Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems An Energy Storage Partnership Report Reuse and Recycling Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-ion Battery Energy Storage Systems This report of the Energy Storage Partnership is prepared by the Climate Smart Mining Initiative and the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) with contributions from the Faraday Institution, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory, the Chinese Industrial Association of Power Producers, the Korea Battery Industry Association, the Indian Energy Storage Alliance, the Global Battery Alliance, the Belgian Energy Research Alliance, the UNEP DTU Partnership, and the World Bank Group. The Energy Storage Program is a global partnership convened by the World Bank Group through ESMAP to foster international cooperation to develop sustainable energy storage solutions for developing countries. For more information visit: https://www.esmap.org/energystorage ABOUT ESMAP The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is a partnership between the World Bank and 18 partners to help low and middle-income countries reduce poverty and boost growth through sustainable energy solutions. ESMAP’s analytical and advisory services are fully integrated within the World Bank’s country financing and policy dialogue in the energy sector. Through the World Bank Group (WBG), ESMAP works to accelerate the energy transition required to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. It helps to shape WBG strategies and programs to achieve the WBG Climate Change Action Plan targets. https://esmap.org © 2020 August | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved. 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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 LIBESS AND THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Battery: A Brief History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Recycling and Reuse of LiBESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Technology Attributes of Recycling and/or Reusing for LiBESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 CURRENT REUSE AND RECYCLING PRACTICES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Recycling and Reuse: Some Common Issues.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Data and Skills.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Recycling vs. Reusing .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Recycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Reuse.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 REGIONAL PROFILES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 South Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Reporting and Measurement Standards and Liability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 FUTURE AREAS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Collection and Transportation of Lithium-ion Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Reuse.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Recycling.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS TABLE OF CONTENTS CTD. FIGURES Figure 1.1: Battery Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Figure 1.2: The Market Growth of the Li-ion Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 1.3: The Circular Economy: A Pictorial Depiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 2.1: The Second Life Battery Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 2.2: Recycling Steps for LiBESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 3.1: China: Who are Participants in the Recycling Network?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 TABLES Table 1.1: Positive Electrode Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Table 1.2: Negative Electrode Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Table 1.3: Alternatives to Li-ion Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Table 3.1: Geographical Overview of Standards and Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ACRONYMS Ah ampere hour CIAPP Chinese Industrial Association of Power Producers EOL end of life ESMAP Energy Storage Management Assistance Program ESP Energy Storage Partnership EV electric vehicle GBA Global Battery Alliance GHG greenhouse gas HEV hybrid electric vehicles IEA International Energy Association IRENA Internaltion Renewable Energy Agency ISEA Indian Energy Storage Alliance KBIA Korena Battery Industry Association LiBESS Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems Li-ion lithium-ion (battery) LTSA long-term service agreement mAh mega ampere hour MW megawatt MWh megawatt hour NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory NPL National Physical Laboratory OEM original equipment manufacturer PV solar photovoltaic SOC state of charge UNEP/DTU United Nations Environment Program (Danish Technical University) All currency in United States dollars (US$, USD), unless otherwise indicated. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY T he objective of this report is to provide an overview of the state of affairs with regards to reuse and recycling of lithium-ion or Li-ion batteries, in order to assess if and to what ex- tent developing countries can and should play a larger role in this burgeoning area. The state of research and practice with respect to the recycling and/or reuse of Li-ion batteries is at a critical stage of development. Only now are countries, mostly in Europe, Asia and North America, beginning to seriously intensify plans for a wholesale transition of their society’s vehicular infrastructure from fuel injection to the electric motor engine. China, South Korea and Japan have explored end-of-life scenarios for electric batteries for over 20 years and are already developing a robust recycling infrastructure for Li-ion batteries, including reuse capacities as a secondary stationary power source/backup. Europe is starting to catch up, as is the United States. Africa and Latin America have so far done very little to develop a recycling infrastructure with respect to batteries for electric vehicles (EVs). The motivation for developing countries to become integral contributors in a circular economy is simple: theoretically at least, research indicates that taking on such an approach is both economically and environmentally more effective. At the right scale, recycling/reusing Li-ion batteries is cheaper and cleaner (Ambrose et al. 2014). Since these products contain materials that are potentially hazardous to the environment, it is vital that a system is established for the effective management of the batteries at the end of their useful life, with a view to ultimately phase out disposal in landfills or waste dumps. In addition, for those countries lacking copper, cobalt, and other metals needed for building clean energy technologies, a robust recycling regime may enhance their strategic reserves of these metals, which are of crucial relevance to climate action.1 The goal of a global renewable energy storage is to build a market-oriented and green energy storage technology innovation system that considers: long-term design; low carbon manufacturing; safe operation and maintenance; and green recycling. In the context of developing countries, this report proposes short-term recommendations on awareness raising, capacity building, incentives for collection, establishment of specific recycling/reuse regulatory regime (incl. collection), and longer term recommendations on the development of distribution/transportation centers, setting of bold public policy measures, harmonized standards, and development of liability guidelines. 1 2 Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems This report will be organized along three related PREFACE themes: This report is developed by the Climate Smart Mining • Introducing the issue and identifying the technology Initiative, under the coordination of the Energy Storage attributes most relevant for environmental Partnership (ESP) and in particular, Working Group 7 sustainability and a circular economy; of the ESP whose mandate is to explore the challenges and opportunities of recycling and reusing Li-ion bat- • Taking stock of current reuse and recycling teries in developing countries. Participating institutions, practices and relevant knowledge to date; and, include the Faraday Institution, the National Renewable • Recommendations for policy measures and future Energy Laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory, research in developing countries the Chinese Industrial Association of Power Producers, Plans are underway for workshops and experts’ the Korea Battery Industry Association, the Indian roundtables to be held later this year, initially in Africa, Energy Storage Alliance, the Global Battery Alliance, followed by a roadmap to expand opportunities for reuse the Belgian Energy Research Alliance, the UNEP DTU and recycling of batteries in developing countries. Partnership, and the World Bank Group. This report was written by John Drexhage (Lead The Climate Smart Mining initiative2 supports the Author, Climate Smart Mining Initiative, World Bank), responsible extraction, processing, and recycling of Tarek Keskes (Energy Sector Management Assistance minerals needed for low carbon technologies by reducing Program, World Bank), and Kirsten Lori Hund (Climate their climate and material footprints from extraction to Smart Mining Initiative, World Bank); with invaluable end-use through increased technical assistance and input from: Matthew Keyser (National Renewable investments in mineral-rich developing countries. This Energy Laboratory), Andrew Deadman (National means adopting a circular economy approach that Physical Laboratory), Nick Smailes (The Faraday works to maximize recycling and reuse opportunities Institution), Mathy Stanislaus (Global Battery Alliance, while recognizing that more extraction and processing World Economic Forum), Daniele La Porta (Climate of primary metals will still be required if we are to meet Smart Mining Initiative, World Bank), Gael Gregoire the long-term global climate targets set in the 2016 Paris (International Finance Corporation), Peter Mockel Climate Agreement. By mid-century, the industry must (International Finance Corporation), Jonathan Eckart develop and implement zero carbon practices applicable (Global Battery Alliance, World Economic Forum), to all production and energy needs that involve physical Paul Anderson (The Faraday Institution), Emma impacts (such as tailings), and these practices must be Richardson (National Physical Laboratory), Rahul on a scale that dwarfs current efforts. Additionally, the Walawalkar (India Energy Storage Alliance), Debmalya industry should robustly explore nature-based climate Sen (India Energy Storage Alliance), Yu-Tack Kim solutions. (Korea Battery Industry Association), Yongchong Chen The Energy Storage Partnership, convened by the (Institute of Electrical Engineering Chinese Academy World Bank and hosted at the World Bank’s Energy of Sciences, China Energy Storage Applications Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP)3, Association), Hao Liu (Institute of Electrical Engineering brings together international organizations to help Chinese Academy of Sciences, China Energy Storage develop safe, sustainable energy storage solutions Applications Association), Dandan Liu (Institute of tailored to the needs of developing countries. By Electrical Engineering Chinese Academy of Sciences, connecting stakeholders and sharing international China Energy Storage Applications Association), Leen experiences in deploying energy storage solutions Govaerts (Belgian Energy Research Alliance), Subash around the world, ESP helps bring new technological, Dhar (UNEP DTU Partnership), Sunday Leonard regulatory, and capacity building solutions to developing (Scientific & Technical Advisory Panel of the Global countries, as well as developing new business models Environment Facility, UNEP), and Shane Thompson that leverage the full range of services that storage can (Consultant). Special thanks to all of the Energy Storage provide. Taking a technology neutral approach, ESP is Partnership partners who participated in the peer helping to expand the global market for energy storage, review process. leading to technology improvements, more integration of renewable energy, and accelerating cost reductions over time. Executive Summary 3 NOTES The issue of strategic mineral reserves is currently a focus 1.  of more mature economies. Its utility in the context of least developed economies remains open to question. The Climate Smart Mining Initiative sits within the Energy 2.  and Extractives Global Practice of the World Bank, and is a collaboration between the World Bank and the IFC, with support from the Dutch Government, Anglo American, Rio Tinto and GiZ. The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program 3.  (ESMAP) is a global knowledge and technical assistance partnership administered by the World Bank and funded by Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, the European Commission, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, the Rockefeller Foundation, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, as well as the World Bank. ESMAP’s mission is to assist clients—low and middle-income countries—to increase know-how and institutional capacity to achieve environmentally sustainable energy solutions for poverty reduction and economic growth. 1 LiBESS AND THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY T he call for urgent action to address climate change and develop more sustainable modes of energy delivery is generally recognized. It is also apparent that batteries, both in the ­ transportation and the power sectors, need to play a predominant role if the global com- munity is to limit global warming to 2°C. Simply put, nations’ efforts will focus largely on electrifying transportation ­systems to be supported by power systems that deliver low carbon ener- gy, using a range of ­ renewable technologies. Stationary batteries will play a critical role in not only providing direct energy services, but also in acting as backup providers when renewable resources are only able to provide intermittent services, dependent on local climatic and other circumstances. To integrate these variable renewable resources into grids at the scale necessary to mitigate cli- mate change, energy storage will be key.1 The increased use of wind and solar power with storage can help decarbonize power systems; expand energy access; improve grid reliability; and increase the resilience of energy systems. The requirements of developing countries’ grids are not yet met by the current energy storage market—which is driven by the electric vehicle (EV) industry—even though these countries may show the greatest potential for battery deployment. Most mainstream technologies cannot provide long duration storage or withstand harsh climatic conditions and low operation and maintenance capacity. There is a clear need to catalyze a new market for batteries and other energy storage solutions suitable for a variety of grid and off-grid applications and deployable on a large scale. To enable the rapid uptake of variable renewable energy in developing countries, the World Bank Group con- vened the Energy Storage Partnership (ESP), that will foster international cooperation on: • Technology Research Development and Demonstration Applications • System Integration and Planning Tools • Policies, Regulations, and Procurement • Enabling Systems for Management and Sustainability With respect to reused and recycled batteries, the literature is clear: compared to other battery types, there is a much greater potential in the adoption of second-life Li-ion batteries, mostly due to the rapid uptake of Li-ion batteries for electric vehicles world wide and the consequent pressure to devise end-of-life (EOL) strategies for these products (Prescient & Strategic Intelligence 2020). As an illustration of EVs projected growth, the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) esti- mates that for the Paris Climate Agreement target to be met, EVs penetration in the market place will need to climb rapidly from 6 million in 2019 to 157 million by 2030 and 745 million EVs by 2040 (Prescient & Strategic Intelligence 2020). In exploring the opportunities and challenges facing developing countries in the reuse and recycling of Li-ion battery energy storage systems (LiBESS), this chapter will summarize the history of the battery, review the main contending battery technologies, and then provide an overview of the different Li-ion batteries currently in operation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the circular economy and its technology attributes relevant for prolonging the performance of LiBESS. 4 LiBESS and the Circular Economy 5 Li-ion batteries will be ideal for use in applications THE BATTERY: A BRIEF HISTORY2 such as energy storage systems for renewables and A battery essentially provides for the conversion of transportation where high energy, high power, and stored chemical energy into electrical energy. The first safety are mandatory. modern battery, as we know it, was invented by the The two main types of Li-ion battery offer positive Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800. Batteries and negative electrode options, respectively. Some are have always played a useful role in capturing and more attuned to providing transportation related services storing energy, however, their role took on a completely while others are more adept at providing stationary new profile with the introduction of the lead-acid battery power (Marsh 2019). Tables 1.1 and 1.2 delineate in the modern internal combustion engine. The lead batteries using both electrode options. battery is the oldest, rechargeable battery consumed Negative electrode materials are traditionally globally and, until 2015, was the most popular. constructed from graphite and other carbon materi- Over the last few decades, the lead battery has als, although newer silicon-based materials are being given way to alternative forms of stored energy, in increasingly used. These materials are abundant and particular, the Li-ion battery. Lead-acid batteries do not electrically conducting, and can intercalate lithium ions deliver very effectively for advancing electronic technol- to store electrical charge with modest volume expansion ogies—from cellphones to electric motor vehicles. The roughly 10% (Manhart et al. 2018, p. 17). Li-ion battery was developed to address those chal- Beyond the family of Li-ion batteries, Table 1.3 lenges. It surpasses the lead-acid battery in all technical outlines the contending technologies for future reuse/ storage variables, including energy capacity, efficiency, recycling. and life span (Alarco and Talbot 2015). Invented in 1980 In terms of recycling and reuse, although flow batter- by the American physicist Professor John Goodenough, ies are regarded as one of the more serious rivals to the it uses one of the lightest known elements, with a very Li-ion battery their prospects pale when viewed through high electrochemical potential, to produce among the an economic lens. The Li-ion battery is predicted to highest possible voltages in an extremely compact form. enjoy US$107 billion of investment by 2024 compared In this new battery, lithium is combined with a transition to a US$300 million for all flow batteries by 2025. Such meta—such as cobalt, nickel, manganese, phosphorus, investments have already created a lower price for or iron—and oxygen to form the cathode. Li-ion, which has made it more competitive. Currently, Li-ion technologies benefit from massive Battery pack prices for electric vehicles are typi- recent investment in research and large-scale manufac- cally set according to cost per kilowatt hour. Over the turing of consumer goods and electric vehicles. These last 10 years prices have fallen as production has efforts dwarf any devoted to alternative chemistries, ­burgeoned. As Figure 1.2 shows, they now cost around such as that of the lead-acid battery. US $156 per kilowatt hour, according to Bloomberg By 2015, owing to its superior technological NEF, representing an 85% decline from the approximate capacities, delivered at a competitive price, Li-ion cost in 2010 of US$1,100/kWh. Continued production battery technology had displaced lead-acid as the and improving efficiencies are set to push prices below dominant design for frequency regulation and the US$100/kWh by 2024. It is worth noting that 2024 is the integration of renewables. Figure 1.1 provides year when electric vehicles manufacturers predict that some additional information with respect to the their output will reach price parity with internal combus- new generation of batteries. tion engine vehicles. Li-ion batteries continue to evolve. New innovative The rapid growth in the EV and Li-ion battery market compounds can store more lithium in positive and underscores the urgent need for a secure plan for the negative electrodes and will facilitate greater storage full life cycle of these products, especially successful and delivery of energy. As a result of this continued exploitation of the technology beyond its first life (first improvement, a new generation of advanced Li-ion discrete phase of use). batteries is expected to be deployed before the first generation of solid-state batteries3. These advanced 6 REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS FIGURE 1.1: Battery Technologies Note: Infographic available for download at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/climate-smart-mining-minerals-for-climate- action. LiBESS and the Circular Economy 7 TABLE 1.1: Positive Electrode Options (mostly used in electric vehicle applications) Technology Company Target Application Date Benefit Lithium Nickel Imara Corporation, Electric vehicles, power 2008 good specific energy and specific Manganese Cobalt Nissan Motor, Microvast tools, grid energy power density Oxide (NMC) Inc., LG Chem storage LiNixMnyCozO2a, b, c Lithium Nickel Cobalt Panasonic, Saft Groupe Electric vehicles 1999 High specific energy, good life span Aluminium Oxide S.A., Samsung (NCA) LiNiCoAlO2d, e,f Lithium Manganese LG Chem, NEC, Hybrid electric 1996 Oxide (LMO) Samsung, Hitachi, vehicle, cell LiMn2O4h, g, h, I, j Nissan/AESC, EnerDel phone, laptop Lithium Iron University of Texas/ Segway Personal 1996 Moderate density (2 A·h outputs 70 Phosphate (LFP) Hydro Quebec, Phostech Transporter, power amperes); High safety compared LiFePO4 k, l, m, n Lithium Inc. Valence tools, aviation products, to Cobalt / Manganese systems; Technology, automotive hybrid Operating temperature >60°C A123Systems/MIT systems, plug-in hybrid (140°F) electric vehicle (PHEV) conversions Lithium Cobalt Sony  broad use laptop (first 1991 High specific energy Oxide (LCO) commercial production) LiCoO2o Note: Tables and citations from Wikipedia website on Lithium-ion Batteries. a. Imara Corporation Website, July 2009. O’Dell, John Fledgling Battery Company Says Its Technology Boosts Hybrid Battery Performance Green Car Advisor; Edmunds Inc, (17 December b.  2008). LeVine, Steve (27 August 2015). Tesla’s coattails are carrying along Panasonic, but a battle for battery supremacy is brewing. Quartz. Retrieved c.  19 June 2017. Blomgren, George E. (2016). The Development and Future of Lithium-ion Batteries. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 164: A5019–A5025. d.  doi:10.1149/2.0251701jes e. Samsung INR18650-30Q datasheet (PDF). f. Jost, Kevin [ed.] Tech Briefs: CPI takes new direction on Li-ion batteries (PDF). aeionline.org; Automotive Engineering Online. October 2006. g. Voelcker, John; Lithium Batteries Take to the Road, Archived IEEE Spectrum. September, 2007. h. Loveday, Eric. Hitachi develops new manganese cathode, could double life of Li-ion batteries. www.autoblog.com, April 2010. i. Nikkei: Report: Nissan On Track with Nickel Manganese Cobalt Li-ion Cell for Deployment in 2015 Green Car Congress (blog). November, 2009. j. EnerDel Technical Presentation (PDF). EnerDel Corporation. October 2007. k. Elder, Robert and Zehr, Valence sued over UT patent, Austin American-Statesman, Feb, 2006. l. Bulkeley, William M. “New Type of Battery Offers Voltage Aplenty, at a Premium”. The Day. p. E6, Wall Street Journal, November 2005. A123Systems Launches New Higher-Power, Faster Recharging Li-Ion Battery Systems Green Car Congress; A123Systems (Press release). m.  November, 2005. n. Hayner, CM; Zhao, X; Kung, HH “Materials for Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Batteries”. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. 3 (1): 445–471. doi:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-062011-081024. PMID 22524506.; January 2012. o. “Lithium-ion technical handbook” (PDF). Gold Peak Industries Ltd. November 2003. RECYCLING AND REUSE OF LIBESS greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and costs should both be mitigated. Clearly batteries must be a key element of climate For the purposes of this report, recycling and reuse action if the global Paris Climate Agreement target is are defined as two distinct activities (though sometimes to be attained. What is also clear is that recycling and discussed in tandem). Recycling refers to the retrieval of reusing Li-ion batteries will be a critical component in specific elements in a produced technology for sub- helping developing countries make a rapid and sustain- sequent use in other technologies, perhaps, including able transition in delivering clean energy. If recycling other batteries. By contrast, reuse (or repurposing) and reuse practices are properly introduced at scale, refers to putting the battery technology as a whole 8 REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS TABLE 1.2: Negative Electrode Options (mostly used in smaller, appliance-based applications) Technology Density Company Target Application Date Comments Graphite a Targray The dominant 1991 Low cost and good energy density. Graphite negative electrode anodes can accommodate one lithium material used in atom for every six carbon atoms. Charging lithium-ion batteries. rate is governed by the shape of the long, thin graphene sheets. While charging, the lithium ions must travel to the outer edges of the graphene sheet before coming to rest (intercalating) between the sheets. The circuitous route takes so long that they encounter congestion around those edges. Lithium Toshiba, Automotive (Phoenix 2008 Improved output, charging time, durability, Titanate (LTO) Altairna Motorcars), safety, operating temperature Li4Ti5O12b, c electrical grid (PJM Interconnection Regional Transmission Organization control area, US Department of Defense Hard Carbond Energ2 Home electronics 2013 Greater storage capacity Tin/Cobalt Sony Consumer 2005 Larger capacity than a cell with graphite Alloy electronics (Sony (3.5Ah 18650-type battery) Nexelion battery) Silicon/ Volumetric: Amprius Smartphones, 2013 Uses < 10wt% Silicon nanowires combined Carbone 580 W·h/l providing 5000 mA·h with graphite and binders. Energy density: capacity ~74 mAh/g Another approach used carbon-coated 15 nm thick crystal silicon flakes. The tested half-cell achieved 1.2 Ah/g over 800 cycles. a. Northwestern researchers advance Li-ion batteries with graphene-silicon sandwich; Solid State Technology. Electroiq.com. Zhao, X.; Hayner, C. M.; Kung, M. C.; Kung, H. H. (2011). In-Plane Vacancy-Enabled High-Power Si-Graphene Composite Electrode for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Advanced Energy Materials. 1 (6): 1079–1084. doi:10.1002/aenm.201100426. November 2011. b. Acceptance of the First Grid-Scale, Battery Energy Storage System (Press release). Altair Nanotechnologies. 21 November 2008. c. Gotcher, Alan J.  Altair EDTA Presentation(PDF). Altairnano.com. Archived from  the original (PDF) November, 2006. d. Synthetic Carbon Negative electrode Boosts Battery Capacity 30 Percent; MIT Technology Review. Technologyreview.com (2 April 2013). Retrieved 16 April 2013. e. Newman, Jared, Amprius Begins Shipping a Better Smartphone Battery May, 2013. to a second use that is quite distinct from its primary increasing extraction activities in eco-vulnerable areas. production purpose; for example, transitioning a Li-ion The challenge is not only how to dramatically raise the battery from an EV to providing power, or backup power, profile and use of batteries in the new energy future as a stationary energy provider (see Chapter 2 for more (Hayner, Zhao, and Kung 2012), but also how to produce details on reuse). these batteries with sustainability features, taking The overriding benefit of batteries—particularly for into account environmental, economic, technical, and isolated communities and economic activities—is that it social circumstances. supplants costly, inefficient, environmentally harmful fossil Although lead batteries, in their primary form, fuel operations, such as diesel generators. Nevertheless, are ceding their role to Li-ion batteries in such tech- Li-ion batteries have their own set of sustainability nologies as electric motor vehicles, they continue to challenges. For example, it is recognized that simply enjoy success with respect to recycling. Indeed, the increasing production of batteries exclusively through story of recycling and reuse of lead batteries is one of primary extraction and manufacturing processes will bring unparalleled success (at least in the developed world). their own set of issues, such as the consequences of Estimates of 90% or more of lead batteries are recycled LiBESS and the Circular Economy 9 FIGURE 1.2: The Market Growth of the Li-ion Battery Li-ion battery market development for electric vehiles 8K 1000 6K Pack price ($/kWh) Demand (GWh) 4K 500 2K 0 0K 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Demand (right axis) Price (left axis) Source: Rocky Mountain Institute/BloombeeryNEF. Data is projected starting in 2020. TABLE 1.3: Alternatives to Li-ion Batteries Commercial Alternatives to Li-ion Future Competitors to Li-ion Batteries Flow Batteries (most robust competitor): projected to have Solid State: offer higher energy density, safety, and faster a CAPEX of US$370 million in 2025, compared to over US$1 recharge. A challenge is that during charge and discharge billion for Li-ion batteries. Also covers Iron Chrome, Vanadium, dendrites form, reducing coulombic efficiency. Probably the and Zinc Bromide. most significant competitor to LiBESS, the question remains whether solid-state will be commercially competitive to the second generation of EV Li-ion batteries. Nickel Zinc Batteries: the advantage of the NiZn battery is Li-S: rechargeable battery noted for its high specific energy. higher energy density relative to cost. It is targeting specific It may succeed Li-ion due to high energy density and lower applications, including data center rack-based uninterruptible cost (use of sulfur). The issue limiting commercialization is the power supply (UPS) and power management. polysulfide “shuttle effect,” which results in leakage of active material from the cathode resulting in low cycle life. Nickel Metal Hydride: rechargeable battery whose energy Li Air: metal air battery chemistry that uses oxidation of density can approach that of Li-ion. Used widely in hybrid lithium at the anode and reduction of oxygen at the cathode to electric vehicle (HEV) applications from 1999-2019. It has now induce current flow. Focused on the EV market because of the been superseded by the Li-ion battery in almost all HEV and high theoretical energy density (10 times greater than Li-ion) EV applications. Its low internal resistance is advantageous in but problems include recharging time, water and nitrogen high current applications. sensitivity, intrinsically poor conductivity, and pure lithium metal createss safety issues. Despite huge potential returns, those challenges have caused many companies and researchers to abandon this chemistry. Zinc Air: metal air electrochemical cell technology, these Ultra-capacitors: lightweight, faster to charge, safer, and batteries have the potential to be energy dense (up to three composed of non-toxic materials such as carbon. Motive power times the energy density of Li-ion) but also show problems with applications drive exploration of this technology. If it could store electrolyte management, dendrite, and charging issues. more energy and still retain the features it exhibits now, then it could challenge Li-ion. Sources: Recharge; The Battery Report (April 2018); HE Melin, The Li Ion battery End of Life Market 2018-2025; David Coffin and Jeff Horowitz, The Supply Chain for Electric Vehicle Batteries; US ITC- Journal of International Commerce and Economics, December 2018 and Shane Thompson; battery recycling industry expert. 10 REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS globally, making it the predominant recycled consumer Such an approach will be developed in the context product.4 There are several reasons for this: (i) all bat- of a ‘circular economy’ or ‘end-of-life’ approach. The tery manufacturers consistently use the same materials concept of a circular economy is relatively simple: it and design in their product, so the recycling process is recognizes that an exclusive focus on economic growth comparatively simple; (ii) it is profitable—disassembly does have its limits, particularly from an environmental from these products is cheaper than primary extraction perspective. Thus, it seeks to “remove waste and activities (disassembly is automated for lead batteries, pollution by making sustainable products and materials whereas for Li-ion batteries it is a manual exercise); and that do not have built in obsolescence and their creation (iii) there are strict rules that govern the disposal of lead does not exceed the limits of the environment or natural batteries due to the toxicity of its key component, lead. systems.”6 Lessons learned from lead battery life cycle that It is increasingly urgent that the design of LiBESS could translate into the same sort of success for Li-ion batteries should take end-of-life management into batteries include the following: account, extending the lifetime of products and materials • The same network responsible for the distribution of as long as possible—for both primary and secondary lead-based batteries is also responsible for the safe purposes. Disposal should be avoided to the extent pos- collection of spent batteries, which are used almost sible, with hazardous materials kept on a recycle/reuse entirely towards the construction of new batteries. mode, ideally, in perpetuity. It is the poorer countries that are victimized by illegal and unsustainable disposal prac- • The similarity in the components and design of lead tices: a full life cycle approach for LiBESS is fundamental batteries makes it economical to produce replicable in ensuring that its products do not add to the hazardous models. waste crisis. Figure 1.3 encapsulates the concept of a • Other profitable uses have been found for lead bat- circular economy. tery components (the overall chemical make-up of A circular economy approach—one that takes into lead batteries being relatively simple). Interestingly, account what happens to batteries once their primary Chinese experience has shown that low-speed purpose has been expended—should not represent a electric vehicles with manually detachable batteries compromise with respect to the attainment of environ- can, to an extent, make use of the lead-acid battery mental or economic goals. In that respect, recent reports network. by the World Economic Forum Global Battery Alliance • The main recycled component—lead—is known to (GBA) estimate that moving from a linear to a circular be of high quality, so it is purchased in a recycled economy approach could result in a reduction of 34 Mt form without hesitation. in GHG emissions while creating an additional economic value of approximately US$35 billion (GBA 2020, p. 7). • There are strict regulations regarding the disposal This would be realized through decreasing reliance on of batteries—most governments have imposed extraction and processing of primary materials, and an regulations that make recycling mandatory. increasing reliance on recycling and repurposing prac- Like the relative success story with respect to lead tices. Or put another way, simply repurposing or reusing acid batteries, it is hoped that the recycling and reuse of EV batteries to becoming power providers could lower Li-ion batteries can serve as a means to help their econ- the costs of EV charging infrastructure by 90% by 2030 omies grow in a socially and environmentally respon- while supplying 65% of stationary battery power grids sible manner. However, currently the regulatory and (GBA 2019, p. 7). What is not clear in these projections standards based regime around Li-ion batteries is weak by the GBA and IRENA is the extent of developing and inconsistently applied5, nor are the objectives, which country engagement behind these numbers—certainly typically work to limit the trading of hazardous goods, in at this point, the penetration of EVs in most developing line with a robust future EOL global regime developed countries is minimal (with the exception of China). For for LiBESS. example, the total number of EVs in South Africa as Delivering LiBESS in a sustainable manner can at Oct 2019, is only 1,000 out of the total of 12 million help developing countries to adopt clean energy tech- registered cars (Kuhudzai 2020). nologies. The recycling and reuse of Li-ion batteries It should be understood that a circular battery value can serve as a means to help their economies grow in a chain could be a major near-term driver of efforts to socially and environmentally responsible manner. realize the 2°C Paris Climate Agreement goal in the LiBESS and the Circular Economy 11 FIGURE 1.3: The Circular Economy: A Pictorial Depiction 1. Using resources more efficiently by changing the way we think about products and production 1. Rethink processes. Is the product the and reduce 3. Product reuse best way to meet the demand? Could we use fewer or different resources in its 2. Redesign production? 2. Design differently for example, by considering 4. Product repair, reuse, repair and 3. Reuse maintenance and recycling options in revision advance of production Use 4. Repair and remanufacturing l. n l 5. Recycling pb 6. Recover energy from materials 6. Recover 5. Processing and reuse of materials 7. Waste disposal and incineration without energy recovery is 6. Disposal avoided where possible. Source: The Netherlands Environmental Agency; Opportunities for a Circular Economy; https://themasites.pbl.nl/o/circular-economy/ transport and power sectors. Recycling and reuse primary function as the power source for EVs to practices should also further developing countries’ envi- providing a range of stationary power provisions: from ronmental, economic and energy security goals: envi- providing direct energy services at the micro grid/ ronmental, at the very least, to the extent that this will individual home level to backing up wind or solar mitigate early and unsustainable disposal of Li-ion bat- energy power supplies. Typically, an EV Li-ion battery teries; economic, in that it will significantly make good can operate satisfactorily in a vehicle at up to 80% the costs of Li-ion battery manufacturing and hence capacity for roughly 10 years before its performance make them more affordable for use in developing coun- is compromised. It can then be successfully reused tries (it has been estimated that reused batteries will be as a stationary source and offer a range of additional 30–70% less expensive than new counterparts by 20257 services. For instance, it can provide electric vehicle and could provide as much as 26 GWh of power by that support to mini grids—the former extending the life same year8); and, security to the extent that it will shield span of the LiBESS by 30 years and the latter by six a country’s exchequer from the cost of importing fossil years (Casals et al. 2018), assuming the products fuels for power, while conserving valuable resources. have been correctly refurbished and tested. Notwithstanding the current market position of Ambrose et al. (2014) argue that if properly planned, Asian, Western European, and U.S. interests that repurposed batteries could “become the storage hubs dominate the current recycling/reuse market for Li-ion for community-scale grids in the developing world” (p. 1), batteries, the question is not if, but how can we work estimating that a focus on mini grids in local communities to ensure that developing countries become equal in developing countries, will see repurposed batteries contributors in a circular economy?9 A second-life providing power to over 35 million homes currently approach for LiBESS would mean transforming its without such access (p. 5). Action to promote the wide 12 REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS use of second-life Li-ion batteries will serve to diversify There is little doubt that these must focus on developing and increase the resilience of local power sourcing, lead effective recycling/reuse systems.11 They should work to to increased effective backup power, and expand the emphasize the economic and environmental benefits of market for wind and solar power (Taljegard et al. 2019). putting batteries to market that are purposed to extend It should also be noted that while a circular their first life to the extent possible, and then develop economy approach is key to achieving a sustainable design features suited to reuse and recycling. Business future, this does not mean that there will be no need models must also clarify ownership and responsibilities to continue to mine and process primary minerals and for first-life Li-ion batteries over the full value cycle of metals for future clean energy technology. There is their use. Without the right business model, it is simply simply not enough lithium or other key metals being not possible to design products that are easily reused or recycled to meet global climate targets.10 In addition, recycled, or to have an effective system for reclaiming extending LiBESS beyond its initial transportation and rechanneling products into alternative uses. function to cover stationary sources (reuse rather than Typically, much attention is paid to the minerals that recycle), may result in an increase in primary extraction go into the batteries. For example, cobalt comprises to cover EV battery demands. Resource-rich develop- an essential component of the majority of Li-ion batter- ing countries could be well positioned to provide those ies. This has garnered considerable negative attention resources. Thus, the approach cannot be regarded in view of human rights violations, particularly in the as a ‘zero-sum’ situation. There is no binary choice Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). These are deep between extraction or recycling/reuse—on the contrary, and valid concerns, but they need not obscure con- both are needed. sideration of other key elements in a full value chain A circular economy approach for LiBESS in devel- approach to Li-ion batteries—particularly when seeking oping countries is relatively unresearched and untested more effective means to develop robust reuse and/or but it holds great environmental and economic promise recycling of Li-ion batteries in developing countries. for all countries. Most of the research and implementa- In that respect, an end-of-life (EOL) strategy for tion in the field of batteries, particularly with respect to developing countries that begins to implement the recycling and reuse options, is emanating from a few use of Li-ion batteries in their grid system could be a countries—especially China and South Korea. In addi- very exciting opportunity to both reduce GHG emis- tion, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and the sions and costs. The Faraday Institution and its ReLiB United States have all recently embarked on ambitious project has been extremely informative in this context. programs intended to integrate battery technologies Its aim is “to establish the technological, economic with a circular economy approach in mind, focusing on and legal infrastructure to make the recycling of close modalities for recycling and reuse. to 100% of the materials contained in Li-ion batteries Other developing countries run the risk of falling from the automotive sector possible.”12 Key areas to behind in the global economy of recycled/repurposed consider when identifying relevant technology attrib- storage batteries. What areas of recycling and reuse utes for the purposes of reuse and recycling in LiBESS best suit developing countries? As consumers of the include (Yongchong, Liu, and Liu 2019): growing LiBESS market? To secure more critical min- • Nature of materials used: LiBESS should, to the erals and metals for their own economic development? extent possible, be “self-consistent” or demonstrate Each developing country will need to make its own resilient integrity. It is important that materials are choices, based on the issues discussed below. not introduced during the manufacturing process that may cause contamination. • Initial design and structure:13 development of TECHNOLOGY ATTRIBUTES OF LiBESS should consider prolonging Li-ion battery life include its charging speed, depth of discharge, RECYCLING AND/OR REUSING loading, and exposure to extreme temperatures. FOR LIBESS Specific checks would cover what causes capacity loss, how rising internal resistance affects perfor- In discussing a circular economy approach to energy mance, impacts of elevated self-discharge, and storage batteries, what are the technology attributes of determination of the lowest capacity at which the LiBESS most relevant for environmental sustainability? LiBESS and the Circular Economy 13 battery can still be discharged. Critical to achieving NOTES this is designing a Li-ion battery that effectively addresses key sensitivities, including a technological  aterial provided from announcement on launch of Energy 1. M Storage Partnership in May, 2019 in Vancouver. See https:// and implementation framework that balances health www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2019/05/28​ and safety with recycling/reuse considerations. /new-international-partnership-established-to-increase​ • Structure of LiBESS: relative complexity of -the-use-of-energy-storage-in-developing-countries disassembly; standardized protocols for LiBESS, Alarco and Talbot (2015). 2.  accounting for health and safety considerations. 3. See Table 1.3 for the technical challenges that still beset The industry should work towards developing solid-state batteries LiBESS that is as standardized as possible, particu-  he Global Battery Alliance estimates that 30% of GHG 4. T larly with respect to disassembly practices.14 reductions required to meet global targets by 2030 will need to be met through the deployment of Energy Storage • Access to key ingredients: extending life of first Batteries. It will only need to dramatically grow beyond that batteries and ensuring an easy transition to reusing mark post 2030. (See GBA 2019). or recycling products. In the case of recycling, the  hapter 3 for overview on country/region actions to address 5. C product should be able to be disassembled easily Li-ion batteries and safely; in the case of reuse, the product should  art of the reason for the high attention being paid to recy- 6. P be amenable to minimal resetting of battery packs. cling lead batteries relates to its high toxicity levels (Gaines 2014, p. 3). • Recovery: Continue innovation in recovering valu- See Engel, Hertzke, and Siccardo (2019). 7.  able materials which should also ease production of See Martinez-Lacerna (2018). 8.  second-life batteries. For description of scope of issue, see Jacoby (2019). 9.  • Disposal: governments will need to put in place See WBG report “Climate Action Minerals”: Still in publica- 10.  decommissioning regimes to be incorporated in the tion. Also see GIZ presentation : Mineral Sourcing for Electric design of LiBESS (US Energy Storage Association Vehicle Batteries : Insights into Raw Material Extraction and 2020, p. 6-7). Governance which estimates 30% of battery storage needs could be met through recycling, March 19, 2020 • Collection practices: enhancing incentives to See the Global Battery Alliance’s “Battery Passport” initia- 11.  develop a robust recycling/reuse market in develop- tive as a tool for promoting a circular economy approach ing countries. with respect to batteries: https://www.mining.com/battery- • Full life cycle accounting: relative GHG footprint passport-guiding-principles-on-value-chain-data-launched- at-world-economic-forum/ of energy storage batteries, including under recy- cling and reuse regimes. See the following reports from The Faraday Institution: 12.  https://relib.org.uk/ and https://faraday.ac.uk/research​ /lithium-ion/recycle-reuse/ See “How to prolong lithium based batter- 13.  ies” https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article / how_to_prolong_lithium_based_batteries. Personal email from Hao Liu, Yongchong Chen & Dandan Liu. 14.  2 CURRENT REUSE AND RECYCLING PRACTICES RECYCLING AND REUSE: SOME COMMON ISSUES O ne of the first challenges that developing countries1 face when attempting to develop a circular economy perspective on LiBESS is how to develop a robust system for recyc- ling/reuse when the current deployment of Li-ion batteries is as low as it is. While there is no doubt about the strong growth of electric vehicles (EV) in the global transportation marketplace, these still represent fewer than 10% of road vehicles in most countries. As virtually all reused or recycled batteries will find their initial purpose in powering road vehicles, there is a dearth of data and evidence on the second life of Li-ion vehicular batteries as energy storage batteries (ESBs). Figure 2.1 provides a relatively basic overview of the structure of an efficient EV battery management system: To achieve a high use of batteries removed from EVs, it is critical to ensure that these are collected efficiently and do not ‘leak’ from the system. If the regulatory system does not ensure that the collection system operates efficiently, it will be impossible to monitor the fate of end-of-life EV batteries. There are currently a handful of private sector firms that focus globally on the collection of Li-ion batteries for the purpose of recycling/reuse. None of these have a significant presence in devel- oping countries outside of China and India. Currently, this handful of private firms that devote their full attention to recycling Li-ion batteries include: Umicore (Belgium), Retriev Technology (USA), American Manganese (Canada), and Accurec and Redux Recycling (Manhart et al. 2018, p. 20). Recycling firms active in Asia include: CALB (China), Earthtech (Korea), and Sumitomo Metals (Japan). When first implementing electric battery capacity in developing countries, an important design consideration is the availability (if any) of regional collection centers linked to a network of local ‘extraction’ centers. DATA AND SKILLS In developed and developing countries alike, there is a lack of data and skills. Skills such as triaging, battery manufacturing, servicing of batteries, dismantling, and recycling are requisite for functional systems. Currently the resources are lacking, due to a number of factors, not the least of which is inad- equate compensation for the level of engineering expertise required as well as inadequate recognition of the risks to workers in these installations (Jacoby 2019. p. 3). RECYCLING VS. REUSING Another area of consideration relates to the respective challenges and opportunities of recycling and reuse or repurposing of Li-ion batteries. Simple waste mitigation models typically categor- ize reuse practices as more sustainable than recycling as the operations related to disassembly, transportation, and redeployment should be much simpler, and hence more environmentally benign. In addition, as briefly alluded to above, recycling processes for industrial Li-ion batteries remain immature and it has been contended that their attendant economic complexities continue to defy any easy resolution. Given the current expenses related to disassembly, transportation, and storage of discrete materials, any attempts to lower costs on primary assembly of batteries will only make recycling less financially attractive (Capgemini 2019; Harper et al. 2019). Indeed, 14 Current Reuse and Recycling Practices 15 FIGURE 2.1: The Second Life Battery Cycle The second life battery cycle: after about 10 years in a vehicle, lithium-ion batteries can be reused for another purpose and thereby begin a “second life” 1. End of first life After its first life in a vehicle, the battery retains 50 to 90% of its capacity 2. Collecting The pack is extracted, collected and sent to diagnosis centre 3. Refurbishing Packs are tested and cells fit for 2nd life are dismantled and reassembled into homogeneous modules 4. Reusing Refurbished battery modules are integrated into large stationary storage systems to provide various services to the grid Source: Capgemini. 2019, April. 16  REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS the question can reasonably be posed as to whether a and regulatory (Gaines 2014). The economic challenge business case can be made for recycling in the absence is that, with the exception of cobalt and nickel, most of additional regulations to support the industry. of the other constituent materials are more costly to However, there are also questions about the overall salvage than simply to mine directly.3 Figure 2.2 outlines effectiveness and attraction of simple reuse practices. the recovery of the various constituents. The technical Currently, the reuse of batteries is only economic if it challenge involves the existence of many different types becomes possible to reuse them with minimal disas- of Li-ion batteries, each with its own distinct design and sembly. However, given that there is little consistency component features, making it difficult to establish recy- between manufacturers of current Li-ion batteries (unlike cling centers that could cope with the full range of Li-ion lead batteries), each facility would need its own reuse batteries currently in use. applications. At present, no single model is sufficiently Li-ion batteries intended for EVs and back up power prominent to justify such an approach,2 though a more sources are typically much larger than lead batteries, homogenous set of designs for EV batteries can reason- with increasingly voluminous battery packs, making ably be expected in future. disassembly more complex and potentially riskier. Despite the challenges facing recycling and reusing, it They are also typically built into their applications and is clear that both of these practices, if we look to lead-acid are not designed to be separated by the user (Melin batteries as a precedent, could be well positioned to grow 2019, p. 10). Products with Li-ion batteries (such as cell over the next few decades. It is not a matter of mining phones and EVs) are typically returned to recyclers of versus recycling/reusing, or recycling versus reusing, phones and cars, not dedicated reyclers of batteries. rather it is a prospect of ‘yes to all’. Challenges that face Logistical challenges relate to collection and transpor- the Li-ion repurposing agenda include: tation—there are no standard guidelines that govern • the wide range of Li-ion batteries being manufac- the collection and storage of Li-ion batteries, nor, with tured, with few standardized features/regulations in the exception of a handful of countries, are there any place governing recycling and reuse practices and public regulations regarding the discrete recycling of technologies, rendering disassembly and reassembly large format Li-ion batteries (Melin 2019, p. 4). Although operations costly and potentially hazardous; much can be learned from the precedent set by lead- acid batteries, Li-ion batteries clearly present a unique • the continued decrease in prices of new batteries; set of challenges. • lack of standards regarding the performance level Despite such challenges, the benefits of recycling of batteries; and, cannot be overlooked. If production of Li-ion batteries • no regulatory regime in place with respect to the proceeds at the rate widely predicted, materials that repurposing and/or disposal of Li-ion batteries with can be extracted and recycled from these batteries will the exception of China and Europe (Engel, Hertzke, become economically profitable in time. At scale, recov- and Siccardo 2019, p. 3). ered cobalt, nickel, manganese, and lithium products (among others) will contain higher concentrations of the element than found in natural ores (Jacoby 2019, p.4). Over the near term, recycling lithium iron phosphate RECYCLE is expected to play an increasingly critical role in EV The most prominent challenges with respect to the and large-scale energy storage—it is the only product current recycling of Li-ion batteries relates to “techni- currently providing an economic incentive for recycling. cal constraints, economic barriers, logistic issues and Thus, technology that utilizes directly recycled materials, regulatory gaps” (Jacoby 2019, p. 2). At present, while such as lithium ion phosphate, should be promoted.4 there is an impressive breadth of research growing Li-ion battery recycling practices are in a state of around this issue, actual recycling rates are assumed to evolution. Smelting (pyrometallurgy) is a relatively be quite low at this point. Technical constraints typically capital-intensive approach (producing significant GHG involve the complexity of Li-ion battery disassembly emissions) in extracting/recycling some critical relevant (by contrast with the relatively straightforward disassem- materials—cobalt, nickel and copper—but not other bly of lead battery products). key elements, such as lithium or aluminium, espe- The recycling of Li-ion batteries is characterized by cially from an economic perspective.5 Hydrometallurgy a number of challenges: economic, technical, logistical, processing—chemical leaching—is much less energy Current Reuse and Recycling Practices 17 FIGURE 2.2: Recycling Steps for LiBESS #1 Pyrometallurgy Co, Ni alloys+ = Pure Metals (Smelting) Collection+ Size Active #2 Acid leaching+ Disassembly material solvent = Co, Ni, Li Salts diagnostics reduction separation extraction Plastics, Cell casings Al + Cu #3 Active material = Precursors, Current active materials Collectors regeneration Source: Adapted from Evan (2018). intensive in its operations and can capture a wider har- South Korea, and Japan together account for over 90% vest of recyclable materials than smelting. However, the of all Li-ion battery production worldwide. management of the caustic reagents needed for leach- ing entails technical challenges. Research is ongoing: for example the US Department of Energy’s research REUSE7 group, ReCell, is investigating the so-called “direct recy- cling” process which uses supercritical carbon dioxide The largest portion of research on reuse (in contradis- (sCO2) as an agent for removing the electrolyte and tinction to recycling) has been academic, typically as then physically crushing the cell on the basis of density part of larger industrial projects. Research around reuse differences.6 This latter process appears to be the most has been mainly the purview of European and US insti- environmentally benign. It can theoretically capture/ tutions, although China has also contributed. Compared recycle all key components in Li-ion batteries and does to recycling, reuse is still largely unexplored territory, not require environmentally harmful caustic agents. from a practical research perspective. Furthermore, it consumes only a small fraction of the One of the areas most often examined in research energy required for pyrometallurgy. is the extent to which batteries could profitably be used Research around the recycling of Li-ion batteries has to support power generation and backup activities been markedly more active than on reuse opportunities (off grid and backup for power in rural contexts or in and practices. The vast majority of peer reviewed arti- developing countries) where it would be uneconomic cles on the topic originate from China and South Korea. for new energy storage batteries.8 Other studies appear Both countries saw it as a strategic investment decision, to confirm the contention that reuse is a profitable working to enhance their ‘critical metals’ security in view and affordable venture for more marginal user groups of the growing EV and electronics market (Melin 2019, (rural and less developed countries). However, this is a p. 27). The prevalence of Asian countries’ research in rapidly changing scenario—as costs associated with the this area is entirely consistent with the predominance manufacture of new Li-ion batteries continue to fall, the of Li-ion batteries in their manufacturing profile. China, economic incentive to reuse becomes less compelling (Melin 2019, p. 26). 18  REUSE AND RECYCLING: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS The relative environmental benefits of reuse are locations with very high or very low ambient tempera- recognized in the literature. They are significant in a tures and with undeveloped or unreliable infrastructure. number of respects—by supplanting diesel or gas pow- Developed countries have struggled to avoid serious ered plants as a backup to renewables such as wind or accidents in primary LiBESS facilities. A second-life solar, and by exerting considerably lower environmental application under much more challenging conditions impacts (in terms of GHG emissions, energy expended can heighten these risks. Governments must ensure that and local environmental contaminants) than alternative developing countries do not simply become the e-waste recycling options. It even makes a difference when com- dumping ground for Li-ion batteries. On the contrary, pared to the GHG emissions associated with building economic and environmental benefits must, whenever new batteries: one report estimates that GHG emissions possible, be fashioned from an effective circular econ- associated with the life cycle of a used Li-ion battery are omy approach that strengthens their critical minerals 25% fewer than a unit powered by a new battery (Engel, supplies or takes advantage of other opportunities, such Hertzke, and Siccardo 2019, p. 72). as easing the transition to a zero carbon energy infra- The size of the potential market for second-life structure. A standard battery management system (BMS) batteries is estimated to be the product of four variables: data stream—or, at minimum, a provision that allows sales of EVs; type of battery; customers’ behavior with access to the manufacturer’s BMS data—is critical to respect to battery upgrades; and, the percentage of ensure that secondary Li-ion batteries are used in a sus- reused batteries that actually make it to the market- tainable and safe manner. Such a system is particularly place.9 Based on these variables, Reid et al. (2016) esti- important for developing countries that may not have the mate that reused or secondary batteries could provide means to evaluate the overall integrity of these products. up to 1,000 GWh globally. This growth could be compro- mised by a number of factors, including: • Market for energy storage applications: whether future regulations and public policies help or hinder NOTES the development and uptake of energy storage 1. This is also an issue for many developed economies. batteries as new batteries and relevant materials  mail exchange with Matthew Keyser of NREL February 2. E become less expensive to produce—and the risk 2020 that the case for reuse strategies becomes less t should be borne in mind that materials used in batter- 3. I compelling (Casals and Garcia 2016) ies are not only the direct product of the mining industry – • Cheaper options: the cheaper the manufacturing ­ recycling will need to manage plastics, solvents, electro- costs of first-life Li-ion batteries, the more con- lytes, and so forth. strained are the profits promised by second-life  mail exchange with Chinese Industrial Association of 4. E Power Producers, June 2020. batteries (Casals and Garcia 2016)  or instance, see Unicore’s recycling process: https://csm. 5. F • Reuse cost: the cost of ‘repurposing’ is competitive umicore.com/en/battery-recycling/our-recycling-process • Data: a lack of comprehensive data and basic 6. Ibíd., pp.8-9 research on the longevity/second-life potential  ection mostly reflects conclusions reached by Melin (2019, 7. S of Li-ion batteries pp. 23-26). Specific choices and opportunities for developing  his study does not look at Vehicle to Grid (V2G) scenarios 8. T as this area does not focus on second-life batteries. countries with respect to the second life of LiBESS  ee Reid and Julve (2016, pp. 28-30). Also see McKinsey 9. S will largely be determined by local circumstances. It is (2019), which estimates second-life batteries providing 200 important at the outset to consider whether second-life GwH by 2030. applications can be effective, efficient, and safe in 3 REGIONAL PROFILES I n addition to environmental benefits, the key driver for recycling (if not reuse) of Li-ion batteries is that many components are of significant strategic value. The strategic security interests, in the form of critical minerals and metals reserves, and potential economic benefits apply not only to the repurposing of these key elements but also in providing recycled elements for rebuilt batteries that could make access to the battery recycling and reuse products more cost effective (IESA 2019). Table 3.1 demonstrates (CRU 2019) that most regions are still developing standards and regulations for battery recycling and reuse practices. The table also (CRU Group 2019) provides a comparative updated summary of regulations in key regions of the world along with some of the major firms participating in recycling of Li-ion batteries. Clearly, China and Europe appear to be the regulatory leaders at present. Also, it is apparent that developing countries are far behind. India is certainly making progress,1 but there is little evidence of other developing countries following suit. SOUTH KOREA South Korea commenced mass Li-ion battery production in 1999 and launched its second-life program for products in 2015 with the expectation that there will be a steady supply of EV batteries ready for transformation to a stationary power provider with backup function. The EOL management of the batteries is addressed in the Clean Air provisions for emissions with an understanding that the government holds the ultimate responsibility for collecting batteries for recycling or repurposing activities. In 2015, Jeju Techno Park began developing second-life battery reuse valuation technology. The Korea Battery Industry Association (KBIA) developed a standard second-life battery reuse valuation method in 2019. Currently, a standard for a second-life battery grading evaluation method is being developed. KBIA is building EV, energy storage system second-life battery performance and safety evaluation centers in Naju, Jeollanam-do2, and is pre- paring to build a recycling center. Companies such as Hyundai Motor, LG Chem, Woojin Industrial Systems, and Incel are also participating in this project. CHINA China appears to be recalibrating its recycling efforts in response to initiatives in industrialized nations. It recently announced that as the largest consumer of EVs, it will be developing a series of regulations and public policies “aimed at promoting construction of an end-of-life vehicle battery recycling industry that is environmentally friendly, resource saving and economically beneficial” (CRU Group 2019). There is also a consistent policy to view these devices as containing critical “energy materials” and recycling is a key consideration to maintaining the supply chain of these materials. A significant portion of the worlds’ LIBESS systems are in South Korea and China. Both countries are keenly aware of the link between the recycled materials and the battery manufac- turers—especially with respect to critical to key materials such as nickel and cobalt, which are not domestically accessible as primary materials. Batteries from buses and early EVs are beginning to be reprocessed for second life in China. An agreement has been reached between the central government and 16 of the largest battery and vehicle companies, along with operators of telecom towers, to use the batteries as backup power solutions. Demand for this type of energy storage far outpaces the supply of used batteries. To date 19 20  TABLE 3.1: Geographical Overview of Standards and Regulations Status China Europe USA Japan Korea Africa South America India Regulations on ✓ Battery — — Clean Air — — — EV batteries for Directive and Conservation Recycling the amending Article 58 of 2008/98/ Operation of a EC allowing low-emission for an object to vehicle be transferred without having to be declared a waste General Regulation ✓ ✓ Universal waste Act on the — — — — on LIB Batteries (US 40 CFR Promotion of 273.3) further effective Utilization regulated by of Resources, Status 2001 Regulations on 2nd ✓ — — — — — — — Life EV batteries Extended Producer ✓ ✓ ✓ — — — — — Responsibility Recycling Hydrometallurgical 96% 50% of the — — — — — — Efficiency target targeting Ni, Co and Mn weight of Pyrometallurgical 97% the end of targeting Nickel and Rare life battery is Earths recycled Major Recyclers Brunph, GEM, Gangfeng, Umicore, Saft, Retriev, RCI, NRCC, JMC, SungEEL Hi-tech, — — Tata of LIB Fangyuan New Energy Recupyl, and Emerging Sumitomo, Dowa Koba, Torecom Chemicals, Materials, Hyayou Cobalt, Accurec companies Ecosystem, JX and TMC Raasi Solar Jingsu Miracle Logistics, include; Nippon and Mahindra Taisen Sungeel- Electric Metallico, Battery Resourcers (continued) Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems TABLE 3.1: (Continued) Status China Europe USA Japan Korea Africa South america India Major Recycle Waste Battery Recycling European NAATBatt Battery Association Korea Battery South Africa’s — — Associations of LIB Commitee China Battery Battery of Japan Industry Electric vehicle Industry Association Recycling Association Industry Association and Association ReCharge is looking at Regional Profiles recycling as part of the broader issue of EV integration Summary Current policies prioritize Policies guide No regulations Japanese Auto South Korea No regulations To date, India 2nd life EV batteries and EV producers specifically for makers have led Battery and widespread does not have promote marketization and battery EV batteries the recyling of EV Associations problems any specific improving information makers to batteries. Li-ion has collabrated with properly regulations transparency, recycling participate batteries are with the National recycling Pb or guidelines efficiency and R&D for in battery subject to further University to batteries around the recycling technologies recycling regulation under pioneer EV effective the Electrical batery recycling disposal and Appliance and or recycling of Material Safety Act. Li-ion batteries Recycling US DOE Japanese joint Fuel efficiency industry is launched first venture (Sumitomo standards vary relatively LIB recycling and Nissan) from none to mature research center 4R Energy was world class in compared to ReCall at ANL awarded the first chile, there are each other UL 1974 standard no EV specific regions. EV for EV battery regulations producers reuse are acutely aware of the importance of recycling Source: Authors. 21 22  Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems FIGURE 3.1: China: Who are Participants in the Recycling Network? EV EV retailers and EV consumers manufacturers auto service centres Part-exvhange s erie d batt aire Rep EV battery ELV battery collectors, Scrapped auto makers recyclers and re-users recyclers Defective batteries Recycle Second life EV battery raw materials Downstream users: ● Power storage ● Low-speed vehicles New batteries Retired second life ● Solar streetlight Old or retired batteries batteries ● Others Source: CRU Group 2019 10,000 tons of EOL batteries have been used as backup The US Energy Storage Association recently power solutions corresponding to a capacity of 800 released a report examining the status and future of MWh or 2% of need (Melin 2019). EOL Management of Lithium Energy Storage Systems The major actors and processes in China’s recy- (US Energy Storage Association 2020). Not withstand- cling/reuse network are outlined in Figure 3.1 (CRU ing its relatively nascent status, most of the relevant Group 2019). Interestingly, it is apparent that reuse is activities relate to recycling; second use batteries are well integrated into China’s overall recycling scheme for limited in their application to pilot demonstrations and Li-ion batteries. a few small projects. EOL options for LiBESS have yet to develop into a consistently regulated and economic activity. Areas of innovation being pursued by a range of universities and labs include: UNITED STATES • recycling designs The crucial value of recycling/reusing Li-ion batteries is being increasingly appreciated in the United States. • direct cathode recycling For example, the US Department of Energy recently • improved recovery of other materials in LiBESS launched its ReCell program. US Secretary of Energy • increased use of recycled materials in new batteries Rick Perry explicitly announced the recycling program as a means to close the ‘critical metals’ gap. He said that “America’s dependence on foreign sources of critical materials undermines our energy security and EUROPE national security. US Department of Energy will leverage Although the European Union is a mature market with the power of competition and the resources of the pri- respect to traditional battery recycling, there is only one vate sector, universities, and the National Laboratories facility that links cathode manufacturing and recycling: to develop innovative recycling technologies, which will Umicore. This natural partnership deserves greater bolster economic growth, strengthen our energy secu- encouragement, as it can add overall value to the rity, and improve the environment” (Perry 2019). process. Indeed, the relationship between the recycler Regional Profiles 23 and the cathode manufacturer partly explains why EV model that will commercialize their localized, circular recycling in Asia has been the most robust globally. economy approach.4 Other recycling companies in the European Union Along with these two projects, a number of related are SNAM and Recupyl (France), Redux (Germany). projects have been selected as candidates for the Batrec (Switzerland) and Euro Dieuze (France) are part Global LEAP Awards competition for the Solar E-waste of the large environmental service company Veolia (but Challenge, in which some projects also examine the not part of the original cathode manufacturing process). repurposing of Li-ion batteries. These include the Solaris Startups include Duesenfeld (Germany). Meanwhile Off Grid project in Tanzania, which looks at ways in SungEel Hi Tec (Korean recycler) is proposing a pro- which spent batteries from solar home systems can be cessing plant in Hungary and possibly a neometals plant. effectively recycled and replaced with second-life bat- This battery recycling experience will certainly help teries; and a Hinckley recycling facility in Nigeria, which with the organization and collection of large format EV is exploring a process to reuse battery cells through the batteries. Although no specific directive has been taken production of new products from off-grid solar batteries. with regards to the EV batteries (they would be managed In Kenya, WeTu, a solar-powered lighting provider, is as “industrial” under 2006/66/EC) one proposal from establishing seven battery collection points for fisher- the EU Council Presidency in 2017 entailed amending men who use solar-powered lanterns. Finally, in Benin 2008/98/EC so that an object (EV battery) could be trans- and Burkina Faso, a project called Lagazel is working to ferred from one holder to another without the intent to develop capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa to reuse end-of- discard. This would imply that the battery could be taken life Li-ion battery cells in second-life battery packs.5 for reuse rather than being classified by default as waste. The South African government has also com- New business models are being implemented by missioned a report Lithium Battery Recycling that original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in some addresses the sustainable management of Li-ion batter- European countries whereby companies such as VW ies, with a particular focus on recycling. The report iden- and Renault have installed dedicated in-house recycling tifies two outstanding issues: few regulations around the processes that allow them to retain materials at end of disposal of Li-ion batteries after their first life and a lack life. Some cell suppliers are now offering lower prices to of relevant products in domestic markets, as EVs are OEMs who guarantee to return at least 80% of materials only now being introduced in the African vehicle market. sold to them at end of life. Such packs may never reach the developing world. LATIN AMERICA In Latin America, battery recycling is typically covered AFRICA under broader solid waste management regimes. This Africa is one of the regions that would most directly is a less than reassuring picture. Currently, only 55% benefit from a robust circular economy program for of solid waste is properly managed in sanitary landfills, Li-ion batteries. The continent is, by far, the poorest implying significant failures in collections and proper region with respect to electricity access. There are a disposal. small number of initiatives in Eastern Africa exploring Several countries have regulations that cover lead the use of second-life batteries for energy storage/ battery recycling: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica backup services. The Faraday Battery Challenge Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru. However, there are no included a project in Kenya that looked to extend the analogous regulatory regimes for Li-ion batteries, life of vehicle Li-ion batteries through repurposing meaning there is almost no infrastructure for recy- for a Kenyan solar home system provider, M-KOPA.3 cling e-waste or batteries. Instead, these are typically Supported by the Shell Foundation, Aceleron is working exported to Europe or the US for recycling. with an organization called BBOXX in Kenya and By 2020, 80% of Latin American countries plan to Rwanda to test the use of second-life Li-ion batteries implement e-waste and battery collection programs, such for energy storage purposes. Their initial conclusion is as an Extended Producer Responsibility model. These that used Li-ion batteries are superior in performance plans are considered fairly ambitious in view of the exist- to lead batteries. They are looking to develop a service ing infrastructural challenges yet to be overcome.6 24  Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems REPORTING AND MEASUREMENT cycle of the product—from the planning and design to the manufacturing to the operation stages of the product STANDARDS AND LIABILITY7 (as governed by relevant operational guidelines). A full In most regions, robust reporting/measuring and liability life value approach will ensure that ownership and risks regimes are still lacking. Meanwhile, industry stan- (and, by extension, liabilities) are defined throughout dards continue to be developed to address these gaps. the operational life of the battery. Maintenance and Originally focused on safety issues, standards now regeneration protocols for the battery’s life in energy also address a wide range of performance issues. With storage systems should be considered when developing regards to EV batteries, there is a recognition that warranties for LiBESS. The respective maintenance and second-life standards will have a role to play, with the regeneration processes developed for batteries will play most notable platform being the UL 1974 standard, a critical role in determining the length and quality of its although it mainly focuses on lead acid batteries.8 service life. However, a serious gap—in both developed and developing countries—relates to the lack of harmonized standards for Li-ion batteries. The codification of lithium NOTES manufacturing and performance standards has been 1. See https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry​ difficult for a variety of reasons. Most significantly, there /auto/auto-news/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-presents-a​ is a wide range of sectors responsible for developing -1000-million-opportunity-in-india/articleshow/71341593​ .cms?from=mdr the relevant technologies, such as phone, appliance, The Jeollanam-Do province has a master plan to develop an 2. vehicle, and power providers. Uniform reporting and EV/energy storage system battery reuse, refabrication, and measurement tools must be developed for these tech- recycling industry research & development and demonstration nologies. Appropriate standards need to tackle: energy center. Tentatively scheduled for 2021, the 8,600m2 used density (Wh/kg); power (W); energy efficiency; life cycle battery center will be comprised of 5 buildings including patterns; and safety parameters (including the devel- a warehouse, testing facility, safety testing facility, and environment testing facility. (Information provided by KBIA). opment of vibration, mechanical shock, electricity, and 3. See activities under Advanced Battery Life Extension (ABLE). temperature tests) (Aristyawati et al. 2016). 4. See https://shellfoundation.org/learning/aceloron-pilot​ The same lack of coordination and harmoniza- -lessons-learnt and https://shellfoundation.org/apps​ tion exists with respect to the issue of liability and the /uploads/2019/06/Aceleron-Field-Trial-02019-06 respective roles and responsibilities of the initial man- 5. See Global Leap Awards Solar E-Challenge Round 2. 6. Hugo Alvarenga, ORBIS Compliance. Article in April 2018 ufacturer and the eventual users as it makes its way issue of Incompliance Magazine. from the EV to a stationary source. Areas of potential 7. See Techc@re. liability include accident and injury; product recall and 8. It should be noted that the International reputational risk; data loss; and the environment. These Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is proposing products are potentially dangerous chemical goods, a new work item. See “Requirements for reuse of with attendant risks of combustion and explosion. secondary batteries” at https://www.iec.ch/dyn/ www/f?p=103:20:0::::FSP_ORG_ID,FSP_LANG_ID:1290,25 Liability issues are also relevant throughout the life 4 FUTURE AREAS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS D eveloping countries must engage on this issue as a matter of some urgency: the collec- tion and retention of valuable materials from Li-ion batteries could represent a strategic economic resource. It could also help ease the cost of countries embarking on a clean en- ergy transition. Although some commodities, such as lithium, are at present less econom- ic to recycle than to extract as a primary resource, that situation is unlikely to continue ­indefinitely. If responsibly designed and managed, recycling and/or reuse activities could represent a sus- tainable and growing revenue streams providing steady ‘blue-collar’ ­ income. It should also provide significant environmental benefits, from mitigation of the environmental impact of local landfills discarded batteries) to easing the market pressures driving primary extraction ­ (­ practices. The more key elements and technologies are made available through recycling/reuse, the less reliance on mining to provide these resources (ISEA 2019). As the demand for these batteries and their materials grows, it should be increasingly advan- tageous to extract critical resources using these ­ technologies. As already witnessed in Japan and Korea, the phenomenon of ‘urban mining’ is bound to increase over the coming ­ years. Will coun- tries be satisfied to simply export their ‘used’ EV batteries for other countries to exploit (and re-sell the resources) or are there sufficient incentives to become part of the global battery marketplace and develop the recycling/reuse industry locally? COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES In developing countries, collection of Li-ion batteries for the purpose of recycling/reuse is very much in its infancy (Manhart et al. 2018). In fact, overall there is a dearth of research in this area, when compared to the literature surrounding recycling and reuse ­ techniques. In other words, most research takes the sufficient supply of Li-ion batteries for recycling and reuse as a given, whereas in most areas of the world, with the exception of China and South Korea, this is a critical ­ issue. Areas where additional research could prove useful include: • Minimum requirements: What is the threshold of ‘first life’ users in making their batteries available for collection? Which collectors are favored over others and why? Which technical solutions best resolve issues around safety and environmental impact relating to collection and transportation of these goods? • Regulations: What changes/additions should be made regarding regulations on the interna- tional trade of expended batteries and do those regulations serve as barriers or incentives for recycling/reuse? • Classification: What are the most effective modalities in developing countries for the disas- sembly, sorting, and classification of Li-ion batteries? • Owner and business models for reuse: What are the most effective business models which will expedite the easy transfer of spent EV batteries to LiBESS users?1 What are the prospects of developing countries adopting such practices? What lessons have we learned from other regions in seeking to enhance the economic attractiveness of a circular economy approach to LiBESS? What is the status quo in terms of battery recycling, in general, including lead batter- ies, and how might this best be augmented by Li-ion batteries? 25 26  Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems • Regional priorities in developing countries: What reliability risks), what might the prospects be for might be the best approach on recycling and repur- reused systems that are financially competitive at a posing for developing countries? Decentralized larger scale? There are four possibilities: recycling/reuse stations or more centrally located • Distributed energy storage (residential and small facilities? To what extent should regulations and business) standards be developed on national or regional • Utility scale energy programs (Li-ion batteries bases? have been gaining market share in this segment) • Standardization: While a single predominant type • EV charging (e-mobility will eventually expand of Li-ion battery is unlikely to emerge, measure- in Africa) ment and reporting protocols for LiBESS products (­ covering energy density, power, energy efficiency, • Modular based (lead battery replacement) and a range of safety measures) can be harmonized • Piloting: Reuse pilot case studies for community and coordinated, as well as codifying appropriate based and micro grids in a range of developing measurement, reporting, and labelling ­ practices. country ecosystems, with varied geology and cli- • Liability: Common liability practices should be for- mate (Ambrose et al. 2014). mally developed and agreed upon, covering the full • Capacity: How ready are host countries to adopt life cycle of Li-ion products, including collection and reused batteries as part of their grid or buildings/ transportation ­practices. home power systems? Future research is needed for other issues common to • Research: Research is needed on the suitability reuse and recycling, such as: of automotive battery packs and their chemistry • Co-ordination: What sort of coordinated approach for various ambient ­ environments. A battery pack should be taken to the principle of extended pro- designed to work at up to 35oC ambient tempera- ducer responsibility for second-life LiBESS? ture may not be suitable for reuse in another coun- try where equipment temperatures (including the • Extended producer responsibility: What are the effect of solar loading) can swiftly exceed 80­  o C. basic infrastructure and legal requirements neces- sary to make EPR functional? • Social impacts: Develop a robust inventory of environmental and social impacts of full life cycle • Relevance of lead acid batteries: What is the of used batteries, covering production, use, and status quo in terms of battery recycling, in general, ­ ecommissioning. d including lead batteries, and how might this best be augmented by Li-ion batteries? • Benchmarking: Develop locally robust benchmark figures representative of current good international • Challenges: Are there common or specific logisti- ­ ractices. industry p cal challenges related to developing countries? • Testing and grading of first use batteries for reuse: Perhaps consider developing an ISO type REUSE batteries. system of standards for reused ­ • Manufacturing improvements: How best to The reuse of Li-ion batteries (and other components), improve battery pack assembly for reuse to mitigate particularly from vehicular Li-ion batteries to stationary safety and environmental impact concerns? energy storage batteries, is still at an early stage, as is research on the subject, despite its significant potential • Second-life options: Demonstrate utility of reused contribution to local economies. Areas ripe for further systems for the full range of stationary power ­ uses. research include: As many as 14 different uses of LiBESS have been identified. Are all of these suitable for reused batter- ­ • Potential for repackaged LiBESS in supplying/ ies; are some more viable than others? supporting large scale energy storage systems: Most of the research has focused on small grid • Outreach: What elements should be included power, often for individual homes or ­ buildings. in developing local awareness raising programs Despite current challenges (significant safety and on the utility of second-life Li-ion batteries for developing countries (Sovacool 2018)? Future Areas of Research and Recommendations 27 • Grid systems: Are energy storage reuse prac- • Sorting, classification, and labeling practices: tices for LiBESS compatible with the grid systems integrating these steps with collection should open in developing countries—in particular given the up the market considerably need for a complex control system and trading of balancing/­transmission services? • Testing: Can second-life batteries be accurately RECOMMENDATIONS and effectively tested for reuse? This is vital from Overall, the goal of future renewable energy storage time and cost perspectives. How might existing globally is to build an innovative, green, market-oriented technologies be efficiently harnessed to yield basic system, by implementing the following concepts: long- information about the battery and hence determine term design; low carbon manufacturing, safe operation optimal applications? and maintenance; and green ­ recycling. In the context • Flexibility: What research will best answer out- of developing countries, the following steps might be standing questions about the degree of flexibility considered in adopting a robust recycling/reuse regime with which different Li-ion batteries can be used in by policy ­makers. second-life applications within a single system? In the nearer term: • Direct recycling practices: more environmentally • Initial awareness raising among relevant decision benign direct recycling practices could be easier to and policy makers to factor in environmental and adopt in developing countries social impacts, including those related to recycling/ reuse EOL options when deciding upon battery sys- • Holistic approaches in enhancing recycling: tems for providing low carbon transportation and/or the degree to which batteries can be designed power ­needs. to account for easier disassembly and collection practices • Raise awareness on access to these centres for owners and penalties for non-compliance or • Sorting, classification, and labeling practices: ­ ompliance. Dedicated consumer incentives for c integrating these steps with collection should open education drives and product stewardship programs up the market considerably regard. would be useful tools in this ­ • Identify what makes the most sense for the relevant RECYCLING country (then implement): • Is the country naturally endowed with materials While the state of research in this area is appreciably required for batteries? more advanced than is the case with either collection or reuse, its utility, particularly in the context of developing • If so, what is the capacity and economic fea- countries, is another ­ matter. sibility to make best use of these resources? Given the relative level of sophistication required to • Is there a responsible, climate smart, inclu- recycle six distinct types of Li-ion batteries, there is a sive and transparent mining regime in place? need to develop local capacity in developing ­ countries. • Is that country importing or building battery What kind of training systems might work best in those capacity for its transportation and/or power situations? Other areas to examine include: systems (on and/or off grid)? • Direct recycling practices: more environmentally • If so, what is envisioned for the EOL of these benign direct recycling practices could be easier to batteries and can materials or repurposed adopt in developing countries technology be kept within the country? • Holistic approaches in enhancing recycling: • Develop a framework for training and upskilling the degree to which batteries can be designed in triaging, battery manufacturing, occupational to account for easier disassembly and collection health and safety standards; servicing of batteries, practices dismantling, and recycling and reusing. 28  Reuse and Recycling: Environmental Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems • Collection should be specifically addressed in the of reuse and recycling practices; (ii) extending recycling/reuse plans, including incentives and producer responsibility; (iii) strengthening regulatory models for effective collection ­ techniques. and public policy frameworks; (iv) enhancing eco- • Develop a specific recycling/reuse regulatory nomic attractiveness of recycling and reuse of Li-ion regime—given the very different challenges from batteries; and (v) health and safety considerations. lead batteries disassembly and recycling, countries/ • Develop and implement relevant public policy regions should develop explicit regulatory frame- measures—for example, in setting a universal min- works for the full range of Li-ion batteries in domes- imum recycling target to be imposed on recyclers tic/regional operation in each ­country. Only recyclers that can achieve • At a minimum, metrics for helping governments this target should be permitted to recycle the ­ packs. evaluate these regimes’ effectiveness and inform (Countries may choose to exceed the target ­ level.) appropriate public policies would include: • Press for co-ordinated/harmonized standards for • resource efficiency of the process; recycling/re purposing of Li-ion batteries in reporting protocols covering the following elements: energy • water use and quality; density; power; energy efficiency; temperature • GHG emissions; resilience; and life ­ ­ cycle. • occupational health and safety; • Develop clear liability guidelines that are globally • community contributions; and, recognized. Stages would cover the full lifetime ­ of recycled/re-purposed products including • others inception/design; manufacturing; usage; and, • Formalize the battery collection regime—too often, disposal ­activities. even with lead batteries, the collection and trans- • Develop a robust trade and investment regime portation of these potentially hazardous products is that will expand opportunities for developing not formally ­regulated. countries to become active participants in the • Ensure that local research capacity in battery tech- LiBESS global regime. nology is built and ­maintained. Develop an active In future, two recycling approaches will be ­ required. network involving industry, governments, academia One is for the recycling of existing batteries, that is, and civil society to create a sense of ‘common own- Li-ion batteries that have been or are about to be ­ spent. ership’ on the i­ssue. These will inevitably still feature relatively cumbersome Some longer term recommendations, requiring and inefficient reuse and recycling ­ practices. The other coordinated action beyond the country level approach is for the next iteration of Li-ion ­ batteries. This would include: next generation of Li-ion batteries must be designed • Develop efficient distribution/transportation ­centers. with a view to easing EOL ­ challenges. Governments will The type of electricity service being provided also need to develop discrete regulations and regimes for plays a critical role in the relative complexity of each of these ­ systems. Later models of Li-ion battery collecting and transporting EOL batteries—does the should be tested for their internal consistency, and their power system envisioned include planned replace- recycling capacity, with a transportation infrastructure ment dates and service agreements? in place that focuses on developing a distinct Li-ion collection ­network. • Work actively and seek advice from countries with previous experience in this burgeoning area (China, South Korea, Japan) and where active research is underway (NREL, Europe, ­ etc.) and NOTES firms. from successful ­ 1­. http://theconversation.com/africas-growing-lead-battery​ -industry-is-causing-extensive-contamination-130899 • Areas of particular interest to developing countries include: (i) systems for integration and management GLOSSARY 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: the UN based sustainability road map for the globe, comprising 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Circular Economy: an approach to economic development that takes into account the full material impacts of products throughout their duration. Focuses on four elements--reduced use, re-purposing, recycling, and disposal--to ensure net zero environmental impacts. Electric Vehicles (EV): motorized vehicles powered by electricity Climate Smart Mining Initiative (CSMI): an initiative managed by the World Bank Group’s Energy and Extractives Global Practice, the CSMI is a partnership of governments, lending agencies and industry working towards implementing principles and practices that manage GHG emissions and limit the environmental impacts on local communities and ecosystems. Members include the WBG, (IDA and IFC), the Dutch government, Anglo American and Rio Tinto. Energy Storage Partnership (ESP): a partnership launched by the WBG in May 2019, to complement the World Bank’s US$1 billion battery storage investment program announced in September 2018. As a test bed for capacity building and the dissemination of knowedge on power systems it focuses on: • Development of testing protocols and validation of performance; • Flexible sector coupling;  • Decentralized energy storage solutions; • Procurement frameworks and enabling policies for energy storage; and • Recycling systems and standards. Global Battery Alliance (GBA): initiative out of the World Economic Forum that promotes a circular economy approach to the design, deployment, second-life and eventual disposal of LiBESS. Global Leap Awards: initiative intended to promote innovation in developing countries, particularly as it relates to energy efficiency technologies and practices. One of its current projects is focusing on promoting solar e-waste recycling (including batteries). Lead Batteries: the most successful recycled product globally (due to its toxicity and relatively consistent treatment to end of life). Not an effective product as a stationary power source/backup, particularly when compared to LiBESS technologies. Lithium-ion Battery Energy Storage Systems (LiBESS): the main subject of this report, which explores the recycling and reuse capacity of Li-ion batteries once they have expended their first life capacity, virtually all in the transportation sector. 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