of the costs of technological reduction options, one needs a reliable emission inventory in which is included the currently used technologies and the age and replacement period of the installed equipment. In the absence of this, the study by the city team might wish to concentrate on a case study (e.g. traffic, fertilizer industry, large combustion sources.) * The first step is to identify options. Cooperation with IES is possible, once a case study is identified. * The second step is to estimate the costs, i.e. investment costs and O&M (operation and maintenance) costs. Based on the economic lifetime of the invested equipment, the investment costs can be transformed to annual costs, using writing-of procedures. Costs will often depend to a large extent on local conditions. * The third step is to estimate the emission reductions of the various reduction options. * The fourth step is to rank the options according to cost-effectiveness. For this purpose the various types of pollution have to be brought under a common denominator. A suggestion could be to calculate a weighed sum of the pollutants, using as weights the amount by which ambient standards are exceeded on average. The calculation of the cost-effectiveness consists then of the calculation of the ratio of reduction over annual cost (R/C). The options with the highest ration R/C are the most cost- effective ones. Distributors of COLOMBIA GERMANY ISRAEL Nl EAL ! M, - - Intoenlace Ltda. UNO-Vedag Yozmot Lterature Ud. Everest Media Intemational Services (P) Ud. Livraria Portugal Wennergren-Williams AB W orld Bank Carrera 6 No. 51-21 Poppelsdoder Allee 55 P.0, Box 56055 GPO Box 5443 Apartado 2681, Rua Do Camo 70-74 P O. Box 1305 Apartado Aereo 34270 53115 Bonn 3 Yohanan Hasandlar Street Kathmandu 1200 Lsbon S-171 25 Solna Publications SantafddeBogota,D.C. 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Piekna 31/37 100, Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawatha Fax: (8610(6401-7305 75116 Pars 4-5 Harcour Road 14050 Mexico, D.F 00-677 Warzawa Cobmbo 2 Fax: (86 10) 6401-7365 Tel: (33 1) 40-69-30-56/57 Dublin 2 Tel: (52 5)624-2800 Tel: (48 2) 628-0089 Tel: (94 1) 32105 Fax: (33 1) 40-69-30-68 Tel: (353 1) 661-3111 Fax: (525) 624-2822 Fax: (482) 621-7255 Fax: (94 1) 432104 Fax: (353 1)475-2670 E-mail: infotec@rln.net.mx E-mail: books%ips@ikp.atm.corn.pl E-mail: LHL@sr.lanka.net 1soOi URL: htIp://rtn.net.rnx URL: htp://www .ipseg.wawpVips/export RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued) No. 348 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and Chellaraj, Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance: The Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, Volume II, Statistical Annex No. 349 Cummings, Dinar, and Olson, New Evaluation Proceduresfor a New Generation of Water-Related Projects No. 350 Buscaglia and Dakolias, Judicial Reform in Latin American Courts: The Experience in Argentina and Ecuador No. 351 Psacharopoulos, Morley, Fiszbein, Lee, and Wood, Poverty and Income Distribution in Latin America: The Story of the 1980s No. 352 Allison and Ringold, Labor Markets in Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, 1989-1995 No. 353 Ingco, Mitchell, and McCalla, Global Food Supply Prospects, A Background Paper Prepared for the World Food Summit, Rome, November 1996 No. 354 Subramanian, Jagannathan, and Meinzen-Dick, User Organizationsfor Sustainable Water Services No. 355 Lambert, Srivastava, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: Rescuing a Global Heritage No. 356 Aryeetey, Hettige, Nissanke, and Steel, Financial Market Fragmentation and Reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 357 Adamolekun, de Lusignan, and Atomate, editors, Civil Service Reform in Francophone Africa: Proceedings of a Workshop Abidjan, January 23-26, 1996 No. 358 Ayres, Busia, Dinar, Hirji, Lintner, McCalla, and Robelus, Integrated Lake and Reservoir Management: World Bank Approach and Experience No. 360 Salman, The Legal Frameworkfor Water Users' Associations: A Comparative Study No. 361 Laporte and Ringold. Trends in Education Access and Financing during the Transition in Central and Eastern Europe. No. 362 Foley, Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, The Niger Household Energy Project: Promoting Rural Fuelwood Markets and Village Management of Natural Woodlands No. 364 Josling, Agricultural Trade Policies in the Andean Group: Issues and Options No. 365 Pratt, Le Gall, and de Haan, Investing in Pastoralism: Sustainable Natural Resource Use in Arid Africa and the Middle East No. 366 Carvalho and White, Combining the Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Poverty Measurement and Analysis: The Practice and the Potential No. 367 Colletta and Reinhold, Review of Early Childhood Policy and Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 368 Pohl, Anderson, Claessens, and Djankov, Privatization and Restructuring in Central and Eastern Euzrope: Evidence and Policy Options No. 369 Costa-Pierce, From Farmers to Fishers: Developing Reservoir Aquaculturefor People Displaced by Dams No. 370 Dejene, Shishira, Yanda, and Johnsen, Land Degradation in Tanzania: Perception from the Village No. 371 Essama-Nssah, Analyse d'une repartition du niveau de vie No. 373 Onursal and Gautam, Vehicular Air Pollution: Experiencesfrom Seven Latin American Urban Centers No. 374 Jones, Sector Investment Programs in Africa: Issues and Experiences No. 375 Francis, Milimo, Njobvo, and Tembo, Listening to Farmers: Participatory Assessment of Policy Reform in Zambia's Agriculture Sector No. 376 Tsunokawa and Hoban, Roads and the Environment: A Handbook No. 378 Shah and Nagpal, eds., Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Kathmandu Valley Report No. 377 Walsh and Shah, Clean Fuels for Asia: Technical Options for Moving toward Unleaded Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel No. 382 Barker, Tenenbaum, and Woolf, Governance and Regulation of Power Pools and System Operators: An International Comparison No. 383 Goldman, Ergas, Ralph, and Felker, Technology Institutions and Policies: Their Role in Developing Technological Capability in Industry No. 384 Kojima and Okada, Catching Up to Leadership: The Role of Technology Support Institutions in Japan's Casting Sector No. 385 Rowat, Lubrano, and Porrata, Competition Policy and MERCOSUR No. 386 Dinar and Subramanian, Water Pricing Experiences: An International Perspective No. 387 Oskarsson, Berglund, Seling, Snellman, Stenback, and Fritz, A Planner's Guidefor Selecting Clean-Coal Technologies for Power Plants No. 388 Sanjayan, Shen, and Jansen, Experiences with Integrated-Conservation Development Projects in Asia No. 389 International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Planning the Management, Operation, and Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems: A Guidefor the Preparation of Strategies and Manuals No. 395 Saleth and Dinar, Satisfying Urban Thirst: Water Supply Augmentation and Pricing Policy in Hyderabad City, India 0 THE WORLD BANK IS I I Strect. N.. N\ sh1ilot>. ID).( 20433 1 S \ I'clcphonQ: 202-477-12.4 IF,.csim l.c 20t2-477-03 91 I.CI\1: \(.1 04145 N\W)RI 1)I' \Nil \1(.1 24S423 WOIDIVVNK ( >:hAlj \ldrc1-v: 1 N'1 Vi\Il K \) \\ ISI \S I III ;II )N.O\l)( \\(,,-ld \\ i(lc \\.h litti): \\ \,Iltllx,, METROPOLITAN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM \si:'.11161 icl I )c: a td .tiujil. I \\orlt! IIsII.s 1I'. I II Sicct,-t D .\\. D,. 1) (' 20433. S \ I 1,pllmi mc: 21)2-4.S- 59S IICllT,I,di: 2112-5'22-10(4 ISBN 0-8213-4037-9