FULL REPORT WATER SCARCE CITIES Thriving in a Finite World About the Water Global Practice Launched in 2014, the World Bank Group’s Water Global Practice brings together financing, knowledge, and implementation in one platform. By combining the Bank’s global knowledge with country investments, this model generates more firepower for transformational solutions to help countries grow sustainably. Please visit us at www.worldbank.org/water or follow us on Twitter at @WorldBankWater. WATER SCARCE  CITIES Thriving in a Finite World FULL REPORT © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Cover design: Taylor Crisdale, JESS3. Contents Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Abbreviations xv Part I  Thriving in a Finite World 1 Chapter 1  Introduction 3 References 6 Chapter 2  Shifting the Paradigm 7 Emerging Threats to Urban Water Security 7 Principles for Resilient Urban Water Scarcity Management 11 Notes 14 References 14 Chapter 3  Demystifying the Solutions 15 Demand Management and Infrastructure Efficiency 15 Building on Conventional Approaches: Innovative Surface and Groundwater Management 21 Nonconventional Water Resources: Waste, Storm, Sea 25 Cooperation with Other Users 35 Adaptive Design and Operations 39 Notes 41 References 42 Chapter 4  Cross-Cutting Considerations 43 Technology Is Not the Major Concern 44 Importance of Inclusion and Good Communication 44 Good Economics Is Key 45 Diversifying Sector Financing Strategies 47 Sector Institutions Need to Adapt to These New Challenges 48 Integration Is a Critical Enabler 50 Notes 52 References 52 Chapter 5  Conclusion 53 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report iii Part II  Case Studies 55 Chapter 6  Introduction to Part II: Case Studies 57 Part II A  Global Case Studies 59 Chapter 7  Malta 61 Climate and Hydrology 62 Water Use 65 Water Balance for Current Situation without Additional Resources or Actions 68 Solutions 69 Conclusion 72 References 72 Chapter 8  Murcia, Spain 73 Climate and Hydrology 75 Institutional Context for Water Resource Management 75 Water Resources 76 Water Use 77 Solutions 77 Conclusion 83 Note84 References 85 Chapter 9  Republic of Cyprus 87 Climate and Hydrology 87 Water Use: Water Supply and Sanitation Framework 90 Solutions 92 Future and Limits of Adopted Solutions 98 Notes 99 References 99 Chapter 10  Amman, Jordan 101 Institutional Framework 101 References 106 Chapter 11  Israel 107 Institutional Context for Water Resources Management 108 Climate and Hydrology 109 Water Resources 109 iv Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Water Use 109 Solutions to Address Urban Water Scarcity 109 Lessons and Conclusion 118 Notes 119 References 120 Chapter 12  Windhoek, Namibia 121 Climate and Hydrology 122 Water Resources 124 Water Use 128 Water Balance for Current Situation without Additional Resources or Actions 129 Solutions—Introduction 130 Implemented and Proposed Key Solutions 132 Other Solutions 135 Limits of Adopted Solutions 135 Notes 137 References 137 Chapter 13  Singapore 139 Climate and Water Sources 139 Water Use 141 Solutions 142 Further Alternatives to Import Water to Singapore 144 Conclusions and Lessons for Other Water Scarce Cities 147 Notes 147 References 148 Chapter 14  Perth, Australia 149 Hydrology and Water Resources 150 Water Resources Management and Water Use in the Greater Perth Area 150 Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Institutional Framework 153 Water Balance for the Current Situation without Additional Resources or Actions 155 Solutions 155 Other Solutions 159 Projected Future Limits on Current Solutions 160 Lessons 160 References 161 Chapter 15  Jaipur, India 163 Climate and Geology of Jaipur 164 Institutional Agencies Involved in the Water Sector 165 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report v Development of Jaipur’s Water Supply 166 Current Challenges 168 Planned and Ongoing Solutions 169 Lessons 171 References 172 Chapter 16  Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil 173 Climate and Hydrology 173 Water Use 175 Water Balance 176 Solutions 176 Building Resilience through Integrated Water Resources Management at the Basin Level 177 User Organizations: A Model for Improved Water Allocation 179 Challenges 180 Developing More Local Solutions 180 Conclusion 181 Notes 181 References 181 Part II B  Southwest United States Case Studies 183 Chapter 17  Introduction to the Southwest United States Section 185 What Do We Mean by the Southwest United States? 185 Overview of Water Resources—Volumes Mobilized from Each Resource 187 Historical Water Imbalances and Challenges 189 Current Regional Governance 191 Current Trends in Portfolio Diversification and How Different Cities Are Dealing with Growing Risk 192 Notes 193 Bibliography 193 Chapter 18  Las Vegas, Nevada 195 Southern Nevada Water Authority Water Conservation and Water Banking 195 Water Conservation 197 Water Banking and Trading 201 Conclusions 203 Notes 203 References 203 Chapter 19  Tucson, Arizona 205 Rainwater Harvesting in Tucson 207 Main Challenges to Selection and Implementation of Rainwater Harvesting 208 vi Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Addressing Challenges Related to Selection and Implementation 208 Conclusion: Lessons for Water Scarce Cities 209 Groundwater 210 Recycled Wastewater 211 Notes 212 References 212 Chapter 20  Orange County, California 215 Background Information 215 Other Solutions 217 The Core Water Strategy: Groundwater Basin Governance 218 From Water Supply Augmentation to Closing the Cycle: Wastewater Reuse 219 Challenges 220 Conclusion 221 Notes 222 Bibliography 222 Chapter 21  Irvine Water District, California 223 Bibliography 224 Chapter 22  West Basin, Los Angeles, California 227 Historical Challenges and Institutional Formation 227 Water Scarcity Solutions 229 Water Replenishment District Present Practices 230 The Coastal Seawater Intrusion Barriers Project 231 The Groundwater Reliability Improvement Project 231 Lessons Learned for Water Scarce Cities 232 Bibliography 232 Chapter 23  San Diego, California 233 Other Solutions 234 The Transfer Agreement between Imperial Irrigation District and San Diego County Water Authority 234 Conclusions 238 Notes 238 Bibliography 238 Chapter 24  Los Angeles, California 239 Imported Water 240 Flood Control 240 Water Scarcity Solutions: A Change in Paradigm for the 21st Century 240 Challenges 242 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report vii Conclusion 243 Note244 Bibliography 244 Chapter 25  Kern County, California 245 Kern County Water Banks 247 Planning and Development: Three Examples 248 Economic and Financial Aspects 249 Cooperating Agreements 250 Policy Issues 250 Characteristics of Successful Projects 251 Notes 252 Bibliography 252 Chapter 26  San Francisco, California 255 Challenges 257 Conclusions 258 Note258 References 258 Boxes 7.1. The Global Water Partnership–Mediterranean Nonconventional Water Resources Program 64 8.1. Improving Efficiency in Zaragoza, Spain 81 Figures 2.1. ­ Streamflow into Perth’s Reservoirs, 1911–2016 10 ­ 2.2. Water Resources in Several Water Scarce Cities, by Type 13 3.1. Average Nonrevenue Water in 167 Urban WSS Utilities Aggregated in 18 Water Scarce Countries and Regions 17 3.2. Residential Water Consumption in 111 Water Scarce Cities 17 3.3. Residential Customer Bill Sample Comparison 21 3.4. Aquifer Recharge to Protect Coastal Aquifers from Saline Intrusion and Increase Yield 22 3.5. Water Banking Schemes 24 3.6. Virtual Transfer Scheme 25 3.7. Comparison of Unit Cost of Stormwater Capture Projects to Their Scale 28 3.8. Reduction in Reverse Osmosis Power Consumption in Perth, Australia, 1970–2010 34 3.9. Unit Cost Rates of Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plants on the Mediterranean Sea, 2016 34 3.10. Drought Threshold Values and Water Source Mix, by Threshold, Barcelona, 1980–2016 40 4.1. ­­ Total Cost of Water Production for Various Solutions 46 viii Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 7.1. Schematic Cross-Section of Malta’s Aquifer System, Showing the “Perched” and Mean Sea-Level Aquifers 62 7.2. Water Sources for Domestic Water Supply in Malta, 2013 67 7.3. Trends in National Water Demand in Malta, by Sector, 2003–13 67 7.4. Annual Average Groundwater Abstraction in Malta, by Sector 69 B8.1. Evolution of Daily per Capita Consumption in Zaragoza and Spain 81 9.1. Potable Water Supply Sources in Cyprus, 1991–2015 89 9.2. Water Development Department Water Allocation between Domestic, Irrigation, and Managed Aquifer Recharge, Cyprus, 1991–2015 92 9.3. Schematics of the Southern Bulk Water Conveyor 93 9.4. Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Cyprus, 2015 97 11.1. Israel Water Resource Development, 1958–2014 110 11.2. Water Consumption in Israel, 1960–2015 111 11.3. Collected, Treated, and Used Sewage, 1963–2015 112 11.4. Shafdan Soil Aquifer Treatment Method 113 11.5. Average Municipal Water Tariff in Israel, 1996–2016 114 12.1. Time Series of Seasonal Rainfall Character for Central Namibia from 1850 to 1903 123 12.2. Historic Sources of Water Production in Windhoek, 1961–98 123 12.3. Schematic Layout of the Bulk Water Supply Infrastructure in the Central Area of Namibia 125 12.4. Production and Water Demand Projections for the Windhoek Basin, FY 2000/01–2050/51 130 14.1. Streamflow into Perth’s Reservoirs, 1911–2016 151 20.1. Schematic Section of Orange County Groundwater Basin 218 23.1. Quantification Settlement Agreement Water Supply to San Diego County Water Authority, 2003–21 235 23.2. Imperial Irrigation District-Quantification Settlement Agreement Water Transfer Schedule, 2003–26 237 Maps 1.1. Case Studies and Other Key City Experiences in This Report 5 3.1. Overview of Rural to Urban Water Reallocation Projects, 2017 37 6.1. Case Studies and Other Key City Experiences in This Report 58 7.1. Quantitatve and Qualitative Status of Groundwater in Malta, 2015 66 8.1. Segura River Basin, Murcia Region, and Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla Hydrographic and Hydraulic Network 74 9.1. Large Water Infrastructure Operated by the Water Development Department 88 10.1. B2/A7 Aquifer, Amman 103 12.1. Water in Windhoek, Namibia 122 13.1. Singapore’s Water Resources 142 14.1. Greater Perth Region and Major Land Uses 150 14.2. Gnangara Groundwater System and Water Availability in Shallow Groundwater Management Subareas of Greater Perth 152 14.3. Perth Integrated Water Supply Scheme 153 ­ 15.1. Water Scarcity in Jaipur, Rajasthan 164 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report ix 15.2. Jaipur Area West–Northwest-South–Southeast Vertical Cross-Section Showing ­ Alluvium and Bedrock 165 16.1. Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil 174 17.1. Satellite Image of the United States Showing Water Resources 186 17.2. The United States Southwest 187 18.1. Southern Nevada Water Authority Service Area 196 19.1. Tucson, Arizona, United States of America 206 20.1. Orange County, California, USA 216 20.2. Orange County Water District Service Area 217 22.1. West Basin, Los Angeles, California 228 25.1. Kern County Water Resources 246 26.1. San Francisco, California, United States of America 256 Photographs 2.1. Sitting Near a Well Collecting Water 8 3.1. Awareness Campaign in Las Vegas 19 3.2. Inflatable Rubber Dams Used to Maximize Groundwater Infiltration, Orange County, CA 23 3.3. Green Infrastructure, Tucson, Arizona 27 3.4. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Irrigation, Cyprus 30 3.5. Three Generations of Desalination Plants in Malta 33 3.6. Desalination Plant in Almería, Spain 36 10.1. Wastewater Plays an Important Role in Economic Development 105 20.1. Images from the Video People Drink Sewage Water for the First Time 220 20.2. 19th Annual Children’s Water Education Festival Hosted by OCWD’s Groundwater Guardian Team in March 2015 221 Tables 7.1. Groundwater Balance for the Malta Mean Sea-Level Aquifer System, 2015 69 10.1. Volume of Water Supplied by Miyahuna, 2014 104 11.1. Major Seawater Desalination Plants in Israel 114 12.1. Windhoek: Current Water Sources 126 13.1. Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2018, after a 30 Percent Price Increase over a Two-Year Period 146 18.1. SNWA Water Sources 198 18.2. SNWA Banked Water Resources 201 21.1. Irvine Ranch Water District’s Residential Tiered Rates, 2015 224 x Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Preface In 2013, the Republic of Yemen was in an unprece- targeted data-based awareness-raising, changes in dented situation. Because of the National Dialogue land  use planning, or stringently enforced water-­ initiative, a reconciliation process backed by the consumption regulations, with many lessons learned United Nations, there was hope that Yemenis could from a decade of trial and error. build a better future after the turbulence that had Water managers in Tucson swept the region a couple of years earlier. This hope, immediately understood Hilal’s The World Bank saw an however, was tempered by anxiety that the country predicament, having pulled opportunity to connect was on the verge of chaos. In Sana’a, the capital, back from a similar crisis in the cities and utilities that Mayor Abdul-Qader Hilal, in particular, was actively 1980s, when their aquifer have taken innovative concerned about the future of the city, especially its ­ vanished as the city rapidly measures to manage their water supply. Hilal was keenly aware that his rain-­ expanded. Together, these water resources more deprived city was on the brink of running dry. Its water scarce cities could help effectively. centuries’-old aquifer was overpumped and dwin- ensure that water measures dling. In addition, its water utility was underper- support inclusive economic growth, environmental forming and underserving his citizens, supplying progress, and societal well-being. At the 2015 Spring only 48 percent of its 2.2 million inhabitants, while Meetings, the Bank hosted a number of leading voices the rest turned to water tankers—spending at least from water scarce cities, including Ms. Pat Mulroy, five times more for water in peacetime, and up to 10 who led the Las Vegas Valley Water District and the time more in periods of crisis. Hilal turned to the Southern Nevada Water Authority for over 15 years; World Bank with a simple question: surely Sana’a is and Mr. Muesse Kazapua, the mayor of water-stressed not the only water scarce city in the world; are other Windhoek, Namibia, and others. Hilal was invited as cities facing or have faced similar challenges, and the guest of honor of the 2015 event. Unfortunately, he which could he learn from? was unable to leave Sana’a due to conflict that had erupted in the Republic of Yemen in 2015, and he trag- Around the same time, water specialists from the World ically lost his life in a bombing. Bank were looking to U.S. cities that coped with water shortages. In the extremely dry southwest United Yet Hilal’s legacy as a water resource innovator lives States, cities faced with an alarming decrease in aquifer on. The Bank recognized that there was a wealth of levels embarked on a decades-long comprehensive experience across the world that was not necessarily strategy to secure their water future. Las Vegas, accessible to mostly decentralized and locally focused Nevada, placed local utilities under a single authority water managers, especially in the very urban and very to leverage their bargaining power and secure addi- dry Middle East North Africa (MENA) region. The Bank tional water credits through innovative market and identified and compiled as part of the present study regulatory mechanisms. Tucson, Arizona, recharged its experiences from water scarce cities (as recent events aquifers with its unused Colorado River allocation, in  Rome, Italy, and Cape Town, South Africa, have while developing water reclamation to materially offset proven)1 that could inspire further innovation and municipal nondrinking uses. Both cities developed change in the region. This quickly led to the establish- aggressive demand-management actions, such as ment of a vibrant global network of utility managers, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report xi government officials, academics, and more. The Bank Lebanon (Beirut,  Tripoli), Jordan, Oman, and many used this network to facilitate regularly scheduled others. This report tells the story of the Water Scarce knowledge exchange events (Marseille, France, Cities Initiative. December 2016; Casablanca, Morocco, May 2017; Beirut,  Lebanon, September 2017) to initiate and Note ­support a new kind of dialogue with governments and 1. Both cities have experienced, over the past year, significant water utilities in  Morocco (Al  Hoceima, Marrakesh), supply shortages as a result of extensive drought events. xii Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Acknowledgments This report was prepared by a team of water specialists introduction), Joost Buurman, Cecilia Tortajada, and led by Stephane Dahan and comprising Clementine Prof. Asit K. Biswas (Singapore), Kara Nelson (San Stip, Manuel Marino, Richard Abdulnour, Amal Talbi, Francisco), Madelyn Glickfeld (Los Angeles), Meleesa and Lauren Core. Naughton (Malta), Mike Muller (Windhoek), Nour Khater (Orange County, California), Nuria Hernandez- The peer reviewers were Gregory Browder, Richard Mora (Murcia, Spain), Philippe Marin (Cyprus and Damania, Asmita Tiwari, and Tony Wong (Cooperative Israel), Richard Luthy (Kern County, California), Srinidhi Research Center for Water Sensitive Cities). This work Sampath Kumar (literature review) and Subhash Verma benefited from overall guidance by Steven Schonberger (Jaipur). Collaboration with a broad range of institu- and support from many colleagues within the World tional partners and other stakeholders in the water sec- Bank. tor has been essential throughout the preparation of Contributions from many experts and partners have this study, with a special mention to ReNUWIt and been critical in the preparation of the case studies: UCLA for their technical guidance and support. Australian Water Partnership (Perth), Emily Virginia Bell (Tucson), Florian Heiser (Fortaleza), Ghazi Abdul Finally, the team is grateful to the Water Partnership Razzaq Abu Rumman (Amman), Gregory Pierce (West Program (WPP) for its support to the achievement of Basin, California, and Southwest United States chapter this work. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report xiii Abbreviations ADOA Arizona Department of Administration ADWR Arizona Department of Water Resources AFY acre-feet per year AMA active management area AWBA Arizona Water Banking Authority AWS Assured Water Supply (Program) AWTF advanced water treatment facility BEA Basin Equity Assessment BMP best management practice BPP Basin Production Percentage CalEPA California Environmental Protection Agency CAP Central Arizona Project CAWCD Central Arizona Water Conservation District CDWR California Department of Water Resources CSIBP Coastal Seawater Intrusion Barrier Project CVWD Coachella Valley Water District CWCB Central and West Coast Groundwater Basins EPA Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) EWMP Enhanced Watershed Management Plan GI green infrastructure GMA Groundwater Management Act (Arizona) GRIP Groundwater Reliability Improvement Project GWRS Groundwater Replenishment System ICS Intentionally Created Surplus IID Imperial Irrigation District IRWD Irvine Ranch Water District LACFCD Los Angeles County Flood Control District LADPW Los Angeles Department of Public Works LARWQCB Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board LID low-impact development LVVWD Las Vegas Valley Water District lpcd liters per capita per day lpd liters per person per day MAF million acre-feet MWD Metropolitan Water District of Southern California MWDOC Municipal Water District of Orange County NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NWP Nonpotable Water Program (San Francisco) Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report xv OCSD Orange County Sanitation District OCWD Orange County Water District PAG Pima Association of Governments QSA Quantification Settlement Agreement RA replenishment assessment RFC return-flow credit RWH rainwater harvesting SCAG Southern California Association of Governments SDCWA San Diego County Water Authority SFDBI San Francisco Department of Building Inspection SFDPH San Francisco Department of Public Health SFDPW San Francisco Department of Public Works SFPUC San Francisco Public Utilities Commission SERI Sonoran Environmental Research Institute SNWA Southern Nevada Water Authority SWP State Water Project (California) SWRCB State Water Resources Control Board (California) TDS total dissolved solids US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency WIN Water Independence Now WRD Water Replenishment District of Southern California WRF water reclamation facility All monetary amounts are U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. xvi Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Part I Thriving in a Finite World Ouarzazate, Morocco, at the edge of the Sahara Desert. © Arne Hoel/World Bank. Chapter 1 Introduction Water scarce cities face unprecedented challenges: individually and collectively stressing water supplies. rapid urbanization and growth have put pressure on Climate shocks are taking a toll on many urban centers dwindling resources, and cities are further stressed by and amplifying the unpredictability of freshwater climate change and conflict shocks. Most operate under availability. In addition, demands are piling higher unsustainable water management practices, based on among competing users. In some regions, urban linear, engineering-based approaches, yet government water  insecurity is exacerbated due to increasing planners and others are unaware how this situation numbers of prolonged droughts. Repeated water short- could lead to major water shortages. Therefore, this ages create perceptions of government failure, deepen report, using information from the Water Scarce Cities social inequalities, and intensify existing tensions. Initiative, attempts to compile innovative approaches— In some regions, the turmoil of conflict and forced dis- based on cities’ successfully responses to water scar- placement further weakens management of scarce city—to inspire a new kind of urban water security. water resources. Securing urban water supply is crucial, since the number of urban dwellers living with ­ Water sits at the center of a constellation of unprece- seasonable water shortages is expected to grow from dented challenges facing global cities. Changes such as close to 500 million people in 2000 to 1.9 billion in rapid urbanization, economic growth, increasing pop- 2050 (McDonald et al. 2011). ulations, and evolving consumption patterns are Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 3 Unsustainable water resources management has led to urban spaces and their inhabitants, especially youth the depletion of strategic sources in many of the world’s and women. Water shortages can have far-ranging con- major water basins. Water authorities can share cau- sequences in the prosperity of urban areas, causing tionary tales of water competition and c ­ onflict, contam- higher incidences of diarrheal diseases, including on inated water sources due to rampant pollution, and young children, and harming economic activities. unsustainable consumption. Most common are exam- (World Bank 2016; Sadoff et al. 2017; Damania et al. ples of linear, engineering-based approaches in which 2017; Sadoff, Borgomeo, and de Waal 2017). wastewater and stormwater are swiftly channeled out Extreme water scarcity in the Middle East and North of cities into receiving waterways, which lead to Africa triggered a progressive exploration of a new mind- depleted groundwater resources due to excessive rates set across progressive utilities around the world. In the of abstraction without adequate replenishment. As Republic of Yemen, for example, city officials in Sanaa local sources are depleted, utilities reach further away, were acutely aware of the risks the city faced if it contin- increasing their dependence on imported waters out- ued overdrawing its aquifer at alarming rates, and sought ing their capacity to side of their control, and reduc­ new ways of engaging the population to raise awareness respond to resource shocks. From  Malta to Namibia, to the extreme scarcity of water. Governments in and from India to Brazil, water authorities have faced Morocco and Lebanon looked to the World Bank for sup- either the prospect of zero-sum water, augmenting port after traditional approaches seemed to push them urban water supplies from finite sources to the detri- toward increasingly costly investment programs—with ment of other users, or they have embraced alternative no sustainable solution to their structural water deficit. water resource management solutions. The Water Scarce Cities Initiative has set out to com- Although many cities understand the strategic impor- pile, connect, and share these breakthrough projects tance of sound water management, many urban water for resource-strapped cities in extremely water scarce utilities remain unaware of these challenges, mired in lin- areas. For example, in the Southwest United States, ear and narrow engineering approaches. Often, city water Tucson, Arizona, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Orange management models include limited use of sustainabil- County, California have pioneered sophisticated solu- ity considerations, inadequate coordination with multi- tions across t ­ raditional silos of the water cycle. ple users, lost opportunities to develop local and more Singapore and Namibia have experimented with pota- economical resources, and disconnection with the ble reuse of  wastewater, and Australia has pushed watershed. In addition, problems with poor water qual- through ­ integrated, institutional innovations. ity, low service coverage, and crumbling infrastructure loom. As a result, many cities underperform in their The Water Scarce Cities Initiative intends to magnify the efforts to increase water supplies under scarcity. In São successes of those urban areas and serve as a connective Paolo and Rome, for example, unprecedented water thread between global cities, their policy makers and, shortages have led managers to question the foundations most important, the practitioners. It first seeks to shift of conventional, linear water management models. predominant, outdated, mostly linear, and siloed thought patterns that sometimes lead to disjointed and Fast-growing cities increase pressure on scarce water costly investment decisions without necessarily provid- resources. All urban dwellers are dependent on a ing protection against depleting resources or an increas- safe  and reliable source of water for even the most ingly adversarial climate. It then demystifies innovative basic  needs. If inadequately managed, these water urban water practices, including ­ managing conventional challenges have the capacity to negatively impact resources such as aquifers more effectively, tapping new quality of life, public health, and inclusive growth for 4 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report and nonconventional resources such as wastewater, con- The report aims to promote successes, outline challenges trolling demand, or engaging differently (such as show- and principles, and extract key lessons learned for future ing how the practices were done and what can be learned efforts. It shares the experiences of from them). The goal is to engage meaningfully with 19 water scarce cities and territo- Some cities and states diverse water scarce cities to facilitate concrete engage- ries from five continents, which have beaten water ment, product development, and technical assistance. represent a diversity of situations scarcity odds with and development levels, as identi- new, ­integrated urban Water scarcity solutions that may be enigmatic or fied in map  1.1. The selection of water management ap- unfamiliar are illuminated through first-hand accounts case studies is based on the proaches. In sometimes to highlight paradigm shifts, emerging principles, and expected ­ relevance and diversity surprising and often demystify innovative approaches. This report offers a on cities’ experience, and to a ­ innovative ways, diverse first look at new pathways that cities, states, and lesser extent reflecting geographic urban spaces have been regions facing water scarcity can explore, as well and income-level diversity. achieving inclusive and as  recommendations for how they can unleash sustainable urban water This report describes the their  potential through integrated and systemwide ­services. ­emerging challenges and related approaches that include technology, economic consid- water management principles that form a new para- erations, and inclusive outreach. digm (“Shifting the Paradigm”); presents and seeks The Water Scarce Cities Initiative has developed this evi- to demystify key water scarcity management solu- based advocacy piece to guide water security dence-​ tions (“Demystifying the Solutions”); and concludes approaches with concrete examples and experiences. with cross-cutting considerations ­ relevant to policy MAP 1.1. Case Studies and Other Key City Experiences in This Report EUROP ROPE EUROPE NORTH NOR N RT OR AMERICA A TH AM CA MER CA ASIA Ca C a ali al California alif l lifo fornia if r i ornia ia a((5 5) ) (5) Murcia Mur rc a C CY YPPRR US CYPRUS Laas Las Ve V s Vegas Veg ega eg a as gass Beirut Be rut Be son cs ucson u Tucs Tucsonon on Marrakesh MALT LTAISRAEL TA MALTA SR S RA R AEL ATLANTIC Amman A mma Amm ann J Jaipur ap Ja u ur pur MEXICO ME EX XICO X CO O OCEAN ND A INDIA AFRICA Fortaleza Singapore Sin S nga ngapo ngapo gapor or o p re re SOUTH AMERICA AMERIC AM A MERICA M ERICA R INDIAN Lima OCEAN Windhoek k BASELINE WATER STRESS A AU S STRALIA ST TR RA USTRAL A AUSTRALIA Durban LOW (<10%) Perth ert erth Per Pe th PACIFIC LOW TO MEDIUM OCEAN (10%–20%) Melbourne elbourne Me ne MEDIUM TO HIGH (20%–40%) HIGH (40%–80%) EXTREMELY HIGH (>80%) 0 2,000 4,000 Kilometers ARID & LOW WATER USE IBRD 43761 | JUNE 2018 NO DATA Source: World Resources Institute, Aqueduct Water Stress Projections Data, April 2015. Note: Map depicts baseline water stress. Black text denotes cities in case studies for report. Brown text denotes other key locations. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 5 makers of water scarce ­ c ities ­ (“Cross-Cutting References Considerations”). The report is not an exhaustive Damania, R., S. Desbureaux, M. Hyland, A. Islam, S. Moore, A. Rodella, study of the issues, nor does it provide answers and J.  Russ, and E. Zaveri. 2017. Uncharted Waters: The New Economics of tools to address the challenges that water scarce Water Scarcity and Variability. Washington, DC: World Bank. ­ c ities may face. Rather, it is an advocacy piece to McDonald, R., P. Green, D. Balk, B. M. Fekete, C. Revenga, M. Todd, and M. Montgomery. 2011. “Urban Growth, Climate Change, and Freshwater raise awareness around the need to shift the  typi- Availability.” PNAS 108 (15): 6312–17. cal  way  urban water  has been managed and  to Sadoff, C. W., E. Borgomeo, and D. de Waal. 2017. “Turbulent Waters: share emerging principles and solutions that may Pursuing Water Security in Fragile Contexts”. Washington, DC: World Bank. improve urban water supply security in water scarce World Bank. 2016. “High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the cities. Economy.” World Bank, Washington, DC.   6 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Water level at historical low in 2016 in Nevada’s Lake Mead supplying close to 20 million people. Source: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Chapter 2 Shifting the Paradigm In an era of looming water crises, water scarce utilities changing population patterns, including large must shift the paradigm from linear urban water p opulation displacement, drive sharp increases ­ ­ practices focused on achieving service standards in a in  urban water demand, as witnessed across the financially sustainable way to an integrated water ­ Middle East  and North Africa region, including management mindset that can help water supply and J o rd a n . M a r r a ke s h , Mo ro c c o, a n d A m m a n , ­ sanitation (WSS) service providers secure reliable and Windhoek, Namibia, Malta, and Tucson, Arizona, supplies. This report argues that sustainable water ­ offer cautionary tales of progressive depletion and WSS service providers, policy makers, and practi- deterioration of water resources availability and tioners should look at their mandate and responsibili- q uality. Perth, Australia, is actively facing down ­ ties in such a new ­ light. Diverse experiences of the drastic changes in hydrology due to climate urban water management industry in water scarcity c hange. Large water importers in Orange County, ­ contexts1 presented here can provide valuable insights California, and in Singapore are  constantly into water security triumphs and ­ challenges. exposed to shifting priorities of their  historic water ­ p roviders. Murcia, Spain, and Las Vegas, Nevada, illustrate how utilities have to maintain Emerging Threats to Urban Water Security appropriate political leverage  within a basin to Water scarce utilities must deal with emerging p riority secure their allocations, despite  being ­ threats to their water ­ s ecurity. Increasing and ­u sers. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 7 PHOTOGRAPH 2.1. Sitting Near a Well Collecting Water address these fundamental institutional and opera- issues. These questions are further complicated tional ­ by five emerging challenges that increasingly affect many cities around the world, are among the most threatening events to water supply security, and require new ways of thinking: • Sharp increases in urban water demand • Depletion and deterioration of availability and quality of resources ­ • Climate change • Changing priorities in historical sources • Competition with other users In the following sections, each emerging challenge is illustrated by examples of how the cities studied for this report have addressed ­ them. Sharp Increases in Urban Water Demand Increasing and changing population patterns are an important worldwide reality that most WSS providers are ­facing. Marrakech and Amman provide stark illustrations of how social, political, and economic dynamics can exacerbate already tense water situations and lead to Source: Tomas Sennett/World Bank. demand. In Lebanon, drastic changes in urban water ­ The complicated world of urban water supply is Jordan, and Iraq, major population influxes of refugees marked by challenges such as aging infrastructure, and internally displaced persons (IDPs) strain already evolving service standards, and urban ­ expansion. To ­ities. In such context of fragility, water water scarce c address these challenges, “business as usual” for WSS insecurity can precipitate violence and conflicts (Sadoff, service providers is generally framed by the following Borgomeo, and de Waal 2017; World Bank 2016). questions: Marrakech • How much water is allocated to the city and in which In the water scarce city of Marrakech—located 100 quality? miles inland on the foothills of the Atlas Mountains— • How to produce and distribute safe drinking water, sudden increases in water demand outgrew traditional and how to collect, treat, and discharge wastewater availability. Over the past few decades, resource ­ at the lowest cost? Marrakech has become a luxury holiday destination Unpacking conventional problems in the urban WSS with over 10 million tourists visiting every ­year. As part industry is ­ complex. If a city’s water services are of the booming tourism industry, a mainstay of the caught in a vicious cycle combining poor services, Moroccan economy, proposals for more than a dozen insufficient cost recovery, obsolete infrastructure, and golf resort development projects posed a difficult inadequate sector governance, then the priority is to equation. Increasingly water-strapped, water balance ­ 8 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Marrakech decided to depart from the “business as experiences multiyear periods of very low rainfall, usual” approach of setting its sights on distant water making it even more difficult to secure safe and reli- demands. Instead, the city sources to meet escalating ­ able water s ­ources. Confronted with concrete and developed an untapped and innovative water resource immediate threats to its economic development, (wastewater) to meet the touristic boom in a water- approaches. Windhoek had to rethink water supply ­ manner. This decision also allowed the city to safe ­ The WSS service providers brought to this corner of reduce its discharge of treated wastewater to the the African continent innovative solutions, such as receiving ­environment. extensive reuse of treated wastewater and advanced aquifers. management of its ­ Amman Jordan is one of the most water scarce countries in Malta existence, with constant water stress and historically The water scarcity story of Malta echoes that of ­ vailability. Amman, its largest city, has poor water a respects. The island of Malta, Windhoek in multiple ­ experienced a sharp population increase due to half a located in the heart of the Mediterranean, is one of refugees. The city struggles to provide safe and million ­ ­ urope. With its the most water-stressed countries in E reliable water supplies; yet despite the diligent efforts semiarid climate, Malta lacks (a) significant perennial of WSS service practitioners and agencies, the gap surface water bodies, (b) summer rainfall, and (c) between supply and demand for water resources for exploitable surface water sources, all compounded the approximately 700,000 subscribers continues to use. In addi- by increasing demands and escalating ­ increase. While local water conservation and reuse ­ tion, Malta’s groundwater resources have been measures have helped mitigate the water deficit, severely depleted due to years of overexploitation Jordan is planning a major regional desalination and and their quality reduced by decades of pollution water conveyance infrastructure to overcome this from nitrates and high salinity from seawater exceptional ­challenge. ­ intrusion. Water supply challenges have persisted history. As a response, the throughout the island’s ­ Progressive Depletion and Deterioration of Water Maltese WSS service provider has demonstrated the Resources Availability and Quality importance of water use efficiency and resource The progressive depletion and deterioration of avail- diversification including desalination and stormwa- able resources beyond usefulness is one of the most ter capture when most conventional solutions are common new challenges facing many c ­ ities. Two cases ­exhausted. illustrate the experiences and efficient response to this situation: Windhoek and ­ Malta. Drastic Changes in Hydrology Due to Climate Change Windhoek Traditional WSS service providers have found them- Challenged by a climate characterized by extremes, selves at unanticipated setbacks in their development WSS service providers in Windhoek are familiar with trajectory due to increasing climate change–related insecurity. With increasing water demands water ­ stresses. shocks and ­ from rapid population growth and escalating water use from competing stakeholder groups, and a deplet- Perth ing aquifer (the traditional water source), the Perth enjoys a Mediterranean climate with a popula- Namibian water sector has faced unique water chal- tion of more than 2 million people. Its location sub- lenges over the past ­ decades. In addition, Windhoek jects it to an ongoing drying effect of declining rainfall Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 9 FIGURE ­2 .1. Streamflow into Perth’s Reservoirs, 1911–2016 1000 900 800 700 600 Mm3 500 400 300 200 100 0 1911 1931 1951 1971 1991 2011 1911–74 1975–2000 2001–09 2010–16 Annual total Avg: 338 mm3 Avg: 173 mm3 Avg: 92 mm3 Avg: 22 mm3 (https://www.watercorporation.com.au/water-supply/rainfall-and-dams/streamflow/streamflowhistorical). Source: Perth Water Corporation website ­ ­ echarge. Perth has had a and reduced groundwater r Orange County 20 percent reduction in annual rainfall as compared to Orange County, with more than 3 million inhabitants the pre-1970 average, severely impacting its tradi- in the arid southern edge of California, has relied since tional sources of water (see figure 2 ­ .1). Further drastic the 1960s on water transfers from Northern California reductions were experienced in the early 2000s and ­ eeds. When these to satisfy a large part of its water n early 2010s, reducing streamflow into the city’s reser- historic source providers began to reconsider their voir to just 12 percent of pre-1970s’ l ­ evels. In a climate allocations due to local emerging priorities, this that is hotter and dryer than ever before, WSS and dependence on distant water resources became a water resources management agencies have been ­ecurity. In response, Orange major risk  to water s actively confronting the challenges approaches County developed local programs to manage ground- including policy responses, cooperation at different water and stormwater, made possible due to changing levels of government, and nontechnical innovation in ­ technology and cultural drivers not possible half a water ­management. ­century ­ago. Vulnerability When Historic Water Source Singapore Provider Shifts Priorities In the early 1960s, the tropical city-state of Singapore Another vulnerability many cities face is when historic signed two agreements with Johor, Malaysia, to ensure priorities. Orange County and water providers shift ­ access to water ­resources. One of those agreements ended Singapore, for example, had to confront this issue with in 2011, and the other, which currently covers more than decisions. innovative responses and policy ­ ­061. half of Singapore’s water demand, expires in 2 10 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The  dependency of Singapore on Johor for its water ­ rinciples. The Successful experiences point to five key p supply has provided Malaysia with political leverage; in priority must be to shift from a culture of abundant water. Driven the past, there have been tensions over ­ ­ emand. Utilities should then water to rationalized d by strong political leadership and a deep understanding hedge against a variety of risks through diversification of the island’s reliance on water for its survival, resources. This includes securing local sources of their ­ Singapore is undertaking a profound transformation of such as strategic aquifers, and increasing climate its water sector and diversification of old and new resilience by exploring desalination or wastewater ­ 2060. sources, aimed at full self-sufficiency by ­ reclamation—without precluding external recourses ­ needed. These principles come together in adap- when ­ Power Play with Competitive Water Basin Users tive design and operations to cope with uncertainty The regional approach to water supply in Murcia illus- and variability, as demonstrated by advanced trates shifting balances of power with competitive County. approaches in Orange ­ users in water ­ basins. Despite often enjoying legal sta- Given present and future water challenges, and even tus as a priority user, cities such as Marcia can be sub- more so in fragile or conflict-affected countries, urban ject to significant pressure from other politically WSS service providers now must creatively adapt powerful water ­ users. urban water management approaches to changing environmental conditions and socioeconomic ­ shifts. Murcia However, traditional WSS service providers may not Murcia is on the Mediterranean coast of southeast- have the culture and capacity to monitor, anticipate, ern Spain with a population of over 1 m illion. ­.5 ­ and manage water insecurity, especially when its root The  irrigation sector plays a leading role in the causes lie far beyond city ­ boundaries. To address these hydropolitics. Water allocation from the region’s ­ unchartered challenges, WSS service providers’ first primary local river has historically been granted to and most decisive step may be to internalize a broader irrigators, prompting Murcia to search for water set of guiding questions: away. In a con- sources more than 200 kilometers ­ text of increased water stress, the irrigation lobby • How much water is needed for the city to thrive? has influenced the river basin authority to secure How little water could it still thrive with? more water rights, leaving the urban sector with no • Are the current sources being used at a sustainable ­ ptions. option but to seek alternative water supply o level? Are the current water allocations reliable on The city and other local urban centers responded by the long term, for how long? setting up an institution, the Mancomunidad de • Is urban water supply resilient to climate shocks?2 Canales del Taibilla, to help them garner political and financial support for infrastructure develop- • Do we consider these risks in our designs and ment and negotiations with irrigators under the have clear plans to anticipate and react to dry auspices of the river basin ­ a gency. shocks? • Are the mechanisms that govern water allocation to Principles for Resilient Urban Water the city adequate and reliable? Is urban water supply Scarcity Management vulnerable to increased pressure from competitive users? Water scarce utilities have to creatively adapt their practices despite a strong legacy of linear approaches In the face of the challenges faced by water scarce and seemingly little leverage in complex water ­systems. c ities today, embracing these questions represents a ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 11 shift in WSS service providers’ water p ­ aradigm. This have brought their water consumption down to below report draws from relevant experiences from around 100 liters per capita per day without reducing service the world to describe how these questions were suc- quality, risking health, or negative reactions from cessfully addressed by water scarce cities and to c itizens. Efficiency measures further ensure a their ­ extract several underlying principles to their resources. Places city is not wasting already scarce ­ ­ strategies. Overarching these principles is the critical like Singapore and Los Angeles, California, which need for WSS service providers to have data on the depend on financially and politically expensive fluxes of water inflows and outflows of a city and imported water, have reduced their nonrevenue understanding their relative ­ v ulnerabilities. Such ­ ercent. Politically, cities must also water to lows of 5 p documentation of the urban water metabolism sets show good faith: the city of Fortaleza, Brazil, was up the key principles3 described in the following asked by the river basin committee to show signifi- ­paragraphs. cant reductions in residential water demand and non- revenue water before being allocated any water from other ­users. Reducing City’s Dependence on Abundant Water When cities facing water scarcity seek new water Hedging against Risks through Diversification resources, demand management and improving sys- To bolster their resilience to shocks, cities must build tem efficiency should be two of the potential sources diversified and dynamic water resource portfolios to be ­ tapped. Demand can be reduced through and make the best of available water sources through improvements in system efficiency and the reduction fit-for-purpose approaches that consider the needs of of losses, by incentivizing customers to reduce ­ se. For instance, use of surface each type of water u ­ consumption, and changing consumption patterns water and groundwater gives Windhoek flexibility or  the source of water based on fit-for-purpose since these sources respond to stress on different ­ considerations. Droughts have provided key opportu- time ­ scales. Singapore’s four national taps and nities for such reductions, as shown by California’s Murcia’s multiple sources provide other good exam- 25  percent statewide municipal water consumption ples of balanced portfolios in which sources have dif- decrease between 2014 and 2016, and Windhoek’s ferent risk and cost ­ profiles. Singapore’s water supply ability to conserve 70 liters per capita per day (from system relies on a combine local catchment water, 200 liters per capita per day to 130 liters per capita per imported water, desalination, and wastewater reuse day, respectively) during peri- with the aim to become independent of imported ods of severe ­ r estrictions. water. In the Colorado River basin, Las Vegas has ­ However, these efforts must go developed a robust portfolio that includes banked Some cities have beyond drought ­ response. resources in three different states, which can be managed to grow and Zaragoza, Spain, is an exemplar ­ hortages. Figure 2 tapped if the city faces future s ­ .2 reduce residential water for demand management, with illustrates the diversity of water resources portfolios consumption at the same residential water use at adopted by a selection of water scarce cities covered time. Since 1995, Singapore ­ 97  liters per capita per day in ­tudy. This static representation does not in this s has reduced residential water use from 172 liters 2015 (overall consumption reflect the contribution of the invisible resource, per capita per day to 148 down 30 percent from 2000 namely demand management, in cities such as Perth liters per capita per day ­ levels). Other cities such as Murcia. Nor does it illustrate the role that water or ­ despite a tripling of its gross Málaga, Spain, Leipzig, reclamation for irrigation can play, unleashing addi- domestic product ­ (GDP). Germany, or Tallinn, Estonia, tional surface water or groundwater allocations for 12 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE ­2 .2. Water Resources in Several Water Scarce Cities, by Type Malta Perth Orange county Amman Singapore Murcia/MCT Windhoek Fortaleza Jaipur 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent Local resouces Nonlocal resouces Local groundwater Treated wastewater reuse Interbasin transfer GW Local surface Rainwater harvesting/ Interbasin transfer Desalination stormwater capture Surface studies. Source: Based on World Bank case ­ groundwater. Note: MCT = Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla; GW = ­ ­ alta). Economic models, the city (as in Amman and M from desalination and is available no matter the such as the ones developed by the Cooperative conditions. Windhoek has responded to its drought ­ Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities (CRCWSC)4 arid climate and extreme interannual variability can help identify the optimal mix of resources in the ­ astewater. First through investing in reclaimed w portfolio, based on city resources and associated implemented in 1968, it now supplies over 30 percent ­uncertainties. ­ onpotable). In the south- of its water use (potable and n western United States, wastewater reuse provides a Relying on Solutions that Are Not Vulnerable to resource that is, to some extent, climate-­ independent Climate Change and is increasingly incorporated in cities’ water portfo- In the face of climate uncertainty, cities can supple- lios for potable and nonpotable u ­ ses. Orange County ment other (local) sources with those whose availabil- recharges its aquifer with highly treated wastewater, ity is not subject to climate c ­ onditions. Due to overdraft thus improving groundwater quality and buffering low and limited local recharge, Malta faced severe saliniza- years. The West Basin Municipal Water District rainfall ­ tion of its aquifers in 1980, which led the water scarce provides reclaimed wastewater to local parks and island to invest in its desalination c ­ apacity. Today, up industries, which purchase it from the water district to 60 percent of Malta’s normal consumption can come treatment. based on a menu of different levels of ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 13 Ring Fencing Water Systems from External response into their water systems, so that they are Competition equipped to deal with shortage situations before they Because cities often share their water resources with escalate. While Perth draws about half of its potable ­ various stakeholders and sectors, their portfolios must supply from desalinated water, it leverages its network include sources they can control without competition of dams to store excess water from desalination plants from other ­ users. A starting point can be to view cities for use in higher demand periods or lower rainfall years, as water supply catchments—recognizing that water providing a fallback without increasing production resources can, and should, be harnessed within the years. Orange County manages excessively during dry ­ city boundary, including groundwater,  reclaimed its aquifer as a buffer in dry periods, leveraging storm- water, rainwater, and ­ stormwater. Local, city-specific water, imported water, and reclaimed water for a diverse aquifers can be managed at the city level, which recharge ­ strategy. In turn, water managers set allow- decreases vulnerability to other users’ ­ demands. In ances for their clients to pump water from the aquifer Windhoek and Perth, managed aquifer recharge is according to groundwater ­ levels. However, all these envisaged t o s t a b i l i z e a n d replenish groundwater principles cannot truly yield resilience if the city or levels while increasing ­ autonomy. Tucson taps county does not carry out drought planning to ensure another generally underused local source: there are planned responses—both structural and stormwater. Through rainwater harvesting infrastruc- ­ ­cenarios. In Spain, both Murcia social—to different s ture that mimics natural systems to promote infiltra- and Barcelona have defined drought thresholds associ- tion, Tucson water managers ensure water can be ated to different responses, such as changing the mix of collected and filtered for reuse, providing a locally funding. sources used, restrictions, and emergency ­ controlled source for the ­ ­ city. Portfolio diversification with local sources has provided a similar respite for Notes Singapore and San Diego, California, helping to free 1. This report does not consider any strict definition of a water scarce them from imported water in high demand from other city. It is broadly understood that it includes urban areas of any ­ users. In times of surplus, water banking schemes can ­ size subject to arid climate conditions and very limited freshwater ­availability per ­capita. allow a city to retain access to its full water rights while 2. WSS service providers increasingly need to consider resilience to a planning for future ­ shortages. While cities should har- broad array of shocks, including resilience to natural disasters, earth- ness local sources within their span of control, they attacks. quakes, floods, and terrorist ­ may also need to rely on external sources that involve 3. Such fluxes overview framework can be open-ended to facilitate large infrastructures or enter politically sensitive ongoing evolution in contemporary resources management within a city. Some cities have, for example, extended this framework to ­ users. water-sharing arrangements between ­ nexus. include water-energy nexus and water-food ­ Coping with Uncertainty and Variability through ­ ttps://watersensitivecities.org​ 4. See Water Sensitive Cities’ website: h .au/content/hedging-supply-risks-an-optimal-urban ​ - water​ Adaptive Design and Operations -portfolio/. Many threats to urban water security identified in the previous section include unpredictability, stemming References from political, economic, and—most acutely—climate Ray, P. A., and C. M. Brown. 2015. Confronting Climate Uncertainty in ­ factors. Infrastructure development programs that can Water Resources Planning and Project Design: The Decision Tree perform well across a wide range of potential future Framework. Washington, DC: World Bank. conditions may be more advisable than solutions that Sadoff, C. W., E. Borgomeo, and D. de Waal. 2017. Turbulent Waters: are optimal in expected conditions but ineffective in Pursuing Water Security in Fragile Contexts. Washington, DC: World Bank. conditions deviating from the expected (Ray and Brown World Bank. 2016. “High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the 2015). Cities must therefore build scenario analysis and ­ Economy.” World Bank, Washington, DC. 14 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Piped water services brought to a periurban neighborhood near Meknès, Morocco. © Arne Hoel/World Bank. Chapter 3 Demystifying the Solutions To operationalize the principles outlined in previous require innovations at the policy, institutional, and chapters, water supply and sanitation (WSS) service regulatory levels and demand extensive consultation ­ providers can draw from a toolbox of technical, institu- and communication efforts. The solutions are comple- tional and regulatory measures aiming at (a) stimulat- mentary and can be integrated for optimal results, as ing water use efficiency and conservation practices; (b) many of the case studies have shown. making the best of existing surface and groundwater resources through innovative management schemes; Demand Management and Infrastructure Efficiency (c) developing nonconventional water sources; collaborating with other water users for an optimal (d) ­ Rationalizing water demand should target two allocation of available resources; and (e) adopting potential problems: inefficient water networks that adaptive design and operation approaches. The follow- waste part of the water transported into leakages, ing chapter offers examples and lessons from the and profligate water consumption. Utilities in implementation of such measures across water scarce Singapore and Malta use demand management as a cities identified through case studies prepared for this pillar of their water security and have developed paper. These solutions are far more than technical in highly effective leakage reduction operations. Spain, nature. Their adoption and implementation often Australia, and California have demonstrated that Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 15 conjunctive conservation measures such as rules and are limited. Following an exchange between the restrictions, water pricing mechanisms, education, Malta  Water Corporation and the  Beirut Mount outreach can effectively dent high water and public ­ Lebanon Water Establishment, a pilot program in consumption levels when appropriately designed Beirut led to massive water savings and achievement and implemented. of 24/7 water service.1 This pilot is now being expanded by the water establishment through a Improving Water System Efficiency performance-based contract, which should bring ­ Efficiency improves water supply reliability—in additional utility expertise and allow the entire city ­ addition to reducing costs—through technological, to participate in a few years. A similar experience in infrastructure, and regulatory improvements. In Jaipur, India, proved that not only 24/7 supply can be conventional systems, efficiency measures that achieved but also that nonrevenue water (here in focus on reducing network leakages can stretch a particular physical losses) can be drastically reduced finite water allocation to serve more users and avoid with limited resources. the need to expand the system or negotiate a larger water allocation. In the Spanish city of Zaragoza, Promoting Water Conservation investments in network renovation and infrastruc- As for network efficiency, inferring achievable water ture improvements reduced raw water use by almost conservation targets can be challenging, but bench- 20 percent between 2001 and 2006. In Murcia, Spain, marking with other cities can help, at least the residen- the WSS service provider has reduced leak detection tial dimension of water consumption. Out of 111 water and repair time to 2.5 days through hydraulic zon- scarce cities covered by the International Benchmarking ing and microsectorization. Nonrevenue water is Network (IBNET) or included in the present study, a now under 14 percent, compared to 40 percent majority shows residential consumption levels in 1975. between 65 liters per capita per day and 125 per capita per day. Outliers include countries at both ends of the A system’s economic level of leakages, below which economic development spectrum, such as Singapore the marginal cost of reducing leakages outweighs and the Republic of Yemen. They also include less pre- associated economic benefits, is highly context-­ dictable cities in Mexico, Pakistan, or Namibia, as dependent. A long, iterative process is needed to iden- shown in figure 3.2. tify its value and clarify the real scope for water savings. Nevertheless, in most cases, leakage reduc- Conservation measures are typically mandatory or tion targets could be set well below 20 percent. voluntary. Mandatory measures are rules and restric- Considering the current levels of nonrevenue water of tions that water users must adhere to by law or be 167 WSS service providers in water scarce areas as penalized, such as withdrawal limits and consumption shown in figure 3.1 (and even if those figures often rates. Voluntary measures encourage water users to include a share of commercial losses), maximizing reduce their water usage but do not legally bind network efficiency appears as a priority option to them,  and include education schemes, media bridge the gap between water supply and demand. campaigns, and monetary incentives. The following ­ sections introduce these different types of instruments To be implemented successfully, such programs and examples of their application. require technical and operational know-how, which knowledge exchanges between utilities have proven Rules and restrictions tend to be more effective tools helpful to build. For  example, in Lebanon, water in managing short-term supply shortages because savings are critical in summer when water resources they prompt immediate actions from customers. 16 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 3.1. Average Nonrevenue Water in 167 Urban WSS Utilities Aggregated in 18 Water Scarce Countries and Regions Turkey (Central) Afghanistan Brazil (Nordeste) India (Northwest) Peru Bahrain Malta Pakistan Mexico Jordan West Bank and Gaza Egypt, Arab Rep. Yemen Morocco Tunisia Cyprus Namibia Singapore 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Percent Sources: IBNET; World Bank. Note: These figures include both physical and commercial losses. WSS = water supply and sanitation. FIGURE 3.2. Residential Water Consumption in 111 Water Scarce Cities 300 250 Liters per capita per day 200 150 (10) (1) 100 (1) (5) (3) 50 (2) (1) (3) (3) (20) (17) (3) (17) (13) (12) 0 n o ta re s a p. a a y co e) an en za ru i isi di ke a ic ib Re st al po Ga oc st rd m ex In p n r m M de ki Tu Ye Cy Tu Jo ga or b M d Na Pa ra or an M n ,A Si (N k an pt il az y tB Eg Br es W (Number of utlities) 75th percentile Median value (mean if number = 2) 25th percentile Source: IBNET. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 17 In  California, in response to a drought, Governor concerns from the nursery, reticulation, and to ­ Brown mandated that the state achieve 25  percent turf-growing industries on the potential damages of conservation by 2016. The State Water Resources garden watering restrictions, the Water Corporation Control Board then allocated conservation responsi- worked with these actors to devise a two day per week bility among the  state’s water agencies to total roster for garden watering by sprinkler systems. The 25 ­percent statewide conservation in municipal areas. roster system provided significant water savings while Despite perceptions that the distribution of responsi- preventing more severe restrictions, without damaging bility was not always fair, results were impressive gardens and lawns. It was accepted by the government with a cumulative 24.5 percent statewide reduction and the customers and implemented as a “good water- achieved compared to 2013 consumption levels. ing practice.” In Melbourne, an extensive public cam- However, now that the mandatory conservation has paign based on detailed behavioral science principles setting been lifted and responsibilities for goal-­ helped halve per capita consumption compared to its has been shifted back to the water agencies, there is early 1990s level (Melbourne Water 2017). debate about whether these achievements will be Incentives provide flexibility in that they invite the maintained over time. Other examples, such as in community to participate in conservation efforts Australia,2 have shown that the elasticity of social through modifications in their own space and habits. norms have been broken and that a lower water con- In Las Vegas, Nevada, the successful Water Efficient sumption could be sustained following restriction. Technologies program provides financial incentives One key to having the community accept of restric- to  commercial and multifamily property owners to tion programs and maintaining the responsible agen- install water-efficient devices that save at least cy’s standing with customers is the demonstration of 250,000 gallons3 annually (for example, through agency fairness and equity. In Brisbane, Australia, high-efficiency toilets and showers, lawn replace- where the community was suffering from restriction ment  for sport fields, or cooling system retrofits). fatigue after two years of water restrictions, residents Arizona’s Tucson Water approaches the problem by expressed that they could not save any more water. In offering households tax incentives and rebates to addition, they were under the impression that busi- install rainwater-harvesting infrastructure in their nesses, not residents, were responsible for the largest homes. Customers are encouraged to shift part of their consumption of water in the region. Due to this lack outdoor water use to from potable to rainwater, which of belief that an individual could make a difference, offers a better fit for that type of water use. In opinion of the water agency was quite low when it California, drought-proof landscaping is now incen- proposed further restrictions. Regular communica- tivized by most water districts through rebates on tion about the ways in which lawn replacements with gravel and succulents, as well the drought affected the city as plant donations. In the most successful and what customers could do Water pricing is a very effective management tool to cases, such as in about it helped alleviate nega- reduce water consumption. Numerous surveys and Melbourne and Perth, tive perceptions and tensions. Australia, well-designed studies have shown the negative relationship between restriction programs are In Perth, restrictions on price and consumption, with increases in the price of eventually recognized by fixed  sprinkler systems have water by 10 percent typically leading to declines in the community as good shown good results as part water consumption by less than 10 percent (Grafton water use practices rather of  emergency contingency 2010). Some studies, however, have suggested that than as constraints. ­ planning. However, in response demand may be more responsive to price in the long 18 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report run, but that better short-term results in an emerging PHOTOGRAPH 3.1. Awareness Campaign in Las Vegas water crisis could be achieved with restrictions (O’Dea and Cooper 2008). In Zaragoza, Spain, an increasing block tariff binomial structure is applied to communicate the value of water to their customers. For the first 6 m3, the tariff is 50 percent below production costs, while for the high- est consumption blocks it is five times higher than the lowest blocks. In addition, efficient water use is encouraged by reducing by 10 percent the price of water for those families that reduce their annual con- sumption by more than 10 percent. One of the common arguments against using increas- ing block tariffs is that they impose a disproportionate burden on households with many members or on several households that share a common connection. ­ To avoid equity issues, especially for larger house- holds, Singapore introduced a four-tier approach, in which families with over two members have a higher volume in each tier, with rates for all tiers remaining the same. Similarly, Malta’s first block volume is based on the number of persons registered as living in the Source: Las Vegas Valley Water District. household, with the second block being charged at a tariff five times larger than the first. highest tiers’ charges. In general, pricing signals In Irvine, California, the Irvine Ranch Water such as tiered-rate structures seem more efficient Department (IRWD) has separated commodity than traditional conservation measures (such as a (40 percent) and fixed (60 percent) service charges4 state conservation mandate). to ensure that even when water demand declines, IRWD still recovers its costs. The commodity service Such seasonal changes can help better reflect water charge is assessed through a customized monthly availability during the year, but may have limited water budget for each customer account based on impact on long-term behavior change. In addition, several factors, including landscape square footage changes in water prices must be communicated to of the property, number of residents, daily weather, consumers with some frequency, thus increasing and evapotranspiration. Water is sold to customers transaction cost and the potential for confusion. under a four-tiered structure adapted to their During periods of drought, a drought surcharge can be monthly water budget. As a result of the strong eco- applied, as was done in California in the recent drought nomic signal provided with the rate structure and and is foreseen in South Africa. In Los Angeles, the proactive customer outreach, water consump- California, shortage-year rates are implemented, tion has decreased significantly, and fewer than during which the switch point between the first and 3 percent of residential customers currently pay the second tiers is reduced to encourage additional water Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 19 conservation and to offset any revenue losses result- supported this collaborative approach to the develop- ing from lower consumption periods. ment, approval. and implementation of water-saving policies. Because of their detailed knowledge of the Education and public outreach local water use portfolio, local agencies seem to be are a central part of any conser- Another approach to more effective and better placed than regional or state vation campaign in a water convey water scarcity to entities to implement conservation measures. customers is seasonal scarce urban area: public com- pricing, whereby regular munication efforts help ensure Water bills are another important communication tool increases and decreases in customers of all ages, as shown to the customer for the success of any pricing mecha- tariffs constantly remind on photograph 3.1, understand nism in promoting water conservation. They bring consumers of the need for the implications of water use in attention to the link between water consumption and conservation, compared a dry area and secure commu- monthly expenditure, and they are a regular platform to constant conservation nity buy-in. They can make that links the service provider to customers. Zaragoza charges year-round. more draconian conservation uses the bill to detail the efficiency-promoting tariff, measures seem socially respon- and employs persuasive graphs and images to convey sible, and they may lead to behavioral changes that information on consumption levels and past trends can result in long-term reductions. Furthermore, hav- and to encourage savings. Figure 3.3 shows the differ- ing an ongoing and evolving outreach effort with ence between bills for efficient and inefficient water stakeholders provides a communication channel use in IRWD, which enables a quick assessment of the about conservation needs and decisions, a way to benefits of conservation to customers. communicate to customers what they can do, receive feedback, and source ideas for new programs from Water authorities can use drought and dry periods stakeholders. as policy windows to implement new water conser- vation strategies. In Cyprus and Barcelona, Spain, the In Las Vegas, Nevada, a survey conducted prior to image of tanker boats delivering water to the harbors implementing conservation measures has found in times of water shortage are burned in the public’s that people overwhelmingly supported the program, mind as symbols of drought impacts. Crises are and  that their main concern was that these changes important triggers for behavior change since they be rolled out in an equitable manner. The Las Vegas instill a sense of urgency and realization in citizens’ water utility, Southern Nevada Water Authority minds. Since perception of the problem’s importance (SNWA), hosts the annual WaterSmart Innovations is essential for customers to actively want to conserve Conference and Exposition—the world’s largest water water, cities should not let a good crisis “go to waste.” conservation–focused conference—which connects Dynamic pricing (seasonal adjustments) can be a entrepreneurs to water agencies and potential valuable tool for regulating demand during periods of partners. Through local partnerships, SNWA encour- ­ high deficit. For instance, it is suggested (Grafton ages businesses and other stakeholders to promote 2010) that Australia could have saved large sums of water conservation in the sector.5 These platforms money wasted in idle desalination plants if it had promote regular exchange between the SNWA and used flexible pricing strategies that reflect supply local water users and inform the evolution of their conditions. water conservation measures. Similarly, Zaragoza supported the creation of an association to connect One challenge of using such policy windows is that once industry players, researchers, and administrations to customers perceive that the situation has improved, promote efficient water use. Stakeholders have their efforts may relax and consumption levels could 20 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 3.3. Residential Customer Bill Sample Comparison Bill # 1 - The Inef icient Customer (55 m3) Bill # 2 - The Ef icient Customer (30 m3) Dates of Service Meter Reading Units Used Dates of Service Meter Reading Units Used 7/10/17 – 8/09/17 3550–3605 55 m3 7/10/17 – 8/09/17 3550–3580 30 m3 USAGE - LOW VOLUME 14 $0.48 $6.72 USAGE - LOW VOLUME 14 $0.48 $6.72 USAGE - BASE RATE 16 $0.60 $9.60 USAGE - BASE RATE 16 $0.60 $9.60 USAGE - INEFFICIENT 11 $1.44 $15.84 USAGE - INEFFICIENT 0 $1.44 $0.00 USAGE - WASTEFUL 14 $4.26 $59.64 USAGE - WASTEFUL 0 $4.26 $0.00 WATER SERVICE CHARGE $10.30 WATER SERVICE CHARGE $10.30 SEWER SERVICE CHARGE $25.75 SEWER SERVICE CHARGE $25.75 Your water budget for this bill 30 m3 Your water budget for this bill 30 m3 Bill calculation based on 1214 m2 Bill calculation based on 1214 m2 TOTAL WATER & SEWER CHARGES $127.85 TOTAL WATER & SEWER CHARGES $52.37 Source: Irvine Ranch Water Department. Note: For a residential customer using 30 m3 of water, the average monthly increase in the water and sewer bill is $1.05. increase again. Windhoek, Namibia, officials have Building on Conventional Approaches: expressed that maintaining some of the savings realized Innovative Surface and Groundwater during periods of intensive restrictions has been diffi- Management cult, especially when followed by a period of good rains. Conventional systems draw from the traditional Their approach includes constant media communica- water sources of surface water and groundwater. tion with customers to share the understanding that These are often seasonal and highly climate-­ drought conditions continue despite short rain periods. dependent, and many show declining outputs over Through wide political and social mobilization, they time. While cities move on to other resources once hope to achieve a lower overall average consumption, in these are depleted, water scarce places such as the region of 150 liters per capita per day. Orange County, California, Tucson, and Windhoek Conservation messages must recognize and align with have shown how diversifying resources can conjunc- what customers are already undertaking, and there- tively replenish and optimize groundwater storage fore must evolve as drought conditions prolong. In for long-term water security. Furthermore, cities in Queensland, Australia, while prior water restrictions Nevada, California, and Arizona are pioneering water focused on outdoor water use, the Target 140 cam- banking schemes and virtual water transfers that paign focused on indoor use, specifically the four-­ enable the optimization of ground and surface water minute shower. By identifying one key consumer storage and flows across complex large-scale water behavior to address and campaigning heavily around systems. this change strategy, officials were able to personalize the problem and individualize the solution. Feedback Optimizing Groundwater Management to the community became an important feature of the While not present under all cities, aquifers are campaign by providing information to households on reemerging as the key element in developing an inte- their performance against the 140 target, congratulat- grated approach to urban water security. A significant ing them or encouraging them to try harder (Walton proportion of the cities in water scarce areas originally and Hume 2011). developed on the basis of extensive groundwater Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 21 resources. However, over time these resources were The conjunctive use of surface and groundwater, overexploited or polluted, and with coastal cities, sub- including groundwater storage, has advantages under ject to seawater intrusion. As a result, cities became conditions of extreme variability: they respond to increasingly dependent on imported water provided stress on a different time scale, and groundwater stor- from distant reservoirs through major conveyance age reduces evaporative losses. Leveraging aquifers’ infrastructure. Recently, a number of cities, including large storage capacity can provide an economical alter- Windhoek, have recognized the threats to external native to the expansion of water production capacity supplies of water resulting from competition during or surface storage infrastructure. The Orange County drought years and, in some cases, threats to convey- Water District (OCWD) provides an example of sound ance infrastructure from natural and human-made aquifer management along these lines: the utility oper- disasters. As a result, they have focused on rehabilitat- ates the aquifer as a reservoir to withdraw or store ing their underlying aquifers. These aquifers serve as water and buffer alternating periods of drought and safe water storage, and when used with grey and green water availability. The OCWD initially balanced natural wastewater treatment infrastructure, become part of recharge and injection of imported water to reduce the water treatment and reuse cycle. Hence, the health costs and protect the aquifer from saline intrusion, as of the underlying aquifer is often seen as an indicator illustrated in figure 3.4. Now the water district has of the health of the urban water management system. added new sources such as stormwater flow and highly FIGURE 3.4. Aquifer Recharge to Protect Coastal Aquifers from Saline Intrusion and Increase Yield Paci c Ocean Talbert Alpha Beta Lambda Main aqu Current extent of seawater intrusion ifer Source: Orange County Water Department. 22 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report treated wastewater to that recharge portfolio, using introduced financial incentives to encourage local WSS innovative techniques to maximize infiltration as service providers to pump groundwater within a target shown in photograph 3.2. A similar scheme using range: OCWD establishes the percentage of each service reclaimed water for local aquifer recharge and direct provider’s total water supply that should come from potable reuse is being implemented in Perth. groundwater—the rest being purchased as imported water, which is more expensive. If water service provid- Unlike surface water shortages, declining groundwater ers pump above the defined percentage, they are levels are not immediately visible and require closer charged a fee calculated so that the cost of groundwater monitoring to avoid overdraft. Optimizing aquifer man- production equals the cost of imported water. agement should therefore occur with the development of a clear urban water metabolism framework to account Good local governance and strong coherence of water, for the stock and flows, and—in turn—sound groundwa- energy, and food policies are key to the efficiency of ter governance and regulations. Malta’s water company these programs. In some cases, water sector and urban launched a program to register and measure all abstrac- regulation, as well as traditional practices, can repre- tions, going to the extreme of providing users with the sent a major obstacle to their effective implementa- meters and the management tools  to monitor with- tion. In Lima, Peru, the water utility cannot legally drawals. In Tucson, Arizona, pumping groundwater is enter private properties to measure water usage and regulated by permits, whose delivery is subject to strict flow from wells located on owners’ lands. As such, quantity and reason for use. In conditions in terms of ­ they cannot report groundwater use to the National those cases, a strong monitoring and enforcement sys- Water Authority, and both entities lack the tools and tem needs to be in place. The Arizona Department of legal backing to execute their regulatory mandates. Water Resources even prohibits new  developments Finally, several experiences have shown that local gov- supplies of water unless sufficient and adequate ­ ernance, through the inclusion of all relevant stakehold- for  100  years are demonstrated. Orange County has ers, can be an important tool to improve groundwater governance. For example, Morocco’s groundwater man- PHOTOGRAPH 3.2.Inflatable Rubber Dams Used agement contracts, such as the Sous Massa contract, are to Maximize Groundwater Infiltration, Orange established with a limited number of stakeholders, at a County, CA small scale, and promote participatory management of local groundwater (similar experiences have also been successfully implemented in the Republic of Yemen). The effectiveness of this approach depends on multiple factors including the existence of a governance system and the size of the contract, and requires upstream com- munication and awareness of the groundwater situa- tion. Furthermore, stakeholders need to agree on water uses for the group and must rely on an adequate system to keep users involved, and adapt to new users or changes in the use of groundwater. Water Banking and Virtual Transfers Water banking has emerged as another solution to save Source: Orange County Water Department. unused allocations while ensuring availability for future Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 23 drought years. Surplus water from one year can be stored water across three states of the Lower Colorado River locally—to avoid evaporative losses—in an unconfined basin, the SNWA has bolstered its resilience to local- aquifer, withdrawn in subsequent years by the “banker,” ized droughts in the region and can choose where to and transferred to supplement the water resources of withdraw water from in the future. Because the SNWA the “client,” as illustrated in figure 3.5, panel a. Transfers is upstream on the Colorado River from California and can also be done through exchange deliveries, by which Arizona, these banking agreements can be considered an entity upstream takes surface water from a reservoir as “virtual transfers,” similar to the exchange delivery or aqueduct and the water bank extracts and returns the scheme but across state boundaries. When the SNWA same amount downstream, as schematized in figure 3.5, decides the need to withdraw the banked resources, it panel b. Most examples of this approach have evolved in notifies the Arizona Water Banking Authority (AWBA) southwestern United States: legal frameworks con- and withdraws the water upstream from a reservoir trolling water ownership and specific geological condi- on the Colorado River. Then AWBA pumps an equiva- tions and extensive infrastructure have allowed it, lent amount out of its aquifer in Arizona and returns it particularly in the Lower Colorado River basin, where to the canal for downstream use. The water isn’t phys- storing water in a surplus year prevents holders of water ically pumped back from Arizona to the SNWA; rights from losing that apportionment in the future. The instead, a virtual transfer takes place along the river SNWA, for example, banks water in the Las Vegas Valley system. Such arrangements can help make innovative aquifer, in Arizona and in Southern California, for a total use of the large infrastructure and water rights sys- capacity of 2,220 million m that it plans to keep avail- 3 tems in such areas. In Murcia, Spain, the river basin able to respond quickly to future shortages. authority allows users in different points of the basin to exchange resources “not used” from the estab- Another tool is “virtual trading” or exchange of lished allocation in drought periods. These can then resources within a river basin. By spreading its banked be returned later to the system, without a physical FIGURE 3.5. Water Banking Schemes a. Phased banking scheme Phase 1: Surplus water storage Phase 2: Transfer to the client Banker Client Banker Client Aquifer (bank) Aquifer (bank) b. Exchange delivery scheme Upstream Downstream Client Banker Reservoir/river Aquifer (bank) 24 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 3.6. Virtual Transfer Scheme Upstream Downstream Banking Banker authority Reservoir/river Canal Aquifer (bank) link between them for such transfer, as illustrated nonconventional sources. They are either incorpo- on figure 3.6. rated by increased local capture, such as stormwater in Los Angeles or Tucson, or “sponge cities” in China Experience from California and Murcia shows that (in which green infrastructure enables the manage- stored water best comes from sources hydraulically ment, filtering, and retention of stormwater), or are disconnected from the banking area. When the two generated by new technological advances such as parties involved in a water banking agreement are in wastewater reuse and desalinated seawater. Indeed, the same river basin, drought conditions are likely to advances in membrane filtration and energy ­recovery enhance water demand from the client and the banker are increasing the attractiveness of indirect or even simultaneously. In Kern County, California, the water direct potable reuse, which are pioneered in places bank generally uses the market value of water to estab- including Orange County, San Diego, Windhoek, lish the stored water price. For third-party water users Singapore, and India. These provide more flexibility, outside of the county, the cost increases depending on particularly in the face of climate change. Their opti- the local hydrological conditions. In contrast, the mal use can be supported by a fit-for-purpose use water banking agreement between the SNWA and the philosophy and corresponding infrastructure, which AWBA allows for a higher recovery (abstraction) rate can promote energy efficient and low-cost local during a declared shortage on the Colorado River. water sources for nonpotable uses. Similarly, Murcia’s Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla (MCT) can tap reserve sources (aquifers on the Stormwater Management and Rainwater upper basin) during drought periods and return these Harvesting used resources by lowering its abstraction in more Urbanization and urban development have had signifi- plentiful periods. cant impacts on the permeability of the surfaces of most cities and thus have generally increased runoff Nonconventional Water Resources: Waste, and reduced groundwater recharge in urban areas. Storm, Sea Most cities have implemented separate drainage sys- In the face of drought and increasingly scarce con- tems that convey stormwater runoff directly to a ventional water sources, several cities have begun nearby water body. These systems try to avoid the to  diversify their water portfolio by adding problems faced by those that rely on combined sewer Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 25 systems and experience overflows when strong rain while reducing the runoff of pollutants into washes, events affect the area. In general, stormwater is per- rivers, and groundwater (Pima County, and City of ceived as a form of wastewater, to be disposed of, Tucson 2015). Examples include swales and xeriscape though it presents different quality characteristics (landscape that requires little or no irrigation); these from sewage. It does not include human waste and ­ nitial planning stages. are often incorporated as part of i therefore generally requires less treatment to achieve In comparison, green infrastructure uses structural the quality required before being used as an alternative developments, such as cisterns and filters, to achieve water source. the same objectives. These may include rain gardens or landscape designs that collect, distribute, retain, The southwest city of Los Angeles provides a good and filter water; rain barrels that hold harvested water example of how the consideration of stormwater has for later use; or green streets that incorporate ­features changed. Flood mitigation was the only motivation ­ ardens along roadways (U.S. EPA 2009), as of rain g behind Los Angeles’ stormwater management efforts shown on photograph 3.3. These approaches allow for initiated as early as 1915. Through an elaborate system the capture and channeling of stormwater through of concrete channels, storm basins, and drains, the riv- natural systems, which avoids excess contamination ers and creeks in the county’s urban areas were con- while ensuring water can be collected and infiltrated tained with a straight path to the ocean and larger for reuse. rivers, without consideration for the significant pollu- tion loads of stormwater6 or the value of these flows as Many cities faced with increasing water shortages a potential water resource. Recognizing and trying to have looked back to an old source: rainwater catch- mitigate the negative impacts of the pollution load of ment and storage, generally referred to as “rainwater these runoffs on the environment, the California State harvesting,” for later use, normally implemented at Water Resources Control Board and the Los Angeles the dwelling scale. Tucson has launched several such Regional Board developed in 1990 a stormwater permit initiatives with mixed results despite substantial system for different sectors, mandating that cities, financial incentives. Singapore’s water utility is con- industries, and farmers control pollution in runoff gen- sidering making rainwater runoff capture mandatory erated in their areas. Since runoff doesn’t follow city from all new housing development. Jaipur has regu- boundaries, the 88 cities in Los Angeles County were lations that require rainwater capture for all build- given the option to carry out stormwater planning with ings whose roof surfaces are more than 300 square other cities of the same watershed or with the county meters. Malta building codes mandate the installa- to maximize the impacts of their projects and pool tion of rainwater collection and storage in all build- funding. With the institutional setup provided by these ings to recycle this rainwater as greywater in the plans and the treatment capacity installed to control home (for toilet flushing) or to be used outside the pollution, the city and the county are now looking into home (such as for gardening), following an old tradi- the best ways to capture these resources through aqui- tion in the island (and most Mediterranean areas). In fer infiltration and other methods, closing the circle China, where over half of the cities are considered from flood mitigation to utilization of the resources. water scarce, the government has successfully Tucson has implemented two different approaches launched the concept of “sponge cities,” in which to  improve stormwater management: low-impact green infrastructure enables the management, filter- development and green infrastructure. Low-impact ing, and retention of stormwater, thus significantly development modifies land to mimic predevelopment reducing the impacts of recent floods in the pilot hydrology and help maintain infiltration and drainage cities of Xiamen and Wuhan. In these examples, 26 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report PHOTOGRAPH 3.3. Green Infrastructure, Tucson, Arizona a. Xeriscaping to capture and in iltrate stormwater b. Low-impact development of pervious pavement Source: City of Tucson. rainwater is collected and treated to standards that harvesting systems, including property value capture allow its reuse instead of being dispatched to the and nonmarket values (such as enhancement of micro- ocean, evaporated, or polluted further once incorpo- climate and resilience to increasing heat wave condi- rated into surface runoff, with the added advantage tions, and reduction of sewage overflow), should be of reducing runoff volumes and flooding. systematically included in its economic valuation. From a financial perspective, larger projects tend to The capital cost of such programs remains a barrier, yield better returns, with costs per m3 over a 20-year and mixed results on cost-effectiveness have led to life decreasing as the size of the system increases (with varying levels of political support. However, this bar- million m3 captured per year), as best results over 10 ­ rier is largely attributed to current economic valuation ­ gure 3.7 (Atwater 2013). Further eco- illustrated on fi of stormwater and rainwater harvesting projects being nomic evaluation, including a broader inventory of limited to the assessment of water as an undifferenti- projects benefits, would need to be carried out to con- ated commodity. Instead, the multiple benefits associ- firm the comparative advantage of larger infrastruc- ated with distributed stormwater and rainwater ture projects. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 27 FIGURE 3.7. Comparison of Unit Cost of Stormwater Capture Projects to Their Scale 100 10 Project cost (US$) per m3 assuming 20-year life 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 Million m captured per year 3 Source: Atwater 2013. Tucson’s water utility experience illustrates the com- irrigation, two critical household expenses in Tucson parative advantages of active and passive rainwater in the summer. These results indicate that passive harvesting programs: the net benefits of the active approaches, with less participation by individuals rainwater harvesting rebate program could not be and behavior change requirements, may be more shown to be demonstrably high, while in fact this pro- effective for cities to put in place. cost-­ gram generates the greatest expense out of the eight water conservation rebate programs of this city (Davis As with other nonconventional sources, stormwater 2014). Further, since the program is financed as part management and rainwater harvesting often lack an of the conservation fee, which grew by 40 percent in institutional home among city stakeholders, espe- 2012 when rainwater harvesting was introduced, cus- cially since these sources are intersect among the tomers have expressed discontent regarding the over- functions of local governments, public health agen- all fee increases and have questioned its cost-benefit cies, water resource management agencies, and WSS balance. In contrast, passive approaches, including service providers. This situation can undermine infiltration trenches, xeriscape swales, and water har- responsibility and ownership, as seen in Malta, where vesting basins (often referred to as “groundworks”), the Ministry of Infrastructure is in charge of stormwa- have been shown to provide social and environmen- ter management, while enforcement is with urban tal benefits that outweigh more than 50 percent of planning authorities. Even though Malta historically their associated costs (Pima County and City of has depended on rainwater harvesting for water sup- Tucson 2015). Indeed, passive approaches improve ply, this practice has been largely abandoned in recent the area’s tree canopy, which has been shown to decades. Legislation requiring all domestic and insti- reduce electric bills for cooling and the cost of tutional buildings to be equipped with a rainwater 28 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report collection cistern is not enforced systematically, and rivers, or groundwater basins, and extracted again fur- households rarely invest in the expensive double pip- ther downstream (Asano and Levine 2004; Bixio et al. ing that would be required for greywater use. Malta’s 2008; NRC 2012). This reintroduction into the natural example shows the importance of clearly defining system serves as a buffer before consumption and has roles to (a) enable monitoring and enforcement of been considered acceptable to the public, especially rainwater harvesting legislation, (b) make incentives since the effluent is carried downstream and goes more effective, and (c) bring about multiple benefits out of sight—and therefore out of mind. in water scarce urban environments, in terms of flood However, increasing freshwater scarcity and technol- mitigation and a decrease in water demand. ogy advancements have begged the question: why Policies regarding stormwater management and rain- waste such a readily available source of freshwater water harvesting, especially when they include clearly when it could be reused at the point of production? defined requirements for its reuse, help ensure that rel- For instance, Orange County produces recycled waste- evant entities are comfortable with this nonconven- water for injection into the aquifer, which uses half tional source and can therefore be advocates for its the energy of importing and a third of the energy implementation. Kalkallo in Melbourne, Australia, required to desalinate that same amount of water. launched an innovative plan for potable reuse of storm- Cities and counties have begun to see wastewater as a water that has lain idle due to regulatory barriers, lack of strong ally in dealing with droughts while avoiding coordination and role definition, and the absence of significant infrastructure costs; a previously untapped clear procedures for quality assurance of stormwater source, it is an important resource not to be thrown capture and management of the projects, which have away. hindered institutions from taking ownership and mov- The reuse market has focused on nonpotable reuse ing the project forward (McCallum 2015). applications, such as landscape irrigation and industrial By defining the rules early—including the need for processes, or urban nonpotable purposes, such as toilet additional regulation and the roles of all relevant flushing and cleaning. These are initial steps in most stakeholders—cities ­ can secure acceptance and reuse experiences because they demand lower levels of momentum for nonconventional sources. In Tucson, treatment. Such fit-for-purpose resource development demonstration sites of green streets throughout the approaches can be particularly relevant, especially in city have helped secure community approval while the low-income countries. In Lima, the regulation serving as test beds and foundations for guidelines. allowing for the reuse of water for the irrigation of green Public acceptance remains a barrier to the widespread areas and parks in the city was established before the application of stormwater reuse, though support is city’s first wastewater treatment plant was even com- generally higher for nonpotable applications, as dis- pleted. In Cyprus, about 90 percent of the treated waste- cussed in “Importance of Inclusion and Good water is reused, in majority for irrigation purposes, Communication” section in chapter 4. as  illustrated on photograph 3.4. Jaipur has imple- mented a reuse program for urban landscape irrigation Wastewater Reuse and Marrakech, Morocco, has Unplanned indirect potable reuse (IPR), or “de facto mandated that all golf courses, reuse,” (Asano et al. 2007) has been an accepted prac- which are strong contributors The biggest barrier to such tice for centuries, as the effluent from wastewater treat- to local tourism, be watered programs remains public ment plants and raw sewage is traditionally with recycled w ­ astewater. acceptance, or the “yuck reintroduced into the environment through streams, Demand for nonpotable reuse factor.” Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 29 PHOTOGRAPH 3.4. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse for Irrigation, Cyprus a. Limassol (moni) wastewater treatment plant b. Wastewater reuse for irrigation Source: Sewerage Board of Limassol - Amathous. Source: Water Development Department, Government of Cyprus. applications is increasing globally, and are expected extracted for agriculture (“new water” users will be to account for  97 percent of total reuse in 2022 charged a tariff slightly lower than current groundwa- (GWI  2017). This demand in turn is leading to more ter pumping costs). In preparation, the Water Services scrutiny on the part of regulators to maintain public Corporation carried out a sophisticated mapping exer- and environmental health through proper guarantees cise to identify the agricultural water users with the and controls. most water-thirsty and high-value crops, since they could pay for this service. In parallel, the Water Proximity of an agricultural area to a city provides Services Corporation and the Energy and Water Agency another opportunity for nonpotable reuse of the city’s have launched an information and marketing cam- wastewater and may secure a portion of the farmers’ paign targeting the general public and consumers of potable quality water for municipal uses. City govern- agricultural products. ments should be encouraged to work with higher tier authorities to secure a water partnership in which water resources diverted to support urban water Two options are normally ­ considered, direct and IPR. demand is “returned” to the agricultural sector as Direct potable reuse (DPR) is made after  wastewater is reclaimed water following treat- subjected to  advanced treatment to obtain a highly ment. In Malta, the Water treated ­ effluent, which is then reintroduced directly at the Services Corporation commis- intake for potable water or into pipes. IPR requires that the Though uptake has been sioned the first “new water” highly treated effluent pass through an environmental slower due to health and plant in 2017, making over buffer—­ usually an aquifer or a reservoir—before being regulatory concerns, wastewater reuse for 60  percent of the wastewater pumped back out and treated with other future potable uses represents treated available for reuse to potable  supply. Located in an  extremely arid area, the next frontier to agricultural and industrial Windhoek has been reclaiming wastewater through DPR maximize the potential of water users, with the objective since the 1960s in response to worsening drought condi- wastewater in water scarce of freeing a substantial amount tions. Today, reuse provides over 20 percent of the city’s areas. of groundwater currently supply, both for potable purposes and urban greening. 30 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report In Singapore, it covers up to 30 percent of the city’s water customers, though it would have the capacity to pro- demand. Orange County, too, uses IPR successfully. duce more recycled water. On average, conveyance costs of nonpotable reuse projects are estimated to The most successful cases of potable reuse have add $0.55 per m3 to $0.80 per m3 to the cost of addressed community outreach through education treatment. and marketing. The Orange County Water District (OCWD) has conducted an aggressive outreach cam- Similarly, there is an ongoing debate about the effi- paign that has sought to earn and maintain support ciency and unnecessary costs associated with the for this unprecedented wastewater reuse project. environmental buffers required for IPR. For San Launched nearly 10 years prior to the project Diego, California, the cost of the pipeline that would start-up, the extensive outreach campaign’s success bring highly treated wastewater to the San Vicente is demonstrated by the lack of organized opposition Reservoir (the environmental buffer required in this to date. Similarly, though the program has been case for IPR) is motivating the city to look at DPR ongoing for decades, Windhoek makes sure to instead, and to become actively involved in the pro- engage regularly with the media so customers are cess of drafting regulations for DPR at the state level. aware that drought conditions are still in effect. In San Diego and Windhoek have shown that the highly Singapore, outreach efforts focus on communicating treated effluent from their advanced wastewater the need to look at water as a renewable resource: to treatment plants is of better quality than the water change the negative popular opinion toward recy- bodies from which they draw water for potable use. cled water, recycled wastewater was renamed as In San Diego, modeling has shown that reservoir “NEWater,” wastewater treatment plants were water quality would improve once reclaimed water renamed as “water reclamation plants,” and waste- were introduced. In this sense, cities need to con- water was renamed as “used water.” sider whether it makes sense to treat this water twice before it makes to the tap and assess the feasibility For both nonpotable reuse and IPR, infrastructure of DPR. remains a challenge. Any type of wastewater reuse requires that wastewater be collected and treated, When comparing desalination and wastewater which poses a challenge in some low-income ­ c ities reuse plants that use reverse osmosis, reuse remains that lack wastewater management systems—and less expensive due to the characteristics of the these represent a large capital investment. Kfouri, input water. The higher salinity of the ocean water Mantovani, and Jeuland (2009) emphasize this as a requires more pressure to be applied in the reverse significant limitation in the Middle East and North osmosis process, and advanced water treatment Africa region, for example. Nonpotable reuse has his- requires under a third of the energy needed for torically relied on the construction of extensive dual desalination.7 In addition, for most cities, second- networks for distribution to avoid any chance of con- ary treatment is a regulatory requirement. Though tamination, as  is the case of the “purple pipes sys- cost estimates for reuse often take the whole treat- tem” in California or Israel. In West Basin County, in ment train into account, the difference is in the the southwestern United States, using such a network incremental (tertiary and advanced) process. to reach its recycled water customers is actually a hin- Currently, the cost of reusing reclaimed water for drance to further growth of the reuse operations. potable purposes through reverse osmosis ranges Cost-benefit analyses have shown that it does not from $0.60 per m3 to $1.62 per m3 depending on con- make economic sense for the West Basin County to veyance (GWI 2017). When comparing the costs of further expand its purple pipe network to reach new different new sources of water for San  Diego in Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 31 2013, the city estimated that, for IPR, $0.8 per m 3 seawater barrier, and groundwater replenishment, and (about half of the estimated total water cost) could low- and high-pressure boil feed. Each demand be saved in the form of wastewater and water qual- requires a progressively higher treatment quality (and ity credits from averted flows to the ocean and cost), and demonstrates the range of potential uses of reduced salinity in the reservoirs. Tertiary (toilet 8 recycled water. Costs are transparently passed on to flushing, agriculture, and industrial) and triple bar- customers for the amount of water purchased, while rier reuse combined are expected to overtake ensuring a drought-proof supply of water. desalination by 2022. Triple barrier reuse (advanced Finally, the SNWA has an extremely innovative waste- treatment for potable uses) has been identified as water use: it capitalizes on regulatory tools by applying the fastest growing type of reuse at 11.7 percent per the concept of “return flow credits,” wherein wastewa- year (GWI 2017). ter is treated and returned to the Colorado River Recycling wastewater close to where it is generated upstream of the city to increase its potential water provides another approach to avoid the cost and infra- use  by 75 percent without additional allocation for structure associated with transporting it to and from a the  river. Any surplus water from its allocation is centralized location. Such localized reuse is being measured and stored in Lake Mead for future use. ­ implemented by San Francisco, California, through its Another example of application of regulatory instru- Non-Potable Water Program, which allows for the col- ments is in China, where, since 2012, the government lection, treatment, and use of alternate water sources has limited freshwater abstraction for industries for nonpotable purposes, such as toilet flushing and that  do not reuse some of their wastewater streams landscape irrigation. Alternate sources include grey- (GWI 2017). water (bathroom sinks, showers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (toilet flush water). As of 2015, the San Seawater Desalination Francisco Health Code mandates onsite reuse for new Seawater desalination is an increasingly appealing buildings over 23,225 square meters. Though to date water source for cities located on the coast9 since it is not enough systems have been put in place for conclu- climate independent and can mobilize unlimited sive cost analysis, current grants from the city seem to resources, although at still higher costs than traditional be insufficient to cover capital costs and operating sources. Also, seawater desalination can reduce the expenses, which will likely need to be met through needs for conveyance and raw water storage compared substantial increases in rental or condominium fees. to surface water solutions, which can be financially and As building scale systems remain an emerging prac- politically attractive. Reports of desalination through tice, further research is ongoing to maximize efficiency distillation date back as early as Aristotle, who states at this scale and draw out lessons learned for wider sailors carried out “shipboard distillation” in the 1660s. application. Large desalination plants using distillation have been in Industrial reuse represents another promising market: operation in the Middle East since the 1930s (NRC with increasing competition among uses, industries 2008); now these have been replaced by mem- are seldom prioritized in water scarce areas, while they brane-based desalination, developed in the 1960s and often have the resources to invest in the treatment sys- continuously refined since. tems needed for reuse. The West Basin Municipal Though seawater desalinization is too costly, with too Water District has a menu of options for customers to many energy requirements for many cities, efficiency purchase reclaimed water at the quality requirements improvements and the increasing price of other that meet their needs: irrigation, cooling towers, sources have made this option more competitive. 32 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report In  many cities and countries, seawater desalination excessively during dry years. In Murcia, desalination has thus become the only available option due to lends flexibility in dealing with varying demands. total, temporary, or increasing scarcity of other The bulk water provider Mancomunidad de Canales sources. In Malta, the absence of significant perennial del Taibilla (MCT) seeks to contain water production surface water bodies, the lack of rainfall in the sum- costs by mixing water from different sources to min- mer (the time of greatest demand), and the physical imize the use of desalination to the extent possible, impossibility of imported interbasin transfers have while balancing water quality requirements, demand led the country to develop desalination as early as the variability, and expected evolution in the availability 1880s, as illustrated on photograph 3.5; today desali- of surface water resources. nation meets about half of the country’s supply needs. High energy costs are one of the main barriers to the Singapore, in an effort to become independent from adoption of desalination and are the most volatile imported water, launched its “4th National Tap” component in desalination costs. In Perth, groundwa- with  desalination in 2005, which can now supply ter replenishment with reclaimed water has replaced 25 ­percent of the country’s water. Israel, seeking inde- seawater desalination as the preferred new water pendence from geopolitical tensions around water source, due to its lower unit cost. Though both solu- sources, today gets the majority of its water supply tions will be needed to ensure Perth’s future water from desalination. security, price features prominently in prioritizing the Due to its relatively high cost, desalination tends development of new options. Technology advance- to  function best as part of a portfolio of options; ments over the recent years have enabled signifi- this gives cities flexibility in drawing from different cant  energy recovery from the process, drastically sources based on drought conditions and climate reducing  reverse osmosis’s energy consumption vulnerability. In Perth, where about half of the pota- ­ gure 3.8. This has through recirculation, as shown on fi ble supply comes from desalinated water, the Water allowed  a dramatic drop of desalinated water costs, Corporation uses its network of dams to store excess from $3.00 per m3 in the late 1980s to an average cost of water from desalination plants for use in higher about $1.00 per m3 (GWI 2017) since 2000. For the larg- demand periods or lower rainfall years, which est plants, as low as $0.60 per m3 have been achieved, enables a fallback without increasing production figure 3.9. Advances in renewable as illustrated on ­ PHOTOGRAPH 3.5. Three Generations of Desalination Plants in Malta a. Distillation plant introduced b. Multi- ash distillation c. Large scale reverse osmosis in the 1880s in the 1960s in the 1980s Source: Manuel Sapiano, Energy and Water Agency. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 33 energy technologies also hold a huge promise in fur- Although, desalination can enhance a city’s water ther decreasing desalination costs, with reductions in resources portfolio by providing an unlimited, cli- energy costs expected to represent about 40 percent in mate independent water supply option, it does not the next 10 years (IRENA 2016). yet outcompete most other sources from a financial standpoint. Because it draws directly from the ocean, desalination allows production to be close Reduction in Reverse Osmosis Power FIGURE 3.8. Consumption in Perth, Australia, 1970–2010 to the main consumers or peak users along the coastline who may need it in times of drought. 18 It  can be easily integrated into the existing n etwork  without much additional conveyance ­ 16 infrastructure, which enables coastal cities to eas- 14 ily maximize its potential. 12 The scale of desalination plants can easily be adapted 10 KWh/m3 depending on a city’s or even a user’s needs. Though 8 economies of scale help lower the production cost of 6 desalinated water, smaller systems have successfully 4 to met lower localized demands. In Malta, since most hotels are along the coast, all major ones have invested 2 in small reverse osmosis systems to produce desali- 0 nated water, which helps them meet higher seasonal 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 water demand and relieves the utility of the pressure Source: Elimelech and Phillip 2011. of peak demand. These units are sourced and serviced FIGURE 3.9. Unit Cost Rates of Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plants on the Mediterranean Sea, 2016 6 1.80 Cost of water and O&M (US$/m3) 5 1.50 Captial cost (US$ per m3/yr) 4 1.20 3 0.90 2 0.60 1 0.30 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 Capacity (mm3/yr) Captial cost Water cost O&M Source: Debele forthcoming 2018. Note: O&M = operations and maintenance. 34 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report by a subsidiary of the Water Services Corporation, resorted to encouraging ecosystem restoration else- thus ensuring proper operations and maintenance where for “equivalent” mitigation. In Perth, in response (O&M) and technical capacity. to observed depleted dissolved oxygen levels near the plant outfall (Spigel 2008), a comprehensive environ- Many cities have sought partnerships with the private mental monitoring program to assess the seawater intake sector to try and offset the high costs of desalination and brine outfall has become a condition of the plant’s plants. In Cyprus, where desalination was imple- continued operation. A similar approach might be the mented in 1997 to eliminate the dependency of best option to address similar concerns elsewhere. the  domestic water supply on increasingly vari- able  ­ rainfall, all desalination plants operate under Cooperation with Other Users build–own–operate–transfer (BOOT) contracts. The government is obligated to purchase a minimum Surrounded by water users with different water needs amount of desalinated water each year until transfer, and economic profiles, cities can seek optimized which provides the guarantee needed by the private water  allocations in times of enhanced water stress. sector to know it can recuperate its costs. The unit This requires adequate mechanisms to manage water price for that water varies by plant and covers CAPEX resources at the river or aquifer catchment basin level, (capital expenditure), O&M, energy, and standby institutional capacity to negotiate water transfers from O&M. This model has enabled the Government of low-value uses toward higher value uses and realize Cyprus to leverage the private sectors’ knowledge, associated tradeoffs, but also in many cases large and experience, and financing capacity to improve the costly infrastructure conveyance systems. Examples quantity and quality of public water services, while from Australia, Spain or South California have demon- making sure that the cost of water at each plant strated the benefits of enhanced cooperation between reflects production expenses. users to improve urban water supply security. Desalinization is not without problems additional Managing Water at Scale to its high cost and energy requirements. Public accep- Elevating the scale for water resource management to tance is a barrier for  desalination as for other noncon- the level of the catchment basin serves to identify and ventional sources, especially regarding environmental assess competing interests and prioritize uses (and impacts. Groups that represent interests linked to coastal users) in times of drought. In Murcia, the integrated management, such as conservation in marine bays and management of water resources at basin scale by the surfers, are particularly vocal in their opposition. One river basin agency—and the interconnection of water main complaint is linked to existing efficiency levels, conveyance networks—provide flexibility and adaptive which require that about twice the amount of potable capacity, and facilitate the reallocation of resources water produced needs to be withdrawn from the sea between places, users, and periods of use in response through intakes that “suck in” fish egg and larvae, dis- to evolving needs. It also provides a potential opportu- turbing and destroying marine wildlife. Another point of nity to adjust demands to available resources. concern relevant for coastal impacts is brine discharge. Since the output from the reverse osmosis process is a Unless the water body’s characteristics make abstrac- concentrated brine, roughly twice as salty as the seawa- tion practical across much of the basin, large infrastruc- ter that entered the plant, it is claimed it causes harm to ture systems are required to share water resources at marine life dwelling on the sea floor. Currently, the meth- the basin scale and move water among users. Due to ods for estimating the actual impacts on wildlife are seasonal variation in water availability, conventional complicated and  imprecise, so many regulators have surface water systems depend on storage to ensure Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 35 PHOTOGRAPH 3.6. Desalination Plant in Almería, Spain Source: RamblaMorales/Flickr. supply during the dry seasons and tend to be heavy on and conveyance, for example—are often unfairly infrastructure. For groundwater, exploitation requires passed on from the water wholesaler to the  service an established network of wells to abstract water and provider. In the supply of the coastal towns Safi and monitor the quantity and quality of the resource over kilometer long El Jadida, in Morocco, the current 80-­ time. Ultimately, the costs of constructing or expanding ­ eservoir entails losses bulk water transfer from the r conveyance infrastructure are often large enough to representing almost half of the cities’ demand. The encourage cities to look to alternative and more local planned implementation of local desalination plants solutions. In Windhoek, the cost of artificial aquifer will release corresponding volumes, including cur- recharge is estimated at a third of the cost of securing rent losses, for the piped supply of Marrakesh from more surface water through a new pipeline. These that same reservoir (Dahan and Grijsen 2017). tradeoffs could deter users from actively engaging Limiting efficiency measures to the urban water supply around river basin reallocations if there is no physical network but not to upstream processes creates way to transfer water from one point of use to the other. institutional disincentive for the service provider. an  ­ System efficiencies can be best identified and achieved In Morocco, the water supply provider’s mandate is lim- when the water cycle is considered at basin or ited to the distribution of water that has been abstracted, cross-basin level. The costs of inefficiencies upstream treated, and conveyed by the bulk national water service from the city—linked to water resource management provider. Its financial incentives to reduce leakages 36 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report extend only as far as associated distribution costs remain uses toward higher value uses, especially where munici- smaller than the benefits resulting from reduced water pal demand has become difficult to fulfill and alterna- pumping. For Marrakesh, the launches in 2018 and 2030 tives are costly. In Australia, water markets take of new interbasin transfers will entail, in addition to advantage of having a variety of water users with differ- treatment costs, conveyance costs many times higher ent abilities to cope with shortages. Water transfers are a than distribution costs at city level (Dahan and Grijsen more formal and large-scale way to handle such realloca- 2017). Institutional mechanisms incentivizing the reduc- tions, in which both parties legally agree to transfer a tion of all costs will be critical to achieve system water water right for a certain amount of time. In Malta, the efficiency and water conservation to its full potential. service provider plans to provide about 60 percent of the agricultural sector’s water through reclaimed wastewa- Cooperation for Optimized Allocations ter, which would in turn free up water for municipal use. Water markets, such as those operated in the Murray– Rural to urban water reallocation has attracted atten- Darling basin in Australia or in Reus, Spain, are an import- tion among policy makers across continents (as shown ant tool to move water from low-value or low-priority on map 3.1), motived by the premises that (a) MAP 3.1. Overview of Rural to Urban Water Reallocation Projects, 2017 Australia China Indonesia Mexico Spain Thailand US Cont’d 1 - Adelaide 6 - Kaifeng 13 - Bandung 20 - Guadalajara 26 - Alicante 32 - Chiang Mai 38 - Lower Rio Grande 2 - Melbourne 7 - Ordos City 21 - Hermosillo 27 - Guadalajara 39 - Metropolitan Water District 8 - Wuzhong Prefecture Iran 22 - Mexico City 28 - Seville Tunisia 40 - Reno Brazil 9 - Xinxiang 14 - Esfahan 23 - Monterrey 33 - Tunis 41 - San Antonio 3 - NE Brazil 10 - Yiwu City Taiwan 42 - San Diego 4 - Sao Paulo Japan Nepal 29 - Taiwan United States India 15–18 - Saitama/Tokyo 24 - Kathmandu 34 - Casper Yemen, Rep. Chile 11 - Coimbatore Tanzania 35 - Denver 43 - Sana’a 5 - Coquimbo 12 - Hyderabad Jordan South Africa 30 - Arusha 36 - Las Vegas 19 - Amman 25 - Mokopane 31 - Moshi 37 - Los Angeles Source: Yu 2017. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 37 agriculture uses most of the water, (b) low water use The SDCWA benefited from the existing water convey- efficiency is prevalent in agriculture, and (c) the mar- ance infrastructure to serve all the parties involved. In ginal productivity of water is often higher in urban areas Perth, the Perth Water Corporation and Harvey Water than in agriculture. To achieve effective reallocation (an irrigation water supplier) agreed to convert open projects recognizing potential equity challenges for irrigation channels to pipes to convey 17.1 million m3 per rural areas and addressing the political complexity of year to the Water Corporation. Since 2006, this $58 mil- such urban-rural dialogue, it is essential to have institu- lion investment harvests water that would otherwise tional capacity and effective processes for negotiation be lost through seepage and evaporation, while bene- and compensation for those who stand to lose (Yu 2017). fiting the irrigators through a pressurized pipe irrigation system that has enabled more controlled irrigation that In 2003, the San Diego County suits higher value horticulture crops. As such, the proj- Water Authority (SDCWA) nego- Cities must look beyond ect has received strong support from the local commu- tiated the largest transfer from competition among nity. The formal nature of such water transfers can agricultural to municipal use in users to identify help ensure all parties are compensated appropriately the United States, securing up opportunities based on the and sets formal precedence for the priority of to 247 million m3 per year for 75 characteristics of different municipal use. years. The transfer requires the users’ water needs and realize those tradeoffs. Imperial Irrigation District, which has one of the highest Water Trading priority water rights on the Colorado River, to improve Water markets provide a flexible mechanism to reallo- its water use efficiency and avoid what the State of cate water in time and space. Indeed, compared to California defined as “wasteful use.” The water con- water banking agreements or water transfers, which served is in turn sold to the SDCWA. This transfer is part are set legal contracts over long periods of time, a of a larger agreement aiming to reduce California’s use water market transaction can allow a water user to of Colorado River water and marks an important change increase revenue by leasing its water allocation to in California water allocation: it prioritized municipal another user for whom that water has a higher value at use and condemned water waste by agricultural users the time, while not giving up access to that water in the previously protected by the seniority of their water future. Though most water markets remain informal rights. It also indicates that, even in a case as seemingly and focus on irrigation water, experiences in Australia overallocated as that of Southern California, there is under the National Water Initiative, especially in the flexibility in the system to accommodate changing Murray–Darling basin, have shown good results in needs and climatic conditions. As water management is minimizing transaction costs and providing for urban rife with legal conflicts in water demand and environmental protection. Because California, it took over 15 years having a variety of water users—with different abilities Having an agricultural to reach this agreement, which to cope with shortages—helps ensure that water trad- buffer (through nearby points to the complicated ing is relevant to the area, this may prove a successful agricultural activity) nature of negotiations between solution for cities dealing with various stakeholders enables urban municipal agricultural and municipal and competing uses. water managers to water users. Reus, Spain, helped create such a system with farmers purchase water from agricultural ­interests Such water transfers depend (Ruydecanyes, later expanded to include the valley in time of drought or on available conveyance infra- of Siurana), which increased water resilience in the city shortage. structure to reach the new user. through a market scheme since the early 1900s. 38 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report This regional market uses newly developed additional Planning Water Systems under Uncertainty water. Transactions are transparent and regulated Despite significant improvements in climate modeling under simple norms for seasonal and permanent trans- and downscaling of general circulation models (GCMs), fers. Though, as in the case of Reus, such market struc- spatial and temporal precision remains usually insuffi- tures are informal, they require transparency and an cient to inform water resources planning at a city or agreed structure among stakeholders. These schemes basin level. Climate change therefore brings deep uncer- may be present de facto in many places (for example, tainty in the programming infrastructure development. shadow trading of water with farmers or administrative Robust decision-making approaches assess the sensitivity allocations to them by a government agency), and they of a proposed investment plan’s performance to changing generally improve efficiency whether or not they are conditions, and accordingly adjusts the plan to minimize formalized. However, formalization may increase trans- its vulnerability. These planning approaches strongly action costs compared to more informal mechanisms. value no-regret measures, which can be implemented Though in Reus resilience has been achieved through a regardless of climate change uncertainty and still yield much larger regional system with water conveyed from helpful results. This includes solutions with a high bene- the Ebro River (the “big pipe” solution), water markets fit-cost ratio regardless of climate forecasts, such as those complement the diversity of sources and allow a ­flexible aiming to address profligate water consumption, control response for the city in scarcity. Challenges include the network leakages, or improve allocation efficiency need to clearly define water entitlements and ensure through improved cooperation with other users. good information flows between users. It assesses the relative performance and vulnerability of Adaptive Design and Operations investment options across a wide range of potential cli- mate impacts, and combines them into a web of adapta- Effective water resource and drought planning is the first tion pathways prompting policy actions at determined stop in drought proofing conventional systems. If  the tipping points. Such approach was implemented in Lima resource is finite—whether for legal or environmental (Kalra et al. 2015) to help define a step-by-step strategy reasons—and subject to uncertainty, careful monitoring for the development of water production capacity in a of its availability and protocols to deal with future scenar- context of climate and water demand uncertainties. ios can significantly build a city’s resilience, even with- out  additional sources. The key to effective drought Resilient Water Systems Operation planning is anticipation, which avoids costly emergency Resilient water system management should not only responses—both to the utility and to consumers. include response strategies to the current water avail- Adaptive design starts with a detailed inventory of the ability conditions but also the definition of several city’s water budget and corresponding vulnerabilities stages of drought and associated actions to mitigate as baseline information for system planning  and the risks of reaching more severe stages. For example, investments. When the 2008 drought hit Cyprus, in Spain, Aigües de Barcelona’s Drought Management water had to be shipped from Athens at the  cost of Plan tracks key water system performance indicators $8  per m , about five times the cost of desalinated 3 and helps the utility respond through agreed mea- water in that year (Sofroniou and Bishop 2014). When sures to guarantee drinking water supply and mitigate cities fail to provide an adequate water supply, users economic impacts. Based on surface storage levels, pay an even much higher price to water tankers. the utility has defined drought thresholds (normal, In  Beirut, the cost jumped from $20 per m to more 3 alert, exceptionality, and emergency), which than $50 per m during the 2014 drought. 3 10 define  what sources to draw from, as illustrated on Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 39 FIGURE 3.10. Drought Threshold Values and Water Source Mix, by Threshold, Barcelona, 1980–2016 a. Drought threshold values 700 600 500 400 hm3 300 200 100 0 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n- Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Month/year Emergency III Emergency II Emergency I Exceptionality Alert b. Water source mix Normality Alert Exc. Em. Surface Reuse Desalinated Groundwater Source: Creus 2017. 40 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report figure  3.10, panels a and b. According to a clearly part of longer term  planning defined decision tree, in a crisis, more expensive processes. In such cases, the The decision tree sources (reuse and desalination) would be used first; level of a key reservoir could framework (Ray and then strategic buffer sources (the aquifer); and finally, be  used as a proxy for Brown 2015) provides water normally used for environmental flows would more  detailed water data and planners with a flexible, be tapped (Creus 2017). levels of emergency defined effective approach for cost-­ accordingly. guiding decision making. In Murcia, comparable plans to that of Barcelona have been developed for the city and the river basin. Each level triggers a set of measures that, in the case of Notes urban water uses, can range from public outreach 1. Information directly collected from operational mission by World Bank in Beirut. campaigns to imposing use restrictions. When the emergency level is reached, a legislative drought 2. See Water Sensitive Cities’ website: https://watersensitivecities.org​ . a u /c o nt e nt /r e s p o n d i ng - m i l l e n n i u m - d r o u g ht ​ - c o m p a r i ng​ decree is approved by the central government, -domestic-water-cultures-three-australian-cities-news/. enabling the river basin authority to restrict or reallo- 3. 946 m3. cate water rights, fast-track funding for emergency infrastructure works, and undertake other measures. 4. Fixed charges are the base charges to cover fixed costs such as infra- structures maintenance and fixed operation costs, whereas com- Similarly, in the United States, the SNWA categorizes modity service charges are the price per volume of water used and its water sources according to their availability and cover all variable costs. development strategy: permanent resources, avail- 5. For example, the Water Conservation Coalition, a group of local busi- able for use over the 50-year planning horizon; tem- nesses and community leaders who promote water-efficient prac- tices, or the Water Upon Request program, through which restaurants porary resources, which can be used to meet potential serve water only to those clients who request it. short-term gaps between supply and demand; and 6. Stormwater runoff, particularly in the early stages of the storm, con- future resources, which will be developed during the tains a high load of heavy metals, suspended solids, and organic 50-year planning horizon. Though the SNWA has not ­ matter. These contaminants are accumulated on pavements, roofs, exceeded its Colorado River allocation to date, its and other less permeable areas and then mobilized as part of the runoff. water resource planning embeds several fallback .iwa​ 7. Based on interviews and the website from IWA: http://www​ scenarios should a drought significantly reduce water ­ -­n etwork.org/from-seawater-to-tap-or-from-toilet​ - to-tap​ - joint​ availability. -desalination-and-water-reuse-is-the-future-of-sustainable​ -water-management/. Once a strategy has been defined institutionally, such 8. After going through the reverse osmosis process, treated wastewater preparedness requires the collection of reliable water is remineralized but still has much lower salinity than imported information and its thorough analysis, which in turn is water, which accumulates salts over its transportation due to resource-intensive in terms of equipment, capacity, evaporation. and finances. In Barcelona, where the basin is already 9. When freshwater resources are very limited, such as on small islands, seawater can also be a useful resource even without desalination. heavily regulated with channels and fl ­ oodgates, the Cities like Majuro in the Marshall Islands or Tarawa in Kiribati have electronic measurement of flow data  was facilitated developed seawater flushing systems to ensure adequate hydraulic by the existing extensive infrastructure. However, in conditions in sewerage systems while limiting the use of freshwater resources for potable water needs. With the need for dual piping areas where infrastructure is not as developed, the systems, such option has an economic justification only in extreme ­ ­ ollection stations and the installation of water data c water stress. development of water information systems, with a 10. Information directly collected from population by World Bank in trained team to operate and maintain them, need to be Beirut. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 41 Kfouri, C., P. Mantovani, and M. Jeuland. 2009. “Water Reuse in the MNA References Region: Constraints, Experiences, and Policy Recommendations.” In Asano, T., F. L. Burton, H. L. Leverenz, R. Tsuchihashi, and Water in the Arab World: Management Perspectives and Innovations, G.  Tchobanoglous. 2007. Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and edited by N. Jagannathan, A. S. Mohamed, and A. Kremer, pp 447–77. Applications. New York: McGraw Hill. Washington, DC: World Bank. Asano, T., and A. D. Levine. 2004. “Recovering Sustainable Water from McCallum, T. 2015. Kalkallo: A Case Study in Technological Innovation Wastewater.” Environmental Science & Technology 38 (11): 201A. amidst Complex Regulation. Melbourne, Australia: Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities. Atwater, R. 2013. “Southern California Water Committee Stormwater Capture Opportunities.” Presented at the Southern California Melbourne Water. 2017. “Strategic and Corporate Plans.” Melbourne Environmental Dialogue, Los Angeles, April 24. Water, Melbourne, Australia. Bixio, D., C. Thoeye, T. Wintgens, A. Ravazzini, V. Miska, M. Muston, NRC (National Research Council). 2008. “Desalination: A National H.  Chikurel, A. Aharoni, D. Joksimovic, and T. Melin. 2008. “Water Perspective.” National Academies Press, Washington, DC. Reclamation and Reuse: Implementation and Management Issues.” ———. 2012. “Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation’s Water Desalination 218 (1): 13–23. Supply through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater.” National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Creus, R. 2017. “Water Management in Barcelona Metropolitan Area.” Presented at the Water Scarce Cities Workshop, “Aigües de Barcelona,” O’Dea, G., and J. Cooper. 2008. “Water scarcity: Does it Exist and Can Casablanca, May 22. Price Help Solve the Problem?” Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Dahan, S., and J. Grijsen. 2017. Managing Urban Water Scarcity in Morocco. Washington, DC: World Bank. Pima County, and City of Tucson. 2015. Low Impact Development and Green Infrastructure Guidance Manual. Tucson, AZ: City of Tucson. Davis, T. 2014. “Tucson May Expand Rainwater-Harvesting Rebates.” Arizona Daily Star, November 1. Ray, P. A., and C. M. Brown. 2015. Confronting Climate Uncertainty in  Water Resources Planning and Project Design: The Decision Tree Debele, B. Forthcoming 2018. The Role of Desalination in an Increasingly Framework. Washington, DC: World Bank. Water Scarce World. Washington, DC: World Bank. Sofroniou, A., and S. Bishop. 2014. “Water Scarcity in Cyprus: A Review Elimelech, M., and W. Phillip. 2011. “The Future of Seawater Desalination: and Call for Integrated Policy.” Water 6 (10): 2898–928. Energy, Technology, and the Environment.” Science 333 (6043): 712–17. Spigel, R. 2008. “Review of Studies Relating to the Discharge from the Grafton, R. Q. 2010. “‘Yes We Can…’: Getting Serious about Water Pricing Perth Seawater Desalination Plant in Cockburn Sound.” National Institute in Australia.” EERH Policy Brief, Environmental Economic Research Hub, of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd. Canberra, Australia. U.S. EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2009. “Green GWI (Global Water Intelligence). 2017. “Desalination & Water Reuse.” Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates: Adapting Innovative GWI, Oxford, U.K. Stormwater Management Techniques to the Water-Limited West.” U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. IRENA. 2016. The Power to Change: Solar and Wind Cost Reduction Potential to 2025. IRENA, Bonn, Germany. Walton, A., and M. Hume. 2011. “Creating Positive Habits in Water Conservation: The Case of the Queensland Water Commission and the Kalra, N., D. G. Groves, L. Bonzanigo, E. M. Perez, C. Ramos, C. J. Brandon, Target 140 Campaign.” International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary and I. R. Cabanillas. 2015. “Robust Decision-Making in the Water Sector: Sector Marketing 16 (3): 215–24. A Strategy for implementing Lima’s Long-Term Water Resources Master Plan (English).” Policy Research Working Paper WPS 7439, World Bank, Yu, W. 2017. Water Reallocation: Lessons from Rural-Urban Transfer. Washington, DC. Unpublished manuscript. Washington, DC: World Bank. 42 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Cape Town, South Africa. Source: https://pixabay.com/en/south-africa-cape-town-2267795/. Chapter 4 Cross-Cutting Considerations Though we often identify successful water scarce cit- successful water scarce ­ cities. Finally, active involve- ies by the technological approaches they’ve applied to ment of water scarce utilities in managing their harness a specific source or maximize its use, the fac- resources will require both a clear institutional frame- tors of success often lie beyond technology i ­tself. work within which it can operate, and in an integrated Innovative water managers must expand their exper- manner that works with institutional partners and tise from engineering to marketing and public ­stakeholders. ­ relations. Sustained communications campaigns can demystify a city’s decisions about water resource plan- The experiences show that this ning, and increase public trust in regulatory actors and paradigm exists and has devel- The different cases stakeholders. Closer to decision makers’ concerns, the ­ oped organically, but also that presented in this report systematic comparison of the economic costs and ben- scrutiny and comparison reveal outline more than efits of alternative solutions still seldom happens, the cross-cutting issues that successful technological mainly due to data availability, but also simply the dif- form the backbone of these advances. In these success ­ ficulty of assessing “soft” ­ options. Proper economic successes. This section outlines ­ stories, the principles analysis can better underpin the development of inno- these key takeaways to inform of a water resource vative and diverse financing mechanisms, inspired by the principles of a new water management paradigm for the myriad of experiences across some of the most management ­paradigm. emerge. cities begin to ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 43 Technology Is Not the Major Concern Importance of Inclusion and Good Communication Though we often identify successful water scarce cities by the technological approaches they’ve Widespread communication efforts are stepping applied to harness a specific source or maximize its ­cceptance. Such communication stones for social a use, the factors of success often lie beyond campaigns demystify a city’s decisions about water technology. Though some approaches, such as aqui- ­ planning. They target the public’s potential resource ­ fer recharge and wastewater reuse, require careful doubts early on, while offering a platform for consum- preparatory work from a technical standpoint, this ers to ask questions and provide ­ feedback. They also seldom has to do with the technology and often is help secure public support and understanding of pro- more of a planning, governance, or social acceptance grams and investments that normally exceed the polit- ­ issue. Furthermore, many good examples exist in ical cycle, thus avoiding drastic alterations when both low-income and upper-middle-income coun- elections bring political changes before the projects are tries, which create good opportunities for knowl- completed. One of the key success factors of the out- ­ edge exchanges and m ­ entorship. For example, an reach campaign in the OCWD was its early launch, exchange program has been established between the nearly 10 years prior to the IPR project startup, and its Singapore Public Utilities Board (PUB) and continuation throughout the project’s life to maintain California’s Orange  County Water District (OCWD) support through all accessible communication so that the two agencies continue to learn from each channels. Research from Singapore shows that public ­ other’s innovations in the field of ­ reuse. In general, acceptance of wastewater reuse depends highly on the technology is often tried and true, with research public trust in regulatory actors and stakeholders, as ongoing and closely supporting the validity of a well as their understanding of technology and poten- given approach, but challenges lie in the way such tial ­impacts. results are communicated to the public and used in Though Windhoek’s program has been ongoing for field. advancing the ­ decades, the city still engages regularly with the media so customers are aware that drought conditions are The success of a technological solution, no matter still effective, leading to mindful water ­ use. how appropriate to the context of a city, relies on support from the p ­ ublic. In both San Diego and Los When changes will impact customers’ service or bills, Angeles, California, proposed indirect potable reuse this communication channel helps avoid dissatisfac- (IPR) projects were shut down in the 1990s due to tion by promoting understanding and awareness of public outcry and negative media portrayal of the the changes early o ­ n. In Perth, Australia, a water projects as “toilet to t ­ ap.” It took San Diego years of policy unit was established in the early 2000s to sup- ­ damage mitigation, through a strong public outreach port and coordinate the government policy response campaign and a new demonstration project, to gar- to the water ­ c risis. The nursery, turf, and irrigation ner support from its customers again—despite the industries’ initial resistance to proposed restrictions proposed technology’s proven success in other places on domestic garden watering was overcome by genu- such as Orange County, Singapore, and Windhoek, ine engagement through this u ­ nit. Such approaches ­Namibia. Therefore, innovative water managers must can also warn customers of upcoming rate increases expand their expertise from engineering to market- by justifying the reasons for changes (including new ing and public relations if they are to promote new sources or technology, environmental remediation, solutions ­successfully. or a new tax) and giving them the opportunity to 44 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report ­ ut. Such participatory models can even be speak o alike. much more interesting to industry and cities ­ applied in the form of citizen juries convened to Beijing now reuses 66 percent of its wastewater in non- co-design water investments, shape services and potable applications, accounting for 22 percent of the prices, as is now the case in Yarra Valley, east of capital’s water supply, and has renamed all wastewater 2017). Melbourne, Australia (Yarra Valley Water ­ plants.” treatment plants (WWTPs) “water purification ­ (GWI 2017) Comparing the marginal cost of a variety of Involving constituents early in the process builds own- water supply options to close the 2030 water resources decisions. ership over a city’s water management ­ gap, projections show that traditional water supply Before infrastructure projects or significant changes in sources would be costly, with many bearing a cost over the water authority’s practices are approved, the $10 per m3 and steep marginal cost curves compared to Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) board of efficiency solutions (2030 Water Resources Group directors always appoints a citizen advisory commit- 2009). Similarly, the construction of pipelines for ­ tee to represent different stakeholders through the long-distance water transfers is eclipsing the costs of decision-making ­ process. Their recommendations developing local water supplies, especially as competi- influence all important water management decisions, tion over that water ­ increases. including the construction of new water management infrastructure, the development of new water The costs of most solutions vary dramatically across resources, water quality measures, and rate ­ increases. regions and cities, rendering direct comparisons In several instances, these committees play the role hazardous. Beyond direct costs for water abstraction ­ that the court has played in other states by bringing all or collection and treatment, factors may include the interested parties to the table before a decision is made need for complex intake systems (including river and avoiding future ­ lawsuits. dams) and the scale of conveyance ­ systems. Zhou and Tol (2005) suggest, as a rule of thumb, to adopt a cost Inclusion promotes good governance by holding city $0.08 per m3, for 100 kilome- of ­ ­ccount. In Murcia, Spain, the decision makers to a ters of horizontal transport and Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla (MCT) incorpo- $0.06 per 100 meters of vertical ­ Identifying the relevant rates local, regional, and national government repre- transport, on the basis of a 100 stakeholders early and sentatives in decision-making bodies, facilitating million m3 per year ­conveyance.1 having them communicate trust  and cooperation among different competent regularly with the public The variability of electricity authorities. Such stakeholder involvement promotes ­ contributes to acceptance prices, driven by power genera- transparency and limits future opposition by opening of a new approach and tion technologies and levels of discussion. debate early in a collaborative ­ helps sustain certain subsidies, further complicate ­behaviors. comparisons. ­ Discussions in Good Economics Is Key this chapter attempt to capture orders of magnitude of the different solutions, as illus- In many areas of the world, growing water scarcity trated in figure ­ 4.1. impacts the availability of freshwater resources and shifting costs so that nonconventional solutions are For surface water solutions, conventional water treat- becoming more affordable than the expansion of con- ment plants typically cost in the order of $10 million ventional ­ ones. In the most water scarce provinces of per 100,000 people, resulting in a total cost China, freshwater withdrawal quotas are driving the (­ capital  expenses [CAPEX] plus operating expenses price of freshwater up and rendering wastewater reuse $0.30 cents per ­ [OPEX]) of  ­ m3. Exceptions abound Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 45 FIGURE ­­4.1. Total Cost of Water Production for Various Solutions 6 5 Total cost ($/m3) 4 3 2 1 0 er er e n e e e g rg us us ur io tin at at at pt ha re re es w w lin ca ec nd le e rv e bl ac sa ab rr ha er ou ta rf de fe at ot Gr er po Su ui w np er at m Aq ct at No w or re aw in St di Ra Se In Source: World ­­Bank. research. Total cost includes capital Note: Vertical bars capture common scheme values; vertical lines span extreme values identified in the present ­­ expenses. expenses and operating ­­ however: in the city of Erevan, Armenia, where water Reuse schemes have experienced significant reductions can be supplied by gravity from a high-quality water in costs, benefiting from advances in energy efficiency $0.01 per ­ spring, costs are as low as ­ m . By contrast, in 3 2 technology and from the development of membrane Windhoek, total costs with water conveyance of inter- bioreactors ­ (MBRs). IPR projects have higher CAPEX basin water supply from the Okavango River are esti- than nonpotable reuse due to more advanced treat- mated at ­ m3. For groundwater supply solutions $3.8 per ­ ment costs, which are estimated to be at 10 percent to ­ 0.1 and $ costs, commonly span between $ ­ 0.4 per m , 3 15  ­ percent more than nonpotable water reuse (GWI $2.0 per m with deep and distant aqui- but can exceed ­ 3 2017). With direct nonpotable water supply applica- ­ fers, such as in the proposed Tsumeb supply scheme in tions, specific, “purple” conveyance and distribution ­Windhoek. infrastructure needs to be factored in the cost of the solution. Costs have been found between $ ­ ­ 0.25 per m3 Reverse osmosis is the most competitive seawater $5.1 per m3 in Australia in California (GWI 2017) and ­ low. Thermal desalination technology where salinity is ­ (Moran 2008), with most common costs being found desalination is costlier in terms of capital investments, $0.60 per m3 and ­ between ­ $2.20 per m3 (GWI ­2017). but it is better adapted to high salinity sources and has the highest economy of scale for megaprojects (Cosin significant developments Stormwater capture has seen ­ ­ $0.6 per m3 2016). Costs typically range between ­ in California, where stormwater capture schemes have (achieved in Israel with a production capacity above ­ 0.01 per m3 to more been found to cost in the range of $ ­ 2.0 per m3 600 million liters per day) and more than $ than $10 per m3, depending largely on the scale for smaller units, generally below 30 million liters per 2009). The (Atwater 2013; Dillon and Australia NWC ­ day. These costs do not include conveyance ­ ­ needs. needs for water treatment and conveyance also 46 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report ­ ariability. When stormwater cap- contribute to cost v analysis. Because reducing network losses and conser- ­ ture is combined with managed aquifer recharge, costs vation measures rely on soft components implemented include infiltration and underground storage, which over the long term, they are difficult to isolate as spe- are highly h ­ eterogeneous. Stormwater capture and cific budget line ­ items. For example, though the Las $0.06 per m in recharge schemes range between ­ 3 Vegas, Nevada, water utility has reduced per capita Marrakesh, Morocco (Dahan and Grijsen 2017), and water consumption by close to 40 percent since 2002 ­ $2.67 per m in Australia (Ross and Hasnain ­ 3 2018). through a mix of water pricing, regulation, incentives, and education, the portion of savings attributable to Costs for rainwater harvesting depend on the types of each and the associated costs distribution are difficult ­ roofs and storage s olutions. Rainwater harvesting ascertain. Since demand management and infra- to ­ has  been priced (CAPEX plus OPEX) in cities in structure efficiency represent “untapped reservoirs” $1.75 per m3 Australia and the Pacific region between ­ for cities and can significantly extend the use of exist- and ­$10.75 per m3 (Moran 2008), which is consistent ing conventional resources, there is strong incentive to with the range of costs reported in arid areas by Gould creatively think about how to economically evaluate and Nissen Petersen (1999), as updated by IRC authors such ­interventions. (2011). Batchelor, Fonseca, and Smits ­ Systematic comparisons of the economic costs and Diversifying Sector Financing Strategies benefits of alternative solutions seldom happen, Before considering costly infra- despite being critical to optimize the use of water and structure development options Innovative applications resources. Data availability, if not tackled financial ­ for supply augmentation, of wastewater reuse can early in the planning process, constrains decision mak- increasing sector efficiencies also help bridge water ers’ ability to conduct a thorough economic analysis, through improved water man- resources gaps at an and policy windows tend to dictate water  resources agement often yields economic optimized p­ rice. ­ ustifications. Including choices more than cost-benefit j and financial efficiencies. ­ data gathering activities in upstream planning can bol- In  2006, it was estimated that reducing nonrevenue ster decision making with key economic i ­nformation. water levels by half in low-income countries could gen- However, even in the largest water systems, economic erate an additional $ ­ 2.9 billion in cash every year for analysis methodologies incorporating multiple objec- the water sector, from both increased revenues tives and complex factors such as tradeoffs between and reduced costs (Kingdom, Liemberger, and Marin urban and nonurban water users, environmental 2006). Similarly, Southern California service provid- ­ externalities, and climatic and other uncertainties can ers include nonrevenue water and demand manage- ­ lanning. This is happen- effectively guide long-term p ment as “additional” future sources: the water saved ing, for example, in the Valley of Mexico, where an from efficiency improvements and reduced con- integrated water security and resilience strategy is sumption is water that can serve users without being developed to improve the reliability, robustness, increasing the city’s ­ allocation. resilience, and sustainability of the water system, California’s West Basin Municipal Water District pro- which supplies 22 million inhabitants in the Mexico vides a menu of five types of water, wherein clients area.3 City metropolitan ­ can purchase reclaimed water at different quality lev- The lack of information on the costs and benefits of els, based on the use it will be put to (for example, irri- demand management and infrastructure efficiency gation, general industry, groundwater replenishment, interventions further complicates economic efficiency cooling towers, boiler-feed ­ water). The uses require Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 47 varying treatment intensities and the tariff is adjusted NEWater plants were owned and operated by PUB, accordingly, providing a secure and tailored water the fourth and fifth plants were built under a design– ­ source for nearby municipalities and i ndustries. In ­­ build–own–operate (DBOO) model. The main motiva- Durban, South Africa, the concession of a recycled tion to involve the private sector was to develop a water treatment plant for industrial reuse has pro- water industry that would provide quality and cost-­ vided local industries such as Mondi Paper with a effective services and to encourage greater efficiency ­ stable water source cheaper than potable water sector. and innovation in the ­­ ­(eThekwini W&S ­2011). This project has ensured indus- Vendor-based finance for the development of desali- tries would not leave the area due to lack of water, nation or wastewater treatment facilities is still thus safeguarding the local economy and jobs depend- relatively ­ limited outside of industrialized or ing on these ­ industries. In addition, it has enabled resource-rich nations, with the notable exceptions eThekwini Water and Sanitation (W&S) to reallocate 2017). Across the of China, Mexico, and Brazil (GWI ­­ freshwater resources to unserved areas and avoided Middle East and North Africa region, the practice is the construction of a costly marine outfall (Bhagwan already well established in Algeria and is emerging 2012). Through the concession model, eThekwini W&S ­ ­­ in Morocco, Tunisia, and Jordan. The water sector has also secured a source of revenue from efficiencies has historically relied on public financing, which is sector. initiated by the private ­ ­­ now largely outstripped by investment needs. A Private finance is a large untapped source that could common obstacle to the development of ven- help fill the water sector infrastructure financing gap dor-based finance is the lack of predictable and suf- in many ­ c ities. Vendor-based financing, through ficient tariff-based revenues to cover water build–own–transfer schemes (BOT), for example, production ­­ costs. In such case, the tax payer is have been crucial in mobilizing the necessary financ- expected to make up the difference, which entails a ing for many desalination facilities, and for some significant political risk for any private investment wastewater recycling ­ plants. Public-private partner- project. More generally, to access private financing ­­ ships (PPPs) have been a key feature of the Israeli vendor-based capital (including, but not limited to, ­ water reform, in particular to finance CAPEX and finance), actions that improve sector governance improve overall ­ performance. The seawater desalina- and efficiency should be prioritized to improve ser- tion program was financed through BOT schemes, vice providers’ ­­c reditworthiness. raising $1,300 million in private ­investment. Mekorot, the national water company, and the corporatized Sector Institutions Need to Adapt to regional utilities are now financed through commer- These New Challenges cial debt with private banks or bond issuances, with- A proper institutional setup that defines roles and out sovereign g ­ uarantees. Finally, subcontracting by responsibilities is essential for the management of scar- water utilities is encouraged to improve operational city situations and for emergency ­­ responses. Following performance and reduce costs; today, private contrac- the same criteria used to justify a change in the para- tors perform a large portion of the tasks of the digm and the need for management techniques and most-advanced Israeli water ­­ utilities. approaches different from what has been the “business Singapore has also relied on the private financing to as usual” of a city’s water utility and services, this paper services. PUB purchases desalinated water improve ­­ argues that the institutional setup under which these from the private sector, which built and now operates services are delivered needs to adapt to the new realities ­­ the desalination plant. Similarly, though the first three situations. and challenges presented by water scarcity ­­ 48 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Three of the principles for action provide the main ele- different users is clearly assigned to the river basin ments for the setting and framework for the institu- Segura). Its agency (Confederacion Hidrografica del ­­ tional setup: (a) the need to look beyond the city limits; regional perspective was developed one step further (b) demand management and infrastructure efficiency with the creation of the Mancomunidad de Canales as key elements of preparedness and response; and (c) del Taibilla (MCT), a regional agency entrusted with sources. The following paragraphs diversification of ­­ producing and delivering potable water in bulk to the present options for city managers to consider in this numerous municipalities in the region, which are ­­ respect, as well as relevant experiences. From these utility. The distributed by their respective water ­­ experiences a logical approach would be to propose common elements in these two cases and several ­ creating three focal points of responsibility within the other similar ones, notably in the United States, are management structure of the utility, to be in charge, the existence of (a) a strong and unified voice to pres- respectively, of (a) resource mobilization and external ent and defend the needs and position of urban users relations; (b)  demand management and infrastruc- (the cities) versus other users (notably agriculture); ture  efficiency; and (c) resource augmentation and (b) a negotiating table at a river basin authority in ­­diversification. allocations and resource management deci- which ­ sions are taken; and (c) established and transparent The need to look beyond the city limits to address rules for the allocation (and trading) and manage- scarcity situations and respond to emergencies is ­ ment of  ­­ resources. For this purpose, at the utility obvious. However, it presents special complications, ­­ level, the traditional roles of the units responsible for since, in most cases, it involves responsibilities and bulk supply need to be expanded to carry out jurisdictions that exceed the authorities normally the  external relations with other users and river vested on city officials and ­­institutions. The Singapore basin agencies, incorporating new functions such as Public Utilities Board (PUB), the single agency negotiating for additional transfers, water trading, or responsible for all aspects of supply and sanitation— overall management and monitoring of shared from source management to reuse—is an exception to resources, therefore establishing a responsible focal the general situation, which is better illustrated by point that coordinates internally these areas and one in which one agency is responsible for water ­represents externally the ­­utility. resource management and allocation, often at the scale of the river basin, while the city is one among To a great extent, actions that many users of the same resources. ­­ Malta, despite its contribute to the efficient func- Demand management and small size and high degree of urbanization, divides tioning of the network (such as ­infrastructure efficiency the roles of resource management and allocation, loss reduction, sectorization, have been highlighted as retained at the level of a government agency, from and pressure management) are elements of response key ­ those of service delivery. Service delivery is assigned part of accepted practice for a to scarcity ­­situations. to the Water Services Corporation, a public entity well-run utility, which need to responsible for the complete drinking and be scaled up in cases of scarcity, even if the opportunity waste water cycle in the Maltese Islands. ­­ It produces cost of the additional supply saved through these and distributes potable water and collects and treats actions is lower than the existing tariffs. ­­ However, the wastewater of over 250,000 households, busi- many other elements, particularly those aimed at nesses, industries, hotels, and so on, serving over reducing consumption, require techniques (such as 420,000 ­­ people. In Murcia, the responsibility for public campaigns, flow limitators, and economic water resource management and allocation among incentives) that are not part of what has been Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 49 usual.” These added techniques could “business  as  ­­ utility for the planning and implementation of the have significant negative impacts on the utilities’ finan- investment programs associated to resource augmen- cial situation by discouraging consumption, particu- diversification. The Malta Water Services tation and ­­ larly among the highest users, which are normally Corporation combines several different sources those that contribute the most to revenues (and which (desalinization, groundwater, wastewater reuse) to are subjected to the highest tariff blocks). ­­ Examples guarantee supply and has adopted a plan to further abound, however, of utilities that have been successful increase the contributions from desalinization and in drastically reducing their consumption while retain- reuse. Singapore has adopted the policy wastewater ­­ ing financial viability and quality of service for consum- of “four national taps,” aimed to achieve flexibility in ers (Zaragoza, Spain, is one example to watch). ­­ Utilities the supply and allow PUB management the possibility need to adapt their institutional structure to incorpo- of using the option that better responds to particular rate and coordinate the seemingly c ­ ontradictory initia- costs. Responsibility for situations and offers lower ­­ tives of demand management and  maintain the resource augmentation and diversification should utilities’ profitability, beyond the ­ traditional functions thus go beyond the investment phase and into the billing. The of network management, metering, and ­­ actual management of which combination of sources creation of a point of focal responsibility in the utility’s ­ to use with those objectives in mind, as well as into management structure for the  functions of demand the planning for future scenarios and potential management and infrastructure efficiency seems to be ­­emergencies. an efficient approach to address the many issues involved and plan and implement demand manage- ment and infrastructure efficiency actions in a coordi- Integration Is a Critical Enabler ­­ nated and efficient manner. Linked to these, tariff Dependence on resources shared at the basin scale structure issues and service delivery standards and means water resource management must take the river objectives should be part of the responsibilities basin scale into account, which requires specific insti- point. assigned to this focal ­­ tutional ­­ structures. To thrive as a stakeholder within a river basin, a city needs to secure municipal demand in Whether it is part of a medium-term resilience plan ­­ the face of other interests. Through river basin organi- aimed to adapt the city to growing water scarcity or zations, all users have access to a platform where their an emergency response, augmentation of available interests can be considered and uses prioritized resources, but especially diversification, are among according to the corresponding value of the water the main tools in the hands of the utility ­­ managers. user. The and,  often, the political clout of each ­­ Many of the alternatives considered (aquifer organizations provide flexibility and adaptive capac- ­ management and recharge, storm water capture, ­ ity, facilitating the reallocation of resources between desalinization of sea water, reuse of treated wastewa- places, users, and periods of use in response to evolv- ter) involve new technologies that go beyond the tra- ing needs, and the potential to adjust demands to ­­ ditional engineering practices used in most cities. available ­­resources. Additionally, because of the innovative nature of these technologies and the reduced number of sup- A successful institutional setup for the management pliers available, these investments have specific pro- of water scarcity situations requires effective man- curement requirements if efficiency is to be achieved. ­­ agement of water resources by a river basin agency Therefore, it is good practice to designate a focal point and involvement by a water supply and sanitation of responsibility in the management structure of the (WSS) service provider to ensure available resources 50 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report ­ dequate and ­­ are a secure. Where different uses are and the Orange County Sanitation District (OCSD) competing for finite resources, this structure contrib- helped identify wastewater reuse as a key cost utes to define and enforce equitable and efficient saver  for the water district—by securing a new allocations, and to maintain checks and balances drought-proof source of water—and for the sanita- between ­­ users. Murcia provides a good example of costs. tion  district—due to avoided seawater outfall ­­ such a paradigm, with the regional bulk water sup- In Brazil, aligning stormwater drainage and solid plier, MCT, representing the interests of all urban waste management investments has helped with water service providers to the river basin ­­ agency. The wastewater treatment by controlling the inflow of creation of this strong regional public entity was crit- trash and stormwater entering the WWTP system ical not only to garner public and political support in 2017). Planning for urban development can (Tucci ­­ water allocation processes but also to mobilize suffi- ­­ also facilitate future service provision. Windhoek cient funding to undertake costly infrastructure wants to promote the decentralization of industrial ­­ investments. Such integrated models and metropoli- growth to alleviate pressure on water resources in tan-wide approaches can be particularly relevant in certain concentrated zones of its service ­­area. By con- urban areas composed of multiple jurisdictions and trast, the Singapore PUB is one of the few agencies in WSS service ­­providers. the world that manages all aspects of water resources, which facilitates decisions about water source diver- Because wastewater management is handled by a sification and urban service planning. ­­ regional sanitation company, the benefits of pollu- tion control are linked to the river basin scale at which Beyond a change in contractual mandates, water scar- they are ­­accrued. In Malta, the size of the ­country encour- city management principles need to be reflected in the ages the centralization of service provision responsibili- service providers’ internal organization, processes and ties—from abstraction to wastewater t under ­reatment—​ ­­ incentives, and corporate culture. Water service provid- the Water Services Corporation, though all decisions are ers have traditionally been dominated by urban hydrau- checked by the Energy and Water Agency, the de facto lics engineering and planning functions, with a linear water resource management ­­ entity. management focus on obtaining, treating, delivering, collecting, and retreating water in a financially sustain- When water use is dominated by one main municipal able way. ­­ ­orporate Key performance indicators and c user, the same entity may manage service and resource service-related efforts have been geared toward direct ­ allocation, and thus have incentive to manage water targets and processes, leaving broader sustainability and ­­ resources efficiently. Such models exist in Singapore resilience aspects as secondary considerations under the and Las Vegas where creating a unified front in water diluted responsibility of water sector and urban manage- negotiations with other countries or states, respec- ment agencies. ­­ A detailed review of this transforma- tively, has been critical, motivating the integration of tional process among effective service providers of services and resource management under the same water scarce cities will provide valuable insights to sup- ­­ entity. If scale allows, these arrangements streamline port the paradigm shift outlined in chapter 2. ­­ allocation negotiations—with all interests centralized Finally, because an integrated approach to urban water in one agency—and promote ­­ transparency. management likely requires institutional changes and Integrating municipal water management with other reforms, political will and champions are needed to services can identify synergies and promote a circu- environment. catalyze and sustain the right enabling ­­ economy. In Orange County, joint planning lar ­­ In recognition of the strategic importance of the water between the OCWD (in charge of bulk water supply) crisis in Perth, a water policy unit was established in Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 51 the Department of Premier and Cabinet of the State of at  the Mediterranean Regional Technical Meeting, Marseille CMI, December 12–14. Western Australia in the early 2000s to support and coordinate the government policy ­­response. Singapore Dahan, S., and J. Grijsen. 2017. Managing Urban Water Scarcity in Morocco. Washington, DC: World Bank. leadership elevated water security as a top strategic Dillon, P., and Australia NWC (National Water Commission). 2009. priority for the country, which facilitated the planning Managed Aquifer Recharge: An Introduction. Canberra, Australia: reforms. and implementation of its broad sector ­­ National Water Commission. eThekwini W&S (Water and Sanitation). 2011. “The Durban Water Recycling Project.” eThekwini W&S, Durban, South Africa. Notes Gould, J., and E. Nissen-Petersen. 1999. Rainwater Catchment Systems for 1. Costs for vertical transport would be the least impacted by econo- Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation. London: volumes. mies of scale in terms of transported ­­ Intermediate Technology Publications. 2. World Bank ­­calculation. GWI (Global Water Intelligence). 2017. “Desalination & Water Reuse.” 3. Project information document describing the project available at the GWI, Oxford, U.K. following URL: ­­http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/7367115​ 1630 ​ 2 537958 ​ / pdf/Project-Information-Document-Integrated​ Kingdom, B., R. Liemberger, and P. Marin. 2006. The Challenge of -Safeguards-Data-Sheet.pdf. Reducing Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: World Bank. Moran, A. 2008. “Water Supply Options for Melbourne: An Examination References of Costs and Availabilities of New Water Supply Sources for Melbourne 2030 Water Resources Group. 2009. Charting Our Water Future: Economic and Other Urban Areas in Victoria.” Institute of Public Affairs, Melbourne, Frameworks to Inform Decision-Making. Washington, DC: 2030 Water Australia. Resources Group. Ross, A., and S. Hasnain. 2018. “Factors Affecting the Cost of Managed Atwater, R. 2013. “Southern California Water Committee Stormwater Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Schemes.” Sustainable Water Resources Capture Opportunities.” Presented at the Southern California Management. doi:10.1007/s40899-017-0210-8. Environmental Dialogue, Los Angeles, April 24. Tucci, C. 2017. “Stormwater and Flood Management.” Presented at World Batchelor, C., C. Fonseca, and S. Smits. 2011. “Life-Cycle Costs of Rainwater Bank Water Week 2017 Conference, “Operationalizing IUWM for TTLs Harvesting Systems.” Occasional Paper 46, IRC International Water and and Their Clients.” Sanitation Centre, WASHCost and RAIN, The Hague, The Netherlands. Yarra Valley Water. 2017. “Citizens Jury to Help Determine Water Services Bhagwan, J. 2012. “Durban Water Recycling Project.” Water Research and Pricing.” Yarra Valley Water, Melbourne, Australia. Commission, Pretoria, South Africa. Zhou, Y., and R. S. J. Tol. 2005. “Evaluating the Costs of Desalination Cosin, C. 2016. “Desalination Technologies and Economics: CAPEX, and  Water Transport.” Water Resource Research 41: W03003. OPEX & Technological Game Changers to Come.” Presentation given doi:10.1029/2004WR003749. 52 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Centuries-old cistern in Hababa, Yemen. © Bill Lyons/World Bank. Chapter 5 Conclusion Skyscrapers, urban populations, and temperatures Despite the daunting challenges outlined, this report are rising faster than ever. Up close, Earth’s cit- does not set out to evoke feelings of doom and gloom. ies buzz with activity and growth, while urban lights Rather, it shows the successful approaches many boldly shine from space. Although human societies cities have followed to shape a water secure future, ­ are growing and thriving, water scarcity is a persistent less vulnerable to the vagaries of rainfall, the likely problem that plagues cities worldwide. Effectively effects of climate change, and ever-increasing water managing water scarce cities has been a notoriously demands. challenging puzzle through the ages and is increas- Sometimes the most difficult problems have simple solu- ingly difficult. tions; addressing urban water scarcity does not rest Global metropolises have been struggling for their very solely on costlier infrastructure and complex technolo- survival against water scarcity. Headlines document- gies. Efficiency gains at all levels (including water ing drought and water shortages are ubiquitous. From demand, allocations, and infrastructure), improved Rome, Italy, to Cape Town, South Africa, stories of cooperation with other water users, or optimized ground- deficient water supplies abound, while Brisbane, water management can go a long way. Major gains in the Australia, is on the edge of a severe drought. cost reductions of nonconventional sources such as Although an abundance of water can boost economic desalination and reuse are game changers. Many solu- prospects and public health, lack of water can be tions for water scarce cities are already accessible and debilitating. less costly than traditional infrastructure approaches. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 53 There has been an explosion of innovation and knowl- to more integrated and better incentivized utilities will edge in water scarce cities, and the opportunity is ripe add support to dialogue on credit worthiness and access to unleash the potential for their replications. Water to private financing (local market) to finance infrastruc- utility managers need to move away from a passive ture development needs. reliance on historical water allocations and take If we pay close attention, water shares many lessons. responsibility to generate “new water” through appro- Water cooperates. Water nourishes. Water is per- priate and innovative measures. They must become sistent as it carves into seemingly impenetrable active players in the water resource management surfaces over millennia. Water adapts to its environ- debate, seek synergies with other sectors and users, ment, as it flows effortlessly beyond obstacles in and master communication with the public to spur its  pathway. Through the lens of water, the Water broad acceptance of water management decisions. Scarce  Cities (WSC) Initiative seeks to shed light on Research focusing on the shifts undertaken in terms of effective water management strategies in a changing service providers’ contractual mandate and performance world, to emulate knowledge exchange between obligations, internal organization, processes and incen- cities, and to encourage water utilities to become the tives, and corporate culture will be most useful to help empowered agents of change needed to challenge guide water scarce cities toward water security. This shift cities’ water scarce destiny. 54 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Part II Case Studies Malecon, Havana, Cuba. (c) Dorte Verner. Chapter 6 Introduction to Part II: Case Studies Part II compiles case studies from the Water Scarce the drivers of change. The case studies conclude Cities Initiative. These case studies were included to with a discussion on lessons applicable to other document and showcase the experiences and best c ities. Part II B, which is dedicated to cities from the ­ practices from cities that have instituted effective Southwest United States, provides background dis- solutions to tackle scarcity challenges. cussions on the institutional framework, water resources and use in a common introduction to avoid Each case study follows a similar structure: a brief repeating many of the features shared by these description of climate and hydrology and institu- cities. tional context, followed by a review of past and future water use, to put in perspective a discussion The case studies were selected considering the sever- on the city’s water balance. This then leads to a pre- ity of the physical water scarcity challenge, and the sentation of the policy, institutional and technical desire to illustrate a broad range of institutional and solutions implemented by the city, and, when possi- technical solutions, addressing a variety of contexts ble the political economy around their adoption and and challenges. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 57 MAP 6.1. Case Studies and Other Key City Experiences in This Report EUROP ROPE EUROPE NORTH NOR N RT OR AMERICA A TH AM CA MER CA ASIA C California Caalif ali al a l lifornia fo if r i ornia ia a((5) 5) (5) Murcia Mur rc a C CY YPPRRUS CYPRUS Laas Las Ve V s Vegas Veg ega eg as a gass Be Beirut Be rut son cs ucson u Tucs Tucsonon on Marrakesh MALT LTAISRAEL TA MALTA S SRRA R AEL ATLANTIC Amman A mma Amm ann J Jaipur ap Ja ur u pur MEXICO ME EX X XICO CO O OCEAN ND A INDIA AFRICA Fortaleza Singapore S n ngapo nga Singapo gapor or o p re re SOUTH AMERICA AM A AMERIC MERICA M ERICA R INDIAN Lima OCEAN Windhoek k BASELINE WATER STRESS AU A S STRALIA ST TR RA USTRAL A AUSTRALIA Durban LOW (<10%) Perth erth ert Pe Perth PACIFIC LOW TO MEDIUM OCEAN (10%–20%) Melbourne elbourne Me ne MEDIUM TO HIGH (20%–40%) HIGH (40%–80%) EXTREMELY HIGH (>80%) 0 2,000 4,000 Kilometers ARID & LOW WATER USE IBRD 43761 | JUNE 2018 NO DATA Source: World Resources Institute, Aqueduct Water Stress Projections Data, April 2015. Note: Map depicts baseline water stress. Black text denotes cities in case studies for report. Brown text denotes other key locations. 58 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Part II A Global Case Studies Source: https://pixabay.com/en/malta-travel-tourism-europe-island-485321/. Chapter 7 Malta Located in the Mediterranean at the crossroads of in 1964, became a republic in 1974, attained its free- Europe and Africa, the Maltese Archipelago is com- dom from the presence of British military troops in posed of three islands (Malta, Gozo, and Comino), cov- 1979, and became a member of the European Union ering a total land area of approximately 316 square (EU) in 2004, joining the euro area in 2008. kilometers, with a coastline of 140 kilometers. Malta, the largest of the three islands, has an area of The Maltese archipelago is home to 450,000 inhabi- 245 square kilometers; Gozo and Comino have an area tants, making it one of the most densely populated of  67 square kilometers and 3 square kilometers, countries in the world; approximately 95 percent of the respectively. territory is classified as urban. It is a popular tourist destination, particularly during the summer. The Malta has been inhabited since prehistorical times; its annual number of tourists in Malta equals five times strategic location gave it prominence as a military and the number of Maltese residents. naval outpost in the Middle Ages, along the route to the Holy Land. From 1530 to 1798, it was ruled by the Water supply is a challenge for the country, due to Order of the Knights of St. John as a vassal state of the absence of significant perennial surface water bod- the Kingdom of Sicily and resisted the advances of the ies and the lack of rainfall in the summer, which coin- Ottoman Empire. After a brief period of Napoleonic cides with the time of greatest demand. Malta was rule, Malta became a British colony in 1800. historically dependent on groundwater, abstracted from Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom a system of water tunnels and boreholes, and rainwater Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 61 harvesting; the population suffered from water rationing underground water storage capacity, yielding about 80 and intermittent supply from the 1970s through the late percent of groundwater abstracted in the country, is 1980s and early 1990s, when desalination was devel- provided by the mean sea-level aquifers of the islands oped at scale. Desalinated water currently accounts for of Malta and Gozo. The rest of the groundwater avail- more than half of the domestic water supply. able comes from the shallower “perched aquifers,” Groundwater still supplies about half of the domestic which are separated from the mean sea-level aquifers water supply and most of the water used for irrigation. by a layer of clay (­figure 7.1) (Malta Resources Authority and FAO 2004). Desalination, which currently provides Climate and Hydrology percent of the domestic drinking water around 60  ­ supply, has been practiced for decades in Malta—the ­ With an estimated water availability of 80–120 square first seawater distiller was built in 1881 in Valetta, meters per capita per year, Malta is one of the most and the three plants currently in operation were built highly water-stressed countries in Europe (Energy and in the 1980s. Water Agency 2015). Its climate is considered to be semiarid, with mild wet winters and hot dry summers Desalinated water has become the main source of and an annual average precipitation of 560 millimeters drinking water supply, supplemented by groundwater. per year. There are no exploitable surface water Currently, the drinking water distributed by the utility, sources  or watercourses in Malta. By far the largest Water Services Corporation (WSC), is a blend of FIGURE 7.1.  Schematic Cross-Section of Malta’s Aquifer System, Showing the “Perched” and Mean Sea-Level Aquifers In iltration Upper 100–200 mm/yr coralline limestone Rapid in iltration via lcarst features and fractures? Poorty parmeable, Impermeable blue Borehole fractured globigerina clay Enhanced limestone recharge at clay margin? Rate of downwards Spring Lower movement in matrix coralline Pumping 0.5–2.0 m/yr limestone station Porosity = 7–20% Natural Borehole Fault Fault groundwater flow Gallery Saturated travel lime 15–40 years SW Natural direction of Groundwater drawn under perched Saine upcoming NE groundwater ow aquiferes by abstraction Source: BGS 2017. Reproduced with the permission of the British Geological Survey ©NERC. All rights reserved. 62 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report desalinated seawater produced by reverse osmosis Storage capacity is supplemented by private residents’ (RO), and groundwater from the mean sea-level tanks. Current storage capacity allows for a total of aquifers. Because the quality of the groundwater no ­ three days’ supply of desalinated water in Malta, so the longer meets potable drinking water standards, drink- flexibility allowed by interplant transfers is essential to ing water is blended in the reservoirs at a ratio of ensure security of supply. After experiencing water approximately 60 percent desalinated seawater and shortages in the 1980s, all private residents also have 40 percent groundwater. Large-scale exploitation of small water tanks on the roofs of their houses. the mean sea-level aquifers of Malta and Gozo began in There is a diversification of water sources on the smaller the 1950s and increased to meet the national potable inhabited island of Gozo. The main source of water in water demand. Those aquifers are currently tapped by Gozo is groundwater from the mean sea-level aquifer the WSC as well as by thousands of private (registered system of the island. During periods of high demand, it and unregistered) boreholes owners, mainly for agri- is supplemented by a water transfer from the Cirkewwa cultural use. It is estimated that private users abstract desalination plant, through a submarine pipeline. The about the same amount annually from the aquifers as utility is planning for a new desalination plant in Gozo the WSC, with some variation between wet and dry as the submarine pipeline can malfunction and be diffi- years (abstracting more than WSC in dry years). A sig- cult to repair when the seas are rough. This happened in nificant part of the abstraction from the private sector January 2017, and the island was cut off from water sup- is from the perched aquifers, where the quality of the ply for a number of weeks. Because this occurred during water is low due to nitrate pollution and increasing the low season, demand for water was relatively mod- salinity; many springs, that tap into these aquifers est in Gozo, but were this to happen during the high sea- have been abandoned over the years for public water son, the challenge for WSC would be much greater. supply, although they are still used for agricultural purposes (Malta Resources Authority and FAO 2004). Nonconventional water sources being developed include There is also some limited rainwater capture in urban wastewater reuse, which is currently being scaled up by and rural areas and self-supply from groundwater. WSC (three polishing plants are to be commissioned that A small number of residents living in small hamlets rely will produce a total of 7 million cubic meters by the end on the traditional spieri (private wells). Water reuse is of 2017), and rainwater harvesting (including initiatives also being developed, with the commissioning of the to promote rainwater harvesting and double piping with first New Water plant in the spring of 2017 by WSC. households). Stormwater capture and greywater recy- cling are being piloted on a much smaller scale. Water Resource Use Strategy The benefits of desalinated water outweigh the costs Desalination offers more than just an additional source in Malta, because of the need to ensure that ground- of water for Malta. The blending of groundwater water abstraction remains sustainable. For total with  desalinated water is vital to reaching drinking costs, groundwater remains the cheapest resource water standards. On its own, the quality of the (0.28  euros per cubic meter), followed by desali- ­ groundwater  is now too low to be used for drinking nated seawater (0.72 euros per cubic meter). water, mostly due to pollution from nitrates and high Polishing or treating wastewater for reuse is more salinity. The  three desalination plants are located in expensive. There have been some pilot demonstra- areas of high population, and Malta has developed a tion initiatives on greywater recycling, most notably system of transfer pipelines between them that enables by Global Water Partnership–Mediterranean (GWP- managers to be flexible in meeting demand. Med) (box 7.1) and private hotels, but WSC has no Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 63 BOX 7.1. The Global Water Partnership–Mediterranean Nonconventional Water Resources Program The Nonconventional Water Resources (NCWR) Program in Malta, also known as Alter Aqua, is a multistakeholder program that brings together the GWP-Med, the Energy and Water Agency under the Prime Minister’s Office, the Ministry for Gozo (MGOZ), the Eco-Gozo Project, and the Coca-Cola System in Malta (Coca-Cola Malta and General Soft Drinks Co. Ltd). It commenced its activities in November 2011 and is primarily funded by a Coca-Cola Foundation grant and cofunded by MGOZ. It is part of the regional NCWR Programme in the Mediterranean, also implemented in Cyprus, Greece, and Italy. The NCWR Programme mobilizes NCWR as a sustainable solution for water security and climate change adaptation in the Maltese Islands by showcasing smart, innovative, and cost-effective NCWR solutions through small- and medium-scale demonstration projects, focusing on rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling. Activities are complemented with technical workshops for local technicians to enhance expertise in NCWR technologies; capacity-building workshops for local authorities to advance NCWR management; an educational program for students and teachers with specially developed educational materials; knowledge and sharing of experiences at the local, national, and regional levels; and raising the awareness of the general public on sustainable water use and domestic NCWR solutions. The NCWR Program in Malta installs new and rehabilitates existing NCWR rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling systems, mainly in selected public buildings and areas on Gozo and Malta. These are fully functional and demonstrate different technologies and various applications in diverse facilities (schools, public buildings, historical buildings, universities, and sports facilities). Possible secondary uses of harvested rainwater and recycled greywater are also showcased, such as toilet flushing, landscaping (including green roofs), irrigation, and aquifer replenishment. By 2017, four rainwater harvesting systems were installed and seven systems rehabilitated in schools, public areas, and buildings in Gozo and Malta. A storm water retention application was being implemented in Ramla Valley, Gozo. Greywater recycling systems have been installed in the Helen Keller Resource School; Gozo Football Stadium; Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology; and the National Swimming Pool. The Alter Aqua educational program has reached out to more than 13,300 students with hands-on activities and trained more than 1,200 school teachers, in cooperation with Nature Trust Malta and the Mediterranean Information Office for Environment Culture and Sustainable Development. The Program has also contributed to the development of a new National Water Resources Management Strategy for the Maltese Islands through a national consultation on the theme. The new strategy highlights the potential use of NCWR at the domestic and community levels for secondary uses to alleviate the pressure on limited fresh water resources and close the supply-demand gap. Source: Global Water Partnership–Mediterranean, Nonconventional Global Resources Program, http://www.gwp.org/en/NCWR/ncwr-pro​ gramme/NCWR-Programme-Mediterranean/. 64 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report plans to scale them up in the short-term. Stormwater monitored in accordance with the EU Water Framework capture is perhaps the least economically and finan- Directive (WFD). Eighty-seven percent of Malta’s cially feasible option (2.10–5.10 euros per cubic groundwater bodies contain nitrate or chloride levels meter for agricultural use)—land is costly and rain that exceed EU drinking water standards as a result of events are relatively infrequent and unpredictable in nitrate contamination of rainwater in soil used for agri- Malta, which would lead to the equipment being culture (Heaton et al. 2012). Furthermore, overabstrac- used only for a limited period during the year tion of groundwater over the past decades has led (JASPERS 2008). to seawater intrusion, which further degrades ground- water. Maps 7.1 and 7.2 show the quantitative and qual- Precipitation Variability and Consequences to itative status of the groundwater bodies of Malta as Hydrology reported under the EU WFD in 2015. The Maltese climate is typically Mediterranean, with Groundwater resources are at risk of further degrada- mild, rainy winters and dry, hot summers. The mean tion from expected changes in rainfall patterns and monthly temperature for the summer season was 35°C recharge. Following the WFD, Malta is taking steps to over the past century, while the lowest monthly aver- prevent deterioration and restore the qualitative and age temperature was 11°C in January and February. The quantitative status of groundwater by 2015 or, under average annual precipitation stands at approximately some circumstances, by 2021 and 2027, through a 560 millimeters. During the past century, the average dedicated Program of Measures, including the New monthly rainfall was highest in December (at approxi- Water program, which is expected to provide an alter- mately 94 millimeters), with the highest precipitation native source of water for agricultural use (Energy rates occurring between November and February, and and Water Agency 2015). lowest in July (with practically no rain at all). Humidity tends to be high on the Maltese Islands, with little sea- sonal variation (Malta Resources Authority 2017). Water Use Rainfall patterns over the Maltese Islands are charac- Brief Overview of WSS Framework terized by relatively high spatial and temporal variabil- The Energy and Water Agency is tasked with formulat- ity. Even the average wettest months can be very dry in ing and implementing the government’s national poli- some years. During the rainy season, the increasing cies for the water sector to ensure the security, number of days with thunderstorms implies that sustainability and affordability of water and sanitation heavy precipitation events of short duration are on the services in Malta.  The Ministry of Transport and rise, while precipitation on average has decreased over Infrastructure is responsible for stormwater and valley the same period (Malta Resources Authority 2017). management, which includes flood protection. Forecasts for the Southern Mediterranean indicate The  Ministry of Transport recently implemented the higher temperatures and reduced average precipita- €56  million National Flood Relief Project (NFRP), tion (Malta Resources Authority 2017). which has been described as the largest engineering project ever implemented in Malta. Risks to Resource Quality A recent change in the structure of the water supply The main aquifer in Malta consists of a freshwater lens and sanitation (WSS) framework has separates the role floating over seawater; competition for groundwater of policy making from that of regulation. The resources has depleted the aquifer over the years. The Environment and Resources Authority is now the quantity and quality of groundwater is currently national environmental regulator for water resources, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 65 MAP 7.1.  Quantitatve and Qualitative Status of Groundwater in Malta, 2015 a. Quantitative b. Qualtitative IBRD 43189 | SEPTEMBER 2017 0 5 10 Kilometers Gozo Gozo Victoria Victoria Mediterranean Comino Comino Sea nnel nnel C ha ay C ha ay ino ha B ino ha B om om .C llie .C llie S Me ay S Me Bay 's B ul's P aul Pa St. St. Malta Malta Birkirkara VALLETTA Birkirkara VALLETTA Mdina Bormla Mdina Bormla Mediterranean Siggiewi Siggiewi Sea Marsaxlokk Marsaxlokk Good status Poor status Fil a Cities Fil a National capital MALTA Source: Energy and Water Agency 2015. and the Regulator for Energy and Water Services, Regulations are implemented through the Water established recently through the Regulator for Energy Catchment Management Plan (WCMP) for the Maltese and Water Services Act of 2015, is the financial regula- Islands; it is the strategic policy document guiding tor for water and sanitation services. water resources management for the country. Provision of water and sanitation services, including Coverage wastewater collection, treatment, and reuse is under the Maltese residents have universal access to reliable authority of the WSC. The WSC produces and ­ distributes water and sanitation services. Residential water is sup- potable water and collects and treats the wastewater of plied primarily by WSC (estimated at 82 percent of total over 250,000 households, businesses, industries, and domestic water use). Sources of self-supply include hotels serving over 420,000 people. The WSC operates (1) rainwater harvesting (estimated at 11 percent); and RO, sewage treatment and polishing plants, pumping sta- (2) private groundwater use particularly from old tions, reservoirs, and boreholes all over the country. hand-dug wells, locally known as spieri (estimated at ­ The WFD has been incorporated into national law 7 percent) (figure 7.2). For sanitation, Malta embarked as  under the Water Policy Framework Regulations on a large investment program in wastewater collec- of  2004. The WFD and the Water Policy Framework tion and treatment in the 2000s, and 100 percent of 66 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 7.2.  Water Sources for Domestic Water wastewater is collected and treated to secondary treat- Supply in Malta, 2013 ment by the WSC, either by connection to the sewerage system or cesspit waste removal. From 2017 on, approximately 30 percent of the wastewater treated will be made available for reuse to agricultural and 11% 7% industrial water users. Urban Water Use Unlike many cities and countries, and because of the 32% high level of urbanization and small size of the coun- try, Malta’s domestic sector uses the highest average share of water, followed closely by agricultural water use for irrigation. On average, domestic water use is 50% estimated at approximately 20 million cubic meters per year or 40 percent of the national water consump- tion (figure 7.3). Agricultural water use is highly depen- dent on climate variability. Domestic water consumption in the Maltese Islands is Private groundwater supply estimated to be about 110 liters of water per person per Groundwater abstracted, treated, and sold by WSC Reverse osmosis from WSC day (Sapiano 2015), below the rate of consumption of Rainwater harvesting other European countries. Surveys on household water use show that about 50 liters are used for cooking, Source: Energy and Water Agency 2015. Note: WSC = Water Services Corporation. drinking, and personal hygiene; the remaining amount FIGURE 7.3.  Trends in National Water Demand in Malta, by Sector, 2003–13 70 60 Cubic meters (million) 50 40 30 20 10 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Domestic sector Agricultural sector Commercial sector Other sectors Total demand Source: Energy and Water Agency 2015. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 67 is used for various domestic purposes such as flushing There is no specific institutional framework that gov- toilets and doing laundry. erns allocation, drought, or emergencies. WSC decides whether to increase or decrease the proportion of Economic Dependence on Water Intensive desalinated seawater in the water supply based on the Sectors quality of the groundwater and the ensuing blend in Maltese residents still remember vividly the impact of the reservoirs. Should groundwater use be prohibited potable water rationing and intermittent supply in the for drinking purposes, desalinated seawater could sup- 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, which drove the rapid ply a maximum capacity of 67,000 cubic meters per development of desalination facilities. Malta views the day, which is less than the peak demand of 93,000 provision of good services and infrastructure as vital to cubic meters per day in summer. attracting foreign investment and developing the tour- ism industry, which accounts for 25 percent of its gross Water Balance for Current Situation domestic product (GDP). Desalinated water production without Additional Resources or Actions coupled with network efficiency improvements have Groundwater abstraction for domestic and agricultural avoided disruptions in drinking water supply in the past water use remains unsustainable, particularly for the decades. Although per capita water consumption mean sea-level aquifers. Table 7.1 presents the ground- remains one of the lowest in the EU, population growth, water balance for the largest aquifer, the Malta Mean tourism, and economic development have contributed Sea-Level Aquifer System. Abstraction volumes may to an increase in residential water consumption, with vary year to year. limited demand-management efforts until recently. Water quality is one of the main challenges for water By contrast, water shortages have caused farmers to resources management. Groundwater, which had sup- shift toward practices and irrigation systems that plied all of Malta’s water, can no longer be considered a make more efficient use of water resources. The agri- primary source for drinking water, which needs to be cultural sector has had to work with groundwater that combined with water from another source (such as is less plentiful and of an inferior quality, supplied desalinated water) to meet quality standards. However, either through farmers’ own boreholes or by bowsers groundwater still contributes most of Malta’s water sup- (legally registered water tankers, delivering ground- ply, especially for agriculture (­ figure  7.4). Agricultural water from private boreholes for resale at any time, users account for almost 80 percent of abstractions in not only in emergencies); desalination has not been the perched aquifer systems but less than 40 percent for an option for them. Levels of abstraction from private the mean sea-level aquifer systems, which are also and registered boreholes are monitored by WSC. tapped by WSC (which accounts for 47 percent of abstracted water on average). The tourism industry is a heavy consumer of water and sanitation services during peak season in summer, Total water use has remained stable over the past when resources are most scarce, but it has adapted by decade. Desalinated water production is close to investing in its own water supply sources. All major 19  million cubic meters per year. The most notable hotels, located mostly along the coastline, have change for municipal water supply was a tenfold invested in small RO units (most of which are sourced reduction in real losses, which were cut from and serviced by a subsidiary of WSC) to produce desali- 4,000  cubic meters per hour in 1995 to cubic meters nated water, which helps them meet higher seasonal per hour in 2005. Since then, water supplied by WSC water demand and relieves WSC of the pressure of for municipal use has remained stable, at between peak demand. 30 and 33 million cubic meters per year. 68 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report TABLE 7.1. Groundwater Balance for the Malta Mean Sea-Level Aquifer System, 2015 Cubic meters (millions) Groundwater recharge Natural recharge 28.8 Recharge from perched aquifers 1.4 Artificial recharge (leakage from municipal networks and return flow from irrigation) 6.25 Groundwater extraction Municipal 11.2 Agricultural 7.5 Other abstraction 3 Natural subsurface discharge 18 Groundwater deficit −3.45 Source: Energy and Water Agency 2015. FIGURE 7.4. Annual Average Groundwater Abstraction nonrevenue water (NRW). WSC is now developing pro- in Malta, by Sector grams for water reuse in agriculture as an alternative to groundwater abstraction, along with increasing rain- water harvesting and managing demand. These solu- tions are detailed below. 14% Desalination RO plant operation was identified as a strategic alter- 37% native in the late 1970s as a result of the intensive borehole-drilling campaign in the1960s and 1970s, which sought to increase groundwater production from the mean sea-level aquifers (FAO 2006). Although overall groundwater production figures 49% increased, the quality of the groundwater suffered as a result. In 1980, salinity had doubled in less than 1  year, and yet domestic demand still could not be met; the population was subject to intermittent water rationing. It had become evident that the aquifers Water services corporation could no longer meet the growing domestic and agri- Agriculture cultural demand. The first seawater RO plant started Other sectors production in 1982 with a capacity of 20,000 cubic Source: Energy and Water Agency 2015. meters per day—one of the largest in the region at that time. Since then, desalination plants have been con- Solutions structed in Pembroke, Cirkewwa, and Lapsi. Today, these plants produce about 60 percent of the total Malta has long used RO to remedy the decline in drinking water supply in Malta. the  quantity and quality of groundwater. From the mid-1990s on, as its desalination production capac- Management and operation of desalination plants is ity  increased, WSC started to invest in reducing under the exclusive control of WSC. Desalination Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 69 facilities were initially built with foreign investment important role in the decrease of total system demand and expertise and then transferred to the WSC, which between 1995 and the mid-2000s, and notable results now manages them. A fourth seawater desalination have been obtained in the leakage management pro- plant is currently being planned for Gozo Island. gram, where real losses decreased by a factor of 10, Desalination developments from 2004 onward bene- from 4,000 cubic meters per hour in 1995 to 380 cubic fited from EU funding and incentives. In anticipation meters per hour in 2017. of Malta joining the EU (which meant that the energy However, apparent losses remain a challenge. NRW used to power the desalination plants would no lon- remains at 40 percent, substantially because some ger be subsidized), WSC invested heavily in reducing meters cannot detect the small trickles of water used energy consumption at the desalination plants. The to fill up water cisterns, which are estimated to account current total cost of producing desalinated water is for up to 20 percent of NRW. Billing anomalies are 0.72 euros per cubic meter, while the cost of produc- responsible for another 8 percent. Immediate next ing groundwater is close to 0.28 euros per cubic steps are to focus on improving billing to reduce NRW meter. Energy accounts for about three-quarters of further. the cost of desalination (the proportion is similar for groundwater). Demand Management From the mid-2000s on, tariffs were increased to Hotels are also equipped with their own mini-RO ensure cost recovery for water services provision. systems, the total capacity of which exceeds 1 mil- ­ (Sanitation services, which are under the WSC, are lion cubic meters (FAO 2006). A WSC subsidiary sells partly subsidized by the government.) Tariffs are and services these RO units, controlling about approved by the Regulator for Energy and Water 80 percent of the hotel RO market in Malta. The hotels Services. Currently, there is one domestic tariff rate for are also connected to the WSC mains. The water tar- consumption of less than 33 cubic meters per person iff charged by WSC for drinking water to the hotels is per year (1.40 euros per cubic meter); for consumption higher than that for residential use (2.20 euros per over that amount, the tariff jumps to 5.14 euros per cubic meter compared to 1.40 euros for the first band cubic meter. Nonresidential customers, including the of the residential tariff). The fixed costs of connec- tourism industry, pay 2.18 euros per cubic meter for tion are recovered through an annual charge. consumption of less 33 cubic meters per year, and Desalinated water is currently not used in the agri- 5.14 euros per cubic meter in excess. cultural sector. There is a strong impetus at the policy level to work Non Revenue Water Reduction further on demand management. WSC has put in place At the start of the 1990s, WSC had increased its capac- an online system, which allows customers to monitor ity to provide water through the construction of a in real time their domestic water consumption. Next number of desalination plants; yet the population still steps include a National Water Awareness Campaign suffered from intermittent and poor quality water sup- run by the Energy and Water Agency, which will target ply, because of the poor quality of the network and both residential and agricultural water users. the  high level of NRW, which was estimated at 60–70 percent at the time. From 1995 on (with funding Rainwater Harvesting from the EU Structural and Cohesion Funds), WSC In 2003, rainwater harvesting was estimated to have a invested in leakage reduction and in upgrading the potential capacity of about 2 million cubic meters in water distribution networks. These actions played an Malta (FAO 2006). However, rainwater harvesting is 70 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report not as widespread as it used to be, or rather as it should of measures in place to optimize the management of be, even though legislation requires all domestic and small dams. It is also investing in a pilot Sustainable institutional buildings to be equipped with a rainwater Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) to try and catch as collection cistern. This practice was widespread prior much rainwater as possible upstream of the valleys. to the World War II; with the advent of modern water supply practices, it was quickly abandoned, although New Water the legislation remained. As a result, most building are Wastewater treatment capacity was developed at scale not equipped with rainwater collection tanks. Since in Malta in the 2000s; currently, all of the wastewater 2003, new legislation has called for the reintroduction produced is collected and treated by WSC, up to sec- of this practice; the collected rainwater could be recy- ondary treatment. Some of the treated effluent has cled as greywater in the home (for toilet flushing) or been made directly available to agricultural water outside the home (for gardening). Informant inter- users since the 1980s (about 1 million cubic meters per views revealed that, although most new institutional year). The idea of treating sewage effluent up to a buildings (such as schools and hospitals) abide by this higher standard for reuse had been considered for legislation, households rarely invest in the expensive many decades; funding from the EU enabled WSC to double-piping that would be required for greywater invest in the construction of New Water polishing facil- use, and domestic rainwater harvesting remains below ities, which bring the quality of treated effluent almost its potential (Cardona 2006). up to drinking water standards. WSC had been champi- The low level of enforcement of rainwater harvesting oning this idea for decades, to provide an alternative to in the domestic water sector can perhaps be attributed groundwater abstraction for agricultural and indus- to the absence of an institutional home, even though it trial water users. would bring multiple benefits such as the potential for Three New Water polishing plants with a combined flood mitigation and a decrease in water demand. The capacity of 7 million cubic meters have been built Ministry of Infrastructure is in charge of stormwater under the first program of measures under the WFD management, which includes rainwater harvesting, (2010–15) and will be commissioned gradually in 2017. but enforcement for domestic lies with the urban plan- A small distribution system already exists and will be ning authorities; rainwater harvesting is not part of further developed under the next phase (2015–21), with WSC’s core business. networks designed to supply an estimated 1,250 h. The agricultural sector makes use of harvested rainwa- Agricultural water users represent the bulk of the ter. The agricultural census of 2001 registered about expected users of New Water. A sophisticated mapping 9,000 agricultural cisterns (FAO 2006). In addition, exercise was done by WSC to estimate the agricultural there are approximately 100 small dams and 200 small water users with the most water-thirsty and high- reservoirs filled by rainwater (the storage capacity of the value crops who could pay for this service. In parallel, largest units is on the order of 2,000 cubic meters). They WSC will also run an information and marketing are owned by the government, managed by the Ministry campaign, which will target not only farmers but also of Infrastructure, and represent an estimated combined consumers of agricultural products and the public at potential storage volume of 150,000 cubic meters. large. Tariffs will be subsidized by the government for the These can be used by neighboring farmers, and no first years to provide an incentive for agricultural users to charges are applied for water abstraction. The Ministry test and try New Water: It will be given for free for the of Infrastructure is currently using Lidar to map existing first 3 years (while the distribution network is being storage capacity more precisely and aims to put a series expanded), with tariffs to be considered afterward. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 71 Managed aquifer recharge is also being considered as residential customers. Malta has reduced the energy part of this scheme, but with strict conditions and demands of desalination, but is still dependent on monitoring so as not to affect the part of the aquifer affordable energy for the production of drinking water. which is being used for groundwater abstraction for The country is entirely dependent on energy imports, drinking water supply; a master plan for aquifer either from natural gas or through the Malta-Sicily recharge will be developed. planned Artificial interconnector, which allows imports from the recharge will be conducted in the winter, when European electricity market. The progress made demand for New Water from agricultural water users should therefore be nuanced, considering the follow- will be the lowest, and production of New Water ing risks for the future: (1) increasing reliance on RO for should outstrip demand. the next decades (and therefore on sustainable and affordable energy) and (2) that behavior change does Conclusion not lead to the expected outcomes for rainwater har- vesting, domestic demand management, and New Malta has made tremendous progress in managing Water use for agriculture. water scarcity in the past decades by developing a two- pronged strategy of diversifying and augmenting water References supply sources. Domestic demand management has BGS (British Geological Survey). 2017. “Nitrate Sources in Malta.” BGS, lagged but is now the focus of policy makers, although Keyworth, U.K. (accessed July 18, 2017), http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research​ it remains to be seen whether this will bring about the /­groundwater/quality/Malta.html. expected reductions in residential water use. Now that Cardona, C. 2006. “An Integrated Approach toward s Assessing the the population no longer suffers from water cuts, there Feasibility of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting in Malta.” Master’s thesis, University of Oxford. is a perception that water is available in abundance Energy and Water Agency. 2015. The 2nd Water Catchment Management and behavior will be difficult to change. Plan for the Malta Water Catchment District 2015–2021. Valletta, Malta: Energy and Water Agency. Although risks remain to achieving water security, they are known at the political and the service delivery FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations). 2006. Malta Water Resources Review. Rome: FAO. level. The New Water program is currently in its incep- Heaton, T.H., M.E. Stuart, M. Sapiano, and M. Micallef Sultana. 2012. “An tion, and there is a risk that agricultural water users Isotope Study of the Sources of Nitrate in Groundwater in Malta.” Journal may still prefer to use their boreholes; however, this is of Hydrology 414–415 (January 2012): 244–54. something WSC is fully aware of, and they are invest- JASPERS. 2008. “Preliminary Assessment of the Viability of Options for ing heavily in marketing and promoting New Water to Stormwater Protection and Reuse for the Birkirkara–Msida Stormwater Project.” Presentation at https://circabc.europa.eu/webdav/CircaBC​ encourage behavior change at the agricultural pro- /­MARE/steccostclimat/Library/country_information/malta/Jaspers%20 ducer and consumer levels. Malta has become reliant -%20Msida%20SWP%20(2).pdf. on desalination for drinking water supply. For the past Malta Resources Authority. 2017. Climate Change Introduction, Malta 35 years, desalination plants have been managed very Resources Authority, Marsa, Malta (accessed March 14, 2017), http://mra​ competently by WSC, but with very little breathing .org.mt/climate-change/climate-change-introduction/. room for additional production or storage capacity. Malta Resources Authority and the FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations). 2004. A Water Policy for the Future. WSC benefits from the tourism sector’s investment in Marsa, Malta: Malta Resources Authority and FAO. RO production capacity to help the country face peak Sapiano, M. 2015. “Water Catchment Management Plan.” Presentation at demand in summer. The economics of the tariff have 2nd RBMP Consultation Meeting, September 25. https://energywateragency​ helped, as hotels are charged a higher fee than .gov.mt/en/Documents/RBMP%20Workshop​%202592015.pdf. 72 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Murcia Valley of Ricote. Source: https://pixabay.com/en/murcia-valley-valley-of-ricote-2354219/. Chapter 8 Murcia, Spain This case study presents the experience of the The region of Murcia is located on the Mediterranean Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla (MCT), a regional coast in southeastern Spain. It has almost 1.5 million authority that has successfully guaranteed urban water inhabitants, distributed over 11,000 square kilometers. supply in a context of strong competition for scarce water Over a third of the population is concentrated in the resources in southeastern Spain. Given Spain’s multilevel main cities and towns. The region has a gross domestic and polycentric approach to water resource manage- product (GDP) of over US$36,000 per capita. The ment, the case study focuses on four overlapping geo- regional economy rests on four pillars (INE 2017): (a) graphical and institutional scales: the Segura River Basin the service sector (including tourism), which gener- Authority (RBA), or Confederación Hidrográfica del ates 69 percent of regional GDP; (b) agriculture, which Segura, which allocates raw water to the MCT and other generates 13 percent of employment and 4 percent of users in the basin; and the MCT, which provides treated regional GDP; (c) the industrial sector, which generates water to most municipalities in Murcia, the region of 12 percent of employment and 17 percent of GDP; and Murcia, and its capital, the city of Murcia (map 8.1). This (d) the construction sector, largely related to tourism, multiscale approach is necessary to understand urban which generates 5 percent of GDP and regional water supply in a context of scarcity in Murcia. employment. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 73 MAP 8.1. Segura River Basin, Murcia Region, and Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla Hydrographic and Hydraulic Network IBRD 43194 | SEPTEMBER 2017 SPAIN SEGURA RIVER BASIN, CASTILLA-LA MANCHA MURCIA REGION SEGURA RIVER BASIN COMUNIDAD VALENCIANA WATER TREATMENT PLANT Talave MCT–DESALINATION PLANT M undo R. Reservoir AQUAMED–DESALINATION PLANT I & II INFRASTRUCTURE PLANS Alicante RECENT EXPANSIOIN R. TAJO–SEGURA TRANSFER Taibi lla S e gur a R. Alicante I MCT MURCIA Alicante II MCT ALICANTE MURCIA REGION MCT ALBACETE CITY OF MURCIA Torrevieja MURCIA AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITY Torrevieja BOUNDARIES n R. nti San Pedro I San Pedro II ale Bay of Biscay G uad FRANCE ANDORRA Lorca Cartagena Madrid Mediterranean Valdelentisco PORTUGAL Sea Valdelentisco Is. ric Ba lea ANDALUCÍA Águilas MURCIA REGION Area of Map Águilas Mediterranean Sea ATLANTIC 0 25 50 Kilometers OCEAN ALGERIA MOROCCO Source: Elaboration by M. Ballesteros with GIS layers and data from MCT, Segura RBA, and other public agencies. Note: MCT = Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla. The city of Murcia has about 440,000 inhabitants (30 Guaranteeing access to water resources for drinking, percent of the region’s population) and is the political irrigation, and other economic activities has been an and economic capital of the region. The city was his- ongoing political and social priority in Murcia. With torically an important agricultural exporter, with the average annual precipitation at about 380 millimeters traditional Huerta de Murcia producing irrigated horti- per year and intense water demand, the water cultural products and supporting a strong agroindus- exploitation index plus (WEI+) for the region exceeds trial sector. The city has grown over the historic Huerta, 100 percent, indicating unsustainable patterns of creating a complex landscape of independent but water use. Irrigated agriculture consumes 86 percent overlapping water supply networks for irrigation and of available resources and dominates water policy and urban water supply. management. The regional approach to urban water 74 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report supply that the MCT represents is a key element for Domestic water supply and sanitation (WSS) services guaranteeing high-quality drinking water for Murcia are a municipal responsibility. Autonomous regional residents. governments provide financial, technical, or adminis- trative support to municipalities and often develop Climate and Hydrology and implement regional water sanitation plans. In the region of Murcia, WSS services are regionally inte- Murcia has a typical Mediterranean climate with grated and involve several institutions: high spatial and temporal variability. Precipitation in the region ranges from over 1,000 millimeters per • The Segura RBA is responsible for river basin plan- year in the northwestern headwater sierras to 200 ning and management and raw water allocation and millimeters per year in the southeastern coast, with distribution to different users (urban supply, agri- average annual precipitations at 385 millimeters per culture, industry, etc.). year. Rainfall concentrates in the fall and spring, • Aguas de las Cuencas Mediterráneas (ACUAMED) is with an extended dry and hot summer season, when a state company that develops hydraulic infrastruc- water demand for irrigation and tourism in coastal tures in the Mediterranean basins of Spain. It has towns is greatest. Like the rest of Mediterranean been responsible for the construction and manage- Spain, Murcia suffers periodic droughts, with ment of 13 desalination plants on the Mediterranean the  more recent dry periods occurring in the coast with funding from the central government, the 1980s, early 1990s, and mid-2000s, and a dry period European Union (EU), and, in some cases, from the starting in 2016. end users. The MCT, a public agency under the central ministry in A significant reduction in available water resources charge of water affairs, supplies bulk potable water to when comparing the long-term hydrologic series the regions of Murcia, Alicante, and Albacete. In (1940–2016) versus shorter series (1980–2016) has Murcia it supplies 43 municipalities and 96 percent of been termed as the “1980s’ effect” in Spanish water the population through an intricate infrastructure sys- management. In the case of the Segura basin, avail- tem including two dams on the Taibilla River, six water able regulated surface water resources have decreased treatment plants, four desalination plants, and over by over 30 percent. Recent studies have estimated 1,000 kilometers of primary canals. that, under different climate change and demand variability scenarios, available water resources may Municipalities in the region are responsible for distri- decrease by an additional 20 percent in the Segura bution and sanitation services within municipal River Basin by 2040 (CEH-CEDEX 2012). boundaries. EMUASA (Empresa Municipal de Aguas y Saneamiento de Murcia S.A.) manages WSS services Institutional Context for Water Resource for the city of Murcia and 54 villages. EMUASA is Management owned by the Municipality of Murcia (51 percent) and Water policy and management authority in Spain is HIDROGEA (49 percent), a subsidiary of AGBAR (Suez distributed among different tiers of government. RBAs Environment). Map 8.1 illustrates the different scales that depend on the central government are responsible of analysis presented in this case study: Segura River for water allocation, planning, and management in Basin district; the area supplied by the MCT differenti- river basins that, like the Segura, cross two or more ating between the part that falls in the autonomous autonomous regions. Regional governments have regions of Murcia, Valencia, or Castilla-La Mancha; the authority over intraregional river basins. region of Murcia; and the area supplied by EMUASA. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 75 The General Water Directorate of the Regional cubic meters from these drought wells, with 80 million Government of Murcia developed the 2,000 regional cubic meters allocated to MCT and the rest to irrigation Sanitation and Treatment Plan and created a (Custodio 2016). The 2015 Segura Basin management regional public company, ESAMUR (Entidad Regional plan has determined that 70 percent of groundwater de Saneamiento y Depuración de Aguas Residuales), to aquifers had water quality problems, deriving primar- manage its implementation. ESAMUR operates waste- ily from nitrate and pesticide diffuse pollution from water treatment plants through agreements subscribed agriculture, salinization from irrigation return flows, with municipalities. and seawater intrusion. The Tajo-Segura interbasin transfer (Tajo-Segura Water Resources Water Transfer, or TTS), transfers water from the headwaters of the Tajo River through a 300-kilometer Given the strong temporal and interannual variability canal to the Talave reservoir on the Mundo River in water resource availability, the region of Murcia has (map 8.1). The transfer’s economic and management expanded and diversified its water portfolio as demand rules establish maximum transfers of 600 million has increased. Today, it relies on five primary sources: cubic meters per year (110 of which is allocated for the surface and groundwater resources from the Segura MCT and 400 of which is for irrigation) and estimates River Basin, imported water from the Tajo River Basin, 15 percent (90 million cubic meters) of evaporation desalinated water, and reclaimed water. losses. In reality, lack of resources in the Tajo have Surface water resources from the Segura River Basin limited transfers to an average 350 million cubic are mostly allocated to historical irrigation districts. meters per year, of which 106 million cubic meters The primary exception is the Taibilla River, a tributary have been allocated for the MCT. of the Segura to the north of the basin (see map 8.1), which is fully allocated to the MCT for urban water Desalinated water is produced in five plants in the supply. The Segura RBA manages five major and 28 region of Murcia: two owned by the MCT and three minor reservoirs with a combined storage capacity of by the publicly owned company ACUAMED 1,140 million cubic meters. The implementation of the (map  8.1). Total desalination installed capacity is regional Sanitation Plan (2001–10) has dramatically 332 million cubic meters per year, but only improved surface water quality in the Segura River. million cubic meters were being produced in 158  ­ Challenges remain as a result of high salinity and 2016, 61 percent of which by the MCT. Desalinated nutrient-rich return flows from irrigation in the lower water use is expected to increase to over 190 million parts of the basin (Martínez-Fernández 2016). cubic meters for the 2021 planning horizon (CHS 2015). Higher prices for desalinated water make it Groundwater is a strategic resource. Cities relied on less desirable for users. groundwater before their incorporation to the MCT service area. Out of a total demand of 244.6 million Treated wastewater became an important additional cubic meters for urban water use in the Segura River resource since the implementation of the sanitation plan Basin, on average 5.5 million cubic meters are covered in 2001. Ninety-nine percent of wastewater in the region with groundwater resources. In times of drought this wastewater is treated, and over 60 percent of the 88 ­ amount can increase significantly: the Segura RBA treatment plants apply tertiary treatment. Competition operates over 145 drought wells designed to temporar- significant: irrigators have for this new resource has been ­ ily pump water above renewable levels. During the obtained 80 percent of the  147 water permits granted 2005–08 drought, the Segura RBA pumped 480 million by  the Segura RBA for  wastewater reuse. The other 76 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 20  percent have been  allocated to municipalities for in 2008, changes in consumer behavior, and improve- public uses. Treated wastewater cannot be legally used ments in service efficiency have resulted in a decline in for domestic water supply. overall demand both within EMUASA and MCT service areas. This trend is expected to continue, despite an In summary, MCT relies on three primary sources anticipated increase in nondomestic public uses for of  water: the Taibilla River (€0.02 per cubic meter); development of new green spaces. Tajo  water through the TTS (€0.01 per cubic meter); and when these resources are insufficient (in particular Irrigated agriculture is the primary water user in the during the peak summer months), desalinated water Segura River Basin, demanding 86.2 percent of all from MCT plants (€0.57 per cubic meter to €0.72 per available water resources. It is a culturally and politi- cubic meter) and if necessary purchased from cally strategic sector, even though it generates only ACUAMED-owned plants (€0.29 per cubic meter). The 1 4  percent of GDP in the region of Murcia. In the use of desalinated water year round has also become Segura River Basin, irrigation gross annual demand is important to meet water quality standards during times 1,518 million cubic meters, exceeding the total esti- of low surface water flows, and after national legal mated average annual resources of 1516 million cubic reforms in 2013 reduced TTS allocation to the MCT. The meters from all water sources. The TTS-supplied irri- increasing weight of desalination is compensating gators are grouped in the Tajo-Segura Aqueduct decreasing resources from the Taibilla. Groundwater Central Irrigators Syndicate (SCRATS), a powerful (€0.17 per cubic meter) and other Segura surface water player in regional and national water politics. SCRATS resources are almost fully allocated to irrigation. encompasses 80 irrigator associations—in Murcia, Alicante, and Almería—representing 80,000 irrigators. At the level of the city of Murcia, EMUASA holds a For the most part these are highly profitable intensive 6.6 million cubic meter surface water allocation from irrigation operations. the Segura RBA (€0.01 per cubic meter), which covers approximately 20 percent of its water needs and is being fully used before MCT water is purchased (€0.69 Solutions per cubic meter). The municipality of Murcia also Overview holds rights to about 1 million cubic meter of ground- The Segura River Basin presents a classical example of water sources (€0.17 per cubic meter) and is consider- basin closure, in which resources have been fully allo- ing a request for additional resources from treated cated and only nontraditional resources are available wastewater and groundwater for nondomestic uses. for allocation. Agricultural water use dominates the region both quantitatively and politically. The tempo- Water Use ral variability of water resources, the historical alloca- Urban water represents 11 percent of all water demands tion of most conventional water resources to irrigation, in the Segura River Basin. Piped water supply reaches and the deterioration of water quality in the Segura 100 percent of the population in both the region and River throughout the 20th century presented import- the city of Murcia. Demand peaks in the summer ant challenges for urban water supply. The success of months, when the permanent resident population of the region’s efforts to guarantee domestic supply 2.5 million increases by over 0.5 million and water despite these challenges rests on five pillars: consumption increases by over 30 percent. ­ • The creation of the MCT as a public entity dependent Over the past decade, the combined impacts of the of the ministry in charge of water affairs, making it a 2005–08 drought, the economic crisis that started powerful player both politically as well as financially, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 77 since it guaranteed public funding and strong com- 1960s, the Taibilla River proved insufficient to meet mitment for infrastructure development. growing demand so the system was connected to the • The interconnection of different sources of water to TTS project, allowing further expansion of MCT service improve resilience. area. The 1990s drought severely affected both the Segura and the Tajo rivers and signaled the vulnerabil- • The implementation of the regional sanitation ity that resulted from dependence on TTS transfers. plan  (2001–10), publicly funded and managed This prompted the construction of two desalination supported with EU cohesion and European (­ plants in 2003 and the setup of framework contracts Regional Development Fund [ERDF] funds), and million cubic meters with ACUAMED, securing up to 63 ­ the implementation of a water sanitation levy pay- from its desalination plants, greatly diminishing scar- able by all residents and industries through their city risks. Since 2013, changes in TTS management rules water bills. through national legislation in 2013 have reduced trans- • Efficiency improvements and citizen behavioral fers and reallocated TTS waters to irrigation, increasing changes that have led to a remarkable decrease in MCT’s dependence on desalination resources. urban water demand, a phenomenon common to other Spanish urban areas. Effective drought planning has been instrumental in • The integrated management of water resources at minimizing drought-related risks. Drought manage- basin scale by the Segura RBA, providing flexibility ment plans, such as the 2007 Segura River Basin and adaptive capacity, facilitating the reallocation of Drought Management Plan and the 2013 Drought resources between places, users, and periods of use. Emergency Plan for the City of Murcia, have been approved in compliance with national legal require- The city of Murcia’s connection to the MCT water sup- ments These plans use an indicator system to calcu- ply network in 1956 ended a decades-old search for a late an index that defines four risk levels: normal, reliable and safe source of drinking water. The imple- prealert, alert, and emergency. Each level triggers a mentation of the regional sanitation plan has improved set of measures that, in the case of urban water uses, water quality in the Segura River, which crosses the can range from public outreach campaigns to impos- heart of the city, transforming it into a valuable open ing use restrictions. When an alert level is reached, a space resource for its citizens, and regenerating import- legislative drought decree is usually approved by ant resources in the form of treated wastewater. the central government, enabling the RBA to restrict The key to the success of the system, however, is the or  reallocate water rights and undertake other MCT, which became a public entity in 1946 and is measures. directly dependent on the central government to facil- itate funding for necessary infrastructures. Its history Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla: shows continuous efforts to seek new sources of water Diversifying Resources to address emerging water deficits and increase resil- The severe socioeconomic impacts of the 1990s’ ience to droughts. drought triggered a transition from drought emer- At every stage, the MCT has successfully dealt with the gency response to drought risk management in political dominance of irrigation in the region, con- Spain. In the MCT service area, domestic and urban stantly seeking alternative resources to guarantee water use restrictions were imposed in 1995 and supply. The core canal system was initially expected to ­ 1996. The drought showed the vulnerability of a supply the cities of Cartagena, Murcia, Alicante, and 47 water distribution system that relied heavily on other municipalities from the Taibilla River. By the late interbasin water transfers from another basin, 78 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report the Tajo, that was subject to similar patterns of cli- infrastructure renovation and agricultural modern- matic variability, and where domestic supply had to ization plans; (b) improve water quality through the compete with more powerful irrigation interests construction of wastewater treatment facilities; and (in spite of the legal priority of drinking water uses). (c) augment water supply with desalination and The MCT looked at desalination as a preferable and wastewater reuse as alternative resources. The more resilient alternative to drought-proofing its A.G.U.A. Programme was partially funded by EU urban water supply system. Production of desali- Cohesion and ERDF funds. nated water could also be easily adapted to seasonal In the MCT service area, the A.G.U.A. Programme variations in demand, which is significant in the included several projects that increased MCT’s case of the MCT. desalination capacity and built additional desalina- The MCT encouraged municipalities within their tion plants developed and operated by ACUAMED. service area to implement conservation measures In the case of MCT, desalination was implemented and efficiency improvements starting in the late without controversy. The 2005–08 drought arrived 1990s, but demand was expected to keep growing after three years of exceptionally low flows in the due to urban and tourism development plans Taibilla River, and desalinated water was used as throughout the region. Following standard proce- soon as it became available. In a context of drought, dures for other infrastructure investments, the MCT economic growth, and expectations of increased designed the projects for the original desalination demand in multiple planning horizons, MCT signed plants and planned to develop and finance them. framework contracts with ACUAMED for the  pur- The construction and operation of the desalination chase of additional desalinated resources (63 ­ million plants were outsourced through a public tendering cubic meters). Expected increases in demand did not process issued in 2000. The plants were partly materialize, and these framework contracts were not funded through EU cohesion funds (85 percent of executed until 2015 and later, when the loss of TTS construction cost) and a 15-year concession to a con- waters to irrigators and the decrease in TTS transfers sortium of private companies that built the plant required all available desalinated water to meet under MCT direction. MCT purchases the plants’ demand. output and the price covers both amortization and production costs. Main Challenges In 2004, a new political change in the national gov- A new distribution infrastructure was required to con- ernment resulted in the cancellation of a key element nect the coastal desalination plants with a distribution of the 2001 National Hydrologic Plan: the construc- network to move water from the basin headwaters tion of a large interbasin water transfer from the Ebro toward the city of Murcia and the coast, where urban River to the southeastern Mediterranean Coast, demand is highest. Much of the inland part of the MCT including the Segura River Basin. The cancellation service area is still supplied by Taibilla and TTS responded to environmental and economic viability resources. The use of desalinated water closer to the concerns, as well as strong social and political opposi- coast allows the release of Taibilla and TTS resources tion from the donor regions (Font and Subirats 2010). for other regions. As an alternative, the incoming administration devel- oped the Actions for Water Management and Use The incorporation of desalinated water into the MCT Programme (A.G.U.A.), a comprehensive plan to mix has affected production costs and thus water (a)  increase water use efficiency through water prices, as illustrated in figure 8.2. MCT tries to Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 79 contain water production costs by mixing water undertaking the necessary legal reforms to guarantee from different sources to minimize the use of desali- the continuation of the TTS. These reforms were nation to the extent possible, while balancing water approved in 2013 and 2014, and have favored irriga- quality requirements, demand variability, and tion interests (MCT has lost the right to the “evapo- expected evolution in the availability of surface ration savings”). Furthermore, transferred volumes water resources. are now divided between MCT (25 percent) and SCRATS (75 percent), with a minimum of 7.5 million The MCT water rate is designed to cover its opera- cubic meters of monthly transfers allocated to MCT. tional, maintenance, and investment costs, as well as Prior to the reform, and given domestic uses legal the cost of external water sources. Periodic rate reviews priority, the entire MCT allocation (110 million cubic are approved by the MCT board of directors. Given the meters plus evaporation savings) was guaranteed if participation of all municipal representatives in the enough volumes were transferred. In the current board and decision-making process, and the direct cor- context, MCT expects to receive on average 70 mil- relation between production costs and rates, the revi- lion cubic meters per year from TTS, a significant sion of the rates mostly avoids conflicts. decrease from the historic average of 106 million Irrigation interests are powerful players in the region’s cubic meters, with increased probability of not hydropolitics, limiting the options available for receiving any water in some months, as is the case in domestic water supply in spite of its legal status as a the summer of 2017. priority use. The historical allocation of most Segura In this new context, desalination has become a strate- River flows to irrigators is at the root of MCT’s original gic resource for MCT, which expects to use the full search for sources of water in the Taibilla River Basin ­ production of its desalinated plants (approximately headwaters, over 200 kilometers away from the origi- 80 million cubic meters). For instance, in May 2017, as nal destination, in the city of Cartagena. Reclaimed TTS resources decreased, desalination covered up to wastewater, which has become available through the 40 percent of all MCT water needs, double the average publicly funded regional sanitation plan, has also been for the 2003–16 period. MCT is also negotiating individ- allocated to irrigation, making it challenging for ual purchasing agreements with irrigator associations municipalities to obtain concessions for public uses. and cities that have their own sources of water. The most recent illustration of the political clout of irri- EMUASA: Improving Efficiency gators can be seen in the negotiation over the reform of The case of EMUASA illustrates the improvements the TTS management rules, which has limited the in efficiency and ongoing reduction in per capita con- amount of TTS water assigned to MCT. New water pol- sumption that characterize urban water uses in much icy priorities derived from the implementation of the of the MCT service area and in most Spanish cities. The EU’s Water Framework Directive resulted in the publi- case of MCT-associated municipalities is unique in that cation of a draft river basin management plan for the they are guaranteed supplies from MCT and are Tajo River in 2011, which limits transfers to the Segura responsible only for water distribution and sanitation River Basin to increase environmental flows and within municipal boundaries. improve the Tajo’s ecological health. Responding to pressures from the transfer recipient regions, a political EMUASA focuses on the first three steps of the agreement was reached between these  regions, International Water Association’s four-step pro- SCRATS, and the central government. The  “Tajo gram  for efficiency improvements; the first three Memorandum” commits the central government to are  (a)  ­ sectorization of the network, (b) pressure 80 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report BOX 8.1. Improving Efficiency in Zaragoza, Spain Zaragoza is a city of over 700,000 inhabitants located in central-northeastern Spain. The municipality has an area of over 970 km2. Zaragoza has a continental Mediterranean climate and average precipitation of 340 mm per year. Two water sources guarantee the quantity and quality of its water supply. First, water from the Ebro River reaches the city through the Canal Imperial de Aragón, an irrigation and navigation canal that runs parallel to the river and has historically been its main source of water. Second, the Yesa-Loteta reservoir system on the Aragon River has served as the primary source of water since 2010. The municipality of Zaragoza manages the urban WSS services. Water is available to 99.7 percent of the population and sanitation to 98 percent. The water distribution network includes 1,288 kilometers of pipes, and the sanitation network includes 1,139 kilometers of pipes and nine pumping stations. In 2014, the city abstracted 58.8 million m3, down from 107 million m3 in 1979, when the city had only 400,000 inhabitants. Per capita consumption in Zaragoza is 99 liters per person per day (lpd), an almost a 30 percent decrease figure B8.1). Zaragoza’s remarkable achievements are the from consumption levels in the early 2000s (­ result of a concerted effort, which started in the mid-1990s, to improve the efficiency of water use. FIGURE B8.1. Evolution of Daily per Capita Consumption in Zaragoza and Spain 180 170 160 150 Liters per capita per day 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year Zaragoza Spanish national average box continues next page Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 81 BOX 8.1. Continued Public outreach and education campaigns, which targeted different groups, including public service institutions and the general population, were started in the mid-1990s through a local nonprofit, the Ecology and Development (ECODES) Foundation, with support from the European Union Life program the municipality of Zaragoza, and a variety of private and public partners. The Water Quality and Management Improvement Plan the goal of reducing raw water use by 19.75 percent, from 80 million m3 in 2001 to 65 million m3 in 2006. This goal was achieved by investing in network (€53 million), as well as by improving the renovation of the drinking water distribution ­ deposits and other infrastructures (€29 million). Twenty-one percent of the network has been renovated since 2002, and 3 percent continues to be renovated annually. ­ In Zaragoza, over 337,000 water meters monitor water consumption for domestic, commercial, and industrial users to facilitate the implementation of demand control policies. In 2004, Zaragoza changed its water pricing and billing system in consultation with a wide array of interest groups and stakeholders. The current water tariff aims to cover investment and operating costs. It has a block tariff structure that favors lower income citizens and penalizes higher consumption levels: It promotes efficient water use by reducing by 10 percent the price of water for those families that reduce their annual consumption by more than 10 percent. The tariff for the first 6 cubic meters is 50 percent below production costs. As part of the 2004 reforms, Zaragoza changed the way it billed its customers. Before 2004, 96 percent of citizens paid their water bills electronically through their banks and did not receive a paper bill at home. Now all residents receive a detailed monthly paper bill. Consumption is measured monthly so residents are billed for real consumption levels instead of estimates based on past consumption patterns. The bill itself serves as a communication tool to convey information on consumption levels and encourage savings. Zaragoza promoted a collaborative approach to water saving policies through the creation of the Zaragoza Innova en Agua y Energía (ZINNAE) cluster, an association of the main economic agents for the efficient use of water. ZINNAE includes urban WSS companies, research centers, and local and regional public administrations. The city has also promoted the creation of Comisión 21, a group of social agents, neighborhood associations, and nonprofit associations that participate in municipal decision-making processes related to water. Finally, there is an internal commission within city hall that includes all municipal departments and is coordinated by the city’s Agency for Environment and Sustainability. This commission is critical to the development of proposals, such as the recently approved Municipal Ordinance for Ecoefficiency and Quality in the Integrated water management (Ordenanza municipal para la ecoeficiencia y la calidad de la gestión integral del agua) that was approved in 2011. Zaragoza aims to continue reducing both the demand of raw water as well as per capita consumption levels through a variety of measures that include: full implementation of the new water ordinance; development of new programs through collaboration with ZINNAE; and enhancement of network efficiency by substituting the current system of building connections to the city’s distribution pipes. 82 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report regulation to minimize breaks and leaks, and (c) speed other cities such as Zaragoza, with consumption below and quality of repairs. The fourth step, (d) an ambi- 100 liters per person per day). EMUASA charges a water tious but very costly infrastructure replacement pro- tariff of €2.7 per cubic meter to its users, including WSS gram, is not a priority for EMUASA, but small network services, higher than the Spanish national average of replacements are annually undertaken in areas where €1.27 per cubic meter, but below the tariffs charged in breaks and leaks are recurrent. a number of other European cities. EMUASA’s most successful efforts to improve water The Way Forward use efficiency have focused on the microsectorization The MCT is currently not considering alternative solu- of the water distribution network and early detection tions, since existing desalination capacity both from and repair of leaks. This process has been conducted in MCT- and ACUAMED-owned plants covers current two phases: demands and possible future growth scenarios. Efficiency gains in municipalities within the MCT ser- • Level 1: hydraulic zoning. Implemented in 1989, it vice area and the impacts of the economic crisis that subdivided the water distribution network into 102 started in 2008 have resulted in a continued decrease hydraulic zones of 25 square kilometers in which in water use production in the MCT starting in 2005 bimonthly technical efficiency estimates serve to and until 2014, during which the downward trend calculate nonregistered water and intervene in seems to have stabilized. The crisis in Spain had a the  most problematic sectors. Four hundred and housing bubble component, which severely affected sixty-four water meters were installed that allow the MCT service area, where many residential develop- daily measurement of production, distribution, and ment, resorts, and other leisure-related infrastructures nighttime minimum flow. were planned and built. • Level 2: dynamic microsectorization. Implemented Given increasing reliance on desalinated water, future in 2008–09, it has subdivided the network into 297 risks derive from the evolution of energy prices that will microsectors of 5 kilometers each. The system increasingly affect the evolution of the MCT rate. allows the isolation of the microsectors at night and Further actions will need to advance in the interconnec- the calculation and control of the minimum night tion of the different water sources to continue improv- flows without modifying normal distribution ing system resilience. However, there are technical and conditions. financial limitations to these interconnections, and Microsectorization allows for rapid detection of leaks, some parts of the MCT service area will continue to which are located with a leak detector and repaired depend on Taibilla and, currently, TTS waters. As TTS within a maximum of 2.5 days. The implementation of water becomes an increasingly unreliable resource, the program has allowed EMUASA to improve reduce other alternatives will have to be considered. nonrevenue water (NRW) to less than 14 percent down from more than 40 percent in 1975, as illustrated in Conclusion figure 8.3. The experience of the MCT in the region of Murcia is Water consumption in Murcia has decreased continu- an important example of a successful approach to ously since the 1980s, reaching 155 liters per capita per guarantee urban water supply in arid regions and day, a 20 percent reduction from all-time highs in the diminish vulnerability to droughts and expected cli- 1990s, (although still exceeding the Spanish national mate change impacts. Irrigated agriculture dominates average of 130 liters per person per day, and well above water resource policy in Murcia both quantitatively, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 83 by being the primary water consumer, and politically, First, the political and discursive dominance of the irri- by dominating regional discourses, policy initia- gation lobby at the national and the regional levels effec- tives,  and demands over water. In this context, the tively limits MCT’s adaptability and forces it to rely institutional design of the MCT has proven to be resil- on more costly and energy intensive sources of water. ient, effective, adaptive, and durable. The following It  may be necessary to reinforce the legal priority of points highlight the success of the urban water supply domestic water supply and reduce irrigation’s impact on story in Murcia: the region’s water quality and overall availability. • The creation of a strong regional public entity, MCT, Second, the reliance on external resources from the that can leverage political, financial, and physical Tajo River increases the vulnerability of the MCT resources to develop infrastructure, garner public and water supply system. The Tajo experiences the same political support, and guarantee sufficient funding. climatic variability as the Segura River Basin, and the transfer is subject to social and political controversies • The existence a solid institutional framework for that exceed the control of the agency. As Tajo waters water planning and management at the scale of the become less reliable, the MCT will have to increas- river basin. ingly rely on other water sources and will need the • An effective governance structure for the MCT that political and institutional support to make this (a) incorporates representatives from multiple levels possible. of government in decision-making to facilitate trust and cooperation among competent authorities; Third, unrealistic demand growth expectations in the (b)  closely integrates the Segura RBA within the 1990s and early 2000s led to the investment in desali- decision-making bodies, thus facilitating coopera- nated infrastructures that may not have been neces- tion in the allocation and annual management of sary, but that are proving crucial to compensate for the resources; and (c) creates effective financing mecha- unreliability of TTS waters. As the water portfolio has nisms (the MCT rate) for financial stability. become increasingly diversified, the MCT has created a • The increased diversification and interconnec- water production and distribution network that is tion  of different sources of water to minimize heavily energy dependent. Experience has shown that, vulnerability, increase flexibility, and maximize as reliance on desalination has increased, so have MCT resilience. rates. This upward trend will continue in the foresee- able future, affecting water supply tariffs charged by • The availability of EU funding that has helped municipal utilities. To manage production costs, MCT finance up to 80 percent of infrastructure develop- will have to develop ambitious energy management ment in the region in recent decades. Whether policies. investments in nontraditional resources would have been possible without this funding in such a short Acknowledging the success of the regional model for period is in question. urban water supply that the MCT represents, and iden- • Urban utilities within the MCT service area, such as tifying the key elements of its success, will be first EMUASA, have invested in efficiency improve- steps in guaranteeing its continuity in the future and ments, thus contributing to reduce overall demand effectively facing the challenges ahead. and giving MCT the necessary flexibility to success- fully tackle new scarcity situations. Note The MCT experience faces challenges that will have to be 1. The price corresponds only to production costs since MCT paid for addressed to guarantee the sustainability of the model. part of plant construction. 84 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 2017. Síntesis de los Planes Hidrológicos Españoles: Segundo ciclo de la References DMA (2015–2021). Madrid: MAPAMA-CEDEX. Cabezas, F. 2011. “Explotación de las aguas subterráneas en la cuenca del Martínez-Fernández, J. 2016. “El uso del agua en la cuenca del Segura: Segura.” [Exploitation of groundwater in the Segura basin]. In: Recursos, demandas y propuestas.” In El río Tajo: Economía, cultura Villarroya, vF.; De Stefano, L. & Martínez-Santos, P. (cords.), El papel de y  medio ambiente, edited by J. Monteiro and B. Larraz. Conference: las aguas subterráneas en la política del agua en España [The role of João  Monteiro Serrano & Beatriz Larraz Iribas (Coords): El Río Tajo. groundwater in Spain’s water policy] SHAN Series Vol. 3. Botín Economía, Cultura y Medio Ambiente. Proceedings of 2º Foro Ibérico del Foundation. 103 pp. Available from http://www.fundacionbotin.org​ Tajo. 19-20 marzo 2016, 134–43. Vila Franca de Xira, At Lisboa, Volume: /­monografias_obser​vatorio-del-agua_publicaciones.html. Edición A.I.D.I.A. CEH-CEDEX. 2012. Estudio de los impactos del cambio climático en los MCT (Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibilla). 1995. Canales del Taibilla: recursos hídricos y las masas de agua. Informe final. Informe técnico para 50 años creando futuro. Murcia, Spain: Ministerio de Obras Públicas, el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. Madrid: Transportes y Medio Ambiente, MCT. CEDEX. 40-407-1-001. ———. 2016. Mancomunidad de los Canales del Taibilla: El organismo y su CHS (Confederación Hidrográfica del Segura). 2015. Plan Hidrológico de la evolución histórica. Murcia, Spain: MCT-MAGRAMA. https://www.mct​ Demarcación Hidrográfica del Segura. Madrid: MAPAMA. .es/web/mct/el-organismo-y-su-evolucion-historica. Custodio, E. 2016. Aspectos hidrológicos, ambientales, económicos, socia- Raskin, P., P. H. Gleick, P. Kirshen, R. G. Pontius, Jr., and K. Strzepek. 1997. les y éticos del consumo de reservas de agua en España: Minería del agua “Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the subterránea en España. Barcelona: Aqualogy-Cetaqua. World.” Stockholm Environmental Institute, Sweden. Document ­ prepared Font, N., and J. Subirats. 2010. “Water Management in Spain: The Role of for UN Commission for Sustainable Development 5th Session 1997 – water Policy Entrepreneurs in Shaping Change.” Ecology and Society 15 (2): 25. stress categories are described on page 27-29. Available at http://www.sei​ http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss2/art25/. -­international.org/mediamanager/documents​ /­Publications​/SEI-Report​ -WaterFutures-AssessmentOfLongRangePatternsAndProblems-1997.pdf INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística). 2017. “Online Data for 2016.” Instituto Nacional de Estadística. www.ine.es. Villar García, A. 2014. “El coste energético de la desalinización en el programa A.G.U.A.” Investigaciones Geográficas 62: 101–12. Instituto Interuniversitario MAPAMA-CEDEX (Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio de geografía Universidad de Alicande. Julio-Diciembre. doi: 10.14198/ Ambiente y el Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Públicas). geograficas.com. INGEO2014.62.07. Available at http://www.investigaciones​ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 85 Chapter 9 Republic of Cyprus The island of Cyprus is located in the eastern basin of the government control.1 The island division is material- Mediterranean. The third largest Mediterranean island ized by a buffer zone, under the control of the United after Sicily and Sardinia, its total population is estimated Nations (UN). Although many efforts have been made at about 1.2 million people (2016). The Republic of Cyprus in the last decades under the auspices of the UN to set- was established in 1960, when the island gained its inde- tle the issue, the country remains divided. pendence from Great Britain. However, following ethnic This case study focuses on the water management strife and the invasion in 1974 of the northern part of the experience of the Republic of Cyprus; that is, the south- island by the Turkish Army, it has been separated along ern part of the island (GCC) (map 9.1). It has a perma- ethnic divides between the Greek Cypriot community nent population of close to 950,000 plus almost 3 (GCC) and the Turkish Cypriot community (TCC). million tourist arrivals per year (2016). Currently, the Republic of Cyprus controls only the southern 60 percent of the island, which is home to the Climate and Hydrology GCC. It is the only internationally recognized govern- ment of the island. In 2004, it became a member of the Cyprus and Malta are the two most water-stressed European Union (EU), and adopted the euro in 2008. countries of the EU. Availability of renewable natural The north of the island (about 37 percent of the terri- freshwater in Cyprus stands at only 390 cubic meters tory) is home to the TCC and falls outside of per capita per year in the government-controlled area, This chapter is adapted from Marin, Philippe, Bambos Charalambous, and Thierry Davy. Forthcoming. “Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity: Lessons and Perspectives from the Republic of Cyprus.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 87 MAP 9.1. Large Water Infrastructure Operated by the Water Development Department IBRD 43771 | JUNE 2018 Deniz Geçisi Pipeline Rizokarpaso to Turkey (80 km) M e d i t e r r a n e a n S ea Lapithos Akanthou KERYNIA Trikomo Kythrea Le oniko MORPHOU NICOSIA Le a Lakatamia FAMAGUSTA Avgorou Polis Paralimmi Dali Athienou TR Liopetri OD Xylatymbou OS Ormidhia Ayia Napa MO UNT Larnaca Xylophaghou AINS Tersephanou Larnaca Dhiarizos Pano Le ara Kiti Kiti PAPHOS Diversion Khirokitia Limassol LIMASSOL Limassol 0 10 20 Kilometers M e d i t e r r a n e a n S ea CYPRUS RAW WATER CONVEYOR WITH OFFTAKE POINT NEW DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT WORKS DIVERSION WEIRS/DAMS SOVEREIGN BASE AREAS (UK) RAW WATER CONVEYOR IN TUNNEL NEW SEWAGE TERTIARY TREATMENT WORKS IRRIGATED AREAS PRESENT CEASE-FIRE LINES TREATED WATER CONVEYORS EXISTING DOMESTIC WATER SERVICE RESERVOIR NATIONAL CAPITAL UN BUFFER ZONE NORTHERN CYPRUS CONVEYORS NEW DOMESTIC WATER SERVICE RESERVOIR EXISTING DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT WORKS which is well below the standard threshold for extreme due to continued population growth and increased water scarcity of 500 cubic meters per capita per year demand from tourism. (the normally accepted threshold for scarcity being at After independence, the slogan “Not a Drop of Water 1,000 cubic meters per capita per year).2 Because of its to the Sea” was adopted by the Cypriot government arid climate and limited size, Cyprus does not have any and determined the national water policy for the rivers with perennial flow. There are only a few ensuing decades. As a result, Cyprus embarked into streams, and these flow only during the winter rainy a massive program of surface water and rainwater season; therefore, the island depends entirely on sea- storage through dam construction, most of which sonal rainfalls for its natural water resources. were of the earth-fill type. The water storage capac- Because Cyprus lacks permanent superficial water bod- ity went up from a mere 6 million cubic meters in ies, the Cypriot population relied entirely on groundwa- 1961 to about 332 million cubic meters in 2015. It is ter until the mid-twentieth century. As a result, at the estimated that about 54 percent of the water from time of independence in 1960, the aquifers were already rainfalls is captured into the dams. Dams are used overexploited, with growing salinization on the coastal only for potable water supply, irrigation, and aquifer aquifers. The situation became worse in the last decades recharge. 88 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report In spite of the development of surface water storage, irrigation, since farmers would decide how much annual the Cypriot government could not achieve water crops to grow based on how water they can get each year. security due to the high variability of rainwater and ­ This decision-making framework is now evolving with the  frequency of multiyear droughts. In the last two desalination. While desalination could serve as a base decades, Cyprus has turned to the development of load to supply most of domestic potable water needs, the nonconventional water resources, including desalina- annual allocation of raw water from dams for irrigation tion and wastewater reuse, to achieve water security. depended until now not just on rainfalls but also on short-term financial considerations. The capacity of the Water Resources Strategy four large desalination plants supplying Larnaca, For many years before the desalination program went Limassol, and Nicosia (with a fifth plant to be constructed into full gear, potable water supply in Cyprus was subject soon to supply the city of Paphos on the west coast) is to considerable pressures and uncertainties. At the end now—since 2012—able to cover almost all the demand for of each winter, a decision had to be made regarding the domestic potable water in urban areas.3 In theory, this allocation of available water between domestic supply means that all water stored in the dams could be allo- and irrigation. Policy makers had to consider demand cated to irrigation. However, desalinated water is costly, from domestic users and agriculture and the target for and the 2012–14 period, when the two new desalination the amount of water stored in the dams before the fol- plants in Limassol and Vassilokos started to operate (and lowing rainy season. This latter element was particularly the Larnaca plant was rehabilitated and expanded), coin- sensitive, because it involved taking a gamble on how cided with the 2012 financial crisis in Cyprus. Figure 9.1, much water would fall in the following rainy season. which shows the sources of potable water for the distri- While demand for potable water is stable and therefore bution systems supplied in bulk by the Water predictable, it worked the other way around for Development Department (WDD) since 1991, including FIGURE 9.1. Potable Water Supply Sources in Cyprus, 1991–2015 90 82.1 80.6 81.9 78.9 77.5 79.7 80 73.3 73.7 73.9 68.9 70.3 Million cubic meters of water 70 65.8 63.0 62.5 58.0 60 48.9 48.2 47.9 50 45.7 44.8 42.7 40 36.2 35.1 36.9 31.1 30 20 10 0 07 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 91 92 93 20 20 20 20 20 19 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 Year Dams Boreholes Desalination Water transfer from Greece Source: WDD 2016. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 89 dams, boreholes, desalination, and bulk water transfers Risks to Resource Quality from Greece during the drought, in 2008–09. A 2002 study carried out by the WDD and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) concludes that the Precipitation Variability and Consequences on Cyprus aquifers were previously at very low levels, par- Hydrology tially intruded by saline water, and were overexploited The rainfall regime is characterized by extreme variabil- by 40 percent. Due to the combination of overpumping, ity, both among parts of the island and between succes- saline intrusion, and nitrate contamination from agri- sive years. Cyprus is seriously affected by the impact of culture, around 80 percent of the groundwater bodies climate change. The effect started to be felt as early as the were rated as being at risk of failing to achieve a “good 1970s, with increasing rainfall variability and frequency status” according to the Water Framework Directive of droughts. Statistical analysis shows a 20 percent drop (WFD) in 2016. However, less than half (9 out 21) were in the mean annual precipitation since the early 1970s assessed as being affected by increasing pollution, compared to precipitation records over the last 100 years. which suggested that some of the negative factors were This reduction in rainfall has been accompanied by a par- starting to be better controlled and mitigated. allel increase in average temperature, with parallel nega- tive impact on evapotranspiration. Drought periods Water Use: Water Supply and Sanitation occur frequently, and it is not unusual to experience two Framework or three or even up to six consecutive dry years. In the The Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and last two decades, three severe drought periods were Environment (MARDE) is responsible for the formulation observed, which severely affected the country. of water policies. All decisions related to water policies— including tariff changes, or annual allocations of water The 2008–09 drought was the worst in Cyprus in from dams—are made at the level of the Council of modern history. In the preceding years, the large sur- Ministers of the Republic. The WDD, within MARDE, is face reserves had been gradually depleted through responsible for both water policies and managing four consecutive dry years. Because of upcoming large  water infrastructure (bulk water transfer, water elections in 2008, the government was reluctant to production, etc.) for domestic potable and agriculture. ­ impose water saving measures early on—betting on a The Ministry of the Interior oversees the water supply return of the rains during the 2007 winter—but this and sanitation (WSS) providers, such as the water boards, did not happen. As a result, the dams were at critical sewerage boards, and local water municipal services. level at the beginning of 2008. This provoked a major water crisis, forcing the government to take drastic More than half of the population is served by the three measure to ensure potable water supply. Severe water boards of Nicosia, Limassol, and Larnaca. These rationing measures were reintroduced in early 2008, are ring-fenced public utilities with strong central gov- making domestic water supply in most areas available ernment presence on the board of directors, covering only three times a week. Several small mobile desali- several municipalities in the three largest urban centers nation plants were installed in emergency. The most on the island. There are nine municipal water supply spectacular measure was to transport water from departments, which provide service to about a quarter of Athens via tankers: a total of 8.4 million cubic meters the population in cities and towns not covered by the were supplied over an 8-month period at the prohibi- water boards. The remaining 29 percent of the popula- tive price of about €6.7 per cubic meter. The public tion receives potable water through 146 community irrigation perimeters depending on supply from sur- boards in small villages in rural and peri-urban areas. In face water also suffered catastrophic losses. both cases, the water services are not ring-fenced from 90 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report the municipal budget, and tariff levels are set by local 465 liters per day per capita (Savvides 2001). The total authorities and cover only a portion of operating costs. consumption of the tourist industry is estimated at about 20 percent of total urban consumption, or about 5 mil- Coverage lion cubic meters per year. While no data are available for There is 100 percent coverage for domestic potable the per capita domestic consumption in areas served by water supply in Cyprus, with all consumers connected municipal departments and community boards, it is to the water supply network. The organization of sew- likely that the per capita consumption is higher, due to erage services is different from potable water, with five both lower tariff and much less strict metering practices. urban sewerage boards covering 70 percent of Cyprus population in the urban areas of Nicosia, Limassol, Water Balance without Additional Resources or Larnaca, Paphos, and Ayia Napa and Paralimni. Actions Urban Water Use The water balance of Cyprus is heavily influenced by The average demand between the different users is at rainfalls and is therefore highly variable. Out of the about 60 percent for irrigation, 3 percent for livestock, 2,670 million cubic meters that come from rainfall on 26 percent for domestic use, 4 percent for tourism average, only 370 million cubic meters are left avail- (11  percent of all potable water), 3 percent for indus- able after evapotranspiration; 135 million cubic tries, and 4 percent for landscape irrigation. This break- meters per year goes to replenish the aquifers, and down is an estimate, because water allocated each year 235 million cubic meters per year are available as sur- to agriculture varies greatly since irrigation is used as a face water through seasonal streams. Groundwater buffer to compensate for rainfalls variability, and abstraction represents on average an estimated 135 because the actual amount used in each year for irriga- million cubic meters per year, bringing to the total tion comes from private boreholes from which amounts usable amount to 370 million cubic meters. These fig- of abstraction are unknown. The two main users— ures are based on average rainfalls, and do not reflect domestic potable water and irrigated agriculture—both the situation of acute scarcity that occurs during have significant seasonality that poses additional chal- drought years. lenges in a context of extreme water scarcity for manag- The average total annual water demand has been ing water resources during the dry summer months. estimated at 252 million cubic meters for 2011. The The domestic consumption per capita for the urban areas actual water demand of irrigated agriculture is diffi- of Limassol, Nicosia, and Larnaca stands at 140 liters per cult to estimate due to high interannual variability. day on average. This is broadly in line with per capita Outside of public irrigation perimeters, there are domestic consumption in other southern European many farmers who use unmetered boreholes for irri- countries such as Spain, France, Italy, Portugal, and gation. The total water demand from irrigated agri- Greece—but significantly more than in Israel (86 liters culture was estimated to be based 174.4 million per day), which, like Cyprus, is another eastern cubic meters, based on crops pattern on the island in Mediterranean country that has implemented major the early 2000s and assuming no water shortage reforms to deal with extreme water scarcity. This con- (Savvides 2001). However, the water demand regard- sumption level of 140 liters per day includes a sizeable ing irrigation is rarely satisfied, and the actual water amount dedicated to gardening (no rainfalls for more consumption in agriculture fluctuates around 150 than half of the year), though many private houses also million cubic meters per year, as shown in figure 9.2. have private wells. Water demand from the tourist indus- During the past two decades, only 1 year (2004) saw try is more than three times that of residential users, at no restrictions for irrigation. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 91 FIGURE 9.2. Water Development Department Water Allocation between Domestic, Irrigation, and Managed Aquifer Recharge, Cyprus, 1991–2015 160 150 146.0 143.2 137.5 139.2 140 136.1 132.6 135.6 132.2 130 126.7 122.4 120 116.8 109.5 Million cubic meters of water 110 106.6 101.1 99.5 100.7 100 88.1 89.9 90 85.2 83.3 80 76.4 71.8 72.8 68.7 70 65.2 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 20 20 20 20 19 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 Year Domestic Irrigation Recharge Source: WDD web site: http://www.moa.gov.cy. Note: Data do not include private boreholes; domestic data include tourism. WDD = Water Development Department 2016. Solutions potable water supply, irrigation, and aquifer recharge. There are no hydroelectric dams in Cyprus, because Because of Cyprus’s acute water scarcity and high vari- extreme water scarcity has always made meeting ability of rainfalls, the Cypriot population has been demand for domestic supply and agriculture the unique forced since time immemorial to develop technologies priority. At present, Cyprus has over 100 dams, most of and practices to manage water efficiently and deal which are dedicated to supplying small to medium irri- with the lack of water. As population and demand gation systems spread across the island. The recharge grew, the government of Cyprus undertook various dams were constructed to mitigate overexploitation in measures to enhance water security. the coastal aquifers. The four large dams dedicated for potable water supply represent 54 percent of the total Surface Water Management storage capacity. Cyprus is unique within the world To reduce the pressure on aquifers and satisfy growing with the magnitude of dam development, with a ratio of demand, an ambitious dam construction program 50 large dams for every 10,000 square kilometers. It is began in the 1960s. The water storage capacity went up ranked first among European countries for its dams’ from a mere 6 million cubic meters in 1961 to about density. It is considered that the dams’ potential in 332 million cubic meters in 2015. Dams are used only for Cyprus has been largely developed to its maximum. 92 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The average total volume of water stored in dams for the the island: Limassol; Larnaca; Nicosia, the capital; period 1988–2014 amounts to 100.4 million cubic meters, and the tourist area around Famagusta. In addition, but there are considerable interannual variations: from the new bulk water conveyor allowed the develop- as low as 20 million cubic meters during the worst ment of a series of new public irrigation perimeters drought years, to as much as 270 million cubic meters in in the southern plain around Famagusta, where the wet years. The dam network is therefore largely insuffi- coastal aquifer could not be used for agriculture due cient to meet demand due to the overexploited aquifers to saline intrusion. The schematics of the bulk water and is insufficient to guarantee that potable water sup- transmission system is represented in figure 9.3. ply can meet demand during years of droughts. The Southern Conveyor allows raw water sources to be Bulk Water Conveyance connected to the large dams dedicated mainly to Along with the development of dam storage domestic potable water, along with a series of other ­ c apacity,  in 1984 a major bulk water transmission dams dedicated initially to irrigation. Bulk water is network began construction. The Southern Bulk mixed in the transmission pipe and distributed Water Conveyor project interconnected the main between the three potable water treatment plants dams to the largest urban centers and tourist areas on (WTPs) (serving Limassol, Larnaca, Nicosia, the FIGURE 9.3. Schematics of the Southern Bulk Water Conveyor N Nicosia Nicosia Famagusta Famagusta Larnaca Akhna Paphos reservoir Limassol Athienou Key map of area covered Kokkinohoria Tersephanou treatment Tro plant odo s Mou ntains Larnaca Dhiarizos diversion Vasilikos- Pendaskinos Kiti project km 0 10 20 km Parekklisha Kouris dam Mazotos Legend Irrigation supplies in million m3 Kiti (at maximum development) Sea Domestic / industrial, town an rrane Nicosia and village supplies in million m3 (in 1997) dite Limassol Me Akrotiri Raw water Treated water Treatment works Source: WDD. Note: Schematics represent first and second phases. WDD = Water Development Department. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 93 Akrotiri U.K. military base, and the Famagusta tourist The first large seawater desalination plants started area) and the various public irrigation perimeters operation in 1997 and 2001 to cover the urban centers developed along the conveyor. The WDD operates not of Larnaca and Nicosia plus the Famagusta resort area. only the dams and the entire conveyor transmission Both were developed under a build-operate-transfer system but also the WTPs that provide water in bulk to (BOT) approach, and with an initial 10-year operations the urban water boards and municipal water supply and maintenance (O&M) period, followed by departments (which were built before the construction operate-transfer (ROT) contracts for an rehabilitate-­ of the Southern Conveyor) and the public irrigation O&M period of 20  and 25 years, respectively, which perimeters along the conveyors. Overall, 70 percent of also involved the rehabilitation and expansion of the the total dam storage capacity for potable water in plant. The third large desalination plant started opera- Cyprus is interconnected with the Southern Conveyor. tion in 2012 near Limassol, following again the BOT contractual model, this time with a 20-year O&M Desalination period. A fourth permanent desalination plant started As it became gradually evident that the massive devel- operation in the summer of 2013 to serve a wide area opment of dam storage capacity could not be sufficient including Larnaca, Nicosia, the Famagusta resort area, to achieve potable water security and reduce pres- and a number of the eastern villages of Lemesos. In sure on overexploited aquifers, a program of massive this case the contractual WDD has a bulk water pur- development of nonconventional water resources—­ chase contract with the off-taker (EAC) in a BOT con- including desalination and treated wastewater—was tract with a private concessionaire. The BOT contract implemented over the last two decades. was awarded with a 20-year O&M period. The catastrophic 2008–09 drought was a turning point, The total desalination capacity with the four seawa- pushing the government’s decision to embark on a mas- ter desalination plants under BOTs with private con- sive desalination program to secure potable water supply. cessionaire now stands at 220,000 cubic meters per The three successive wet years of 2001–02, 2002–03, and day. All the desalination plants are based on reverse 2003–04 were a false blessing, because they had given osmosis. They are interconnected with the Southern the misleading impression that the water shortage prob- Conveyor, allowing water to be transferred as lem had been solved. Desalination plants had begun required to Limassol, Larnaca, the Famagusta area, development in the early 2000s, but the development of and Nicosia. The annual production capacity of additional desalination plants that had been agreed upon 80 million cubic meters is broadly equivalent to the after the 2000 drought were postponed to save money, combined demand from the various domestic users while a large portion of the water stored in the dams was (residential, commercial, industrial, and tourist). In freed for agriculture. The 2008–09 drought came as a practice, the desalination plants are never operated brutal wake-up call, prompting the government to adopt at full capacity during the whole year, first because a new water production strategy whereby virtually all some of this capacity is an operational cushion to be urban residential water needs would be met by water used only during the summer peak demand, and sec- generated from desalination plants. The aim was that ond because the WDD arbitrates each year for bulk (a)  water supply for domestic, commercial, industrial, water supply between desalination and treatment of and tourist use could become independent of weather raw water stored in the dams, depending on rainfalls conditions; and (b) renewable freshwater from rainfall so as to reduce water production costs. Desalination could become solely dedicated to the agricultural sector now supplies half of total domestic potable water on to gradually restore groundwater reserves. average, and the existing total capacity of the 94 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report desalination plants provides enough cushion to with roof tanks (they are a legacy especially of the guarantee that domestic demand can be met even last  major droughts in 1999–2002 and 2008–09). during drought years. The  problem is due to the ball valves in roof storage tanks, which cause meter underregistration, especially at Nonrevenue Water Reduction the very low flows. Installing flow control devices (called The WDD has provided no reliable estimate of the level unmeasured flow reducers, or UFRs) was an efficient of losses in the bulk water transmission systems. Access solution to solving this common problem faced by water to nonrevenue water (NRW) data from service providers utilities in water scarce countries: a valuable lesson for is a challenge in Cyprus. Estimates provided by World countries in arid climates facing similar situations. Bank (xxx) show that levels of NRW for the three water The level of water losses in the municipal water supply boards of Larnaca, Nicosia, and Limasol stand at departments is much higher than for the three water percent, 20 percent, and 28 percent, respectively. 18  ­ boards: at an estimated average of 35 percent. NRW ­figures However, for the municipal water departments and are reported for only a limited number of municipal water the community boards, they are estimated to be much ­ ercent, departments and vary between 28 percent and 45 p higher, at 35 percent and 40 percent, respectively. indicating relatively high water losses. Even though they The NRW performance of the Limassol Water Board is represent a combined production volume comparable to unsatisfactory, at 28 percent, and with an Infrastructure that of the Nicosia Water Board, the volume of water Leakage Index of 3.5 based on 2013 data. While water losses is almost double, estimated at 6.4  million cubic losses in Nicosia and Larnaca have been on a positive meters in 2013. This is an issue of major concern—not only downward trend, this is not the case for Limassol, in terms of efficient water management under scarcity where water losses have been on the increase. During but also of financial sustainability—because almost all of the 2008–09 drought, the Limassol utility was forced to the municipal water departments are supplied in bulk by impose rationing and adopt an intermittent distribu- the WDD, and most of the potable water comes from tion mode for 8 months. This considerably damaged expensive desalination plants. the networks, due to the repetitive pressure surges, generating multiple breaks and leakages, most of them Demand Management invisible. Once the drought was over and distribution To foster water conservation, water tariffs of water restored to continuous 24/7 supply, the level of NRW boards and municipal water supply departments are had increased by about 9 percentage points compared based on a progressive block structure, with all cus- to the predrought level. Since then, the Limassol Water tomers being metered. Customers are differentiated by Board seems to have been unable to restore the physi- categories, with commercial customers and hotels cal condition of its distribution network back to its pre- paying higher rates to cross-subsidize domestic cus- 2008 condition. Another reason for the relatively poor tomers. For domestic customers, the fixed charge is in performance has been the incorporation in 2013 of the order of €3 to €5.5 per month. The first discounted another peri-urban municipality in the Limassol Water consumption tranche typically covers the first 10 cubic Board, whose water network was in poor shape. meters per month. There are steep rate increases for Private roof tanks generate significant meters’ underreg- large consumption above 21 cubic meters per month: istration, which is a notable component of NRW in between two and three times the rate of the first Cyprus. In Cyprus, although now a continuous 24/7 sup- tranche. To ensure affordability for large families, spe- ply is guaranteed for all domestic customers thanks to cial tariffs are available for households above six. the desalination program, most houses are still equipped Overall, urban WSS tariffs in Cyprus are lower than in Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 95 most other European countries. Water tariffs tend to be in  a  context of already overexploited groundwater lower in urban areas served by municipal departments, resources. They were not directed at reducing the total because water charges are set solely by local authori- water consumption of households, but rather at ties, while for urban water boards the central govern- switching water supply partly from the piped network ment has significant power to push for water charges to the aquifers. Furthermore, using shallow boreholes closer to full cost recovery. for toilets increased the salinity level of sewerage col- lected in coastal areas, which creates challenges for With an average consumption of 140 liters per capita further reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture. per day, households in Cyprus use water rather com- fortably, considering that the island suffers from Rainwater Harvesting extreme water scarcity. This can be directly attributed Little data are available on the uptake of domestic rain- to the fact that the rather low WSS tariffs are insuffi- water harvesting. As part of the Rural Development cient to foster much demand management. Still, sev- Program, farmers have received subsidies to imple- eral significant measures have been taken over ment on-farm rainwater harvesting through installing the  last  decades to promote demand management. small-scale water reservoirs to prevent groundwater Communication campaigns are carried out by the overexploitation. However, no data are available on its WDD on a regular basis to educate the public on the uptake. need for water conservation, and were intensified during recent droughts. Since 1991, using piped pota- Wastewater Reuse ble water for washing cars and cleaning pavement has been banned, with fines imposed by the police. Even Since joining the EU in 2004, Cyprus has made consid- though WSS tariffs charged to hotels are considerably erable efforts to comply with the EU Urban Wastewater higher than for domestic customers, per capita water Treatment Directive (UWWTD). Coverage and wastewa- demand remains three times as high. ter treatment stands at 84 percent in the areas of the five urban sewerage boards. A key feature of the devel- Since the early 2000s, the WDD has established subsidies opment of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has for a series of water-saving measures at the household been the widespread recourse to private-public part- level. The two most important were for installation of a nerships (PPPs) following the design-build-operate greywater recycling system (€3,000 per household), and (DBO) model. for drilling of boreholes for watering gardens (€700, or The government decided to develop extensive waste- about half of the cost of drilling plus pump installation). water treatment reuse for agriculture. A WWTP with A total of 7,666 boreholes subsidies were granted between tertiary treatment level entails complex technological 1997 and 2010. Overall, the WDD estimated that these processes, with significant risks of noncompliance measures saved about 1.7 million cubic meters per year with the more stringent effluent standards required for in domestic water demand, of which 1.38 million cubic agriculture. Adopting the PPP approach for the devel- meters per year came from the borehole subsidy and opment and O&M of the WWTPs has allowed risk to be 0.27 million cubic meters per year from the connection transferred to private concessionaires, which are liable of boreholes with toilets.4 These subsidies were phased in case the treated effluents do not meet minimum out in 2013 as part of the drastic budgetary cuts applied in standards. Under DBO schemes, and contrary to BOT the aftermath of the Cyprus financial crisis. schemes as adopted for desalination, the public devel- In retrospect and with the exception of greywater recy- oper and off-taker financed the new plants. The private cling, these subsidies measures were questionable sector remained responsible for the design, 96 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report construction, and subsequent O&M of the plants. As wastewater reuse in Cyprus. The development of such, each private concessionaire has strong incen- treated wastewater reuse required major investments tives to design, build, and operate the plant efficiently. in wastewater treatment and construction of dedi- The first WWTP DBO in Cyprus started operation in cated pipelines to convey treated wastewater to irriga- 1990, and since then, seven other large WWTP DBOs tion perimeters5 as well as large reservoirs for winter for urban areas have been developed and are storage. While in other countries reuse for irrigation is operating. often limited to lands nearby the WWTP, a large con- veyance infrastructure was built in Cyprus to ensure About 90 percent of the treated wastewater is now that farmers receive all the volume of treated wastewa- reused. Figure 9.4 shows the breakdown of usage for ter. Furthermore, treated wastewater must be stored treated wastewater in 2015: 68 percent is used for during the winter months when there is low demand irrigation; 14 percent, for aquifers recharge; and ­ for irrigation. percent, discharged into a dam. The yearly relative 4 ­ proportions of usage for treated wastewater have been relatively stable in recent years since the desalination Groundwater Management capacity came into full gear. Most aquifers in Cyprus are suffering from overab- straction, with a gradual lowering of the water table The need to comply with the UWWTD as part of joining over the last five decades. Furthermore, the coastal the EU was a crucial trigger for the development of aquifers have deteriorated due to seawater intrusion. FIGURE 9.4. Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Cyprus, The country has prepared two successive River Basin 2015 Management Plans (RBMPs), which allowed for the condition of the aquifers to be assessed in details. Due to the overpumping, saline intrusion, and nitrate contamination from agriculture, around 80 percent of 10.16% the groundwater bodies was rated as being at risk of failing to achieve a “good status” according to the EU % 25 4. WFD. To implement the WFD, a new Drilling and Abstraction 14.02% Law was adopted in 2014, introducing drilling permits and requiring all wells and boreholes to become regis- tered. Since then, about 50,000 extraction permits 67.67% licenses have been issued, but about 35,000 owners of operating wells (mostly small ones, such as for house- hold gardens) have not yet done so. Under the new law, each borehole owner must install a meter, but many have not yet done so, and the WDD anticipates this will be a long process. Starting in 2017, abstraction rates Treated e uent discharged to the sea have been introduced, albeit at the modest level of Treated e uent discharged to the Polemidia dam Treated e uent available for irrigation purposes only €0.01 per cubic meter for irrigation, and €0.05 per Treated e uent used for aquifer recharge cubic meter for domestic use. Billing is based on meter- ing or an estimate using the maximum volume Source: WDD. Note: WDD = Water Development Department. recorded in the license. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 97 The promotion of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) to overexploited aquifers. With desalination supplying through reuse of treated wastewater has been most of the potable water needs, the water captured in another notable initiative for improving aquifers the large dam storage infrastructure can now be allo- management in Cyprus. In 2016, about 14 percent of cated mostly to agriculture, thereby reducing the need total treated wastewater volume produced was allo- ­ oreholes. for farmers to pump water from their private b cated to recharge coastal aquifers affected by saline wastewater— The development of reuse of treated ­ intrusion. The recharge sites have been carefully whether for irrigation or for aquifer recharge—is also selected based on hydrogeological conditions, avail- reducing the degradation of aquifers. ability and quality of wastewater, possible benefits, The successful development of nonconventional water economic evaluation, and environmental consider- resources—desalination and wastewater reuse—was ations. Two recharge sites have been successfully achieved through recourse to well-designed PPPs with operated since 2010. the private sector. The government recognized two Implementing the WFD was essential to put aquifers decades ago that both desalination and wastewater management on a path toward sustainability. Although reuse were complex and costly technologies, and that it will take time to reverse decades of aquifer overab- it would be beneficial to develop the new plants straction, the first two RBMPs have led to these crucial under PPP models (BOT schemes for desalination and steps: assessing the condition of the aquifers in detail, DBO  schemes for wastewater treatment). More than establishing a reliable monitoring system (piezome- €250 million of private funds was raised for the four ters), and establishing for the first time an obligation for desalination plants since 1997. private boreholes to be registered and measured—and The development of major water storage and transmis- for private users to start paying an abstraction fee. The sion infrastructure has optimized water resource man- legal obligation to comply by 2027 with the requirement agement. Concentrating the management of this large of good status of underground water bodies—which water infrastructure in the WDD—as the operational arm must be translated in the RBMPs into practical actions— of the water sector in Cyprus—has been essential for opti- provides a strong incentive to take action and achieve mizing the allocation of available water to various users. results. Cyprus has succeeded in leveraging the implementa- Future and Limits of Adopted Solutions tion of EU water legislation to improve its water man- agement under extreme scarcity. The country went Even though the island suffers from extreme water beyond the requirement of the UWWTD by develop- scarcity and rainfall variability, potable water security ing tertiary treatment and wastewater reuse for all its has now been achieved in Cyprus. There was no WWTPs, gradually phasing out all discharge of treated rationing of potable water supply during the summer wastewater into the sea and effectively closing the of 2014, even though winter rainfalls were as low as urban water cycle (every cubic meter of desalinated during the 2008 drought. This was achieved thanks to water is used twice, first for domestic supply and then the massive recourse to desalination, other invest- through treated wastewater reuse). Cyprus is taking ments, and three decades of policies to improve water advantage of the gradual implementation of the WFD management under extreme scarcity. to move toward sustainable aquifer management, The widespread development of nonconventional and it will attempt to reverse over the next decade water resources, as well as new policies for sustainable more than half a century of overpumping of water management, are bringing much needed relief groundwater. 98 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report However, potable water security has come at a price— carefully considered. Policy makers should also consider not just financial but also environmental. The massive further development of reuse of treated wastewater, as development of dams in the 1970 through 1990s— well as the need to reduce aquifer abstraction. albeit an imperative at the time to meet demand in the face of severe aquifer depletion—has destroyed natural Notes habitats in the seasonal rivers of the Troodos 1. Although a de facto divided country, the whole of Cyprus is consid- Mountains. The four desalination plants consume ered EU territory. Turkish Cypriots (as opposed to settlers from about 9 percent of the total electricity generated in the Turkey who came after 1974) are considered EU citizens since they Republic of Cyprus, and represent an emission of car- are citizens of an EU country—the Republic of Cyprus—even though they live in a part of Cyprus not under government control. See the bon dioxide gases estimated at about 436 thousand EU Cyprus webpage at http://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu​ tons per year. Furthermore, electricity production on /­countries/member-countries/cyprus_en. the island is entirely dependent on expensive oil-fired 2. Based on the World Business Council for Sustainable Development plants, with the governmental budget having to absorb (2005): a country should have at least 1,700 cubic meters per capita per year to be water-sufficient. Between 1,000–1,700 cubic meters changes in oil prices. The discharge of brine into the per capita per year means a country experiences water stress. Water sea has local negative impact (albeit marginal). scarcity starts below 1,000 cubic meters per capita per year, and less However, with the recent discovery in the Cyprus’s than 500 cubic meters per capita per year characterizes extreme water scarcity. economic zone of significant gas reserves, it is hoped that in a few years it may become self-sufficient in gas 3. Domestic potable water supply in rural villages and settlements is still provided by boreholes and local springs. These are located energy, which would both reduce the cost of desalina- mostly in the western coast and central Troodos Mountains. tion and its environmental impact. 4. Other subsidies included for the installation of a hot water recir- And despite these successes, there are still several culator (€220), and connection of a borehole with the toilet cis- terns (€700). Other savings were minimal: 0.03 cubic megameters remaining challenges for reforms and moving toward per year from the installation of recycling systems and sustainable water management. While most the efforts 0.05 cubic megameters per year from hot water circulators have been concentrated so far in infrastructure develop- (CLICO). ment and the supply side of water policies, several 5. The treated wastewater networks are separate from the Southern aspects of water management remain to be optimized. Conveyor, which transports raw water from dams to both potable water plants and irrigation perimeters, since usage of treated waste- With ever increasing rainfall variability and scarcity due water is forbidden for crops consumed raw, crops for exporting, and to climate change, the country may not be able to cope ornamental plants. unless the financial sustainability of the entire water sec- tor is improved. This would require promoting more References incentives for operational efficiency and a focus on Marin, Philippe, Bambos Charalambous, and Thierry Davy. Forthcoming. demand management, including through tariffs. The “Securing Potable Water Supply under Extreme Scarcity: Lessons social and economic contribution of irrigated agriculture and Perspectives from the Republic of Cyprus.” World Bank, Washington, DC. should be considered now that most of the water cap- Savvides, L. 2001. “Reassessment of the Island’s Water Resources and tured in dams will be allocated for irrigation. Whether Demand—The Assessment of Water Demand of Cyprus.” WDD/FAO this will be sufficient for farmers to switch to higher value TCP/CYP/8921. Water Development Department; Food and Agriculture crops, considering the climate change risk, needs to be Organization of the United Nations, Nicosia, Cyprus. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 99 Amman, Jordan. Source: Flavia Lorenzon. Chapter 10 Amman, Jordan Amman is the capital and largest city in Jordan. Its Institutional Framework 4  million inhabitants make up 42 percent of the The roles and responsibilities for governing the water country’s total population, 94 percent of whom are sector are defined in the country’s legal framework as urbanized. The population of Jordan has recently follows: increased sharply because of the influx of about 1.6  million refugees, one-third of whom live in • The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) develops Amman (Ababsa 2013). strategies and policies to increase the sector’s resilience The 50-year mean annual rainfall in Amman is about through improved efficiency and effectiveness of oper- 350 mm, but, with an average evaporation of about ations and investments. The most recent strategy was 90  percent (MWI 2015), estimated infiltration rates the National Water Strategy 2016–25, which is accompa- range from only 4 to 10 percent of precipitation nied by a set of new policies, and a National Capital (Al-Mahamid 1994). As a result, Jordan is categorized Investment Plan to prioritize investments (MWI 2016). as one of the poorest countries in the world in terms of • The Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) is responsible water availability (Raddad 2005). for ensuring that the quality of drinking water Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 101 distributed to consumers is safe and complies with replace fresh water in irrigation has increased, while Jordanian standards. meeting the quality guidelines and standards of the • Miyahuna, the service provider, is responsible for World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and treating water and wastewater and delivering water Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). that complies with the Jordanian regulations and The use in industry of treated effluents has also been standards. Water supply in Amman was privatized increasing. in 1999; however, in January 2007, the service was Another key pillar of the strategy has been the returned to a local government-owned company. improvement in the efficiency of service providers. Nonrevenue water (NRW) in Amman causes physical, To meet the increasing demand for water during the commercial, and administrative losses. The govern- refugee crisis, WAJ and Miyahuna studied and pre- ment put in place a management plan to reduce NRW pared water and wastewater master plans, imple- to 45 percent, but achieved 36.7 percent by 2015. The mented feasibility studies, and tendered documents National Water Strategy set as one of its goals to for urgent upgrades to the existing infrastructure. reduce NRW by the year 2022 to 25 percent, a target These projects were derived from Jordan’s National that seems achievable because recently implemented Water Strategy 2016–30 (which followed Water for projects have reduced NRW to 28 percent in the Tareq Life—Jordan’s Water Strategy 2008–22) and the area (Rothenberger 2009). Controlling illegal connec- National Strategic Wastewater Master Plan 2014, which tions (3,832 cases in 2015), replacing water meters, call for all major cities and small towns in Jordan to be and developing evaluation and monitoring programs provided with adequate wastewater collection and have been instrumental in achieving these reductions treatment facilities by the year 2035. The estimated in NRW. cost of the plan is $7.5 billion. The MWI, WAJ, and Miyahuna are the implementing agencies. The government has also embraced larger-scale private sector participation (PSP) modalities. In 2002, The National Water Strategy focuses on increasing the government of Jordan signed a 25-year built-­ water supply to meet the demand for Jordan and the operate-transfer (BOT) agreement for the design, con- Syrian refugees through the following: (a) optimiza- struction and operation of the As Samra wastewater tion of surface water resources; (b) more widespread treatment plant, which was the first public-private safe reuse of treated wastewater; (c) introduction of partnership in the financing and management of nonconventional water resources (including desalina- a  public infrastructure project in the country. Two tion); (d) decreasing of the level of groundwater other BOT contracts have been successfully procured exploitation; and (e) maintaining of the daily water in Jordan’s water sector. One BOT contract was signed per capita allocation despite the sudden increase in in 2012 for the extension of the As Samra wastewater population. treatment plant’s capacity from 267,000 to 365,000 A key pillar of the National Water Strategy is the addi- (MWI 2012). The project will cost €150 million and tion of treated wastewater to the water budget for involves a 3-year construction and a 22-year opera- reuse, with priority given to agriculture for unre- tional phase. stricted irrigation. The main elements of this substitu- tion policy are as follows: (a) achieving public Water Sources acceptance; (b) suitability and adequacy of high-­ Groundwater represents the main source of water in quality water; (c) sustainability; and (d) enforcement Amman. Most of the groundwater is being abstracted of laws. As a result, the use of treated wastewater to from the Basalt and B2/A7 layers (map 10.1). This area 102 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report MAP 10.1. B2/A7 Aquifer, Amman JORDAN To Daraa To Saida AMMAN IRBID SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC B2/A7 CATCHMENT AREA WATER LEVEL (m) 300–525 526–550 Al Mafrak 551–600 AJLUN 601–675 676–750 GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTION Ajlun Jarash MAFRAK h r as RIVERS/WADIS JARASH il Ja HIGHWAYS Sh CITIES Z arq a To Ar Ruwaished Za GOVERNORATE CAPITALS rq a NATIONAL CAPITAL Al Hashimyya GOVERNORATE BOUNDARIES Ad Dulail INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES Az Zarka ZARKA As Salt Ruseifa a Area of Map rq BALQA a il Z Jorda n R . Se AMMAN AMMAN Dead Sea JORDAN AMMAN 0 10 20 Kilometers NATIONAL CAPITAL GOVERNORATE BOUNDARIES To Al Jizah IBRD 43186 | SEPTEMBER 2017 INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES includes the highest concentration of wells, which Water supply to Amman is also obtained from sur- increased from 672 in 1995 to 955 in 2015, mainly to face water, nonrenewable ground water, desalinated supply water to the growing population living in the brackish water, and treated municipal wastewater. Amman-Zarqa Basin as a result of the influx of refu- Most important among these other sources are (a) Zai gees. Abstraction from the Amman-Zarqa basin started Water Treatment Plant, (b) Zara Desalination Plant, in the mid-1960s and increased from 8.46 million (c)  other treatment plants, (d) King Abdullah Canal, cubic meters per year to 119 million cubic meters per and (e) the Disi fossil aquifer (Salameh, Alraggad, and year in the late 1990s and 156.3 million cubic meters Tarawneh 2014). per year in 2013 (Goode and others 2013). The esti- The new supply from Disi, which became operational mated annual recharge is approximately 70 million in 2015, is probably the most important project under- cubic hectometers per year and the safe yield is 87.5; taken to supply Amman. It allows Miyahuna to meet current overuse is depleting the groundwater in the the increasing demand from the Syrian refugees. basin, where available resources and water quality The  project involves extracting 100 million cubic have reached critical conditions. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 103 hectometers from the Disi aquifer and transporting it overabstraction and the effects of climate change. The to Amman over 325 kilometers. exponential rise in water demand has led to severe competition for resources among different socioeco- In 2016, the total volume of water produced from all nomic sectors. The National Water Strategy gives pri- sources was 238 million cubic hectometers , of which ority to the domestic sector, followed by the tourism 191.7 million cubic hectometers were supplied to sector, which is growing. Third priority was given to Amman and the rest was pumped to other cities— the industrial sector. Zarqa, Madaba, and Balqa. According to the National Water Strategy, the cost of Demand Management initiatives electricity consumed for pumping water represented In Amman, the WAJ and Miyahuna have implemented 45 percent of the operation and maintenance costs in a retrofit program that consists of an upgrade of 2014. The 22 percent increase in the electricity tariff plumbing fixtures to meet the flow rates recommended applied in recent years has led to a rise in the operating by the Jordan Standards and Metrology Organization costs of the utilities, particularly Miyahuna. The cost standards and to comply with the water and sanitation of electricity used in water pumping increased plumbing code. The outcomes of the program indi- 220 percent. The cost of water production and distri- cated potential water savings of 48 percent using lava- bution in Amman (US$1 per million cubic meters) tory faucets with the standard flow of 4.5 liters per severely limits Miyahuna’s financial sustainability and minute, 27 percent for kitchen faucets at 8.3 liters ability to expand its services. To address these chal- per minute, 21 percent for showerheads at 7.6 liters per lenges, the MWI is developing projects based on energy minute, and 33 percent for the dual-flush toilets at audits and the use of renewable energy resources. 4.0 liters per flush. Currently, residential indoor water use for faucets, showers, toilets, clothes washers, dish- Water Use washers, and cleaning accounts on the average for Domestic water use in Amman is approximately approximately 97 percent of the total water use in the 376 million cubic meters per home per year. Per capita service areas of Miyahuna. consumption is currently 69.7 liters per day, according The payback period and benefit-cost ratio show that to records for billed water in 2015. Quantities supplied the retrofitting of faucets, showerheads, and toilets is a by Miyahuna in 2014 are summarized in table 10.1. highly profitable measure to improve the efficiency of Because of the increased demand for water, water use. Retrofitting costs are recovered in 21 days for national water resources face growing pressures from a kitchen faucet, 2 months for a showerhead, 2 months for a lavatory faucet, and about 13 months for a toilet. Volume of Water Supplied by TABLE 10.1. The benefit-cost ratios are 68 to 1 for kitchen faucets, Miyahuna, 2014 25  to 1 for showerheads, 25 to 1 for lavatory faucets, Million cubic meters per year and 3.7 to 1 for toilets. The overall payback period for Use Volume of water the retrofitting of all fixtures is about 5 months. Domestic 158 Nondomestica 22 To help in controlling NRW, the WAJ created a Master Agriculture 43.8 Plumber certification and enforces building and plumb- ing codes for tall buildings that set maximum water flow Refugees 21.5 limits and minimum quality standards for plumbing Industry 1.72 fixtures. This approach is expected to save 10 percent of Source: World Bank data, 2017. a. Nondomestic includes commercial, small industries, and tourism. the water currently used in Amman each year. 104 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Miyahuna also developed a Water-Use Efficiency Plan rainwater prior to its release into the Jordan Valley to (WUE) to support the implementation of water conser- be used for irrigation. vation programs. These plans include a Residential With the increasing population and the country’s Best Management Practices Checklist to assist users in social and economic development, the amount of auditing their day-to-day usage and conserving water. wastewater is also increasing. It is estimated that by Bilateral agreements are also being developed to initi- 2025, the volume of treated wastewater will be 240 ate Water Demand Management Plans across the city. cubic hectometers per day. As available freshwater resources become more limited, treated wastewater Wastewater Reuse will play an increasingly important role in the coun- Amman’s wastewater is treated at the As-Samra try’s development. Wastewater Treatment Plant, which is the largest wastewater treatment facility in Jordan. With a peak Other Solutions for the Future flow of 840,000 million cubic meters per day, As-Samra Despite these efforts, the gap between supply and treats an average flow of 267,000 million cubic meters demand for water resources for the approximately per day, serving a population of about 2.2 million peo- 700,000 subscribers in Amman is increasing. To ple living in Amman and Zarqa. As-Samra provides address this challenge the WAJ is implementing sev- safe, treated wastewater for reuse in irrigation. eral projects to explore new resources, with the objec- As of 2014, wastewater collection and treatment ser- tive of generating 187 cubic hectometers per year of vices were being provided to about 63 percent of the additional fresh water and increasing the storage population, producing about 137 million cubic hecto- capacity of the country’s dams by 25 percent, to around meters per year of treated wastewater, of which 125 400 cubic hectometers, from the current 325 cubic cubic hectometers per year is being reused, primarily hectometers. Moreover, to increase the current supply in agriculture. Treated wastewater is discharged into for the city of Amman, the WAJ has identified two res- the Zarqa river, which flows for 60 kilometers into the ervoirs 180 kilometers southwest of Amman with a King Talal Dam, where it is blended with stored storage capacity of 20 and 15 cubic hectometers, respectively, within phase 1, and potentially an addi- Wastewater Plays an Important Role in ​P HOTO 10.1. tional 30 cubic hectometers for the following phases. Economic Development The MWI is also relying for its long-term solution on the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project, which is expected to provide 30 cubic hectometers per year to supply Amman out of the 65 cubic hectometers per year of desalinated water it will produce through phase 1 (Abu Qdais 2008). Under this project, seawater will be pumped out from an intake located in the northern end of the Gulf of Aqaba and desalinated there. The project foresees the construction of a brine conveyance pipeline, lifting pump stations, hydro- power plants, and discharge facilities at the Dead Sea, the implementation of which will occur between 2017 and 2021. This project is also expected to produce an Source: Flavia Lorenzon. additional 150 cubic hectometers per year under a Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 105 second phase, which will be implemented between Collection: The Case of Micro-PSP in Madaba, Jordan.” GTZ Office: Amman, Jordan. 2020 and 2025. Goode, D. J., L. A. Senior, A. Subah, and A. Jaber. 2013. “Groundwater- Finally, the government is considering further devel- Level Trends and Forecasts, and Salinity Trends, in the Azraq, Dead opments to address storm water drainage and to con- Sea,  Hammad, Jordan Side Valleys, Yarmouk, and Zarqa Groundwater Basins, Jordan.” U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2013-1061. tinue the rehabilitation, restructuring, and extension USGS: Reston, VA.  of Amman’s water networks. It has been estimated that MWI (Ministry of Water and Irrigation). 2012. Annual Report 2012. until the year 2020, about $1.5 billion will be needed Amman, Jordan: MWI. adapt to the results of climate change, with an addi- ———. 2015. Jordan Water Sector Facts & Figures 2015. Amman, Jordan: tional $5 billion needed by the year 2050. MWI. http://www.mwi.gov.jo/sites/en-us/Hot%20Issues/Jordan%20Water​ %20Sector%20Facts%20and%20%20Figures%202015.pdf. References ———. 2016. Water Reallocation Policy 2016. Amman, Jordan: MWI. http:// w w w. m w i . g o v. j o /s i t e s /e n - u s / H o t % 2 0 I s s u e s / S t r a t e g i c % 2 0 Al-Mahamid, J. S. 1998. “Three-Dimensional Numerical Model for D oc uments%20of%20%20The%20Water%20S ec tor/Water%20 Groundwater Flow and Contamination Transport of Dhuleil- Hallaqbat Reallocation%20Policy%2025.2.2016.pdf. Aquifer System.” University of Jordan: Amman. Raddad, K. 2005. “Water Supply and Water Use Statistics in Jordan.” Ababsa, M. 2013. “Aridity.” In  Atlas of Jordan: History, Territories and Paper presented at the IWG-Env, International Work Session on Water Society, edited by M. Ababsa. Beyrouth: Presses de l’Ifpo. Statistics, Vienna, June 20-22. https://millenniumindicators.un.org​ Abu Qdais, H. 2008. “Environmental Impacts of the Mega Desalination /­unsd/ENVIRONMENT/envpdf/pap_wasess4a3jordan.pdf. Project: The Red-Dead Sea Conveyor.” Desalination 220 (1-3): 16–23. Salameh, E., M. Alraggad, and A. Tarawneh. 2014. Disi Water Use for Rothenberger, D.; German-Jordanian TC Water Programme. 2009. Irrigation—A False Decision and Its Consequences. CLEAN Soil Air Water “Using Local Private Sector to Reduce NRW by Improving Billing and 42 (12): 1681-6. 106 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: Richard Abdulnour. Chapter 11 Israel Israel is one of the most water scarce countries in the (average  altitude 600 meters), the Jordan Rift Valley world. Located on the southeastern coast of the (the Dead Sea in the rift, the lowest point on Earth at Mediterranean, most of the country has a semiarid 400 meters below sea level), and the Negev Desert in climate, with annual rainfall varying from 600 milli- the south. Since the creation of the State of Israel in meters in the north to less than 150 millimeters in the 1948, the population had grown to over 8.5 million. Its south. Extreme variations in precipitation between population density is around 350 people per square years are normal, and multiple years of drought kilometer, and jumps up to 980 people per square not  uncommon. According to the United Nations kilometer when the Negev Desert is not included. Development Programme (UNDP), the total renew- Given the specificities of water management in Israel, able volume of water per capita stands at 276 cubic this chapter focuses on the management of water in the meters per year—about half of the “shortage red country as a whole rather than on a particular city. line” of 500 cubic meters per capita per year, which It does not purport to present a comprehensive picture defines a situation of water shortage (Tropp and and analysis of the Israel water story. Rather, it focuses Jågerskog 2006).1 on identifying and presenting the elements of the Israel is spread across four distinct regions: the Israeli water experience, which can be valuable for Mediterranean coastal plain, the central hills water scarce cities, in a global context of climate change This chapter is adapted from Marin, Philippe, Shimon Tal, Joshua Yeres, and Klas Ringskog. 2017. “Water Management in Israel: Key Innovations and Lessons Learned for Water-Scarce Countries.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 107 and increased water stress across all continents. enforcing policies in the water sector. It directly super- As  such, this chapter deliberately does not address vises the drainage and river basin authorities, the Israel some key aspects of the water management in Israel Water Authority (IWA), and Mekorot, and indirectly that are controversial and well known—such as conflicts supervises the water and sanitation providers through on watersheds and aquifers sharing with neighboring IWA. Mekorot is the national bulk water provider, man- countries, as well as restrictions imposed on the aging most of bulk water production and transmission, Palestinian population in the West Bank and Gaza. which it delivers to municipal utilities and farmer asso- ciations. It was established in 1937 as a wholly owned Institutional Context for Water Resources government company and has become the operating Management arm of the water sector. It has approximately 2,200 Institutional transformation has occurred through crises. employees and supplies 1,600 million cubic meters of Until 2000, the Ministry of Agriculture managed the water water per year (2016)2—85 percent of Israel’s domestic sector through a conventional approach, relying on (and potable water consumed and 70 percent of Israel’s overpumping) natural water resources to meet all water total water consumed—through the operation of 3,000 demands, with agriculture being the main user. Shortages installations and 12,000 kilometers of pipeline.3 in some years saw reduced water supply to farmers The IWA is the national regulator for the whole water during droughts. Tariffs were kept low for farmers, and sector—covering the entire spectrum of potable water domestic water and wastewater collection were also supply and wastewater services, irrigation services, heavily subsidized. Increasing demand due to population and water resource management. It is in charge of growth made this approach unsustainable and kept the planning overall investments, allocating and supervis- Israeli water sector in a permanent state of vulnerability. ing water rights, and regulating tariffs and perfor- Three major water crises in the 1980s and 1990s built mance of services providers (including local water gradual momentum for major reforms in the 2000s. utilities). IWA combines the functions of both regula- They affected initially the agricultural sector the most tor and planning body. Its establishment in 2007 as an until the 1998 drought, which culminated in severe autonomous agency was essential to drawing a line water shortages and rationing in most Israeli cities. In between the political level, which is responsible for 2000, the government of Israel changed the policy for policy, and the professional level, which manages the water sector management and set up a Parliamentary water sector.4 Investigation Committee of the Water Sector, which led to the gradual establishment—over the last Legal and Regulatory Framework of the Israeli Water Sector 15 years—of a modern institutional framework for water management. This required some difficult polit- A codex of four laws was approved in the decade after ical decisions along the way—as with the sharp rise in the establishment of the State of Israel to establish the domestic water tariff in the aftermath of another major principles upon which the water sector was to be drought, this time in 2008. the government also stimu- managed. The Law for Water Measurement (1955) lated a series of innovations that succeeded in gradu- establishes the crucial importance of metering water to ally restoring a sustainable water balance. enable water management and control of water flows and uses. The Law for Supervision of Water Drillings Current Institutional Framework of (1955) was passed to assert national control over the the Water Sector production of the water. The Law for Drainage and Since the 2000 reform, the Ministry of Energy and Water Flood Prevention (1957) was enacted to help reduce has been the line ministry in charge of formulating and and  prevent floods due to the rapid urbanization. 108 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Finally, the Water Law (1959) is the cornerstone of aquifers through increases in the volume of wastewa- Israel’s legal water framework, setting the overall prin- ter reuse (since 1998) and seawater desalination (since ciples for managing the sector. It specifies that the state 2006). This is illustrated in figure 11.1, which summa- owns all water resources and the government manages rizes the water resource data for 1958–2014.5 Thanks them (there is no private ownership of water resources to the measures taken over the last two decades, the in Israel, even beneath privately owned land) and estab- total amount of water production in 2014 has been lishes the mechanisms for allocation of water rights. maintained at the 1985 level, despite a sharp drop in Other key legislations have been added in the last two the natural water supplied. As a result, the recent decades, including the Municipal Water and Sewage major shortage of rainfall in 2014 (comparable with Incorporation Law (2001), requiring local authorities 1998) had no effect on users. and municipalities to establish public ring-fenced cor- As of 2017, the availability of quality water in Israel is porations to manage local water supply and sewage sufficient to meet all foreseeable needs of the country, services, to improve performance and promote the even accounting for steady population growth and the agglomeration of services into regional utilities. Two foreseeable effect of climate change. Extreme changes public health regulations also set quality standards for in water yields between years have dictated the reclaimed water (Sewage Effluents Quality Standards resource use strategy: balance average water demands and Sewage Treatment Rules, 2010), and drinking water so that average water resources ensure water storage (Sanitary Quality of Drinking Water Law, 2013). capacity is sufficient to compensate for seasonal rainfall variability and multiyear droughts. Climate and Hydrology Winter rainfall is characteristic of the Mediterranean Water Use climate, with 75 percent of annual precipitation falling Shortly after the creation of the State of Israel, the gov- within three months (December to February). The Sea ernment was faced with a fundamental trade-off of of Galilee (Lake Kinneret), from which the Jordan River choosing between water security and food security flows, is the only natural fresh surface water reservoir since there was not enough water to meet the growing between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean. It demands. A major strategic decision was made to provides approximately 20 percent to 30 percent of the increase food imports and reduce the country’s reli- state’s fresh water supply and is the country’s largest ance on domestic crops, effectively compensating for freshwater reservoir (at approximately 200 meters water scarcity by the import of “virtual water” imbed- below sea level). ded in imported foods. Greater selectivity of food Most rainfall is lost to evapotranspiration (approxi- crops grown for export paralleled the displacement of mately 70 percent), and approximately 25 percent infil- food crops that could be more cheaply imported than trates to groundwater or remains in the soil to support grown domestically. Emphasis was placed on growing vegetation and crops; only 5 percent flows as surface counterseasonal vegetables that could reach devel- water. Floods are short and intense and contain up to oped markets in the winter and fetch higher prices. 9 percent suspended solids, making it difficult to store The growth of counterseasonal crops is now largely and reuse flood flows. done in green houses to reduce evapotranspiration. Water Resources Solutions to Address Urban Water Scarcity Despite a situation of acute water scarcity, Israel has To maintain a reliable water supply, Israel has gradu- managed to drastically reduce overexploitation of ally implemented a policy that combines institutional Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 109 FIGURE 11.1. Israel Water Resource Development, 1958–2014 2,500 1,600 1991 2007 1998 1985 1989 1,400 2,000 Water supplied (million cubic meters) 1,200 2001 Nablus rainfall (mm/yr) 1,000 1,500 2009 Plot area 800 1,000 600 400 500 200 0 0 19 8 60 19 2 64 19 6 19 8 70 19 2 74 76 19 8 80 19 2 19 4 86 19 8 90 19 2 94 19 6 98 20 0 20 2 04 20 6 20 8 10 20 2 14 6 7 8 9 0 1 8 6 9 0 5 6 7 8 0 0 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 Year Total water supplied (T = N + E + D) Natural water supplied (N) Effluent supplied (E) Desalinated water supplied (D) Rainfall (mm/yr, nablus) reforms and massive infrastructure investment that farmers use nationwide. A large proportion of includes the following seven solutions: wastewater receives tertiary treatment and can be used for any crops without restrictions. • Promoting demand management and public aware- • Developing large-scale desalination of seawater and ness to control aquifers abstraction (water permits, brackish water, with 85 percent of all potable water metering), improve efficiency, reduce domestic distributed in the country is now desalinated water. consumption (potable water per capita), and shift This has allowed the government to achieve potable water use to higher-value irrigated crops. Domestic water security for the population, with domestic per capita consumption of potable water now stands water supply becoming largely independent from at approximately 90 cubic meters per capita per rainfall and aquifers abstraction. year, and farmers have switched to high-value • Developing a national bulk water conveyance infra- production. structure to optimize the use and distribution of • Reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation to replace water from various sources (desalination, water and release scarce freshwater for domestic uses and treatment from Kinneret Lake, recycled water). the environment. More than 87 percent of wastewa- • Using aquifers as strategic reservoirs (in the absence ter effluent is currently reused for agriculture, repre- of surface reservoirs and dams), with recharge senting approximately half of total water that of  aquifers with treated wastewater during 110 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report low-demand months, capture of occasional flash water and sanitation services provides incentives for floods, and monitoring and control of aquifers’ customers to conserve water. levels and abstraction regime. This effort was expanded in 2008 when the govern- • Institutional reforms to promote financial sustain- ment initiated a successful major water conservation ability of the water sector as a whole, and to separate campaign. It  promoted the installation of water-sav- political decisions from infrastructure planning and ing devices (bathrooms, toilets, kitchens), reaching 55 operations. Corporatization of service providers— percent of households and public buildings and gov- and the establishment of a strong national regulator ernment offices. In parallel, a media awareness cam- responsible for the whole water chain and setting paign was implemented over an 18-month period from tariffs across the whole spectrum of water users 2008 to 2010 to educate consumers about water use. (abstraction, potable water for utilities, irrigated The 2008 public awareness campaign has had a huge water, sanitation, and reuse)—have allowed full cost impact, and has proven a very cost-efficient initiative. recovery through tariffs for most of the water Its total cost was approximately US$7.5 million and it is infrastructure and services. estimated that consumers reduced their consumption • Creating an enabling environment for innovations in by 76 million cubic meters. The campaign freed up the water sector. water for alternative uses at a cost of only US$0.10 per cubic meter, or a fraction of alternative supplies. Promoting Demand Management and Public Awareness for Domestic Water These steps and the near doubling of water tariffs that Demand management has always been an important took place in 2008–09 were effective. Israel reduced component of Israel’s efforts to achieve water security. urban water consumption per capita by 24 percent, to The higher price of water for irrigation has encouraged less than 100 liters per capita for domestic customers. farmers to improve their water efficiency. In the urban Figure 11.2 demonstrates water consumption in Israel. utility sector, the two-tier tariff structure for potable It is estimated that 8 percent of the reduction was due FIGURE 11.2. Water Consumption in Israel, 1960–2015 120 115 110 Cubic meters per capita per year 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 111 to educational activities and 16 percent to higher water Since its commissioning in 1989, Israel’s flagship tariffs and installation of water-saving devices. project for effluent reuse for agricultural purposes has been the Shafdan WWTP and the Third Line to the Demand Management and Reuse of Treated Negev pipeline (figure 11.4). It supplies tertiary treated Wastewater for Irrigation effluent from 140 million cubic meters of wastewater Reclaimed wastewater has become a major source of per year from Tel Aviv and seven neighboring towns water for farmers, supplying more than 40 percent of (approximately 2.5 million people and some 70,000 the country’s needs for irrigation and more than factories). The Shafdan WWTP achieves tertiary treat- percent of wastewater being reused.6 Figure 11.3 87  ­ ment through an innovative aquifer recharge method shows the evolution of wastewater reuse over time. As called soil aquifer treatment. Wastewater treated to a of 2015, 87 percent of 500 million cubic meters was secondary level is injected into specially designated recycled. recharge basins, where it naturally filtrates through Today, the country has 67 large wastewater treatment the sand. To avoid contamination, there is complete plants (WWTPs) (greater than 1,500 cubic meters day), separation between the reclaimed effluents introduced and the 10 largest WWTPs treat approximately and the aquifer water, which is achieved by creating a 298.5 million cubic meters per year (56 percent of total hydrologic trough that prevents the reclaimed water volume), most of which were developed by local from spreading. The treated water is later collected in authorities using traditional construction contracts peripheral reclamation wells after six to 12 months and such as design–build (DB) or turnkey. Apart from the pumped to the Negev. In dry months, Mekorot Shafdan plant in Tel Aviv, most are upgrading to ter- abstracts treated water from the aquifer and transports tiary treatment after the enactment of new wastewater more than 130 million cubic meters to the Negev. The reuse treatment standards in 2010. This will allow high treatment standards allow for unrestricted irriga- them to treat wastewater to be used for all types of tion of all types of agricultural crops without any risk agricultural uses, without restrictions. to public health. FIGURE 11.3. Collected, Treated, and Used Sewage, 1963–2015 600 500 Million cubic meters / year 400 300 200 100 0 1963 1967 1971 1975 1978 1980 1982 1985 1987 1989 1994 2000 2004 2007 2010 2012 2015 Total sewage water Total wastewater treated Total wastewater reused Source: Israel Water Authority website. 112 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 11.4. Shafdan Soil Aquifer Treatment Method Recovery Observation To supply network Recharge basin well well Dune sand with silt and clay lenses Mount Original water table Zone dedicated to e uent treatment and storage Recharge Impermeable Recovery scheme SAT Recharge-recovery scheme Source: Mekorot 2016. Note: SAT = soil aquifer treatment. Favorable pricing policies give farmers a strong incen- Israeli companies were pioneers in the early 1950s in tive to use treated reclaimed wastewater for irrigation. the development of efficient low-volume irrigation Wastewater is priced at US$0.3 per cubic meter for technologies, such as drip irrigation and mini sprinklers. unrestricted irrigation and US$0.25 per cubic meter for With growing access to treated wastewater, the agricul- restricted irrigation, whereas the tariff for freshwater tural sector has continued to irrigate despite a sharp for agriculture is US$0.66 per cubic meter. These lower reduction in the amount of available freshwater. Over prices of reclaimed wastewater are possible thanks to the past four decades, the output of crops per unit of investment subsidies (60 percent to 70 percent of the water has grown sevenfold (due to improved irrigation investment, at an estimated total cost of US$800 mil- efficiency and intensification of farming practices). lion) for wastewater treatment that include building Thanks to ever-increasing productivity of water use, artificial reservoirs to store the reclaimed wastewater the value of agricultural production has continued to during off-season. More than 400 reservoirs have been rise in spite of the decreasing allocation of water built since the late 1980s. As an additional incentive to farmers (figure 11.5). The efficiency of irrigation sys- for  farmers to use reclaimed wastewater, they were tems has been a major factor in the reduction in average also initially offered to convert their allocation of water supply to agricultural land, down from 7,000 freshwater to reclaimed water using a ratio of 1:1.2 cubic meters per hectare in 1990 to 5,000 cubic meters (20 percent higher allocated water volume). per hectare in 2000. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 113 Large-Scale Desalination Public-Private cubic meter in the Sorek plant (2013). These prices for Partnership for Potable Water Independence desalinated water are among the lowest in the world Over the last 15 years, five mega desalination plants and have been key to ensuring the financial viability were constructed along the Mediterranean Coast with of  the system—meaning desalinated water remains a total capacity of 585 million cubic meters per year affordable for customers. They were achieved through and Mekorot as off-taker (table 11.1). Desalinated a combination of two main factors: (a) the size and water  now supplies 85 percent of domestic urban operational mode of the new desalination plants and water consumption7 and 40 percent of the country’s (b) build–operate–transfer (BOT) schemes designed to total water consumption. minimize the level of risks for the private sector. Indeed, Israel relies on a few large desalination plants Israel’s large desalination plants have achieved good that are mostly operated 24 hours per day, seven days performance in terms of energy efficiency and price of per week. This has made it possible to achieve signifi- desalinated water—from US$0.78 per cubic meter in cant economies of scale and a high absorption rate of the Ashkelon plant (2005) down to only US$0.54 per fixed costs. This is the opposite of the strategy of many other countries, which use desalinated water mostly to FIGURE 11.5. Average Municipal Water Tariff in Israel, meet peak demand, due to its higher price. 1996–2016 Adopting the BOT approach for large-scale seawater 14 desalination has had a number of benefits. Under a 12 BOT, the private sector has strong incentives to build a Shekels per cubic meter 10 plant that minimizes total costs (operating and capital) 8 over the life of the plant, with flexibility (at its own 6 risk) to make technological choices.8 In addition, the 4 concessionaire bears all cost overruns due to delays 2 and change orders. Finally, the private concessionaire 0 takes all operation and maintenance risks during the operational period of the plant, with swift penalties 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 20 20 20 20 incurred if the plant does not deliver the contracted Real Nominal amount and quality of water contracted—ensuring the Source: Based on Israel Water Authority public data from Katz 2016. sustainability and efficiency of the new plants. TABLE 11.1. Major Seawater Desalination Plants in Israel Production Estimated Year of O&M Business Price per Project Concessionaires (%) capacity CAPEX operation duration model m3 (US$) (million m3) (billion US$) Ashkelon 2005 25 years IDE (50), Oaktree (50) BOT 0.78 119 0.27 Palmachim 2007 25 years Derech HaYam (100) BOT 0.86 90 0.16 Hadera 2010 25 years IDE (50), Shikun U’Binui (50) BOT 0.72 127 0.43 Sorek 2013 25 years IDE (50), Veolia (50) BOT 0.54 150 0.41–0.54 Ashdod 2016 25 years Mekorot (100) BOO 0.65 100 0.41–0.54 Source: Marin et al. 2017. Note: BOO = build–own–operate; BOT = build–operate–transfer; CAPEX = capital expenditures; O&M = operations and maintenance. 114 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report In addition to the inherent benefits of the BOT This massive water infrastructure includes more than approach, the design of the Israeli desalination BOTs 3,000 installations and 12,000 kilometers of transmis- have allowed the private sector to make more aggres- sion pipelines. The overall level of water losses in sive financial offers with rather low prices for desali- the  bulk transportation system is reported to be nated water. Innovative contractual features with 3 percent. The operational flexibility that the National significant financial guarantees provided by the public Water System provides has been essential for the strate- party include (a) interest change risk borne by the gov- gic combination of water supply based on desalination ernment, by which the concessionaires are fully pro- and reuse with sustainable exploitation of natural tected against changes in the market base interest rate water resources. and (b) allowing bidders to optimize the fixed payment Developing and ensuring the sustainability of an infra- under the “take-or-pay” guarantee.9 Another crucial structure of such magnitude and strategic importance factor for the low price of desalinated water is the con- has required a financially solid operator. Mekorot has trol of energy costs, since most Israeli desalination been able to maintain, so far, a healthy financial situa- plants have achieved strong performance in energy tion with total revenues of approximately US$1 billion efficiency. In addition, energy costs in Israel are rela- per year and a AAA national rating (Ma’alot Standard & tively low compared to most other countries because Poor 2015). As a regulated public utility owned by the Israel uses gas-fired power plants supplied by its own state, Mekorot has been able to raise as much as NIS gas fields in the Mediterranean.10 One last, important 6,661 million (US$1,800 million) of commercial debt lesson from the Israeli desalination BOT experience is through its balance sheet (Ma’alot Standard & Poor that careful design and tendering of BOT contracts 2015). This has allowed Mekorot to raise approximately took time (on average, four years for the whole US$300 million each year for investment over the last ­ contracting and financial closing process, before con- decade, at low interest rates, through issuance of non- struction can start). This is much longer than negotiable bonds to institutional investors (without actual construction, which takes 2.3 years on average, any explicit government guarantees). because private concessionaires have strong contrac- tual incentives to avoid construction delays. Using Aquifers as Strategic Reservoirs The first integrated supply scheme, based on the Developing a National Bulk Water National Water System and operated by Mekorot since Conveyance Infrastructure the 1960s, relies on the storage capacity of the Sea of Israel has implemented an innovative system of storing Galilee (approximately 700 million cubic meters) and and conveying water from its wetter north to the drier three major aquifers—the Coastal Aquifer (yield of center and south—the main agricultural areas. The inte- 240–300 cubic meters), the Western Mountain Aquifer grated use of surface and groundwater initially relied (yield of approximately 350 million cubic meters), and on the first National Water Carrier, a giant pipeline that the Eastern Mountain Aquifer. Mekorot has added Mekorot developed and operated since 1964 to trans- major infrastructure since then to connect and ratio- port water from the Sea of Galilea to the main popula- nalize the operation of aquifers, viewed as strategic tion centers in the center and the Negev Desert in the national assets. south. Mekorot has since developed a national  bulk water transmission system that conveys 95 percent of One of the most remarkable innovations of Israel water Israel’s potable water resources (surface water, ground- management is that aquifers have been gradually water, desalinated water) to the regional providers that switched from being overexploited resources to supply end users (domestic, industrial,  agriculture). becoming major storage reservoirs. The hydraulic Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 115 advantages of this integrated scheme are obvious subsidies) and to a lesser extent seawater desalination in  terms of higher reliability and lower losses to (with government’s financial guarantees for BOT evaporation, although management of aquifers as res- schemes with the private sector). ervoirs is delicate. It relies on an extensive network of Mekorot has been transformed into a corporatized piezometers and solid monitoring of both supplies and public company and operates as a commercial entity. the various types of demand (including to avoid illegal In practice, this means that the price of bulk water abstraction). Each aquifer has specific operational pro- has  had to reflect its actual costs of production and cedures and constraints, and monitoring practices transportation. Its tariffs are set by IWA annually require a high level of human, technical, and financial based on five-year business plans, which incorporate capacity. performance incentives for efficient infrastructure Early on, Israel invested in infrastructure to capture operation. Capital expenditures (CAPEX) and pri- flash floods. Typically, such infrastructure combines vate  financing costs must be reflected fully in the retention walls and small dams that could capture and bulk tariffs. store water that would infiltrate into the underlying aquifers. The amount that can be recharged varies with On the service delivery side, potable water and sanita- rainfall pattern and strength, reaching a maximum of tion utilities have been corporatized and regionalized. 62 million cubic meters in 1980 and a minimum of The disappointing performance of municipal water 4 million cubic meters in 1990. The average recharge and sewerage departments12 prompted a 2001 law, achieved in addition to natural replenishment has under the auspices of the Ministry of Interior, that been estimated to be 8 percent. In addition, the directs local governments to establish public ring- national program of afforestation, in areas where for- fenced corporations to manage local water supply and ests have been absent in historical memory, has miti- sewerage services. In 2009, the responsibility of the gated flash floods and improved rainwater infiltration Municipal Utilities Administration (MUA) was trans- into the aquifers. Additional benefits include seques- ferred from the Ministry of Interior to the IWA. As a tration of carbon to combat global warming, reduction result, municipal water and sanitation services have of soil erosion, and esthetic and recreational benefits. been gradually transformed into corporatized utilities, The afforestation program in the arid Negev is particu- owned by local authorities and regulated under larly interesting because it has revived the techniques licenses by the IWA. Tariff levels almost doubled in for harvesting rainwater that the Nabatean people 2009 as a result of the application of the full-cost practiced from the fourth century before the Common recovery principle. Almost all investment is now Era until the Roman Empire conquered them.11 funded through commercial debt financing.13 In paral- lel, a process of consolidation has been taking place among 56 regional water and sanitation utilities, serv- Achieving Self-Financing of the Water Sector, ing 187 municipalities and local councils.14 The MUA Despite Acute Water Scarcity has helped the Israeli water and sanitation utilities Financial autonomy was accomplished for all users of improve their governance and overall performance. the water cycle chain, including farmers. This has been The reform process of Israeli water utilities is achieved by putting in place a new financial frame- still  ongoing, and the agglomeration process is work under the IWA, which sets tariffs for all water continuing.15 users. As of 2017, the Israeli water sector has achieved almost full financial autonomy—with the exception Several interesting features of the corporatization of  wastewater reuse (still relying on investment reform deserve to be highlighted. First, as tariff 116 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report revenues became the sole source of financing for desalination BOT projects with private concession- each utility, strong financial incentives for opera- aires (Ashkelon, Palmachim, Hadera, and Sorek) tional performance were introduced. The MUA uses represents a total of about US$1,300 million. Also, cor- the  tariff-­ setting process as a regulatory tool by poratized regional utilities as well as Mekorot are now establishing the portion of the national water tariff financed through commercial debt with private banks that each utility can keep. or bonds issuances, without sovereign guarantees. Water utilities have been encouraged to seek a variety The regulator allows the dividends resulting from any of partnership contracts with the national private sec- efficiency gains to be transferred from the utility to the tor to improve operational performance and reduce municipal budget. This arrangement provides finan- costs. Private contractors perform a large portion of cial incentives for local governments to support the the tasks of the most advanced Israeli water utilities.18 performance improvement of their water and sanita- Finally, following the incorporation of the Municipal tion services, and reduces political interference in Utilities Administration under IWA in 2009, a major hiring staff, particularly for management positions. tariff increase took place for potable water and Recognizing that many local utilities lacked technical sanitation tariff. capacity, the MUA has issued regular technical guid- ance on operational issues, such as salary guidelines IWA now sets tariffs for all water and sanitation ser- (2008), customer service (2015), and engineering stan- vices; a uniform tariff level and structure has been dards (2016). These have contributed to improving the instituted for the country19 with all potable water and efficiency of the water utilities. Benchmarking has also sanitation customers paying the same price.20 This played an important role. The MUA has issued a list of results in cross-subsidies between consumers who live key performance indicators relating to a wide range of close to water sources and those who live farther away operational efficiency and customer relations matters. and require additional pumping costs. In 2017, the uni- The MUA publishes 16 the audit results to put public form average tariff for potable water and sanitation— pressure on bad performers to improve. Finally, the calculated as the weighted average of a modeled MUA has not shied away from imposing and enforcing representative home consumption—was NIS 8.92 sanctions. Some of the technical guidelines and key (approximately US$2.4) per cubic meter. Only performance indicator targets are mandatory, and not 44 percent is allocated to the water utilities for water achieving them can lead to sanctions. For example, distribution and sewage collection, 22 percent goes to if nonrevenue water (NRW) is not satisfactory, and the Mekorot for bulk water transport and freshwater pro- utility does not show any improvement, MUA-imposed duction, 18 percent covers sewage treatment costs, sanctions can deny some costs into the allowed 16 percent covers desalination costs, and 4.5 percent tariff,  implement forced management changes, or goes to subsidies. even appoint external management.17 The national tariff for potable water and sanitation ser- Partnering with the private sector for financing CAPEX vices is based on a two-tier increasing-block structure. and improving performance has been a key feature of The tariff for the first block, corresponding to con- the Israeli water reforms. The seawater desalina- sumption up to 3.5 cubic meters per capita per month tion  program has been implemented through BOT (115 liters per day), is NIS 6.56 (US$1.8) per cubic meter schemes, whereby private concessionaires have (2016). The tariff for the second consumption block entirely financed the investments and are responsi- imposes a 61 percent markup of NIS 10.56 (US$2.85) per ble  for operation and maintenance for 25 years. The cubic meter.21 Approximately 75 percent of residential amount of private investment raised under the four consumption is billed at the lower tariff. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 117 Overall, Mekorot provides more than 55 percent of Creating a Supporting Environment for water for agriculture at prices set by the IWA. Water Water Innovation sales from other suppliers, mainly private regional Israel has made a special effort to promote innova- associations, are billed at prices by the IWA, which are tions in the water sector—not known for being partic- supposed to reflect their actual production costs. The ularly innovative—with the establishment of a unique prices of irrigation services are among the highest in industry–­ utility–university ecosystem to support the the world. This has ensured that farmers are using development of innovative water technologies. One water in the most efficient manner, and has promoted aspect of the Israeli water sector is that leading utili- the development of modern farming practices for ties have established technology collaboration high-value crops. This is supported by a financial frameworks with the private sector, which allow framework for irrigation, which is based on moving entrepreneurs to test their innovations in “real size,” toward full cost recovery, albeit different from water gaining feedback to improve systems and optimize supply and sanitation (WSS) services. For irrigation them before they go to market. Realizing the impor- water, tariffs have varied widely depending on the tance of innovation development, the government of source of water, the region, and the time of the year. Israel has for years supported innovation at the aca- Extraction levies vary with the site and season of the demic, startup, and commercial levels. Several gov- water withdrawn. ernment agencies manage programs to support water Freshwater prices are between NIS 0.8 (US$0.22) and innovation, and partnerships with European Union NIS 2.6 (US$0.70) per cubic meter depending on the (EU) and U.S. research programs. There have been supplier and the region. The price of brackish water two main benefits resulting from this proactive pol- depends on the salinity and varies from NIS 0.9 icy to support innovations. First, water innovations (US$0.24) to NIS 1.6 (US$0.43) per cubic meter. The have played a major role in allowing Israel to achieve price of treated wastewater (NIS 0.8 to NIS 1.25 water security. Second, they generate a sizable source [US$0.22 to US$0.34] per cubic meter) has been set of national income through exportations of equip- below those of fresh and brackish as an incentive for ment, licenses, and services. farmers to use it. The price of treated wastewater is significantly subsidized; it reflects the cost of convey- Lessons and Conclusion ance but does not cover treatment and storage costs (which other users pay through cross-subsidies and After many years of reforms and massive investment, state subsidies for a portion of CAPEX). The govern- 22 the Israeli water sector is now in a position to meet all ment also subsidizes up to 60 percent of the marginal future demand from multiple users. Thanks to the conveyance costs for reclaimed and brackish water to massive development of nonconventional water encourage irrigation use. The framework for irriga- 23 sources—namely irrigation and treated wastewater— tion tariffs is due to change in 2017, with the approval the water production capacity of Israel now exceeds of new legislation to equalize agriculture water prices demand. Even irrigation water is not constrained by across the country, ending the wide variations in volume but only by the capacity of farmers to pay its water prices between different regions and supply price. Water security has been fully achieved. For a sources. Since all Israeli farmers will pay the same tar- country which is among the most water stressed in the iff for irrigated water, this will result in wider-ranging world, this is no small achievement. The “Israel water cross-subsidies between regions and water supply story” holds many potentially valuable lessons for sources. other countries facing water scarcity. 118 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The following key lessons have been identified. Public tariff—first for potable water supply and since 2017 for awareness of the value of water is crucial. Strong control irrigated water—which reduces economic incentives and enforcement of water allocation is necessary in a for users at it does not allow the price of water to reflect context of extreme water scarcity, with proactive man- true local costs of water. The regionalization of munic- agement of aquifers viewed as a valuable water resource ipal utilities has proved a slow process. The last desali- management tool. Comprehensive, probabilistic, and nation BOT project in Ashdod, in which Mekorot ended timely data are crucial for efficient integrated manage- up being both off-taker and contractor, and which suf- ment of water under scarcity conditions. Wastewater fered multiple setbacks, is questionable. Finally, the reuse is costly and cannot be implemented without sig- fact that aquifer sustainability has been achieved at nificant public subsidies. Corporatization and aggrega- the cost of severe restrictions for Palestinians in the tion of water and sanitation services is a long process West Bank cannot be ignored. that requires sound regulation and heavy-handed super- vision to be successful. The success of the BOT schemes Notes for Israel’s four major desalination plants has been 1. Minimum allocation for a “non-water stressed country” is 1,100–1,400 ­ contingent on the careful design of the public-private cubic meters per capita per year (Tropp and Jågerskog 2006). partnership (PPP) contracts, with several features intro- 2. Breakdown of water sources transported by Mekorot: desalinated duced to reduce the risks for private investors. seawater 601 million cubic meters, desalinated brackish water 143  million cubic meters, natural freshwater 581 million cubic A national conveyance water system can help optimize meters, and treated wastewater 270 million cubic meters. water management under conditions of extreme scar- 3. Including 39 brackish water desalination plants, five seawater city. Israel’s relatively small size made it possible to desalination plants (BOT—BOO), eight potable water filtration plants create a nationwide water conveyance infrastructure (the one on Kinneret Lake is the fourth largest in the world), 13 WWTPs, about 1,200 boreholes, and approximately 1,000 pools that effectively connects 95 percent of the natural, and reservoirs. marginal brackish, recycled effluent, and desalinated 4. The Water Authority Council—which serves as the IWA board of water resources. While such large pipeline infrastruc- directors and comprises senior officials from government ministries ture may not be justified for all countries, in the case of (finance, agriculture, interior, environment, water, and energy) —and Israel it was designed as part of well-thought-out plan- two representatives of the general public facilitate stakeholder dia- logue regarding the management and decision-making process in the ning for integrated water resource management, and water sector. developed so to ensure long-term financial sustain- 5. Sources: Rainfall trends from the long-time series at Nablus for ability. The operation of such conveyance infrastruc- the  1958–2008 period (Kislev 2010), data from the Palestinian ture by an efficient, commercially run entity also Authority,  and water supply data from Israel’s Bureau of Statistics (Gilmont 2014). proved important. 6. Other noteworthy countries are Singapore (with full reuse but on a Investing in new water infrastructure needs to be done in much smaller scale) and Cyprus (where about 70 percent of treated a financially sustainable manner through appropriate wastewater is reused in agriculture). institutional reforms. This includes putting in place a 7. In addition to the five large seawater desalination plants, there are clear separation of roles between policy setting, regu- many brackish water desalination plants for a total capacity of 78 million cubic meters per year. Mekorot or municipal utilities oper- lation and planning, and operation of infrastructure. ate them, and apart from the one in Eilat on the Red Sea (20 million cubic meters per year), they are small and spread throughout the Even in a country with strong capacity and where huge country. efforts have been made toward water reforms, there 8. In the case of the Sorek plant, this has allowed energy efficiency of are areas for improvements and mistakes can be made. 3.6 kilowatt-hours per cubic meter to be achieved through the use of One weakness is the adoption of a single national water innovative 16-inch instead of 8-inch reverse osmosis membranes, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 119 among other things. These membranes were installed vertically to 20. There remains a price differentiation between the 56 municipal utili- reduce surface requirements and the cost of acquiring land. ties supply, and some local authorities that do not have established corporatized utilities and pay a lower tariff supply. 9. This arrangement has an extra score for a lower fixed payment, up to a threshold. In the case of the Sorek BOT, the proportion between 21. The reduced tariff for local authorities without corporatized utilities fixed and variable payment is about 50–50. in 2017 is NIS 4.17 per cubic meter for the first consumption block and NIS 9.21 per cubic meter above that. 10. The average domestic electricity price from the grid stood at €0.11 per kilowatt-hour in May 2017. 22. It is estimated that full wastewater treatment costs are approxi- mately US$3.15 per cubic meter, of which US$1.73 is for annuitized 11. This type of afforestation is called savanization and differs from the CAPEX and US$1.42 for operational expenditures. larger programs in which the Aleppo pine was the tree of choice. The latter program has sometimes been criticized, in part because of 23. The incremental cost of interseasonal storage (treated wastewater is the risks that such a monoculture entails and susceptibility to pests produced year-round, but agricultural demand is concentrated in the of the Aleppo pine. summer) and conveyance are estimated at US$0.28 per cubic meter (approximately 9 percent of total treatment costs). 12. The 2000 report from the State Controller documents in details the waste, neglect, insufficient investments, and high levels of nonreve- References nue water in Israel’s urban water utilities. Gilmont, M. 2014. “Decoupling Dependence on Natural Water: Reflexivity 13. In special cases, based upon stringent criteria and during the initial in the Regulation and Allocation of Water in Israel.” Water Policy 16 (1): organizational period, certain utilities are still awarded state grants 79–101. to finance construction of sewage treatment facilities. Government of Israel. 2015. Israel Water Authority. Wastewater 14. Twenty-seven municipalities serving approximately 4.5 percent of Treatment Facilities Report. Government of Israel, Jerusalem. the population remain without a corporatized water utility. Katz, D. 2016. “Undermining Demand Management with Supply 15. The current plan is to have only 11 regional water utilities (water Management: Moral Hazard in Israeli Water Policies.” Water 8 (4): 159. distribution and sewage collection) and seven regional sewerage Kislev, Y. 2010. “The Water Economy of Israel.” (accessed 10 July 2017), companies (wastewater treatment). http://taubcenter.org.il/tauborgilwp/wpcontent/uploads/H2011​.15Water​ 16. The Israeli Water Authority has published only four audits to date, in EconomyinIsrael.pdf (in Hebrew). 2014 and 2015. See the Israeli Water Authority website, www.water​ Ma’alot Standard & Poor. 2015. “Mekorot Credit Rating.” Tel Aviv. .gov.il. Marin, Philippe, Shimon Tal, Joshua Yeres, and Klas Ringskog. 2017. 17. As an example of MUA sanctions: one municipal water utility accu- “Water Management in Israel: Key Innovations and Lessons Learned for mulated a debt of over NIS 100 million for not collecting payment for Water-Scarce Countries.” World Bank, Washington, DC. water supplied to local cultural and religious facilities. After other measures did not avail, the MUA intervened to replace the entire Mekorot. 2016. “Shafdan MBTP (Mechanical-Biological Treatment utility’s management (board of directors and CEO). Plant).” Presentation on September 22, 2016. Tel Aviv. 18. For instance, Hagihon, which serves approximately 1 million people Tropp, H., and A. Jägerskog. 2006. “Water Scarcity Challenges in the in Jerusalem and its western suburbs, has a permanent workforce of Middle East and North Africa (MENA).” Human Development Report 230 employees and has 150 private contractors. 2006—Water for Human Development series. Stockholm International Water Institute, Stockholm. 19. In addition to tariffs, setup fees (formerly called building taxes) that developers are required to pay are a major source of funding for infra- Zaide, M. 2017. “The Israeli Water Sector: Challenges and Solutions.” structure construction of municipal and regional utilities. Lecture. IWA, Tel Aviv. 120 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Windhoek, Namibia Zoo Park. Source: https://pixabay.com/en/windhoek-namibia-city-zoo-park-269032/. Chapter 12 Windhoek, Namibia The most immediate attraction to the first settlers of income country Namibia is classified as a middle-­ the city of Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, was the with a GDP of US$11.5 billion (2015, current). However, presence of a secure and plentiful source of water from this classification is contested because of high rates local springs in an otherwise harsh and arid landscape. of inequality (Gini 0.61). Inequality is reflected by With a relatively temperate climate due to its altitude Windhoek’s contribution to GDP: estimated by the of 1,700 meters, Windhoek thus met the needs of colo- city of Windhoek at 44 percent of the total; and by nial and settler communities. The settlement grew the relatively low proportion of poverty in the steadily, providing a center for governing a territory Khomas region (of which it forms the major part): 7.6 whose economy was based on mining and widely dis- percent compared to a national average of 19.5 per- persed agriculture, more recently supplemented by cent.1 This combination of population and economic small-scale manufacturing and a growing tourism and growth and relatively high incomes has placed obvi- service sector. ous demands on the water supply. With more than 39 percent population growth Because it was apparent that local sources would not between 2001 and 2011, Windhoek has a fast-­ be able to meet growing water demands, consideration growing  population of 325,000 representing more had long been given to alternative strategies to meet than 15  ­ percent of Namibia’s total population (2011 long-term needs. The most significant of these was the Census). Windhoek contributes 44 percent to the water master plan of 1974, which sets out a phased country’s gross domestic  product (GDP), and pov- approach to meet the region’s needs for the next erty rates are well below  the  national average. 30  years. It includes the forecast that, by 2013, the Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 121 capacity of the first phase of investments would no Of this, 80 percent falls between January and May, longer be able to meet the needs of the city. This has 1  percent from June to September, and 20 percent been borne out of practice. After a decade of good from October to December.2 rains, serious water shortages developed during a dry As elsewhere in Namibia, it is not unusual for annual period between 2013 and 2016; supply was restricted rainfall to vary by a factor of four, and monthly rain- and, by the end of 2016, the city’s main source had only falls vary by far greater amounts. This has been enough for another 30 days. As often occurs, a real cri- observed since 1850, when records were first collected sis was averted when, at the last moment, good rains by colonial authorities; extremes of flooding in gener- fell in February 2017, providing a temporary respite ally long periods of aridity over the last 2 millennia (map 12.1). have been demonstrated by palaeohydrological Climate and Hydrology studies. Figures 12.1 and 12.2 provide further informa- tion about the historical characteristics of rainfall for Namibia’s climate is characterized by aridity as well as Central Namibia. by extreme interseasonal and intra-annual variability of its rainfall. Windhoek’s average annual rainfall is Potential surface evaporation rates of between 370 millimeters with substantial monthly variations. millimeters and 3,400 millimeters annually are 3,200  ­ MAP 12.1. Water in Windhoek, Namibia NAMIBIA Omar WINDHOEK ur u Hochfeld R iver Omaruru Omatako Booster PIPELINES Pump Station PUMPING STATIONS RESERVOIRS OTJOZONDJUPA DAMS Karibib Reservoir & SELECTED CITIES Water Treatment Plant Otukarru NATIONAL CAPITAL Reservoir MAIN ROADS Wilhelmstal Okahandja REGION BOUNDARIES Usakos Rudenau Karibib Reservoir Von Bach Dam Navachab Gross Barmen Von Bach Water Reservoir Reservoir Treatment Plant Okongava Reservoir Booster Pump Station ERONGO Swakopoort Booster Pump Station Omitara er Sw ak o p Riv Dam Hosea Kutako Otjihase International Reservoir Airport Booster Pump Station Winkhoek Bulk Reservoir Seeis Goreangab Dam Airport Reservoir KHOMAS WINDHOEK Windhoek Aquifer 0 25 50 Kilometers IBRD 43768 | JUNE 2018 122 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 12.1. Time Series of Seasonal Rainfall Character for Central Namibia from 1850 to 1903 4 3 400 2 1 300 0 –1 200 –2 –3 100 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1990 Source: Nicholson 2000. Note: Units on the left indicate anomaly classes: +3, +2, +1 correspond to extraordinarily wet, very wet, and wet years, 0 corresponds to normal conditions; and −1, −2, and −3 correspond to relatively dry, very dry, and severe drought, respectively. Superimposed on this is the rainfall record for Rehoboth, a station in region 69; units (on the right) are in millimeters. FIGURE 12.2. Historic Sources of Water Production in Windhoek, 1961–98 22 20 18 16 14 Million cubic meters 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1967 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 Year Irrigation Reclaimed Surface water Borehole Source: Heyns et al. 1998. almost 10 times the country’s average rainfall. Because of the quality of extreme rainfall events than by the average this extreme aridity, very little of the rainfall is translated rainfall. This makes it very difficult to characterize the into surface runoff (2 percent) or groundwater recharge available surface water resources or to estimate likely (1 percent). Rainfall and runoff are determined more by rates of groundwater recharge for planning purposes. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 123 The city of Windhoek’s internal natural resources are contribution of these sources to the Windhoek supply primarily groundwater derived from the fractured varies substantially since actual abstractions made in quartzite aquifer underlying the city. The aquifer is a times of shortage are likely to be above the sustainable useful but limited source of water—its potential long- yield, and there is limited technical information about run yield is estimated to be only 1.7  million cubic aquifer characteristics (Krugmann and Alberts 2012). meters per year, just 5 percent of the city’s current Adding to the uncertainty, some reports aggregate all requirements (Peters 2013). However, it is also now rec- groundwater sources (internal and external). ognized that the relatively high “storativity” of the A final specific “source” is the city’s wastewater. aquifer means that it can be used as a reservoir, and Windhoek is a global leader in the field of wastewater that higher flows can be drawn down in periods of reuse. It distinguishes between reuse and reclamation, shortage and replenished in times of surplus. Its advan- the former referring to nonpotable uses in industry and tage as a storage facility is that it will not lose signifi- urban irrigation, the latter to “direct potable reuse” cant volumes to evaporation; although, if recharged to (DPR) of wastewater. Windhoek was one of the first cit- its pristine state, springs may once again emerge on the ies in the world to introduce full-scale reclamation with surface. the establishment in 1968 of a treatment plant and asso- The only significant surface source in the city, the Avis ciated quality management. This plant was replaced in Dam, is not used for water supply and is now a purely 2002 by a new and expanded plant that can produce recreational facility, although it also contributes to 7.665 million cubic meters per year; it is currently urban flood control. Built on two local streams, it has reclaiming about 25 percent of the city’s wastewater and reportedly been filled only four times since it was plans to build a new plant to expand this to 30 percent, built in 1933. with a maximum envisaged of 35 percent. An additional 5 million cubic meters per year of municipal wastewater Beyond municipal boundaries, the primary existing and 1.5 million cubic meters per year of industrial waste- sources of water consist of the following three dams, water is treated and reused for nonpotable purposes, located 60 kilometers to 160 kilometers north of primarily urban greening (Lahnsteiner and Lempert Windhoek, which are connected to the Eastern 2007). National Water Carrier (ENWC): (a) the von Bach Dam, (b) the Swakkoppoort Dam, and (c) the Omatako Dam. The sources of supply are illustrated in the schematic Although their individual firm yield is 8 million cubic (figure 12.3). The proportion supplied from each com- meters per year, their conjunctive management can ponent varies according to the annual hydrological cir- provide an assured supply of 12 million cubic meters cumstances. However, in “normal” periods, 64 percent per year. Together with the inflow from other sources has come from the dam system, including  supple- connected to the ENWC, a safe yield of 20 million cubic ments from the ENWC; 15 percent from groundwater meters per year can be provided. sources; and 21 percent from reuse and reclamation. To the north are a number of groundwater sources, some related to mining operations and others supplying Water Resources local urban and agricultural use as well as  delivering surplus into the ENWC system at Grootfontein. These The majority of external sources of water for the city of include a Karst aquifer at Kombat (4.25 million cubic Windhoek are supplied by the national bulk water util- meters per year) and the Goblenz aquifer (0.65 million ity NamWater, which originated from the Namibian cubic meters per year) (Peters 2013). The precise Ministry of Agriculture Water and Forestry (MAWF) in 124 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 12.3. Schematic Layout of the Bulk Water Supply Infrastructure in the Central Area of Namibia Okavango River Previously envisaged Okavango link to the ENWC Local boreholes Brandberg Berg Aukas Karat aquifer Grootfontein including Kombat Goblenz Raw water reservoir Grootfontein-Omatako Canal Central reservoir Okakarara and WTP Omatako Dam Base pump station Navachab mine reservoir Booster pump station Okahandja Karibib WTP Otakarru reservoir Gross barmen Okavango Okahandja reservoir boreholes von Bach Dam and WTP Swakoppoort Dam and Booster pump stations bass pump station Otihase mine Goreangab reclamation Windhoek bulk reservoir Hosea Kutako airport Seela aquifer Windhoek Windhoek aquifer Source: MAWF 2013b. Note: WTP = water treatment plant. 1997 as a public enterprise and reports to the minister The long-term strategy laid out in the 1974 water mas- of MAWF. The distribution of water and the manage- ter plan envisages the construction of an ENWC that ment of wastewater is the responsibility of the would eventually reach the Okavango River near Windhoek Municipality Infrastructure Department; Rundu. This would provide a permanent, reliable this includes conventional treatment and reclamation source to meet any likely increase in demand. The sys- of wastewater, although these are not mentioned in tem would also provide secure supplies to communi- generic local government legislation. ties along its route. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 125 The ENWC was built in stages to meet the evolving meters per year. With a further 1.6 million cubic meters demands: per year and 7.7 million cubic meters per year of reuse and reclamation, respectively, this raises the sustain- • 1970: Von Bach Dam constructed (48.6 million cubic able yield of the system to just over 31 million cubic meters), 70 kilometers from Windhoek meters per year. • 1977: Swakoppoort Dam completed (63.5 million In response to emerging supply shortages, the Study cubic meters), 100 kilometers from Windhoek into the Augmentation of Water Supply to the Central • 1982: Omatako Dam completed (43.5 million cubic Area of Namibia and the Cuvelai (CAN) was launched in meters), 200 kilometers from Windhoek 2013. This confirmed that the Okavango River, on the • 1987: canal from Grootfontein to Omatako Dam border with Angola, is the only freshwater resource that completed has not yet been tapped and could offer significant yields without impacting local users. To tap this resource The dams are linked to Windhoek by a pumping kilometer pipe- would require the construction of a 259-­ main,  which has recently been refurbished and its line and pumping up a 300-meter lift to Grootfontein. capacity increased. The main treatment works is at the From there, the existing ENWC Canal and pipeline infra- von Bach Dam. At the time of the plan, it was forecast structure, whose capacity has recently been augmented, that demands would have grown to the point that this would transport water to Windhoek (requiring a further extension would be needed by 2013. 140 kilometers of pipeline). Table 12.1 presents a summary of the current water At prefeasibility stage, the CAN augmentation proj- sources for Windhoek, Namibia. The Windhoek sup- ect has identified desalination as the only other ply is already managed as a conjunctive system. In this potentially viable source with sufficient yield to meet way, the three dams whose individual firm yield is the long-term needs of the city. This would require only 8 million cubic meters per year can provide an construction of a desalination plant at the coast and assured supply of 12 million cubic meters per year. a pipeline of around 290 kilometers to the von Bach Taken together with the inflow from the ENWC, a safe Dam, and pumping over a 1,330-meter lift. Although yield of 20 million cubic meters per year can be in 2015, the MAWF decided not to extend the aug- provided. Existing abstraction of water from the mentation study to consider this option, this deci- Windhoek aquifer is estimated at 1.7 million cubic sion was later overturned, and desalination is now the subject of a separate study. TABLE 12.1. Windhoek: Current Water Sources Other potential sources that were ultimately rejected Component Yield MM3/a include the Kunene River on Namibia’s border with External surface water 20 Angola. It was decided that this should be reserved for External groundwater 4.9 supply to the Cuvelai area northwest of Windhoek (for Internal groundwater 1.7 which it is the only substantial supply source) as well as Reclaimed water (potable) 7.7 to maintain flows for existing downstream hydropower Sub-total potable water 34.3 generation installations. Reused water (nonpotable) 5 Namibia has access to the Orange River, which is (municipal) more than 700 kilometers south of Windhoek. Reused water (nonpotable) (industry) 1.5 However, since this is further from Windhoek than Sub-total nonpotable water 6.5 the Okavango and, since it is already heavily 126 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report committed by other riparian countries, it is not con- that suggest that it could be competitive with the sidered to be an appropriate long-term source for the Okavango transfer. city. Aquifer Storage in Windhoek and Capacity Okavango-Grootfontein Transfer Requirements from Augmentation Schemes A feasibility study is now being undertaken of Whichever solution is chosen, the capacity required the Okavango-Grootfontein transfer. One challenge to will depend to some extent on the strategy adopted to the use of water from the Okavango Basin is that there use the storage capacity being developed by the will be environmental opposition to abstractions on the Windhoek Aquifer Recharge Project. The establish- grounds that this might have a negative impact on the ment of a large volume of “strategic storage” at Ramsar wetlands. While the technical evidence is that Windhoek will make the system less vulnerable to the impact would be marginal (the main challenges are periods of low rainfall. This in turn will mean that “the proposals for extensive irrigation development3), it size of future augmentation schemes can be down- may delay implementation. In this regard, it is relevant sized significantly” and that “supply sources that were that the Okavango River Basin Water Commission regarded as non-viable due to low annual yields may (OKACOM), the body that formally advises the riparian become viable to keep the ‘water bank’ full.” (MAWF countries on the management of the Okavango River, 2015a, 91). has now supported the project in principle. The variability of precipitation is a defining feature of There is debate about where the abstraction point the Namibian climate. Although there is some evi- should be located. The closest point would be at Rundu, dence of a warming trend, there is no evidence yet of on the Cubango tributary, 250 kilometers from the any change in precipitation patterns or characteristics. Grootfontein terminus of the ENWC. To minimize envi- There is also no evidence of a change in the occurrence ronmental and possible future climate change impacts of extreme events of flood and drought. This does not as well as possible future competition with other users, mean that there are no impacts, but these would be it has been suggested that an offtake at Bagani below difficult to detect given the extreme variability that the confluence with the Cuito River would be prefera- characterizes Namibian climate and hydrology at a ble. However, this will add a further 140 kilometers of multiyear level. pipeline and require additional pumping that will add In general, it might be expected that more extreme significantly to the cost. It would be possible to con- high rainfall events would result in disproportion- sider the Grootfontein–Rundu link as a first phase with ately  higher flood flows and greater surface water the possibility of an extension to Bagani as a second availability; similarly, groundwater recharge may phase if future circumstances require it. increase. However, additional erosion associated intensity events and denuded vegetation with  high-­ Desalination at the Coast might have negative impacts and reduce the capac- Limited information is available on the costs of the ity  of surface water storage infrastructure. Extreme desalination option, which is still being studied. Since floods may also pose a threat to the transmission the transmission distance is similar to that of the infrastructure. Okavango option, but the pumping lift is almost dou- ble and treatment costs substantially greater, the Given these risks and uncertainties, an appropriate desalination option’s costs could be expected to be sig- response is to design and operate the system to nificantly more. However, costs have been presented (a)  reflect current variability, (b) include substantial Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 127 strategic reserve capacity close to demand centers, and result in the discharge of untreated wastewater—is (c) monitor performance to optimize operating rules unlikely in a context in which wastewater is already when appropriate. Both the Okavango and the desali- managed as a valuable resource. nation options, if implemented with Windhoek aquifer At a larger scale, the environmental impacts of an recharge, would appear to meet these criteria and to abstraction from the Okavango River have already offer relatively secure and resilient sources of long- been addressed. Should the alternative desalination term supply. option be chosen, the environmental impacts of Resource Quality Risks and Potential brine disposal will have to be mitigated. In addition, Environmental Impacts the environmental impact of the energy used would The management of water resources in the extreme have to be considered; it has reportedly been sug- conditions of Namibia poses quality challenges. gested by project promotors that these could be man- A  problem during recent dry periods has been aged if it were constructed as part of a combined the  development of algal blooms in surface reser- energy-water project that uses renewable energy voirs, which have impeded effective water treatment. sources. This has affected, in particular, the Swakoppoort Dam, which lies downstream of Windhoek. Water Use The national utility NamWater supplies a substantial The quality of groundwater depends on protection proportion of Windhoek’s bulk water that comes from from surface pollution and from potentially harmful sources external to the city. impacts of overabstraction. Therefore, the interest of the water managers and the wider population will be Virtually all residents of Windhoek have access to safe to protect this resource and respect quality-related water from the city’s systems. Average domestic con- constraints on land occupation and other human sumption in the city is estimated at 163 liters per capita activities. There is already some evidence of conflict per day. The city reports average total consumption between commercial land use proposals around in  the city, including commercial and industrial, is Windhoek and protection of the aquifer. 201 liters per capita per day. Proposals to use aquifer recharge to create a greater The standard of domestic service varies from fully volume of strategic storage have quality implications. piped 24-hour service in suburban areas to shared com- It is likely that some treatment of the recharge water munal standpipes and shared prepaid meters in infor- will be required to avoid clogging or other impacts. mal settlements. The disparity in level of service Some studies have suggested that—in addition to the between these communities is reflected in per capita risk of suspended solids clogging the aquifer—pyrites consumption estimated in the most recent detailed in the aquifer may react with the oxygenated recharge study (Uhlendahl et al. 2010) at 27 liters per capita per water, which could have an effect on the porosity of day in informal settlements served by collective stand- the aquifer and on the quality of water abstracted. pipes rising to 306 liters per capita per day in high This  could impose a further pretreatment require- income suburbs. Just under 5 percent of residents report ment. These issues are still being considered, and the having to walk more than 500 meters to fetch water. outcome will depend on the source of water chosen The city’s target service standard is to have a standpipe and the strategy chosen to bring it to site. A potential within 50 meters of each home serving 25 households, local impact of introducing larger volumes of water but this has not yet been achieved in the informal settle- into the urban region—which in other cities might ment areas, where approximately a third of the city’s 128 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report population live. While higher-­income areas have water- and economy expands, this dependence on “imports” borne sewerage, this has not been extended to informal will grow. This means that the city’s water supply settlements, which depend on on-site sanitation. will  impact on the resource available to surround- ing  regions, which include a few smaller towns as While domestic consumption is the dominant use of well as agricultural areas. In some of these smaller water, there are a number of water-intensive industries, towns, water availability is already a constraint on notably in food processing (abattoir, dairy, and brew- development. ery). There is significant commercial use, and Windhoek is an important port of entry for the thriving Namibian While there is competition for limited regional tourist industry—over 1.3 million tourists visited resources at present, the longer-term perspective Namibia in 2013 (MINET AR 2015) and a significant share envisages Windhoek importing water from even farther of the country’s estimated 13,000 hotel beds are in away. Therefore, measures to increase the availability Windhoek. of water to Windhoek should benefit communities in the surrounding region and those along the transmis- City industries are conscious of the limitations and sion lines from new sources. vulnerability of its water supplies. As the 2015 drought intensified in 2016, the government instructed indus- try to restrict consumption by 30 percent. While some Water Balance for Current Situation industries managed to find efficiency savings, Coca- without Additional Resources or Actions Cola closed its canning lines and resorted to imports, which resulted in local job losses. Elsewhere in the A number of projections have been made of the shared Central Area System, the Meat Corporation of ­evolution of demand for the city of Windhoek, “Greater Namibia has stated that it intends to close a satellite Windhoek” (which is the base used for many of abattoir 60 kilometers from Windhoek due in part to the  current reports of actual demand), and for water constraints. those  parts of the Khomas Region that are supplied from the common system centered on the Von The population of Windhoek has grown faster than the Bach  Dam. Figure  12.4 shows production and water national average (3.6 percent per year between 2001 demand projections of the Windhoek Basin for and 2011, compared to 1.4 percent nationally) and this Fiscal  Year 2000/2001–2050/2051. The demands for trend is expected to continue. If the city succeeds in the city of Windhoek continue to be the largest compo- formalizing the surrounding informal settlements, per nent in forecasts up to 2050. In these projections, capita water consumption is likely to rise. However, a growth in demand is influenced by population 2013 Strategic Environmental Assessment, undertaken and economic growth and by the extent of densifica- as part of a wider assessment of the needs of the tion in residential areas, which correlates with a reduc- Central Area region, predicts that water demand tion in household water consumption. One scenario, would grow more slowly than population, at a rate of the optimistic “Vision 2030,” reflects water demand if 2.5 percent per annum, to 84 million cubic meters the aspirational growth and development targets of per year. This would be due, in part, to the dispropor- Namibia’s long-term plan for 2030 were achieved. In tionate increases in lower-income families as well as these projections, growth in demand is influenced by greater water use efficiency in higher consumption population and economic growth as well as by the households. (MAWF 2013a) extent of densification in residential areas, which cor- The bulk of Windhoek’s water supply already comes relates with a reduction in household water from sources external to the city. As its population consumption. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 129 FIGURE 12.4. Production and Water Demand Projections for the Windhoek Basin, FY 2000/01–2050/51 60 56 52 Production and demand projections in MM3/a 48 44 40.82 40.96 40.93 40.63 40 36 32 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0 20 /01 20 /03 20 /05 08 7 20 09 20 /11 20 /13 20 15 20 /17 20 /19 20 /21 20 /23 20 /25 20 /27 20 29 20 /31 20 /33 20 /35 20 /37 20 /39 20 /41 20 /43 20 /45 20 /47 20 /49 0 20 /0 /5 / / 10 / 16 12 14 30 20 40 18 36 26 32 34 22 24 00 46 42 44 38 28 06 02 04 49 48 20 Fiscal year Production Low Expected High Vision 2030 Source: MAWF 2015a. Note: In 2004, Namibia adopted Vision 2030, a document that clearly spells out the country’s development programmes and strategies to achieve its national objectives. Solutions—Introduction something to be expected and managed. The rare occasions when conditions are so severe Although Windhoek’s water challenges are often con- or protracted that they are beyond what can sidered drought emergencies, they are more accu- reasonably be dealt with in terms of normal rately described in the context of extreme natural risk management practices, and when State variability. Namibia’s 1997 drought policy carefully intervention is considered justified, are to be locates the “normal” challenges of dealing with cli- known as disaster droughts ... . matic variability as distinct from the occasional truly extreme event (page 3): A workable definition is presented which will see a disaster drought occurring in a particular Namibia is an arid country. …. (There is) a high area in 1 year in 14 on average. It is a far stricter degree of variation from year to year, including definition of drought, based on the extremity a few years of exceptionally high and low of the event and the history of resource rainfall, as well as variable rainfall distribution management in a particular area, than has patterns within a year. Human endeavor must hitherto been applied. adapt to this reality. Drought, on the other hand, is a relative phenomenon which refers Long-term planning has been undertaken, notably to exceptionally low rainfall conditions. It is with the preparation of the 1974 water master plan. 130 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report While the plan includes a continuing investment in In 2004, a further “Feasibility Study on Water wastewater reclamation and further initiatives to man- Augmentation to the Central Area of Namibia”4 was age demand, policy makers recognized that this invest- completed and presented the following options: ment would not address the underlying emerging deficit and that water imports would be required. As a • Emergency abstraction from the Tsumeb and Karst result, the phased development of the Eastern National III aquifers Carrier was proposed and key elements were con- • Managed aquifer recharge of the Windhoek Aquifer structed between 1974 and 1984. with deep well drilling However, the master plan predicts that the capacity of • Emergency abstraction from the Okavango River as the first phase of the system would be reached around and when required 2013. This approach was revisited in 2003 and it is • Continuous low volume abstraction from the noted that (Andersson et al. 2006): Okavango River to supply water for managed aqui- fer recharge of the Windhoek Aquifer Though Windhoek constantly strives to develop However, an unusual sequence of wet years between other possibilities to provide its inhabitants with 2004 and 2012 reduced the urgency and contributed to water, a 1993 study about supplying the central complacency, and few initiatives were taken to address Namibian region with water (CSE/LCE/WCE augmentation. The system planning by NamWater Joint Venture Consultants, 1993) confirms an continues to have a short-term focus, taking a two-­ earlier Master Plan from 1972 (Water Resources season view of the adequacy of supplies and not recog- Investigation and Planning for Part of the Central nizing the deficit that was growing between average Area of South West Africa, 1972) which states that available supply and growing demands. a pipeline would eventually be built from  the Okavango River to Grootfontein, linking the river Some progress was made with the drilling and testing system with Windhoek (the “Eastern National of wells in the Windhoek Aquifer to investigate the Carrier,” Pinheiro et al. 2003). potential of the proposed aquifer recharge. But a for- mal study of the augmentation of water supply to the Over the past decade, Windhoek’s population has con- Central Area of Namibia (MAWF 2015b) to establish tinued to grow more rapidly than the national average short-, medium-, and long-term plans for the system and the city accounts for over 40 percent of Namibia’s was initiated only in 2011. The Strategic Environmental GDP. This population and economic growth has placed Assessment undertaken in 2013 (MAWF 2013a) reports further demands on the water supply. Despite these that the secure water supply (31.45 million cubic developments, the next phases of the 1974 master meters per year) was already significantly below the water plan were not implemented in a timely manner. current demand (33 million cubic meters per then-­ This was due in part to bureaucratic inertia and other year). During a dry period in 2015 and 2016, severe priorities during the transition from the South African restrictions were introduced to cope with dwindling mandate to independence, which distracted from the supplies. necessary strategic focus. However, a decade-long dry period led to a 1997 feasibility study of the Okavango- The CAN study seeks to determine the best strategy Grootfontein link “as an emergency contingency mea- to meet future requirements and ensure that short- sure” (MAWF 2015b) proposal to complete the link to term interventions are consistent with a more strate- the Okavangom, but no action was taken when the longer-term approach. The emerging strategic gic ­ drought ended. view continues to focus on the development of the Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 131 ENWC to enable abstractions to be made from the Demand Management Okavango River. Within this strategy, an important Given its location and climate, the city is accustomed new perspective is a recognition of the potential of to periodic supply shortages and has structured the Windhoek aquifer to be used as a strategic stor- approaches to restriction, using tariff and other mea- age facility within the larger system, which goes well sures, to reduce consumption during times of shortage beyond the simple additive contribution of its lim- (rising block domestic tariffs are already applied to dis- ited sustainable yield (around 1.7 million cubic courage excessive use). These measures include set- meters per year). The concept is to artificially ting targets for large users and negotiating with them recharge the aquifer when water is available in wet to agree on feasible reductions that do not have cata- years so that during dry years, a greater volume can strophic economic consequences. Current city officials be withdrawn than would be sustainable under natu- see a challenge—and opportunity—in ensuring that a ral conditions or than could be delivered by the proportion of the demand reductions achieved are ENWC. The configuration considered would see a sustained after the current period of shortage is over recharge rate of 8 million cubic meters per year cre- and formal restrictions are lifted. ate a “water bank” of up to 89 million cubic meters: During periods of severe restriction, it has been possi- this would allow abstraction in dry years of up to 21 ble to reduce average consumption from 200 liters per million cubic meters per year. capita per day to 130 liters per capita per day, although The advantage of this strategy is that a relatively small this has had economic impacts. An aspiration transfer from the Okavango could bypass the dam sys- expressed by city of Windhoek officials is to maintain tem and be fed directly into the aquifer, avoiding evap- some of the savings made during the period of inten- orative losses. The dams would be filled only once the sive restrictions and achieve a lower overall average aquifer was at its maximum storage level. During dry consumption of about 150 liters per capita per day. years, this transfer would be used directly for con- This goal will depend critically on wide political and sumption and would be supplemented by water from social mobilization; in the past, this goal has proved the aquifer and any residual storage in the dams. (The difficult, particularly when a period of restrictions is detailed operational strategy to maximize water deliv- followed by a period of good rains. ery at an acceptable risk still has to be developed.) A dimension over which the city has greater control is An even more significant deviation from the 1974 distribution losses in its own network. This has been a strategy is the proposal to consider production of focus for the infrastructure department. However, potable water at the coast, through desalination, and with NRW reported to be at 13 percent in 2013,5 there to pump it to the central region. In the short- to would appear to be limited scope for further reduc- term plan, additional reclamation capacity medium-­ tions; the current target is to reduce distribution is being introduced. The CAN Augmentation Study losses to 10 percent. More generally, there has been recommends that, following the upgrade of the concern about inefficient use in public buildings, Gammams Wastewater Treatment Plant (GWWTP), an notably schools. additional reclamation plant should be built to provide 4.2 million cubic meters per year via advanced mem- brane technology. Further into the future, this system Implemented and Proposed Key Solutions could be doubled, to provide a total of 8.4 million The CAN augmentation study is considering two long- cubic meters per year of additional water (MAWF term strategic options: (a) completion of the Eastern 2016). 132 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report National Carrier through building a pumping line from which would sell excess power into the grid. The antic- the Okavango River or (b) desalination at the coast ipated transfer volumes and assumed utilization rates and pumping to Windhoek. The costs of the different are not available. solutions are still being determined on a comparable In the interim, the city of Windhoek is implementing a basis. As part of the CAN augmentation study, some Managed Aquifer Recharge project through building baseline unit costs are presented for existing sources additional boreholes that will both increase the although current prices do not always reflect true abstraction capacity and enable the proposed volumes costs. Existing supplies: to be injected into the aquifer. The cost of this project • Windhoek aquifer N$4.80 per cubic meter has been estimated at N$350 million, to be funded by groundwater the central Government. • NamWater Supply N$9.00 per cubic meter Elements of Cost-Benefit Analysis • Reclaimed wastewater N$9.00 per cubic meter • Reused wastewater N$6.30 per cubic meter In the absence of firm costs for the two major long- (for irrigation) term augmentation options, it is not possible to pro- vide a detailed cost-benefit analysis. More important, Costs are also presented for some of the proposed it is not helpful to consider the cost benefit of what options that would comprise elements of a future are essentially different elements of a larger system system, although this does not provide critical infor- ­ without locating them in the context of the overall mation (for instance, the abstraction point from the system. As an example, the capacity of a pipeline Okavango or the design flows) and the other depen- (related to either the Okavango or desalination dencies (where would water for aquifer recharge come source) will be determined by the strategy chosen to from). Additional supplies: use the strategic storage capacity that will eventually be offered by the Windhoek aquifer recharge develop- • Okavango pipeline N$45.00 per cubic meter ment as well as by the potential future demands in • Tsumeb aquifer N$30.00 per cubic meter the larger Central Area. It would also be necessary to • Aquifer recharge N$16.20 per cubic meter understand the implications of different financing • New reclaimed N$17.00 per cubic meter options—would, for instance, the desalination plant wastewater plant be operated on a “take-or-pay” basis and how would (The estimate for the proposed 17.28 million cubic that compare to the unit cost for a pipeline system meters per year Rundu–Grootfontein pipeline was from the Okavango? There is little indication that N$603 million (in 1997 terms—over N$2,100 billion in these strategic considerations have yet informed 2016, inflated by the Consumer Price Index.) decision making. The cost of desalination and pumping from the coast Locally, the immediate demand management inter- to Windhoek has been estimated at approximately ventions are coordinated closely with major water N$40  per cubic meter—even lower estimates have users to minimize the economic impact on current been reported but they are based on the initial value of operations. While there is no evidence that water a tariff that will escalate for 15 years. While these esti- costs influence corporate perspectives on future mates appear surprisingly low, they have been made investments and expansion, supply reliability is an on a different basis to that used for the other options. important consideration. No information has been They also assume that the energy required would be found that seeks to quantify the costs of investment obtained at zero cost from a large solar installation, foregone. National proposals to encourage Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 133 water-intensive industrial activities to locate in less respect, Windhoek is typical of many cities that water-stressed areas could also assist cost-basis analy- require a crisis to trigger decision-making on major sis, although the attraction of Windhoek as an admin- projects; it would appear that the present crisis may istrative hub, international gateway, and logistics achieve that. node will make it difficult to incentivize other The CAN augmentation study notes advantages and locations. disadvantages to the Okavango scheme (MAWF Identifying and Planning the Windhoek Managed 2013b): Aquifer Recharge project 1.  The Okavango River appears to have sufficient The formal client for the current CAN Augmentation capacity for supply to the CAN, though this study is the MAWF; technical oversight is by a steering needs to be confirmed.…. committee comprises two representatives each from MAWF, NamWater, and the city of Windhoek. Flows in the Okavango River appear not to 2.  be correlated with the inflows into the 3 CAN The city of Windhoek is implementing the Windhoek dams (i.e., droughts in the CAN do not coincide Managed Aquifer Recharge project and the develop- with droughts in the Okavango River), which ment of the new water reclamation plant. These means that this is a source independent of the developments are currently being coordinated by hydrological conditions in the CAN. a  ministerial level oversight committee initiated following a presidential intervention. The transfer of water from the Okavango 3.  River to the CAN could make use of existing Challenges to the Selection and infrastructure, at least initially, though the Implementation of Solutions sufficiency of the existing transfer schemes What is striking about the Windhoek experience is the and infrastructure will still be confirmed with apparently lethargic approach to addressing the need the further detailed analyses. for system expansion. There are two roots to this. The disadvantages are that: First, the city has a history of cyclical water crises during dry periods that are eventually resolved by a Competing water demands in the Kavango 1.  multiyear period of good rainfall years. This accounts Regions … may create a conflict with respect for a “wait-and-see” approach reinforced by the pleth- to a possible abstraction limit / allocation to ora of other, often more immediate priorities. The Namibia. likely cost and the contested nature of the decisions to 2. As with the Kunene River, flow in the Okavango be taken on either desalination or abstraction from River is highly dependent on abstraction the Okavango also pose obvious challenges to risk upstream in Angola. This is expected to averse decision makers. (The cost of either the ENWC increase significantly in future, with the extension or desalination is likely to be an order of development of irrigation schemes and even magnitude greater than the investment capacity of a possible transboundary scheme transferring the city, whose overall annual budget in 2016 was water from the Cubango River to the Cuvelai N$3.79 billion, of which only N$179 million was area of southern Angola. for capital items. Even at national level, only N$6.297 billion of government’s N$61.496 billion 2016 budget Climate change effects may result in reduced 3.  was earmarked for capital expenditure; the total allo- or more erratic rainfall and hence runoff and cation to the MAWF was just N$2.91 billion. In this flows in the Okavango River. 134 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The Okavango Delta is a Ramsar site and 4.  evaporation losses that are experienced in existing now a  World Heritage Site and any potential surface water dams. threat to this system will attract international Addressing the Challenges attention. As is often the case, the main driver of the present There is no current water use agreement 5.  accelerated planning activities has been the shortages between the riparian states of Angola, and restrictions experienced in Windhoek as a result of Botswana, and Namibia, which means that a few very dry years. Despite this, the cost of the inter- further water abstraction by Namibia will vention required is beyond the financial capacity of need to be negotiated at OKACOM, which either the City or the national utility NAMWATER. This may  take  some time to complete, which led to political intervention by the President of may delay the design and construction of the Namibia who, when the problem was drawn to his scheme. attention in 2015, established a water augmentation 6.  Abstraction is currently only planned to committee which has brought together all key players. 2050. Beyond this, the future demands are This has provided the current focus for project man- uncertain. If further into the future, demands agement and decision-making. have increased substantially, it is unlikely that the Okavango River will have sufficient supply Other Solutions capacity, given that other abstractions are Over the next one to five years, the city will have to likely to have increased as well (particularly manage with its available resources with a small incre- upstream in Angola). ment in supply capacity coming from the proposed A formal analysis of the desalination and pumping new reclamation plant. Even in years of average rain- option is not yet available. However, while desalina- fall, restrictions will have to be maintained for surface tion is an obvious option at the coast, the economics and groundwater reserves to be replenished. In the appear to militate against desalinating and pumping event of continued below normal rainfall, even more seawater from sea level to an elevation of 1,700 meters extensive restrictions will be required, which will when the alternative source would pump similar inevitably constrain economic activity, in addition to amounts of water from an elevation of 1,000 meters, its social impacts. with minimal treatment. Early cost projections for desalination may be based on unrealistic (or certainly Limits of Adopted Solutions noncomparable) assumptions about the likely opera- The solutions currently proposed would enable the tional and financing arrangements. needs of Windhoek (and the surrounding region) to be Funding for this has been provided by both City and met at least until 2050. Beyond that, desalination National Government. However, since the aquifer has capacity could continue to be increased with no con- already been drawn down over recent years, this will straint except cost. The Okavango-based supply could make only a limited contribution to resolving immedi- also be further expanded, although this would have to ate supply challenges. Until additional supplies be coordinated with upstream developments in become available, significant recharge will only be Angola and agricultural development plans for the possible in years of above average rainfall. In the lon- northern regions. Since upstream agricultural devel- ger term, it will be possible to provide additional water opments have proceeded very slowly and have not yet into the system directly to recharge without the demonstrated their economic viability, it is very likely Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 135 that a supply of urban water would be given priority Lessons from an economic perspective. And since Angola is While every city’s experience and context is unique, a likely to promote hydropower development, this number of lessons can be derived from the experience would not necessarily reduce available flows. At of Windhoek over the past five decades, particularly worst, what may be required is the construction of a the importance of a long-term urban water supply further extension of the ENWC to below the Cubango– strategy to ensure urban water security in a climate that Cuito confluence. is extremely variable over annual and decadal periods. The primary obstacle to the proposed solution is likely Overall, approaches that establish a multiyear strategic to be the initial cost of either completing the ENWC reserve may be more economic than those that provide by  linking abstraction from the Kavango River to a constant assured supply during periods of con- Grootfontein or building a desalination plant at the strained resource availability. This case demonstrates coast and associated transmission infrastructure. that long-term strategies should include a number of Ongoing operational costs will further contribute to the key considerations, including the following: (a) regular need for a substantial increase in water tariffs in reviews and interventions implemented at strategic Windhoek, which may dampen demand but are times while avoiding premature investment; (b) a unlikely to stop it from growing. Financing is unlikely regional perspective; (c) careful strategy structuring so to be raised on the basis of the users’ immediate ability that implementation can be phased and increments to pay; however, the economic argument for promoting introduced as emergency interventions to contribute the scheme (specifically, the economic consequences to  the long-term design; (d) a systems approach to of not implementing it) will likely persuade govern- ensure  optimization of cost, assurance, and quality; ment and financial institutions that it will be a sensible, and (e)  demand management and water reuse. albeit onerous, investment that will have an immediate Additional lessons learned include the consideration of positive impact on social well-being and economic conjunctive uses of surface and groundwater, including activity. groundwater storage, and groundwater storage’s advantages under conditions of extreme variability In the longer term, the stated intention of the present (given the time scale of response of these sources to administration is to decentralize economic growth stress is usually different, and groundwater storage so  as to moderate water demand in Windhoek reduces evaporative losses). (Government of Namibia 2016): There are also cautionary lessons from the challenges of We will develop incentives to bring industrial the Windhoek case. First, long-term strategies carry the sites closer to water resources. The idea is to risk of path dependency that may lock a society into a locate water intensive industries away from the course of action that fails to identify and exploit new central region and close to the perennial rivers. opportunities. It is thus critically important that such This would also reduce the influx of settlers from strategies be reviewed regularly, first to ensure that they those areas. Specific incentive proposals will be are still valid, and second to confirm the timing of the ready by July 2017. interventions needed. In addition, it is difficult to moti- The feasibility of such a proposal remains to be demon- vate the funding of strategic systemic investments as strated. It does however indicate the need to imple- stand-alone projects, particularly if they will be used only ment an approach that is sufficiently flexible to cope ­onstraint; during occasional times of severe resource c with the different medium- to long-term scenarios that this limits the potential to fund them through public-pri- may emerge. vate partnership (PPP) instruments. Policy  makers will 136 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report also need to consider the constraint on future investment ———. 2016. “Harambee Prosperity Plan 2016/17–2019/20.” Government of Namibia, Windhoek. and development due to uncertain water supplies in both the city and surrounding regions. A risk-based assess- Heyns, P., M. Seely, S. Montgomery, and J. Pallet. 1998. Namibia’s Water: A Decision Maker’s Guide. Windhoek, Namibia: Namibia Ministry of ment methodology will be more appropriate than a Agriculture, Water and Rural Development. stand-alone cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to evaluate such Krugmann, H., and M. Alberts. 2012. Water Use and Demand: Namibia. investments. The risk considered would be the economic Maun, Botswana: OKACOM. impact of restrictions in the supply area. Lahnsteiner, J., and G. Lempert. 2007. “Water Management in Windhoek, Namibia.” Water Science and Technology 55 (1–2): 441–8. Notes MAWF (Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry). 2013a. “Strategic Environmental Assessment of Options—Summary Presentation.” MAWF, 1. See the website “Namibia Statistics Agency.” http://cms.my.na​ Windhoek, Namibia. /­assets​/documents/p19dmr57141501927152512mn18631.pdf. ———. 2013b. A pre-feasibility study into: The Augmentation of Water 2. See the website “Info Namibia” http://www.info-namibia.com/info​ Supply to the Central Area of Namibia and Cuvelai. Engineering Inception /­namibia-weather. Report—Technical Portion. Windhoek, Namibia: MAWF. 3. “The simulated impact on modelled river discharge of increased ———. 2015a. Interim Report No. 1: Water Demands and Water Resources. water use for domestic use, livestock, and informal irrigation Windhoek, Namibia: MAWF. (proportional to expected population increase) is very limited. Implementation of all likely potential formal irrigation schemes ———. 2015b. Interim Report No. 2: Hydrological and Supply/Demand mentioned in available reports is expected to decrease the annual Modelling for the Central Area of Namibia. Windhoek, Namibia: MAWF. flow by 2% and the minimum monthly flow by 5%. The maximum possible impact of irrigation on annual average flow is estimated as ———. 2016. Annual Report 2015/2016. Windhoek, Namibia: MAWF. 8%, with a reduction of minimum monthly flow by 17%. Deforestation Nicholson, S. E. 2000. “The Nature of Rainfall Variability over Africa on of all areas within a 1 km buffer around the rivers is estimated to Time Scales of Decades to Millenia.” Global and Planetary Change 26 (1): increase the flow by 6%” (Anderssen et al. 2006). 137–58. 4. See the “Namibia Water Augmentation” website: http://namibiawat​ Peters, I. 2013. “Windhoek Managed Aquifer Recharge, Presentation.” eraugmentation.com/project-background. October 28, 2013. City of Windhoek, Namibia. 5. See the AfDB website: http://infrastructureafrica.opendataforafrica​ Pinheiro, I., G. Gabaake, and P. Heyns. 2003. “Cooperation in the .org/NRWM2016/non-revenue-water-model-wss-2016 ​ ? country​ Okavango River Basin: The OKACOM Perspective.” In A. Turton, =1000350-namibia. P.  Ashton, and E. Cloete, eds. Transboundary Rivers, Sovereignty and Development: Hydropolitical Drivers in the Okavango River Basin. Pretoria, South Africa: African Water Issues Research Unit/Green Cross References International/University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 105–18. Andersson, L., J. Wilk, M. C. Todd, D. A. Hughes, A. Earle, D. Kniveton, Uhlendahl, T., D. Ziegelmayer, A. Wienecke, M. L. Mawisa, and P. du R. Layberry, and H. H. Savenije. 2006. “Impact of Climate Change and Pisani. 2010. “Water Consumption at Household Level in Windhoek, Development Scenarios on Flow Patterns in the Okavango River.” Journal Namibia: Survey about Water Consumption at Household Level in of Hydrology 331 (1): 43–57. Different Areas of Windhoek Depending on Income Level and Water Government of Namibia. 1997. “Namibia Water Corporation Act 12 of Access in 2010.” Albert Ludwigs University Institute for Culture 1997.” Government of Namibia, Windhoek. Geography, Namibia. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 137 Source: Pixabay.com. Chapter 13 Singapore Singapore is a tropical city-state with a population of reputational damage would also be large, especially as 5.6 million people located just north of the equator in 1 Singapore is an important participant in the global Southeast Asia. It is an island of 719 km with one of the 2 water industry. highest population densities in the world. Singapore Singapore is often mentioned as an example of success- enjoys a high level of development, and its gross ful urban water management under resource con- domestic product (GDP) of $84,382 per capita (2015 straints (Garrick and Hall 2014; Sadoff et al. 2015). Water purchasing power parity [PPP]) is the fourth-highest in supply, water resources and catchment management, the world.3 and drainage and sanitation are managed in an inte- Providing a reliable water supply at affordable cost is grated manner by the Singapore Public Utilities Board essential for Singapore’s economic success and sur- (PUB), which is a statutory board under the Singapore vival. Singapore’s ability to be globally competitive in Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources. attracting investments and jobs is largely based on its stable government and reliable infrastructure, includ- Climate and Water Sources ing water supply. In addition, climate change and long- term periods with lower rainfall could affect the Institutional Context for Water Resources reliability of supply of imported water and local catch- Management ments. Aside from direct economic damage from In Singapore, the long-term average annual rainfall is droughts or water supply disruptions, the impact of 2,328 mm with the driest month of February still Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 139 receiving about 120 mm on average.4 Annual and map 13.1) is released into the Johor River to counter saline monthly rainfall can vary significantly. For example, intrusion and ensure reliable abstraction. Aside from the 1997 was the driest of the past 35 years with 1,119 mm of Johor River Waterworks (JRWW), which is a water treat- rain. During a dry spell in 2014, several weather stations ment plant operated by Singapore, the catchment of the across the island did not receive any rain for more than Johor River is managed by Johor State authorities. The a  month.5 Although generally rainfall is abundant water authorities of Singapore and Johor meet weekly to throughout the year, lack of space to store water and the ensure coordination and address any issues. Upstream of absence of aquifers means that Singapore is dependent JRWW are two water treatment plants supplying Johor. on neighboring Malaysia for part of its water supply. Challenges in the Johor catchment are rapidly growing Singapore signed agreements with the Malaysian State water demand due to population and industrial growth, of Johor in 1961 and 1962 to ensure access to water long-term dry weather, and the potential for pollution resources,  which were explicitly mentioned in the and spills (Ewing and Domondon 2016). Separation Agreement for arranged Singapore’s inde- Rainwater runoff from about two-thirds of Singapore’s pendence in 1965. The 1961 agreement ended in 2011 land area is channeled into one of the seventeen reser- and the 1962 agreement, which ensures a supply of 250 voirs (map 13.1). The first reservoirs were constructed million gallons of water per day, expires in 2061. The in the Central Catchment Area, which is a relatively dependency of Singapore on Johor for its water supply pristine protected catchment. Subsequently reservoirs provides Malaysia with political leverage, and, there were developed in the less densely developed western have indeed been tensions over water (Kog 2015; part of Singapore. Most of these reservoirs were formed Tortajada, Joshi, and Biswas 2013). As a result and antic- by damming estuaries (PUB 2002). Singapore then ipating the expiry of the water agreement in 2061, focused on unprotected water catchments in eastern Singapore aims to become self-sufficient with respect to and southern urban areas to collect water from densely water security. populated towns. The reservoirs are connected with the other water sources to ensure operational flexibil- Water Resources ity and maximize storage capacity. Singapore has four sources of water, which are locally known as the Four National Taps: local catchment Desalination capacity is being expanded with an addi- water, reclaimed wastewater (called NEWater), desali- tional five desalination plants by 2020. Desalination nated water, and imported water. NEWater was intro- plants are privately built and operated, but their con- duced in 2002 and currently can meet up to 30 percent struction is somewhat constrained by the intensive of total demand; the first desalination plant started use of the coastal and marine areas surrounding the operating in 2005 and currently desalination can meet island and by low flows in the northeastern part of the up to 25 percent of total demand. The numbers for Straits of Johor between Singapore and Malaysia,7 local catchment water and imported water are not pro- which may affect brine dispersal and increase the pres- vided publicly, but are likely about 10–15 percent and sure on the marine environment. 40–50 percent, respectively. Projections for 2060 show A comprehensive sewer system collects wastewater and an increase of the share of NEWater to up to 55 percent transports it using gravity through the Deep Tunnel and desalinated water to up to 30 percent, with total Sewerage System to treatment and recycling plants, water demand expected to double.6 which produce ultraclean NEWater using a three-stage Map 13.1 provides an overview of Singapore’s water recycling process—microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and resources. Water from the Linggui Reservoir (inset to ultraviolet disinfection. Currently, five NEWater plants 140 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report have a combined production capacity of 167 million is potable and meets World Health Organization (WHO) gallons per day (MGD), or about 47 percent of the ­ guidelines for drinking water quality (PUB 2016a). treated wastewater volume, and an additional plant is Network disruptions are very rare. Sewerage coverage scheduled for completion in 2025. NEWater is used by is also 100 percent; part of the treated wastewater is industry and, although it is safe to drink, indirectly for recycled and part is discharged to the sea. household consumption through mixing with reservoir Water consumption in Singapore is about 430 MGD. water during dry periods. In addition to NEWater, the Map 13.1 gives the breakdown of water sales for Jurong Industrial Water Works plant, which has a capac- 2015.  Households used 44.7 percent of the water, ity of 27 MGD, recycles wastewater for nonpotable which was equivalent to 148 liters per capita per industrial use on Jurong Island. day  (lpcd) in 2016. The agricultural sector is very The Four National Taps provide a robust system with small, occupying less than 1 percent of Singapore’s a diversified portfolio of water sources at different land (Republic of Singapore 2015), and does not risk and cost profiles. Local catchment water and use  much water. Manufacturing constitutes about imported water are the cheapest sources to treat with 25  percent of the economy (Republic of Singapore an energy requirement of 0.2 kWh/m3. Climate change 2015). Singapore houses a large water-intensive pet- and droughts can affect the reliable yield from these rochemical industry, and several large semiconductor sources. Short-term pollution incidents are known to fabrication plants use a significant share of the have halted abstraction from the Johor River, NEWater. The services sector is about 70 percent of although with strict environmental regulations, spa- the economy and is dominated by financial and busi- tially distributed reservoirs, and good treatment ness services and trade through the large port. A total plants, the risk of local pollution seems small. of 14.5 million days were spent in Singapore by for- NEWater production requires 1.0 kWh/m3 with treated eign tourists in 2014 (Republic of Singapore 2015), wastewater as feedstock, and therefore is dependent which is equivalent to about 40,000 persons in resi- on indirect supply from other sources. Desalination dence for a year. requires 3.6 kWh/m3. Seawater is unlimited in supply, but marine pollution (such as oil spills) could poten- Water demand is expected to increase by 25 percent by tially affect seawater intake, especially because 2030 and to double by 2060 due to population increases Singapore is located along one of the busiest shipping and growing nondomestic demand (PUB 2016b). PUB routes in the world. Resource use is based on lowest targets a reduction in domestic consumption to 140 cost resources first, although local reservoirs are lpcd by 2030.8 The growth in nondomestic demand mostly kept at maximum capacity for strategic rea- would represent a worst-case planning scenario. sons. NEWater and desalination capacity will be Singapore’s ability to reach self-sufficiency by 2060 expanded for future demand increases, which will (PUB 2016b) will inevitably require the use of the more increase the energy dependency of the supply sys- expensive resources such as NEWater and desalina- tem. Use of artificial aquifers and underground cav- tion. Despite positive relations between Singapore and erns for water storage is another area that PUB is Malaysia and a Malaysian government commitment to investigating (PUB, n.d.). the water agreement, risks remain from the pressures of increasing water demand in Johor. Finally, the Water Use Singaporean people have become used to a reliable PUB is Singapore’s single water provider; network cov- water supply, in which leads to complacency toward erage of piped water is 100 percent. Water from the tap potential droughts or supply disruptions. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 141 MAP 13.1. Singapore’s Water Resources Pipeline from Johor Plentong Seri Alam MALAYSIA (see inset below) SINGAPORE Kota Masai Johor Bahru Masai Pasir Gudang Tanjung Surat Kranji Water NEWater Plant 17 MGD Sarimbun Pulau Kranji Telpmg Lower Punggol Murai Seletar Upper Serangoon Seletar Lower Poyan Peirce Upper Peirce SINGAPORE MacRitchie Tengeh Jurong Lake Bedok Changi Airport Singapore Jurong Industrial Ulu Pandan Water Water Works 27 MGD NEWater Plant 32 MGD Bedok NEWater Sembcorp NEWater Plant 50 MGD Factory 18 MGD Pandan Changi NEWater Plant 50 MGD Singspring Desalination Plant 30 MGD Tuaspring Desalination Plant 70 MGD Third Desalination Plant (2017) 30 MGD Marina Future Variable Desalination Future Tuas Water Plant (2019) 30 MGD NEWater Plant (2025) 25 MGD MAL AY SIA Linggui PIPELINE FROM JOHOR Reservoir DESALINATION PLANTS Future 5th Desalination Jo Plant (2020) 30 MGD RECLAMATION PLANTS ho r R. RESERVOIR ne PROTECTED CATCHMENT eli Pip UNPROTECTED CATCHMENT 0 5 10 Kilometers URBAN STORMWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM MAJOR HIGHWAYS SINGAPORE INTERNATIONAL IBRD 43188 | SEPTEMBER 2017 BOUNDARIES Source: World Bank, based on data from OpenStreetMap, Google Earth, and Singstat. Solutions horizon and translate the long-term strategies of the Water challenges in Singapore overlap with develop- concept plans into detailed plans for implementation ment challenges, such as limited land and natural by specifying permissible land uses and densities. resources. Rapid economic growth, urbanization and They affect all types of development, including those industrialization have encouraged Singapore to opti- of water resources. mize land use, factoring in future economic and popu- When Singapore became independent in 1965, it lation growth projections. imported some 80 percent of its water from Johor. Long-term planning strategies have also been used to Local water storage capacity was very limited, drain- decide on the broad pace of development. Singapore age and sewage infrastructure was missing, and recur- has employed planning instruments such as concept rent droughts and floods affected both population and plans, strategic land use and transportation plans that economic activity.9 Financial constraints restricted guide development for the next 40–50 years. In addi- planning and construction of water supply, drainage, tion, statutory master plans reach over a 10–15 year sewage, and flood alleviation projects. As Singapore 142 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report became more affluent, it became easier to plan and The then–Ministry of Environment extended the sewer- implement water infrastructure projects. age network to ensure that all wastewater was collected and treated. For example, the Bedok Reservoir was From 1960 to 1970, Singapore focused on developing already earmarked under the 1971 Concept Plan projects to import water and meet increasing demand. as  a  potential water catchment area; the Urban Later efforts led toward building up local water supply Redevelopment Authority (URA), which oversees land sources, providing sanitation services for the growing use planning in Singapore, rezoned land to protect it population, and the collection and treatment of waste- against polluting developments. The Housing and water. In the mid-1980s, PUB focused on developing Development Board (HDB), responsible for public hous- urbanized catchments, as well as on developing technol- ing, excavated sand that it required for its future proj- ogy that would produce unconventional sources of water ects and stockpiled it elsewhere so that Bedok Reservoir to increase the water supply. With time, reservoirs and could be completed in time to meet increasing water waterways began to play an important part in recreation demands (Tan, Lee, and Tan 2009). and urban design with the objective of bringing people closer to water and of integrating parks, water bodies, In 1971, a long-term Concept Plan was prepared for and residential areas. Each one of these strategies has Singapore’s physical development assuming a popu- resulted not only from water challenges but also from lation of 4 million. A key aspect of the Concept Plan land use and energy challenges for which numerous was the “ring” approach, which would create a devel- institutional, policy, management, and development opment ring around the central water catchment responses have been implemented. area. Major industrial areas would be located on the  periphery of surrounding corridors, and major Water resource strategies have included systematic, recreational areas would be developed from the innovative, and forward-looking planning, regulatory, ­ central catchment area through to the coast. New management, development, and technology mea- towns would be built around the central catch- sures. Between 1960 and 1970, Singapore continued ment area, where the MacRitchie, Peirce and Upper the water supply development plans developed by the Seletar protected catchments were located. This British. Singapore started expanding two of the three framework protected the water bodies from pollu- existing reservoirs in the central catchment area, and tion while also developing centers of population in the Scudai and Johor River schemes in Johor were areas other than the central area. The protected developed and set out under the 1961 and 1962 Water catchments were left in their natural state as much as Agreements, respectively, to import water. possible. No development works were authorized in In 1968, Singapore was presented as a Garden City these areas. during the introduction of the Environmental Public The same year, a Water Planning Unit was estab- Health Bill before the Parliament, which had an overall lished under the Prime Minister’s Office to assess the strategic national focus on improving the quality of the scope and feasibility of expanding water supplies. urban environment. This Unit prepared the first Water Master Plan in To address water quantity constraints, PUB proposed 1972. It considered both conventional and uncon- increasing the runoff that could flow to the reservoirs by ventional water sources and outlined strategies that indirectly increasing the water catchment area. This was would ensure diversified and adequate local water done through runoff collection from nearby water supplies by creating urbanized catchments that catchment areas. Interagency coordination played would meet projected future demand (Tan, Lee, and an  important role in solving water quality  problems. Tan 2009). Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 143 To satisfy water demand, the cleaning of highly pol- and Drainage Act (SDA) which is administered and luted rivers and water bodies became a national prior- enforced by PUB, and the Environmental Pollution ity, because both the Concept and Water Master Plans Control Act (now known as the Environmental stressed the need to develop unprotected catchments. Protection and Management Act (EPMA) was enacted. As a result, animal husbandry activities near catch- Each was accompanied by regulations. ment areas were relocated, antipollution legislation The Singapore River and the Kallang Basin were cleaned was introduced and enforced, and drainage, sewage, from 1977 to 1986, in conjunction with large redevelop- and flood alleviation projects were developed. ment activities (Tortajada, Joshi, and Biswas 2013). After In 1972, a growing focus on environmental issues cleaning the Singapore River, a comprehensive plan was resulted in the formation of the Ministry of the developed by the URA and the Singapore Tourism Board Environment (ENV). The establishment of the ministry (STB) in coordination with other departments and stat- was a pioneering move in Southeast Asia and one that utory bodies. The Singapore River was chosen among was further backed with new regulations. one of the 11 thematic zones identified in the Tourism Master Plan seeking to project Singapore as a tourism In 1975, the Water Pollution Control and Drainage Act capital in the twenty-first century (STB 1996). was enacted to control water pollution by discharging effluents into sewers and monitoring and regulating In the late 1980s, the government began studying the water quality. Part IV of the Act primarily addressed development of Marina Bay as an alternative source of water pollution control for inland waters and made it a freshwater, as well as for flood alleviation purposes. punishable offence to discharge any toxic substance into inland water. In addition, the 1976 Trade Effluent Further Alternatives to Import Water to Regulations enabled the Director of Water Pollution Singapore Control and Drainage to ensure that trade effluents In 1989, then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew announced were discharged only into sewers. that Singapore was considering the possibility of import- With rapid urbanization, many waterways were ing water from Indonesia.10 Under an agreement signed upgraded to facilitate collection of storm water runoff. on August 28, 1990, relating to economic cooperation in The Water Pollution Control and Drainage Department the Riau Province, Singapore and Indonesia agreed to was also entrusted with the enforcement of the Water cooperate on the sourcing, supply, and distribution of Pollution Control and Drainage Act (1975), the Surface water to Singapore. In 1991, a water agreement signed Water Drainage Regulations (2007) and the Trade with the government of Indonesia would provide for the Effluent Regulations (1976). Numerous drainage proj- supply of 1,000 MGD from sources in the Province of ects have been developed and have reduced flood- Riau for 100 years. The agreement would have provided prone areas by more than 95 percent over the last few viable supplementary or alternative sources of water for decades, even as urbanization has intensified over the long-term needs. However, its implementation was same period. delayed after evaluating various options. Concurrently with the rapid development of Singapore, Unconventional Sources of Water appropriate pollution control strategies were adopted, The use of unconventional sources, such as recycled older legislation and regulations were amended, and water, had been proposed in the 1972 Water Master new ones were drafted. For example,  the Water Plan. Although it was technically possible to produce Pollution Control and Drainage Act 1975 was repealed recycled water that met drinking water standards in and its relevant powers streamlined into the Sewerage the early 1970s, a pilot plant study had shown that the 144 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report process was costly and technologically unreliable. would purchase the water. It was also agreed that a Thus, recycled water plans mostly proposed using smaller 10 MGD desalination plant would be owned recycled water for nonpotable use. This entailed a host and operated by the government (PUB 1999). Bidders of technical and cost considerations, such as a separate could choose from a range of available desalination and expensive reticulation system for the lower-grade processes including multieffect distillation, multistage water with the possible risk of cross-contamination, as flash distillation, reverse osmosis, or hybrid systems. well as aesthetic concerns. Before membrane treatment of saltwater was devel- oped, distillation was the most commonly used tech- Desalination was also considered during the 1980s and nology. Different distillation variations relied on large 1990s, but desalination had not been implemented amounts of energy to produce heat or the required anywhere on a large scale and entailed high energy pressure conditions to evaporate water that would and other costs. then condense on a cooler surface, a process that made With the development of more cost-effective technol- distillation very expensive. Singapore’s first 30 MGD ogy in 1996, consultants were appointed to carry out reverse osmosis desalination plant was built and site feasibility and engineering studies on desalination. opened in 2005 by SingSpring Pte Ltd. Given the results, it was decided that a plant would be A demonstration plant for recycled water was built in built on reclaimed land at Tuas, west of Singapore, and 2000, and an international panel with national and that the first phase of the desalination plant, with a foreign experts was formed to provide independent capacity of 30 MGD, would be constructed using the advice on the study. Technology enabled high-grade dual-purpose multistage flash distillation process. An reclaimed water to be produced through a multibarrier adjacent power plant was proposed to be built by 2005. treatment process that consisted of conventional PUB also announced that it was studying increasing used-water treatment, micro- and ultrafiltration, local sources of water by developing suitable marginal reverse osmosis and, finally, ultraviolet disinfection. catchments to collect storm runoff from new housing estates. Rainwater would be collected and treated to In 2002, the plan for producing recycled water began meet drinking water standards instead of being drained to be carried out: New plants were built and, equally for flood control and sent out to the sea. PUB explained importantly, a communication plan was also prepared. that these projects would be implemented with the A fundamental part of this outreach effort was to edu- development of drainage systems in the new towns. cate the public that this recycled water was safe for The cost of this initiative was estimated at S$170 million drinking, not simply to focus on the technology and would increase total catchment area by 5,500 hect- employed. To change the overall negative popular ares (PUB 2010). At the same time, PUB and ENV impression toward recycled water, recycled wastewa- embarked on a joint assessment on the feasibility of ter was renamed “NEWater,” wastewater treatment water reclamation using secondary treated sewage plants were renamed “water reclamation plants,” and effluents. The S$14 million study involved the construc- wastewater “used water.” The new terms were part of a tion of a demonstration plant with a 10,000 m per day 3 strategy to achieve a change of mind-set, stressing the capacity using advanced membrane technology to treat new approach to water management by communicat- sewage effluent that would meet the internationally ing to the public the need to look at water as a renew- accepted WHO Drinking Water Standards (PUB 1998). able resource that could be used over and over again. In 1999, it was decided that the desalination plant Similar to desalinated water, the production of should be built by the private sector, from which PUB NEWater was available for private sector participation. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 145 The first three plants were owned and operated by of water resources; water reclamation and reuse; waste- PUB. However, the fourth and fifth plants were built water treatment and disposal; and storm water manage- under a Design-Build-Own-Operate (DBOO) model ment and water demand management (PUB 2001). For with the private sector. The purpose was to develop a demand management, water pricing for cost-recovery water industry that would provide services at a spe- (see table 13.1), and nonpricing measures including man- cific level of quality and at a cost-effective price, as datory and technical measures have been developed. well as to encourage greater efficiency and innovation PUB is one of the few agencies in the world that man- in the water sector (Tan, Lee, and Tan 2009). ages all aspects of water resources. In most cities in The Marina Reservoir was built in 2008. It is the most both the developed and the developing world the ser- urbanized and largest catchment in Singapore (10,000 vices are under two or more organizations. Institutional hectares). The reservoir was created through the con- fragmentation in those cities leads in many cases to a struction of a barrage, formed by land reclamation, across lack of coordination. the Marina Channel at the confluence of five rivers Singapore’s Next-Step Options for Further (including the Singapore River). It provides a much needed Drought Proofing additional source of water and promotes flood alleviation To address Singapore’s rising water demand and poten- and water for recreational purposes. Together with other tial droughts, PUB will continue to focus on supply-side reservoirs, it has increased Singapore’s water catchment engineering solutions. Several desalination and NEWater from half to two-thirds of the country’s land area. plants are planned to address rising demand, as well as expansion of the local catchment area. Institutional Arrangements PUB was established in 1963 to supply water, gas, On the demand side, focus continues on measures and  electricity. In 2001, it became responsible for to  reduce domestic and nondomestic demand. PUB water ­ supply, sanitation, and wastewater management. is  considering industrial water solutions, such as Management of electricity and gas were moved to the seawater cooling and maximizing water recovery in ­ Energy Market Authority (EMA). PUB’s broad strategies production processes. For domestic demand, behav- include maximization of production and diversification ioral studies are being carried out to assess the effects TABLE 13.1.  Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2018, after a 30 Percent Price Increase over a Two-Year Period Singapore dollars Nondomestic water Domestic water Potable water NEWater Industrial water Shipping customers Tariff 0–40 m : 1.21 3 1.21 1.28 0.66 1.92 > 40 m : 1.52 3 Water conservation 0–40 m3: 0.61 (50%) 0.61 0.13 n/a 0.96 tax (% of tariff) > 40 m3: 0.99 (60%) (50%) (10%) (50%) Waterborne fee for 0–40 m3: 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 wastewater > 40 m3: 1.18 Total 0–40 m3: 2.74 2.74 2.33 1.58 3.80 > 40 m : 3.69 3 Source: Water Price (database), PUB (accessed July 10, 2017), https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/waterprice. Note: n/a = not available. 146 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report of behavioral tools on water use, such as shower meters, Furthermore, if the Linggiu Reservoir becomes dry, in addition to education and communication efforts. there will be a significant reduction in water supply, wastewater generation, and NEWater production. Conclusions and Lessons for Other Water Per capita daily domestic water use in Singapore in Scarce Cities 2016 was relatively high at 148 liters. Other cities in the Singapore’s urban water and wastewater management developed world have brought their consumption during the past 51 years has been exemplary by any down below 100 liters with measures that include pub- standard. This remarkable transformation has been lic awareness campaigns and economic incentives, possible primarily because PUB has been a consistently and Singapore plans to follow suit. In the past, efficient and progressive institution. Singapore is the Singapore has used technological improvements to only city in the world which now has an urban water reduce domestic water consumption and nondomestic management plan that extends to 2061, when the water use. In the future, it is likely that technological treaty to import water from Malaysia expires. This plan developments will bring only incremental benefits. is updated every 5 years considering the latest technol- Therefore, significantly more emphasis needs to be ogies that can be successfully adopted, changes in placed on behavioral and attitudinal changes to meet a social, economic and environmental conditions, and target of reducing per capita daily water use to new management techniques. 140 litres by 2030. Over the past five decades, Singapore’s national water Singapore’s water price had remained the same for management has consistently received strong political 17  years, until early 2017, when it was announced support from national political leadership such as that  it would increase by 30 percent over a 2-year Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew from 1965 to 1990. period. During these 17 years, inflation  has been Throughout his 25-years as Prime Minister, Lee consid- around 30 percent. A survey in 2017  indicated ered water to be a strategic resource for Singapore’s that  75  percent of the Singaporeans did not know survival and future economic development. Yew’s how much they paid for water. The small increase in commitment to water security is undoubtedly one of price, compared to inflation, is unlikely to have the main reasons for Singapore’s urban water transfor- appreciable impact in reducing per capita water mation and progressive water agenda. consumption. Although Singapore has had success with urban water Overall and looking forward, trends show that management over the past 50 years, challenges to Singapore needs to change its narrative from an argu- urban water resilience and security remain. At present, ment of cost recovery for domestic and nondomestic nearly 50 percent of its water comes from the Linggiu water uses to one of managing a scarce resource. Reservoi in Johor, Malaysia. In late 2016, Linggiu stor- age was at a historic low. In January 2017, Foreign Notes Minister Balakrishnan noted in Parliament that there is 1. Statistics Database (Department of Statistics), Singapore (accessed a significant risk that the reservoir may have no water July 10, 2017), http://www.singstat.gov.sg/statistics/latest-data. if 2017 is another dry year. 2. Statistics Database (Department of Statistics), Singapore (accessed July 10, 2017), http://www.singstat.gov.sg/statistics/latest-data. Because of the effects of climate change in recent years, 3. World Bank Open Data (database), World Bank, Washington, DC there is a probability that before 2061, when the water (accessed July 10, 2017), http://data.worldbank.org. import treaty with Malaysia expires,11 a significant 4. Meteorological Service Singapore, Climate of Singapore, (accessed July source of the water used in Singapore may disappear. 10, 2017), http://www.weather.gov.sg/climate-climate-of-singapore/. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 147 5. Meteorological Service Singapore, Climate of Singapore, (accessed July Kog, Y. C. 2015. “Transboundary Urban Water: The Case of Singapore and 10, 2017), http://www.weather.gov.sg/climate-climate-of-singapore/; Malaysia.” In Understanding and Managing Urban Water in Transition, Rainfall—Monthly Total (database), Government of Singapore, (accessed edited by Q. Grafton, K. A. Daniell, C. Nauges, J.-D. Rinaudo, and July 10, 2017), https://data.gov.sg/dataset/rainfall-monthly-total/. N. W. W Chan, 575–92. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. 6. PUB (Public Utilities Board), Singapore Water Story, (accessed July 10, PUB (Public Utilities Board). 1998. Annual Report. Singapore: PUB. 2017), https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/singaporewaterstory. ———. 1999. Annual Report. Singapore: PUB. 7. For a discussion of the hydrodynamics and residence times of the waters surrounding Singapore see Bayen et al. (2013). ———. 2001. Annual Report Singapore: PUB. 8. PUB (Public Utilities Board), “Save Water,” (accessed July 10, 2017), ———. 2002. Water: Precious Resource for Singapore. Singapore: PUB. https://www.pub.gov.sg/savewater. ———. 2010. Water for All: Conserve, Value, Enjoy. Singapore: PUB. 9. With 6,900 hectares of flood-prone areas (about 12 percent of the ———. 2016a. Annual Report and Financial Report 2015. Singapore: PUB. main island area at that time), the government considered it a prior- https://www.pub.gov.sg/annualreports/annualreport2016.pdf. ity to provide drainage in flood-prone areas and implement flood prevention measures in low-lying areas. ———. 2016b. Our Water Our Future. Singapore: PUB. https://www.pub​ .gov.sg/Documents/PUBOurWaterOurFuture.pdf. 10. Yang Razall Kassim. 1989. “Plan to Buy Water from Jakarta,” Business Times (Singapore), October 7, 1989. ———. (n.d.). PUB Overseas Seed Fund for Water Technologies Fact Sheet R&D Technology Roadmap, Appendix 1. http://www.kooperation​ 11. This is information from an ongoing study that will be submitted for -­international.de/uploads/media/Anlage_1_PUB_Overseas_Seed_Fund_for​ publication in late 2017. _Water​_Technologies_Fact_Sheet.pdf. Republic of Singapore. 2015. Yearbook of Statistics Singapore. http://ist​ References mat.info/files/uploads/50355/yearbook_of_statistics_singapore_2015.pdf. Bayen, S., H. Zhang, M.M. Desai, S.K. Ooi, and B.C. Kelly. 2013. Sadoff, C. W., J. W. Hall, D. Grey, J. C. J. H. Aerts, M. Ait-Kadi, C. Brown, “Occurrence and Distribution of Pharmaceutically Active and Endocrine A.  Cox, S. Dadson, D. Garrick, J. Kelman, P. McCornick, C. Ringler, Disrupting Compounds in Singapore’s Marine Environment: Influence of M.  Rosegrant, D. Whittington, and D. Wiberg. 2015. Securing Water, Hydrodynamics and Physical-Chemical Properties.” Environmental Sustaining Growth. Oxford, UK.: University of Oxford. Pollution 182 (November): 1–8. STB (Singapore Tourism Board). 1996. Tourism 21: Vision of a Tourism Ewing, J., and K. Domondon. 2016. “How Johor’s Growing Water Woes Capital. Singapore: Singapore Tourism Board. Could Affect Singapore.” Today, September 14. http://www.todayonline​ .com/commentary/how-johors-growing-water-woes-could ​ - affect​ Tan, Y.S., T.J. Lee, and K. Tan. 2009. Clean, Green and Blue: Singapore’s -singapore. Journey towards Environmental and Water Sustainability. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Garrick, D., and J.W. Hall. 2014. “Water Security and Society: Risks, Metrics, and Pathways.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources Tortajada, C., Y. Joshi, and A.K. Biswas. 2013. The Singapore Water Story. 39 (1): 611–39. Singapore: Routledge. 148 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: Perth Skyline. Sam Curry. Pixabay. Chapter 14 Perth, Australia Perth is the capital of Western Australia, the fourth- supplies—almost half is groundwater, almost half is most populous city in Australia with about 2.1 million from desalination plants, and a small amount is from people—80 percent of Western Australia’s total popula- the dams. The drying climate has driven the shift from tion. The Greater Perth region extends from the Indian dams to desalination for potable supplies, and is affect- Ocean to the Darling Scarp, and approximately ing the availability of groundwater for potable and 140  kilometers from north to south on the Swan nonpotable supplies. Coastal Plain (map 14.1). Perth dominates the Western The southwest of Western Australia has been in the Australian economy. During the recent resources boom grip of ongoing climate change since the 1970s and is the rate of population growth doubled to more than now drier and hotter than at any time in its recorded 3 percent per year between 2006 and 2013. history. The Perth region has a Mediterranean-type The availability of water from fresh groundwater under climate with hot, dry summers and winter rainfall. the coastal plain and dams on rivers has influenced the Annual rainfall is variable. The historical average urban form and the concentration of the state’s popu- annual rainfall in the Perth-Peel region prior to 1970 lation in Greater Perth. About half of the water used in was approximately 860 millimeters on the coastal Perth is from self-supplied groundwater for nonpota- plain and 1,230 millimeters on the Darling Scarp. ble purposes including horticulture, parks, and gar- However, rainfall declined by about 10 percent during dens. The other half of the water used is from potable the 1970–99 period. Since 2000 this trend has Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 149 MAP 14.1. Greater Perth Region and Major Land Uses AUSTRALIA PERTH REGIONAL LAND USE: COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL PARKS/RESERVES Joondalup RURAL RESIDENTIAL Midland DARLING SCARP (FAULT) Perth GREATER PERTH REGIONAL BOUNDARY Fremantle TOWNS Armadale Rockingham INDONESIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA INDIAN TIMOR- Arafura Sea OCEAN LESTE Darwin Coral Mandurah Sea AUSTRALIA Brisbane R. ng rli Perth Da Great Adelaide Sydney Australian Bight CANBERRA Melbourne 0 20 40 Kilometers INDIAN Tasman OCEAN Sea Hobart IBRD 43195 | SEPTEMBER 2017 intensified with Perth now experiencing a 20 percent 50  percent reduction in the 1975–2000 period, a reduction in annual rainfall from the pre-1970 aver- nearly 75  percent reduction in the 2000–09 period, age, with a particularly dry year in 2010. These rain- and an 85  percent reduction in the 2010–14 period fall reductions have coincided with increases in (figure 14.1). average annual temperatures of about 0.5ºC from A system of sedimentary aquifers lies beneath most of 1970–99 and 1.3ºC since 2000 in relation to the pre- the Greater Perth urban area, consisting of shallow, 1970 average. middle, and deep aquifers. Groundwater is a major source for Perth’s water supply scheme, and the shal- Hydrology and Water Resources low aquifer supports extensive self-supply use in the The natural hydrological systems for Perth’s water supply region. Water quality varies from fresh to marginal and include several surface water catchments on the Darling brackish. Scarp east of Perth and groundwater aquifers below the coastal plain. Stream flows feed into a number of public Water Resources Management and Water scheme supply reservoirs, and prior to 1975 yielded about Use in the Greater Perth Area 338 gigaliters per year. Water quality is fresh at less than The Department of Water manages the water resources 500 milligrams per liter of total soluble salts. in Western Australia under the Rights in Water The rainfall reductions have had a significant effect and Irrigation Act of 1914, and a water license is needed on pre-1975 average annual stream flow with a nearly to take surface water and groundwater (except for 150 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report FIGURE 14.1. Streamflow into Perth’s Reservoirs, 1911–2016 1,000 900 800 700 600 Measured in GL 500 400 300 200 100 0 11 31 51 71 91 11 19 20 19 19 19 19 1911–1974 av 338 GL 1975–2000 av 173 GL 2001–2009 av 92 GL 2010–2014 av 50 GL Annual total Source: Water Corporation website. Note: GL = gigaliter. small-scale stock, domestic, or garden use). To manage More than half of the water used in the Greater Perth total groundwater and surface water abstraction at region is self-supplied, mostly sourced from ground- resource scale, water is issued up to an allocation limit water. More than 2,500 self-supply users access the for each resource management area. Sustainable allo- local shallow aquifer. Nearly half of the water used in cation limits, set through water allocation plans, are the region is supplied via the Perth Integrated Water based on investigating, monitoring, and assessing the Supply Scheme (IWSS) by Western Australia’s largest water resources to set how much water can be taken water utility, the Water Corporation (map 14.3). This is for use and establishing access rules. The extraction of currently sourced from a combination of desalinated water is then managed through the license, supported seawater (47 percent), groundwater (46 percent), and by a compliance system. surface water (7 percent), and represents a significant change from the late 1990s, when about half was In the Greater Perth area most groundwater management sourced from surface water and half from groundwa- areas are now overallocated (map 14.2). Allocation limits ter. Prior to the mid-1970s, about 90 percent of scheme have been reduced and licensing capped to adjust to the supply was sourced from surface water. The water sup- drying climate. Across most of the Swan Coastal Plain, ply use strategy for the scheme is to minimize demand stormwater is managed by recharge to the local shallow by improving efficiency of usage, maximize use of cli- aquifer, with relatively small volumes discharged via the mate independent sources such as seawater desalina- drainage system. However, in some areas of recent urban tion, make opportunistic use of surface water sources, development with high water tables, larger volumes of and minimize use of additional groundwater. drainage water are discharged. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 151 MAP 14.2. Gnangara Groundwater System and Water Availability in Shallow Groundwater Management Subareas of Greater Perth AUSTRALIA PERTH GNANGARA GROUNDWATER SYSTEM GREATER PERTH REGIONAL BOUNDARY TOWNS Joondalup GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY (SHALLOW GROUNDWATER)- SEPT. 2016: Midland Perth AVAILABLE LIMITED Fremantle UNAVAILABLE Armadale Rockingham INDONESIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA INDIAN TIMOR- Arafura Sea OCEAN LESTE Darwin Coral Mandurah Sea AUSTRALIA Brisbane R. ng rli Perth Da Great Adelaide Sydney Australian Bight CANBERRA Melbourne 0 20 40 Kilometers INDIAN Tasman OCEAN Sea Hobart IBRD 43196 | SEPTEMBER 2017 Other Potential Water Resources for the Greater around $A1.60 per cubic meter, and expanded or addi- Perth Region tional seawater desalination plants with estimated Wastewater is a climate-independent and growing costs of around $A2.04 per cubic meter (for expanded) resource, with treatment costs for recycling lower and $A3.54 per cubic meter (for additional). Large- than for desalinating seawater. The Water Corporation scale seawater desalination plants (50–100 gigaliters is about to commence production from the first per year capacity) need suitable coastal locations and Groundwater Replenishment Scheme (GWRS). Water integration with existing water infrastructure. Smaller, from the Beenyup wastewater treatment plant will be more widely distributed desalination plants with a recycled through advanced treatment and recharged capacity of around 20 gigaliters per year could be an into the middle and deep aquifers. Through outstand- option depending on how unit cost compares to ongo- ing public engagement, the concept enjoys good com- ing operating costs. munity acceptance and is estimated to cost Potential sources to meet future nonpotable self-­ approximately $A2.25 per cubic meter. supply water demand are more limited. The capacity Potential future water sources for the Perth IWSS to pay for water to irrigate public open space, horticul- include groundwater sources north of the current ture, and industrial processing means most of the urbanized areas, with an estimated supply cost of higher-cost water supply options are less viable. 152 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report MAP 14.3. Perth Integrated Water Supply Scheme AUSTRALIA PERTH GOLDFIELDS & AGRICULTURAL Water Supply Scheme DESALINATION PLANTS GROUNDWATER RESOURCES Joondalup WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS RESERVOIR DAM Midland TRUNK MAIN PIPELINE GREATER PERTH REGIONAL BOUNDARY Fremantle TOWNS Armadale Perth Seawater INDIAN Rockingham OCEAN Mandurah INDONESIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA TIMOR- Arafura Sea LESTE Darwin Coral Sea AUSTRALIA Brisbane GREAT SOUTHERN TOWN g R. Water Supply Scheme rlin Perth Da Southern Seawater Great Adelaide Sydney Australian Bight Melbourne CANBERRA INDIAN Tasman 0 20 40 Kilometers OCEAN Sea Hobart IBRD 43197 | SEPTEMBER 2017 If self-supply demand cannot be met through a combi- includes major storage and service reservoirs. About nation of water efficiency measures and lower-cost 30 gigaliters per year of water are exported to supply source options, future self-supply water demand is inland agricultural and Goldfields regions to the east of likely to either shift to the public water supply scheme Perth, which have very limited local freshwater or the activity would be curtailed. resources. The Water Corporation operates sewerage and major Urban Water Supply and Sanitation drainage services for most of the region. The sewerage Institutional Framework system collects wastewater and pumps it to central- The Water Corporation supplies drinking water to most ized wastewater treatment plants for disposal of sec- of the population in the Greater Perth region via IWSS, ondary treated wastewater to the ocean or for recycled the largest public water supply scheme in Western water use. The Water Corporation also owns and oper- Australia. The IWSS connects multiple water sources ates the Kwinana Water Recycling Plant (KWRP), which to residential and nonresidential customers by an treats wastewater and supplies it to industry for non- ­ integrated trunk main and distribution system that potable uses. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 153 A few private companies have recently obtained licenses increase area or output will need to become more to provide water services (potable, sewerage, nonpota- efficient or find alternative, higher-cost water sources. ­ ble recycled water) for small communities in the region’s Economic impacts of water supply disruptions and south. Local government authorities (municipalities) growing demand for water are being minimized by provide local drainage services across the region. pro-active water supply planning by the Water Corporation and the Department of Water. The shift to Types of Water Use the climate-independent water sources of seawater In 2015–16, the IWSS supplied 267 gigaliters of water desalination and recycled wastewater significantly to  the Greater Perth region. About 70 percent of this reduces the risk of future scheme supply disruption. was used by households and about 18 percent by other users including commercial, institutional, and light industry. The remaining 12 percent is nonrevenue Water Demand Pressures and Competition for Water water (NRW) consisting of authorized, unbilled con- Despite a 30 percent population increase in Greater sumption such as firefighting, apparent losses Perth since 2000, overall water demand on the IWSS (metering inaccuracies and unauthorized use), and has not increased due to water use efficiency programs real losses (through leakages). Total per capita scheme and decreasing dwelling lot sizes. Since 2000, scheme water use was 127 cubic meters per person for 2015–16. water use per person has decreased from 180 kiloliters per year to 127 kiloliters per year in 2015–16. The Water Self-supplied water use in Greater Perth is estimated to Corporation aims to further reduce per capita con- be about 300 gigaliters per year for households sumption to a maximum of 115 kiloliters per year by (30  percent); agriculture (26 percent); parks, gardens, 2030. Competition for groundwater from the shallow and recreation areas (24 percent); heavy industry aquifers has been reduced through sourcing more than (12  percent); mining (6 percent); and commercial 70 percent of the water for scheme supplies from (2 percent). There are estimated to be over 175,000 deeper aquifers. domestic garden bores in the Greater Perth region, used to water about 30 percent of all household gardens. Little or no shallow groundwater is now available for self-supply in areas planned for urban expansion. New Economic Dependence on Water urban developments need to have 10 percent of the area No severe watering restrictions have been placed on designated for public open space. Expansion of the met- scheme water users for several decades due to reduc- ropolitan area has already displaced peri-urban horti- tions in per capita water use and the development of culture in several parts of the region, and food producing climate-independent supply sources such as seawater areas now on the urban fringe are facing changes in land desalination by the Water Corporation. The introduc- use and competition for water resources. tion of water use efficiency measures had no major Heavy industry in Greater Perth is mostly located in impacts on the regional economy. the Kwinana Industrial Area. Current water demands Users of self-supplied, nonpotable water in the region are are met from a combination of groundwater abstrac- heavily dependent on ready access to relatively low-cost, tion, recycled wastewater, and a small amount of pub- untreated groundwater. This partly diverts demand from lic scheme supply. Limited groundwater is available to the IWSS and hence reduces overall supply costs by using support future growth. Investigations are underway to untreated groundwater for nonpotable purposes. Now, recycle water from the nearby Woodman Point waste- with less natural groundwater available, farmers, local water treatment plant for aquifer recharge for later governments, and industry water users that plan to extraction by industry. 154 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Institutional Arrangements for Managing management and new supply sources. A c ­ omprehensive Allocations and Supply Risk water use efficiency program was introduced by the The Department of Water’s water allocation plans Water Corporation. It included community awareness incorporate the effects of a continuing drying climate initiatives and incentives to reduce use. The new IWSS on water resources. Licenses issued under water legis- water sources developed progressively since 2001 lation provide annual water entitlements for water include the following: use, and are subject to local water availability and impact assessment. The actual use of surface water is • Increase in groundwater scheme, with new bore- largely self-limiting since decreasing reservoir storage fields to significantly increase abstraction from the levels are visible. The Water Corporation manages sur- deep aquifers. face water extraction rates to retain some water in • Temporary use of additional groundwater. storage for emergency use. ­ • Opening of Perth Seawater Desalination Plant at Unlike surface water storages, declining groundwater Kwinana with a production capacity of 45 gigaliters levels are not visible and the sustainable abstraction per year (November 2006). rate is a much smaller proportion of the overall resource • Construction of Southern Seawater Desalination storage volume. Groundwater allocation limits are Plant at Binningup south of Perth (stage one: reviewed over 5- to 10-year periods based on reassess- 50  gigaliters per year, September 2011; stage two: ments of rainfall, recharge, and aquifer response. doubled capacity to 100 gigaliters per year, January However, the climate is changing rapidly and rebalanc- 2013). ing of abstraction rates lags behind. The challenge is to • Water trading with Harvey Water (an irrigation water rebalance abstraction with recharge so groundwater lev- supplier) for 17.1 gigaliters per year (2006). els can stabilize or recover and groundwater-­ dependent • Kwinana Water Reclamation Plant supplying up to environmental and social values are maintained. 8.7 gigaliters per year of recycled wastewater to industry (2008 onward) to reduce demand for IWSS Water Balance for the Current Situation supply and self-supplied groundwater. without Additional Resources or Actions • Beenyup GWRS’s advanced treatment of wastewa- Currently for the IWSS, the water available from ter, reinjection to deep aquifers, and subsequent groundwater resources and the two seawater desalina- groundwater extraction (trials between 2010 and tion plants is enough to meet most of the region’s 2012; online in 2017). scheme water demand. Surface water is still needed to Solutions for self-supply groundwater and surface meet between 5 percent and 10 percent of demand so water use included the following: successive dry years would trigger contingency strate- gies. An additional source will soon be available • Department of Water’s groundwater allocation plan through the Beenyup GWRS. for the Gnangara Groundwater Areas (Government of Western Australia [GoWA] 2009a)—developed in Solutions response to downward trend in groundwater levels— The relatively sudden 80 gigaliters per year reduction capping use, reducing allocation limits, and trigger- in average annual surface water flows presented a ing a first stage of reduced abstraction for the IWSS. major challenge to IWSS supply security in the early • Demand management programs and measures for 2000s. The response was a combination of demand licensed self-supply water users. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 155 • Department of Water restriction of use of IWSS Water Source Solutions domestic  bores for garden irrigation to three ­ The first water source solution was introduced in the days  a week  and introduction of total winter late 1980s and early 1990s. The groundwater scheme sprinkler ban in 2010. was significantly increased with new and expanded borefields to increase overall groundwater production, and independent artesian bores to significantly IWSS Demand Management Solutions increase production from the deep aquifers. Water demand management options were the first solutions initiated in the early 2000s in response to Temporary additional groundwater extraction of up to drought. They could be brought into play relatively 30 gigaliters per year was initially a contingency ­solution quickly and at a modest cost. Some were immediate introduced in the early 2000s. The costs were relatively short-term options, while others were structural solu- low and additional extraction could be implemented tions to provide long-term benefits. relatively quickly. Surface water flows never returned to their previous levels, instead they reduced further, The Water Corporation initiated a very active water use resulting in continued reliance on the “temporary” publicity campaign to raise community awareness of additional groundwater. To offset the effect of taking the supply security and the need to work together to that additional groundwater for the IWSS, a greater pro- reduce water use. Water use efficiency incentives were portion of abstraction was shifted to deeper aquifers introduced for residential customers, including retro- and less environmentally sensitive locations, and con- fitting of low-flow shower heads and low-flush toilets. ditions for temporary access were tightened. The Water Corporation also began to engage and work with major nonresidential customers to determine The Perth Seawater Desalination Plant treats seawater ways to reduce their water use. and supplies 45 gigaliters of drinking water per year. The seawater reverse-osmosis (SWRO) plant was com- Residential garden irrigation was a major focus since it pleted in 2006 and was the first of its kind in Australia. constituted about half of residential IWSS water use (a Electricity for the plant is offset by the 80 megawatt third of all IWSS water use) and was subject to overuse Emu Downs Wind Farm. The desalination plant has one during summer. Restrictions on the use of fixed sprin- of the world’s lowest specific energy consumptions, due kler systems were part of the emergency contingency in part to the use of pressure exchanger energy recovery planning for the IWSS. A two-day-per-week roster for devices. Seasonal excess water from the plant is stored garden watering by sprinkler systems was imple- in selected surface water reservoirs. mented without damaging gardens and lawns. The sprinkler roster system, accepted by government and The Southern Seawater Desalination Plant is located the community, was implemented as “good watering near Binningup, about 150 kilometers south of Perth. practice” rather than “restrictions,” and has been in It  was built in two stages, each with a capacity of place ever since. 50 gigaliters per year. The first stage was completed in 2011 at a cost of $A640 million plus an additional The initial effect of these demand management solu- $A315 million to integrate it into the IWSS. The second tions was to reduce IWSS water demand by about stage of the project was completed in 2013 at an addi- 30  gigaliters per year. Subsequent reductions in per tional cost of $A450 million and expanded the plant’s capita water use from about 150 cubic meters per year capacity to 100 gigaliters per year. to 127 cubic meters per year by 2016 are due to a combi- nation of these demand management solutions and The $A72 million Harvey Water Pipe Project was com- smaller residential lot sizes. pleted in 2006. This water-trading initiative between 156 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Harvey Water and the Water Corporation converted Regulatory and Self-Supply Solutions open irrigation channels to pipes, harvesting seepage The Department of Water restricted use of domestic and evaporation losses. This made 17.1 gigaliters per bores for garden irrigation to three days a week in 2010 year of water available to the IWSS in a permanent and is working closely with local government authori- trade. It benefited the irrigators by providing a pres- ties (municipalities) to improve the irrigation effi- sured pipe irrigation system that controlled irrigation ciency for public open spaces. that suits higher-value horticulture crops. The department released the Gnangara Groundwater The $A28 million Kwinana Water Reclamation Plant Areas Allocation Plan in 2009 (GoWA 2009a). Its aim (KWRP) was initially commissioned in November 2004 was to slow the pace of groundwater level decline to provide recycled wastewater to two major industrial by  introducing staged reductions in groundwater customers; it expanded to its full capacity in early extraction and by capping the amount of groundwater 2008 to provide additional recycled wastewater. This pumped for self-supplied water use. These regulatory has reduced demand for IWSS and self-supplied measures have driven improvements in water use effi- groundwater by 6 gigaliters per year. It uses advanced ciency and interest in alternative nonpotable water filtration and reverse osmosis processes to further sources across all water sectors. treat secondary-treated wastewater to produce high-quality, industrial-grade water. Planners of Water Source Solutions The Water Corporation undertook a trial of groundwater The Water Corporation led the scheme supply plan- replenishment at its Beenyup wastewater treatment ning response to the ongoing reductions in source plant between 2010 and 2012. This involved managed capacity from 2000 to the present day. The corporation aquifer recharge of highly-treated wastewater with sub- worked closely with the Department of Water and suc- sequent extraction and treatment of an equivalent cessive state governments. The Department of Water amount of groundwater from groundwater bores for led the planning for the regulatory and self-supply public supply. The trial was successfully completed in responses to the reduced levels of available water. December 2012. This project has received good public support. Construction of Australia’s first full-scale In 2002 the state government and the Water GWRS for 14 gigaliters per year began in October 2014 Corporation went to the people of Western Australia and is currently in the final stages of commissioning. for input into planning for water source development The state government announced expansion of the and management of demand, which culminated in the scheme in July 2016, doubling its capacity to 28 gigali- State Water Strategy (GoWA 2003). The strategy’s ters per year at a cost of $A232 million. objective was to “ensure a sustainable water future for all West Australians by: improving water use efficiency To meet the supply gap of water demand for the IWSS in all sectors; achieving significant advances in water since 2000, demand management has accounted for reuse; fostering innovation and research; planning and about 80 gigaliters per year, additional groundwater up developing new sources of water; and protecting the to about 30 gigaliters per year, seawater desalination value of our water resources.” about 145 gigaliters per year, water trading 17 gigaliters per year, and wastewater recycling about 6 gigaliters per Other programs included the Water Corporation’s year. For Perth, groundwater and seawater desalination “Water for Life” report (GoWA 2006) which outlined would now be regarded as “conventional” supply its  “security through diversity” strategy to sources, while trading and recycled water would proba- “secure  Western Australia’s water future through bly fall in the “unconventional” category. a diverse portfolio of supply and demand programs.” Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 157 The state government gave water and the management options have been unit cost, yield volume, and climate of water resources strategic priority through the devel- independence. This led to efficiency in demand man- opment of the State Water Plan (2007). agement and water use, seawater desalination proj- ects, and investigation of managed aquifer recharge of The Water Corporation released “Water Forever, treated wastewater. With successful trialing and com- Towards Climate Resilience” in October (GoWA 2009b), munity acceptance of the latter option, groundwater a comprehensive, long-term water supply strategy for replenishment has replaced seawater desalination as Perth’s scheme supply. It addresses the major water the preferred new water source, due to its lower unit issues for the Perth region—a drying climate, increasing cost. However, both recycling and seawater desalina- population, and minimizing environmental impact—by tion are likely to be needed into the future. using less water. The strategy set out a portfolio of options to reduce water use, increase water recycling, and develop new sources. Main Challenges to Selection and Implementation of Solutions In November 2009 the Department of Water released the The Water Corporation has had good support from the “Gnangara Groundwater Areas Allocation Plan” (GoWA government and the Department of Water (the water 2009a). It set limits on groundwater abstraction for resource manager) in selecting and implementing the scheme supply and targets to reduce this to 120 gigaliters source solutions for the IWSS. A water policy unit was per year, with desalination coming onboard, to relieve established in the Department of Premier and Cabinet pressure on the groundwater system. The plan capped in the early 2000s to support and coordinate the gov- allocation limits for licensed self-supply. In December ernment policy response. Initial resistance to proposed 2009, the Department of Water released the Perth-Peel restrictions on domestic garden watering by the Regional Water Plan, a comprehensive document that nursery, turf, and irrigation industries was overcome addresses public and self-supply and explains the depart- by genuine engagement. ment’s position and actions on (a) water use efficiency; (b) security of supply; (c) alternative sources; (d) water- A major challenge since the early 2000s has been man- ways and wetlands; and (e) water sensitive cities. aging the decline in groundwater levels. Addressing this challenge requires reductions in scheme and In response to the very dry winter of 2010, when there self-supply water extraction. The Department of Water was virtually no inflow to the IWSS dams, the Water has worked with the Water Corporation over the past Corporation released “Water Forever Whatever the decade to reduce the dependence of the IWSS on Weather: Drought Proofing Perth” (GoWA 2011). This is groundwater sources. The department is currently a 10-year plan to drought-proof Perth by 2022, what- developing an updated water allocation plan for the ever the weather, by (a) transferring groundwater Gnangara groundwater system to manage sustainable abstraction to deeper aquifers; (b) replenishing the groundwater extraction by 2030. deep aquifers with recycled water through a new As the first major seawater desalination plant in GWRS; (c) expanding seawater desalination capacity Australia (and the southern hemisphere), the Perth (by 50 gigaliters per year) to continue to make gains in Seawater Desalination Plant broke new ground in terms water use efficiency; and (d) using wastewater recy- of the technology, regulatory approvals, contractual, cling for nondrinking uses. and operational aspects. The very dry winter in 2010 Multiple options have been progressed simultaneously triggered a decision to double the capacity of the state’s to provide Perth with water security through diversity. second plant, the Southern Seawater Desalination Plant, The primary criteria for selection of IWSS source while it was still under construction. 158 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The Water Corporation’s groundwater replenishment and there are few other users able to afford the cost. source is a climate-independent, affordable scheme sup- However, there is potential competition for recycled ply option utilizing wastewater. Large-scale managed wastewater between the Water Corporation’s GWRS aquifer recharge of recycled wastewater for indirect pota- and other potential users of recycled wastewater. ble reuse had not been attempted in Australia before and Groundwater replenishment is considered an import- required new thinking in terms of the water treatment ant in the short-, medium-, and long-term source for technology required and the approvals processes with future scheme supply. Recycled wastewater, most the three regulators (Department of Water, Department likely through aquifer recharge, is emerging as a poten- of Health, and Department of Environment Regulation). tially valuable source for future self-supply. The restrictions on the use of IWSS-supplied domestic garden irrigation (two days a week) and domestic Other Solutions self-supply bores (three days a week) had the potential Solutions Considered but Not Implemented for conflict with householders. However, the commu- Water source options for Perth that were considered nity engagement on these actions was handled well, but not implemented include the South West and these restrictions have now largely been accepted Yarragadee groundwater supply—an option to harvest as ongoing good watering practice. 45 gigaliters per year from the South West Yarragadee The proposal to use recycled wastewater for potable aquifer. There was some local community opposition, water supply had potential for community opposition. and the investigations indicated that insufficient A direct reuse proposal in Queensland a few years groundwater was available. Another was harvesting before had to be abandoned due to community opposi- 30  gigaliters per year of groundwater from the tion. Thus, the Water Corporation actively engaged a ­Gingin-Jurien area. The option did not proceed because broad cross-section of the community as well as tech- this source had higher risks due to the continuing nical experts, political leaders, and individuals identi- drying climate and potential community opposition. fied as potential opposers in the development of the Several other options were rejected because they were project. It conducted a very effective community either more expensive than seawater desalination or engagement program, and this alternative supply climate-dependent or both (GoWA 2009a). Seawater source has received a high level of community accep- desalination is now the benchmark for considering all tance (consistently greater than 70 percent in the gen- future source options since it is climate-independent. eral community and 90 percent from those who have The Water Corporation is currently updating its long- visited the trial information facility). term demand and supply forecasts for the IWSS. The The state needed to make significant capital invest- Department of Water’s preliminary work indicates that ments in new water sources infrastructure over the the current IWSS demand of 300 gigaliters per year will past 15 years. Large capital investment to support met- increase to about 460 gigaliters per year by 2050. This ropolitan scheme supply included the Perth and estimate accounts for projected population growth as Southern seawater desalination plants, Harvey pipe well as continuing water use efficiency gains that should project, Kwinana water reclamation plant, stage 1 reduce per capita water use from 127 cubic meters per Groundwater replenishment scheme, and improve- year currently to 115 cubic meters per year by 2030. ments to the distribution system. The Department of Water’s assessment of the outlook for There is no competition for seawater desalination as a self-supply water users in the Greater Perth region indi- drinking water source since Perth is a coastal city, cates that current self-supply demand of 305 gigaliters Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 159 per year will increase to about 490 gigaliters per year by potentially large and viable supplementary water 2050. Including the projected effect of climate change on source for self-supply use. the groundwater and surface water resources in the region, the gap between unconstrained self-supply water Lessons demand and water availability is likely to be about Perth’s long dry summers, natural groundwater, and 140 gigaliters per year by 2050. location present a particular challenge. Groundwater has been the go-to water resource for Perth for many Projected Future Limits on Current years, enabling scheme security and irrigation of parks Solutions and gardens to offset the effects of an extremely long By 2060 the total volume of treated wastewater in the and dry summer. Perth’s location—on the western side region is projected to be about 270 gigaliters per year of a land mass at latitude 32—means it is subject to an (GoWA 2009b). When estimating the effect of water ongoing drying effect of declining rainfall with reduced use efficiencies on available wastewater volumes, this recharge to groundwater. figure could reduce to about 210 gigaliters per year, The drying climate has impacted water availability for about 60 gigaliters per year more than the projected Perth’s IWSS as well as those who draw their water sup- IWSS demand-supply gap by 2050. plies directly from their own groundwater bores. State In planning for self-supply water users, the objective is governments have invested significantly in new scheme to meet the projected gap of about 75 gigaliters per water sources to stay ahead of the drying climate and year for licensed uses through water use efficiency water demand due to population growth. But with recent gains and recycled water use. The objective for the years among the worst recorded in terms of inflows into estimated 2050 supply-demand gap of 65 gigaliters per Perth’s drinking water dams, the development of year for water uses exempt from licensing is to meet ­ climate-independent initiatives is being accelerated. this demand through making significant improve- The Water Corporation is planning for the next ments in domestic bore water use efficiencies and pre- climate-independent sources, and is looking at a range ­ venting future growth in the installation of domestic of longer-term options. Dams will still be important: bores. Limiting the growth of domestic bores could storing water in wetter years and seasonally from transfer demand to the public supply scheme; how- desalination plants, supplying local communities, and ever, it would be at a reduced volume since average providing carefully managed flows for small-scale scheme garden watering rates are lower than those for downstream water users and the environment. domestic bores. The Water Corporation’s groundwater replenishment Locally recycled wastewater supplemented by drain- trial has ensured the necessary time and expertise to age water could be a source for licensed self-supply test the technology in local conditions and gain water use. Recycled wastewater is preferable as it is endorsement from state regulatory agencies. The cor- climate-independent, but this resource is limited and poration also carried out an extensive community will be subject to competition from the IWSS. Local engagement program during the trial and gained a supplementation with drainage water is therefore an critical level of community support for the project. ­ important tool for future self-supply water users. On the eastern parts of the Swan coastal plain, groundwa- Guided by contemporary scientific studies and model- ter tables are high in winter and most of the new urban ing, as well as practical input from stakeholders, the development areas require subsoil drainage to control Department of Water is planning for reductions to total the water table. This subsoil drainage represents a groundwater abstraction, encouraging further gains in 160 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report water efficiency and exploring alternative sources for supplies, local horticulture, industry, parks, sporting nonpotable water needs. Reducing groundwater use grounds, schools, and gardens. Over time, introduc- while maintaining economic growth will be challeng- ing alternative water sources will take pressure off ing and will rely on clear direction and strong commu- natural groundwater and build climate resilience for nity engagement. businesses and the community. Self-supply groundwater users have noted the Department of Water has periodically granted the References Water Corporation’s application for a temporary addi- GoWA (Government of Western Australia). 2003. Securing Our Water tional groundwater allocation to mitigate a potential Future: A State Water Strategy for Western Australia. Perth, Australia: public water supply shortfall. However, while main- Government of Western Australia. taining public supply is an important priority, this con- ———. 2006. “Water for Life.” Perth, Australia: Government of Western Australia, Water Corporation. tingency approach is expected to be phased out due to surmounting challenges. ———. 2007. State Water Plan 2007. Perth, Australia: Government of Western Australia, Water Corporation. The people of Perth have adjusted to sprinkler rosters, ———. 2009a. “Gnangara Groundwater Areas Allocation Plan.” Water responded to demand management campaigns, and Resource Allocation and Planning Series Report No. 30. Perth, Australia: reduced average per person water use. Perth’s water Government of Western Australia, Department of Water. future will continue to rely on support from a water- ———. 2009b. “Water Forever: Towards Climate Resilience.” Perth, aware community, and increasingly on climate-­ Australia: Government of Western Australia, Water Corporation. independent sources, further innovation for nonpotable ———. 2009c. “Perth-Peel Regional Water Plan.” Perth, Australia: Government of Western Australia, Department of Water. sources, and water-smart but highly livable urban design. ———. 2011. “Water Forever, Whatever the Weather: Drought Proofing Perth’s water future depends on a sustainable ground- Perth.” Perth, Australia: Government of Western Australia, Water water resource that contributes water for scheme Corporation. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 161 India. Source: ­https://pixabay.com/en/jaipur-city-india-top-view-indian-166512/. View from Nahargarh Fort in Jaipur, Rajasthan, ­ Chapter 15 Jaipur, India ­ ajasthan. Jaipur is the capital city of the Indian state of R from River Dravyavati emerging from the Aravali Hills India’s water policy gives priority to water use for (i.e., north of the proposed city location); and (b) the ­ human survival with water use prioritized in the fol- area had a good capacity for rainwater being captured lowing order: drinking, community, domestic use, below the sand dunes at a easily recoverable depth of agriculture use, and industrial use. Agriculture uses meters. The area also had a good natural drainage 5–10 ­ about 80–90 percent of the available water; drinking swamp. system toward the northeast leading into a ­ water uses about 5–6 percent; and industry, energy, The overflow from the lake drains toward River Dhund and other uses make up the remaining water demand behind the Eastern Hills and hence provides safe areas (NITI ­ 2016). With greater urbanization and industrial- perspective. from a flooding ­ ization, urban and industrial use’s demand of water is Jaipur has attempted to manage water scarcity by con- continue to put expected to only increase and thereby ­ stantly managing water resources and supply strategies water. pressures on the existing sources of ­ to safeguard itself against risks associated with deplet- At 290 years old, Jaipur was originally developed ing water resources and ­ 15.1 shows the pollution. Map ­ because water was abundantly available compared to water scarcity situation in ­Jaipur. The city has attempted ­ egion. The site for city of Jaipur other locations in the r to achieve reliable urban water supply for its growing was chosen because of these key factors: (a) adequate population as well as mitigate the water stress risk asso- drinking water due to the presence of perennial water ciated with climate change and other natural f ­actors. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 163 MAP ­1 5.1. Water Scarcity in Jaipur, Rajasthan INDIA SIKAR Govindgarh JAIPUR, RAJASTHAN Chandwaji ALWAR Samod JAIPUR MUNICIPAL Kaladera CORPORATION Renwal Chomu AREA COVERED BY THE WATER SUPPLY NETWORK Achrol 30 KM RADIUS NAGAUR RIVERS MAIN TOWNS DISTRICT CAPITAL Kalwar Jamwa Ramgarh DISTRICT BOUNDARIES Jobner Amber SEASONAL WATER LEVEL Jhotwara FLUCTUATION MAY–NOVEMBER: JAIPUR Fall > 4m Kanota Fall 2–4m Fall 0–2m Bassi Rise 0–2m Sanganer Rise 2–4m Bagru Goner Rise > 4m Tunga Kolkhawda Chaksu Phagi DAUSA 0 10 20 Kilometers TONK IBRD 43770 | JUNE 2018 This chapter discusses how Jaipur has managed its The quaternary sediments consist mainly of layered water resources and summarizes the strategies the city deposits of sand, silt, and, to a lesser extent, clayey failures. has adopted and its successes and ­ sand of aeolian origin, which have been deposited on the base rock layer, now eroded and flattened Climate and Geology of Jaipur 2011). The sediment soil cover varies between (GSI  ­ ­ock. This 45  meters and 120 meters over the base r The region of Jaipur has patchy rock outcrops that are upper sandy layer forms the aquifer of Jaipur from limited, occasional, and narrow in northeast ridges, mined. The base rock is very which water has been ­ projecting from a vast alluvial and sandy ­ plain. The thick and believed to be over 1,000 meters ­ deep. hills around Jaipur are part of the Aravalli chain that Map  15.2 is a of the area with a typical cross section stretches from Delhi toward the state of Gujarat West–Northwest-South–Southeast axis. 2015). Jaipur District is (Navin, Mathur, and Gupta ­ characterized by a wide spectrum of landscapes All the rivers, channels, drains, and nalas in Jaipur are including hillocks, pediments, undulating fluvial ephemeral, that is, they flow only during and just after plains, aeolian dune fields, ravines, and palaeochan- events. However, many drains are now carry- rainfall ­ 2013). nels (CGWB ­ city. ing treated or untreated wastewater from the ­ 164 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report MAP ­1 5.2. Jaipur Area West–Northwest-South–Southeast Vertical Cross-Section Showing Alluvium and Bedrock a. Cross-section line across Jaipur area b. Corresponding vertical cross-section 650 600 west Alluvium 550 Bedrock Elevation (masl) cross 500 -sect ion JAIPUR Amani Jawah 450 400 Dhund 350 300 250 0 10 20 30 Distance (km) IBRD 43191 | SEPTEMBER 2017 The Jaipur area has the following major catchments, cov- different sets of institutions including municipal bod- ering an area of approximately 170 square kilometers: ies, state entities, and other ­institutions. Since the WSS is a state subject, the Rajasthan government is respon- • North and North East Catchment (Brahmpuri Nalla sible for developing overall policy and standards, and and Nagtalai Nalla), which flows into Jal Mahal Lake, directing investments in the s ­ ector. The responsibili- which overflows into River Dhund downstream of ties of the state include development, financing, and Kanota Dam cost recovery for WSS within its ­ territory. • Southern and South Western Catchment, which The city of Jaipur has a number of agencies involved includes tributaries such as Jawahar Nala and in the water s ­ ector. Rajasthan Public Health Jhalana Nala, these then flow into the Aminasha Engineering Department (PHED) supplies drinking Nala before the confluence with River ­ Dhund. water to all cities in the state of Rajasthan, includ- The climate of Jaipur, which is situated on the eastern ­ aipur. This agency is responsible for bulk water ing J boundary of Thar Desert, is ­ semiarid. Nearly 90 per- supply, including mining of groundwater, treating cent of the annual precipitation occurs during the ­ onsumers. The it as required, and supplying it to c monsoon months (DWR 2 ­ 015). The rainfall in the Jaipur Rajasthan Ground Water Department (RGWD) area varies from a typical 500 millimeters per year in develops and maintains the infrastructure for min- the western region, to 780 millimeters per year in the ing groundwater for the purposes of drinking and hills north of J ­aipur. The average rainfall in Jaipur i rrigation. The RGWD sets the limits for groundwa- ­ year. region is 620 millimeters per ­ ter e ­xtraction. The Rajasthan Water Resources Department (RWRD) supplies water to the city of Jaipur from the Bisalpur D am. ­ The Jaipur Institutional Agencies Involved in the Development Authority (JDA) plans and develops Water Sector ­ aipur. The JDA urban infrastructure for the city of J The water supply and sanitation (WSS) sector in Jaipur provides water and sewage infrastructure for new is governed by a fairly complex institutional structure development areas, and makes investments in new categorized by fragmented responsibilities for p rojects. sewage and storm drainage infrastructure ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 165 Jaipur Nagar Nigam (JNN) is the urban local body It has high total dissolved solids, high nitrates (NO3)— that operates and maintains all Jaipur’s urban typically in areas where there is old habitation and infrastructure projects—including sewer collection near areas where wastewater flows, such as Amanisha and stormwater drainage—but not water supply, Nala—and is contaminated with fluorides in the south- ­HED. The Rajasthan Urban which is done by P ern region. Infrastructure Development Project (RUIDP) devel- ops the urban infrastructure in Rajasthan, includ- External Events that Influenced Jaipur’s ing water, sanitation, sewerage, and sewage Development and Water Supply treatment ­ p rojects. Many infrastructure improve- After the partition, there was a sudden increase in the ment projects in Jaipur have been executed by city’s population, which led to a sharp expansion of RUDIP, such as improvement of sanitation, new area. During this period, water was pro- the urban ­ sewer lines, and sewage treatment ­ p lants. vided through groundwater changing the surface to groundwater ratio from 2 0.7. From 1951 to 1971, ­ .3 to ­ to meet the water demand due to population Development of Jaipur’s Water Supply increases, additional surface water was supplied from the Ramgarh Dam, which resulted in a change in the The water supply scenario in Jaipur can be classified 0.3 to ­ surface to groundwater ratio from ­ 3.2, later periods: into following distinct ­ ­ .90 by increased groundwater e reduced to 1 ­ xtraction. From 1971 to 1985, the increase in water demand was • 1700s–1955. Water supply provided by rainwater met by higher groundwater extraction, with surface wells storage tanks and shallow groundwater ­ ­ .2. However, the water to groundwater ratio around 2 • 1955–82. Water supply provided by rainwater stor- heavy rainfall on July 23, 1981, resulted in a major loss age tanks, the Ramgarh Dam, and shallow and of about 40–50 percent of the water supply sources: medium groundwater ­ wells shallow dug wells were completely clogged, and rain- • 1982–2006. Water supply provided by the Ramgarh water storage structures were significantly d ­ amaged. Dam and groundwater mined using deep tube wells This incidence resulted in increased groundwater with submersible pumps that gradually replaced the mining, which changed the surface to groundwater diminishing Ramgarh surface water ­ supply 2.20 to ­ ratio from ­ 1.20. • 2006–10. Virtually all the water supplied using deep tube wells with submersible pumps (effect: water The increased groundwater extraction resulted in a table diminishing at 3–4 meters per ­ year) very rapid decline of groundwater table, by as much as 1.5 meters to 2 meters per y ­ ­ ear. The Ramgarh Dam—the • 2011–present. Majority of water supply provided only surface water source—became a nonviable source by  the Bisalpur Dam (83 percent) and some in the late 1980s to the early 1990s, when it experi- groundwater being mined using deep tube wells enced a reduction of inflow into its catchment due to (17 ­percent). the gradual reduction in the catchment area because of Because of the high extraction of groundwater, the encroachment and unplanned expansion (Roberts, water table has been gradually decreasing (CGWB 2014). The problems were further Reiner, and Gray ­ ­ 2015). Groundwater level, which was at about 5–10 aggravated due to poor r ­ainfall. The anthropogenic meters deep in 1951, has presently decreased to 75–80 activities and a couple of years of poor rainfall resulted meters. The water supply problem has worsened ­ in an extreme water crisis in the year 2005–06, during ­ ime. because the water quality has deteriorated with t which surface water flow from Ramgarh Dam 166 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report completely dried and virtually no surface water was Bisalpur Dam Water Supply Project available for supplying water to Jaipur (Dass, Jethoo, The Bisalpur Water Supply Project (BWSP) was 2013). and Poonia ­ designed to supply drinking water to Jaipur and Ajmer District. To and provide irrigation to areas in the Tonk ­ Jaipur’s water supply from surface water sources ensure completion of the proposed BWSP, the State of was  about 70 percent from 1941 to 1981 until high Rajasthan requested the Asian Development Bank rainfall destroyed a major portion of rainwater stor- assistance. (ADB) provide ­ age tanks that supplied surface water to the city of Jaipur. Subsequent unplanned and poor reservoir ­ The BWSP was designed to supply water to the city of management primarily attributable to anthropogenic Jaipur to reduce the dependence on the severely activities—such as construction of check dams and resources. The execution constrained groundwater ­ anicuts, changes in land use, additional farmhouses, of the BWSP was based on recommendations in and reduction forest land in the catchment—led to Safege Consulting Engineers’ Jaipur Water Supply dam. This situation resulted in a poor inflow into the ­ and Sanitation Feasibility report, prepared in 2 ­ 000. gradual decline of inflow of water into the Ramgarh The project’s components included a pumping Dam; its supply of nearly 60 percent of Jaipur’s sur- station at the headworks; construction of an ­ face water dropped to almost zero, making Jaipur ­ 8.4-kilometer raw water pipeline; construction of a almost completely dependent upon groundwater new water treatment plant (with a capacity of 400 until ­ 2011. In that year, water from the Bisalpur Dam million liters per day); and construction of approxi- arrived to the ­ c ity. mately 97 kilometers of clear water pipelines; it also had the provision to supply potable water to villages along the pipeline ­ route. Water Tariff The dam is about 120 kilometers south of Jaipur on the The water tariff for city of Jaipur, Delhi, and Bangalore Banas River and has a storage capacity of ­ 38.70 thou- ­ elow. for different types of water users is summarized b sand million cubic meters, and of this the Central The tariffs have been increased with the addition of a ­ 3.15 thousand million Water Commission has made 3 sewerage charge, which in each city are as follows: cubic meters available, with 75 percent reliability fac- tor considering evaporation and other l ­osses. The net • Jaipur water tariff, plus 25 percent sewerage charge water available for drinking and irrigation is approxi- • Delhi water tariff, plus 60 percent sewer charge mately ­24.5 thousand million cubic meters with alloca- • Bangalore water tariff, plus 25 percent sewerage tion as ­ follows: ­charge. • 11.1 thousand million cubic meters to Jaipur, Tonk, An independent water tariff review (Agam 2010) from and en route villages for drinking water supply 2010 shows the direct cost of water is about U ­ S$0.22 per ­schemes cubic meter for direct operating costs and ­ US$0.35 per kiloliter including cost of recovery of i ­nvestment. The • 5.1 thousand million cubic meters to Ajmer, Beawar, current operating cost of water for Jaipur: (a) tube well Kishangarh, and Kekri for drinking water supply water is about ­ US$0.25 per cubic meter; and (b) Bisalpur ­schemes water is about ­ US$0.40 per cubic ­ meter. The cost of water • 8.0 thousand million cubic meters for irrigation of is estimated to be in the following ratio: (a) water 81,800 hectares of agricultural land in Tonk, consumer, 40 percent; (b) government, 60 ­ percent. Deoli. Todarsingh, and ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 167 Monsoon Influence on Groundwater Levels assets created function efficiently so that the untreated The Rajasthan Ground Water Board (RGWS) records or partially treated wastewater does not adversely the levels in wells two times a year: premonsoon impact the water quality of surface water ­ bodies. (usually May to June), and postmonsoon (usually November). Of the available data of 368 October to ­ Current Challenges wells, only 100–125 have numerical values and other data points either have “no data” or are reported as Sustainable Groundwater Recharge “dry” or ­ “filled.” Jaipur has a sloping ground with the higher levels in the northwest quadrant and lower levels in the Sewerage System in Jaipur ­ southeast. Generally, on such sloping grounds the Jaipur is partially sewered, and there are several ongo- infiltration is dependent upon the intensity of rainfall, ing projects to increase the percentage of sewerage impervious area, substrata, and local depressions, coverage. The work of laying sewer lines is carried out ­ infiltration. In general, which could permit a delayed ­ by the JDA, the Jaipur Municipal Corporation (JMC), high. the runoff is quite ­ the Housing Board, the RUIDP, and the P ­ HED. Many The runoff coefficient varies with rainfall intensity of (i.e., laterals) areas of urban Jaipur have sewer lines ­ rainfall. Rainfall below about 10–15 millimeters per day ­ and many new areas have planned sewerage collection with intensity less than 1–2 millimeters per hour does ­schemes. not produce any significant ­ runoff. During such rains, The laying of sewers has not kept pace with the water is absorbed into the ground and aids infiltration increasing population (Rathore ­ 2004). There are many or is lost as evaporation, generating a low ­ runoff. kachha bastis (nonpermanent dwelling places) that However, during heavy intensity showers, the runoff is have no water supply (except for government-in- more because the rate of infiltration into pervious stalled hand pumps) and no or very little sanitation or areas is less than the intensity of ­ rainfall. sewage collection ­ infrastructure. The growth of Since Jaipur generally experiences more short duration, kachha bastis and the migration of people exceed the high-intensity showers, there is more runoff and lower Jaipur. Therefore, planned phased of development of ­ infiltration of water that is available for recharging while the actual area under sewerage (as percentage of groundwater. This essentially means that it may take a ­ city area) has increased, the population served has very long time to rebuild the groundwater resources ­decreased. features. primarily due to geographical and geological ­ Jaipur has three large operational sewage treatment The groundwater rejuvenation challenge is further wors- plants capable of treating 202 million liters per day; how- ened due to the increase of impervious area and reduc- ever, at present they treat only about 125–130  ­ million tion of forest area by change in land u ­ se. Also, the filling of day. Additionally, there are three small sewage liters per ­ local depressions for urban development has led to a treatment plants treating 3 million liters per day of sew- reduction of Jaipur’s wetlands, which served as surface age for reuse in the green ­ areas. Five new sewage treat- facilities. water bodies and groundwater recharge ­ ment plants are under construction with a total treatment capacity of 65 million liters per ­ day. Security of Bisalpur Water Supply While there are many existing and planned sewage A “declining trend” of inflow into the Bisalpur Dam treatment plants, the efficiency and level of treatment despite normal rainfall has been observed during is broadly s ­ ubpar. There is a need to ensure that the 2014). recent decades (Gupta, Bhartik, and Jethoo ­ 168 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The  inflow into the dam from the dam’s catchment During a pilot study on NRW and 24/7 water supply, area over the years has decreased due to these the following activities were undertaken (Indian reasons: Energy Exchange 2014): • Information, education, and communication activi- • Changes in land use pattern in the Bisalpur Dam’s ties include the benefits of 24-hour water supply catchment area and construction of small water har- and benefits to consumers such as saving electrical vesting structures, that is, anicuts in the catchment power, adequate and reliable water supply, and area lower possibility of contamination. • Increased surface and groundwater abstractions • District metering activities involve preparation and from the Banas River, which flows into the Bisalpur verification of water pipeline plans and laying of new Dam (Gupta, Bhartik, and Jethoo ­ 2014) pipelines to pilot areas from the service reservoir; The design capacity of the Bisalpur Dam is 1,100 mil- installation of isolation valves and bulk water meters; lion cubic meters at 50 percent ­ dependability. The replacement of consumer water meters; and com- inflow into the Bisalpur Dam and its dependability has ­ erformance. mission of district plan to access the p reduced. ­ Considering these observations, the The pilot study demonstrates that there are significant Rajasthan government has proposed interlinking vari- inefficiencies in the water supply system that can be ous river basins so that the quantity of water available availability. improved to improve the overall water ­ for filling water in the Bisalpur Dam ­ increases. Planned and Ongoing Solutions Untreated Wastewater Polluting Groundwater and Surface Water Rejuvenation of Amanishah Nala and While sewerage coverage has increased, the sewage Dravanti River treatment effectiveness has ­ lagged. Adequate sewage One project is to develop Amanishah Nala as a center of is not reaching the treatment facilities due to no clear- attraction and an important natural water body for the cut ownership of operating and maintaining the sew- 2018). city of Jaipur (Jaipur Development Authority ­ age collection system i ­ nfrastructure. There are Steps include the following: inadequate funds available for JNN, the sewage treat- • Prevent raw sewage or effluent entering into the ment plant operator, which is unable to pay the out- nala by construction of intercepting sewers; sourced o ­perators. As a result, they do not have replacement funds for maintaining the f ­ acilities. While • Use the treated sewage to rejuvenate the water flow- present cost allocation for sewerage treatment is 25 ing in the nala; percent of the water tariff, sewage treatment needs • Ensure management of floods and reduce risk of tariff. funds more than or at least equal to the water ­ flooding in the low-lying adjoining areas; • Develop landscaped area for public use and for Nonrevenue Water infrastructure. social and commercial ­ Jaipur has high nonrevenue water (NRW), which is  about 45 percent of the water supplied The work will include course correction and strength- (Chandrasekharan, Sharma, and Sundaram 2 ­004). ening of the Amanishah River embankments, including The high NRW is attributable to factors such as protective lining against high levels experienced during defective water supply meters or no meters and an ­ heavy rain, enhancement of carrying capacity, and aging water supply system that needs to be r ­ eplaced. development of peripheral structures with ­landscaping. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 169 Sewerage interception, treatment, and disposal structures on groundwater needs to be verified with a involves intercepting the sewage from existing drains table. The impact regular monitoring of groundwater ­ and sewer lines; then treating and discharging into the results of such regulations are likely to take a few years nala. There would be four sewage treatment plants ­ to ­manifest. with a total capacity of 125 million liters per day, and treated water quality would be biochemical oxygen Interlinking of River Basins Chambal— demand (BOD) of less than 10 milligrams per liter and Brahamani—Banas total suspended solids (TSS) of less than 10 milligrams A project development company jointly promoted per ­liter. by Government of Rajasthan and Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services Limited (IL&FS) Enhancement of Water Supply Bisalpur (PDCOR), prepared a detailed project report for The Rajasthan government has approved the Bisalpur PHED in 2016 to address the mitigation of the reli- Phase-II project, which will cover the remaining areas ability of lower inflow in Bisalpur ­ Dam. The report under the JNN as a long-term solution to the drinking states that the Bisalpur Dam—developed as a source Jaipur. The Japan International water problem in ­ of drinking water for Jaipur, Ajmer, and Tonk—has a ­ roject. It Cooperation Agency (JICA) will finance the p water demand of 459  million cubic meters for will enhance the capacity of Bisalpur water from 600 ­ 121.7  million cubic meters of d rinking. Yet only ­ ­ ay. The million liters per day to 930 million liters per d water would be available at Bisalpur at 90 percent project will involve construction of a new intake 337.3 million cubic reliability, leaving a deficit of ­ pumping station, additional raw water pipeline and meters. Bisalpur is an important source of water for ­ water treatment plant at Surajpur (from where water ­ illages. It is a large area of 19 towns and 2,881 v shall be pumped to the Bambala pumping station and expected that by 2050 it would be the major source Jaipur). onward to ­ of drinking water for 10 million ­ persons. Rainwater Harvesting PDCOR has prepared a mitigation strategy that pro- JDA and JNN have built about 82,000 square meters poses a river interlinking project to ensure that the of roof water harvesting in institutional buildings at excess rainwater in the Chambal and Brahamni rivers a cost of about R ­ s. 18,000 per square m ­ eter. However, would flow to the Bisalpur Dam to meet drinking the impact of these structures on groundwater level requirements. The project would water and irrigation ­ needs to be r ­eviewed. JDA has a plan to clean the involve the following: water harvesting structures after the first rain shower in excess of 5 millimeters so the solids and • A dam on Brahamni River of capacity of 177 million rubbish that come with the first rain can removed cubic meters is proposed to be constructed and ­cleaned. • Construct a pumping station capable of lifting ­ 4.5 million cubic meters per day from Jawahar Sagar; it JDA has instituted a regulation that all buildings built would be constructed on the Chambal River through on land size greater than 300 square meters (with a 3,200 millimeter pipes to the Brahamni Dam maximum built-up area of 60 percent) should have rainwater harvesting ­ structures. This requirement is • Construct a transmission system from the Brahamni mandatory only for new construction or an old con- Dam to the Bisalpur Dam by tunnel, aqueduct, and struction being ­ modified. Presently, the installation of gravity channel rainwater harvesting structures does not apply to • Lift an estimated 234 million cubic meters from existing ­ buildings. The effect of rainwater harvesting Jawahar Sagar and 177 million cubic meters from 170 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report the Brahamni Dam at 50 percent dependability When Jaipur relied on groundwater as a water reser- (i.e., 411 million cubic meters during deficit years), ­ voir to capture and store (albeit naturally) surface and which would make Bisalpur a sustainable water rainwater and mined it incrementally or during peri- water. source for drinking ­ ods of drought, the natural water balance between demand and supply was ­maintained. The delicate bal- The cost of this project is estimated to be around ­ Rs. ance was easily lost, however, as shown by the high 6,000 (US$900 million), with a start date of 2018–19 rate at which groundwater levels dropped in the and a six-year completion ­ period. This project has region. Urban planners can use the experience of ­ received government approvals to proceed and is Jaipur to see the need for integrated urban water man- currently being undertaken for transaction and agement planning and ­ development. ­execution. As part of an integrated urban water management pro- Lessons cess, the Jaipur case illustrates the need to adopt well- planned urban development programs and execute Jaipur is a great example of the water resource infra- them ­ efficiently. To protect surface water sources, it is structure development story for any growing city that not enough to just focus on rainwater harvesting or wishes to achieve long-term water s ­ustainability. A dams. It is also critically important building ponds and ­ study of the nearly 300 years of Jaipur’s development to look at two other main factors: (a) protection of shows how a city considered as an ideal location for catchment areas from encroachment or infringement habitation has faced and continues to tackle the chal- due to myopic urban planning strategies; and (b) con- lenges of population growth, water source misman- trol of wastewater treatment and discharge into the agement, and natural ­ events. resources. As witnessed in catchment areas of water ­ Jaipur, not only have the groundwater levels been The city’s location was chosen primarily based on the depleted but also the quality of water from many availability of natural resources, particularly ­ water. groundwater wells have been significantly impacted The growth of Jaipur suggests that population growth due to prolonged and uncontrolled anthropogenic cannot be based only on groundwater, especially in ­activities. semiarid ­ regions. The experience of Jaipur clearly highlights the importance of developing water Another very important lesson from Jaipur’s case resource infrastructure with an optimum and well-­ study is that good quality and adequate water resource balanced reliance on both surface and groundwater infrastructure development is costly, and without resources. For many decades Jaipur has maintained a ­ proper cost recovery mechanisms and sustainable sustainable balance by relying on both surface water revenue streams, it is very difficult for governments (dams and ponds) and shallow groundwater ­ wells. alone to continue serving the growing water However, after the heavy rain event that damaged a requirements. There is a clear case for rationalized ­ large portion of the existing surface water sources, the water tariffs for water supply and sewage along with city’s dependence on groundwater resources increased multistakeholder participation in water governance significantly, which apparently disturbed the natural and institutional reforms to ensure that city residents ­ balance. The groundwater problems have further cost. appreciate that good water comes at a ­ accelerated due to easy access and adoption of techno- logical advanced solutions (submersible pumps in this While access to water is a human right and providing case), unplanned development, and overexploitation access to a certain minimum quantity of water for by the growing ­ population. meeting basic human needs is one of the fundamental Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 171 responsibilities of the state, it is important to under- Ramgarh ­Dam.” International Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews 2 (1): ­ 23–28. stand that the challenges in water space cannot alone be managed by the g ­ overnment. The study of Jaipur ­esources). ­ DWR (Department of Water R ­ atabase.” 2015. “Rainfall D ­ ttp://waterresources.rajas​ Rajasthan, India (accessed March 23, 2018), h and a quick look at the proposed and ongoing initia- than.gov.in/Daily_Rainfall_Data/Rainfall_Index.htm. tives clearly highlights this a ­ spect. The city is now ———. ­2013. Groundwater Related Problems of Jaipur City and Suitable working on multiple solutions, including large infra- Region. New Delhi, India: GSI Water Harvesting Scheme: Western ­ structure projects such as augmenting surface water ­ ww.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/cs_gw_jai​ (accessed March 23, 2018), w sources (Bisalpur water project and interlinking of riv- pur.pdf. ers); rainwater harvesting initiatives (policy for public Gupta, ­N. ­K., ­P. Bhartik, and ­A. ­S. ­Jethoo. ­2014. “Declining Trend of Water participation); wastewater management (Amanisha Inflow in Bisalpur Dam: A Threat to Environmental S ­ ustainability.” Paper presented at the National Conference at Poornima College of Engineering, nala and other wastewater treatment and reuse proj- 2018. Jaipur, November 22–24, ­ ects); and initiatives that have been designed with a ­ xchange. ­ Indian Energy E 2014. “Demand Response Pilot Project for clear focus on multistakeholder participation and JVVNL Discom, Jaipur, ­ India.” Indian Energy Exchange, Jaipur, India ­involvement. ­ttps://beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files​ (accessed March 23, 2018), h /­ctools/Akhilesh%20IEX%20DR%20Ppt.pdf. Jaipur appears to have learned its lessons—perhaps the Authority. ­ Jaipur Development ­ 2018. “Amanishah Nala Project Jaipur hard way—since it is working on taking varied steps to Update.” Blog. Jaipur, Rajasthan (accessed March 22, 2018), Status ­ ­esources. However, it is yet to be enhance its water r ­http://­jaipurdevelopmentauthority-jda.blogspot.com/. seen whether the efficiency of the stakeholders in K. ­ Joshi, ­ 2010. “Shrinking of Water Resource due to Anthropogenic N. ­ making the ongoing and planned water management Activities in Urban Area (A Case Study of Jaipur Using Remote Sensing initiatives will be successful in reviving the city’s water GIS).” Working Paper 154, Institute of Development Studies, Jaipur, and  ­ Rajasthan, ­I ndia. ­http://www.idsj.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05​ resources and making them more resilient and /­WP-154.pdf. ­sustainable. P., ­ Navin, ­ ­. ­ Y. Mathur, and S 2015. “Study of Hourly Monsoon Gupta. ­ Rainfall Data of Jaipur for Development of Critical Rainfall Intensity References ­Equation.” International Journal of Engineering Technology, Management (3) 637-47. and Applied Sciences 3 ­ Agam, ­M. ­2010. “Rationalization of Drinking Water Tariff as a Tool for Water.” ­ Demand Management and Equitable Distribution of ­ http://stsin- India). ­ NITI (National Institute for Transforming ­ 2016. “Rajasthan fra.com/assets/Water%20Tariff%20Rationalization.pdf. Agriculture Road ­ Map.” Paper presented at Meeting of NITI Ayog, ­ ttp://niti.gov​ Ahmedabad, India, February 5 (accessed March 22, 2018), h —— 2013. “Ground Water Information, Jaipur District, Rajasthan, —. ­ .in/writereaddata/files/Rajasthan_Presentation_0.pdf. Jaipur.” CGWB, New Delhi, India (accessed March 22, Western Region ­ 2018), ­http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Rajasthan/Jaipur.pdf. Rathore, ­M. ­S. ­2004. Water and Sanitation in Rajasthan: Achievements ———. ­2015. Ground Water Year Book: 2 ­ 014–2015. Rajasthan, India: CGWB Studies. against ­MDGs. Jaipur, India: Institute of Development ­ ­ ttp://cgwb.gov.in/Regions/GW-year-Books​ (accessed March 23, 2018), h K., ­ Roberts, ­ K. ­ M. Reiner, and ­ 2014. “Water Scarcity in Jaipur, Gray. ­ /­GWYB-2014-15/GWYB%2014-15%20Rajasthan.pdf. Rajasthan, ­India.” Paper presented at Civil and Environmental Engineering H., ­ Chandrasekharan, ­ R. ­ ­.­ K. Sharma, and K V. ­ 2004. Water Sundaram. ­ ­ Dept., Northwestern University, Evanston, IL (accessed March 23, 2018), Resources Development and ­ Management. New Delhi, India: Bhoovigyan ­http://www.civil.northwestern.edu/EHE/HTML_KAG​ /­K imweb/files/ Vikas ­Foundation. Jaipur_Presentation.pdf. A., ­ Dass, ­ S. Jethoo, and ­ A. ­ P. ­ M. ­ 2013. “Conservation and Poonia. ­ Engineers. ­ SAFEGE Consulting ­ 2000. Jaipur Water Supply and Sanitation Restoration of the Major Water Supply Source of Jaipur City: Feasibility ­Report. 172 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Seashore of Fortaleza. Source: ME/Portal da Copa http://www.copa2014.gov.br/pt-br/dinamic/galeria_imagem/14406. Chapter 16 Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil Fortaleza is the state capital of Ceará, located on the worst in recent decades (Gutiérrez et al. 2014a). Between Atlantic Coast of northeastern Brazil. The metropolitan 2010 and 2016, four years had the least precipitation on region of Fortaleza has 4 million inhabitants and is com- record during the rainy season since the 1950s. posed of 15 municipalities that hold 55 percent of the state’s population. With 2.6 million inhabitants in the Climate and Hydrology municipality of Fortaleza alone, it is the fifth most popu- lated city in Brazil. The municipality of Fortaleza has the The northeast region of Brazil accounts for 18 percent largest gross domestic product (GDP) of the northeast of the country’s territory and about 28 percent of region (US$9,920 per capita in 2014) and the 10th largest its  population. However, the region contains only in the country. Though its economy has historically 5 percent of Brazil’s freshwater resources and overlaps relied on agriculture, the city started to attract industrial almost entirely with the semiarid territory of Brazil, investments in the early 20th century and later became a also called the Drought Polygon (Formiga-Johnsson commercial hub. Today, tourism is the largest sector in and Kemper 2005). the service economy and is steadily on the rise (map 16.1). The coastal city of Fortaleza has a tropical savanna Recurring droughts have been documented in Ceará climate, with high temperatures and high relative since the beginning of the 17th century. Like most of humidity throughout the year; the interior of Ceará has semiarid northeast Brazil, Ceará faces an ongoing a  predominantly tropical semiarid climate. The tem- drought that started in 2010 and is considered one of the poral and spatial variability of precipitation in Ceará is Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 173 MAP 16.1. Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil IBRD 43764 | JUNE 2018 MARANHÃO Pecém Itapipoca Sobral Fortaleza Açude Sítios Novos Açude Gavião Açude Riachão ATLANTIC Açude Pacoti Canal do OCEAN Açude Pacajus Trabalhador CEARÁ Eixão PIAUÍ Itaiçaba Açude Quixada Curral Russas Velho Crateus i be gu ar Açude Castanhão Ja RIO GRANDE DO NORTE BRAZIL FORTALEZA, CEARÁ STATE Açude Acopiara Orós Canal be do Orós ari JAGUARIBE RIVER BASIN gu CANALS Ja RIVERS RESERVOIRS/DAMS Juazeiro PARAÍBA SELECTED CITIES AND TOWNS STATE CAPITAL STATE BOUNDARIES 0 50 100 Kilometers PERNAMBUCO very strong, with a concentrated rainy season from Although Fortaleza is located in the coastal basin, the February to May accounting for over 70 percent of the metropolitan area depends principally on the Jaguaribe annual rainfall. In some parts of the state, the majority River Basin for water. About 70 percent to 78 percent of of annual precipitation occurs in only one month Fortaleza’s water supply comes from the interbasin (Gutiérrez et al. 2014b). transfer. The Jaguaribe River Basin is an independent basin situated entirely in Ceará—its drainage area cov- The average annual precipitation in Ceará is ers approximately 48 percent of the state’s territory. 875  millimeters, but it ranges from approximately Because cyclical droughts occur at least every five 1,300 millimeters in Fortaleza to 400 millimeters in years, all of the basin’s rivers would be intermittent the semiarid inland. Although these rates of rainfall were it not for regulation and the water resource man- are higher than those in many dry areas in the world, agement system put in place by the state (COGERH the region’s rocky, impermeable soil and high insola- 1999a). In the northeastern states, climate change has tion yield low water storage and retention capac- exacerbated droughts and the need for water resource ity  and elevated rates of evapotranspiration (up to management over the past decade. 1,500  ­ millimeters annually on average). Since groundwater aquifers are present only in 20 percent Three large dams provide regulation to the Jaguaribe of the state, 90 percent of the water used comes from River, forming the Orós, Banabuiú, and Castanhão res- ­surface water. ervoirs and representing 75 percent of the basin’s total 174 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report storage capacity of 13.6 billion cubic meters). Many implement a municipal sanitation plan, with the smaller reservoirs dot the river basin, but only a few objective of achieving universal service coverage and are deemed strategic and monitored by the Companhia treatment of domestic sewage by 2033.3 CAGECE de Gestão dos Recursos Hídricos (COGERH). About (2013) estimated that coverage of sewerage and waste- 70 percent of Jaguaribe water goes to Fortaleza, which water treatment of 83 percent is realistic by 2026. has caused some conflicts with other users. Furthermore, the city is currently studying the feasi- bility of wastewater reuse. Water Use Water quality is a major concern in the Jaguaribe River Water supply coverage is close to 100 percent, but san- Basin.4 Many urban areas upstream of the basin have itation services lag in Fortaleza. Both services are pro- expanded without the development of adequate sani- vided by Companhia de Água e Esgoto do Ceará, the tary infrastructure, and discharging untreated sewage state-owned utility (CAGECE 2013). About 57 percent into rivers and water bodies is common. In addition, of the city is connected to sewerage,1 and access to the regional agricultural practices have generally given network is characterized by significant spatial variabil- little consideration to the effects of excessive agro- ity. Although coverage exceeds 90 percent in the city chemical use. In the reservoirs, the lack of turnover of center and along the coast, it ranges from zero percent resources causes high retention times, which in turn to 50 percent in the south of Fortaleza. Over 16 percent also negatively affect water quality. of the population lives in informal settlements with The city’s economy relies heavily on the service indus- inadequate sanitation, drainage, and housing.2 Though try, especially on tourism, making potable demand a the Plan Fortaleza 2040 (2017) indicates that 69 percent priority. In 2016, the total production need (including of households in the metropolitan area have access to all uses and losses) in Fortaleza was 10 cubic meters “adequate” sanitation, onsite sanitation solutions per second, predominantly allocated to potable water ­ roundwater often consist of unlined pits that can cause g use. According to CAGECE, water consumption in 2015 contamination. Further, according to CAGECE (2013), was 127 liters per capita per da y,5 a relatively low num- 12.5 percent of the city’s population is not connected ber for a water scarce area, and as of March 2016, the to the sewer network despite living next to an existing average consumer price in Fortaleza was US$0.97 per sewer line, due to the connection cost. cubic meter. Rapid urbanization is further exacerbat- As the city expanded, investments in sanitation infra- ing the pressure on the system’s water resources, espe- structure have not kept up, negatively affecting the cially as the state enters its sixth consecutive year of urban environment. Only 2.5 cubic meters per second drought. For 2025, the national water agency, Agência (25 percent of total wastewater generated) is collected Nacional de Águas (ANA), predicts a water demand of and treated in the city. Though Fortaleza has many 16.8 cubic meters per second for the metropolitan area environmental assets, untreated sewage discharges of Fortaleza (ANA 2010). To keep up with demand, have caused substantial pollution to the city’s ANA forecasts a required investment of US$233 million, water  bodies, including its beaches and rivers. which includes US$94 million currently allocated to Socioeconomic inequality is reflected spatially, with the treatment plant east and the reservoir Taquerão. some of the poorest areas located along the coast or The transfer of water from the Jaguaribe River Basin to near bodies of water, where they are vulnerable to the city of Fortaleza has intensified the conflicts floods and exacerbate pollution. CAGECE is coordi- between local stakeholders in the basin and COGERH. nating with the municipal government of Fortaleza About 70 percent of the Jaguaribe water goes to (Prefeitura Municipal de Fortaleza) (PMF) to Fortaleza, and other users fear the future loss of water. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 175 In turn, government agencies have seen the large for industrial purposes and irrigation and rainwater water transfers as a way to reduce Fortaleza’s vulnera- harvesting—to reduce dependence on the river basin bility to drought (Lemos and de Oliveira 2005). With by 20 percent by 2040. The city has begun investing in reservoir levels now below 10 percent, these concerns 6 desalination and wastewater reuse and is exploring the have been exacerbated. In the past, users have gone as reclamation of polluted groundwater and addressing far as tampering with infrastructure to prevent water saline intrusion into the aquifer as potential new from leaving the basin. approaches to water management. Water Balance Finally, Fortaleza has begun to turn toward demand management, but still has a margin for improved sys- Overall demand for the city of Fortaleza is 10 cubic meters tem efficiency. Nonrevenue water (NRW) in CAGECE is per second and is projected to keep increasing. The per currently at 36 percent. In 2016, real losses accounted capita consumption in the city is quite low at 127 liters per for 52 percent and apparent losses for 48 percent of that capita per day, which indicates significant system ineffi- number. The utility has launched some programs  to ciencies. Today, the city of Fortaleza gets over 80 percent reduce these losses. Today, the suburban areas have the of its water from the transfer with the Jaguaribe Basin, largest portion of apparent losses.8 In the face of the and CAGECE purchases this water from COGERH. drought, some conservation measures have been There are also private wells throughout the city, espe- launched, in particular the use of water budgets in 2015. cially in commercial areas and in some condominiums However, other Jaguaribe Basin stakeholders remain for irrigation and swimming pools. However, the use unhappy with the city’s efforts. A contingency group of groundwater is not under CAGECE’s purview and was formed to respond to the drought and prioritize therefore goes largely unmonitored, yielding increases water needs, with participation from CAGECE, in saline intrusion and wastewater contamination Secretariat for Water Resources (Secretaria dos Recursos in  the aquifer. Estimates put groundwater use at Hídricos [SRH]), COGERH, and Cearense Foundation of 5 percent of the total consumption. Groundwater use Meteorology and Water Resources (Fundção Cearense consumption is believed to be marginal compared to de Meterologia e Recursos Hídricos [FUNCEME]), but overall urban water use. still the river basin committee is considering withhold- ing transfers to the city to send a stronger message. Another transfer is underway, through the construction Despite the progressive and inclusive approach devel- of a water transmission canal from the San Francisco oped in the river basin around water allocations and River. This water would serve the Fortaleza metropoli- negotiations, it is critical for the city to continue improv- tan area as well as other areas in Ceará. Because this ing its own system efficiency and developing local water water passes through various basins and is of uncertain sources to balance dependence on water transfers. quality, a production price cannot be estimated at this time.7 Nevertheless, continuing to rely on external Solutions transfers remains a stopgap solution for Fortaleza, espe- Despite the six-year drought that has affected the cially as conflicts around its use of Jaguaribe’s water region, Fortaleza has managed to secure its water continue to rise as the drought continues. needs and limit the effects on its economy. The strong Indeed, the municipality’s plan Fortaleza 2040 high- institutional structures for integrated water resource lights its goal to become less dependent on the management in place at the state level in Ceará have Jaguaribe River Basin. The plan suggests several mea- enabled the reallocation of water through interbasin sures under consideration—such as wastewater reuse transfers to meet urban water demand and have 176 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report contributed to Fortaleza’s resilience. Furthermore, the reservoirs are scattered throughout the basin, making processes for stakeholder engagement that ensued and monitoring complex. the institutionalization of user-based management In the late 1980s, the state government began to play organizations have allowed for clear mechanisms to an increasingly important role in water resource man- prioritize uses and establish significant conservation agement, including supporting the promulgation of a measures in the face of drought. State Water Resources Plan; promoting the implemen- Until the early 1990s, water resource policy and man- tation of a new water resources paradigm through the agement in the Jaguaribe Basin was under federal con- implementation of legal water rights; charging for trol and closely associated with drought relief and water; educational campaigns; and decentralized deci- energy production, with a focus on increasing supply. sions (Campos, Studart, and Costa 2000). However, Ceará was the second state to pass a state Water Law in institutional change in Ceará was marked by the cre- Brazil, in 1992, which focused on the river basin as the ation of the SRH and the passage of the state Water territorial unit for planning and management, with Resources Law. The law embraces the main principles decision-making placed in the hands of stake- of modern water resource management: integrated holder committees and basin agencies acting as their water management with the river basin as the planning executive arms. unit; water as a finite and fragile resource, and as an economic good, managed through a decentralized and The reform process in the Jaguaribe Basin was marked participatory approach. Ceará established the follow- by two distinct phases: first, the decentralization from ing management instruments, later instituted by the the federal to the state level, a result of the increased federal law: state and basin water resource plans, bulk technical, institutional, and financial capacity of Ceará’s water use permits, bulk water charges, and a water water resource management agencies; and second, resource information system. decentralization from the state to the local level through the formation of deliberative and consultative bodies at Although most states relied on existing environmental the river basin and lower territorial levels. The following or water agencies funded by the general state budget, sections detail the process and challenges of both in Ceará, a strong, independent, and self-financed phases and their contribution to resilience in Fortaleza. water resource management company—COGERH—was created in 1993 to carry out management, monitoring, Building Resilience through Integrated and enforcement functions, and to assume control Water Resources Management at the over federal infrastructure in the state. COGERH is an Basin Level authorized capital corporation, in which the state of Creation of a State Water Resource Ceará owns at least 51 percent of the voting stock.9 Management Company Unlike SRH, a state government organization, COGERH Historically, the federal government focused on has more flexibility to implement innovative concepts increasing available water resources, especially by for water resource management, such as seeking using a network of reservoirs to store water for the incentives for efficiency and hiring and firing dry season and potential drought years. As a result, personnel (Porto and Kelman 2000). water resource infrastructure in the Jaguaribe River Basin was already well-developed before the Water Centralizing Functions Reform decentralized water resource management to The principal technical functions of COGERH are to the state level in the early 1990s. Because the system manage water resources at the state level by oversee- originally grew without close control, many small ing the infrastructure system and its operations and Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 177 management, setting prices for bulk water sales, and Water as an Economic Good: Establishing providing technical and administrative support to the Payments for Bulk Water river basin committees within its jurisdiction (Formiga- In 1996, Ceará was the first state—and the only one Johnsson 2014). COGERH also carries out monitoring until 2003—to implement a system of bulk water and enforcement functions and, most important, pro- charges, which apply to domestic, industrial, and some vides planning, technical information, and simula- irrigation uses (Formiga-Johnsson 2007), thus provid- tions to the user commissions and basin committees to ing COGERH with financial self-sustainability. The aid them in negotiating water allocations. Ceará over- decision to centralize water payments helps redistrib- sees “negotiated water allocations,” in which users’ ute resources among the basins in the state, since the commissions or basin committees collectively decide Greater Fortaleza Basin is the only one able to cover its on allocations based an assessment of the availability own operations and management expenses. In fact, and demand for water. The state and the river basins most of Ceará’s basins are underdeveloped and now have water resource management plans that therefore benefit from the transfers of revenues reflect comprehensive and high-quality knowledge from  charges from the metropolitan basin (Formiga- about local water problems. Johnsson and Lopes 2003). Water prices are proposed by COGERH and approved by the State Council, Over time, water management and allocation deci- composed of representatives from the state, munici- sion-making for strategic reservoirs has become more palities, and farmers. democratic and participatory, evolving into an informal water rights system. COGERH played an important role Although charges were introduced gradually with tar- in organizing the users and dam associations to ensure iff adjustments in 2003 and 2017, they have faced much stakeholders were equipped to participate in those larger opposition. After some disputes, COGERH took over decisions. In turn, the SRH is in charge of issuing water water supply to industry (and the associated revenue) rights in the basin, except for hydroelectric use, which from CAGECE in 1998. A first attempt to introduce remains under the purview of ANA. By Brazilian law, charges for irrigation started in 2001, combined with human consumption and animal needs have priority an effort to shift cultivation to less water-intensive and over other uses, although in Fortaleza the focus given to more profitable crops under the Department of the city and its municipal uses has led to some criticism. Agricultural Development (Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Agrario) (SDA). Since 2005, COGERH Water rights are not tradable, and although formal has been expanding the state  water charge system, rights never existed in the state of Ceará before the gradually including irrigation, shrimp farming, fishing, implementation of the Water Resources Law, many and other uses. The tariff for agricultural irrigation var- users believed that they held their rights through ies between US$0.48 per 1,000 cubic square meters historical use before their formalization (Campos, and US$7 per 1,000 cubic square meters; for shrimp Studart, and Costa 2000). The SRH therefore faced the farming, between US$2 and US$45; and for fish farm- challenging task of convincing many users that formal- ing, between US$1.50 and US$6, depending on infra- izing their water rights was necessary and beneficial to structure needs. ensure future use. The state decree that instituted a price on bulk water deterred many from going through The Fortaleza metropolitan area still contributes over the request process. However, the negotiation of water 90 percent of the total collected revenues, subsidiz- use at the reservoir level through users’ commissions ing prices for agricultural activity throughout the and river basin committees has been successful apart basin. COGERH’s charges to industry (US$726 per from water rights allocation. 1,000 cubic meters) are 15 times what it charges 178 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report CAGECE for public water supply (US$48 per 1,000 regulated river valleys. Indeed, before the reform, pri- cubic meters) and 30  times more than other water vate interests and wealthy landowners took water companies, including in the Jaguaribe Basin.10 In turn, security into their own hands and created thousands agriculture represents only 1 percent of bulk water of small reservoirs to meet local needs, many of them revenues, although this is not proportional to the sec- on private land (Lemos and de Oliveira 2005). This tor’s water use because irrigation charges are much strong localized involvement motivated the creation lower than those for other sectors. COGERH is also of dedicated users’ commissions organized around one of the only state water resource management shared reservoirs to avoid focusing solely on the agencies to have financial independence. In 2017, rev- hydrographic regions and their subbasins. enues totaled about US$30.4 million, covering both The users’ commissions consist of representatives of their personnel and operations and management water users and civil society as well as state, federal, costs (COGERH 2017). and municipal governments, and their main role is to discuss and decide on the use and allocation of bulk User Organizations: A Model for Improved water among the users of their respective reservoirs Water Allocation (Lemos and de Oliveira 2005). They allow for a trans- The formation of basin institutions has occurred parent process involving all relevant stakeholders to gradually over more than 15 years, under the initia- define the volumes to be released from the reservoirs, tive and coordination of COGERH and with the sup- as well as water use and conservation rules. These port of SRH. COGERH was created first to demonstrate rules are defined by those who must abide by them positive results in managing water resources with and have resulted in a substantial reduction in water other stakeholders. Only when water users were bet- use in the Jaguaribe River Basin. Conflicts among ter organized at the reservoir scale were the river stakeholders have also decreased, and participation basin committees created (Porto and Kelman 2000). has increased. Though larger water users still domi- The user commissions and dam associations served nate decision-making, the existence of the commis- to locally mobilize stakeholders around key reser- sions has encouraged previously unrepresented and voirs until the creation of the river basin committees, disenfranchised stakeholders, such as small farmers, and they continued to play an important role in local to participate in the process. water negotiations thereafter (Formiga-Johnsson The subbasin committees were created a few years 2014). The local organizations that participate in the after stakeholder participation was established making process are (a) the decentralized decision-­ through the commissions. The committees have Jaguaribe–Banabuiu user commission—equivalent to broader water management responsibilities than the a river basin council—defines the annual operating commissions, such as setting guidelines, approving rules of the three major reservoirs of the basin, basin plans, and resolving conflicts. The user commis- according to the negotiated water allocation between sions and basin committees meet annually before the the users of the regulated valley; (b) 72 users’ com- dry season begins to assess water availability and missions of “strategic” reservoirs that provide for demand. When water is insufficient to meet the multiple water uses during drought periods; and (c) 12 demands of the upcoming dry season they implement subbasin committees that cover the entire territory of rationing. COGERH’s role in this coordination process the Jaguaribe River. is crucial—it provides much of the technical assistance Ceará has a history of intense interventions by local required for the decision-making process (Formiga- stakeholders around reservoirs and along the Johnsson 2013). Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 179 Through decentralization, awareness of water scarcity groundwater management, but efficiency is still and the stakeholders’ role in the sustainability of the falling by the wayside. river basin has increased. Concern around Fortaleza’s In response to what it perceives as lack of demand water use shows that other stakeholders are invested management, the river basin committee has discussed in ensuring sustainable water use in the basin. The withholding a portion of the transfers to Fortaleza. allocation process has increased transparency and Showing results in this area and launching more water security in the basin, but it has not yet translated aggressive conservation measures will thus be a cru- into regularization of the uses. (Formiga-Johnsson cial part of Fortaleza’s future water security. More 2014) Its main achievements have been the sustained political involvement will be required to induce involvement of stakeholders across the basin, users  to reduce demand. Today, an extra charge of improved flexibility and efficiency in the water alloca- percent of the tariff is applied to those accounts 120  ­ tion system, and growing awareness of environmental that go beyond their allotted water amount, based on issues’ link to water resource management decisions. previous average consumption. This tariff structure However, not all users hold water rights, which some- was introduced in 2015, but these measures are not times poses problems in the formality of uses. The timely enough. There remain questions as to whether negotiated amounts, depending on the drought condi- the pricing signal is strong enough. tions, do not always avoid economic losses. The alloca- tion process could benefit from simulations relying more on weather data and exploring how each use Developing More Local Solutions could incorporate water efficiency in rationing. Due to the large portion of water use represented by (Formiga-Johnsson 2013) the municipality of Fortaleza in the river basin, the city’s practices have been subject to strong scrutiny from other stakeholders, especially as the drought lin- Challenges gers on. One topic of debate is water conservation in Water conservation in Fortaleza has not been as effec- Fortaleza, and whether the city is truly doing its best to tive as anticipated by other stakeholders. Tensions manage demand in the face of the drought. Overall, have increased around the allocation for Fortaleza, the municipality has made it a goal to become less especially since it currently uses approximately dependent on the Jaguaribe River Basin, as outlined in 50 percent of the basin water. To date, the necessity the plan Fortaleza 2040. for water conservation efforts across the city has not In particular, given the city’s advantageous location on been properly communicated to users: radio spots the coast and access to the ocean, desalination could and media campaigns have tended to focus more on prove a good alternative to supplement for imported infrastructure-heavy, supply-side solutions than on water during droughts as demand increases in the met- aggressive demand management. However, CAGECE ropolitan area. A bidding process for the first desalina- has launched campaigns for more responsible water tion plant in Ceará is currently underway, which would use, and it has put in place water budgets based on provide 1 cubic meter per second at an estimated cost of each household’s consumption as of 2015 to encour- US$1 per cubic meter. This investment would provide a age users to stay within a given allocation. Since 2014, local source of water, but high production costs would this program has shown reductions of 21 percent, force the plant to operate only on a demand basis. which seems very promising. The drought has also begun to shift policy makers’ attention toward more Since 2016, the city of Fortaleza has also been studying alternative or local solutions, such as desalination and wastewater reuse for industrial purposes. At the 180 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report national level, there is little experience with wastewa- Notes ter reuse other than for irrigation of parks and lawns. 1. See https://cagece.com.br/numeros/indice-de-cobertura. The city partnered with a private company in a consor- 2. Project Appraisal Document 153012, available at http://documents​ tium to plan and build a modular treatment plant with .worldbank.org/curated/en/710321493604135885/pdf/Brazil-Main​ an initial capacity of 1 cubic meter per second, to be -PAD-04112017.pdf. later increased to 2.5 cubic meter per second. This plant 3. Project Appraisal Document 153012, available at http://documents​ would supply the industrial area of Port do Pecém, .worldbank.org/curated/en/710321493604135885/pdf/Brazil-Main​ -PAD-04112017.pdf. 50  kilometers from the city, and would thus  require new costly transmission and pumping infrastructure. 4. Interview with COGERH/SRH. July 2017. The investment is projected to cost US$209 million. 5. See the IBNET database, available at https://www.ib-net.org/. In  March 2017, Fortaleza hosted the “First National 6. Interview with Eduardo Sávio Passos Rodrigues Martins, adjunct Symposium on Desalination and Reuse: Enabling professor at the Federal University of Ceará, Fundação Cearense de Meteorologia e Recursos Hídricos (FUNCEME), July 10, 2017. Alternatives to Water Scarcity.” The city could play a pioneering role in the adoption of new technologies in 7. Information from email exchange with CAGECE representative. July 2017. Brazil, where the potential for reuse and alternative sources such as rainwater harvesting is high but 8. Interview with Eduardo Sávio Passos Rodrigues Martins, adjunct professor at FUNCEME, July 10, 2017. underdeveloped. See the Brazilian government website on water resources, 9. “Management in Brazil; Agencia Nacional de Águas” (accessed on July Conclusion .html. 10, 2017). http://hidroweb.ana.gov.br/cd2/water/docs/part2​ 10. State of Ceara, Decreto No. 32.159, February 24, 2017. Ceará provides a good example of how the principles of integrated water resource management can be adapted to a semiarid context for more efficient References water  allocation and reduction of conflicts among CAGECE (Water and Sewage Company of Ceará). 2013. Coverage Index stakeholders. In fact, water resource management (accessed July 10, 2017). https://cagece.com.br/numeros/indice-de​ -cobertura. improvements affected not only the legislation but also the behavior of the actors involved. Stakeholder Campos, J. N. B., T. M. C. Studart, and A. M. Costa. 2000. “Some Thoughts on Water Management and Initial Allocation of Water Rights in Ceara, engagement and participatory water resource manage- Brazil.” Paper presented at International Conference on Hydro-Sciences ment creates accountability, which can in turn yield and Engineering, Seoul, Republic of Korea. September 26, 2000. great water conservation results. Existing conflicts COGERH (Companhia de Gestão dos Recursos Hídricos COGERH). 1999a. around water resources can also help galvanize inter- Projeto de Desenvolvimento Urbano e Gestão dos Recursos Hídricos est and  participation around decision-making on (PROURB/CE). Plano de Gerenciamento das Águas da Bacia do Rio Jaguaribe. Fortaleza, Engesoft. water resource management and ensure that solutions ———. 1999b. Projeto de Desenvolvimento Urbano e Gestão dos Recursos relying on partnerships can thrive. In the future, Hídricos (PROURB/CE). Plano de Gerenciamento das Águas das Bacias Fortaleza will, however, have to be mindful of its water Metropolitanas. Fortaleza, VBA. use efficiency and manage water demand to avoid ———. 2017. Diretoria de Operacōes Gerência de desenvolvimento additional conflicts that could lead to a reduction in its operacional—gedop. Qualidade das águas dos açudes monitorados pela share of Jaguaribe water. The development of more cogerh—campanda de maio/2017 Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil (accessed September 10, 2017), http://www.hidro.ce.gov.br/uploads/documentos​ local sources could further help the city in the face of /­relatorio-iet​-mai2017.pdf. drought and population growth, while building resil- Formiga-Johnsson, R. M. 2013. “Water Allocation in Brazil: A Global ience through reduced dependence on water transfers Overview and the Case of Ceará State.” Paper presented at World Bank and basinwide decision-making. workshop “Water Allocation,” Ankara, Turkey, October 30–31. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 181 ———. 2014. “Water Resources Management in Brazil.” World Bank. http:// Brasil: Caderno 1: Retratos 3X 4 Das Bacias Pesquisadas. Brasılia: www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/Feature%20Story/SDN​ FINATEC. /­Water/events/R osa_Formiga_Johnson_Presentacion_Ingles-3.pdf. Fortaleza 2040. 2017. City of Fortaleza. Vol. 6. QUALIDADE DO MEIO AMBIENTE E DOS RECURSOS NATURAIS. Formiga-Johnsson, R. M. and Kemper, K.E. 2005. “Institutional and Policy Analysis of River Basin Management—The Jaguaribe River Basin, Gutiérrez, A. P. A., N. L. Engle, E. De Nys, C. Molejón, and E. Sávio Passos Ceará, Brazil.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3649, World Martins. 2014a. “Drought Preparedness in Brazil.” Weather and Climate Bank, Washington, DC. Extremes 3 (June): 95–106. Formiga-Johnsson, R. M., and K. E. Kemper. 2007. “Brazil: Jaguaribe ———. 2014b. “Water Resources Management in Brazil: Challenges and River Basin.” In Integrated River Basin Management through New  Perspectives.” Presentation at the World Bank, Washington, DC, Decentralization, edited by K. E. Kemper, W. Blomquist, and A. Dinar A., April–June. http://engineering.columbia.edu/files/engineering/design​-water​ 110–30. Berlin; New York: Springer. -resource02.pdf. Lemos, M. C., and J. L. F. de Oliveira. 2005. “Water Reform across the Formiga-Johnsson, R. M., L M. Kumler, and M. C. Lemos. 2007. “The State/Society Divide: The Case of Ceará, Brazil.” International Journal of Politics of Bulk Water Pricing in Brazil: Lessons from the Paraiba do Sul Water Resources Development 21 (1): 133–47. River Basin.” Water Policy 9 (1): 87–104. Porto, M. and J. Kelman. 2000. Water Resources Policy in Brazil. São Formiga-Johnsson, R. M., and P. D. Lopes, eds. 2003. Projeto Marca Paulo, Brazil: University of São Paulo. http://www.kelman.com.br/pdf​ d’Agua: Seguindo as Mudancas na Gestao das Bacias Hidrograficas do /­water_resources_policy_in_brazil.pdf. 182 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Part II B Southwest United States Case Studies Source: Pixabay.com. Chapter 17 Introduction to the Southwest United States Section What Do We Mean by the Southwest Although there are substantial variations within the United States? region, the U.S. Southwest is broadly and historically characterized by low, erratic precipitation and high The Southwest region of the United States (U.S. temperatures that predate more recent climate change Southwest) is defined in various ways for different pur- (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 2012). As map 17.1 shows, poses, but for the purpose of water resource manage- simply looking at a satellite map of the United States ment, the U.S. Southwest will be defined as the portion shows a relative lack of water resources in this region of California south of the San Joaquin Valley, and the compared to the rest of the country. A trend of rapid entire states of Nevada and Arizona. The common con- population increase in the 20th century differentiates nection between Southern California, Nevada, and the region’s urban development patterns, and relative Arizona is that each area is part of the Lower Colorado demand for water, from the those of the rest of the River Basin and has historically drawn a large propor- country. tion of its water from the Colorado River. The lower Colorado River system is extremely stressed by the The region has relied, since the early 20th century, legal over-allocation of its water resources, water use 1 on imported water—water generated in another state exceeding the legal allocation, increased pressure from or transported to urban centers over large distances climate change, and by environmental regulations that from other parts of a given state. Reliance on rapidly increasingly limit human consumption. diminishing imports threatens the local resilience of Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 185 MAP 17.1. Satellite Image of the United States Showing Water Resources Source: 2002 NASA public record image. many cities in the U.S. Southwest. In fact, there is no during the 21st century, which has already begun, unappropriated surface water and virtually no has encouraged both water utilities and water unappropriated groundwater in these states (Tidwell wholesalers to consider options to diversify their ­ et  al. 2014). The clear diminishment of imports water portfolio. 186 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report For instance, the recent 6-year drought experienced in Overview of Water Resources—Volumes California has led to the testing and application of Mobilized from Each Resource innovative solutions by urban water systems to The Colorado River is the common water resource that drought-proof their water resource supplies. Both links the U.S. Southwest across other administrative and Nevada and Arizona also feature successful examples political boundaries. A series of reservoirs, which is of nonconventional solutions to water scarcity in drawn on by each state, has been built along the entire urban spaces. Documenting the challenges faced by river system to ensure water supply, although flow different urban areas in the U.S. Southwest and the within the river is highly variable even on a year-to-year processes they have undertaken to diversify their basis (Richter 2014). However, the magnitude of other water portfolios can provide important lessons and raw water resources available within each of the three principles of success for comparable challenges faced areas varies substantially (map 17.2). Southern California, by global cities, which share commonalities in climate, while often viewed as emblematic of water scarcity, has raw water resource endowments, and population a much more diversified supply base than Arizona or concentration. Nevada. Moreover, despite recent drought conditions MAP 17.2. The United States Southwest 0 150 300 Kilometers Boise OREGON WYOMING WYOMING IDAHO Fontenelle Dam Cheyenne Flaming Gorge Dam PACIFIC Redding Fort Collins OCEAN Salt Lake City Boulder Provo Denver Aurora NEVADA Carson City Grand CALIFORNIA UTAH Junction COLORADO Sacramento Colorado Springs r ve (operated by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation) Taylor Park Dam Ri San Francisco Stockton Aspinall Unit o Lake ad (operated by the City of Los Angeles) Merced lor (operated by the City of San Francisco) Powell Lake Co St. George Fresno Mead Navajo Dam UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Las Glen Canyon Farmington Vegas Dam SOUTHWEST Santa Fe Hoover Dam COLORADO RIVER ARIZONA Bakers eld Lake Davis Dam BASIN Mohave Flagsta COLORADO AQUIFER Santa Barbara Lake Lake MAIN AQUEDUCTS Havasu City Havasu NEW MEXICO (California) Los Angeles Parker Dam Roosevelt Dam CANALS (California) (operated by the State of California) Salton Phoenix RIVERS Sea Imperial Dam San Diego RESERVOIRS/DAMS (operated by Metropolitan Water District of Southern California) Tijuana Morelos Dam Mexicali Yuma Tucson SELECTED CITIES AND TOWNS San Luis Rio STATE CAPITALS Colorado TEXAS STATE BOUNDARIES Gulf of INTERNATIONAL California MEXICO IBRD 43772 | JULY 2018 BOUNDARY Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 187 and strict limits on urban residential consumption, each total water supply is derived from groundwater; the state continues to devote about 80 percent of its total rest is sourced from the Colorado River. Nevada is allo- consumptive use to agriculture, much of it for exports, cated the smallest share of Colorado River water, less which suggests that state-level political solutions would than 2 percent of total river apportionments. A small reduce the pressure on water scarce cities most broadly. amount of surface water is available from in-state riv- ers, which are small and fed perennially by snowmelt Southern California from the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The statewide California average annual precipitation is Within Nevada, the southern portion of the state about 23 inches; Southern California, however, averages receives only four inches of rain annually, but accounts slightly more than one-half that total. In California, 40 for 75 percent of the state’s total water demand due to percent of wet-year water demand and 60 percent of dry- its much denser population, mainly in the Las Vegas year water demand is drawn from groundwater. area. As opposed to the northern portion of Nevada, Groundwater has historically been ample particularly in this region relies almost entirely on Colorado River the central part of the state, although severe overdrafting water; 90 percent of its water flows from the artificial has reduced both water and storage space (Hanak et al. Lake Mead created by the Hoover Dam. As in California, 2011). Approximately 30 percent of the state’s water on the state of Nevada as a whole is split between roughly average comes from runoff from snowpack from the 80 percent of water use for agriculture and 20 percent Sierra Nevada Mountains. The remainder of the supply is for urban areas, including residential, commercial, and derived from imports from elsewhere in the state or from industrial uses. Within Southern Nevada, however, the other states. split is more than reversed, with urban use dominating (Southern Nevada Water Authority 2017). Dry Southern California is home to half the state’s pop- ulation, and the region depends on three imported water sources—the State Water Project from Northern Arizona California, which draws on Sierra Nevada runoff, the Like Nevada, Arizona is a very dry state, with average Colorado River Aqueduct, and the Los Angeles Aqueduct annual precipitation of about 13 inches. The Colorado (a designated source for the city of Los Angeles secured River (37 percent) and other surface water sources (17 from the eastern Sierra Nevadas)—for about half its sup- percent) provide 54 percent of Arizona’s total water ply. Within Southern California, there are also vastly dif- supply. In contrast to Nevada, however, Arizona is allo- ferent groundwater resource endowments. San Diego, cated one of the largest shares, 19 percent, of total for instance, has very little underlying groundwater Colorado River apportionments. Colorado River water compared to Los Angeles or Orange County. is largely drawn from the reservoirs of Lake Mead (jointly managed with Nevada) and Lake Powell For water use in the state as a whole, the split between (jointly managed with Utah). The vast majority of the human uses is roughly 80 percent for agriculture and 20 remainder of the state’s water supply, approximately percent for urban areas, including residential, commer- 43 percent, is derived from groundwater, with about cial, and industrial uses (Hanak et al. 2011). Within 3 percent from reclaimed wastewater (ADWR, n.d.). Southern California, however, the split is nearly reversed. Also like Nevada, the state’s population is concen- Nevada trated in one area: Central Arizona, which contains Nevada receives the least precipitation of any state in 80  percent of the state’s population. The Central the country, with an average annual precipitation rate Arizona Project (CAP) delivers Colorado River entitle- of 9.5 inches. Approximately 30 percent of the state’s ments to the Phoenix area. This region has also 188 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report managed its groundwater more actively than other commerce. A large portion of the Colorado River entitle- areas of the state or the broader U.S. Southwest (US ment in California goes to the Imperial Valley, a vast EPA 2016c). Partly as a consequence, Arizona devotes food-growing region in the southeastern part of the state, less than 70 percent of its total water supply to agricul- bordering the Colorado River at the Mexican border. ture and the rest to urban areas. Increasing Demand due to Population Growth Historical Water Imbalances and Challenges The U.S. Southwest grew and continues to grow to sup- port and encourage population growth and economic In addition to having scarce total water resources, each of opportunity. The main motivator for federal and state the three areas in the U.S. Southwest faces a profound efforts to enhance water supply was a desire to support disconnect between the geographic concentration of commerce and local economic opportunity, as well as water resources through the hydrological system and its to encourage agricultural uses to ensure a food supply human population centers. This disconnect is a conse- for the nation. In some cases, water was actively quence of the two-way relationship between develop- secured to encourage a vision of growth, as in Southern ment patterns and water resources management California (Hundley 1992). In other cases, such as the decision-making. Until at least the mid-20th century, CAP, water was secured to ensure sufficient supply for water supply was primarily viewed as a means to the end existing and future growth. In all cases, population of population and economic growth, and was sought growth in the 20th century in the U.S. Southwest was from any source possible (Reisner 1993). Opportunities to truly remarkable, contrasting with slowing or declin- secure new sources have become increasingly difficult ing growth in many other regions of the country. By since the 1970s when new federal environmental regula- the 1990s, this growth also began to overwhelm the tions were put in place, and strains on existing sources water supply projects constructed in each of these have become undeniable since the 1990s (Erie and areas. Between 1920 and 2000, the population Brackman 2006; Bureau of Reclamation 2011). increased 890 percent in California, 2,500 percent in The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation was charged with secur- Nevada and 1,435 percent in Arizona (Gleick 2010). ing water for growth across the U.S Southwest in the Although the rate of growth has slowed in the past few early to mid-20th century. The Bureau is housed within decades, estimates for each of the three areas project sub- the U.S. Department of the Interior and was supported in stantial growth over the next several decades. According this effort by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers within the to the Southern California Association of Governments Department of Defense (Reisner 1993). The Bureau and ­ illion people in (SCAG), the 2015 population of 18.8 m the Army Corps had a role in financing and building most Southern California will increase by 27 percent to 23.8 of the infrastructure for Lower Colorado River basin million by 2050.4 Similarly, Southern Nevada’s water delivery. Since completion of the Colorado River proj- demands are projected to increase by 85 percent by 2065. ects, the Bureau remains the largest wholesaler of water and second largest supplier of hydropower in the United Since around the turn of the century, each of the three States. The close relationship between the Bureau and 2 areas has begun to reduce per capita water use, but due the U.S. Southwest is evidenced by the fact that the to population growth, it is unclear whether this will Bureau defines one of its five operational divisions as the lessen overall demand. For instance, Nevada ranked in Lower Colorado River basin. The Bureau’s role in west- 3 the top three of the fifty U.S. states in per capita decline in ern water development was to “water the West.” water use since 2005 (Donnelly and Cooley 2015). Agricultural uses were encouraged to ensure a food sup- Phoenix, by far the largest city in Arizona, has achieved ply for the nation, as well as to build economies and an over 25 percent per capita reduction over 20 years, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 189 whereas other large urban areas have achieved over 5 administration and the uneven embrace of this reality by percent gains (McGlade 2015). Perhaps most remarkably, southwestern states other than California. urban residential users in California achieved over a 25 percent per capita reduction in use over a 6-month period Fluctuations in States’ Use of Their Colorado following the state governor’s mandate in 2015. River Allocations Relatively recent changes in population growth, climate Climate Change change, and substantial drought have put severe pres- Although climate change was much less anticipated sure on water management decisions throughout the than population growth, water management policy region. In addition, increased competition and legal makers and planners have had no choice but to recog- claims to Colorado River water have changed relative nize this phenomenon since the turn of the 21st century. supply endowments across the U.S. Southwest. Books There are several known effects of climate change in the have been written about the evolution of Colorado River U.S. Southwest: higher temperatures and more erratic water use and legal agreements over the last century. precipitation coupled with lower total precipitation The history is summarized briefly here (Fleck 2016). (Christian-Smith, Heberger, and Allen 2012). Mandated by the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1922, Climate change trends show increases in average tem- and affecting the seven states through which the river peratures in the U.S. Southwest. In Nevada and Arizona, flowed, the Colorado River Compact was the first major the average temperature has increased two degrees transboundary agreement regarding the Colorado River. Fahrenheit in the last century, whereas the average The Compact defined the distinction between the upper increase in California has been three degrees (US EPA basin and lower basin states and split the annual flow 2016a). One direct consequence of higher temperatures evenly between the upper and lower basins. In 1928, the in this region on water supply reliability is that, over the flow amounts were quantified among the lower basin past 50 years, the snowpack throughout the Colorado parties and final signoff to flows occurred in 1944. River Basin (and relevant to Southern California, the Entitlements were determined by prior appropriation Sierra Nevada snowpack) has been melting earlier in the principles and other considerations, which resulted in year. Early melting leaves upstream dam users less able allotments of 2.8 MAF to Arizona, 4.4 MAF to California, to cope with periodic droughts (US EPA 2016c), and this and 0.3 MAF to Nevada. By no means, however, did this trend is expected to increase (Berg and Hall 2017). The settle disputes, particularly between Arizona and flow of the Colorado River has also decreased from California and within California, which to some extent around 15 million acre-feet (MAF) annually in the early continue to this day (Hiltzik 2014). 20th century to approximately 12 MAF today. The interstate tension stems from the effort in the 1930s Another direct consequence of increasing temperatures by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California is increased demand for water among agricultural users (MWD) to build diversion and storage infrastructure, par- to adapt to quicker evapotranspiration rates and ticularly Parker Dam, to use more than its legal allocation increased demand for water among urban users to com- of Colorado River water. The overuse of river water bat heat effects. More erratic, concentrated precipitation by  Southern California prompted Arizona’s desire to also makes existing storage capacity, which was built to build the CAP to divert and use its Colorado River appor- accommodate previous precipitation patterns, less use- tionment (Reisner 1993). In 1963, the U.S. Supreme Court ful in securing supply for the future. Compounding issued a decision largely settling the decades-old states’ or local agencies’ ability to address this issue is the ­ dispute  between Arizona and California, which subse- virtual denial of climate change by the existing federal quently enabled Arizona to build the CAP starting in 190 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 1968, but made its rights subordinate to California’s in Current Regional Governance times of drought. There are both commonalities and differences in gov- Within Southern California, an initial agreement was ernance of water resources in the three regions of the reached in 1931 among seven parties, mainly irrigators U.S. Southwest. At the state level, different agencies and urban users, for Colorado River water use. One manage different aspects of water governance, party, the Imperial Irrigation District (IID), received an although in each state responsibilities are split between outsized proportion of the initial allocation relative to a water resource agency and a subunit of the state’s its size and economic importance. Disputes directly environmental protection primacy agency in each and indirectly related to river use between the MWD, state. At the substate level,6 one influential agency in the City of Los Angeles, the City and County of San each of the three population centers (Southern Diego (SDCWA), and the IID, have continued to this day California, Nevada, and Central Arizona) dictates much (Erie and Brackman 2006).5 of current water resource management strategy. In 2003, a Quantification Settlement Agreement (QSA) California brokered by the U.S. Department of the Interior between MWD, San Diego, IID, and other parties In California, the most influential state agency manag- partly resolved the dispute, although at a much higher ing water resources is the State Water Resources Control price per acre-foot than other comparable imported Board (the Water Board), a division of the California sources. The agreement facilitated the transfer of Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA). The Water water from IID to San Diego County Water Authority Board, and its nine regional divisions across the state, (SDCWA) of up to 200,000 acre-feet per year (AFY) governs ambient water pollution, water rights, drinking and from IID to Coachella Valley Water District water quality and equity provided by individual drink- (CVWD) and MWD combined of up to 103,000 AFY. ing water systems,7 and groundwater management. The The agreement also specified terms for the transfer of Water Board has recently become more aggressive in conserved water from the lining of the IID-managed governing the functioning of individual water systems All-American Canal to SDCWA and certain Native with respect to conservation and access equity. By con- American tribes in exchange for the payment of proj- trast, the state Department of Water Resources’ core ect costs and a portion of the conserved water function is to operate the State Water Project, its storage (IID 2017). dams and conveyance facilities, and integrated water resource management areas across the state, but it has In 2007, the U.S. Secretary of the Interior brokered taken on few new functions in the past several decades. Interim Guidelines to deal with acute drought. The The most influential water governance body in 20-year agreement specifies how Lake Powell and Lake Southern California is the MWD, which manages both Mead will be managed. The agreement created the imported water from the State Water Project in water accounting mechanism of Intentionally Created Northern California and Colorado River water. Surplus (ICS), under which parties developing addi- It  delivers water to 26 public wholesale and retail tional consumable water from the same supply would agencies, which provide water to 19 million people in be able to store that water in Lake Mead and use it out- Los Angeles, Orange County, and Riverside, San side the ordinary Colorado River allocation system Bernardino, San Diego, and Ventura counties. (Colorado River Research Group 2015). This agreement has eased some of the tensions among Lower Basin Other subregional influential water agencies are primar- parties, but does not present a permanent solution. ily clients of MWD. These include, in the Los Angeles Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 191 area, the City of Los Angeles Department of Water and Arizona Power, which provides retail water service to the entire The responsibilities for governing ambient water pol- city of Los Angeles, and the Water Replenishment lution and drinking water quality and equity in Arizona District, which manages groundwater for 40 percent of are provided by individual drinking water systems Los Angeles County’s population. Other important housed within bureaus of the Arizona Department of regional governance authorities include the Western Environmental Quality. However, the Arizona Municipal Water District (Riverside County), the Orange Department of Water Resources (ADWR) manages County Water District (OCWD) and the Irvine Ranch groundwater, watershed, and water rights. Since 1980, Water District (both in Orange County), the SDCWA (San the ADWR has been particularly notable compared to Diego County), and the IID (Imperial County). the rest of the U.S. Southwest for taking an assertive role in partitioning groundwater monitoring across the Nevada state into five active management areas, three of which In Nevada, the responsibilities for governing ambient have a safe-yield goal by the year 2025.8 water pollution and the drinking water quality and equity provided by individual drinking water systems The Central Arizona Water Conservation District are housed within the Nevada Division of (CAWCD) may be the most important urban water gov- Environmental Protection that is located within the ernance institution in the state. The CAWCD was state’s EPA agency. However, the Nevada Division of formed in 1971 to manage the CAP that draws Colorado Water Resources is responsible for groundwater man- River water through a 336-mile water conveyance sys- agement, watershed management, and water rights. tem and ultimately delivers water to 80 percent of the state’s population. A board of directors of 15 elected The most influential water governance body for urban members governs the CAWCD (CAWCD 2016). scarcity decision making in Nevada is the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA), which was formed in Current Trends in Portfolio Diversification 1991 to address Southern Nevada’s unique water and How Different Cities Are Dealing with Growing Risk needs. The SNWA is a cooperative, not-for-profit water utility comprised of seven members, much like the The U.S. Southwest has witnessed upward trends in MWD in Southern California. Despite its recent origin, pressure on Colorado River water use, environmental it has even greater sway over Nevada water manage- regulations, climate change, and population growth. ment than MWD has in California, reflecting the strong In  addition, the region faced medium-term extreme influence of Las Vegas on state resource decisions. drought for many years following 2000. Until the rains in winter 2017, the ongoing California drought was being SNWA members represent various levels of government: compared to the Millennium Drought experienced in the the Las Vegas Valley Water District, the Big Bend Water Murray Darling Basin of Australia. As of January 2017, District, the City of Boulder City, the City of Henderson, Lake Mead, which supplies the critical Southern Nevada the City of Las Vegas, the City of North Las Vegas, and the region, was at 40 percent of capacity (Ritter 2017). Clark County Water Reclamation District. The SNWA’s trademark is its extremely aggressive conservation pro- The combination of these pressures has heightened gram initiated under the leadership of general manager the need for portfolio diversification among urban Patricia Mulroy. Despite population growth of over water governance agencies, leading to considerable 520,000 people between 2002 and 2014, the SNWA aimed innovation. Urban water conservation for demand for a per capita water use reduction of 40 percent through management is now ubiquitous throughout the U.S. turf replacement and indoor fixture upgrade programs. Southwest. The SNWA, however, was the first and has 192 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report been the most aggressive in offering and ensuring 2. About Us. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, DC (accessed September 4, 2017), https://www.usbr.gov/main/about/. financial incentives to households to reduce their out- 3. Lower Colorado Region. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, door usage, particularly in Las Vegas. DC, (accessed September 4, 2017) https://www.usbr.gov/lc/. Large-scale recycling of greywater for nonpotable use has 4. Adopted 2012 RTP Growth Forecast (Southern California Association of Governments), Los Angeles, CA, (accessed September 4, 2017), also become a common supply-side strategy employed by http://gisdata.scag.ca.gov/Pages/SocioEconomicLibrary.aspx​ urban water agencies. Decentralized nonpotable use strat- ? keyword=Forecasting#. egies have been slower to catch on due to state regulations 5. See also MWD Rate Challenges (SDCWA), San Diego, CA (accessed and lack of popular interest, but the San Francisco Public September 4, 2017), http://www.sdcwa.org/mwdrate-challenge. Utilities Commission has recently initiated a citywide 6. Even more so than at the federal and state scales, there is a wide array of reuse ordinance for new buildings. Tucson, Arizona, also local entities involved in managing and delivering irrigation and drinking water. For instance, just for drinking water in California, there are 3,000 passed the first rainwater harvesting ordinance and incen- community water systems—those which serve drinking water to more tive program for households in the United States. than 15 households year-round—regulated by the state (CA SWRCB, 2017). Individual water systems may be managed by investor owned utilities, Although Arizona has been a leader in regional ground- city governments, county governments, mutual corporations, irrigation water basin management, the OCWD pioneered the districts, or small private owners. Moreover, this figure for California does regulated water systems in the not include the more than 4,000 publicly-­ Groundwater Replenishment System, arguably the state which serve transient or temporary populations, or the roughly 5% world’s most advanced urban aquifer recharge pro- of the state which is served by private wells. gram. Urban stormwater management and voluntary 7. This responsibility was transferred from the California Department stormwater capture have been ambitiously pursued in of Public Health to the Water Board in 2013 and is more commonly managed by state departments of public health outside the U.S. the U.S. Southwest. Southwest. Despite severe administrative hurdles, mutually benefi- 8. Active Management Areas (AMAs) & Irrigation Nonexpansion Areas cial storage and trading arrangements between urban (INAs) (Arizona Department of Water Resources), Phoenix, AZ (accessed September 7, 2017), http://www.azwater.gov/azdwr​ agencies and agricultural interests have become a key /WaterManagement/AMAs/default.htm. strategy in portions of California. Large-scale water banking in Kern County has provided security and flex- Bibliography ibility to federal and state water delivery systems and to ADWR (Arizona Department of Water Resources). n.d.. “Arizona’s Water large urban retailers such as MWD, while also economi- Supplies and Water Demands.” http://www.azwater.gov/AzDWR​ cally benefitting the local and statewide economy— /PublicInformationOfficer/documents/supplydemand.pdf. including manufacturers of farming equipment, ———. 2016. Active Management Areas (AMAs) & Irrigation Non-Expansion Areas (INAs). http://www.azwater.gov/azdwr/WaterManagement/AMAs​ creating opportunities for employment, and facilitating /­default.htm. international trade of farming commodities. The volun- The Associated Press. 2017. “Western Drought Watchers Eye Lake Mead tary trading arrangement stemming from the QSA Water Level.” January 20. between San Diego, the IID, and other parties provides a Berg, N., and A. Hall. 2017. “Anthropogenic Warming Impacts on California Snowpack during Drought.” Geophysical Research Letters 44 (5): 2511–18. secure water supply for San Diego and suggests that California State Water Resources Control Board. 2017. “Drinking Water mutually beneficial water trades between urban and Watch.” State Drinking Water Information System 3.21. https://sdwis​ rural areas will one day constitute a more viable water .waterboards.ca.gov/PDWW/index.jsp. management strategy option throughout the region. CAWCD (Central Arizona Water Conservation District). 2016. Comprehensive Annual Financial Report for the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2015. http://www.cap-az.com/documents/departments​ Notes /finance/CAP-CAFR-2015.pdf. 1. As discussed further below, in addition to these states, the states of Christian-Smith, J., M. Heberger, and L. Allen. 2012. Urban Water Demand in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and the country of Mexico to California to 2100: Incorporating Climate Change. Oakland, CA: Pacific the south also have a claim on the Colorado River. Institute. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 193 Colorado River Research Group. 2015. “A Look at the Interim Guidelines at San Diego County Water Authority. 2016. “MWD Rate Challenges.” http:// Their MidPoint: How Are We Doing?” ​ http://www.coloradoriverresearch​ www.sdcwa.org/mwdrate-challenge. group.org/uploads/4/2/3/6/42362959/crrg_interim_guidelines.pdf. Southern California Council of Governments. 2012. Adopted 2012 RTP Donnelly, K., and H. Cooley. 2015. Water Use Trends in the United States. Growth Forecast. http://gisdata.scag.ca.gov/Pages/SocioEconomicLibrary​ Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. .aspx? keyword=Forecasting#. Erie, S. P., and H. D. Brackman. 2006. Beyond Chinatown: The Metropolitan SNWA (Southern Nevada Water Authority). 2017. Water Use Facts: Water Water District, Growth, and the Environment in Southern California. Use in Southern Nevada. Las Vegas, NV: SNWA, (accessed September 4, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 2017), https://www.snwa.com/consv/goals_facts.html. Fleck, J. 2016. Water is for Fighting Over: And Other Myths about Water in Ritter, Ken. 2017. “Western Drought Watchers Eye Lake Mead Water the West. Washington, DC: Island Press. Level.” Associated Press, January 20. https://www.apnews.com​ Gleick, P. H. 2010. “Roadmap for Sustainable Water Resources in /­b84e968e4d144468ad6aefe92e00c3cf. Southwestern North America.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Tidwell, V. C., B. D. Moreland, K. M. Zemlick, B. L. Roberts, H. D. Passell, Sciences 107 (50): 21300–05. D. Jensen, C. Forsgren, G. Sehlke, M. A. Cook, C. W. King, and S. Larsen. Hanak, E., J. Lund, A. Dinar, B. Gray, R. Howitt, J. Mount, P. Moyle, and B. 2014. “Mapping Water Availability, Projected Use and Cost in the Thompson. 2011. Managing California’s Water: From Conflict to Western United States.” Environmental Research Letters 9 (6): 064009. Reconciliation. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 2011. “Brief History: Bureau of Reclamation.” Hiltzik, M. 2014. “Water War Bubbling Up between California and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Boulder City, Nevada. https://www.usbr​ Arizona.” Los Angeles Times, June 20. http://www.latimes.com/business​ .gov/history/2011NEWBRIEFHISTORY.pdf. /hiltzik/la-fi-hiltzik-20140620-column.html. ———. 2012. “Colorado River Basin Water Supply and Demand Study Hundley, N. 1992. The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s–1990s. Technical Report B—Water Supply Assessment.” U.S. Bureau of Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Reclamation, Boulder City, Nevada. https://www.usbr.gov/lc/area.html. IID (Imperial Irrigation District). 2017. “QSA—Water Transfer.” http:// U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2016a. “Saving Water www.iid.com/water/library/qsa-water-transfer. in Arizona.” EPA-832-F-16-004. EPA, Washington, DC. https://www3.epa​ McGlade, C. 2015. “Parched: Arizona per Capita Water Use Declining.” .gov/watersense/docs​/arizona_​state_fact​_sheet.pdf. The Republic. http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/arizona/­investigations​ ———. 2016b. “Saving Water in Nevada.” EPA-832-F-16-001. EPA, /2015/03/13/parched-water-arizona-per-capita-use-decline​/70212918/. .epa.gov/watersense/docs/nevada_state_ Washington, DC. https://www3​ Reisner, M. 1993. Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing fact_sheet.pdf. Water. New York: Penguin Books. ———. 2016c. “What Climate Change Means for Arizona.” EPA 430-F-16- Richter, B. 2014. Chasing Water: A Guide for Moving from Scarcity to 005. EPA, Washington, DC. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites​ Sustainability. Washington, DC: Island Press. /­production/files/2016-09/documents/climate-change-az.pdf. 194 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: Pixabay.com. Chapter 18 Las Vegas, Nevada Southern Nevada Water Authority Water change (US EPA 2016). Low average annual precipita- Conservation and Water Banking tion (106 millimeters), summer temperatures that exceed 35°C, and population growth are additional Created in 1905 as a way station for the San Pedro, Los water stressors in the region. When Nevada was allo- Angeles, and Salt Lake Railroad, Las Vegas has since cated 370 million cubic meters per year from the outgrown its humble beginnings and made the sur- Colorado River through the Boulder Canyon Project rounding Southern Nevada area the nation’s fast- Act in 1922, groundwater seemed plentiful enough that est-changing region in the past 70 years. Spurred by negotiators were satisfied. However, the limited avail- tourism and military activity, economic growth has ability of groundwater and wasteful practices have allowed the population to grow by a factor of 50, from forced the region to build additional infrastructure to about 40,000 in 1950 to over 2 million in 2014. With wheel water from the Colorado River. This infrastruc- over two-thirds of Nevada’s population, Las Vegas is ture yields what is now known as the Southern Nevada home to over 632,000 people,1 while Southern Nevada Water System, which provides the region with a 3.41 has the highest population density in the interior west- million cubic meters per day capacity. Southern ern United States (SNWA 2015). Nevada represents 70 percent of the state’s population Nevada, the driest state in the United States, is severely and economic output, yet the region uses less than affected by rising temperatures caused by climate 5 percent of the state’s available water resources. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 195 The Nevada water system is managed and operated by 40  million annual visitors (SNWA 2014), although the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA), created the  Las Vegas Valley Water District (LVVWD) serves in 1991 through a cooperative agreement between seven percent of that customer base. Map 18.1 shows 70  ­ water and wastewater agencies in the region. These 2 SNWA’s service areas in color. agencies had previously contracted with the Secretary The Las Vegas area largely depends on Lake Mead for of the Interior for most of Nevada’s Colorado River allo- water: The Colorado River water stored there accounts cation, and through the formation of the SNWA they for approximately 90 percent of Southern Nevada’s water agreed to collaboratively manage Southern Nevada’s supply. The lake level is the trigger for declaring shortage water resources. The creation of the SNWA marks a shift conditions according to the 2007 Interim Guidelines, in the region’s approach to water resources manage- which set priorities and conditions for water use in times ment (SNWA 2015), providing it with a unified institu- of shortage and surplus. If the level were to drop below tional mechanism for managing Colorado River water in 328 meters above sea level, Southern Nevada would have Nevada (Harrison 2014). Collectively, the agencies that to reduce its Colorado River allocation by 16 million cubic constitute the SNWA provide water and wastewater meters per year (4.3 percent). services to 2 million Southern Nevada residents and MAP 18.1. Southern Nevada Water Authority Service Area To Indian Springs To Saint George UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 15 NEVADA North Mount Charleston Las Vegas SNWA SERVICE AREAS Pahrump Las Vegas Lake Mead NATIONAL PARK AREA INTERSTATES Las Vegas Valley Water District U.S. HIGHWAYS Henderson Hoover Dam STATE HIGHWAYS STATE BOUNDARIES Lake Mead Boulder City National Recreation C o lo r ado R i v Area 93 er OREGON IDAHO 95 ARIZONA Searchlight NEVADA UTAH 15 CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA Cal-Nev-Ari To Victorville Area of map Big Bend To Kingman Water District ARIZONA STATE BOUNDARIES 0 20 40 Kilometers INTERNATIONAL To Lake Havasu City IBRD 43180 | SEPTEMBER 2017 BOUNDARIES MEXICO 196 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Despite its reliance on the Colorado River, SNWA has 305 meters and is currently building a pump station to built a diversified water portfolio to buffer drought con- pump water from an elevation as low as 267 meters ditions and ensure future resilience (table 18.1). The above sea level.4 SNWA is also exploring desalination of diverse portfolio has provided water security for periods both brackish groundwater and seawater in California when snowfall and runoff into the Colorado River basin and Mexico to augment the Colorado River supply. have been low, such as between 2000 and 2014, which yielded the lowest 15-year average elevation on record Water Conservation (photographs 1 and 2). The elevation of Lake Mead dropped by over 30 meters between 2000 and 2010. SNWA does not have the authority to regulate water As  of April 13, 2017, the elevation of Lake Mead was use by end users or to establish customer rates. SNWA 331  meters and has been dropping steadily since works with its member agencies to define the compo- March  2017.3 One important feature of SNWA’s nents of the conservation plan to ensure a harmonious ­ strategy  has been water conservation: Since 2002, the program. The member agencies implement the poli- region has reduced its water use by 38 percent despite a cies, codes, and regulations. Community participation 41 percent increase in population. The nonrevenue water is at the center of this success, both through the com- for LVVWD is under 6 percent, and its rate of water main munity’s use of the programs outlined in the SNWA’s breaks rate is eight times lower than the national average, Water Conservation Plan and because every major due to the combination of the system’s relatively young decision is reviewed by a citizens advisory committee. age and active infrastructure maintenance activity. To date, these efforts have shown impressive results: SNWA has reduced per capita water use by 38 percent since 2002, with 2016 net consumption at 465 liters per Other Solutions capita per day (lpcd).5 SNWA’s conservation efforts The long-term water management strategy of the have focused on consumptive use for several reasons: SNWA relies on the availability of diverse sources (1) limited resources; (2) the large percentage of reuse through the development of in-state resources, partic- in the area; and (3) gross or total-system consumption ularly by securing groundwater rights. Existing remains close to 800 lpcd, which is high compared to groundwater rights on the Las Vegas Valley total other water scarce areas. Residential net consumption 57.7 million cubic meters per year, but SNWA is devel- is estimated at 284 lpcd.6 oping access to groundwater by (1) pursuing applica- tions for permits currently under review by the Nevada A Bit of History State Engineer; (2) securing water rights in basins out- Launched in 1991, the conservation program was the side the Las Vegas Valley and arranging to deliver them first attempt at harmonizing conservation practices to the Valley; and (3) securing water rights outside the across SNWA’s service area. The first decade focused Las Vegas Valley for development. Once developed, on best-management conservation practices pub- these groundwater rights could provide up to lished by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. The SNWA’s 90  ­percent of the Colorado River allocation. Existing initial comprehensive 5-year Conservation Plan was water rights are either being pumped or traded for approved by the SNWA Board of Directors in 1999. The in-lieu recharge credits. 2003 SNWA Drought Plan gave new impetus to conser- SNWA is also seeking to preserve its access to Lake Mead vation efforts just as drought conditions in the water through improved infrastructure. For example, Colorado River basin were worsening. By 2004, to allow for pumping despite the decreased water level, Southern Nevada achieved the 25 percent conserva- SNWA has built a third intake to draw water below tion goal that was set in the mid-1990s. New targets Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 197 TABLE 18.1. SNWA Water Sources Type Definition Sources Permanent resources Available independently of Colorado River Nevada basic apportionment of the Colorado River (370 ·   operating conditions, with some conditions ­ million cubic meters per year) Unused apportionment from other Nevada Colorado River ·   contract holders Return-flow credits (RFCs)a or indirect reuse (expands ·   Colorado River allocation by approximately 75 percent) Direct reuse (approximately 27 million cubic meters ·   per year) Flood control and domestic surplus in times of higher ·   water availability Intentionally Created Surplus (ICS) (tributary conservation ·   ICS and imported ICS)b Las Vegas Valley groundwater rights (57.7 million cubic ·   meters per year) Temporary resources Resources that can be used to meet potential Banked resources, either locally or through agreement ·   short-term gaps between supply and demand with other states ICS (system efficiency ICS, extraordinary conservation ICS, ·   and binational ICS) Future resources Resources that will become available to SNWA Desalination (in California and Mexico) ·   within its 50-year planning horizon, that are In-state groundwater ·   under consideration, or that are potential Virgin River/Colorado River augmentationc ·   options Transfers and exchanges ·   Water conservation Unlike other resources, conservation ­ reduces SNWA uses various conservation tools such as education, ·   existing and future demand and extends incentives, regulation, and pricing ­available supply U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Pilot System Conservation ·   Program Source: SNWA 2015. Note: SNWA = Southern Nevada Water Authority. a. For every cubic meter of Colorado River water treated and returned to the Colorado River after nonconsumptive use, the U.S. Bureau of Reclama- tion’s RFC policy allows SNWA to withdraw one cubic meter of water from the Colorado River. Highly treated wastewater is thus returned to Lake Mead through the Las Vegas Wash (upstream of the lake) and the quantified amount and earns the city equivalent RFCs. b. The ICS system allows a Colorado River user to fallow a surface water right in a tributary or convey a groundwater right to the river and earn credits for Colorado River water. c. In accordance with the 2007 Seven States Agreement, the SNWA has suspended the development of its rights to 113,000 acre-feet per year (AFY) from the Virgin River in exchange for the cooperative pursuit to develop 75,000 AFY of permanent water supplies to augment the Colorado River. were then set to intensify conservation efforts as rec- In the Las Vegas Valley, community conservation ommended by a citizens’ advisory committee: 946 efforts reduced consumption by 114 million cubic lpcd by 2010 and 928 lpcd by 2035. The first target was meters between 2002 and 2016, despite an increase of achieved in 2008, 2 years ahead of schedule. Similarly, over 600,000 residents during that time. Building on although 2009 projections aimed for a 2012 consump- these efforts, the 2014 Water Conservation Plan tion level of 920 lpcd, the achieved level was 830 lpcd. adopted the new goal of 753 lpcd by 2035. 198 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Climate conditions, a slowing economy, stabilizing per month in the first (lowest) tier. The volumetric population, and conservation program participation portion of the water bill represents about 70 percent may have contributed to the region’s conservation suc- of the charges across SNWA, based on an average cess. It is estimated that SNWA will achieve its goal of water bill. 753 lpcd by 2035, representing a total of 340 million cubic meters in savings over the 2004 water demand Regulation projections. Regulation is the responsibility of city and county gov- ernments and includes land-use codes and water-use Conservation Measures ordinances that promote efficient water use. As early About 60 percent of Southern Nevada’s water is used as the 1990s, member agencies adopted landscape and consumptively, which means it can be used only plumbing codes to limit water use. Drought restric- once. The single largest consumptive use is landscape tions were put in place under the 2003 Drought Plan, in irrigation. Ninety-nine percent of nonconsumptive particular for landscape watering, vehicle washing, water use is reclaimed and either returned to the lawn installation, mist systems, and golf course irriga- Colorado River, earning SNWA RFCs, or delivered for tion, and were permanently adopted in 2009. For other municipal uses such as golf course irrigation. example, turf is prohibited in front yards and can cover The high percentage of water reuse means that out- only 50 percent of backyards. door water use is the true culprit of water waste— water wasted or evaporated outdoors cannot be Incentives reclaimed. Incentives invite the community to participate in conservation efforts through modifications in their Water Pricing homes and habits. Water smart programs are an SNWA’s member agencies use three key demand-­ important part of SNWA’s conservation strategy and management practices to maintain conservation have contributed the majority of the savings to date. gains: metering, nonrevenue water management, The Water Smart Landscapes rebate program pro- and tiered water rates. Customer connections are vides financial incentives to replace lawns with metered regardless of type, with meters read monthly water-efficient landscaping. Each square meter of and data closely monitored to identify inefficiencies. lawn replaced saves approximately 20 liters of water Nonrevenue water is generally low in the SNWA ser- ­ rogram has saved more than 257 per year, and the p vice area, but programs are in place to ensure contin- meters since inception. The Rebate million cubic ­ ued efficiency. All potable water service providers in Coupons program offers instant rebate coupons for SNWA use increasing block tariffs to promote efficient single-family residential property owners to finance water use while ensuring affordability for essential investments that would help save water, such as the uses. In 2005, a citizens’ advisory committee recom- purchase of swimming pool covers.7 The Water mended that water rates should keep pace with infla- Efficient Technologies program provides financial tion to maintain conservation gains. Restructuring incentives to commercial and multifamily property rates and increasing prices were part of the effort by owners to install water-efficient devices that save member agencies to accelerate water conservation, at  least 250,000 gallons annually. Customers can though each agency carried out these changes indi- also  request indoor water audit and retrofit kits for vidually. The increasing block tariff provides for a their homes, such as leak detection tablets and sink water budget of about 19 cubic meters per household aerators. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 199 Education and Outreach annually, and has inspired the U.S. Environmental Education and public outreach tie SNWA’s conserva- Protections Agency’s WaterSense New Homes tion strategies together to generate support from the Program. community and to ensure that customers understand the implications of living in a desert. Before putting in Participatory Process place the 2003 conservation measures, SNWA carried One of the most notable features of SNWA’s water out quantitative public opinion research to better management is its reliance on stakeholder engagement understand customers. It found that people were over- to make important decisions. Before infrastructure whelmingly supportive of the program and that their projects or significant changes in SNWA’s practices are main concern was that changes be rolled out equita- approved, the board of directors appoints a citizen bly. Following the study results, communications have advisory committee to participate in the decision-mak- focused on clear explanations about program require- ing process. These committees of 15–20 people meet ments through a series of subcampaigns. Specific out- once a month sometimes for up to a year. reach measures include an aggressive advertising campaign through radio, television, and print, including Challenges the Water Smart Living publication, mailed to over 700,000 homes in Southern Nevada three times a year, As more lawns and fixtures are replaced and because and the Water Ways television program. An interactive new developments are allowed to build only website allows customers to look up their watering water-efficient landscaping and fixtures, the ability schedule, apply for rebates, and access a water smart of conservation programs to grow and continue to database. Youth education programs allow students to yield savings is decreasing. SNWA’s 2014–18 Water join a youth advisory council and teachers to engage in a Conservation Plan discusses demand hardening, continuing education program through the Water which occurs when “the more aggressive and respon- Education Institute. Demonstration gardens throughout sive a community is to the call for conservation, the the Las Vegas Valley showcase water-efficient landscap- more difficult it becomes to realize additional con- ing and a Conservation Helpline phone center allows servation gains.” As a result, it is unlikely that the customers to easily access rebate and conservation pro- conservation trends seen in the past 15 years will gram information, publications and watering schedules, continue until 2030, not because the region is reduc- and to report water waste. ing its efforts, but simply because the low-hanging fruit have been picked. Every year SNWA hosts the world’s largest conference SNWA is regularly compared to the rest of the south- focused on water conservation, the WaterSmart western United States, although it receives much less Innovations Conference and Exposition in Las Vegas, rain on average. However, Las Vegas may have chosen to connect entrepreneurs to water agencies and poten- not to invest ratepayer money in indoor conservation, tial partners. SNWA has also developed local partner- for example, because the largest gains for the region ships with businesses and other stakeholders to are in reducing outdoor water use. Therefore, it is more promote water conservation in their sectors.8 The sensible to benchmark SNWA’s progress against its WaterSmart Homes program, which certifies new own performance. homes as water smart, is considered the most success- ful such program in the country: It has led to the con- SNWA has also diversified its temporary and future water struction of over 10,000 new water smart homes, with sources; portfolio diversification is important regardless associated water savings of 2.8 million cubic meters of conservation levels. For example, RFCs play an 200 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report important role in stretching the Colorado River allocation water in various water banks in Nevada and out of to an additional 75 percent. Through additional conserva- state. This water can be withdrawn should the Colorado tion and resource diversification, SNWA may be able to River drought intensify, though the conditions for hold off use of its future resources until 2045, even with withdrawal depend on the water bank (table 18.2). increased shortages and high water-demand projections. 9 Today, the banked water resources of SNWA total 2,220 cubic meters. Water Banking and Trading ICS also provides a way for SNWA to transfer in-state Water banking and trading are at the center of Las water resources to the Colorado River and receive Vegas’s strategy for resource resilience, particularly if credits. Any ICS created and not used within the year is Colorado River water is unavailable. Since the early converted to extraordinary conservation ICS credits, 2000s, SNWA has been storing unused Colorado River which are stored into Lake Mead like a bank account. TABLE 18.2. SNWA Banked Water Resources Amount (million Water Bank Details Conditions for withdrawal cubic meters) Southern Nevada Water Bank 415 • Stored in the Las Vegas Valley aquifer • Can be recovered under any condi- through an agreement with LVVWD tions, including shortage • Maximum recovery rate of 25 million cubic meters per year California Water Bank 407 • Stored by MWD in various off-aqueduct • Recovery rate of 37 million cubic storage facilities and groundwater meters per year under normal and banks. shortage conditions, subject to agree- • Intentionally Created Unused ment terms Apportionment (ICUA) from SNWA is • If California were undergoing a agreed with MWD and stored under the drought, it is unlikely that SNWA SNWA Interstate Account. would withdraw water. • Amount stored per year can be rene- gotiated throughout the year based on ICUA and drought conditions. Arizona Water Banking 741 • Stored in Arizona aquifers • Arizona would use banked water and Authority (AWBA) • First agreement in 2001, amended in forgo equivalent portion from the 2013 Colorado River, which SNWA could withdraw from Lake Mead • Additional water can be banked on meters • Recovery rate 50 million cubic ­ a pay-as-you-goa basis up to 1,540 million cubic meters ­ per year during any water supply con- dition and 74 million cubic meters per year during a declared shortage. Sources: Elaboration based on SNWA 2015. Water Resources Plan 2015 and Storage Interstate Release Agreement among the United States of America, acting through the Secretary of the Interior; The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California; the Southern Nevada Water Authority; and the Colorado River Commission of Nevada (Contract No. 04-XX-30-W0430), dated October 27, 2004. https://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g4000​ /4200Rpts​ DecreeRpt/2015/13-MWD-SNWAInterstateBankingTableOfContents.pdf on March 7, 2018. MWD of Southern California 2004. /­ Note: LVVWD = Las Vegas Valley Water District. a. The pay-as-you-go tariff depends on the AWBA’s actual costs (such as for pumping and delivery) and is set year-by-year if SNWA asks to store water. The last time SNWA stored additional water with AWBA was in 2013, when the AWBA had already stored approximately 740 million cubic meters at a total cost of $123 million. There were no additional fees. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 201 A  5 percent reduction is applied to ICS in the year U.S. Secretary of the Interior and the Bureau of water is stored for the benefit of the system. To account Reclamation could enter into such agreements with for evaporation from the reservoir and other losses authorized entities in storing states and consuming that might occur, a 3 percent annual reduction is also states. In 2001, the guidelines were published by assessed. SNWA has accumulated close to 700 million the  federal government and an agreement with cubic meters in Lake Mead through ICS. The one caveat the  AWBA was approved for the storage of up to is that, unlike other forms of ICS, extraordinary con- million cubic meters in Arizona for future use. 1,480  ­ servation ICS credits cannot be accessed during Another such agreement was entered into in 2004 with declared shortages. the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD). The Role of SNWA No sooner had the agreement with AWBA been signed SNWA was a key participant in the drafting of inter- than the worst drought on record hit the Colorado state water banking regulations. Since the early 1990s, River. The drought posed a challenge to an agreement SNWA had pursued changes to the Law of the River, made for the most part to secure surplus water and which governs the use of Colorado River water, that forced Nevada to rethink its approach to creating water would allow the marketing of surplus water from the to be stored, but it also further strengthened public upper basin states (Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and support for water banking. As explained by Davis of New Mexico) to increase its allocation of water from SNWA, “these types of activities reflect a collective, the Colorado River. Not only did Nevada have the concerted effort to manage the river and forestall lowest allocation of any basin state, but Nevada also shortages.”11 The use of RFCs had already enabled lacked an agricultural sector. In other states, the agri- Nevada to stretch its apportionment—had it not been cultural buffer would enable urban municipal water for RFCs, SNWA would have exceeded its allocation managers to purchase water from agricultural inter- by 1992—but it also enabled Nevada to remain below ests in times of need. Through the AWBA, Arizona its apportionment for consumptive use. Reducing finally saw a way to safeguard its unused allocation of Nevada’s consumptive use and conservation became the Colorado River (Gelt 1997). Arizona was also crucial in ensuring that population growth did not building on draft federal regulations that allowed the threaten these savings. The Interim Surplus Guidelines storage of intra- and interstate water transfers for provided another tool in 2007 through the definition future use. and authorization of ICS, allowing SNWA to store sur- plus it had created into Lake Mead. ICS credits can be In 1994, the Nevada Water Summit was organized by generated by fallowing a surface water right in a tribu- SNWA and the Colorado River Commission of Nevada in tary, conveying a groundwater right to the river, or order to hear proposals to develop new water sources improving system efficiency. for Southern Nevada. The Nevada Initiative was launched as a result, calling for the establishment of a Litigation and its prevalence in the Colorado River his- water bank in the lower Colorado River basin. SNWA tory have motivated collaboration between SNWA and saw the opportunity to begin negotiations for an interim basin stakeholders. In the last 50 years alone, the supplemental water source through banking with Supreme Court has heard California and Arizona water Arizona. Regulations were adopted in 1999 by the disputes nine times.12 One of SNWA’s main achieve- U.  S.  Secretary of the Interior to authorize Colorado ments in the process of developing regulations for River water storage and interstate release agreements.10 water banking is the avoidance of costly litigation. In The regulations provided that in the event of ICS, the 2001, then-U.S. Interior Secretary Bruce Babbitt took 202 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report negotiations between Arizona and Nevada as an oppor- indoor water treated and returned to the Colorado River system and water used by 40 million annual visitors (SNWA 2014). tunity to push California to resolve internal disputes and agree to limit its water use to its official Colorado  6. J.C. Davis, Cultural Arts & Tourism, City of Henderson; Las Vegas Valley Water District, LVVWD), interview with author, April 18, 2017. River allocation.   7. The rebate equals $50 or 50 percent of the price of a manual pool cover, whichever is less, or $200 or 50 percent of the price of a Conclusions ­ permanent mechanical pool cover, whichever is less. The pool cover rebates have produced estimated savings of over 7.6 cubic The experience of Las Vegas shows that water con- meters. servation plays a central role in sustainable water  8. For example, the Water Conservation Coalition is a group of management for urban centers in arid areas. Despite local  businesses and community leaders who promote water-­ efficient practices, such as the Water Upon Request program, having the smallest allocation on the Colorado River through  which restaurants serve water only to those clients who and a booming population and tourism industry, Las request it. Vegas and its surrounding areas have used multiple  9. Shortages will increase if, as a result of the prolonged drought, tools to ensure their water future. Accounting for SNWA’s allocation of Colorado River water is reduced by 50 cubic meters. Currently, the Interim Guidelines only allow for a 25 cubic reuse through RFCs enables Las Vegas to multiply its meters shortage. “Upper demand” or high water-demand projec- allocation by a factor of approximately 1.7, while tions reflect the increased uncertainty of changes in demand that are conservation programs have managed to reduce associated with climate variability, economic recovery, increased population, and water-use patterns. water use by about 40 percent since 2002. This demand management has enabled the creation of 10. Offstream Storage of Colorado River Water and Development and Release of Intentionally Created Unused Apportionment in the surplus water for banking through a series of in-state Lower Division States, 43 C.F.R. § 414.3 (1999). https://www.usbr​ and interstate agreements, generating temporary .gov/lc/region/g4000/4200Rpts/DecreeRpt/2016/19.pdf. resources for backup. According to SNWA projec- 11. JC Davis, Cultural Arts & Tourism, City of Henderson; Las Vegas tions, this “pursue anything and everything” Valley Water District, LVVWD), interview with author, April 12, 2017. approach (Harrison 2014) has created a strong port- 12. Colby Pellegrino, Colorado River Program Manager at Southern folio that promises to meet demand until 2065 Nevada Water Authority and JC Davis, SNWA, interview with author, April 18, 2017. (SNWA 2015). Notes References  1. Population and Housing Unit Estimates (U.S. Census Bureau data- Brean, H. 2015. “Return Flows Deserve All Credit for Las Vegas’ base), U.S. Census Bureau, Suitland, MD (accessed Population and Water  Supply.” Las Vegas Review-Journal. June 13. https://www.review​ Housing Unit Estimates July 1, 2017), https://www.census.gov/pro- journal.com/local/local-las-vegas/return-flows-deserve-all-credit-for​ grams-surveys/popest.html. -las​-vegas-water-supply/.   2. The agencies are Big Bend Water District, City of Boulder City, City Gelt, J. 1997. “Sharing Colorado River Water: History, Public Policy of  Henderson, City of Las Vegas, City of North Las Vegas, Clark and the Colorado River Compact.” Arroyo 10 (1). https://wrrc.arizona.edu​ County Water Reclamation District, and Las Vegas Valley Water /public ations/arroyo-newsletter/sharing-colorado-river-water​ District. -history-public-policy-and-colorado-river.   3. Lake Mean Water Level, Lakes Online.com (accessed August 17, 2017), Harrison, C. S. 2014, “Las Vegas in an Era of Limits: Urban Water Politics http://mead.uslakes.info/level.asp. in the Colorado River Basin.” Ph.D. thesis, University of Nevada, Las Vegas. http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/thesesdissertations/2265/.   4. Note that when the elevation of Lake Mead reaches 273 meters above sea level, Hoover Dam can no longer release water downstream to MWD of Southern California. 2004. Integrated Water Resources Plan 2003 California, Arizona, and Mexico. Update, (accessed on March 7, 2018), http://dpw.lacounty.gov/wmd​ /irwmp/docs/Step%202%20Prop%2050%20Implementation%20   5. This number reflects water from all sources used by residents and Grant%20Application/05.%20Malibu%20Creek%20Watershed%20 businesses served by municipal water providers, as well as recovered Water%20Conservation...%20Project/Appendix%205-5.pdf. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 203 SNWA (Southern Nevada Water Authority). 2014. Water Conservation US EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2016. What Plan 2014–2018. Las Vegas, NV: SNWA. https://www.snwa.com/assets​ Climate  Change Means for Nevada. Washington DC: US EPA. https:// /pdf/about_reports_conservation_plan.pdf. www.epa​.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/­c limate​ -change-nv.pdf. ———. 2015. Water Resource Plan 2015. Las Vegas, NV: SNWA. https://www​ .snwa.com/ws/resource_plan.html. 204 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: pixabay.com. Chapter 19 Tucson, Arizona Arizona’s agricultural sector has historically driven the fissures and subsidence, which could damage city state’s demand for water. In the past three decades, infrastructure (Carruth, Pool, and Anderson 2007; however, the need for irrigation has been rapidly out- Leake 2016). In response, Congress approved the paced by human demands as urban centers grow; this Central Arizona Project (CAP) in 1968 to facilitate distri- expansion, coupled with recurring drought, has signifi- bution and storage of water from the Colorado River for cantly contributed to concerns about a shortage of water central and southern Arizona (Water Education (Larson, Gustafson, and Hirt 2009). Therefore, munici- Foundation and UA WRRC 2007). Because the develop- palities in Arizona have increasingly sought alternative ment failed to attenuate groundwater use as antici- water sources, driving major statewide shifts in demand pated, the Arizona legislature passed the Groundwater and provision. Tucson, a city that receives only an aver- Management Act (GMA) in 1980 to control groundwater age 28 centimeters of annual rainfall, has been embed- overdraft (ADWR 2002). ded in these changes (NOAA 2016, 2017) (map 19.1). Most GMA policies were designed with the intent of reg- Arizona traditionally met agricultural needs with ulating active management areas (AMAs), where over- groundwater, but this resource became scarcer over draft was most severe (ADWR 2002). Tucson, located in time, leading consumers to drill deeper for lower-­ an AMA, responded to the GMA in 1992 by offsetting its quality water at a higher cost (Larson, Gustafson, and groundwater and directly delivering sources allocated Hirt  2009). Furthermore, overextraction caused through the CAP. However, CAP water was too acidic, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 205 MAP 19.1. Tucson, Arizona, United States of America IBRD 43778 | JULY 2018 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TUCSON, ARIZONA 10 CENTRAL ARIZONA Oro Valley Pusch Ridge AQUEDUCT PROJECT A Wilderness Area (CAP) Casas Adobes PUMPING PLANT WATER TABLE LEVELS Catalina Foothills (WELL LOCATIONS): Saguaro RISING National Tanque Verde STABLE Park DECLINING IRRIGATION DISTRICTS Tucson INTERSTATES Tucson Estates Saguaro U.S. HIGHWAYS National Park STATE HIGHWAYS Black Mountain Pumping Plant Vail 19 Sahuarita 10 Green 0 5 10 Kilometers Valley corroded pipes, and had an appearance and taste unac- constructed to help Tucson prepare for water short- ceptable to consumers (ADWR 2014). Tucson addressed ages were it to lose access to CAP water (Water this challenge by passing the Water Consumer Protection Education Foundation and UA WRRC 2007). Act in 1995, which was designed to prohibit direct CAP water delivery to consumers. As its population grows, Tucson uses reclaimed water (effluent) for landscape irrigation and to develop ripar- The utility constructed the Clearwater Renewable ian habitats (City of Tucson 2000; Davis 2014). Potable Resource Facility to recharge the aquifer and filter CAP reuse is another option being considered by the Tucson water, blending this with local, alkaline groundwater; Water Department (Tucson Water); however it is not beginning in 2001, the recov- required to fulfill short term needs because demand ered mixture was used to sup- for water has actually declined over the past several Recognizing the limitations of ply potable water to Tucson’s years, and consumers have shown little support for reliance on groundwater, CAP customers (PAG 2002; Tucson recycled drinking water (Hummer and Eden 2016; supply, and wastewater, Tucson Water Department 2013). McGlade 2017). has further expanded its water Because of Arizona’s junior pri- portfolio by implementing and ority for CAP water, storage Although a small contribution to the water supply, its promoting rainwater harvesting facilities associated with the popularity is increasing in city development and (RWH). among consumers. recharge project were also 206 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Rainwater Harvesting in Tucson Rainwater Harvesting Incentives and Education Tucson’s population and potable demand is projected to In arid and semiarid climates, diversification of water grow steadily over the next 30 years (Tucson Water supply is a key feature of development that integrates Department 2013), and landscape irrigation makes land use and water resources (e.g., CDWR 2016; Reidy up  almost half of residential demand of installed 2015; SNWA 2011). For more than a decade, Tucson ­ rainwater collection systems. Given that an average 0.10 has embraced an integrated approach by promoting hectare lot in Tucson receives a sufficient annual amount different forms of low-impact development (LID) and of rainfall to meet the demand of a family of three, RWH green infrastructure (GI). LID is a technique that can reduce the negative impact of excessive water con- modifies land to mimic predevelopment hydrology sumption (Lancaster 2008; Phillips and Sousa 2007). and helps maintain infiltration and drainage to reduce pollutant runoff. Alternately, GI comprises Tucson Water has two residential programs dedicated structural developments and techniques used to to RWH. The 2009 Regional Residential Green Building achieve LID objectives (City of Tucson 2013a). GI Program offers an opportunity for builders and own- comes in many forms, such  rain gardens or land- ers of new homes to receive certification for installed scape designs that collect, distribute, retain and rainwater collection systems. Builders can receive ­ filter  water; rain barrels that hold  harvested water $200 for each residential unit constructed with a col- for later use; and green streets that incorporate lection system, and homeowners are eligible for a features of rain gardens and swales (vegetated or ­ one-time tax credit up to $1,000 (City of Tucson earthen channels that convey runoff) along roadways 2013c). The city’s Green Remodeling Program also and in public rights-of-way in order to  treat storm- extends these opportunities to builders and residents water, beautify the community, and calm traffic for systems on older homes (City of Tucson 2013b). In (US  EPA 2009). Tucson’s first implementation of 2012, the second program offered two different RWH integrated Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) has been rebates. Single-family homes can use the first rebate through an ordinance to require commercial RWH, to cover 50 percent of the cost of materials (such as followed by the introduction of tax incentives and some landscape supplies and equipment rental) and rebates for residential RWH installations. labor of licensed contractors for passive RWH up to $500 (City of Tucson 2015). The second rebate assists Commercial Rainwater Harvesting Ordinance residential users with the costs of cisterns (also Tucson passed the first commercial RWH ordinance referred to as active RWH). in the United States in 2008. The ordinance requires To qualify for the rebate programs, Tucson Water con- new commercial developments to include RWH plans sumers with current service must participate in a and use harvested water for at least 50 percent of ­ utility-approved RWH workshop that covers RWH meth- estimated yearly irrigation water budgets (PAG their ­ ods and strategies (City of Tucson 2017c). The utility has 2015). Tucson Water ensures compliance by requiring also partnered with the University of Arizona and a non- consumers to submit annual water-use budget profit organization to provide community education reports, which detail rainfall totals and site water programs for various audiences (City of Tucson 2015). usage by month (City of Tucson 2008). To increase participation in RWH, the Pima Association of Demonstration Sites and Green Streets Governments (PAG) has considered extending the The Tucson Graywater and Rainwater Harvesting RWH ordinance to include residential properties Stakeholder Group has spearheaded development of (PAG 2015). 16 water harvesting demonstration sites to help foster Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 207 successful implementation of RWH projects. Tucson (Ransom 2015). In 2015, participants of the RWH pro- Water has given funding priority to those that offer gram collectively reduced water usage by 2,108,010 public access, provide educational opportunities, and gallons, but this accounted for just under 4 percent of emphasize compliance with RWH ordinances (City of what the city consumed in gallons per capita per day Tucson 2015). Tucson’s Green Streets Active Practice and does not include 421,602 gallons of storage, which Guidelines also captures and retains the first accounted for 0.07 percent of the gallons per capita 1.27 ­centimeters of rainwater during a storm, as well as per day (City of Tucson 2015). If water costs and rates detains, infiltrates, or filters runoff from the street and of consumption were higher, more participants might sidewalk; it can also remove debris and sediment from be motivated to use the RWH program to reduce their water. The benefit-cost ratio of the Green Streets pro- intake. Most of Tucson Water’s residential customers gram is $2.10/$1—for every $1 the community invests in are a part of a single-family household and what the Green Streets, $2.10 of value is created (PAG 2015). utility considers “low-volume” users; about 80 per- cent of Tucson’s consumers use approximately 7,480 Main Challenges to Selection and gallons per month, paying at most an average of Implementation of Rainwater Harvesting $39.82 (City of Tucson 2017b). Annually, this accounts for only 1.3% of Tucson’s median household income The RWH rebate programs have been problematic of $37,149 (U.S. Census Bureau 2015). because of their relatively high costs to the utility and its customers and the exclusion from participation of Additionally, only 40 percent of the RWH best prac- low-income residents. Tucson Water finances not only tices workshop participants attend after their systems RWH programs, but efficiency programs for greywater have been installed, suggesting that the rebate was the and high-efficiency appliances, by imposing a fee incentive for their initial attendance (City of Tucson of  $0.08 per .028 cubic meter (7.48 gallons) of 2015). Until 2016, Tucson Water distributed checks to monthly  water consumption; this accounts for rebate program participants with delinquent accounts ­ approximately 20 percent of the average water bill of a (City of Tucson 2016). The city then established a pol- single-family household (City of Tucson 2017b). In the icy of abstaining from processing checks until custom- past nine years, the utility’s conservation fee has grown ers’ accounts are balanced. percent, with the greatest increase (40 percent) in 167 ­ Although Tucson Water has increasingly offered more 2012, coinciding with the introduction of the Rainwater RWH rebates, the high costs associated with RWH have Harvesting Rebate Program (City of Tucson 2015). As a made the program socially exclusive (City of Tucson result, Tucson Water customers have expressed dis- 2015). Since the program’s creation in 2012, even with content at town hall meetings (City of Tucson 2017a). financial support, many of Tucson’s low-income resi- The utility has also found that the net benefit of the dents have been unable to participate because they are RWH rebate program is not demonstrably high. In unable to afford the installation and upkeep of RWH recent studies of residents who installed active and systems (Davis 2016). This is of particular concern passive RWH systems, preliminary measures have because more than 25 percent of city’s residents live in shown no reduction in use at the water meter follow- poverty (City of Tucson 2012; U.S. Census Bureau 2015). ing installation (City of Tucson 2015). It may be that some participants in the RWH rebate program already Addressing Challenges Related to Selection and Implementation use relatively less water or that customers do not reduce water usage because they care more about Although the capital costs of RWH programs present a landscape irrigation than the cost of their water great challenge to Tucson, identifying and addressing 208 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report the emerging problems of these initiatives take time. administered to participating families are used for Tucson is responding to the current challenges of its other program costs (Elias 2016). RWH initiatives by examining the net value of active and passive approaches, and Tucson Water is begin- Conclusion: Lessons for Water Scarce Cities ning to improve the access of low-income participants Moving forward, stakeholders from local, regional, to the RWH rebate program. and state levels are working together to drive the Potential mechanisms to reduce costs have been identi- development and expansion of RWH in Tucson. In fied, which suggests that passive approaches are more early 2017, Tucson Water hosted the Tucson cost-effective than the installation of RWH barrels. In a Stormwater Summit, where participants from govern- technical guidance manual for the City of Tucson, a mental, nonprofit, and private sectors shared unique review of the costs of GI and LID has found that infiltra- knowledge and collaborated in theoretical planning tion trenches, xeriscape swales, and water harvesting exercises in which they identified competing and com- basins (all passive approaches, often referred to as plementary goals that drive their perceptions of where groundworks) provide social and environmental bene- and why GI should be introduced. Key takeaways from fits that outweigh their associated costs. Furthermore, the meeting were that Tucson needs champions in the modifying the land for passive rainwater harvesting regulatory community to push for further develop- (RWH) presents opportunities to improve the area’s tree ment of RWH and must reframe problems and solu- canopy, which can provide direct and indirect economic tions in ways that garner support for RWH across benefits, such as reducing electric bills for cooling and stakeholders with competing goals (Tucson cost of irrigation (NOAA 2017; PAG 2015). Stormwater Summit 2017). Tucson recognizes the importance of making RWH Tucson is not facing an immediate water crisis, but its broadly available to residents. It has thus taken initial population is projected to increase by approximately steps to improve the accessibility of the RWH rebate 50 percent by 2050 (ADOA 2015). The city, therefore, program to low-income participants. In 2014, Tucson will need to consider alternative sources to ensure suf- Water having noted that these members of the com- ficient long-term water supplies. Although Tucson has munity were not participating in the program, the city begun to use recycled wastewater, its availability is hired an environmental justice specialist and hosted a dependent on demand, which has recently declined in roundtable discussion with local nonprofits and proportion to the population. Furthermore, although groups serving low-income persons to explore ways to consumers are in favor of recycled wastewater for irri- improve access to the rebate program (Davis 2016). gation, there appears to be a lack of support for potable In 2016, the Mayor and Tucson City Council allocated reuse. This suggests that wastewater, at best, is most $300,000 for a 1-year pilot program to assist 100 low-­ appropriate as a supplementary source, dedicated to a income families with participation in the RWH rebate limited range of uses. program (City of Tucson 2017a). Currently, Tucson Water partners with the Sonoran Environmental Tucson’s push to adopt various RWH approaches, Research Institute (SERI) to provide the required however, presents opportunities beyond water conser- rebate classes and offers loans and grants to low-­ vation. LID and GI can help develop Tucson’s tree can- income participants. Loans of up to $2,000 are offered opy, for example, to improve public safety through the to finance the capital costs of the water systems and reduction of excess stormwater and provision of shade grants range up to $400, often helping cover costs of to pedestrians. This also provides benefits to house- materials for passive RWH (SERI 2017). Funds not holds, such as lower bills for electricity and piped Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 209 water. Because passive forms of RWH have been found and Hirt 2009). In the Tucson AMA, the primary man- to offer net benefits greater than those of active meth- agement goal is to achieve a safe-yield by 2025, mean- ods, it may be valuable for Tucson Water and the cus- ing that annual groundwater withdrawal does not tomers of the rebate program to focus exclusively on exceed what is replaced in the same year.2 Today, financial assistance and education dedicated to devel- Tucson still uses groundwater, but the ADWR has opment of groundworks. On the other hand, active introduced policies over the past three decades that RWH could have an increasingly high net value if limit the city’s extraction. access to potable water becomes critically limited. The Tucson AMA currently uses requirements, per- Lastly, Tucson Water will likely need to secure more mits, programs, and alternative sources in an effort to funding as its RWH rebate, loan, and grant programs achieve the safe-yield goal. First, large municipal water continue to develop and expand. Consumers having providers such as the Tucson Water Department already expressed some discontent about increased (Tucson Water) have a total-gallons-per-capita-per- water bills, the utility may be able to justify its costs by day requirement, under which the system must not further refining how it quantifies RWH benefits. One exceed losses of 10 percent annually. Second, since approach may be the systematic measurement of water 2005, residents within the Tucson Water service area that is actively and passively harvested at the residen- have no longer been allowed to drill exempt wells. tial level. Participants in the rebate program, for exam- Residents must first obtain a permit to pump ground- ple, could review the specifics of their RWH systems to water, which is then subject to certain conditions relat- estimate the volume of water they harvest over a given ing to quantity and reason for use. Third, Tucson’s key period of time.1 These data could then inform alloca- programs to regulate groundwater use are the Assured tion decisions for Tucson Water’s budget. Water Supply (AWS) Program, and the Underground Water Storage, Savings, and Replenishment Program. Groundwater In 1995, the ADWR adopted the AWS Program to ensure Beginning in the 1940s, Arizona experienced both the use of renewable supplies, which include surface rapid population growth and improved technologies in water, Colorado River water delivered by the CAP, and water pumping, which drove increased water use and effluent. AWS rules prohibit new growth (such as land aquifer overdraft that would continue over the next sales and subdivisions) in the AMA without prior four decades (Megdal 2012). Access to secure water demonstration that (1) there are sufficient and ade- meant costly drilling for deeper sources that often con- quate supplies of water for 100 years; (2) proposed tained higher levels of salts and minerals; overex- water use aligns with the management plan and goals traction also led to subsidence and fissures that of the AMA; and (3) there are sufficient financial damaged city infrastructure (ADWR 2002). In 1980, the resources to develop a water delivery system Arizona State Legislature introduced the GMA to miti- (Governor’s Water Management Commission 2001). gate overdraft, allocate the state’s groundwater sources The Underground Water Storage, Savings, and efficiently to meet changing needs, and implement Replenishment Program, established in 1986, allows developments to boost the state’s groundwater supply the Arizona Water Banking Authority to store and later (ADWR 2002). At that time, the Arizona Department of recover surplus supplies of water from underground Water Resources (ADWR) was created to implement (ADWR 2010, 2016; Tucson Water Department 2013). the GMA by developing, overseeing, and enforcing Tucson has three underground facilities for storing management plans for AMAs, or regions in which and allocating CAP water: the Central and Southern ­ significant overdraft had occurred (Larson, Gustafson, Avra Valley Storage and Recovery Projects and the 210 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Pima Mine Road Recharge Project (Tucson Water 2013). which Tucson then pumps into adjacent recharge Finally, in addition to recharged CAP water, Tucson basins for future use or to its reclaimed water treat- has increasingly come to rely on surface water (for ment plant for tertiary treatment (further filtration and example, through RWH) and recycled wastewater. disinfection). The third (and comparatively smallest) source is the Randolph Park WRF, which provides ter- Tucson’s current level of water use is the same as it was tiary-treated water (CH2M HILL 2013; City of Tucson in 1985, even though its population has grown by and Pima County 2009; Dubois and Martin 2014). approximately 70 percent (City of Tucson 2016). Yet, even if Tucson continues to use groundwater at a hydro- Tucson currently uses recycled wastewater for irrigation, logically sustainable rate, it could still deplete its allow- groundwater recharge, and riparian restoration and able groundwater credit account, as designated by the maintenance. The city uses recycled water to irrigate AWS (Tucson Water Department 2004). Furthermore, more than 700 single family homes, as well as 65 schools, Tucson is but one of many groundwater users within its 50 parks, and 18 golf courses (Tucson Water Department AMA, and collective municipal demand is projected to 2017). Because water needs fluctuate throughout the increase, which could deplete available resources across year, excess wastewater that has undergone secondary multiple jurisdictions. Thus, a coordinated effort will be treatment is sent to Tucson’s Sweetwater Wetlands necessary to reduce extraction (ADWR 2012). Facility. Sweetwater consists of artificial wetlands and a tertiary filtration plant, where water infiltrates the aqui- fer and is stored until extracted to meet peak irrigation Recycled Wastewater demand (usually during hotter months). The wetlands Like other water users throughout Arizona, Tucson has bring additional benefits to the community, serving as a historically relied heavily on groundwater to meet habitat for local and migratory wildlife, as well as a learn- local consumer demand. Yet widespread challenges ing center for ecology and water resource management related to overextraction led the state to introduce leg- (Tucson Water Department 2015). islation in 1980 to limit groundwater use. Since then, Through the use of recycled wastewater, Tucson has Tucson has expanded its water portfolio. Today, the been able to offset its reliance on CAP supplies, retain city’s primary source of water comes from the Colorado its nonrenewable groundwater sources, and supple- River and is delivered by the CAP. Although Tucson ment other renewable sources such as RWH, which has the largest municipal and industrial entitlement to still has uncertain availability (Tucson Water CAP water in the state, its annual demand may eventu- Department 2015). Furthermore, the majority of ally supersede the river’s long-term average yield. Tucson’s turf irrigators use recycled wastewater; This, combined with continued drought and climate excess beyond what is sent to the Sweetwater site may variability, has driven the city’s water utility to find the be a source of additional groundwater recharge or even acquisition and development of recycled wastewater potable water supply (Tucson Water Department 2013, increasingly important as a means of securing water 2015). However, this use may not occur any time soon. supply (Tucson Water Department 2015). In 2011, Tucson entered into an intergovernmental The majority of Tucson’s wastewater comes from three agreement with Pima County to jointly construct the water reclamation facilities (WRFs) owned by the Pima Southeast Houghton Area Recharge Project, which County Regional Wastewater Reclamation Department. could store additional effluent for peak demand or The Tres Rios and Agua Nueva WRFs provide wastewa- lease storage space for other water managers. This ter that has undergone secondary treatment (removal project may not come to fruition, however, as Pima of biosolids and suspended organic compounds), County has now identified alternate priorities for water Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 211 use (Pima County Wastewater Reclamation 2016). CDWR (California Department of Water Resources). 2016. “Water Sector Plan.” California Natural Resources Agency, Sacramento. Finally, only if the city faces severe water shortages will potable reuse be considered a real possibility. To CH2M HILL. 2013. “Reclaimed Water Quality—Past and Future.” CH2M HILL, Englewood, CO, USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/water/docs​ date, consumer demand has declined, and the city has /­Final_Pre-Chloramination_Tech_Memo.pdf. stored a sufficient amount of its CAP entitlement. The City of Tucson. 2000. “Water Plan 2000–2050.” Tucson, AZ, USA. https:// earliest the utility would consider potable reuse is www.tucsonaz.gov/water/waterplan. likely sometime after 2027. Additionally, Tucson’s con- ———. 2008. “Ordinance 10597, Commercial Water Harvesting.” Tucson, sumers have indicated that, despite their support for AZ, USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/water/docs/rainwaterord.pdf. recycled wastewater, they would not be as amenable to ———. 2012. “City of Tucson Poverty and Urban Stress, 2012.” Tucson, AZ, potable reuse (Hummer and Eden 2016). USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/hcd/PovReport2012final.pdf. ———. 2013a. “Plan Tucson: City of Tucson General and Sustainability Plan Notes 2013.” Tucson, AZ, USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/pdsd/plan-tucson. 1. University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, Water Wise. University ———. 2013b. “Regional Residential Green Remodeling Rating System.” of Arizona Cooperative Extension, Cochise County, AZ, https:// Tucson, AZ, USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/pdsd/pdfs/GreenBuilding​ waterwise.arizona.edu/. /Regional_Residential_Green_Remodeling_Standard_13​-01-01.pdf. 2. Active Management Areas (AMAs) & Irrigation Nonexpansion Areas ———. 2013c. “Southern Arizona Regional Residential Green Building (INAs) (Arizona Department of Water Resources), Phoenix, AZ (accessed Rating System.” Tucson, AZ, USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/pdsd August 20, 2017), http://www.azwater.gov/azdwr/WaterManagement​ /pdfs/GreenBuilding /Regional_Residential_Green_Remodeling​ /AMAs/default.htm. _­Standard_13-01-01.pdf. ———. 2015. “Water Conservation Program FY 2014–2015. Annual Report.” References https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/water/docs/FY14-15_Report_Final _Condensed.pdf. ADWR (Arizona Department of Water Resources). 2002. “Overview of the Arizona Groundwater Management Code.” ADWR, Phoenix, AZ, USA. ———. 2016. “Citizens’ Water Advisory Committee Conservation and http://www.azwater.gov/AzDWR/WaterManagement/documents​ Education Subcommittee Legal Action R.” /­Groundwater_Code.pdf. ———. 2017a. “Minutes of Mayor and Council Meeting.” Tucson, AZ, USA. ———. 2010. “Introduction.” In Tucson Active Management Area Fourth https://www.tucsonaz.gov/clerks/mayor-council-minutes-2016. .gov​ Management Plan, 1–8. Tucson, AZ, USA: ADWR. http://www.azwater​ ———. 2017b. “Residential Rates and Charges.” Tucson, AZ, USA. https:// /azdwr​/WaterManagement/AMAs/documents/CH01_TAMA_4MP​_­draft.pdf. www.tucsonaz.gov/water/residential-rates-and-monthly-charges. ———. 2012. “Future Conditions and Directions.” In Tucson Active ———. 2017c. “Workshop and Project Plans.” Tucson, AZ, USA. https:// Management Area Fourth Management Plan. Tucson, AZ, USA: ADWR. w w w.tucsonaz.gov/water/rainwater-har vesting-workshop-and​ ———. 2014. “AMA Cultural Water Demand—Municipal Demand.” Securing -project-plans. Arizona’s Water Future. ADWR, Phoenix, AZ, USA. http://www.azwater​ City of Tucson and Pima County. 2009. “Water Quality Technical Paper.” .gov/azdwr/StatewidePlanning/WaterAtlas/ActiveManagementAreas​ https://webcms.pima.gov/UserFiles/Servers/Server_6/File/Government /­PlanningAreaOverview/CulturalWaterDemand-Municipal.htm. /Wastewater%20Reclamation/Water%20Resources/WISP/091709-Quality​ ———. 2016. “Underground Water Storage, Savings, and Replenishment.” .pdf. In Tucson Active Management Area Fourth Management Plan, 1–28. City of Tucson Water Department. 2013. “Harvesting Rainwater: Guide to Tucson, AZ, USA: ADWR. Water-Efficient Landscaping.” Tucson Water Department, Tucson, AZ, ADOA. 2015. “Arizona State and County Population Projections 2015 to USA. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/water/docs/Rainwater_Harvesting_ .az​ 2050, High Series.” ADOA, Phoenix, AZ, USA. https://population​ Guide.pdf. .gov/sites/default/files/doc uments/files/pop-prj-state-­c ounty​ Davis, Tony. 2014. “Tucson Looks at Treating Wastewater for Drinking.” -2015methodology.pdf. Arizona Daily Star, August 2. http://tucson.com/news/local/tucson​ Carruth, R. L., D. R. Pool, and C. Anderson. 2007. “Land Subsidence and -looks-at-treating-wastewater-for-drinking/article_d2b3e1b9-3eef-5869​ Aquifer Compaction in the Tucson Active Management Area, South- -baf5-e0ca8bf0a826.html. Central Arizona, 1987–2005.” U.S. Geological Survey Scientific ———. 2016. “Poor People Left Out of Tucson Water Harvesting Rebates.” Investigations Report 2007–2015. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA. Arizona Daily Star, July 4. http://tucson.com/news/local/low-income​ https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5190/. 212 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report -residents-left-out-of-tucson-water-har vesting-rebates/article​ .com/documents/environment/stormwater/TucsonRegionalLIDWork​ _acb89804-e9b3-5929-adf3-ea9d443ab089.html. shopReport2015.pdf. Dubois, J., and A. Martin. 2014. Effluent Generation and Utilization Report. Phillips, A., and F. Sousa. 2007. “City of Tucson Water Harvesting Pima County, AZ, USA: Pima County Wastewater Reclamation Department. Guidance Manual—A Multifunctional Tool for Sustainable Water Use, http://www.sawua.org/ewExternalFiles/2014_Effluent​_­Generation​_%20 Water Conservation and Stormwater Management.” Tucson, AZ, USA. Report.pdf. http://www.swhydro.arizona.edu/07symposium/presentationpdf /PhillipsA_pro.pdf. Elias, Albert. 2016. “Mayor and Council Memorandum.” Tucson, AZ, USA. ht t p s : // w w w.t u c s o n a z . g o v/s i r e p u b /m t g v i e w e r. a s px ? m e e t i d​ Pima County Wastewater Reclamation. 2016. 2016 Wastewater Facility Plan. =1602&doctype=AGENDA. Pima County, AZ, USA: Pima County Wastewater Reclamation Department. https://webcms.pima.gov/UserFiles/Servers/Server_6/File/Government​ Governor’s Water Management Commission. 2001. “Governor’s Water /­Wastewater%20Reclamation/Publibations/FacilityPlan​_2016.pdf. Management Commission Final Report.” Arizona Governor’s Water Management Commission, Phoenix, AZ, USA. Ransom, Daniel. 2015. “HUD Water Wednesdays Incorporating Green Infrastructure into Housing & Community Development Projects.” Hummer, N., and S. Eden. 2016. “Potable Reuse of Water.” Arroyo, Tucsonaz.gov/water/rebate. University of Arizona Water Resources Research Center, Tucson, AZ. http://wrrc.arizona.edu/publications/arroyo-newsletter/arroyo​ -2016​ Reidy, Kevin. 2015. “Land Use and Colorado’s Water Plan.” Paper presented -Potable-Reuse-of-Water. at the 2015 Rocky Mountain Land Use Institute Conference, March 13. http://www.law.du.edu/documents/rmlui/conference/powerpoints/2015​ Lancaster, B. 2008. Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond. /REIDYLandUse-CWP.pdf. Tucson, AZ, USA: Rainsource Press. SERI (Sonoran Environmental Research Institute). 2017. “Projects: Rain Larson, K.L., A. Gustafson, and P. Hirt. 2009. “Insatiable Thirst and a Barrel Ordering Form.” SERI, Tucson, AZ, USA. http://www.seriaz.org Finite Supply: An Assessment of Municipal Water-Conservation Policy in /projects/rainwater-harvesting. Greater Phoenix, Arizona, 1980–2007.” Journal of Policy History 21 (2): 107–37. doi:10.1017/S0898030609090058. SNWA (Southern Nevada Water Authority). 2011. “Water Development and Diversification: Southern Nevada’s Past, Present, and Future Water Leake, S.A. 2016. “Land Subsidence from Ground-Water Pumping.” Impact Needs.” SNWA, Las Vegas, NV, USA. of Climate Change and Land Use in the Southwestern United States: Human Impacts on the Landscape. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA. https:// “Tucson Stormwater Summit.” 2017. Tucson, AZ, USA. geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/changes/anthro​pogenic/subside/. Tucson Water Department. 2004. “Available Water Resources.” In Water McGlade, Caitlin. 2017. “Parched: Arizona Per Capita Water Use Plan: 2000–2050. Tucson, AZ, USA: Tucson Water Department. Water Declining.” The Republic. http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/arizona​ Plan: 2000–2050. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/water/waterplan. /investigations/2015/03/13/parched-water-arizona-per ​ - capita-use​ ———. 2013. 2012 Update: Water Plan 2000–2050. Tucson, AZ, USA: Tucson -decline/70212918/. Water Department. http://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/water/docs/2012​ Megdal, S. B. 2012. “Arizona Groundwater Management.” The Water _­Update_Water_Plan_2000-2050.pdf. Report. October 15 (104) 9–15. https://wrrc.arizona.edu/sites/wrrc​ ———. 2015. Recycled Water Master Plan. Vol. I. Tucson, AZ, USA: Tucson .­arizona.edu/files/AZgroundwater-management.pdf. Water Department. https://www.tucsonaz.gov/files/water/docs/Volume_I NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). 2016. “All- _Recycled​_Water_Master_Plan.pdf. Time Yearly Precipitation Records for Tucson (1895–2015).” Silver Spring, UMass Extension. 2007. “Healthy Drinking Waters for Massachusetts: MD. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Safe and Healthy Lives in Safe and Healthy Communities.” UMass ———. 2017. “Tucson Monthly and Daily Normals.” NOAA, Tucson, AZ, Extension, Amherst, MA, USA. https://ag.umass.edu/sites/ag.umass.edu USA. http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/twc/climate/tus.php. /files/fact-sheets/pdf/wellwatertesting2.pdf. U.S. Census Bureau. 2015. “Tucson City, Arizona.” Quick Facts. https:// PAG (Pima Association of Governments). 2002. “Clearwater Renewable www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/IPE120215/0477000. Resource Facility Stable Isotope Study: Fiscal Year 2001–2002 Progress Report.” PAG, Tucson, AZ, USA. https://www.pagnet.org/documents​ US EPA. 2009. “Green Infrastructure in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates.” US /water/reports/Clearwater/CavsarpFinalProgressReportFY2001-2002. EPA, Washington, DC. https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/arid_climates​ htm. _casestudy.pdf. ———. 2015. “Advancements in Low Impact Development and Green Water Education Foundation, and UA WRRC. 2007. Layperson’s Guide to Infrastructure in the Tucson Region: Proceedings of the LID Workshop Arizona Water. http://www.azwater.gov/AzDWR/IT/documents/Layperson’s​ and Field Experience.” PAG, Tucson, AZ, USA. http://www.pagregion​ _Guide_to_Arizona_Water.pdf. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 213 Aerial photo of recharge in Orange County. Source: Orange County Water District. Chapter 20 Orange County, California Orange County is located in Southern California and agricultural use decreased from 87 percent of pumped comprises two shallow coastal valleys. With more than groundwater in the 1930s to less than 2 percent today. 3 million inhabitant, it is the 3rd most populous county Currently, water use is mostly residential (64 percent) in California and the 6th in the United States. Its econ- and commercial (35 percent). Population growth is one omy, originally based on agriculture, is today domi- of the main sources of pressure on water demand, with nated by manufacturing, tourism, and the service municipal use tripling between 1933 and 2015.1 This industry. Of the 34 cities that make up Orange County, trend will likely continue as population within the 5 ranked among the nation’s 20 wealthiest cities. Orange County Water District’s (OCWD) service area is expected to increase from the current 2.3 million Background Information people to approximately 2.7 million people by 2035 ­ (OCWD Board of Directors 2017) (map 20.1). Orange County was subject to a state mandatory con- servation goal of 25 percent in 2015. In 2014, imports The climate of Orange County is characterized by from Northern California supplied as little as 5 percent Southern California’s Mediterranean climate: A semi- of requested water to Orange County. Water security arid environment with mild winters, warm summers, has therefore been an important preoccupation for and moderate rainfall. Although the region is subject to Orange County authorities. As Orange County has significant variations in annual precipitation, the undergone continuous urbanization since 1950, average annual precipitation in Orange County is ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 215 MAP 20.1. Orange County, California, USA Ch UNITED STATES OF AMERICA SAN in e r o Riv Cr na ee aA BERNARDINO k ORANGE COUNTY, CALIFORNIA Sa nt La Habra Brea INCORPORATED CITY AREAS: LOS ANGELES Fullerton Yorba Linda k Brea Creek Placentia ee Lake Mathews NORTHERN AND CENTRAL Cr e otBuena AREAS Co y La Park Palma n Cre ek Carbo Cypress Anaheim Villa Park RIVERSIDE SOUTHERN AREAS Stanton Santiago Los Orange Te m Alamitos Reservoir es Garden Grove lW ca as UNINCORPORATED CITY AREAS h San t ag COUNTY BOUNDARIES Seal Beach Westminster o i Santa Ana Cr eek Tustin Huntington Fountain Beach Valley o Trabuc S oyo r Arr Rive Costa Mesa Ri k Lake an Irvine i e g o Cree na D Forest Santa A Rancho Santa OREGON IDAHO Mission Margarita Newport Beach Laguna Woods Viejo Also Laguna Viejo Hills C reek UTAH Laguna iso NEVADA Beach Al reek Laguna Niguel nC ua n J Sa San Juan CALIFORNIA PAC I FI C O C E AN Capistrano ek e Dana Cr eo Point at PACIFIC nM San Clemente Sa OCEAN ARIZONA Orange SAN DIEGO County COUNTY BOUNDARIES 0 5 10 Kilometers STATE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MEXICO IBRD 43175 | JUNE 2018 Source: Enacademic 2017. 355 millimeters, compared with a 564 millimeter aver- OCWD was created in 1933 to monitor and conserve age overall in Southern California. The hydrological sys- groundwater supplies in the Santa Ana Valley basin and tem in Orange County is not geographically uniform. to protect local water rights from upstream users. OCWD Northern and Central Orange County are underlain by a manages the aquifer and sells groundwater to local large groundwater basin that is naturally recharged by retailers (cities) within its service area (map 20.2). Each the Santa Ana River. The basin stores an estimated 81 year, OCWD permits local retailers to pump a certain per- square kilometers of water, although only approxi- centage of their water demand and purchase imported mately one square kilometer can be sustainably pumped water from the Municipal Water District of Orange without causing physical damage such as seawater County (MWDOC) or directly from the Metropolitan intrusion or potential land subsidence (Woodside and Water District of Southern California (MWD). Westropp 2015). When the local source of water is not available, Southern Orange County relies principally on The water portfolio of the cities in Northern and imported water. This case study focuses on Northern Central Orange County consists of local groundwater and Central Orange County to understand how water (approximately 70 percent in 2015), imported water authorities have sought to capitalize on this basin in (27  percent) and local sources (4 percent), such as order to meet growing water scarcity. recycled water. The Northern and Central Orange 216 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report MAP 20.2. Orange County Water District Service Area Diemer Water San IBRD 43779 | JULY 2018 Treatment Plant Bernardino Yorba Linda 57 Buena Park Placentia Fullerton Los Angeles 605 91 La Palma 15 5 Anaheim Cypress Villa Park 405 Los Alamitos Stanton To Lake Mathews Riverside Orange Irvine Garden Grove Lake Westminster 22 r i ve 55 A na R Tustin Seal Beach Santa Ana na Sa 1 UNITED STATES OF 405 AMERICA ORANGE COUNTY, Irvine Huntington Beach CALIFORNIA Baker Water South County ORANGE COUNTY WATER Costa Mesa Pumping Station Treatment Plant DISTRICT SERVICE AREA ETWD Reservoir IRVINE WATER DISTRICT Newport Beach OTHER WATER DISTRICTS Mission Viejo 74 RECHARGE FACILITY 5 ORANGE COUNTY GROUNDWATER BASIN WATER TREATMENT Laguna Beach PLANTS 1 PUMPING STATION San Juan Capistrano ALLEN-McCOLLOCH PIPELINE PA CI F I C OC E AN SANTIAGO LATERAL PIPELINE SAC/BAKER PIPELINE San Diego INTERSTATES 0 4 8 Kilometers MAJOR HIGHWAYS San Clemente COUNTY BOUNDARIES County core water resource management strategy cen- (GWRS), which treats wastewater to potable water ters on the groundwater basin to protect the water standards and injects it into the aquifer for replenish- quality in the aquifer and to control the volume of ment and to fight saline intrusion. As part of its ground- water pumped to ensure long-term supplies. water management strategy, Orange County water authorities also capitalize on stormwater flows to The availability of this local resource increased OCWD’s recharge the aquifer. clients’ independence from imported water, while cre- ating a need for sound aquifer management and pro- Other Solutions tection to ensure its sustainability. OCWD has set itself apart from other water authorities in California by Other options for future water portfolio diversification devising a diversified aquifer recharge strategy to include desalination and water conservation. increase capacity and fight seawater intrusion, and Currently, a desalination plant with a capacity of instating groundwater level monitoring and pumping 69 million cubic meters is in the late-stages of the reg- quotas at a time when the state did not have any ulatory permit approval process and could be opera- restrictions on groundwater usage.2 Orange County is tional as soon as 2019 (OCWD 2017c). OCWD would use renowned for its Groundwater Replenishment System this water as an additional source of aquifer recharge Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 217 to buffer the increasing unreliability of imported water through combatting seawater intrusion and improving and rain flows. regulation. The cost of producing water from the groundwater basin within OCWD’s service area is Water conservation may become an integral part of $0.525 per cubic meter, about one half the cost of Orange County’s water resources resilience strategy. imported water.3 Thus, the residents and businesses Water conservation has improved in the last decades that overlie Orange County’s groundwater basin enjoy with per-person water consumption falling by 21 per- tremendous economic savings compared to areas that cent between 1991 and 2014. Water conservation mea- rely mostly on imported water and lack other options. sures include financial incentives (such as a turf Since the 1950s, groundwater production from the removal program and high-efficiency toilet rebates) basin has increased by more than 50 percent while and educational programs, but also prohibitions or water quality has been maintained and storage capac- restrictions on specific water usage such as outdoor ity increased (Wehner 2016). irrigation. Figure 20.1 represents Orange County water authorities and their water portfolio. A Diversified Recharge Strategy The Core Water Strategy: Groundwater The resilience of OCWD’s recharge strategy lies in the Basin Governance diversification of its sources; it distributes risk and pro- vides different options when some sources become OCWD’s groundwater basin governance ensures the scarce. sustainability of the aquifer as a resource for the area by increasing capacity and diversifying recharge The primary source of recharge water to the Orange sources, while maintaining the integrity of the aquifer County groundwater basin is the Santa Ana River, with FIGURE 20.1. Schematic Section of Orange County Groundwater Basin Huntington Paci ic Santa ana Anaheim beach Ocean A B C Injection wells 0 Shallow aquifer 500 feet Amber Principal colored water aquifer Natural discoloration Cross-section locator map 1,000 from ancient buried feet plant and woody A material. Recharge 1,500 basins feet Newport- inglewood Deep B fault zone aquifer Peralta 2,000 hills Santa ana feet fault river 2,500 Consolidated, Aquitards Aquifers feet non-water-bearing Low-permeability clay Water-bearing C formations and silt deposits sand and gravel Pacific Area managed Ocean by OCWD Source: Markus 2016. 218 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report flows generally consisting of treated wastewater and levels, availability of imported water supplies, and seasonal storm flows. The OCWD also recharges other basin management objectives. Water retailers approximately 89 cubic meters per year of advanced pay OCWD a Replenishment Assessment (RA) in pro- treated recycled water from the GWRS. In  addition, portion to the amount of extracted groundwater. the groundwater basin receives an average of 74 cubic However, if they pump above the BPP, they are charged meter per year of natural recharge from precipitation a Basin Equity Assessment (BEA), in addition to the and infiltration of irrigation water (Herndon and RA, which is calculated so that the cost of groundwater Markus 2014). OCWD purchases imported water to production is equal to the cost of purchasing imported recharge the groundwater basin. OCWD has potable supplies. OCWD also sometimes encourages also  invested in regional stormwater capture proj- the pumping of groundwater that does not meet drink- ects and developed strong upstream and downstream ing water standards in order to protect water quality in capture systems. However, on-site urban stormwater the aquifer through BEA exemptions, which compen- capture has not been widely implemented because sate qualified participating agencies for the costs of its impact on the main aquifer is minor and treating poor-quality groundwater. controversial. 4 From Water Supply Augmentation to Groundwater Monitoring and Regulation Closing the Cycle: Wastewater Reuse OCWD operates the basin as a reservoir to withdraw or store water and buffer alternating periods of drought The Groundwater Replenishment System, a and water availability. For this purpose, OCWD moni- Cutting-Edge Project tors groundwater levels in the aquifer and sets optimal Operational since 2008, the GWRS is the largest pumping allowances accordingly. Based on historical planned indirect potable reuse project in the world. experience and observations, OCWD established a Water from this plant prevents approximately 113,000 basin operating range. If groundwater levels approach cubic meters of seawater intrusion daily and replen- the low end of the range (with more than 432 cubic ishes the Orange County groundwater basin by approx- ­ meters of storage space available), OCWD has the imately 265,000 cubic meters daily, accounting for 30 authority to provide financial incentives for well oper- percent of the average annual groundwater recharge ators to reduce groundwater pumping and shift more for the years 2009–10 to 2013–14 (OCWD 2016, 2017d). of their supply to imported water. Alternatively, as the This ambitious project drew from OCWD’s experience stored volume approaches the high end of the range operating the Water Factory 21 plant from 1975 to 2004, (with less than 123 cubic meters of storage space avail- a water purification program designed to fight growing able), OCWD can allow groundwater pumping to seawater intrusion as imported water supplies became increase. less available. Though OCWD cannot legally force its member agen- The GWRS was born out of a joint collaboration cies to stop pumping, financial incentives encourage between OCWD and Orange County Sanitation District groundwater producers to pump within a target range. (OCSD). OCWD needed additional water to inject into The framework establishes the Basin Production the Talbert Seawater Barrier in the mid-1990s. As Percentage (BPP), which is the percentage of each pro- usage increased, saline water was drawn in  further, ducer’s total water supply that should come from threatening the potability of the aquifer. At the same OCWD groundwater for a given year. The BPP is set time, OCSD faced the challenge of having to build a uniformly for all producers based on estimated hydro- second costly ocean outfall to discharge treated logic conditions for the coming year, basin storage wastewater into the Pacific Ocean. The GWRS enabled Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 219 the treatment and management of OCSD’s excess energy of imported water and one-third the energy wastewater flows while providing a new and secure needed to desalinate seawater (OCWD 2017e). source of water for OCWD. Both districts shared the cost of constructing the first phase of the GWRS. Challenges OCWD funded the initial expansion at a cost of $142 million. OCSD supplied OCWD with stringently con- Public Outreach and Technical Problems trolled, secondary treated wastewater at no charge. The OCWD and OCSD boards feared the community perception of wastewater reuse for drinking, often The GWRS treatment process consists of three steps: referred to as “toilet-to-tap.” Similar water treatment microfiltration, in which all bacteria, particles, and projects in Los Angeles and San Diego were defeated, protozoa are filtered out; reverse osmosis, which and the WaterReuse and International Water removes dissolved chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and Associations identified public acceptance as the main viruses; and treatment with ultraviolet light with per- hurdle to implementing water recycling projects. oxide of hydrogen, which acts as a safety barrier by Therefore, from the project’s onset, OCWD and OCSD destroying potential harmful trace of organics. considered public relations to be imperative to the suc- cess of the GWRS (Markus 2016). GWRS water exceeds state and federal drinking water standards, making it the highest quality recharge water OCWD managed an aggressive outreach campaign available. The final treated water has a total dissolved with a diverse target audience such as elected offi- solids (TDS) concentration of approximately 54 milli- cials, the media, and the general public (photo 20.1 grams per liter, compared to the TDS concentrations of and photo 20.2). One key factor in the success of the imported water and Santa Ana River water of approxi- outreach campaign was its launch nearly 10 years mately 500 and 600 milligrams per liter, respectively, prior to the project start-up and its continuation and compared to the permit limit of 500  milligrams throughout the project’s life to maintain support. per liter (OCWD 2016). Water from the GWRS has there- The success of the campaign was demonstrated by fore improved the water quality of the Orange County the absence of organized opposition to date. Media basin. The cost is equivalent to that of imported water. support was secured from The New York Times and Additionally, producing GWRS water uses one half the National Geographic, and more than 600 letters of PHOTO 20.1. Images from the Video People Drink Sewage Water for the First Time Source: OCWD Newsletter February 2015. 220 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report PHOTO 20.2. 19th Annual Children’s Water Education Conclusion Festival Hosted by OCWD’s Groundwater Guardian Team in March 2015 Orange County authorities have made the most of their groundwater basin through innovative governance structures, close monitoring, and continuous research toward diversification of water sources. By closing the water cycle, water reuse fosters Orange County’s water resilience. Particular lessons that can be drawn from the Orange County water scarcity experience include. The existence of OCWD, a unique and unifying author- ity devoted to sustainable groundwater basin manage- ment. The driving idea behind OCWD is that the basin should not be managed as an ordinary water source but as a reservoir where storage volume and stored water quality are carefully monitored. To replicate this governance, a real-time monitoring system must be established by an entity with jurisdiction over the majority of the groundwater aquifer, with the legal Source: OCWD Newsletter April 2015. ability to encourage water retailers or private users to pump, or refrain from pumping, water. support were obtained, including from every city The long-term partnership between two agencies that council and chamber of commerce in OCWD’s ser- usually operate separately—OCWD and OCSD—enabled vice area. OCWD secured $92 million in state, fed- them to draw on each other’s strengths and launch proj- eral, and local grants to fund the project (AAEES ects that gave great importance to community outreach. 2013). In 2015, a video entitled People Drink Sewage This collaboration shows that integrated water resource Water for the First Time, showing a blind taste test of management can foster water supply reliability and sus- tap water, Fiji-brand water, and GWRS water, tainability, particularly in water scarce regions, by received more than 1 million views on BuzzFeed. encouraging service providers to develop local resources, foster creative joint solutions, and “close the A key technical issue that OCWD faced after project water loop.” start-up was the diurnal fluctuations in the supply of secondary effluent from OCSD. The GWRS had to be The diversification of water sources is an essential con- run at higher flows during the day and lower flows at tributor to Orange County’s portfolio resilience because night to coincide with effluent availability. Therefore, it distributes risk and provides different options if some the initial expansion of GWRS, completed in 2015, sources become scarce. The development of local water included the construction of two large reservoirs to sources such as wastewater reuse, stormwater capture, store and balance the diurnal effluent flows from demand-management, and desalination provide OCSD. The flow equalization allows the GWRS to oper- added  resilience. These options should be assessed ate at a steady-state flow, simplify operation, increase and ranked based on their relative uncertainty and the water production, and reduce the unit cost of water associated costs to develop a range of responses based produced. on climatic conditions and future availability scenarios. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 221 ———. 2016. “World Bank Water Scarce Cities.” Presentation on OCWD at Notes World Bank Water Week. March 16, 2017. 1. OCWD (Orange County Water District). “History.” OCWD, Fountain Valley, CA. http://www.ocwd.com/about/history/. MWDOC (Municipal Water District of Orange County). 2013. “Orange County Water Suppliers Water Rates & Financial Information (Updated as 2. OCWD was sought out by the governor of California and key policy- of August 2013).” MWDOC, (accessed November 13, 2017), http://www​ makers for its expertise in sound planning and sustaining groundwa- .mwdoc.com/cms2/ckfinder/files/files/OC%20Water%20Rates%20 ter supplies during drafting of the Sustainable Groundwater and%20Financial%20Information%202012(3).pdf. Management Act of 2014. OCWD. 2015a. “Hydrospectives OCWD Water News.” February 2015. 3. This figure represents the average cost for water retailers (opera- https://newsletter.ocwd.com/2015/Newsletter_2015-02.aspx. tional costs and the price charged by OCWD). It therefore includes a melded cost of groundwater recharge. ———. 2015b. “Hydrospectives OCWD Water News.” April 2015. https:// newsletter.ocwd.com/2015/Newsletter_2015-04.aspx. 4. Wehner (Assistant General Manager, OCWD), interview with author. ———. 2016. “GWRS Technical Brochure” (created May 9, 2016; accessed November 13, 2017), https://www.ocwd.com/media/4267/gwrs-techni​ Bibliography cal-brochure-r.pdf. AAEES (American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Scientists). ———. 2017a. About—History, (accessed November 13, 2017), http://www​ 2013. “2013 Environmental Communications Awards Winner— .ocwd.com/about/history/. Groundwater Replenishment System,” (accessed November 13, 2017), http://www.aaees.org/environmentalcommunicationsawards-win​ners​ ———. 2017b. About—What We Do, (accessed November 13, 2017), https:// -2013-honor.php. www.ocwd.com/what-we-do/. Enacademic. 2017. “Orange County, California,” (accessed November 13, ———. 2017c. “Huntington Beach Desalination Update.” Newsletter, 2017), http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/29023. (accessed November 13, 2017), https://www.ocwd.com/news-events​ Eurostat. 2013. “Water Use from Public Water Supply, 2013 (m’ per /­newsletter/2017/may-2017/huntington-beach-desalination-update/. Inhabitant).” Statistics Explained, (accessed November 13, 2017), http:// ———. 2017d. “Groundwater Replenishment System—Frequently Asked ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/File:Water_use​ Questions,” (accessed November 13, 2017), https://www.ocwd.com/gwrs​ _­from_public_water_supply,_2013_(m%C2%B3_per_inhabitant)_YB16.png. /­frequently-asked-questions/. Herndon, R., and M. Markus. 2014. “Large-Scale Aquifer Replenishment and Seawater Intrusion Control Using Recycled Water in Southern ———. 2017e. “Groundwater Replenishment System—The OCWD/OCSD California.” Boletín Geológico y Minero 125 (2): 143–55. Partnership,” (accessed November 13, 2017), https://www.ocwd.com​ /­gwrs/the-ocwdocsd-partnership/. Herndon, Roy. 2016. “Setting Pumping Targets Based on Recharge and Basin Conditions.” Groundwater Resources Association Conference, Sacramento. OCWD Board of Directors. 2016. “2014–2015 Engineer’s Report on the June 9, (accessed November 13, 2017), https://www.grac.org/files/520/. Groundwater Conditions, Water Supply and Basin Utilization in the Orange County Water District.” February 2016. https://www.ocwd.com​ Hutchinson, Adam S., Grisel Rodriguez, Greg Woodside, and Mike /­media/4260/2014-15-engineers-report.pdf. Milczarek. 2017. “Maximizing Infiltration Rates by Removing Suspended Solids: Results of Demonstration Testing of Riverbed Filtration in Orange ———. 2017. “2015–2016 Engineer’s Report on the Groundwater Conditions, County, California.” Water 9 (2): 119. doi:10.3390/w9020119. Water Supply and Basin Utilization in the Orange County Water District.” https://www.ocwd.com/media/5396/2015-2016-engi​neers-report.pdf. Markus, Mike. 2015. “Comments on Draft Order No. R8-2015-0001, NPDES Permit No. CAS 618030, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Wehner, Mike. 2016. “Phone Interview and Email Exchange.” August 15. System Permit and Waste Discharge Requirements, Orange County Flood Control District, the County of Orange and the Incorporated Cities therein Woodside, Greg, and Marsha Westropp. 2015. “Orange County Water within the Santa Ana Region.” December 7, (accessed November 13, 2017), District Groundwater Management Plan 2015 Update.” Orange County http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/santaana/water_issues/programs/storm​ Water District. June 17. https://www.ocwd.com/media/3622/groundwa​ water/docs/ocpermit/2015/Dec_Comments/OCWD_Comments.pdf. termanagementplan2015update_20150624.pdf. 222 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Irvine, California. Source: Kevin Zollman/Wikimedia Commons. Chapter 21 Irvine Water District, California Irvine Ranch Water District (IRWD) is a service agency percent, respec- service charges at 60 percent and 40 ­ responsible for providing domestic water service, sew- tively. Fixed charges are the base charges that cover age collection and treatment, water recycling, and fixed costs such as infrastructure maintenance and urban-runoff natural treatment in Central Orange fixed operating costs; commodity service charges County. IRWD’s service area has faced several severe are  the price per volume of water used and cover all droughts during the last decades (IRWD 2016). In 2008, variable costs. Therefore, even when water demand before the implementation of state mandatory conser- declines, IRWD still recovers its costs. vation, the average water use in Orange County was Water is sold to customers under a four-tiered struc- 719 liters per person per day—52 percent less than the ture adapted to their monthly water budget. Customers rest of Orange County. using an amount of water within their budget purchase Population growth, drought conditions in the late water in the lower two tiers and are rewarded with 1980s and early 1990s, and increasing wholesale water very low water bills. Customers using water in excess charges led IRWD to choose a comprehensive water of their budget purchase water in one to two steeply conservation strategy that uses a budget-based rate ascending upper tiers, resulting in a pricing signal for structure and a recycled water program to reduce water excessive use. Revenue generated from these higher consumption and ensure IRWD’s revenue ­ stability. To billing tiers is used to fund expenses associated with this end, IRWD has allocated fixed and commodity the purchase of additional expensive imported water, Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 223 TABLE 21.1. Irvine Ranch Water District’s Residential also invested in local wastewater recycling for a Tiered Rates, 2015 drought-tolerant source of nonpotable water. IRWD Use (as a percentage of has an extensive dual distribution system, which Tier Rates per m3 allocated budget) delivers recycled water from its two recycling treat- Low volume $39 0–40% ment plants. The district has established lower com- Base rate $57 41–100% modity service charges for recycled wastewater than Inefficient $138 101–130% for potable water to encourage the use of recycled Wasteful $513 131%+ water. Source: Irvine Ranch Water District. The case study of IRWD highlights some key success factors of water conservation programs, including the urban runoff treatment, targeted water conservation role of local agencies as highly effective agents of water programs, and other costs of water supply and con- conservation. They are able to manage the local water sumption associated with higher levels of demand. portfolio and therefore provide an incentive for the Separating commodity and fixed service charges optimal use of water by, for example, reducing potable enabled IRWD to overcome the revenue hurdle that water demand through wastewater recycling pro- traditionally prevents retailers from implementing grams. Pricing signals, such as the tiered-rate struc- conservation programs. A budget-based rate structure ture, seem more efficient than traditional conservation also raises an issue of water pricing and the principle of measures (such as the state conservation mandate). cost-of-service. IRWD has to be cautious with its A  cost-benefit approach should be adopted by water budget-based rate structure to ensure that it respects agencies to justify conservation and implement a vir- the principle of cost-of-service. tuous circle by reinvesting savings into conservation Since implementation of the billing structure, IRWD programs. Drought and dry periods should be used as residents have decreased their water use by approxi- policy windows by water authorities in order to imple- mately 15 percent while benefiting from the lowest ment new water strategies. rates in Orange County. Water conservation also results in significant money savings for the IRWD: Between Bibliography 1991 and 1997, the district avoided an estimated $33.2 Alliance for Water Efficiency. 2015. “An Assessment of Increasing Water-Use million in water purchases while investments in con- Efficiency on Demand Hardening.” Chicago, IL, Alliance for Water Efficiency. http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/WorkArea/Download​Asset​ servation programs amounted to $5 million. This pric- .aspx?id=9332. ing structure has increased drought resilience without Casey, E., R. A. Cerda, and A. Brady. 2016. “IRWD vs. OCWD. Petition for the need for mandatory restrictions. Writ of Mandate and Complaint for Reverse Validation and Declaratory Relief.” https://www.irwd.com/images/pdf/IRWD_Petition_for​_Writ_of​ Consumer education and efficient supply manage- _Mandate.pdf. ment must go hand in hand with rate structure imple- Carollo Engineers. 2015. “Irvine Ranch Water District Cost of Service mentation so that consumers can stay within their Study.” Report prepared for the Irvine Ranch Water District, Irvine CA. water allocated budgets while satisfying their base Carollo Engineers, Walnut Creek, CA. https://www.irwd.com/images/pdf​ level of demand and maintaining quality landscapes. /about-us/Finance/IRWD%20Cost%20of%20Service%20%20-%20 Final%20%20062215.pdf. When first implementing allocations, IRWD undertook IRWD (Irvine Ranch Water District). 2015. “Budget Based Rate Structures a public outreach campaign that incorporated inten- Provide Sustainable Water Savings.” IRWD, Irvine, CA. http://www.irwd​ sive communication with various customer groups .com/liquid-news ​ /allocation-based-conservation ​ - rate​ - structures​ and meetings with local community groups. IRWD has -provide-sustainable​-water-savings. 224 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report ———. 2016. 2015 “Urban Water Management Plan.” IRWD, Irvine, CA. San Diego County Taxpayers Association. 2010. “Comparison of Irvine https://www.irwd.com/images/pdf/doing-business/environmental​ Ranch Water District’s Rate Structure to the City of San Diego’s.” San -documents/UWMP/IRWD_UWMP_2015_rev_01-03-17_FINAL.pdf. Diego County Taxpayers Association, San Diego, CA. http://www.sdcta​ ———. 2017a. “Rates and Charges.” IRWD, Irvine, CA. http://irwd.com​ .org/assets/files/FINAL%20IRWD%20Staff%20Report,%2010-08-09,AH​ /rates-charges. .pdf. ———. 2017b. “Prop 218 Notices.” IRWD, Irvine, CA. http://www.irwd.com​ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Cases in Water /services/proposed​-rates. Conservation: How Efficiency Programs Help Water Utilities Save Water ———. 2017c. “Residential Rebates.” IRWD RightScape, Irvine, CA. http:// and Avoid Costs. Washington, DC: United States Environmental rightscapenow.com/rebates/residential​-rebates. Protection Agency. ———. 2017d. “Michelson Water Recycling Plant.” IRWD, Irvine, CA. http:// Assembly Committee on Water, Parks and Wildlife. 2008. “AB 2882— www.irwd.com​/construction/michelson-water-recycling-plant. Water: Allocation-Based Conservation Water Pricing.” Transcript of KPCC (K Pasadena City College). 2017. “Is California Water Use committee hearing, Lois Wolk, Chair. Assembly Committee on Water, Increasing?” Southern California Public Radio web site. (accessed Parks and Wildlife, Sacramento, CA. ftp://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/07​ November 13, 2017), http://projects.scpr.org/applications/monthly​ -08/bill/asm/ab​_2851-2900/ab_2882_cfa​_20080328_161424_asm_comm​ -water-use/irvine​-ranch-water-district/. .html. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 225 Source: Pixabay. Chapter 22 West Basin, Los Angeles, California The Water Replenishment District of Southern groundwater pumping proceeded at an alarming rate California (WRD) is the largest groundwater agency in throughout much of the state, but particularly in the the State of California. Its mandate is to manage and Central Basin of west Los Angeles. Overpumping protect local groundwater resources for an areas area resulted in aquifer depletion at an average rate of 2.44 covering a 420-square-mile region of southern Los meters per year, with levels dropping far below sea Angeles County, the most populated county in the level (Johnson 2013). This reckless pumping resulted in United States. The WRD’s service area covers 43 cities, aquifer compaction and subsequent land subsidence, including a portion of the City of Los Angeles. but more importantly it resulted in a reversal in (map 22.1) groundwater flow, allowing sea water intrusion to con- taminate previously potable sources (Johnson 2007; Historical Challenges and Institutional LADPW 2013). To combat these problems, in 1959 the Formation California state legislature enacted Assembly Bill 2908, which established the WRD to manage the Central and Groundwater management has played a vital role in West Coast Groundwater Basins (CWCB). the expansion of Southern California’s economy and built environment because local surface supply has The two basins serve more than 400 wells, which long been insufficient to support continued growth routinely extract volumes of groundwater in excess ­ (Porse et al. 2016). From the 1930s to 1960, of  the natural recharge for the consumptive use of Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 227 MAP 22.1. West Basin, Los Angeles, California the  overlying population. The WRD provides artificial Through these efforts, WRD successfully supplies replenishment commensurate with extraction to main- 250,000 acre-feet annually (approximately 50 percent of tain healthy groundwater levels (Johnson 2013; WRD total indoor consumptive needs) to 4 million people in 2017). WRD operates to ensure the availability of ground- Los Angeles County. Since the WRD was created, it has water resources through both natural and enhanced replenished nearly 7 million acre-feet (MAF) of imported recharge, but also through water conservation efforts. and recycled water into the jointly managed basins. Natural recharge efforts encompass 121 wetted hectares of spreading ground basins, which are inundated with The WRD remains the only jointly managed ground- storm, recycled, and imported water up to a capacity of water district of its kind in California and the joint 1.13 million cubic meters with estimated passive percola- management strategy stands in contrast to the tradi- tion of 2.12 cubic meters per second (Los Angeles tion of standalone basin management through adjudi- Department of Public Works 2017a; WRD 2015, 2016). cation in the rest of Southern California (Heikkila Concurrently, WRD undertakes enhanced recharge by 2004). The WRD is governed by a board of five mem- directly injecting water into aquifers through wells. bers who are directly elected by the 4 million residents 228 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report living in 43 cities in the 1,088 square kilometers of the ruling deemed it in the best interests of overall basin WRD (WRD 2017a). Moreover, the WRD has a unique management that WRD remain the sole steward of the governance position in the delivery of drinking water CWCB aquifers; the Central Basin consequently as a wholesale agency that relies on another wholesale assumed diminished operational responsibilities agency, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern (Chester 2013). California (MWD), for much of its supply. The WRD The WRD is not without controversy and criticism from users; WRD does not directly interact with water end-­ external sources. It has been levied with charges of cor- water is sold to drinking water systems that serve retail ruption from various sources, and the state of California customers. has expressed concerns about a lack of transparency in Recent leadership of the WRD has taken a multifac- its management. Finally, constituent water purchasers eted approach to achieving complete local water reli- have complained about rising prices for water sold by ance. Given the WRD’s track record of moving away WRD (California State Auditor 2004; Waldie 2016). It is from imported water dependence since 1962, this certainly true that, even though residents indirectly goal seems potentially attainable. In the early 1960s, served by WRD are allowed to vote for its board on a reg- at the time the WRD was formed, 36 percent of the ular basis, general public awareness of and meaningful WRD’s recharge came from stormwater and public participation in the governance of the WRD percent came from water imported from the 64  ­ is low. This is generally true, however, of wholesale, as MWD. In 2015, 20 percent of recharge was derived opposed to retail, water agencies. from imported water, 40 percent from recycled water, In October 2011, MWD terminated the discounted and 40 percent from stormwater (WRD 2015). The replenishment water program that the WRD had used goal of 100 percent local reliance has begun to be since 1959, and has not yet offered a new replenish- operationalized through the Water Independence ment program. WRD members must rely on more Now (WIN) program, which aims to develop enough expensive Tier 1 water if it is available from MWD- sustainable local water to supplant the WRD’s member agencies or purchase higher-priced Tier 2 imported water needs. water if Tier 1 water is unavailable (WRD 2017). Tier 1 Supply Rate—recovers the cost of developing and Water Scarcity Solutions maintaining a reliable water supply. Tier 2 Supply WRD’s unique structure and outsized influence in the Rate—set at Metropolitan’s cost of purchasing water western portion of Los Angeles County has led to peri- transfers north of the Delta. The Tier 2 Supply Rate odic internal governance challenges. The Central Basin encourages the maintenance of existing local supplies has pursued legal and financial redress based on claims and the development of cost-effective local supply that the WRD’s joint arrangement is not equitable. resources and conservation. The tiered rates provide Specifically, in managing the vast area encompassed the capitalization. WRD has budgeted for untreated by the CWCB, WRD held rights that conflicted and (raw) Tier 1 water for its spreading grounds and treated overlapped with those of the Central Basin. The Basin Tier 1 water for the in-lieu program. In-lieu refers to claimed to have the legal right to “store . . . any water, the process of delivering the treated surface water including sewage and storm waters . . . in the district” instead of pumping groundwater. WRD has paid the and sought to use subsurface basin storage that it con- treated Tier 1 rate for decades to ensure the availability sidered underused (Chester 2013). With respect to the of imported water for injection at the seawater barrier legal proceedings between Central Basin and WRD sur- wells. The current retail price of imported water from rounding preferential basin rights, a 2013 legislative MWD is $1,254 per acre-foot, and imported costs are Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 229 likely to rise in the future (Business Wire 2015). The such as California propositions, which specifi- termination of the discounted replenishment rate has cally  fund needed water infrastructure. Most motivated the WRD’s push to achieve 100 percent local recently, in 2016, the WRD was awarded funding from water reliance by 2018. One of the positive effects of California Proposition 1 for its Groundwater Reliability WRD’s coordination across a wide swath of cities is rel- Improvement Project (GRIP), in the form of an ative equity in drinking water costs for these users million low-interest loan and $20 million grant. It $80 ­ (UCLA Luskin Center 2015). is not yet clear exactly how the WRD will recover costs incurred for capital improvements and debt service in Water produced from other recycling methods and its new projects, but presumably these costs will be “new source” production such as desalination have incorporated into the cost of service charged to pump- even higher unit costs. By contrast, the WRD 2015–16 ers and may be offset by lower operation and mainte- levies a uniform assessment of $283 per acre-foot for nance outlays on imported water purchases. purchasers (pumpers) of its water across the two underlying groundwater basins. Some of the pump- Water Replenishment District Present ers have protested that the per acre-foot price that Practices individual pumpers pay should reflect their individ- ual cost of service depending on their position Currently, as CWCB groundwater volumes have been within the  basins. The Central and West Coast fully adjudicated to ensure the WRD’s rights to water basins’ prevailing nontreated and treated rates, and to curb irresponsible extraction, the WRD main- range from approximately $660–$1,030 per acre-foot tains highly accurate groundwater pumping monitor- (WRD 2015). The WRD derives 95 percent of its ing (Los Angeles Department of Public Works 2017b). annual revenue, approximately $70 million, from The volumetric payment structure for purchasing levying the uniform replenishment assessment ­ entities was designed to be cost-causative, burdening on  its users. The WRD also maintains total users in accordance with their consumption and pro- restricted  and unrestricted reserves of approxi- viding an incentive for conservation (WRD 2015). million (WRD 2016/2017a). mately $60 ­ Revenues collected from these charges are then used to purchase water for groundwater recharge. The WRD is prohibited from accruing revenues from Currently, recharged water is a mixture of recycled the replenishment assessment paid by pumpers that and storm waters, as well as imported water from exceed the costs of its operation and maintenance ser- Northern California and the Colorado River. In 1965– vices. In other words, WRD recovers costs that almost 66, WRD began an in-lieu replenishment program, exactly equal its expenses on an annual basis. About which encourages groundwater conservation in years two-thirds of the WRD’s current operation and mainte- when surface water supplies are plentiful by paying nance costs, in turn, are currently allocated to imported groundwater pumpers to preferentially use surface water purchases from MWD (WRD 2016/2017). water (California Department of Water Resources Although WRD pumpers pay the same rate per acre- 2013). foot, the end-use tariffs paid by retail customers of Beyond the basic function of WRD to replenish water WRD pumpers can vary dramatically (UCLA Luskin directly, the agency also maintains numerous projects Center 2015). to bolster the physical integrity and cost stability of its In addition to having a stable revenue stream, as a pub- supply over the long term. Most notably, WRD has lic agency the WRD is able to rely both on low-interest directed two prominent programs: the Coastal Seawater public bond financing and on state funding streams Intrusion Barriers Project (CSIBP), and the GRIP. 230 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report The Coastal Seawater Intrusion and methods. Notably, WRD’s primary function of Barriers Project groundwater replenishment decreases the energy costs and need for the CSIBP by increasing the potenti- Following excessive inland groundwater pumping ometric head flowing to the coast. during the first half of the 20th century, aquifer levels fell to record lows of 49 meters below sea level, result- ing in rapid seawater intrusion into groundwater aqui- The Groundwater Reliability Improvement fers (Johnson 2013). Although some intrusion is Project natural, the rate of salt contamination progressed rap- Although the GRIP is tangentially motivated by its envi- idly and caused some wells along the coast to be aban- ronmental impact, it is the cornerstone of WRD’s WIN doned (LADPW 2013). In response, in 1943 the U.S. program. It aims to offset WRD’s current 20 ­ percent reli- Geological Survey Water Resources Division and the ance on imported water by increasing recycled water Los Angeles County Flood Control District (LACFCD) availability and use by 21,000 acre-feet. Genera­ concluded that groundwater injection wells were the ting this volume will be accomplished through two pro- best solution to the problem. Various water agencies cesses:  first through the construction of an advanced across Los Angeles County developed the CSIBP, which water treatment facility (AWTF), and second by expand- consists of three distinct barriers: the West Coast, the ing capacity at an existing water treatment plant. The Dominguez Gap, and the Alamitos Gap Barriers. GRIP AWTF is planned to have an annual capacity of Through the CSIBP, approximately 290 injection 10,000 acre-feet and will further treat wastewater treat- wells convey more than 30,000 acre-feet of treated ment plant effluent using microfiltration, reverse osmo- water to aquifers at depths up to 700 meters (Johnson sis, and ultraviolet disinfection (MWD 2016). These 2007). The injections create an artificial potentio- processes will raise the AWTF effluent quality above the metric head that slows the rate of intrusion and thus required U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) protects existing groundwater wells from contami- standards before reintroducing it to groundwater aqui- nation. As the CWCB is composed of surface aquifers fers through spreading basins and injection wells in the as well as stratified deep aquifers, replenishment by Central Basin. injection is necessary because passive percolation The second component of the GRIP project is the expan- would be inhibited by aquitards in the subsurface. sion of storage at the existing San Jose Creek Water The existing relationship between the operating Reclamation Plant. This additional storage capacity will agencies is complex because the well managers, allow for a sustained production of 11,000 acre-feet of water treatment facilities, and water purchasing par- recycled water for groundwater replenishment despite ties are not unified. For example, although the diurnal and seasonal variability in wastewater availabil- LACFCD manages and operates the wells at all three ity. This additional volume will be transported to the sites, each site receives water from a different treat- Montebello Forebay Spreading Grounds to be used inde- ment agency and all water is purchased and owned pendently or blended with AWTF waters. To minimize by the WRD (WRD 2007). cost while ensuring project flexibility, a hybrid approach The CSIBP, having operated for over 50 years, has faced was selected in which GRIP would use water from both little public resistance, but faces the challenge of aging an existing plant and through the production of a new infrastructure (Johnson 2007). The six participating AWTF. Procuring water from both sources ensures ease agencies are working to optimize barrier performance of use in spreading basins, which require water treated to and examine alternatives to the current infrastructure lower than the GRIP AWTF standard, but also ensures Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 231 that there is higher quality water available required for Programs in California.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 23 (1): 97–117. direct injection to aquifers (CH2M Hill 2013). Johnson, T. 2007. “Battling Sea Water Intrusion in the Central and West Coast Basins.” Water Replenishment District of Southern California Lessons Learned for Water Scarce Cities Technical Report, vol. 13. http://www.wrd.org/sites/pr/files/TB13%20 -%20Battling%20Seawater%20Intrsusion%20in%20the%20Central%20 At its outset in 1959, the WRD’s formation as an %26%20West%20Coasts%20Basins.pdf. entity stewarding adjoining neighboring groundwa- ———. 2013. “Groundwater Storage and Replenishment in the WRD Service ter basins was without precedent. Similarly, its Area: LA County.” http://water.assembly.ca.gov/sites/water.assembly.ca​ .gov/files/20130320%20Ted%20Johnson%20WRD.pdf. investments in recycling as early as 1962 were with- out parallel. The formation of the WRD itself at a LADPW (Los Angeles Department of Public Works). 2013. “Seawater Barriers.” LADPW, Los Angeles, CA, (accessed July 10, 2017), https://dpw​ time of interregional and regional conflict demon- .lacounty.gov/wrd/barriers/index.cfm. strates that regional entities can form and coordi- ———. 2017. “Water Resources: Spreading Facility Information Montebello nate stability of water supply in times of crisis. The Forebay.” LADPW, Los Angeles, CA, (accessed July 10, 2017), https://dpw​ WRD’s protection of saline intrusion for the region, .lacounty.gov/wrd/SpreadingGround/information/facdept.cfm​ as well as its support of water supply for more than ?facinit=28. forty cities and water systems, suggests that there MWD (Metropolitan Water District of Southern California). 2016. are substantial economies of scale in groundwater “Financial Incentives Approved for Four Local Recycled Water Projects.” http://mwdh2o.com/PDF_NewsRoom/Recycling%20projects%20 management and stormwater capture within urban approved.release_FINAL.pdf#search=Four%20Recycling%20Projects areas that may not be realizable by otherwise frag- Porse, E., M. Glickfeld, K. Mertan, and S. Pincetl. 2016. “Pumping for the mented governance structures. The WRD’s gradually Masses: Evolution of Groundwater Management in Metropolitan Los increasing focus on recharge through wastewater Angeles.” GeoJournal 81 (5): 793–809. recycling shows that investments in long-term solu- UCLA Luskin Center for Innovation. 2015. Los Angeles County Community tions are more prudent in water scarce regions such Water Systems: Atlas and Policy Guide. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Luskin Center for Innovation. as Los Angeles. Waldie, D. J. 2016. “Beneath Our Feet: Water and Politics in Southeast L.A.” KCET, September 2. https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/beneath​ Bibliography -our-feet-water-and-politics-in-southeast-la. Business Wire. 2015. “Fitch Affirms Southern CA Water Replenishment WRD (Water Replenishment District of Southern California). 2015. District, CA’s COPs at ‘AA+’; Outlook Stable.” Business Wire, June 14. Regional Groundwater Monitoring Report: Water Year 2013–2014. http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150714006746/en/Fitch​ Lakewood, CA: WRD. http://www.wrd.org/sites/pr/files/2014_RGWMR_ -Affirms-Southern-CA-Water-Replenishment-District. Final%20​_­Web.pdf. Water Replenishment District of Southern California. California Department of Water Resources. 2013. Watermaster Service in the West Coast Basin, Los Angeles County. Glendale, CA: California ———. 2016. Engineering and Survey Report. Lakewood, CA: WRD. http:// Department of Water Resources. http://www.wrd.org/sites/pr/files/west www​.wrd.org/sites/pr/files/WRD_ESR_Report_March_3_2016_Final_For​ _coast_basin_watermaster_report_2013.pdf. _­Web.pdf. Water Replenishment District of Southern California. California State Auditor. 2004. Water Replenishment District of Southern ———. 2016/2017. “Annual Budget 2016/2017.” Water Replenishment California. Sacramento, CA: Bureau of State Audits. District of Southern California, Los Angeles. CH2M HILL. 2013. Preliminary Engineering Report: Groundwater Reliability Improvement Program Recycled Water Project. Englewood, CO: CH2M HILL. ———. 2017a. “Water Replenishment DisWRD.” Lakewood, CA, (accessed July 10, 2017), http://www.wrd.org/content/mission-and-history. Water Chester, M. 2013. “Chapter 215: Clarifying the Roles of Water Providers in Replenishment District of Southern California, Los Angeles. Southern California.” McGeorge Law Review 44: 803. ———. 2017b. “Monthly Production Reports.” WRD, Lakewood, CA. (accessed Heikkila, T. 2004. “Institutional Boundaries and Common Pool July 10, 2017), http://www.wrd.org/content/mission-and-history. Water Resource Management: A Comparative Analysis of Water Management Replenishment District of Southern California, Los Angeles. 232 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: Pixabay.com. Chapter 23 San Diego, California Located on the shore and southernmost tip of for the city and county, SDCWA has developed alter- California, San Diego County is the state’s second most natives to reliance on imported water: The share of populous county (San Diego Regional Economic SDCWA’s imported water portfolio has decreased Development Association 2017). Today an Diego is from 95 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 2016 home to a large military installation and is a thriving (SDCWA 2017a). hub for tourism and various industries including man- San Diego’s hydrological system consists mainly of ufacturing and technology. surface water reservoirs1 and relies primarily on San Diego enjoys a dry Mediterranean climate with an imported water purchased from the Metropolitan average annual precipitation of 264 millimeters, the Water District of Southern California (MWD) through lowest on the U.S. West Coast and less than half that SDCWA, which stores water in its network of reservoirs of Southern California. Over the past 15 years, San for later distribution. With respect to statewide water Diego has experienced annual rainfall variability, allocations, San Diego has long been considered to be compounded by a statewide four-year drought from “at the bottom of the tap.” Despite its high reliance on 2011 to 2014. Growing water scarcity has spurred imported water the city is located at the end of both increased water conservation and source diversifica- the State Water Project (SWP) and Colorado River pipe- tion efforts, particularly from the San Diego County lines. San Diego purchases imported water from Water Authority (SDCWA). As the water wholesaler SDCWA as one of its 24 member agencies. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 233 Today, SDCWA relies on three sources: the SWP San Diego’s water portfolio features the planned Pure (20 percent), the Colorado River (64 percent) and local Water project, which will reclaim wastewater through supplies (16 percent). Colorado River supplies are 2 an advanced treatment train and inject the purified acquired in three ways: (1) through purchase from the product into the city’s reservoirs.3 Once fully imple- MWD; (2) through a long-term water conservation and mented, the Pure Water project will generate one-third transfer agreement with the Imperial Irrigation District of the city’s supply locally. The city also relies on rain- (IID); and (3) through two canal-lining agreements that fall to recharge its reservoirs and has implemented transfer conserved water to San Diego County. This water recycling for nonpotable uses through three water is wheeled for a fee to San Diego County through wastewater reclamation plants, which will be MWD’s water distribution infrastructure. In part, expanded as part of Pure Water. imported water has lower quality than local resources due to the long transfer time in pipelines and associ- The Transfer Agreement between Imperial ated evaporation, which concentrates salts and other Irrigation District and San Diego County dissolved solids. The second and third sources are Water Authority obtained through the Quantification Settlement The long-term water conservation and transfer agree- Agreement (QSA), under which SDCWA negotiated ment with the IID entitles the SDCWA to 200,000 acre- with other California parties using Colorado River feet of water per year starting in 2021, for up to water to secure a more reliable supply from the river 75 years. The transfer enables water to move from pri- for its municipal uses. marily agricultural uses to meet increasing the demand for urban use. The agreement takes advantage of three Other Solutions things: (1) the nature of IID’s “present-perfected” rights to Colorado River water, which, due to their The need for reliability is central to SDCWA’s water seniority,4 must be satisfied first in times of shortage resources planning. As the cost of imported water has and are therefore more secure and reliable; (2) the defi- tripled in the last 15 years and continues to rise, nition of appropriative water rights that legally estab- attempts to reduce dependency and increase the reli- lishes that IID must improve the efficiency of its water ability of water resources has precipitated the explora- use; and (3) the fact that IID has the largest annual con- tion of ways to diversify the water portfolio. The plan sumptive use entitlement of Colorado River water is to feature desalination: In 2012, the Claude “Bud” among the Lower Basin states (IID 2015). Lewis Carlsbad Desalination Plant was launched, which produces about 50 million gallons per day of The transfer ensures that the security of IID’s desalinated water to enhance water resilience. Other present-perfected right is passed on to SDCWA, giving ­ local sources include surface water, groundwater, it access to Colorado River water with a higher priority recycled water, and conservation. SDCWA is exploring and reliability than the supply it historically purchased the potential for further seawater desalination and from MWD. It also puts water to beneficial and non- encouraging its member agencies to develop local wasteful use: Conservation measures and improved water reclamation projects and conservation measures irrigation efficiency in IID’s service area enables it to and to explore the potential of local groundwater sell the unused part of its allocation to SDCWA to sell to sources. The agency has also developed a Water urban users. In turn, the IID can use the money gener- Shortage and Drought Response Plan delineating steps ated by the transfer to modernize its distribution sys- to minimize the impact of periodic drought (SDCWA tems. The IID is responsible for identifying the specific 2017a). conservation measures that will yield the agreed 234 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report amount, although fallowing is allowed only for the by a succession of legal disputes. California’s depen- first 15 years of the agreement. dence on surplus water from other states’ shares for its municipal use, in particular, has been a source of con- The delivery quantity increases according to a yearly flict since the signing of the Colorado River Compact in schedule between signing in 2003 and 2021, when it 1922. Because senior Colorado River water rights in will reach 200,000 acre-feet. The agreement is valid California were first allocated to the agricultural sector, for an initial 45 years, at which time both parties can the state initially relied on surplus from Arizona and agree to renew for an additional 30 years. Figure 23.1 Nevada to fill the gap. Once water use by the lower basin shows the increasing amount of the IID transfer as a population met water availability, California began to portion of all water received by SDCWA under the QSA. rely on surplus from upper basin states (Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado). The focus on securing additional A New Look at Colorado River Water: The water supplies brought California’s Colorado River Quantification Settlement Agreement water consumption up to 5.3 MAF annually (Lochhead The IID-SDCWA water transfer is a key component of 2004) (approximately 900,000 acre-feet over its alloca- the QSA. The QSA was signed in 2003 to implement tion). In 1991, based on these growing tensions, the gov- measures to reduce California’s Colorado River water ernor of Colorado told his California counterpart that use to its 4.4 MAF-per-year entitlement to decrease Colorado would not oppose California’s reliance on unsustainable pressure on the river. Indeed, since the upper basin surplus, as long as California began plan- initial creation of formal allocations of Colorado River ning the transfer of water rights from senior agricultural water for the basin states (California, Nevada, Arizona, to junior municipal uses. Utah, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming) sharing riparian rights, the Law of the River—the compendium These challenges were addressed through the California of laws that govern the Colorado River—has been shaped Water Use Plan for the Colorado River and the signing of FIGURE 23.1. Quantification Settlement Agreement Water Supply to San Diego County Water Authority, 2003–21 300,000 250,000 200,000 Acre-feet 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Imperial irrigation district transfer All-American canal lining project Coachella canal lining project Source: San Diego County Water Authority. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 235 the QSA. The 4.4 Plan detailed the measures California lake in California, it is now fed mostly by agricultural would implement to reduce water use, particularly the run-off, which has decreased with the improved effi- transfer from agriculture to urban water uses. After ciency of agricultural water use. Although the Salton signing, the QSA allowed California 15 years to gradually Sea provides an important habitat for fish and migratory reduce its excess use of Colorado River water. The main birds, the quality of its overall environment has declined features of the QSA include the following: (1) establish- due to elevated concentrations of salinity and selenium. ing the IID’s and Coachella Valley Water District’s The Salton Sea Authority7 was formed in 1993 to improve (CVWD) Colorado River entitlements at 3.1 MAF and its environmental quality. Concerns were raised during 330,000 acre-feet, respectively; (2) authorizing and the QSA negotiations about the impact of water trans- quantifying water transfers from IID to SDCWA, MWD, fers that would divert water from the Salton Sea. and CVWD; (3) authorizing water transfers from the Palo Verde Irrigation District to the MWD; (4) funding California law requires that parties involved in water repairs for the lining of the All-American and Coachella transfer mitigate related environmental and socioeco- Canals to conserve water to be transferred to SDCWA nomic impact. Debate occurred about the QSA- (80,000 acre-feet) and San Diego County native tribes approved mitigation measures, including protection of (16,000 acre-feet); (5) providing water for mitigation of native species and financing. For example, in 2002, environmental degradation of the Salton Sea; and when the State Water Resources Control Board (6)  settling disputes among the seven states and four (SWRCB) legally approved modifications to IID’s water agencies that share Colorado River water. permit to facilitate the water transfers, it was promptly petitioned for reconsideration by six entities claiming The QSA marked an important change in California that adverse effects to the Salton Sea were not ade- water allocation because it prioritized municipal use quately addressed. The SWRCB denied the reconsider- and condemned water waste by agricultural users pre- ation which increased pressure on the state to find viously protected by the seniority of their water rights. solutions for the Salton Sea. The SWRCB highlighted that inflow was decreasing and the SWRCB’s decision Agreement and Disagreements was based on an Environmental Impact Report and From 1991 to 2003, tense negotiations took place (Bulkley consistent with the California Endangered Species Act. 2004) and inscribed themselves in a history of dispute It was also noted that without the QSA, Southern over California water distribution and among Colorado California might lose Colorado River water and increase River basin states. By 1998, the QSA components had pressure on the Bay Delta, which in turn would have were identified, understood, and moving toward a statewide environmental effects (California State resolution.5 However, disputes lasted until the QSA was Water Resources Control Board 2002). signed in October 2003. Eventually, Interior Secretary Gale Norton suspended the Interim Surplus Guidelines In July 2003, the IID board threatened to withdraw in 2002 and effectively created a municipal water short- from the QSA, because it believed that the IID was age in Southern California to force all parties to finally potentially liable for large expenses for mitigation at agree. the Salton Sea (their transferring water and improving irrigation efficiency would mean reduced runoff) and The Salton Sea that the QSA did not properly account for the socioeco- Between 1905 and 1907, the Salton Sea was created by nomic impact of a water transfer out of IID. Interior an unplanned deviation of the Colorado River; it lies at Secretary Gale Norton launched a federal investigation the heart of the aforementioned conflicts.6 The largest of whether IID was wasting water and found that it was 236 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report wasting some 300,000 acre-feet of water annually, released its 10-year plans for restoration, budget, and which should have been available to other Colorado financing (California Natural Resources Agency 2017). River users. Faced with the potential loss—without Implementation compensation—of the water it would otherwise trans- fer to SDCWA, IID rejoined the negotiations and an Litigation followed the QSA into implementation as agreement was reached in October of that year. Imperial County, its air pollution control district, and local landowners questioned the legality of the QSA By 2018, QSA transfers may reduce agricultural drain under the California Environmental Quality Act. A water inflows into the Salton Sea by about 30 percent Sacramento Superior Court rejected all challenges in (CDWR 2007). A Joint Powers Authority was formed to 2013 and remaining appeals were dismissed in 2015. support the implementation of environmental mitiga- tion activities. California also was charged with coordi- Concerns remained about the ability to meet water nating the restoration of the ecosystem through the conservation targets, which could undermine the identification and financing of preferred restoration principle underlying the agriculture-to-urban alternatives. However, restoration activities were delayed water  transfer. However, conservation targets have after the publication of several studies (Cohen 2014; U.S. been met, as well as their water deliveries through Bureau of Reclamation 2007) and government delibera- fallowing and the additional measures shown in tions. On March 16, 2017, the Natural Resources Agency figure 23.2. FIGURE 23.2. Imperial Irrigation District-Quantification Settlement Agreement Water Transfer Schedule, 2003–26 350 300 250 Acre-feet (thousands) 200 150 100 50 0 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Salton sea mitigation fallowing On-farm fallowing On-farm efficiency IID system efficiency Source: IID 2018. Note: For a breakdown by year, see IID 2015. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 237 Universities Council on Water Resources Conference Proceeding. Conclusions Portland, OR, USA, July 20–22. The QSA was an important demonstration that water California Natural Resources Agency. 2017. “Press Release: Natural rights and associated uses can be reliably quantified and Resources Agency Releases 10-Year Plan to Protect Public Health and Habitat at the Salton Sea.” http://resources.ca.gov/wp-content​​ reallocated among users according to demand. Despite /­uploads/2017/03/Press-Release-Natural-Resources-Agency-Releases​ significant legal disputes surrounding the QSA, even -10-Year-Plan-to-Protect-Public-Health-and-Habitat-at-the-Salton​ in  seemingly overallocated Southern California, the -Sea.pdf. system is flexible enough to accommodate changing ­ California State Water Resources Control Board. 2002. ORDER WRO requirements. Finally, as the largest agriculture-to-­ 2002–2016. urban water transfer in the United States, the IID-SDCWA CDWR (California Department of Water Resources). 2007. Final water transfer established a precedent for the prioritiza- Programmatic Environmental Impact Report. Sacramento, CA: CDWR. http://www.water.ca.gov/saltonsea/peir/. tion of uses under conditions of growing scarcity. Cohen, M. 2014. Hazard’s Toll: The Costs of Inaction at the Salton Sea. Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. Notes IID (Imperial Irrigation District). 2015. Quantification Settlement 1. SDCWA manages a total of 24 reservoirs with combined capacity of Agreement Implementation Report. Imperial, CA: IID. http://www.iid​ about 746,000 acre-feet. .com/home/showdocument?id=14243. 2. The percentages represent 2011–15 five-year averages (Kerl 2016). ———. 2018. “On-Farm Efficiency Conservation Program (OFECP),” 3. Has been running a pilot plant of 1 million gallons per day to test the conservation​ (accessed March 7, 2018), http://www.iid.com/water/water-­ water quality produced through advanced treatment of wastewater /on-farm-efficiency. from its North City Water Reclamation Plant. The pilot was combined with a study on the reservoir limnology to assess the potential impact Kerl, S. 2016. “How San Diego Prepared for this Drought…and the Next of the purified water on the reservoir. The study and pilot showed One, and the Next One.” SDCWA (San Diego County Water Authority) pre- that overall this new source would actually improve water quality at sentation to the World Bank: Water Scarce Cities Initiative, San the San Vicente reservoir. Diego, CA. 4. IID’s water rights, initially defined as 2.6 million acre-feet (MAF) per Lochhead, J. 2004. “California’s New Colorado River Diet.” Headwaters year, preempt the 1902 Reclamation Law and as such are not subject (Winter 2004): 6–10. to reclamation law limitations. ———. 2017. “Quantification Settlement Agreement Fact Sheet.” SDCWA, 5. The Interim Surplus Guidelines stated that Southern California was San Diego, CA, USA. http://www.sdcwa.org/sites/default/files/qsa-fs​ allowed 800,000 acre-feet of surplus water from other states until .pdf. active steps were taken to reduce its water use to the allowed 4.4 MAF by 2002. San Diego Regional Economic Development Association. 2017. “About the Region.” San Diego Regional Economic Development Association, 6. The river burst through poorly design irrigation controls in Yuma, San Diego, CA, (accessed August 20, 2017), http://www.sandiegobusiness​ Arizona, and flooded the Salton basin for over a year, causing damage .org/region. to the local inhabitants and the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad. SDCWA (San Diego County Water Authority). 2017a. “Water Supplies.” SDCWA, San Diego, CA, (accessed August 20, 2017), http://www.sdcwa​ 7. The Salton Sea Authority comprises the IID, the CVWD, and Imperial .org/water-supplies. and Riverside Counties and coordinates closely with the state and federal governments. ———. 2017b. “Water Shortage Contingency Plan.” SDCWA, San Diego, CA, (accessed August 20, 2017, http://www.sdcwa.org/water-shortage-and​ -drought​-response-plan. Bibliography U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 2007. Restoration of the Salton Sea. Bulkley, Jonathan. 2004. “The October 2003 Quantification Settlement Boulder  City, NV, USA: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. https://www.usbr​ Agreement: Implications for Water Management.” Paper presented at .gov/lc/region/saltnsea/FinalSummaryRpt.pdf. 238 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: Pixabay.com. Chapter 24 Los Angeles, California Water has been the engine behind the growth of Los the ocean rather than replenishing the groundwater Angeles County to a population of 10,241,335 as of basins. Low density, sprawling growth, high water use, January 1, 2016. Both drought and flooding character- and a declining groundwater table resulted in a situation ize the climate in Los Angeles—ensuring both an ade- that could not be sustained. quate water supply and addressing periodic floods is a The geography of Los Angeles County’s watersheds challenge. made water supply and flood control even more chal- Rapid urban growth, which was mainly dependent on lenging. The metropolitan area is ringed on the east by well water, led to the overexploitation of groundwater, as the San Gabriel Mountains, one of the world’s steepest well as to pollution of surface waters. The underground- mountain ranges, measuring 60 miles from crest to sea ing of drainage into storm drains and increasing amounts level. The vast quantities of water speeding off these of impervious pavement reduced infiltration of water to slopes during storms and heading toward the sea result groundwater and increased urban runoff. In addition, in floods that can change the course of rivers or send flooding became exacerbated during storms, which led speeding mudflows down the mountains. Taking into to the construction of a hardened drainage system. The consideration the region’s geography, Mediterranean construction of urban wastewater treatment plants in the climate, and highly variable storm seasons, two solu- 20th century increased wastewater treatment quality but tions were developed to address imported water discharged the treated water to channelized rivers and 1 supply and channelized flood control channels. ­ Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 239 Imported Water less than an impediment to urbanization next to the rivers. Therefore, the rivers came under the manage- The City of Los Angeles led an initiative to supplement ment of  the state-created Los Angeles County Flood local water sources by completing the development of Control District in 1915, which had the mission of con- the 233-mile long Los Angeles Aqueduct, which trolling floods and capturing some water through con- diverted water from the Owens River on the east side structed spreading grounds, but no role in water of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. In 1941, the Aqueduct supply. The District worked with the Army Corps of was extended another 105 miles north, along with the Engineers to build a system of dams and debris basins construction of additional reservoirs, to encompass a to “hold back the mountains” (McPhee 1989, 183) and greater area of the Eastern Sierra Nevada Watershed. to transform rivers and their tributaries into an elabo- With escalating growth in Southern California, the rate system of channelized rivers and tributaries California State Legislature created the Metropolitan (Salazar 2013). Water District of Southern California (MWD) to develop Within the 3,000 square miles of Los Angeles County, a series of dams on the Colorado River and the 242- there are nearly 500 miles of open, concrete chan- mile Colorado Aqueduct, completed in 1939. nels, 2,800 miles of underground storm drains, and The final piece of Southern California’s imported water an estimated 120,000 catch basins (Los Angeles infrastructure is the California State Water Aqueduct, County Flood Control District 2015). Thus, the rivers bringing water from the western side of the Northern were contained, but flows increased and flow rates Sierras south to the Sacramento River Delta. accelerated in narrow, straight smooth channels to From there, water would be diverted south by pumps the ocean. Many pollutants were scoured from devel- into the California Aqueduct to bring water to Central oped areas and farms into the rivers, reducing water Valley farmers and over the Tehachapi Mountains to quality in the channels and the ocean. Even greater Southern California. flood control measures were required in the 1980s as urbanization increased, land subsided to below sea Los Angeles County has depended on these three level near the Lower Los Angeles River, and urban aqueducts for imported water for decades. The runoff from new urbanization increased. In 1980, the groundwater basins of the San Gabriel Mountains con- Army Corps of Engineers and the Los Angeles County tinue to be a major source of water for the San Gabriel Flood Control District started planning to raise the Valley and for some Los Angeles basin communities. channel walls on the Lower Los Angeles River and fin- Because imported water has been relatively cheap and ished the project at the turn of this century. dependable in this region during the last 104 years, the need for developing local water supply sources was largely Water Scarcity Solutions: A Change in ignored. The successful completion of multiple projects to Paradigm for the 21st Century bring imported water into the region to meet water Importing water supply from afar and treating local demand enables the population to continue to grow. stormwater as a flood hazard were the water supply and flood control solutions for 20th century Los Flood Control Angeles. For  many reasons, however, these cannot As urban growth expanded and impervious sur- be  the solutions for the 21st century. Water faces  increased runoff, stormwater events created availability throughout California has been affected ­ more flooding. As ample imported water flowed from by record-breaking drought over 11 of the last 15 the aqueducts to meet water demand, stormwater was years. Climate change is affecting both temperature 240 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report and the snowpack that stores water for the dry season limits the discharge of pollutants into stormwater. in California and making a highly variable rainfall pat- Federal regulations were adopted to implement this tern more extreme. Imported water is less reliable legislation, which, together with the permitting pro- and predictable, and costlier, because of scarcity, gram, set forth requirements for municipal separate electrical power costs, and water treatment costs. storm sewer systems and industrial activities includ- ing construction (National Research Council of the Although Los Angeles Aqueduct water quality remains National Academies 2009). high, the same cannot be said for water from the Colorado River or the State Water Project. Water from the Colorado As a result, with delegated authority from the US EPA, River and State Water Project is conveyed by aqueducts. the California State Water Resources Control Board, Massive treatment plants are required to bring this water established stormwater permits for the transportation to safe drinking water standards (Metropolitan Water and industrial sectors, while its seven Regional Water District of Southern California, n.d.). Quality Control Boards established municipal and agri- In the face of these challenges to continued reliance on cultural stormwater permits. The Los Angeles Regional imported water supplies, a new paradigm was created Board issued its first Municipal Stormwater Permit to that strikes a balance between local and imported the County of Los Angeles and its 88 cities in 1990. Each water, focusing on (1) water efficiency by water provid- subsequent permit, in 1996, 1998, and 2001, increased ers; (2) consumer conservation; (3) managing ground- the requirements, with growing resistance from local water basins for safe yield, water quality, and governments. replenishment; (4) recycling treated water; and (5) cap- Initially, the recommended solution to stormwater turing local stormwater. pollution was treatment, which involves intercepting Two stormwater capture efforts for water supply were contaminated stormwater before it gets to or in the initiated in Los Angeles County. The first was a storm- municipal stormwater system and treating it before it water capture plan that projected the effects of climate reaches rivers or the ocean. But as the drought years change on water supply in Los Angeles County as the dragged on and water scarcity intensified, capturing basis for a new management plan (U.S. Bureau of stormwater for water supply before it was polluted Reclamation and County of Los Angeles Department of and then using or storing it made sense. As a result, Public Works 2016). The purpose of this study was to the cities responsible for paying to reduce stormwater plan ways to alter and augment stormwater infrastruc- pollution could not only address water quality issues ture and its management to capture more flood water but also benefit from either additional water supply and infiltrate it to groundwater. or ancillary benefits, such as parks that could capture and infiltrate stormwater. The 2012 Municipal In the 180s, it became clear that local stormwater was Stormwater Permit for Los Angeles County was wasted and that both the ways urban areas convey designed to facilitate these options, giving priority to stormwater to rivers and the ways channelized rivers stormwater pollution prevention through capture convey stormwater contributed to the pollution of and encouraging projects that have multiple lakes, rivers, and the ocean. In 1987, the U.S. Congress benefits. amended the Clean Water Act, adding section (402)(p) to limit polluted stormwater discharge under the The big challenge to implementing these permits to National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. In capture stormwater and meet water quality standards response, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in surface waters is that there are 88 cities in Los (US EPA) unrolled a permitting program in 1990 that Angeles County, and city boundaries bifurcate Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 241 watersheds and rivers. There was no way to develop Reasonable Assurance Analysis, which is required as coherent plans for shared regional projects without part of the EWMP process to assess whether expected joint planning between cities, something that is rarely water quality benefits are being achieved (Los Angeles done in Los Angeles County. Regional Water Quality Control Board 2013). The 2012 permit gave the permittees (cities and the The size and location of potential BMPs are constrained County) the following three options, broadly based on due to Los Angeles’s urban fabric. Most stormwater the perspective either of water supply or water quality. pollution BMPs in the Los Angeles region are installed First, each permittee could implement the permit to comply with water quality requirements for metals, within its own boundaries, meeting the water quality nutrients, bacteria, and trash, all of which behave very standards by the deadlines set for the water bodies in differently from each other in the environment and in or next to their boundaries. Second, the permittees in BMP facilities. It is critical that the new stormwater the same watershed or same subwatershed could agree capture and infiltration systems neither become “gate- to work together on a Watershed Management Plan for ways” for pollution of groundwater basins nor affect their combined jurisdictions. They would develop the plumes of pollution that already exist in the basins. joint and separate projects that capture and infiltrate Infiltration-type BMPs are fairly somewhat effective at or store stormwater, before it becomes polluted and removing pollutants, especially pathogens, from the drains to the nearest water bodies. In the third option, watershed (US EPA 1999) and also provide the greatest the cities could come together with the County of Los potential to recharge. Angeles to develop Enhanced Watershed Management Larger projects can be more cost effective because they Plans (EWMPs). These groups were given three years manage larger volumes of stormwater and, in the case to complete the more complex EWMPs, which were of infiltration-type BMPs where connectivity to approved by the Los Angeles Regional Board in 2016. groundwater can be established, easier to quantify There are 17 watershed management groups in Los from a water supply benefit perspective. However, at Angeles County working with their partners to imple- least some stormwater treatment BMPs need to be ment those plans (LARWQCB 2017). placed in the lower portions of the affected watersheds and water bodies. In heavily urbanized landscapes Challenges such as Los Angeles, smaller-scale distributed BMPs are often the only ones that will fit in the lower por- Challenges remain to identifying the best pathways to tions of the watershed. Both larger-scale regional maximize local water supply potential and improve BMPs and smaller-scale distributed BMPs will serve as water quality. Best Management Practices (BMPs) are part of the solution, as will adding BMPs on both public increasingly being considered as potential solutions to and private lands. increase available local water supplies. BMPs can include regional projects, distributed projects, such as Research is underway to develop innovative technolo- green streets or low-impact development (LID), or gies to improve the efficiency of BMP treatments and management measures. The US EPA provides a enhance the performance of distributed LID and national menu of potential BMPs (US EPA 2017) but regional systems. Increasing the use of these technolo- BMPs are not limited to this list; other BMPs can be gies will generate an increased capacity to gather, store, used as long as required removal efficiencies can and share relevant data broadly. Important streams of be  achieved. In the Los Angeles region, BMP perfor- research include increased monitoring of stormwater mance and suitability will be assessed through a BMPs; identifying potential sources of pollutants to the 242 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report watersheds; studying surface water and groundwater stormwater quality. For example, in 2002, City of Los interaction to better characterize the water supply ben- Angeles voters passed a ballot measure, Proposition O, efits of stormwater capture projects; and developing a that funded up to $500 million in projects with multiple framework in which this data can be shared. benefits. Recent studies address the costs and benefits of storm- Much of the previous resistance to treating stormwater water infrastructure and analyze the suite of BMPs that was that it was seen as costly, with little or no value to could be used to capture stormwater and meet water upstream communities not near the polluted rivers and quality standards in the 130 square miles of the highly coast. Following Proposition O, California voters passed urbanized Ballona Lagoon. Such studies indicate that Proposition 84 in 2006, which provided $90 million in it is challenging to obtain the robust cost data for a grant funds for stormwater capture or treatment proj- diverse and large set of projects that will allow project ects with multiple benefits throughout the state. In comparison. The range of costs for projects is also wide 2014, state Proposition 1 provided additional funding and reflects project variability. to make stormwater capture a priority and to provide capital funds for multibenefit stormwater projects. Cost measure in all cases is cost per volume of water captured—water supply (not water quality), flooding, It is critical to identify multiple sustainable funding recreation, and other benefits. The Los Angeles Basin streams to increase stormwater capture investment. Plan (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and County of Los Without a funding stream dedicated to these pro- Angeles Department of Public Works 2016) tries to grams, investment in stormwater capture may need to recognize multiple benefits in a numeric system but compete with investments in other public services. does not quantify the financial benefits of improved water  quality, open space, or recreation land—only Conclusion water supply. As a result, projects that collect the Retrofitting a drainage system to capture stormwater is most water where it can be easily measured and expensive and limited by existing development pat- stored are going to be the most cost effective. terns. Funding options in the Los Angeles region are Smaller  projects more widely distributed through- generally restricted to planning and capital costs of out the permeable urban area generally require construction. It is important to establish funding extensive retrofits of the storm drain system (which streams that can fund the maintenance of green infra- is more expensive), with multiple stormwater infil- structure, such as including the costs of stormwater tration points (making it harder to measure water capture projects in water rates. captured). A key option is to design sustainable and multipurpose Distributed water capture projects have many benefits stormwater drainage and recapture plans as develop- but may entail higher costs. If many smaller, distributed ment or redevelopment progresses. Where possible, projects are to be built and managed to maximize both the width of rivers should be considered to contain stormwater capture and stormwater quality, then sepa- flooding, and development should be set back from rate agencies need to collaborate on these projects. the riverbanks. Opportunities to store and divert water from water sources during periods of excess flow also Multibenefit financing has pushed stormwater capture provide water security opportunities. implementation projects forward in Los Angeles County by encouraging projects that provide multiple benefits The water infrastructure system in Los Angeles County such as increased water supply and improved requires costly retrofitting in part due to the separation Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 243 of the governance systems for stormwater, water LARWQCB (Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board). 2013. “Guidance on Conducting Reasonable Assurance Analysis.” LARWQCB, supply, ­ groundwater management, and treated Los Angeles, CA. http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/rwqcb4/water_issues​ ­ wastewater. Rather than segregating stormwater and /programs/stormwater/municipal/watershed_management/tac/doc​ groundwater authorities, water scarce cities can /­guidance_conducting_raa082813.pdf. develop programs that integrate governing authorities ———. 2016. “Los Angeles County Municipal Stormwater Permit, Watershed Groups.” http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/losangeles/water​ to ensure that stormwater is a valued and well-­managed _­i ssues/programs/stormwater/municipal/watershed_management​ resource. Managing flood control alongside water sup- /­docs​/map_watershed_groups.pdf. ply also provides the opportunity for stable water sup- ———. 2017. “Watershed Management Programs,” (accessed August 15, plies and flood-risk reduction. 2017), http://w w w.waterboards.c a.gov/losangeles/water_issues​ /­programs/stormwater/municipal/watershed_management/index.shtml. Although small distributed projects (such as rooftop McPhee, J. 1989. The Control of Nature. New York: Farrar, Straus and water cisterns) may be relatively expensive compared Giroux. to larger structural projects, small projects may be Metropolitan Water District of Southern California. n.d. “Quality and lucrative for older parts of cities if it is too expensive Treatment.” http://www.mwdh2o.com/PDF_About_Your_Water/2.3.1​ to rehabilitate or replace drainage structures. Finally, _­Annual_Water_Quality_Report.pdf. coordinated water management may provide oppor- National Research Council of the National Academies. 2009. Urban Stormwater Management in the United States. Washington, DC: National tunities to simultaneously implement both regional Academies Press. and street-scale stormwater capture projects to maxi- Salazar, D. 2013. “The LA River and the Corps: A Brief History.” U.S. Army mize benefits and minimize costs in city growth areas Corps of Engineers, Los Angeles CA District. http://www.spl.usace.army​ where removing old infrastructure is cost efficient. .mil/Media/News-Stories/Article/477249/the-la-river-and-the-corps​ -a-brief-history/. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and County of Los Angeles Note Department  of  Public Works. 2016. Los Angeles Basin Study 1. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) defines “chan- Summary  Report. https://www.usbr.gov/watersmart/bsp/docs/fy2017​ nelization” as “river and stream channel engineering undertaken for /LABasinStudySummaryReport.pdf. the purpose of flood control, navigation, drainage improvement, and US EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1999. Preliminary Data reduction of channel migration potential. Activities such as straight- Summary of Urban Stormwater on Best Management Practices. ening, widening, deepening, or relocating existing stream channels Washington DC: US EPA. and clearing or snagging operations fall into this category” (US EPA 2010). This can also involve the concretization of the river channel to ———. 2010. Glossary, Guidance for Federal Land Management in the prevent its future movement. Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Washington, DC: US EPA. https://www.epa​ .gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/chesbay_glossary.pdf. ———. 2017. “National Menu of Best Practices (BMPs) for Stormwater.” Bibliography US  EPA, Washington, DC, (accessed August 15, 2017), https://www.epa​ LACFCD (Los Angeles County Flood Control District). 2015. https://dpw​ .gov/npdes/national-menu-best-management-prac tices-bmps​ .lacounty.gov/lacfcd/. -stormwater#edu. 244 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Source: Whitney Wood. Chapter 25 Kern County, California Kern County is located in central California and is the these factors, and Kern County may be unique in terms agricultural heartland of the State, comprising rural of scale. communities, and cities such as Wasco, Delano, Arvin, The Kern County experience illustrates the long time Taft, Bakersfield, and Shafter. Agriculture and energy required for groundwater banking projects to mature, have long been economic mainstays of the region, as especially if out-of-county infrastructure investments an important hub for food security and international are required. A turning point in the development of agricultural trade. The semi-arid climate presents groundwater banking operations were agreements extreme variability with water. Thus, Kern County has reached in 1994 among the California Department of adapted with measures such as cooperation between Water Resources (CDWR) and the State Water Project farming communities, as well as locally governed and (SWP) contractors, illustrating that successful projects financed groundwater banking operations (map 25.1). require a collective understanding of the compelling This discussion highlights the geologic, hydrologic, need and a willingness to compromise among parties— economic, legal, and social factors that are necessary both urban and agricultural. Outside of Kern County, for highly sophisticated and successful groundwater mid-20th century investments in massive, statewide banking operations. These factors came together in water infrastructure allow exchanges, transfers, and Kern County to create a viable, large-scale private flexibility in water banking operations. Financial water market. Other locations might not possess all arrangements with banking partners provided financial Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 245 MAP 25.1. Kern County Water Resources IBRD 43777 | JULY 2018 Kings n al Monterey Tulare er n C a C a an t-K Bank water Isabella Isabella to li f for dry years Lake Lake or ni F ri aA Transfer water to qu ed Southern California TULARE LAKE via the aqueduct in San Bernardino uc San Luis Obispo wet years t Bakersfield Kern u ct CENTRAL COAST u ed Cross Valley Aq Canal les n ge sA SOUTH LAHONTAN Lo OREGON IDAHO Santa Barbara Los Angeles UTAH NEVADA UNITED STATES OF AMERICA KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA AQUEDUCT LOS ANGELES AQUEDUCT SOUTH COAST ARIZONA CANALS Area of Map Ventura SEMITROPIC WATER STORAGE CALIFORNIA AQUEDUCT HYDROLOGICAL BASIN COUNTY BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES 0 20 40 Kilometers STATE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MEXICO COUNTY BOUNDARIES security and allowed water storage districts (WSDs) to dry spells and declining winter snowpack caused by develop the groundwater banking facilities. Operating climate change. Groundwater banking increases rules protect neighboring districts from the adverse drought resiliency by storing water underground in impact of excessive water extraction, and the quality of wet years, making it available in dry years. The process pump-back water is closely monitored. The experience may entail direct recharge, using percolation ponds or in Kern County shows that, when multiple factors align, injection wells, or in lieu recharge, through which sur- long-term benefits may accrue to all parties. This expe- face supplies are provided to groundwater users in lieu rience may motivate those in of pumping groundwater and the amount of ground- other parts of the world to water that otherwise would have been pumped Water banking operations integrate groundwater banking becomes banked water (Hanak and Stryjewski 2012). in Kern County, California, operations that serve both California’s Water Code allows water marketing and are hailed as the most urban and agricultural regions. effective groundwater banking provided sellers have the right to use the water storage programs in Groundwater banking in and the water they sell is “wet” (not an unused “paper” the United States and California is one means of right); buyers must have the means to get the  water ­ probably the world. coping with the ever-increasing from source to destination (Hanak and Stryjewski 2012). 246 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report Kern County Water Banks Ranch Water District (IRWD) in Orange County bought land adjacent to Rosedale–Rio Bravo, made improve- Water banking evolved from recharge programs to man- ments, and signed a 30-year contract with Rosedale–Rio aging fluctuations in water supply and offsetting Bravo to recover approximately 17,500 acre-feet of groundwater overdraft. A number of factors make Kern water in any given year (IRWD 2012). County ideal for groundwater banking, including geol- ogy and proximity to imported water supplies and delivery systems. The groundwater basin is not hydrau- Physical Characteristics and Shared Experiences lically connected to other basins or surface waters. Groundwater depletion in the last century resulted in widespread declines in the elevations of California’s With conjunctive use, aquifers serve as the under- Central Valley groundwater, particularly the Tulare ground reservoirs and reserves that can be drawn upon Lake Hydrologic Region in Kern County, with depth to as needed to augment surface supplies. Percolation groundwater of 50–200 meters (Scanlon et al. 2016). ponds, or spreading basins, are used in Kern County in This extensive unconfined aquifer provides the capac- areas with good permeability along the Kern River allu- ity to support groundwater banking. vial fan, a huge wedge of sand and gravel, formed over thousands of years since the Ice Age, where the Kern Located at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley, River exits the Sierra Nevada foothills and spreads along the Kern area is conveniently located for geology and the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley. The alluvial proximity to water supply and delivery systems fan created an unconfined aquifer hundreds of feet (Christian-Smith 2013) (map 25.1). The California thick, leading to extensive groundwater pumping for Aqueduct (also known as the SWP) is on the west, the irrigation and severe overdraft in the 20th century. Friant-Kern Canal (Central Valley Project) and the Kern However, this also provided the potential for a vast River are on the east, and a Cross Valley Canal links amount of groundwater storage (Christian-Smith 2013). these units. The groundwater basin in Kern County is closed, meaning no surface water is lost once water is Groundwater banking partners in Kern County provide placed in the ground. The unconfined aquifer at the for reliability of in-district supplies (such as the Kern Kern Water Bank is 50–70 percent sand with high trans- Water Bank), and others are partnerships between Kern missivity and percolation rates of several inches per County water districts and out-of-county ­ entities. The day (Parker 2010). out-of-county entities provide capital to help construct and maintain the banking infrastructure, and then bank The discussion below highlights three groundwater bank- their own surplus water in the groundwater basin. A ing operations in Kern County: Semitropic, Arvin-Edison, portion of the banked water is non-­ recoverable to com- and the Kern Water Bank. Common problems experi- pensate for evaporation losses and other intrinsic losses. enced in the 1980s and early 1990s were severe drought, In return, the participating water districts use the infra- groundwater overdraft, rising energy and water costs, structure and fees collected from their partners to and increasingly unreliable SWP contracted deliveries. A help meet their consumptive use needs (Parker 2010). common element in the success of these operations is The Arvin-Edison (Arvin-Edison) WSD and Semitropic that the banked water is imported from a hydraulically (Semitropic) WSD programs are of this type. Some bank- disconnected source—that is, from a source outside Kern ing programs are developed solely for long-term water County (Thomas 2001). The  Semitropic Water Storage sales, primarily to southern California entities. The joint District Bank and the Kern Water Bank are two of the larg- Buena Vista WSD–Rosedale–Rio Bravo WSD project is of est in the world (Kennedy/Jenks Consultants 2011; this type (Parker 2010). In a related project, the Irvine Semitropic WSD [Water Storage District] 2004). Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 247 Planning and Development: Three pump-back (Semitropic WSD [Water Storage District] Examples 2004). The Semitropic water banking agreement and memorandum of understanding with surrounding dis- California law allows the formation of various districts for tricts served as a model for other agreements. the development, control, and distribution of water (CDWR 1965). A district may be formed by a general act of Arvin-Edison comprises 132,000 acres located in the the legislature or by special act prescribing its powers as a extreme southeastern portion of the San Joaquin Valley. form of local government with an independent board of Imported water was made available from the U.S. Bureau directors elected by the district’s voters for a fixed term. of Reclamation’s Central Valley Project, which brought For example, the Semitropic WSD’s board comprises water south from the San Joaquin River through the farmers elected by landowners. The Kern Water Bank Friant-Kern Canal, and Arvin-Edison was organized to Authority is a Joint Powers Authority whose directors contract with the Central Valley Project. However, the represent a group of public and private water districts firm supply was only an 11 percent supplement with the and operate the Kern Water Bank. Some WSD boards are ­ ercent only “as available” during wet remaining 89 p elected by a weighted vote of property owners; others use years. This put growers at perpetual risk of lack of water a one-person-one-vote rule (Hanak and Stryjewski 2012). in drier years (Vaux 2002). The answer lay in connecting Semitropic, which extends over 221,000 acres in the to the California Aqueduct and constructing a Cross northern part of Kern County, sought a water-banking Valley Canal to serve users at the southern end of the San partner to finance a groundwater banking program. The Joaquin Valley. In a memorandum of understanding, Semitropic banking operations began with a demonstra- Arvin-Edison gave up its firm commitment and about tion project by the CDWR for deliveries of SWP surface one-third of its nonfirm supply to upstream users on the water to farmers in the district in lieu of the farmer’s Friant-Kern Canal in exchange for a greater firm supply pumping and irrigating with groundwater. The amount from the California Aqueduct. Those upstream users on of SWP delivered becomes banked in the district. To pay the Friant-Kern Canal were entitled to SWP water but back CDWR, Semitropic would forego a future delivery of couldn’t access it because water would have to have been its SWP entitlement water and Semitropic (or the farm- pumped uphill against the flow in the canal (Vaux 2002). ers) would extract groundwater in amounts equal to the This exchange benefited all parties. After the success of banked water for irrigation. But in 1991, there was no the Semitropic-MWD project, Arvin-Edison and MWD SWP water available due to a very dry year and the San entered into an agreement to bank SWP water  with Joaquin River delta pumping restrictions in the north. pump-back components, build new spreading ponds, This showed the importance of having pump-back facili- intertie pipeline. and construct a bidirectional ­ ties and agreements to deliver stored water directly to the California Aqueduct. The Metropolitan Water District The Kern Water Bank comprises about 20,000 acres of of Southern California (MWD), which had been tracking percolation ponds, canals, and habitat areas. The land these operations, wanted a water banking agreement was bought by the CDWR in 1988. The CDWR began to with Semitropic but only if it had a pump-back compo- phase out tenant farming leases with the plan to develop nent. This agreement was concluded in 1994. Today the a water bank. The area is ideal for percolation with sandy system’s capacity is 1.65 million acre-feet. During wet soil from alluvial deposits that percolate up to 6 inches of years the banking partners (MWD and Santa Clara Valley water per day. The state ran into difficulties with endan- Water District, each with an allocation of 350,000 acre- gered species, high costs, complicated negotiations, arse- feet) deliver surplus water to Semitropic, and the water is nic standards for pump-back to the California Aqueduct, returned by exchanging Semitropic’s entitlement or and uncertainty over the volume of water that could be 248 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report delivered from the California Aqueduct. In 1994, the state facilities was of critical importance, as was the fact that deeded ownership of the land to local water districts in these facilities could be tied together physically, thereby exchange for 45,000 acre-feet of annual SWP entitlement allowing the exchange of waters between facilities. The and allowed the transfer of water entitlements from agri- agreement with the exchange districts located upstream cultural users to urban entities under the so-called on the Friant-Kern Canal allowed Arvin-Edison to Monterey Amendment of the state water contract. Six increase more than three-fold the quantity of its firm sur- water districts, the Project Participants, formed the Kern face water allocation at little cost (Vaux 2002). Water Bank Authority and executed a memorandum of The Kern Water Bank was purchased from the state in understanding in 1995 for the operation of the Kern Water 1994 through an entitlement transfer negotiated under Bank (Parker 2010; Thomas 2001). The Kern Water Bank the Monterey Amendment, which set conditions for can take advantage of water deliveries from three sources: transfer to agricultural contractors in exchange for the the Kern River, the Friant-Kern Canal, and the California retirement of 45,000 acre-feet of long-term supply of Aqueduct. A canal was built to connect the Kern River to contractor’s water from the SWP. The property owner- the California Aqueduct. There are about 7,500 acres of ship was transferred to the Kern County Water Agency recharge basins, and the remaining 12,500 acres are habi- and then to the Kern Water Bank Authority for local tat in land between the recharge basins. The Kern Water development as a water bank (Parker 2010). The water Bank is the only bank in the county with no surface culti- bank does not deliver water south of Kern County. It vation; it is subject to a 75-year habitat conservation plan.1 engages in exchange deliveries, through which an Economic and Financial Aspects entity upstream takes water from the California Aqueduct and the Kern Water Bank Authority For Semitropic, the percolation rates are not high and returns the same amount downstream (Parker 2010). water is banked primarily by in lieu deliveries. The In 2010, the cost to recharge water was $13 per acre- arrangements include full compensation to Semitropic foot, and the cost to recover water was about $70 per when water is stored, when it is returned from storage, acre-foot. The Kern Water Bank stores water on behalf for energy costs to deliver water to the California of its participants, who may then use or sell the water Aqueduct, and for operation and maintenance costs to others; the resale price can be quite high depending (Semitropic WSD [Water Storage District] 1995). Contracts on the hydrologic cycle and market conditions. with individual landowners specify payments and opera- tions and include provisions that Semitropic may use a The IRWD’s arrangement with the Rosedale–Rio Bravo landowner’s well to extract water for pump-back with WSD is an example of equity ownership of water bank- compensation. Water banking partners have first right to ing capacity. IRWD, located in Orange County, south of use new facilities for the banking operations, although Los Angeles, wanted to expand its operations through the facilities remain the property of Semitropic. storage on behalf of other cities in return for the use of 50 percent of the water stored (IRWD 2012). This agree- For Arvin-Edison, the costs of the new facilities come ment is unlike other Kern County water banking agree- from fees charged to MWD for operations, energy costs, ments because IRWD’s partnership provides for and conveyance. Arvin-Edison is protected further long-term equity ownership of water banking capacity through the requirement of a minimum amount of yearly rather than a contract or lease. storage. Arvin-Edison would have been unable to build the facilities without the financing of a banking partner Today, the various program elements allow for such as MWD (Thomas 2001). The location of Arvin- exchange deliveries with upstream storage transfer Edison at the end of two major surface water importation through the California Aqueduct as well as for Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 249 out-of-county, long-term arrangements with southern banks and surface storage reservoirs. would be California entities. The three largest water banks— important for future water reliability. The Monterey Arvin-Edison, Kern Water Bank, and Semitropic—have amendments gave contractors the express right to a combined storage capacity of about 3 million acre- store water outside their service areas, as long as feet. Water banking capital costs are much lower than the stored water was intended for ultimate use those for surface reservoirs. In addition, once water is within the contractor’s service area. The original recharged there are no evaporative losses, which can arrangement, in essence, required case-by-case exceed five feet per year in Kern County. 2 approval. This proved unattainable, as shown by an unsuccessful 10-year effort by the MWD.[3] Cooperating Agreements Policy Issues The so-called Monterey Amendment, part of a large- scale restructuring of water supply contracts, was Private Water Markets signed in 1994. The Monterey Amendment is without The Kern Water Bank has been described as a financial a doubt a “success story”; it brought SWP contractors success that also creates habitat (Hanak and Stryjewski – both urban and agricultural – together with the 2012). But the project faced an initial challenge to the CDWR. This occurred through mediated negotiations transfer of a public asset to private ownership (Public to settle disputes and agree on principles for certain Citizen 2003). Such controversies may create skepti- operations: cism about state versus local control and ownership (Pitzer and Sudman 2010). In fact, the transfer of own- • Article 18 of the original SWP contract provided ership was negotiated between the CDWR and the SWP that shortages in water supply would be allo- Project Participants, after the state was unable to cated  proportionally among all entitlements, develop the Kern Water Bank and finally halted feasi- rather than cutting agricultural users before urban bility studies and design work on the project in 1993 users. (CDWR 1993, 2015; Parker 2010). The lesson is that pri- • Article 21 of the original SWP contract was amended vate water markets can be effective in timely imple- to provide that extra water from the SWP in wet menting programs for water supply security. years (“interruptible water”) would be delivered The heart of the Monterey Amendment was the transfer proportionally among all entitlements—rather than of responsibility for water supply reliability from the agriculture first. Urban contractors understood that state to the contractors. Local storage projects were, the agricultural-first cutbacks were of limited value, therefore, a central consideration for many contractors, primarily because the SWP had never developed dry who wanted to know that their storage concerns were year supplies. This was glaringly apparent during addressed. The removal of the agriculture-first prefer- the 1991 drought.[1] ence for wet-period water was an important consider- • The “leveling” of water supplies according to ation for what became the MWD’s Diamond Valley Lake, long-term contracts benefited all contractors. as well for the groundwater programs.3 Agricultural contractors were relieved of agricul- tural-first cutbacks during dry times, and urban Effects on Adjacent Properties contractors received better access to wet period Some claimed that the Kern Water Bank affected adja- water.[2] cent landowners (Nelson et al. 2015). Neighboring • Urban and agricultural contractors alike realized water districts that overlie the same groundwater that local storage programs such as groundwater basin alleged that a lack of control over the rate at 250 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report which banked water was recovered affected ground- other constituents. WSDs could consider paying down- water levels, quality, and historic hydraulic gradients. 4 stream users to treat constituents that result in incre- The adjacent Rosedale–Rio Bravo WSD alleged that mental degradation. There are also policy issues as to pumping huge amounts of water in dry years reverses whether pump-back water quality should be regulated the area’s underground hydraulic gradient (New York for background, blended water, or drinking water Times 2011). The complexity of the private legal criteria. arrangements among the Kern Water Bank parties and A challenge with water storage projects is how to cap- the issues about the Bank’s operations underscore the ture large flows such as floods. Large flows can be need for cooperation (Nelson et al. 2015), especially missed due to lack of facilities to capture the high flows with respect to keeping track of water withdrawals and (Parker 2010). Large flows are likely to become more the impact on adjacent operations during prolonged pronounced in California as climate change intensifies drought. In the Kern Water Bank–Rosedale–Rio Bravo hydrologic events such as less snow and more rain. case, two different groundwater models were evalu- Expansion of recharge facilities should be initiated. ated and revised based on third-party review. Today, a Joint Operating Committee (governed by a Joint The return flows or “take” from groundwater banking Operating Plan) resolves issues (Kern Water Bank operations are limited by pumping infrastructure and Authority 2016). The Kern Water Bank and Rosedale– the transmissivity of underlying formation. Return Rio Bravo WSD coordinate operating plans applicable flows are not well suited for demands that fluctuate to the cumulative effects of both projects.5 during the year. At Semitropic, for example, water can be returned through direct pump-back only during the Quality of Pump-Back Water off-peak irrigation season. The quality of pump-back water and its regulation are concerns for the WSDs (CDWR 2016). The state has a Characteristics of Successful Projects nondegradation policy for pump-back water, although blending within the aqueduct may be considered for As noted previously, much of the Kern County area is groups coordinating discharges to maintain or improve excellent for recharge ponds, and the groundwater water quality (CDWR 2012). In the case of Semitropic, basin is relatively isolated and not hydraulically con- water pumped back to the California Aqueduct is lower nected to other basins or surface waters. in total dissolved solids, nitrate, and bromide and Water-marketing experience in California shows higher in arsenic and chromium than that contained in movement to greater local control. The Monterey the aqueduct (Boschman 2009). Semitropic monitors Agreement was a transfer of responsibility from the its 440 wells for arsenic levels, uses a flow-network state to local districts with compromises that worked model to help moderate arsenic levels, and employs an for both urban and agricultural interests. The Kern arsenic treatment system with a natural pond feature Water Bank experience showed the state’s difficulty in to lower arsenic levels in pump-back water to less than putting together a banking project, including getting 10 parts per billion. permits from other agencies.6 The absence of compet- In general for such projects, WSDs must assess whether ing groundwater extractors, who were not members of the pump-back water should be treated for all constit- the district and whose individual actions might uents that exceed ambient levels in the aqueduct, or impinge on incentives to invest in groundwater bank- whether there should there be some credit for improve- ing, enabled Semitropic and Arvin-Edison to take ments in some constituents that offset degradation in collective local action. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 251 Banking Water Otherwise Not Available arrangement with Semitropic and Arvin-Edison and with In the examples cited here, the banked water is commercial financing for the Kern Water Bank. imported from hydraulically disconnected sources. Prior Experience This water would not have been available to the groundwater basin. The state’s attempt to establish an Landowners in the area have a long history of experi- Emergency Drought Groundwater Bank in the ence with conjunctive groundwater use. The landown- Sacramento Valley in 1994 met with limited success ers have a common interest, because the districts in in  part because it substituted groundwater for  SWP the region are primarily agricultural. Experience shows deliveries. Those actions created a backlash  from the need for local control; no district wants to give an Sacramento Valley counties that most have  since outsider control of rights to its basin. enacted restrictive groundwater export ordinances. Notes Measures to Protect Adjacent Land Owners 1. W. Phillimore, Executive Vice President, Wonderful Orchards, Shafter, CA, personal communication, July 24, 2017. Semitropic employed several measures to ensure that neighboring groundwater users would not be affected. 2. J. Gianquinto, General Manager, Semitropic WSD, personal commu- nication with author, July 17, 2017. For example, a fifteen-foot–three-year rule specifies 3. T. Quinn, Executive Director, Association of California Water that groundwater withdrawals may not cause ground- Agencies, personal communication with author, July 23, 2017. water levels to decline by more than fifteen feet over a 4. Petition for Writ of Mandate and Complaint for Injunctive and 3-year period compared to what would have occurred Declaratory Relief, Rosedale–Rio Bravo Water Storage District and without the project (Semitropic WSD [Water Storage Buena Vista Water Storage District v. California DWR, No. 270635- KCT (Kern County Superior Court). District] 2003). None of the extraction wells at Arvin- 5. J. Parker, General Manager, Kern Water Bank Authority, personal Edison are located near a property boundary with an communication with author, July 24, 2017. adjacent water district. To protect the groundwater 6. W. Phillimore, Executive Vice President, Wonderful Orchards, basin a certain loss factor is imposed on all banked Shafter, CA, personal communication, July 24, 2017. water. At Semitropic and Arvin-Edison, for example, 7. J. Gianquinto, General Manager, Semitropic WSD, personal commu- evaporation, migration or other losses are accounted nication with author, July 17, 2017. for by an assumed 10 percent loss of furnished water. The Kern Water Bank and the Rosedale–Rio Bravo Bibliography Water Bank have a Joint Operating Plan to work out Boschman, W. 2009. “Groundwater Storage Project, Wasco, CA.” Paper pre- any disagreements. sented at the Woods Institute for the Environment Workshop, “Economic and Policy Implications of Water Banking.” Sacramento, CA, May 22. CDWR (California Department of Water Resources). 1965. General Financial Security Comparison of California Water District Acts, Department of Water Successful projects insulate the WSD from financial risk. Resources, Bulletin No. 155. Sacramento, CA: CDWR. Contractual arrangements ensure that the costs for con- ———. 1993. Management of the California State Water Project, Bulletin veyance, recharge, extraction, and pump-back are cov- 132-93. Sacramento, CA: CDWR. ered by the beneficiaries (Thomas 2001). Semitropic, for ———. 2012. Water Quality Policy and Implementation Process for Acceptance of Non-Project Water into the State Water Project. Sacramento, CA: CDWR. example, was cash strapped and would have been unable ———. 2013. California Water Plan Update 2013, Vol. 1, The Strategic Plan, to develop the water banking facilities alone.7 Thus, the Bulletin 160-13. Sacramento, CA: CDWR. water banking partner’s investment in the infrastructure ———. 2015. Study of the Transfer, Development, and Continued Use of the and operations make the venture essentially cost and Kern Water Bank (Revised), Monterey Plus Draft Environmental Impact risk  free to the WSD, as is the case with the MWD’s Report, Appendix E. Sacramento, CA: CDWR. 252 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report ———. 2016. Water Quality Assessment of Non-Project Turn-ins to the Parker, J. 2010. “Testimony to the State of California Little Hoover California Aqueduct, 2015; Sacramento, CA: CDWR. Commission, Public Hearing on Water Governance.” January 28, 2010, Sacramento, CA, General Manager, Kern Water District. Christian-Smith, J. 2013. Improving Water Management through Groundwater Banking: Kern County and the Rosedale–Rio Bravo Water Pitzer, G., and R. S. Sudman. 2010. “Saving It for Later: Groundwater Banking, Storage District. Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. Western Water.” Water Education Foundation, Sacramento, CA, USA. Hanak, H., and E. Stryjewski. 2012. California’s Water Market, By the Public Citizen. 2003. Water Heist: How Corporations Are Cashing in on Numbers: Update 2012. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California’s Water. Oakland, CA: Public Citizen. California. Scanlon, B. R., R. C. Reedy, C. C. Faunt, D. Pool, and K. Uhlman. 2016. IRWD (Irvine Ranch Water District). 2012. “The Strand Ranch Integrated “Enhancing Drought Resilience with Conjunctive Use and Managed Water Banking Project.” IRWD, Irvine, CA, (accessed May 25, 2017), http:// Aquifer Recharge in California and Arizona.” Environmental Research www.irwd.com/services/water-banking. Letters 11 (3): 035013. Semitropic WSD (Water Storage District). 1994. Agreement between Kennedy/Jenks Consultants. 2011. Tulare Lake Basin Portion of Kern Metropolitan Water District of Southern California and Semitropic Water County Integrated Regional Water Management Plan: Final Update. Storage District and Its Improvement Districts for a Metropolitan- Oxnard, CA: Kennedy/Jenks Consultants. Semitropic Water Banking and Exchange Program. Semitropic Water Kern County Water Agency and Rosedale–Rio Bravo WSD (Water Storage Storage District, Wasco, CA, USA. District). 2017. Project Recovery Operations Plan Regarding Pioneer ———. 1995. “Contract between Semitropic Improvement District of Project, Rosedale-Rio Bravo Water Storage District, and Kern Water Bank Semitropic Water Storage District and [Landowner] for Intermittent Authority Projects. Bakersfield, CA: Kern County Water Agency and Water Deliveries In Lieu of Groundwater Pumping.” Wasco, CA, USA. Rosedale–Rio Bravo WSD. Semitropic Water Storage District. Kern Water Bank Authority. 2016. Resolution No. 2016-2 Approving 2016 ———. 2003. Groundwater Management Plan. Vol. 1. Wasco, CA: KWB Long-term Operating Plan and Mitigation Measures Relating to Semitropic Water Storage District. Monterey Plus Revised Environmental Impact Report. Bakersfield, CA: Kern Water Bank Authority. ———. 2004. “Groundwater Banking.” Semitropic Water Storage District, Wasco, CA, (accessed  May 23, 2017), http://www.semitropic.com​ Nelson, R., H. N. Bischel, R. G. Luthy, and B. H. Thompson, Jr. 2015. /­Groundwater​Banking​.htm. “Issues of Governance, Policy, and Law in Managing Urban-Rural and Groundwater–Surface Water Connections.” In Understanding and Thomas, G. A. 2001. Designing Successful Groundwater Banking Managing Urban Water in Transition, edited by Q. Grafton, K. A. Daniell, Operations in the Central Valley: Lessons from Experience. Berkeley, CA: C. Nauges, J.-D. Rinaudo, and N. W. W. Chan, 463–88. New York: The Natural Heritage Institute. Springer. Vaux, H. J., Jr. 2002. “Innovations in Groundwater Management: The New York Times. 2011. “Storing Water for a Dry Day Leads to Suits.” Arvin-Edison Water Storage District of California.” Paper presented at the July  26. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/27/science/earth/27wate­ Third Rosenberg International Forum on Water Policy. Canberra, rbank.html?_r=1&hpw. Australia, October 7–11. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 253 Source: Pixabay.com. Chapter 26 San Francisco, California San Francisco, CA, situated on a peninsula, has a River watershed, located in the pristine Sierra Nevada population of 850,000 and high population density mountains in eastern California. Run-off and snow- (6,700 people per square kilometer). Given its melt are stored in the Hetch Hetchy reservoir and Mediterranean climate (long dry season, short wet transported to San Francisco through a 269-kilometer season, and an average 600 millimeters of rainfall piped aqueduct. The raw water is minimally treated per year), rainwater and stormwater are insufficient ultraviolet disinfection and chloramination. In using ­ to meet a significant portion of the city’s demand for San Francisco, average total water consumption is 300 water. liters per capita per day (lpcd), and average residential water consumption is approximately 150 liters per cap- Water, wastewater, and power services are provided by ita per day (SFPUC 2016), which is one of the lowest the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC) water use rates in the United States. SFPUC has (see map 26.1). The SFPUC also operates five reservoirs achieved these low water consumption levels by pro- located near the city. The SFPUC distributes water to moting conservation for more than 25 years. The con- the City and County of San Francisco and 26 wholesale servation program includes financial incentives such customers through a system of local storage reservoirs as rebates and mandatory requirements through local and a piped distribution network. The main source of ordinances to install efficient fixtures. Water rates are water supply for 2.6 million people is the Tuolumne based on an incremental block tariff. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 255 MAP 26.1. San Francisco, California, United States of America IBRD 43774 | JULY 2018 Roseville Davis Sacramento Mokelumne River Freeport Regional Watershed Folsom Water Facility South Canal Napa Vacaville Pardee Reservoir Sacramento – Vallejo San Joaquin Delta Lake Eleanor Hetch Hetchy Reservoir Lake Lloyd Reservoir EBMUD Mokelumne Reservoir San Aquadects Aqueducts Rafael Stockton San Andreas Tuolumne Tuolumne O’Shaughnessy Reservoir EBMUD Oakland Service Area River River Dam San New Don Pedro Yosemite Francisco San Antonio Tracy Reservoir National San Francisco Reservoir Park Modesto Service Area Fremont San Mateo UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Palo Alto Calaveras Dam & Reservoir SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA Crystal Springs Reservoir PIPELINES WATERSHED San Jose Atwater AND POWERHOUSE SERVICE AREAS Cupertino TREATMENT PLANTS HYDROELECTRIC AQUEDUCTS STATIONS 0 20 40 Kilometers PUMPING STATION RESERVOIRS MAIN ROADS Although the SFPUC Regional Water System has pro- construction of 13 kilometers of recycled water pipe- vided a reliable source of excellent quality water for line (SFPUC 2017). This project will provide advanced over 83 years, recent droughts have motivated SFPUC treatment to 7,570 cubic meters of water per day to be to explore options for diversifying its water supply used for irrigating landscapes and refilling Lake Merced portfolio. For example, after extensive studies to char- (a small lake used for recreation). However, centralized acterize water quality and sustainable extraction rates, nonpotable reuse projects face barriers to large-scale the SFPUC started a pilot program that blends deep implementation, due to their cost and the disruption groundwater extracted from local aquifers with its sur- caused by installing a piped distribution system for the face water supplies (SFPUC 2015). recycled water. Another strategy being pursued by the SFPUC to diver- Recognizing these barriers, in 2012 the City and County sify its water supply is water reuse. A centralized, non- of San Francisco adopted article 12C of the San potable water reuse project is currently under Francisco Health Code, which established a stream- construction at the Oceanside wastewater treatment lined permitting process for projects installing and plant, which involves adding tertiary filtration, reverse operating onsite nonpotable water systems in San osmosis, and ultraviolet disinfection, as well as 1 Francisco. The Nonpotable Water Program (NWP) 256 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report enables the collection, treatment, and use of alternate per building inhabitant per day to 19 liters. Annual water sources for nonpotable purposes. In 2015, article operations and maintenance costs for the Living 12C was amended to mandate onsite reuse for new Machine is estimated at $15,000 to $20,000, with an buildings larger than 23,225 square meters. New con- estimated life span of 20–25 years. struction over 23,225 square meters and permitted As of June, 2017, there were over 60 projects in various after November 2016 is required to capture available stages of the permitting process under the NWP, rainwater, foundation drainage, and graywater to meet with  the majority of these projects designed to col- nonpotable demands for toilet flushing and irrigation. lect  and treat rainwater to meet San Francisco’s New construction over 3700 square meters is required Stormwater Management Ordinance. Several projects to plan and budget for possible nonpotable recycling, have proposed the use of recycled graywater, includ- but it is not mandated. In March 2017, the SFPUC issued ing: a mixed-use building’s proposal to use graywater guidelines to provide district-scale systems (systems and rainwater for toilet flushing; the San Francisco that serve more than one parcel) with means of alter- Public Safety Building’s proposal to use graywater, native compliance with article 12C. The guidelines condensate drainage, and rainwater for toilet flushing, include an option for “sewer mining,” in which the irrigation, and cooling systems; and the Transbay recycled wastewater is sourced from a municipal sewer Transit Center’s proposal to use graywater and storm- line rather than from the buildings to which the recy- water for toilet flushing. cled water is provided. The SFPUC headquarters building is the first to recycle Challenges wastewater in San Francisco. Wastewater is treated The implementation of San Francisco’s innovative using an onsite system with a capacity of 19 cubic NWP is still an emerging practice, and a more com- meters per day, which consists of a primary settling plete evaluation will not be possible until the installa- tank, tidal and vertical flow wetlands, cartridge mem- tion and monitoring of more projects has been brane, ultraviolet disinfection, and chlorine disinfec- completed. Nonetheless, many of the policy barriers tion (Hendrickson et al. 2015). The tidal and vertical have already been effectively addressed (Kehoe 2017). flow wetlands are incorporated into the building’s out- A guidance manual has been prepared to assist door and indoor (atrium) landscaping; other compo- municipalities through the process of establishing nents are located in the basement. The treated water is and implementing an onsite reuse program (SFPUC stored in the basement and supplied to toilets through 2014). A high level of coordination and significant a dedicated pipe network isolated from the potable leadership have been required to develop the ordi- water supply. The entire system is connected to the nance and permitting process to allow onsite reuse, municipal potable water and sewer system, and, in the including participation by government agencies such event of a stoppage or failure, wastewater can be auto- as SFPUC, the San Francisco Department of Public matically diverted to the sewer and potable water can Health (SFDPH), San Francisco Department of be allocated to end uses. Building Inspection (SFDBI), and San Francisco The estimate for the capital cost of the onsite wastewa- Department of Public Works (SFDPW). Although there ter system is $1 million, out of construction project may be a negative stigma related to recycling of costs of $147 million, and total project costs of $202 wastewater and blackwater, it is possible to build million. The building is estimated to reduce potable legitimacy around the technical approaches to assure water use by 65 percent, from an average of 45 liters the public that the practice is safe. Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report 257 Treatment technologies that are most likely to be suc- Conclusions cessful have designs that are modular, can be easily Around the world, wastewater from individual or scaled to different sized buildings, and can be operated small groups of buildings is being treated onsite and and monitored remotely. Factors to be considered recycled for nonpotable uses. However, implementa- include water quality, operational energy require- tion of this practice is not yet widespread. Recycling ments, capital and operating costs, ease of operation water near where it is generated and reused can avoid and maintenance, reliability, sludge management, the costs and infrastructure of transporting it to and footprint, odor, and other aesthetic issues. from a large, centralized location, which include sew- More projects need to be implemented before a good erage and a distribution system for the recycled water accounting of the capital and operational costs can be separate from the potable water distribution system. determined. SFPUC offers grant funding for eligible Recycling could be particularly attractive in cities that projects, which can offset some of the capital costs, are not yet completely served by centralized sewerage but the funding levels are insufficient to cover all cap- and wastewater treatment. Even in cities with central- ital costs. New business models are needed to provide ized infrastructure, decentralized reuse may be an the services to operate and monitor the onsite treat- attractive option for increasing local water supplies. ment systems effectively and efficiently. The devel- Many factors must be considered to ensure that the oper’s return on investment for onsite reuse projects practice is effective and safe, and failure to address is likely to be spread over decades, accounting only these factors will prevent this approach from reaching for the water savings, due to relatively low water its full potential. rates. Changes to property values are difficult to quantify. In  the long term, if the NPW reduces the Note city’s need to develop more expensive alternative 1. Reverse osmosis is not needed to meet regulations for public health water supplies in the face of extreme water scarcity, protection, but is used to reduce the salinity of the recycled water, the financial benefits to the customers of SFPUC could which is increased by saline intrusion into the sewer collection be substantial. system. In California, the onsite treatment and disposal of References wastewater is regulated at the local level, whereas Hendrickson, T. P, M. Nguyen, M. Sukardi, A. Miot, A. Horvath, and K. L. water recycling is regulated at the state level. SFPUC Nelson. 2015. “Environmental Performance of a Building-Scale is participating in state and national efforts to stan- Wastewater Treatment and Nonpotable Reuse System.” Environmental dardize practices for onsite nonpotable water sys- Science and Technology 49 (17): 10303–11. tems. To address the public health concerns with Kehoe, P. 2017. “Onsite Treatment and Reuse; Overcoming the Barriers.” onsite recycling, the SFPUC, the Water Research Water Online. https://www.wateronline.com/doc/overcoming-the-barriers​ -to-on-site-treatment-and-reuse-0001. Foundation, and the Water Environment and Reuse Foundation sponsored an independent advisory SFPUC (San Francisco Public Utilities Commission). 2014. Blueprint for Onsite Water Systems. San Francisco, CA: SFPUC. http://sfwater.org​ panel to develop guidance for water quality and mon- /modules/showdocument.aspx?documentid=6057. itoring issues. These efforts seek to provide common ———. 2016. 2015 Urban Water Management Plan. San Francisco, CA: SFPUC. regulations across jurisdictions and decrease infor- http://www.sfwater.org/Modules/ShowDocument​.­aspx?documentID​=8839. mation barriers and regulatory costs thereby increas- ———. 2017. San Francisco’s Nonpotable Water System Projects. San ing the number and capacity of onsite nonpotable Francisco, CA: SFPUC. http://sfwater.org/Modules/ShowDocumen​ projects. t.aspx?documentID=7089. 258 Water Scarce Cities: Thriving in a Finite World—Full Report W17070