FORCED DISPLACEMENT AND VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN A POLICY BRIEF ACKNOWLEDGMENTS THIS WORK IS PART OF THE PROGRAM “BUILDING THE EVIDENCE ON FORCED DISPLACEMENT: A MULTI-STAKEHOLDER PARTNERSHIP’’. This brief summarizes some of the main findings produced by research conducted as part of a major World Bank research program supported by UKAID, the Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement (GDFD). GDFD aims to deepen understand- ing of key gender disparities among forcibly displaced people by examining gaps and the drivers, with a focus on poverty and livelihoods, gender-based violence, and discriminatory norms. The program has generated ten country studies (Co- lombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Jordan, Mali, Nigeria, Somalia, and Sudan), as well as multi-country studies on child marriage, multi-dimensional poverty, and intimate partner violence covering 17 countries. The program is funded by UK aid from the United Kingdom’s Foreign, Common- wealth, and Development Office (FCDO). It is managed by the World Bank Group (WBG) and was established in partnership with the United Nations High Commis- sioner for Refugees (UNHCR). This work was produced under the overall guidance of Lucia Hanmer and Diana J. Arango, task team leaders for the Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement work. Special thanks to Constanze Quosh and Kathryn McCallister for their technical review and input which shapes the brief. Special thanks also to Seve Loudon from the OECD for their support on interpreting data on ODA for ending violence against women and girls. DIANA J. ARANGO, Global Lead - Gender-Based Violence, World Bank JOCELYN KELLY, Director, Gender, Rights and Resilience - Harvard Humanitarian Initiative JENI KLUGMAN, Managing Director, Georgetown Institute of Women, Peace and Security, Georgetown University and Senior Fellow, Brookings Institution ELENA ORTIZ, GDFD Research Associate, World Bank Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement Research Program. Washington, D.C. World Bank OPERATIONAL POINTS OF ACTION: 3 GENDER DIMENSIONS OF FORCED DISPLACEMENT • Women who were forcibly displaced are more likely to experience intimate partner violence. In Colombia and Liberia women faced 40 and 55 percent great- er odds, respectively, of experiencing past-year IPV compared to non-displaced women. • Operations in settings with forcibly displaced women should consider investing in programmes to prevent, mitigate, and respond to violence experienced by both displaced women and host community women with consideration to diversity of individual identities and circumstances. • Survivors of gender-based violence require easy access to life-saving, quality services that provide health and psychosocial support, financial and liveli- hood opportunities, and access to safety and justice. • Components of prevention programming include ef- forts to change social norms that underpin violence in the community and interventions to provide wom- en with financial resources and autonomy. 4 INTRODUCTION THE WORLD BANK GROUP Over 80 million people -- one percent Women 2016). Evidence shows that IPV of the globe’s population – have been and child maltreatment co-occur, result- forcibly displaced, the highest level ing in intergenerational impacts of IPV. on record (UNHCR 2020a). Displaced The COVID pandemic has exacerbated women fare worse on multiple fronts, as existing gender inequalities, including shown by the Women, Peace and Secu- women undertaking more unpaid work, rity Index, including employment ac- women’s economic marginalisation, and cess, cell phone access, financial inclu- worsening violence at home (GIWPS sion and intimate partner violence (IPV) and PRIO 2021). (GIWPS and PRIO 2021). The World To date, most cross-country datasets Bank’s Gender Dimensions of Forced (e.g. Demographic and Health Surveys Displacement (GDFD) research program and more recently, the World Bank’s has drawn on survey data using innova- High Frequency Surveys) have focused tive approaches to deepen the under- either on displacement or on IPV, sel- standing of how forced displacement dom looking at both experiences to- and gender inequality intersect, with a gether. We reviewed 60 nationally rep- focus on IPV. Conflict and displacement resentative datasets1 from 27 countries affect every aspect of a woman’s life and found data on both displacement and, as this research highlights, increas- and violence for just two countries: Co- es her risk of abuse. lombia and Liberia. Additional estimates Globally, one in three women face have been generated from surveys spe- violence at the hands of an intimate cifically designed to measure IPV, such partner during her lifetime, making IPV as in South Sudan (Ellsberg et al. 2020), one of the most widespread human whereas some other estimates pertain rights abuses. IPV has disastrous con- to a specific region or city. Figure 1 sequences for women, their families, draws on various published sources to and communities in both the near- and highlight that the risks of IPV within the long-term. These include poorer mental past year appear to be systematically and reproductive health outcomes, un- higher for forcibly displaced women intended pregnancy, physical harm, as relative to non-displaced women. The well as increased vulnerability to sexual- gap between displaced and non-dis- ly transmitted diseases and HIV (Camp- placed women ranges from a high of 20 bell 2003; Jewkes et al. 2010) with percentage points in South Sudan and economic costs amounting to about two about 17 in Sudan to three percentage percent of global GDP—equivalent to points in Nigeria. the size of Canada’s entire economy (UN 1 Demographic and Health Surveys and UNICEF’s Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) FIGURE 1 RATES OF PAST-YEAR IPV AMONG FORCIBLY DISPLACED AND NON-DISPLACED WOMEN 5 50 GENDER DIMENSIONS OF FORCED DISPLACEMENT 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Colombia DRC Ethiopia Liberia Mali* Nigeria* Somalia South Sudan Sudan DISPLACED NON-DISPLACED *Data for Mali and Nigeria show IPV rates in conflict-affected vs. non-conflict affected areas. Source: See sidebar for GDFD studies; Nigeria (Ekhator-Mobayode et al. 2020) Somalia (Wirtz et al. 2018); South Sudan (Ellsberg et al. 2020); Sudan (Ali et al, 2014; WHO 2021). In Colombia and Liberia, women who who had previously been displaced had were forcibly displaced faced 40 and 55 eight percent higher risk, compared to percent greater odds, respectively, of never-displaced women, even after ad- experiencing past-year IPV compared justing for other risk factors. While cur- to non-displaced women (Kelly et al. rent displacement carried the highest 2021a). Both displacement and living in risk, past displacement also significantly a highly conflict-affected district were continued to impact women’s risk of independent and significant risk factors current IPV and current sexual violence. for past-year IPV. These findings show Research in Mali leveraged data from how both war and displacement can ad- before and during conflict to examine versely affect women’s experiences and how IPV varied among women facing are most detrimental when combined. different levels of conflict exposure In the Democrative Republic of Congo, (Ekhator-Mobayode 2021). Conflict in- a 2018 population-based survey in the creased the risk of physical IPV by about conflict-affected eastern region found 14 percent and of combined IPV (in- that both displacement and exposure cluding physical, sexual, and emotional to war-related abuses (such as pillaging violence) by 18 percent after controlling and exposure to armed violence) in- for a range of factors. creased the risk of both IPV and sexual In Nigeria, the Boko Haram insurgency violence (Kelly et al. 2021b). Currently worsened women’s exposure to physical displaced women had nearly 20 percent and sexual IPV, among other negative higher risk of past-year IPV, and women 6 THE WORLD BANK GROUP gendered outcomes (Ekhator-Mobayode NATIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES AGAINST 2020). At the height of the Boko Haram insurgency, between 2008 and 2013, the risk of IPV was declining in most regions of Nigeria. However, women VIOLENCE AND and girls living in areas affected by the insurgency experienced slower progress DISPLACED WOMEN toward eliminating IPV, higher levels of controlling behaviors from partners, and The World Bank’s 2021 Women, Busi- lower levels of household decision-mak- ness, and the Law reports that 158 coun- ing authority than women and girls tries have laws specifically addressing living in other parts of the country. IPV. In principle, these laws should pro- tect forcibly displaced women and girls, While the GDFD program was unable to although there are exceptions, as in specifically examine drivers of violence, Lebanon (American University of Beirut a growing literature points to an inter- Policy Institute 2017). Some host coun- play of factors. At the individual level, tries in Africa have taken proactive steps alcohol consumption, financial uncer- to protect the displaced. In Kenya, the tainty, and dissolution of social support 2011 National Policy on the Prevention of structures all play a role (Jewkes et al. Internal Displacement and Assistance to 2017; Mootz et al. 2018). Finally, conflict Internaly Displaced Persons (IDPs) pro- can legitimize violence and hyper-mas- vides for protection “against rape and culine behaviours and make men more other forms of sexual and gender-based likely to turn to aggression as a way to violence, including forced marriages, as exert power within the household. Qual- well as domestic violence and spared itative evidence from Colombia, for ex- from harmful traditional practices…” ample, suggests that men’s resentment (Republic of Kenya 2011). The same about increased economic opportuni- policy confirms that existing legislation ties for women (Hynes et al. 2015) and on sexual offenses applies to IDPs and heightened feelings of economic and that the government is committed to political exclusion can all drive violence health and psychosocial counseling to in the home (Brown et al. 2019). survivors of all forms of gender-based across all sectors work to mainstream 7 violence (GBV). Niger’s law on protect- GBV risk mitigation, prevention, and ing IDPs and Mali’s national strategy response across humanitarian interven- GENDER DIMENSIONS OF FORCED DISPLACEMENT for IDPs and returnees also include tions (IASC 2015). 2 language on protection against GBV PROGRAMMATIC without specifying IPV (Government of Niger 2018; Republic of Mali 2015). RESPONSES IN FORCED INTERNATIONAL DISPLACEMENT RESPONSES SETTINGS International and regional legal and The types of interventions that have policy frameworks on gender equality been introduced in forced displace- and the protection of forcibly displaced ment settings, alone or in combination, people, like the Convention for the include safe spaces, livelihood and Elimination of Discrimination Against economic empowerment programming Women, the Kampala Convention, and and training, psychosocial support, the 1998 Guiding Principles on Internal batterer interventions, home visitations, Displacement, include commitments to community mobilization, mobile ser- protect women from GBV and provide vice delivery, and/or cash and voucher survivors with access to justice and transfer programs. services. However, the increased risk Community-based interventions, like the of forcibly displaced women to IPV Community Cares: Transforming Lives is generally not explicitly recognized. and Preventing Violence program led Major international organizations – by UNICEF in South Sudan and Somalia, including UN High Commissioner for have shown promising results. Facilitat- Refugees (2020b), the European Union ed dialogues with community members (European Commission 2019), CARE aim to catalyze prevention activities, (2020), and the International Rescue while training is designed to improve Committee (IRC) (2017) – recognize that response services to violence against emergency responders to GBV provide women and girls. In Somalia, the inter- a lifesaving intervention. vention was associated with improved social norms around sexual violence in Standards and guidelines have been de- treatment relative to comparative com- veloped by UN agencies to prevent and munities (Glass et al. 2019). respond to GBV. The 2015 Inter Agen- cy Standing Committee guidelines on CARE USA recently examined the ef- GBV mandate that humanitarian actors fectiveness of safe spaces in Northwest 2 Other guidelines include ICRC’s Professional Standards for humanitarian actors (ICRC 2009) and UN- HCR’s 2020 Policy on the Prevention of, Risk Mitigation, and Response to GBV (UNHCR 2020b) which complements UNHCR’s 2018 Policy on Age, Gender, and Diversity (UNHCR 2018) 8 Syria and South Sudan (Landis 2021). gender discussion groups could expe- A quantitative survey found that service rience a decrease in domestic violence knowledge and utilization was signifi- (IRC 2015a). THE WORLD BANK GROUP cantly higher among Women/Girls Safe In general, however, few interventions Space participants than non-partici- have been rigorously evaluated in hu- pants in both settings. In addition, the manitarian settings and little is known intervention participants were more like- about how to effectively address GBV ly to know where to go for help if they among forcibly displaced populations felt unsafe, were more aware of avail- (Murphy et al. 2019). Emerging good able GBV response services, and were practice and promising interventions more likely to report seeking formal continue to require more evidence to services because they felt unsafe. establish replicability. There is evidence that cash transfers The World Bank has increased invest- and social protection can play a protec- ment in prevention and response to GBV tive role, especially in combination with in hosting communities. A recent US$ complementary services. For example, 38.8 million commitment with the Gov- Syrian refugee women in Jordan who ernment of Bangladesh and UN Family received cash and also participated in Planning Association under the Health TABLE 1 ODA AND HUMANITARIAN SPENDING ON VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS YEAR Total ODA ODA ODA in ODA for Humanitarian Share of funding towards fragile ending VAWG funding for humanitarian for ending ending states in fragile GBV funding for VAWG VAWG states GBV USD % of USD % of ODA USD % of total millions total ODA millions in fragile millions humanitarian states spending 2016 135.1 0.07 52.0 0.11 2.5 0.02 2017 173.4 0.09 66.0 0.12 3.4 0.02 2018 412.7 0.21 99.4 0.17 45.8 0.30 2019 532.0 0.28 170.8 0.30 2020 109.3 0.57 2021 189.7 1.09 Source: All ODA figures are from OECD DAC database, last updated 2021; humanitarian funding from OCHA. Note: ODA figures relate to spending classified under Ending Violence against Women and Girls (sector code 15180), including relevant project subcomponents, and encompass physical, sexual, and psychological violence. and Gender Support Project will improve key prevention and response services CONSTRAINTS AND 9 across the entire Cox’s Bazar district CHALLENGES TO BE GENDER DIMENSIONS OF FORCED DISPLACEMENT ADDRESSED for both host and refugee populations (UNFPA 2021). Through this investment, health facilities will be upgraded to meet the needs of GBV survivors, and sexual The low priority accorded to prevent- and reproductive health services will be ing and responding to violence against strengthened in the district, including in women and girls and underfunding are the Rohingya camps. the most important challenges encoun- Under the World Bank’s Development tered by governments and agencies. Response to Displacement Impacts Other important challenges are: failure Program in the Horn of Africa, the to systematically apply existing guide- government of Kenya will implement a lines; lack of staff and capacity; failure program in the refugee hosting counties to fully engage local women’s groups of Garissa, Wajir, and Turkana to enable including those led by forcibly displaced communities to identify investments populations; and lack of data. with a focus on women, female-head- Significant resources are needed in ed households, and youth. The project fragile and conflict settings to advance incorporates mechanisms for prevent- the global and national commitments ing, responding to, and mitigating the to eliminate violence against women. risks of GBV in subprojects in educa- External funding is especially import- tion, health, clean energy, labor inten- ant in resource-constrained settings sive public works, livelihood program- of low-income countries. However, as ming, and water and sanitation hygiene noted in reports by the IRC (2019) and (WASH) (Vemuru 2018). For example, the Oranization for Economic Cooper- the project is striving for 50 percent ation and Development (OECD) (2021), female representation among WASH both humanitarian and development intervention staff to better address the assistance directed to combating vio- needs of women and girls. It also aims lence against women and girls has been to provide childcare for participants of extremely low. new energy source training and seeks to address logistical barriers that pre- The OECD Development Assistance vent women from traveling to work. Committee Creditor Reporting System Results are not yet available from this tracks the total volume of development promising approach. assistance directed to ending violence against women and girls. In 2019, the latest available year, less than 0.3 pe- cent of total bilateral official develop- ment assistance (ODA)3 went toward ending violence against women and 3 The share of bilateral ODA is slightly higher, 0.4 percent. 10 girls (table 1), which amounts to roughly Too few staff are assigned to GBV pre- USD $0.86 per woman. Only 13 coun- vention and response in displacement- tries averaged more than one dollar settings. This can be traced to funding THE WORLD BANK GROUP per woman. constraints. The lack of dedicated staff and the lack of GBV prevention and re- The amount of humanitarian aid in re- sponse expertise, especially at the field sponse plans/appeals allocated to com- level, hinder the possibility of identify- bat violence against women and girls is ing, assessing, and reducing GBV pre- even lower – estimated at just 5 cents vention and response needs. per woman in 2021 and totaling about $190 million.4 The good news, however, Local women’s groups, including those is that the amount of humanitarian fund- led by forcibly displaced populations, ing addressing violence against women are often not prioritized nor integrat- has risen recently, albeit from a low base ed in larger international humanitarian of about USD 2.5 million in 2015 and still response and development program- proportionally low. ming (Barclay, Higelin and Bungcaras 2016). In July 2015, 40 NGOs jointly Guidelines to mainstream gender-based called to work with local partners (Char- violence prevention and response are ter4Change n.d). In practice, however, not systematically implemented at the a lack of funding limits local organiza- field level. Guidelines are still not consis- tions’ abilities to strengthen or scale up tently and systematically used in every programs (IRC 2019). emergency nor by every actor respond- ing to a crisis. The result is a fragment- Finally and importantly, lack of reliable ed landscape of GBV services, creating data has stymied the extent to which barriers for survivors as well as individ- programmatic actors can be held ac- uals at risk of GBV who need to access countable for the lack of priority given them (IRC 2015b). to addressing violence against women. The efforts to prevent and respond to the pandemic of IPV have not been commensurate with the scale of the challenge. Data to help monitor prog- ress is essential. 4 The Financial Tracking System and the Humanitarian Response Plan are the most accurate sources for gender-based violence prevention and response funding. However, the planning and reporting of this humanitarian funding makes it very difficult to understand funding trends and make year-to-year fund comparisons. See the Financial Tracking Service (UNOCHA 2021) IRC’s “Where is the Money” report (IRC 2019). WAYS FORWARD • U  nderstand local settings. More invest- ments in qualitative and quantitative data 11 are needed. Some surveys will be country or location specific. Multi-country data GENDER DIMENSIONS OF FORCED DISPLACEMENT While gender inequality in the soci- collection efforts that already ethically gather information about women’s experi- ety and economy as a whole must be ences with GBV – like the Demographic and tackled in order to make major inroads Health Surveys -- should also ask questions toward reducing GBV, there are concrete about displacement experiences and aim to steps that can be taken to combat IPV in oversample often-overlooked migrant pop- ulations. Better data and reporting are also forced displacement settings: needed to hold governments, humanitarian, • I  ncrease funding and invest in women’s and developing agencies to account. groups. It is clear that the international financial flows to address VAWG fall far This brief has documented how high levels short of global commitments in the Sustain- of violence clearly prevent the realization able Development Goals (SDGs) to elimi- of the Sustainable Development Goal of nate VAWG. Increased investments of both eliminating violence against women, while development and humanitarian assistance will be critical to protecting women and also posing a serious threat to individuals’ reducing risks of violence. Funding should and communities’ ability to face and be purposely allocated to local organizations recover from any crisis. Our findings point led by forcibly displaced women who are to the urgency of financing, prioritizing, well-positioned to understand and respond to context-specific needs. and programming to prevent, respond to, and mitigate risks of IPV throughout the  ncrease access to sustained services for • I conflict and displacement cycle. survivors. Women and girls experiencing IPV and other forms of GBV need access to justice, safety and protection services, health and psychosocial services, social protection, and livelihood support. Quality responses for GBV survivors that are forcibly displaced, recognizing the increased probability of violence, should be a priority for ministries overseeing services. Host ministries need to provide the sustained support required by displaced survivors.  nvest in efforts to prevent IPV among forc- • I ibly displaced populations. Given the high levels of IPV prevalence and often low levels of reporting, prevention is key. There are a range of targeted programs with promising results in prevention, including community dialogues, efforts to change harmful norms, and safe spaces, as well as possibilities to reduce the risk of violence through cash plus social protection programs. 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