Report No. 561 F LE COPY Education, Sect.or Poic Octoiuber 25, 1974 Education Department Central Projects Staff LI04 £ .D.Lc INot for Pu-M! Use Document of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Development Association This report was prepared for official use only by the Bank Group. It may not be published, quoted or cited without Bank Group authorization. The Bank Group does not accept responsibiiity for the accuracy or corpleteness of the report. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page SUMAR Y INTRODUCTION Trends in Education and Development to 1970 1 CIAPTER I: EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT ST'RATEGY FOR THE 1970's AND BEYOND 8 Towards a Poverrv-nriented Deve]opmentStrategy 8 Major Issues Facing Education Syst eSms and Rela ted Poli0ies i0 Forniatioion of Skills Corresponding to t1he Needs of Developing Countries 14 Ensuring Mass Participation in Educatin,L and Development 25 Education and Equity 35 lIncreasing Efficiency in Education 39 Improving Management and Planning Capacity in Education 47 (CIHAP'fER I: T ANIMV T'ETDUCAmTION L W 'MLC I PRGA 56 ~~ ~ ~1JUU~U1,niLLILNUL[Nj UL,.LUI aiND) rKUL,kpation; as discussed in the previous section, but also practice discrimination in their nrocess of selection, promotion and future career determination. They show an elitist bias favoring urban upper and middle income groups at the expense of rural and urban poor. The appraisal oL a recent site and services project in Zambia showed that half oL the population of the capital was living in squatter areas, but all schools with one exception were located elsewhere in the capital. Consequently, the primary school enrollment was only 36% in this squatter area as against 90% in the rest of the capital. Dropout and repetition rates were also higher among the squatters. 60. Su otufents higher income origin have a greater chance not only of access to education but also of promotion within the system. This is seen in the socio-economic profile of the dropouts, repeaters and success- ful students and in the fact that middle and upper income groups are parti- cularly over-represented in higher education. In some countries other factors such as sex, ethnic origin or religion play a role which is frequently combined with thie effect of income levels. These inequalities are aggravated bJy differences in quality of teachers, educational facilities and other in- puts between schools serving different geographic areas and income groups. (See Annex 8.) - 36 - 61. The system of educational finance reinforces the regressive charac- term of education. Because of the combined effect of t.he tax systems and the pattern of distribution of education services, the concept of "free education!! which is intended to assure equality of opportunity, in fact operates as a mechanism oL income tranrsfer from lower and middle income groups to upper income categories. This is particularly true at the higher levels of education where the public subsidy per student is particularly high. (See paras. 102 - 105 for a discussion of other im..plications of educational finance for such issues as demana management in education anrd ensuring regular flow of resources into the system.) (b) Policies 62. How to reach neglected target groups and equalize educational opportunity? Policies directed toward these objectives have traditionally been conceived only in terms of access to education. It is now evident that equalizing access to education is far from sufficient to ensure equai opportunity. 63. Equalizing access is, of course, a necessary first step. The appropriate location of educational facilities is a simple but effective instrument,particularly for lower levels of education where physical proxi- mity is a major factor in determining enrollments. At higher levels, scholarship schemes and boarding accommodation can be used to reduce the barriers for the underprivileged. 64. Equalizing the chances for achievement is a more difficult objec- tive. The important question here is the assessment of the school and non-school variables causing inequity and the identification of the factors - 37 - which can be influenced by education policies. Non-school variables such as family characteristics cannot be directly affected by education Dolicies. Schools, however, can be instrumental in providing to underprivileged children some of the elements lacking in their home environment. More good teachers, textbooks and reading and other learning materials would contribute to their success. Higher resource inputs, however, implv increased unlnt costs. 65. Methods of selection and promotion in education are among the school variablesinfluencing student achievement. Examinations and diplom.as are frequently criticized as factors reinforcing the regressive effects of education. Despite the progress noted in the use of more flex.ible aptitude and attitude tests and some experience with the controversial "quota system" (i .e, introduction of quotas to equalize promotion chances of students from underprivileged areas or population groups), fully practical alterna- tives are yet to be developed. 66. Socio-economic background of the student's family (income, paren- tal attitude and level of education) which appears to be a very important non-school variable influencing achievement can only be partially affected except by changes in the overall 4i.ome distribution patte-rn. Even so, it would be useful to explore policies 4n areas such as parent education or school and community action, compensating for the absence of an adequate home environmenrt. 67. Education finance is a potent policy tool to achieve equity as it determines the distribution of the burden of education. Modification - Jo of the regressive impact of the public subsidies is essential. Subsidies should be used to increase the participation of underprivileged groups and not, as they are now, to support children from middle and upper income families. An income-related system of subsidies and fees can thus be instrumental in equalizing educational opportunity. 68. Equalizing educational opportunity should not be considered only in terms of the needs of the school-age children. Such policies should address themselves also to people who are already in the labor force in a way which can go beyond the conventional adult training programs. There are methods to provide to working people a "second chance" to continue or complete their education through full-time or part-time studies. 69. The preceding paragraphs deal only with the question of educa- tional opportunity and do not cover broader issues relating education to income distribution and social mobility. Recent research and experience have raised a number of serious questions challenging some of the tradi- tional assumptions about the social mobility effects of education. Equali- zation of educational opportunity does not automatically generate signifi- cant changes in income distribution and social mobility. The impact of education on mobility appears to be essentially determined by the pattern of stratification and socio-economic reward system of each society. Knowledge about these relationships is fragmented and limited, particularly in the developing countries. since most of the research findings refer to the conditions in the develoned countries. It would, however, be possible to state, as a general proposition, that in the absence of other supportive social and economic actions, isolated efforts in education would have only a limited mobility effect, and to achieve significant results education policies should be formulated within the context of a broader social policy. Increasing Efficiency in Education (a) Major Issues 70. Education systems in most LDC's are inefficient in using resources and often do not achieve their quantitative and qualitative objectives. The pro- vision of good teachers has been and continues to be a major bottleneck. The supply of primary teachers has been sufficient so far but their training leaves much to be desired. In secondary education the problems caused by the low teacher quality are aggravated by quantitative shortages, parti- cularly in scirnce and technology. Many countries face serious difficulties in developing teacher training schemes corresponding to changing needs. Efforts to upgrade the teachers are usually limited and fragmented. The school systems are frequently managed without proper attention to the effective utilization and supervision of teachers. This is a particularly important question since the teacher cost ranging from 75% to 95% is, by far, the most important single factor determining total education expenditure. 71. Recent research findings tend to challenge some of the assumptions concerning the relationships between class size, level of training of teachers and student achievement. In a study on student achievement in secondary schools in some 20 countries, including four LDCs, it has been - 40 - reported Lhat th.e re was n o sn ignlfcan il Ctwe the c slze wLithinL re Lasonale raLges, and LUUL stuet ULpUef Lo c int ceI rtain subJects.- Another study in a Latin AmeIcall couLtry indicates that achievemenLs at lower seco-u'dary level may not be signiLicantly dirferent whetner students are exposed to teachers with university or normal scnool training. The cost saving implications are significant. Tnese resuits shouid be inter- preted witn care to avoid nasty generaiizations for iess developed countries and other types of education, such as vocational training, not covered by the studies. They indicate, however, that the scope for improvement in cost-effective use of teachers may be greater than what was traditionally assumed. 72. The design and efficient use of learning material and equipment constitutes another problem area. Most of the problems here are caused by inadequate curricula and learning methods. There are, however, serious prob- lems in the production, distribution and utilization of equipment. In many LDCs even the basic textbooks are still not made available in sufficient numbers to teachers and students. In 11 countries with per capita incomes under $250 per year the average annual production is less than one textbook per student (Annex 11). The few available textbooks are often irrelevant. In view of their importance in improving student achievement a more adequate local production of textbooks, especially in mother languages, is of high priority. The supply of other learning equipment is even more limited. The total spending for textbooks and other learning aids is often less than 5% of the education budget, while it might be about 10-15% to meet a minimum 1/ A stirvev organized by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (I.E.A.). - 41 - standard for effective learning. More complex school equipment which has to be imported is usually too costly and not adapted to local conditions. Even when available, it frequently remains idle because of lack of know-how for maintenance and utilization. The local design, economic production and effective use of various types of learning materials is a critical but neglected task. 73. One of the strongest self-reinforcements of poverty is the lack of adequate nutrition for both child-bearing mothers and children whose mental capabilities may be permanently impaired, in the very early years, by nutritional deficiency. School feeding programs are a valuable means to improve student performance. But they come too late to avoid this early damage. The major contribution of education may be through instruction of parents in matters of diet, food handling and other rudiments of household economy. It may be expected also that adult education for nutrition will be most effective when it is combined with food programs. 74. In school, also, malnutrition and related illnesses affect student performance by reducing the child's motivation and ability to concentrate and learn. In four Latin American countries, children miss more than 50 days of school a year because of illness which may be malnutrition related (25-30% of the scheduled school days) as compared with an average of 10 days or less per year in the developed countries. 75. These inefficiencies are first reflected in the performance of the school systems, in dropout and repeater rates. According to Unesco statistics the median dropout rate for first level education is 58% in - 42 - the Group I countries against only 10% in the Group V countries. In a number of countries it takes more than 10 years to produce one graduate of the 5-6 year primary cycle and about one-fourth of the education budget is spent on students who droD out in Grades 1-3. (Soo Annoo 19.) 76. The performance of education systems is also assessed in ueasure- ments of student achievement. Most research in this area relates to developed countries. The IEA survey studies student achievement but covers only four developing countries. It is important, however, to encourage local research in developing countries measuring student achievement in relation to a range of socio-economic goals and conditions. 77. Inadequate structures create other efficiency problems. The education structure is often dominated by the chronologically-graded and age-specific formal system. Because of its hierarchical structure, formal education operates with rigid entrance and exit levels. To those who fail to enter at the specific levels educational opportunities may be lost forever and those who do not leave with proper certificates at the exit levels are considered failures. (b) Policies 78. Thr first step towards improved efficiency would be a better specification of the education and training objectives and of the perfor- mance standards of formal as well as non-formal learning systems. For example, what is the minimum level of reading comprehension or numeracy skill needed for a specific role in rural development. What are the bases - -43 educational; social- nsvcholoeical - which should determine what percentage of students, If anvy should reneat a grade? What kinds of behavior should schools elirit in a deuploningsocietV? Enciiraging rountries to nrovide answers to these types of questions would improve prospects for efficiency 7a The saondsteist he. Ic e IA fntifjrntn nf fnotnrc mroQt likplv to affect efficiency. T.Tt are t-he m-4-- f-cor n-4nn high dropout and repeat rates? SSchool factor-s such as the system of promotion, t-he dista-,nre tLALo s l, 15 AA L A £ 0 LLL.L C!ltn o.11t -A -14 O- A. . tJaSn1r A4hnTninn- Iv dCsv LU cv L Z DULL1 dJ j)UU II iL -e, £iCUIJ LU jJC1J LCC US -U - fl tion or testin yse or stultifying -eah-ing a----h r o-sho fLactors such as poor Llealth, inabiL.lity to pay fees or other expense thle needu to work?l Tt Js essential for aAmnsrtr to assess the causes Uf inlefficiCency in tht particuILar social and educational 1nvironmUent of their countries andu thilei to design cost effective measures Lo cope with them. 80. The level of training and remuneration of teachers is important because of its educational as well as financial implications. Over- qualification of teachers may not necessarily mean better euucation. Shorter periods of teacher training supported by in-service training could, lead to significant savings as could larger class sizes at the middle levels. The class sizes at those levels are not high and an in- crease by 10-15% would not lower the education quality, but the savings achieved could either be used to reduce the current costs by some 8-10% or provide fumds to be allocated for activities which are known to improve the learning. The type of teacher training institution also affects - 44 - efficiency as in the case of the smaller and locally based primary teacher training colleges which in some cases can be more effective than large urban based schools in assuring a better deployment of teachers and the adaptation of the training to local conditions. 81. There are other measures which can be cost saving or can be imple- mented with no overall cost increases. Adapting the school calendar to the calendar of local economic activities may improve attendance. Flexible promotion methods tied in with multigrade teaching could lead to more effec- tive use of teaching resources. Teaching in national languages would improve learning rates and student attitudes to schooling. 82. Many measures, however, would have important cost implications. It is estimated in a typical case that the improvements which educators traditionally recommend - smaller class sizes, better learning aids and more highly trained teachers - would require an increase of 75% in annual recurrent costs. To counter this effect, for example, teachers can learn to prepare by themselves or with student help some of the teaching materials and apparatus. Where costly manufactured equipment is essential, it may be provided in cen- tral facilities or mobile units serving a number of schools. 83. Programs involving the use of mass media such as educational radio and television should be designed on the basis of careful analysis of costs and the capacity for the production of educational material, with emphasis on logistics problems such as the distribution and maintenance of receivers, spare parts and other material. A major economic consideration is that the unit cost of radio or televised instruction can be very high - 45 - for small numbers of students but declines sharply as numbers increase. In the Ivory Coast's TV project, for example, the estimated annual recur- rent cost was $115 per student for 21,000 students and $6 for 700,000. It should also be remembered that where technical problems or cost make television prohibitive radio may be a useful, lower cost substitute. 84. Preparing teachers to perform a new role in a changing educational technology is of crucial importance. Teachers are now expected to accept educational broadcasting not merely as a substitute for the blackboard, but as a vehicle to introduce improved curricula and new subject matter into the classroom. The best way to secure this cooperation, as well as to improve the product, is to involve the classroom teacher in teamwork with the broadcasting teacher in all phases of the program. 85. Better nutrition may be an important factor in increasing the return on educational investment. Feeding and other programs directed to improve the performance of those already in school as well as programs aimed at prenatal and younger children may have a high rate of return. Nutrition influences the quality of education but education can also in- fluence the quality of nutrition. Primary schools, teacher training colleges, agricultural training institutions, adult literacy programs and mass media can provide nutrition education in their regular curricula. 86. There are, finally, ways to vary the structure of education systems so as to maximize both efficiency and educational opportunity. By varying the length and number of cycles in the formal system and con- sequently the number of exit points and by varying also the progression - 46 - rate from one cycle to the next it is possible not only to broaden the base of enrollment as suggested in para. 53 but also to respond more readily to changing needs and possibilities in the system as a whole. To the classic six years of primary followed by three years of lower and three of upper secondary (6-3-3) a number of modifications can be made (e.g. 4-4-4 or 4-2-2-4) each of which will serve different needs for schooling and initially larger percentages of the entering age group. 87. Structural variations may also be combined with school location patterns to achieve better distribution of education. For example, in a 4-2-3-3 structure as is being introduced in Peru the intermediate years or part of them may be provided in smaller, localized, satellite schools which feed into a larger school for the upper cycle, thus minimizing the need for boarding accommodation. 88. Close articulation between formal, non-formal and even informal systems can help to distribute the education workload more efficiently. For example, it may be advantageous to upgrade the traditional (informal) systems of child care and preschool education by (non-formal) adult programs thus avoiding expensive, formal kindergarten instruction. 89. For many countries, once programs of basic education have been established the critical task is the elaboration of follow-on vocational training in both rural and urban areas. This may take many forms - on or off the job - short courses at vocational or rural training centers, apprentice- ship, youth groups, extension, cooperatives, mass communication media and mobile training units. They may follow directly on completion of basic - 47 - education and before work begins or at intervals during subsequent years. Taken together, these non-formal "delivery systems" provide a substantial resource for human development which may prove greatly more cost effective than the replication of formal education and training institutions at the lower and upper secondary levels. 90. Efficiency has so far been discussed in terms of structures and resource inputs for education institutions. The question can also be dis- cussed as the choice between alternative educational technologies, espec- ially for vocational education and training. Attention has been focused on the comparison of vocational and technical schools witlh production- related or on-the-job training programs. Recent debates on "the vocational school fallacy" tend to create a bias in favor of on-the-Job training pro- grams, particularly for middle and lower level skill categories. This con- clusion has not been substantiated by a Bank research nroject on the "Cost Effectiveness of Alternative Learning Technologies in Industrial Training", which finds no evidence to support the claims for a clear-cut superiority of one technology over the other. Factors such as the skill category, the size of the target group, the teaching methods, and particularly the cost of equipment used for training, determine the efficiency and economy of the particular technology. Improving Management and Planning Capacity in Education (a) Major Issues 91. As enrollments, education personnel, schools and expenditures all continue to increase, the management of education becomes a task of I/ Bank Staff Working Paper No. 169, Decemlber 1973, prepared by Manuel Zymelman. - 48 - formidable magnitude and complexity. Experience reveals that education planning as understood only a decade ago is inadequate and that new approaches need to be developed. In most other respects - administrative structure, policy formation, operational procedures, research, information systems and evaluation - the elements of modern management are not yet available. 92. A major challenge faced by the less developed countries is to find better ways of channeling private demand for education into socially beneficial areas - not only to eliminate distortions between supply and demand but also to make education systems more responsive to new develop- ment policies. It is evident that changes in the pattern of demand would require interventions not only in the education systems (structural and institutional reforms and changes in educational content and technology, etc.) but also in other areas such as the labor market. With education policy making oriented toward social and economic utility, a comprehensive policy approach is needed to cover areas which are generally beyond the scope of conventional education policies. Education policy makers are not usually equipped to view education in this broader context, especially in its interactions with employment and finance. 93Q The structure of administration is another source of difficulty for the desion and Pffprtive imnlementation of comprehensive education policies. Responsibilities in edurntion are often dispersed. Ministries of education, labor, agriculture, health etcr control a substantial part of the education/training institutions= Their activities are seldom - 49 - properly coordinated. The lack of effective coordination at local level causes further complications. Various agencies are directly linked to their respective ministries in the capital without any connecting lines with other local units. A serious shortage of qualified middle level managerial personnel in education hampers the coordination within the administration. Communication with the public is also negatively affected creating additional difficulties in generating popular support for new education policies. 94- A fundamental issue in the effective management of education is political. Inability of political decision makers and education managers to communicate with each other is frequently a cause for failure in the implementation of education policies and plans. It is important, first, to have a clear idea about the objectives that education is expected to fulfill in a given country at a given point in time. Confusion about objectives or lack of consensus among the various groups involved in planning and policy making have often been a major reason for failure. No planning method - however sophisticated - can substitute for a clear understanding of objectives. It is also necessary, for planners, to take into account the political context within which education policy has to be formulated. Political pressures generated by social demand for certain types of education sometimes leave little scope for governments to consider other options. One of the challenges for planning lies in the design of politically feasible alter- natives or the preparation of technical solutions which avoid political tension. - 50 - (b) Policies 95. (i) New Approaches to Planning: During recent years two approaches to educational planning have claimed attention - the rate of return and the manpower approaches. The wide use of rate of return analysis in other sec- tors makes it appealing for education since theoretically it could thus establish a basis for comparison and establishing intersectoral, as well as intrasectoral, priorities. Despite considerable efforts to develop rate of return analysis as an operational tool in education, it has thus far been impossible to resolve many of the methodological and practical difficulties in its use either for sector or project analysis.- Estimates of manpower requirements have been more widely used although this method suffers from many of the same limitations, notably the limited reliability of its demand estimates. ziven the long lead time recuired to produce the supply, the srreitv of knowledge about the substitutability of skills and, more Qpnerally, boiit the behavior of the l=abor market. 96. The haic rand non-formal Pcancrtion developments foreseen in the next decade or so will raise further nrohleTq in the use of both of these techn4quens. Both methods are exclusively ru,auntJtautivie and diependent upnon data relevant to the modern sector such as growth rates of GNP, wa-es, proAuctivity,-y visibDle -m-l-yment rapaes occations and formal ecntinn costs. Moreover, they can suggest how much (of the same type of) education -Lb IIutUC::U UU LL ad:: P lI DCLLLLy LMUt CWtC U OO AJIIV.JUWI WIJ £ U'.J it and thIierefore bypass the krey questlons now bUCeing r U a Lse oeuClizir, educational opportunities and participation, especially for people in the non-modern sectors. 1/ World Bank Staff Occasional Paper No. 14 Cost Benefit Analysis in Education: A Case Study in Kenya by H. Tnias and M. Carnoy, 1972. - 51 - 97. Despite these limitations manpower planning can still yield meaningful results in some specific areas. Science and technology-related categories and, more generally, all the skills for which no substitutes are readily available can be subject to conventional methods of manpower analysis. The planning of a new, emerging economic activity for which no labor market exists as yet, could also be done with the help of manpower considerations. However, a broader approach to planning is needed to include analysis of both the demand and supply of trained manpower and of the socio-economic environment within which the adjustment process between them takes place. 98. "Cohort analysis," wlhich has yet to be elaborated fully in practical terms, may become a useful tool for planning in the present context. While the unit of observation in conventional educational planning is the pro- portion of the population enrolled in and processed by the education system (the enrollment pyramid), cohort analysis is based on the idea of following the major steps in the life cycle of the total age group. This involves those who enter the system as well as those who are excluded. The steps include enrollment and promotion within the education-training systems, both formal and non-formal, and the absorption into the labor market (employment- unemployment, occupation, income, etc.) of all the groups leaving the system from various points (graduates, dropouts, etc.). This approach to planning provides a convenient way of viewing formal and non-formal education as a single learning system and also of analyzing its relationshps with the labor market. It also embraces a longer time span than the age period of formal education and is, thus, in line with the "life long education" concept. - 52 - 99. Cohort analysis necessitates a broad information base covering not only the school population but the educational and employment status of the whole age group. In some cases such information can be obtained through special tabulations of available census data, school statistics and other survey results. But a full-fledged use of this approach may require the collection of new information, particularly in the area re- lating jobs to educational background. Tracer studies have been intro- duced in some ten World Bank Group-financed education projects, and a recent study in Thailand showed that while the vocational school graduates were readily employed on graduation and had no serious employment problems, an increasing percentage of the graduates were entering higher education for which their vocational studies were less well suited. Tracer studies permit, therefore, a following of education and work careers of identifiable age cohorts and the impact on these of specific educational measures. It would therefore be useful to incorporate tracer systems into major educational programs. 100. More disaggregated analysis (by regions, economic sectors and social groups) is another essential feature of educational planning. Modern and traditional sectors cannot be grouped together in terms of their education and training requirements. Some specific social or occupa- tional categories may need to be treated separately. Wlere, for example, it is government policy to improve the condition of a hitherto underprivileged racial or other group or where it wishes to test the impact of a new policy on different sectors of the society it will have to use the disaggregated approach. - 53 - 10 (ii) Rdiintfinn.1 Reform: The implementtation of new education I _ o -J r'- '_ _''"' _-'' - Ll- . .AL. - Lna L- - - -L - -I -j 60,L. L L L aii nnliries lrarglu AepndsA on -ubstntjal chages 4n the organization a nd' structure of the educaaation systems. TlsO 4mplies not ol y a change in the existirg institutions, LuL also tLe creatior, ar,d lUevelopmelrt oF new ones. Political A-eteination anA effective r,ngeet r essentia ror Ftne ~~ ~ ~ aii~~u CL LCILVC- iLLdiid_CiUtCLiL cUt Ub5U1ii_ia. or tne design, initiation and implementation of educational reforms. A criticai question in corLs'duering educational reforms is the scope and pace of change on tiie basis oi a reaiistic assessment of the country's readiness. Aware- ness by the public of the necessity ror cnange is tne beginning point tor development or a ciimate conducive to reform. 102. (iii) Educational Finance: Educational finance raises manage- ment questions affecting most aspects of education policy. References have already been made to educational implications of finance in such areas as the supply and demand or equity. It would be useful now to present a more general picture of the role of finance as a policy tool for education. 103. An important function of the system of finance is to provide a regular flow of resources into the education system to meet its current needs as well as planned expansion. The critical issue is how to deal with the increasing burden on public finance. A number of ways can be suggested to broaden the revenue sources for education beyond the limits of regular government budgets. They include various methods to increase the share of users in the cost of education such as fees and private educa- tion. Self-help is another example involving community contribution to investment in education. Earmarking certain revenues or tax levies on the total wage bill of business firms are other examples. They are usually - 54 - linked with specific types of education such as industrial training or adult literacy. Student loan schemes are also intended tn rplipvp the burden of government hbgt-sc nlfthougah the evideonce so far suggesot that their overall imnart is rat-her limited 104. The mntio of financing can also affect the demand for education. The coQt of educatinn (fees, other expenses and income foregone) relative to the incomes of various segments the he population is. one factor deter- minina demnnd Subsidies and_ fees adjusted for Aifrn t4pes--- and levels of education coulAd~I-_f- tefrpy a role in coIntrollIn I he le-vel and structure of demand. In some cases, the UemanU Lor certain types of education can be 4influenced by the use of non-monetary contributiLons such as direct work schemes to encourage enLrollments in vocational schools. Equity in education is also sensitive to alternative modes of financing as discussed iii plLdb. 0-L ana o6. l05. Despite increasing knowledge about the reiationships between educa- tion anda rinance many of the financial measures need to be further developed and tested. The question, moreover, goes beyond the definition of specific policy measures or tools. These tools need to be related to each other to form a coherent education policy. A system of fees, for example, can defeat the principle of equal opportunity if it is narrowly conceived. There is, furthermore, the need for these measures to be consistent not only with education policies but also with overall finance policies. Ear- marking certain public revenues for education may be appealing to educators but an unsound practice from the point of view of fiscal policy. - 55 - 106. (iv) Research and Development for Education Policy: Management of education systems implies making decisions about a broad range of questions frequently not covered by traditional education policies or by available infor- mation and analysis. This means that some critical decisions will have to be made in uncertainty, without the benefit of past and current experience and, in many cases, without an adequate research and information basis. In this context, policy-making and implementation should be seen as a learning process conceived to improve our knowledge about the behavior of the education systems. Experimentation and feedback must be considered as regular components of major operations. Such an approach to policy-making requires an adequate research and development capacity. Since research capability is limited and difficult to develop, it is necessary to design a "research strategy" to establish priorities in the development and utilization of research resources. Policy- oriented research requires familiarity with local conditions. The development of local research capacity in less developed countries is therefore a high priority. 107. The creation of regular evaluation machinery is essential for effec- tive education management as it is the main channel through which research and development can be introduced into decision-making. Evaluation also contributes to a better design of education schemes by requiring a clear, operational for- mulation of their objectives. It plays an important role in the assessment of the results of various new measures whether they are related to cost-effective- ness, internal efficiency and qualitative improvements or contributions to development. Education authorities have been increasingly aware of the need for independent formative evaluation machineries which would be built into the edu- cation system. Few countries have, however, so far established such regular machineries. A current Bank research project is aimed at this need. - 56 CHAPTER IT: BANK EDUCATION LENDING POLICY AND PROGRAM 108. In this chapter Bank education policy is defined as certain development objectives which the Bank seeks to foster by financing educa- tion and certain means it can employ, together with the borrower, in fostering such objectives. Under the circumstances we have described - the great variety of conditions within developing countries and the essential uniqueness of each country's development strategy - Bank policy for education must have a high degree of diversity in its application. No single formula or strategy can meet the needs of all the Bank's borrowers. The analysis of educational profiles of countries in different income categories (Tables 2-4 and paras. 26-29 and 42) reveals, however, some patterns which can help the Bank to adjust its response to the differing priority needs of countries with different income levels and stages of development. 109. A basic premise in the discussion of education lending is that the Bank's operations in this sector should reflect its overall policies including its increasing concern with the problems and needs of low income countries and the promotion of development strategies designed to improve the well-being of the lower 40% of the population through increased productivity and employment and improved income distribution. But while this is the new and dramatic feature of Bank policy, it should not obscure the fact that the Bank will continue to assist countries which have moved to higher levels of development but still require help. A flexible response adjusted to the variety of con- ditions in all the developing countries will govern the Bank's activities in education. The differences between the lower income countries and the relatively more developed ones will determine the proportion or "mix" of different kinds of development to be assisted. - 57 - 110. For the poorest countries meeting minimum learning needs of the uneducated masses to ensure their contribution to and benefit from economic,m and social development is a major task. In these countries, the development of low cost and functional basic education programs, through restructuring primary education and/or other methous, should receive emphasis. Concentra- tion on rural training for selected target groups, withi,n the framework of broader rural development schemes, would, in many cases, be a necessary complement. Conversely, the development of upper levels of formal education should be selective and carefully planned, taking into acco-unt on the one hand the limited absorptive capacity of the modern sector labor markets and on the other the need for local leadership and technical skill in both puubic and private sectors. 111. In the education strategies of the middle and higher income coun- tries the development of the secondary and post-secondary levels will take a more central place. Where first level education is already widely available, skill development to meet the needs of increasingly sophisticated economies will have priority. More favorable resource disposition will permit in- creased education expenditure. Striking a balance between overall supply of and demand for educated manpower, matching the output of education with the particular needs of the economy and efficient use of resources will be the major policy concerns in determining the rate of expansion of the system, as well as its internal priorities and the choice of institutions and tech- nologies. This involves not only improved planning but also considerable emphasis on educational reforms. To achieve equity, these richer countries will have to pay increasing attention to providing educational opportunities for urban poor, in addition to rural poor. - 58 - 112. Differences in the educational strategies of developing countries will be heightened by the differing effects on their economies and develop- ment prospects of the recent changes in the world economy. At one extreme, during the period 1973-1980 the per capita GNP of seven OPEC countries is estimated to increase 8.4% per year. For countries in this situation finan- cial constraints will be non-existent or minor and their intention to exnand education at the maximum feasible rate is already clear. At the other extreme, ten rountries with GNP per canita below 8200 are estimated to havey, growth rtfeq duiring the szame nprinto of -n47_ Tt i; not vpt clenr hnw such contries will rpact in terms of both overr11 exnsnqion goals of Pduinr- tion and of the priorities given to types and levels. These reactions need to- h be clsely followed in order to enab tri anh1, hec BRnkl to Adevelop wsuc annd means for t4mely, and adequate response. 113. These examples illustrate the differing considerat4ons which mus-t bL/e brought to bear in forin lendlng programs for -------- co 4n4 - Ttr . It will bDe usefull, therefore, Lto see these new orientatlons against th.e back- groundU ofL the Bank's earl-er ard recent eLperience in -his sector. Bank Policy and Activities - 1963-1974 114. By 1961 it had become clear to the World Bank that the lack of qualified manpower in developing countries was a serious obstacle to the successful implementation of its own projects in several sectors as well as to the process of economic development. Thus it was seen that investment in education was not only consistent with the Bank Group's objectives but would be a desirable addition to its activities. In 1962 the first educa- tion project was presented to the Executive Directors and subsequently in - 59 - October 1962 a memorandum from the President on "Proposed Bank/IDA Policies in the Field of Education" was issued in which the basic statement of policy with respect to types of projects to be financed was set forth. The major point of the policy statement was as follows: "The Bank and IDA should be prepared to consider financing a part of the capital requirements of priority education projects designed to produce, or to serve as a necessary step in producing, trained manpower of the kinds and in the numbers needed to forward economic development in the member country concerned. In applying this criterion, the Bank and IDA should concentrate their attention, at least at the present stage, on projects in the fields of (a) vocational and technical education and training at various levels, and (b) general secondary education. Other kinds of education projects would be considered only in except- ional cases." Following this stated policy, until about 1969 the Bank concentrated on high priority projects within a country's educational development plan which usually were related to the modern sector. A major thrust was the training of critically needed types of manpower insofar as those needs had been identified. 115. With increased knowledge and experience, the Bank's approach to education widened in the late 1960's. In a Memorandum for the Executive Directors in July 1970, the President reaffirmed the first sentence of the 1963 statement quoted above, but added: "In applying this criterion in future we should broaden the scope of projects considered and we should determine priorities and select projects on the basis of a thorough examina- tion of the education systems as a whole rather than by a priori designated areas of eligibility which may not relate to the particular country. We should continue to emphasize projects which, like vocational training, pro- duce trained manpower directly but we should also consider for financing - 6A - other types of projects ... which should have important long-term significance for economic development." Such projects would be "designed to encourage changes which improve the relevance, efficiency or economy of education systems." As a consequence, the scope of the Bank's education operations increased to cover not exclusively hardware projects in restricted subsectors but a mixture of hardware and software projects based on sector analysis and aimed at achieving qualitative improvements as well as meeting crucial man- power needs. It has also been marked increasingly by experimental approaches and innovations such as educational television, learning materials production, support to curriculum development and educational planning and management, mobile training units and health personnel training. 116. These developments can be seen in the profile of the Bank's lending in education presented in Table 5 below: Table 5: DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATION LENDING1/ FY63-71 FY72-74 FY74-78 Actual Actual Projected (%) (%) (%) By Levels Primary and Basic 5 11 27 Intermediate 72 48 43 Higher 23 41 30 100 100 100 By Curricula General and Comprehensive 44 43 31 Technical 29 24 23 Agricultural 15 17 24 Teacher Training 12 14 12 Health - 2 10 100 100 100 By Outlay Construction 61 49 54 Equipment and Furniture 34 44 37 Technical Assistance 5 7 9 100 100 100 i/ Through FY74, the World Bank Group had approved the financing of 99 educa- tion projects with a total project cost of US$1,936 million and a total lending amount of US$1,059 million. Of this lending, East Africa, West Africa, Asia (except the Middle East), Europe and the Middle East, Latin America and the Caribbean area absorbed 16%, 15%, 27%, 15% and 17% res- pectively. - 61 - (i) The period covering the fiscal years 1963-1971 was clharacterized by strong support for technical and vocational education (29%) and agricultural education and training (15%). The bulk of lend- ing (44%) went to general secondary education, largely in the form of comprehensive schools offering specialized options of pre-vocational education at the upper level such as agricultural, industrial and commercial. Teacher training institutions ab- sorbed about 12% of the lending. Although a precise breakdown between rural and urban locations is not possible, with some ex- ceptions, urban groups preparing for work in the modern sector or as modernizing agents in the rural sector were given priority. Other than teacher training, little was done in support of pri- mary education, and with a few notable exceptions universities were not assisted. A few projects for adult trainine - which would now be called non-formal education - were supnorted,but the great bulk of Bank assistance went to the formal educartinn svstem. Technical assistance connsumed less than 5% of the 1-11-mne of lending. (ii) A comparison of the lending during 1972-714 with the figures for 1963-71 shows that a shift was beginnina in the pattern of Bank education financing. For example, the hea-v.y concentrat4on upon the secondary level during the early period was giving way to greater support for primary and bas4c education andu for youth and adult training. Technical asslstanc had- Aincreased from j9JLW L, ali. aot.. ctUtL- ICLiLL aii ttJ JL 1 less thanL 5%. to over 71%/. 1Mloreover, the number of proJects whLichI inLcluded Bank-financed technical assistance had risen from an - 62 - average of 56% for the earlier period to 90% in 1974. Relatively new items such as learning materials production, curriculum development and planning, which had only occasionally been assis- ted, were now receiving more regular attention and have recently received 5-10% of the funds. (See Annexes 3-6.) (iii) The shift observed during the 1972-74 period is further confirmed in the projected lending program for 1974-78. Primary and basic education (which includes education of youth and adults) is expec- ted to absorb about a quarter of total lending in education. The share of secondary and especially higher levels of education will decline, but they will still account for about 75% of the total. The implications of the projected lending program will be analyzed in the following discussion of the various issues related to the Bank's education lending objectives. (See paras. 149-151 and Table 6.) Objectives of Bank Education Lending 117. The Bank seeks to promote a balanced educational development based on the following broad principles: (a) That all members of the population should receive at least a minimum basic education as fully and as soon as available re- sources permit and the course of development requires. (b) That further education and training beyond the basic should be provided selectively to improve quantitatively and qualitatively the knowledge and skills necessary for the performance of economic, social and other development roles. (c) That a national education system be viewed as a comprehensive learning system embracing formal, non-formal and informal education and working with maximum possible internal and external efficiency. (d) That in the interest of both increased productivity and social equity educational opportunities be equalized as fully as possible. Some considerations of particular importance in the pursuit of these objectives follow. How the Bank Will Deal with Basic/Primary Education 118. The Bank;s interest in basic education is very closely related to its efforts toward the promotion of a broader approach to development. Basic education is conceived as a vehicle to meet minimum learning needs of the masses to ensure their effective participation in the development process which is essential in implementing strategies based on fuller and more produc- tive use of human resources (see paras. 22. and 45-47). It can thus be instrumental in increasing productivity as well as improving opportunities of underprivileged groups. 19. It is expected that most countries, and particularly those already having high primary enrollment ratios, will meet the need for mass education through expansion of the formal primary system. For those countries, in pro- viding assistance toward this end, the Bank will give particular attention to curriculum and other reforms which take account of the needs of the substantial number of students who will not continue beyond the primary cycle. 120. In those countries having the lowest primary enrollment ratios and working under severe financial constraints, the Bank will encourage review - 64 - and revision of education structures along the lines suggested in paras. 53 and 86 so as to meet the need for low cost, minimum mass education. 121. In all cases the Bank will assist in the development of a wi-de variety of education and training for adolescents and adults, either as follow-on programs for those who have had primary education or in the more extreme cases as an alternative where primary school opportunities did not exist (para. 47). 122. The Bank will encourage the integration of basic education with other rural and urban development programs. This implies that the education programs will serve different target groups whose development needs will be met through a combination of education and other assistance programs. In Bank projects the integration can take place through inclusion of education and training in comprehensive rural development or urban settlement projects. The education and training should, however, always be viewed as a part of a total education delivery system (para. 37 (b)). 123. In designing new models of multi-purpose institutions for basic and primary education such as community education or rural training centers there is serious danger of creating prototypes which are too elaborate and expensive to be replicable on the desired scale. The central purpose of basic education programs is always to meet minimum learning needs for as many as possible within the limits of available resources. Standards and costs of at least the first generation of institutional models should be consistent with this purpose. 124. Other important elements mentioned in Chapter I which contribute to broader dissemination of basic and primary education and to which the - 65 - Bank will give particular attention will be: (a) language planning and development work making easier the use of mother language(s); (b) the use of mass communication radio and television and the production of learning materials for both formal and non-formal basic education; (c) improvement of local management capabilities through appropriate administrative reorgani- zations and/or training. Such reorganization and training will often be needed for other sectors of rural development and might be assisted more effectively for all together; (d) an essential corollary of local management is the localizing of procurement and support through local taxation and other contributions, selfhelp construction schemes and the use of local people in whatever ways they are. or may become qualified. 125. In Table 5 we have noted an increase from 11% in 1972-74 to 27% for 1974-78 in the estimated share of Bank educational lending devoted to primary and basic education. Based on current overall program estimates this would mean about $280 million in constant prices to which should be added an estimated $90 million included for this purpose in rural development and "site and services" projects - a total of $350-400 million. This should be manageable but, given the still highly experimental "state of the art", it will challenge the capability of both the Bank and its borrowers. 126. The most important contribution the Bank could make during these years would be to use them as a "tooling up" period for a substantially greater attack on the worldwide needs outlined in Chapter I in the years after 1978. This tooling up would embrace not only refinements of project criteria, planning, staffing and acquisition of experience within the Bank but also a many sided effort within the developing countries themselves to - 66 - increase their capabilities in this field and prepare for a major thrust getting under way during the later 1970's. It would include (a) operational research into demographic, social, geographical and economic conditions related to basic education, (b) development work in curricula, teacher training, insti- tutional models, project design, physical facilities and the use of mass media, (c) planning, policy formation, legislation and budgeting by govern- ments, (d) administrative reorganization and management training necessary to achieve the decentralized, yet coordinated, execution which a major program would require, and (e) systematic monitoring and evaluation of ongoing operations. 127. The effort envisaged here should not be limited to the Bank and its borrowers alone. If the obstacles of mass illiteracy and ignorance are to be lifted from the path of development, the task will demand the common efforts of all educational assistance agencies which are interested. Almost all of them already give highest priority to meeting the need for basic education and preliminary steps to form channels for cooperative action are being taken. There is, therefore, a potential vehicle for mounting a massive attack upon this most formidable problem of educational development and an opportunity for the Bank, by a positive position, to help crystallize the sentiment for action among agencies and member countries. How the Bank Will Deal with Skill Development 128. There will continue to be a shortage of middle- and high-level man- power in specific areas in many developing countries and the Bank will therefore continue its current policy and support the development of skills to meet the needs of vocational and professional manpower in the urban and rural sectors. The Bank will utilize the experience it has gained in previous lending for -6 - skill development and a major part of the Bank education funds will continue to flow into this sector up to 1978. The financing will cover secondary and post-secondary institutions, training centers and university institutions in agriculture, industry, science, commerce, management, pedagogy, health and other education and training sectors. The assistance would continue to include buildings, equipment, development of currictla, production and use of learning materials including textbooks, and staff training. Technical assistance will be included whenever necessary and it will comprise the use of national expertise wherever available. 129. The Bank has financed general secondary education including compre- h'ac ve education projects in the past and will continue to do so to the exte-nt it wlould support skill development and the programs mentioned above. Cornprece.hiisve schools may often meet the education needs in societies at a fairly advanced stage of development but they are relatively costly and the experience of Bank-financed comprehensive schools indicates that the concept might be less relevant in poor countries with low school enrollments. It might sometimes be preferable to replace the comprehensive education by a combination of general education and short accelerated training courses. '30. The Bank will continue to use manpower analysis in the assessment of edu.xation and training needs but it will broaden the scope and perspective to cover skill and population categories which would not be covered by con- ventional manpower teclniques. It will in this analysis continue to take account of the tendency of many education systems to generate surpluses of educated manpower and, therefore, the need for explicit government policies regarding the rationing and pricing of secondary and post-secondarv educati-on. Wherever possible tracer studies should be included in education projects. - 68 - 131. The Bank will develop and apply new techniques for cost effective- ness analysis in the choice of alternative forms of vocational training, particularly in the assessments of the advantages and disadvantages of in-plant training institutions versus formal vocational schools (para. 90). 132. The Bank will continue to finance training components in projects in agriculture, tourism, transport, public utilities and other sectors also at the post-basic education level. There is no clear line between such project-related training and training provided as a part of a system develop- ment as described above but there are some criteria which can help to determine how to deal with a training need generated by project financing. Among such criteria are the urgency of the need, the degree of specificity of the skills and the length of the training period. As a general rule training components attached to projects will lead to more experience than training conducted as a part of a regular education program. Its execution will also require more Bank attention and manpower (para. 149). Efficiency 133. The Bank will continue to encourage efforts to increase cost con- sciousness in education management and support the development of cost effec= tive education -programs and projects and of: cost saving learr,ir.g meth'Iods. The Bank will therefore support the development of management capaclty in education and provide technical assistance to develop local participation in the education activities in rural areas and urban settlements (paras. 38 and 93). 134i. The Bank will actively promote the optimum combination of high edu- cation achievement and low costs in three specific ways: - 69 - (i) Encourage the application of substantial resear.h findings which indicate that class sizes may be incre2sed wit.thout- loss in student learning nerformanre (nqrq AO). (ii) Encourage and finance the 1oCo1 design and production ar.d distribution of learnino Peqlipmnt ann d t (iii) Encourage staffing of Pdat-rtlnnnl ins"ti-tui- w-ith personn.el having a diversified experience covering not only pedagogy but agriculture, industry, business, health and other sectors (para. 80') 135. The Bank will enc_ourage further efforts to identify ar.d elminate the main causes of high attrition and repetition rates through a systematic use of built-in Punluatinn systems in education projects leading to improved curri- cula and selection, teaching and learning methods. 136. Wherever possible within the framework of education projects, the Bank will attempt to improve nutrition for pre-natal, infant and school-age c_hildren as a crucial factor in human resource development. Among means to this end would be imuproved nutrition education in t t LLUJJUV::L LULLLJOneGcaroninteacner training colleges, adI1ut education programs an,d in the curricula of primary and secondary schools, possibly com,-bined with school feeding programs. 137. The Bank will continue to emphasize the financial criteria of educa- tion pro-ects and duevelopment strategies including: (a so0urdI u balance of expenditure between components within the education system and between the education and other develop- ment sectors. (b) The recurrent cost implications of both plans and projects and the replicability of experimental activities. - 70 - Educationn nd Friii tv 138. A flnaql .on-erteiup of Bank lending in education- as in other sectors. it-he 4,.pro,cment of eqnuitv thei rpdrpeqing of imba1ances in onDortunities for education and training among different geographicnl- Pthnicj social. sex. income and age groups. Equity in Bank education pnllcy is not a nrogram) which can be -1nanceA ln ltself but rather a major criterion which should suffuse a'LLll Bank, operations. 139 I n its analys4s of education systems and policies the Bank will be conicern-edu with such questions as where the funds really go, Twh bneit --os a:It:ULL 110rUW ELle :: U-ll qUI=>*|Vl;>C; LI sL C L1 1Ws I i-U UL IU _* i-Is LV .vUfli | mcL X andu 'how the bUur'en is distributed. Tn som,e cases thL-is maIy require specilal surveys. The Bank will assist in such survays nd, based on them, will help design programis to be financed bUy it andU others which will im-prove thV e d4itri-1 bution of educatlion services. One uh stLUU_y - ir. Co.Lou-acL -ihas recently been published by the Bank- and LtL1ULj are gettinLg LiLLLeL way. 140. In project identification and design the Bank will seek information on specific target populations in order to assess the degree to which the programs contribute to a rational policy which balances equity and other euUCa- tional objectives such as efficiency and skill development. More speciflcally, a guidance and monitoring system wii be developed to determine tne benefic- laries of education projects. Bank Lending Programs and Possibilities 141. Having outlined the major objectives for Bank educational lending and defined the position the Bank would normally take on specific questions, there arise three crucial sets of questions concerning the viability of these proposals: 1/ J.P. Jallade: Public ExDenditures on Education and Income Distribution in Colombia, World Bank Staff Occasional Papers, No. 18 (1974). - 71 - (a) Will developing countries be willing to accept the general arid specific policies suggested in this paper and what might the Bank do to encourage their receptiveness?. (b) What are the risks inherent in these policies? Will countries have sufficient management capability to carry them out? (c) Do the Bank's own current policies, procedures and lending pro- grams give effect to the directions and proposals put forth in this paper? How should they be changed or improved? 142. Overall, experience suggests that the innate caution and conserva- tism of educational establishments will continue and that relatively few countries will undertake the radical changes which many external observers consider necessary. At the same time, there is a widening recognition that significant changes are needed and willingness to consider selectively specific proposals for reform. A small but growing number of countries have begun to look squarely and objectively at their total education systems in terms of both internal and external efficiency. Some factors which may encourage this highly useful practice of self-examination are suggested here. 143. Awareness of financial constraints may be a powerful inducement to considering alternative modes of education. For example, three countries - Ethiopia, Tanzania and Peru - which have faced their problems resolutely and with imagination were all confronted by serious financial problems. If this is so, then the unfavorable effects of recent economic changes on many of the poorest countries may encourage a critical and objective review of existing systems. For the more favored countries where growth prospects have sub- stantially improved there may be less inclination to experiment or question conventional practices, but the need to plan for rapid expansion does compel a searching review of existing conditions. - 72 - 144. The beginning will normally be through a study - in this cas. a comprehensive study of the sector as a whole which assesses broadly the degree to which the country's total learning system responds to its development objec- tives and needs. Such an assessment, perforce, includes a fresh lool- at accepted objectives and updating of the estimates of needs. 145. To achieve their best results comprehensive sector studies must be undertaken at the initiative of, and carried out by, the country itself. Technical assistance and guidance from the Bank, Unesco or some other source may also be needed. The Bank has provided financial help for one sucih study, in Ethiopia, and has also assisted or cooperated with those in Sierra Leone, Indonesia and the Philippines. It is also financing a number of subsector self studies such as a review of basic education in Mali and of the role of the Koranic schools in Mauritania. During the next four years w7e might expect that from 8 to 12 comprehensive sector self studies will be initiated with Bank financial help plus an undetermined number of more specialized studies. 146. A second way of encouraging innovative attitudes is i:hrou-_- tech- nical assistance in the identification and preparation of projects as i)ro- vided by the Bank/Unesco and Bank/FAO Cooperative Programs or directly by the Bank. These services will continue; although it is exnected that develonine countrips will gradu21ly assume more direct resnonsibilitv for secror -tiudies aincd analyvsl-s le-adincg up to pnonlicy, stratpev and prorect- derisiol-ws antJ no it just for the decisions themselves. 14L7 Rponnnding to the second question, it must be acknhpli% ¾ t the rils- inherent in highly innovative plicies ar substant T-,','_ c of the uncertainties involved, embarking into the relatively un^---- - _-:s of rural andu poverty oriented educatLional UeveLopriLient will .-:: - 73 - including the politically accountable leaders of LDCs, a risky business indeed. But since the foreseeable effects of continuing to neglect these needs would certainly be more costly, it is clearly preferable to pursue a prudent, but active, course while seeking to identify and minimize the risks involved. 148. It has been pointed out frequently in this paper and elsewhere, for the education sector and other sectors, that the major problem of development is management, and especially local management, calling in many cases for organizational reform and in all cases for intensive training programs of all kinds. That continues to be a major recommen- dation. 149. Thirdly, it has been asked how well positioned is the Bank itself to give effect to the proposals of this paper? The proposed lending program for 1974-78 allocated $1.075 billion in constant prices for Bank/IDA lending to the education sector, as compared with actual lending for the period 1969-73 of $947 million, an increase of about 14%, covering 80 projects as compared with 66 projects in 1969-73, an increase of 21%. In addition, nearly $350 million for education and training com- ponents is expected to be included in lending for other sectors. This moderate increase is justified given the rapid expansion of education lending during the previous five years (by nearly four times), the need for additional staff for project related training and, above all, the experimental nature of some of the new emphases indicated in the profile of lending (Table 5). This program would permit the necessary "tooling up" for substantial expansion beginning about 1978. - 74 - 150. Qualitatively, the answer is mixed. In aggregate terms the distri- bution of lending in Table 5 does reflect the policy directions suggested. This is supported for the most part by the content of projects brought to the Board during FY74. There is foreseen a substantial increase up to 27% in lending for primary and basic education and a proportional decrease for intermediate and higher. General education, including comprehensive schools, declines, technical education and teacher training remain at approximately the same levels while education for rural populations (agricultural plus a substantial part of primary and basic) mounts sharply as does health personnel training. The estimated increase in technical assistance from 7% to 9%, which may in fact go higher, is significant. 151. When we turn to the distribution of lending by income levels of countries, the result is less reassuring. Table 6 below shows that of the currently projected education lending program, 33 countries with GNP per. capita over $250 and less than 40% of the population would receive 58% of the lending, while 35 countries under $250 (not including India) with over 60% of the population would receive 42%. Per capita lending would range from a low of $1.03 in countries with $120 per capita GNP (excluding India) un to a high of $4.40 in countries over $750. There are.admittedly, many possible explana- tions in particular cases for these disparities - differences in loan absorp- tive capacity, education technology, economic sophistication and skill levels required, not to mention the greater availability of Bank loan funds than of IDA credits. But since this distribution is considerably worse in the educa- tion sector than for Bank lending as a whole, regional lending programs must be restudied with a view to improvement in this respect for the education sector. Table 6: EDUCATION LENDING: FY74-78 PROJECTIONS BY GNP PER CAPITA (US$ Million) L .LJ.J.ii iV Below $121 $121-250 $251-750 $751-150O Total ^=o-,t 400~~'u 270 800 110 1,580 (360)!l (1,540)1/ Number of countries 22 14 28 5 69 Number of projects2/ 33 18 47 7 105 Population (millions) 900 209 330 25 1,464 (350)1/ (914)! Education lending per $0.44 $1.29 $2.42 $4.40 $1.08 capita ($1.03)!' ($1.69)l/ All sector lending $8.59 $22.87 $28.80 $11.58 $15.44 per capita ($12.35)±/ ($20. 01)!! 1/ Calculated without India. 2/ Operations. 152. Finally, in projects for basic education where capital expenditure is to be minimized and physical facilities are simple and the locations widely scattered, international competitive bidding generally will not be appropriate. Greater resort to construction by negotiated contracts, force accounts or some form of selfhelp community effort involving contributions of labor and mater- ials will be needed. In this connection, if building costs are truly to be low enough to be replicable and if local capabilities are to be brought into play, the Bank and its borrowers might reconsider what is a "proper" building for the Bank to finance. Instead of the usual concept of a structure lasting 30-40 years, there might be many advantages, including cost, in designing first generation models for shorter periods of time. - 76 - 153. In some other respects, although no new policy issues appear to be involved, implementation of the policies and programs proposed will require greater use of flexible procedures for financing and procurement which already exist in the Bank but have not been fully utilized in the education sector. The Pearson Commission recommended in 1969, with agreement in principle by the Bank,that "greater resources for research and experimentation with new techniques" should be provided by World Bank Group lending. This was further defined as "... loans to finance: (1) research and experimentation with new curricula, methods, structures, materials, and plant design; and (2) the establishment and partial operation of new institutions based on the results." Since then, through its own research allocations and through provision in loans and credits the Bank has given increasing support to research and studies leading to improved techniques. But the effort can be greatly expan- ded. In particular, in order to give momentum to experimentation the Bank can lend an appropriate part of the total costs of an experiment - both capital and operational - over a stated period of time. This policy should apply in all parts of the education sector, although in the immediate future it will perhaps be most widely used in basic education, where project models, criteria and standards are still being developed. 154. In view of the crucial role of the teacher in bringing about educa- tional change (or in failing to do so), the capital and operational costs of training of teachers and administrators - the human infrastructure of educa- tion systems - should be financed by the Bank as has been done in the third Tndonesian project (Credit 387-IND). - 77 - Conclusion 155. Bank lending operations in any sector are part of a continuing relationship with its member country which is rooted in agreement upon an overall development strategy and upon individual sector strategies such as education. Such strategies take their direction from the country's own definition of its development objectives and aspirations. 156. Recognition of the sovereign prerogative and the practical neces- sity for a country to determine its own affairs does not, however, preclude the possibility of a useful and constructive dialogue between it and the Bank. If there is no substitute for the borrower's own judgments regarding political and social issues, it may also be true that from its experience in development financing and its broad awareness of technical alternatives and their outcomes in other countries the Bank may help to illuminate the choices a country faces and help it to make better decisions. The Bank hopes to main- tain such a dialogue beginning with policy and strategy definitions and leading on through lending operations to the implementation of projects and ultimately their evaluation. Through this dialogue, it is hoped there may emerge for each country a unity of purpose and plan between it and the Bank. TIT 0C'T' N ANNEXT Tf AB- -LE £ yL.1 L zu'la1NA ±tiDldz I: Estimated Total Enrollment by Level of Education l(a): Estimated Number and Rate of Illiterates in the Developing World Around 1960 and 1970 2: Comparative Education Indicators 3: Analysis of IBRD/IDA Education Lending FY1963-74 4: IBRD/IDA Education Projects FY1963-74, Student Places Provided or Improved 5: Education Lending by GNP per Capita of Borrower Countries, FY1963-74 6: IBRD/IDA Education Projects Approved as of June 30, 1974 7: Comparison of Education Efficiencies in Urban and Rural Areas, Latin America 8: Availability of Complete Primary Schools in Rural and Urban Areas 9: Female Enrollment as a Percentage of Total Primary and Secondary School Enrollments 10: Public Expenditure on Education as a Percentage of the Budget and GNP 11: School Textbook Production 12: Internal Efficiency 13: Education at the First and Second Levels, Student/Teacher Ratio ANNEX 1 ESTIMATED TOTAT ENROLTTMENT BY LEtEVL OF tUMTrATAAMT (I n Milli 'ons) 1950 1960 1965 1970 ~~ w L~.) J - ~ .L7 IV. FIRST LEVEL Developed Countries 112.4 124.5 129.7 141.8 ~~ .~~4-..4r..-. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ZI. 7 ~~110 A 1n £'1 i I Developing Count-riess4- 64.7 118 .9 7 15.6L 2 04 Africa 8.5 18.9 25.9 32.4 Asian ! 53.3 87.7 113.9 138.8 Latin America 15.3 26.9 34.7 43.3 Tjold I 71 I I fn WorlI- 177.1 243.4 299.3 343.2 SECOND LEVEL Developed Countries 30.5 50.7 64.5 70.8 Developing Countries 7.5 18.2 29.3 42.4 Africa 0.7 2.1 3.6 5.1 Asia'lI 12.7 21.3 30.7 36.3 Latin America 1.7 3.9 6.7 10.3 World!/ 38.0 68.9 93.8 113.2 THIRD LEVEL Developed Countries 5.4 9.1 14.3 20.5 Developing Countries 0.9 2.1 3.7 5.5 Africa 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Asia±/ 1.1 4.0 5.0 6.2 Latin America 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.5 World!/ 6.3 11.2 18.0 26.0 1/ l'Not including the Peoples' Republic of China, Democratic Republic of Korea and Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Source: Unesco 1972 Statistical Yearbook. ANNEX l(a) ESTIMATED NUMBER AND RATE OF ILLITERATES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD, AROTUTD 190fr A<"D 1970 (I~~~~~~~~~~~~ I/ I 'iIl' /T . ~ 9-I4 1 4- ' kLi-nII -LLL.Lonsb/ Developing LLatin Countries Africa Asia America Around 1960: Males 295 50% 56 73% 224 45% 17 28% Females 406 69% 68 88% 318 63% 23 37% Total 701 59% 124 81% 542 55% 40 33% Around 1970: Males 306 40% 61 63% 231 37% 16 20% Females 450 60% 82 84% 348 57% 23 27% Total 756 50% 143 74% 579 47% 39 24% Source: Unesco Statistical Yearbook, 1972 509920509030 99049400 0800449050ANNEX 2 00po5.oioo (0 08 80050.3 Fooooo 08$~( ) stOp C.)Solo) 1) (.)!.2 yoo 9 0004) 000 (4) (2) (0) (0)~~~~~~~~11 (5) (5) (0) 00) (9 (0 (04 (07 03 o.osooo ooooosoo yooooo so 00. O.ooo.,y. rd. 507. 000 55.00 9.200497 045 4. 40 0 3 0451 9 04 03 0 000 0000704000 oooooooo 000900 o93.p.o t 490 044 0.04 9 0 09 20.9 99I 90 30 59 00 I0 .dotoo 000p00Ooo o (oloo40 30 .0 0. . 00 9 9 00 0 9 2 9 0.ooooo.ooo Oo.Oo.4..d (50( 0.9 0.000 09 (40 5.90 05595 99 20 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ... os 50 200 n 9 0o0 0 .000...... .00.4000 000005 *oo.o.00 o.04.ooooo 40 000. 000.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 8. 59 1 00 oo.oOooOOoo Oofootooooo .o0, 2. loolotod 1900 7.4~t. I 0 5.50 0 09 .0 2. 7 00 0 0 0 004 o.oy of Oh. doto. Oooooohooooo.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~- o I I . I 1 I 2 400.0 0o0o* 70.ofoOOooOoo qoolO- 0. Olod 0~~~~~~ ~~97 00710 79 .0 00 0 0 7 2 0 9. Ooooyoo..o 0059 5~~~ ~ ~~.0 0I 0 95 00 90 05 50 0 3 . 2. 4) 'soooooooodoooolooooOooo 40.~' '07 97 07 % 040 94 2 0.05 0. 4 0 0 0 0 0 So .04 odooooloo 00 oh. oo7000077 05. 0800 4970 9.0 4 00~~~~~~~~311 0 0 3 5. 0 02.0m 00. 40 0'l 5 00 0 _o.odyo0ooj o,0oo 00 40.0.07 0.50 204 4 .7 0. 52 0 0 4 000 0700 (0.9.. J 50 0.o.OOooO. 0900 0.00000040 0 5.7 00.0 57 4 00 7 13 04 00~~4 040055o0.40800oo~~~40oooo000 009 OooO 30 . 0 90 .. .0 0 3 29 9t 2090 00. Tooooo 007 095 049.. 0 49 004 0 9 0 0 0 000.0000. 40 0007 .0000000. 0000 09. 5000 0000 4931 4 90 4 07 0 3.7 905 7 0 2 0 0 7 000 oooy .ppooo00.Otooo .0049 Oo 00 0-44, 7000 0.0 090 00 20 0.51- 10.4'70 9 05 200 0 0 0000 of Iloooooo Ooo 0000970.03,05000 000 4450590094II-I 3 3. ' 01 . - -oo94. 1970 5. 9. 0 9 30 0. B. 33 05 0I0s0 9) 4047 00000000080-00o4000o 0polt 754 .00 04 202 .00 0.0 90 4 00 04t 7200000(oos.. ood 4 000070 3. OlOOooOoo 055 0. 4 0000 994 5050 0.0 05.0 0 00 7 4 09 0 00 09. 0 0 73 otd 9) 0000 00 0000040040008 9.OoOotdoS 00 905080 091 0.0 004 5 40 5.4 498 09 70309 40I05 09 0 .pooopol.oooohoot. poolto o,0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I. 11 1 Il pojooto lyooooo. tbooto 090004570014 900 55.00 4600 975 90 3.00 0.75 00 04 150 409 ... 497 09 iothodoooooootooooooooooo 00404 7. 000.oOOo 0974 02.00 4004 045 00 0.00 00,9 052- 3I5 090 24904 09I94 00so000 5o.oooOo 000 7.~~1 00o970 (40 0 72 30 5.I00 0 0 90 ' 00 0 2 OoOt. 0970 594.4 404 09 0 2 2.54479 . 4 . 05 04 00 50 00 07 007 40 00 5. Oooo 4907 6.04 9004 20 40 5.7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N' 00. 40 2 29 II 04 (0 5. .Oood.o 00000.402904g,111. 400 0 . 4. 000 9 0 0 04 0. 0000. 0074 30.0 094 030 05.5 0.5 05.0 4000 00 40 09 05 09 477~~~~~~~~ 41 I II O II I I 0. 1050020 0970 0.2 900 867 200 6.4 05.0 79 090 00 00 20 0 007~~~~~~~~~~It, 7 ~ 11 I 40 oo00 . 4 04 4 5 . 0.2 070 0 0.9 00 3 .s tO. pokooooo 0900 60.00004020 4 4.5 9 0 42 73 2 9 22 0 7 0 00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(-9) (t-12 ( 71) (I ) (-3) 001 00. POoOO4voOooo 0000 00.040400 95 0.0 4.0 00.0 009 2 00 04 9 06 00 497~~21: 11 f2 21 2 07. 44o.o.poOO 4972 2.4 0 4.000 0 03 9 06 0.4 9 00.5 000 0 00 00 4 24 20 170I~ 14 3 90. 00.04002 0000 07.0 200 99 90 0.99 00.0~~~~~~2 94. 04 49 0 2 5 45. OooOOp 4050 95.00 0404 094~~~~~~~~~~o 9 . 2. 00 0 4M 04 50 50 0 09. 0o Otob 00705450 0000 5.9 90 44 4 9 0.0 0~~~~~ ~~~.5 2 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 40 2 . ..... 0... 07. oo 7 0.5. 070 .9 0 020 00 4 230 2.04 040 7 45 44 079 A 1,Th11TV ') AXT AT X70 Tt' flTl Inn - in 1 nrrnA .m- L±ulI.La ur LDOIBLURD/IDA EDuCuTION LEANUDING FY1963 - FY1974 (Actual) FY1963 - 1971 FY1972 - 1974 ,, A .., ,O ..A ... ..S uz$ Mlliion A uS$ mlliion A A. By Levels Primary and Basic 22.48 5 69.00 11 Intermediate 309.65 72 301.08 48 Higher 99.32 23 257.17 41 431.45 100 627.25 100 B. By Curricula General and Comprehensive 190.77 44 269.72 43 Technical 126.48 29 150.54 24 Agricultural 63.03 15 106.63 17 Teacher Training 51.17 12 87.81 14 Health -____ - 12.55 2 431.45 100 627.25 100 C. By Outlay Construction 262.17 61 307.35 49 Equipment & Furniture 148.16 34 275.99 44 Technical Assistance 21.12 5 43.91 7 431.45 100 627.25 100 A kTWT1'%7 I. IBRD/IDA EDUCATION PROJECTS FY1963-1974 STUDENT PLACES PROVIDED OR IMPROVED Student Places Pro- 1963-1971 1972-1974 1963-1974 vided or Improved Number % Number % Number A General and Comprehensive 553,000 58 458,000 60 1,011,000 59 Technical 250,000 27 144,000 19 394,000 23 Agricultural 73,000 8 82,000 11 155,000 9 Teacher training 66,000 7 81,000 lO 147,000 9 Total 942,000 100 765,000 100 1,707,000 100 ANNEX 5 EDUCATION LENDING BY GNP PER CAPITA OF BORROWER COUNTRIES, FY1963-FY1974 Countries by GNP per Capita FY Up to $121- $251- $751- Over Total Total Avg. $120 250 750 1500 $1500 No. Amount Amount ------ (Number of Loans/Credits) ------- -(US$ Millions)- 1963 1 1 5-0 5.0 1964 1 2 3 17.6 5.9 1965 1 2 3 29S 9.8 1966 1 1 1 1 4 33.95 8.5 1967 1 3 2 6 518 8.6 1968 1 1 3 5 24.2 4.8 1969 2 7 1. 10 81.8 8.2 1970 5 3 3 11 79.9 7.3 1971 5 2 6 1 14 107.9 7.7 1972 2 5 4 2 1 14 180.4 12.9 1973 7 3 6 2 18 293.55 16.3 1974 1 1 6 1 1 10 153.1 15.3 Total 22 25 39 11 2 99 1,058.7 Average amount of Loan/Credit (US$ Millions) 10.7 ANNEX 6 Page 1 of 3 IBRD/IDA EDUCATION PROJECTS APPROVED AS OF JUNE 30, 1974 (U. S.$ H i 1 1 i a n) Total Amount of Loan Fiscal Project Year CounLry Main Purpose Cost Bank IDA 196 3 1. 1,.nisi;i 1 Se--laciy General ' Tcchniceal and Teacher Training92 5.0 1964 2. lanzania I Secondary General 6.0 4.6 3. Pakistan I UiniversiLy AgriculItural, Post-Secondary Technical and Tl-eher Trai1ning (T. A.) 9.0 4.5 4. Pakistan 11 University Agricuiltural. Post-Secondary Technical and Teacher Tra in ing (r. A. 17.0 8.5 19b5 S. Philippines University Agricultuiral 11.7 6.0 6. Afghanistan Secondary Tochnical, Agricultural and Teacher Training (T.A. ) 4.7 3. 5 7. Nigeria Secondary General, Techinical, Adult and Teacher Training 30.0 20.0 1966 8. Chile I Adult Training 3.8 >.75 9. Morocco Secondary General, Technical and Agricultural 16.2 11.0 10. EtI,i opiia Secondary General, Technical and Teacher Training 10.7 7 .2 II. Pakistan III Universicy Agricultu-al and Post-Secondary Tcncl(.. .~217 13.0 1967 12. Kenya I Secondary General, T'echnical and Teacher Training 9.7 7. 0 13. Tunisia 1I Secondary General and Agricultural 19.8 13.0 14. Jamaica Secondary General, Post-Secondary Agricultural, Technical. Adult and Teacher Traininig (T.A.) 19.4 9.5 15. Thailand Secondary Technical and Agricultural (T.A.) 21.0 6.0 16. Uganda Secondary General 14.3 10.0 17. Malawi Secondary General and Teacher Training 7.0 6.3 1968 18. Malagasy Secondary General, Technical and Teacher Training 7.2 4.8 19. Nicaragua Secondary General and Teacher Training 8.0 4.0 20. Gabon Secondary General and Teacher Training- 3.6 1.8 21. Sudan Secondary General, Post-Secondary Agricultural and Teacher Training (T.A.) 15.4 8.5 22. Ecuador Secondary General, Agricultural and Technical and Teacher Training (T.A.) 10.2 5.1 1969 23. Colombia I Secondary General 15.2 7.6 24. Chad Secondary Agricuiltural and Teacher Training (T.A.) 2.1. 1.8 25. Trinidad and Tobago Secondary General and Teacher Training 18.8 9.4 26. Guatemala Secondary General, Post-Secondary Agricultural and Teacher Training 12.6 6.3 27. Guyana Secondary General and Teacher Training (T.A.) 10.0 2.9 2.9 28. Zambia I Secondary General, Technical and Teacher Training 36.2 4 29. Malaysia Secondary General, Technical, Agricultural and Teacher Training 16.4 8.8 30. Tanzania II Secondary General and Teacher Training 7.2 . 31. Korea Secondary and Post-Secondary Agricultural and Technical (T.A.) 26.8 14.8 32. El Salvador Secondary General, Techinical and Post-Secondary Agricuiltural (T.A.) 8.4 4.9 1970 33. Camerooni Secondary General, Technical, Agricultural and Adult and Teacher Training (T.A.) 14.0 10.5 34. Zambia II University Technical and Teacher Training 7.4 5.3 35 . Sierra Leone Secondary General, Trechnical and Teacher Training (T.A.) .4.5 3.0 36. Chile II Adult Industrial and Agricultural Training 3.0 1'.5 37. Ivory Coast Primiary, Secondary General, Technical, Post-Secondary Technical, Agricultural anid Adult and Teacher Training (T.A.) 19.1 11.0 38. Chile III Secondary Agricultural and Teacher Training (l.A.) 14.0 7.0 39. Kenya IT Secondary Technical, University Agricultural and Adult and Teacher Training (T.A.) 9.3 6.1 40. Colombia II Secondary General (T.A.) 13.0 6.5 Sl. China Secondary and Post-Secondary Technical and Agricultural and Teacher Training (T.A.) 15.0 9.0 42. Pakistan IV University Technical (T.A.) 12.8 8.0 43. Spain Pri-mary, Seconaary General and Teacher Training (T.A.) 24.0 12.0 ANNEX 6 Page 2 of 3 IBRnTh/DA EDUCATTON PROJECTS APPROVTFD AS OF TNPME 30 j 1974 (U.S.$ M i I I i o n) Total Amount of Loan Fiscal Project Year Couintry Main Purpose Cost Bank IDA 1971 44. Iran Primary, Secondary General, Technical and Agricultural; Teacher Training; and University (education) (T.A.) 41.7 19.0 45. indonesia Secondary Technical (T.A.) 7.6 4.6 46. Greece Post-Secondary Technical (T.A.) 24.0 13.8 47. Domeinican Republic Secondary General and Teacher Training (T.A.) 8.1 4.0 48. Tanzania !II Non-Formal Rural Training and Post-Secondary Agricultural (T.A.) 4.7 3.3 49. Jamaica II General Secondary; Teacher Training; Vocational Training; !TV (T.A.) 28.2 13.5 50. Congo (B) Secondary General and Technical Teacher Training; Non-Formal Rural Education (T.A.) 4.1 3.5 ,;. Ethiopia ;; Secondary General and Secondary Technical and Agricultural 13.4 9.5 52. Brazil Secondary Technical and Agricultural, Post-Secondary Technical (T.A.) 21.0 8.4 53. Chad I; Secondary Technicai and Agricultural 3.1 2.2 54. Somalia Secondary General, Technical; Teacher Training and Non-Formal Agriculture (T.A.) 3.7 3.3 55. Turkey Secondary and Post-Secondary Technical; Technical Teacher Training; Non-Formal Management and Adult Technical Training; Science Equipment Production; Mass Media (T.A.) 17.9 13.5 56. Senegal Secondary General and Secondary Technical and Agricultural 2.3 2.0 57. Uganda II Secondary General and Technical; Post-Secondary an.d Non-Formal Agricultural; Health and Medical Training (T.A.) 10.4 7.3 1972 58. Ireland I Secondary General and Agricultural; Post Secondary Technical (T.A.) 33.0 13.0 59. Morucco ;; Secondary General and Technical; Agricultural Teacher % Training; University (Agricultural); Adult Non-Formal Technical Training (T.A.) 13.5 8 5 60. Zaire I Secondary Technical; Primary and Technical Teacher Training (T.A.) 11.8 6.5 61. Jordan I Secondary General and Agricultural; Post-Secondary Technical; Teacher Training (T.A.) 9.8 5.4 62. Singapore I University (Technical) (T.A.) 20.0 9. 5 63. Indonesia II Agricultural Secondary; Adult Training (T.A.) 12.3 6.3 64. Nigeria Post-Secondary General; Teacher Training (T.A.) 27.8 17.3 65. Malaysia II Secondary Technical; University (Science); ITV 28.4 15.5 66. Liberia Secondary General; University (Agricultural); Teacher Training (T.A.) 9.6 7.2 67. Central African Secondary General; Post-Secondary Technical; Teacher Republic Training (T.A.) 5.4 3.9 68. Thailand !I University (Agricultural) (T.A.) 28.3 15.4 69. Spain II Secondary General; Technical Teacher Training; University (Technical) (T.A.) 152.5 50.0 70. Cameroon II Secondary General and Technical; Teacher Training; Non-Formal Adult Technical (T.A.) 11.4 9.0 71. Iraq I Secondary General and Technical; Post-Secondary Technical; Non-Forma; Adult Agricultural and Technical Training; ITV 19.9 12.9 ANN-rX 6 Page 3 of 3 IBRD/IDA EDUCATION PROJECTS APPROVED AS OF J-U-N8. 30, i974 (U.S.$ M i I I i o n) Total Amount of Loan F iscai Proiect (Loan (Credit) Year Country Main Purpose Cost Bank IDA 1973 72. Greece II University Engineering and Science; Teacher Training: Technical 43.9 23.5 and Agricultural Secondary; Vocational Training (T.A.) 73. India Agricultural University,Computer Center. Curriculum Development (T.A ) 19,4 12.0 74. Trinidad & Tobago 11 General Secondary, Teacher Training (T.A.) 19.7 9.3 75 Philippines Agricultural University. Agricultural Secondary Schools, Technical and Vocarin.al Institutions, Development Centers (T.A. ) 17.7 12.7 76. Paraguay General Secondary, Technical Post-Secondary (T.A.) 7.3 5.1 77. Lebanon . .......... Basic and Secondary General, Teacher Training (T.A.) 15.9 6.6 78. Thailand III General Secondary, University, Teacher Training (T.A.) 39.0 19.5 79. Tanzania IV Primary, General Secondary, Medical School 4tniversity),Technical Secondarv (T.A ) 14.6 10.3 80. Indonesia III Teacher Training, Learning Materials, Development (T.A.) 39.2 13.5 81. Algeria Technical and Agricultural Post-Secondary and University (T.A.) 10.2 6.0 a2. vKrea IT Fngineering Science and School of Education at Universities. Teacher Training, Agricultural and Technical Secondary (T.A.) 70.2 23.0 20.0 83. Zambia III Paramedical, Health Training Centers, Agricultural School of Universitv. Farmer TraininR Centers, Teacher Training, General Secondary, Development (T.A.) 40.1 33.0 84. Bangladesh University and Post-Secondary Agricultural and Technical, Teacher Training (T.A.) 36.4 21.0 85. Mali Technical Teacher Training, General Secondary, Technical Education, Development (T.A.) 5.5 5.0 86. Nigeria General Secondary, Teacher Training (T.A.) 107.4 54.0 87. Upper Volta General Secondary, Youith Training, Development (T.A.) 3.6 2.85 88. Costa Rica General Secondary, Adult Training (T.A.) 9.4 6.2 89. Ethiopia General Secondary, Agricultural Training, University School of Science, Teacher Training, Development (T.A.) 12.7 10.0 1974 9n emen Arab ReDublic Secondary General and Agricultural. Non-Formal Basis; Teacher Training (T,A.) i6.95 il.0 91. Colombia IV Primary Agricultural; Secondary General; Post Secondary Technical and Teacher Training, Rural Development Center 33.50 21.2 Chad Supplementary credit to Chad I & II 0.9 92. Peru General Secondary (TA) 40.00 24.00 93. Honduras Vocational and Agricultural Training Centers; Teacher Training (TA) 8.66 3.0 3.0 94. Ireland II Secondary General, Post-Secondary Technical, University Agricultural; Teacher Training (T.A.) 62.84 25.0 95. Mauritania Secondary Technical, Community Development Vocational and Teacher Training (T.A.) 4.30 3.8 96 Singapore II University law, Arts and Science (T.A.) 42.00 19.5 97. Oman Teacher Training, Agricultural Secondary, Youth Training (TA) 11.10 5.7 98. Malaysia III General Secondary; Post-Secondary General and Technical; Teacher Training 41.40 19.0 99. El Salvador II Primary and Basic Education; Youth Training Center (T.A,) 24.20 17.0 TOTAL. 1936.45 6427: 416.4 Summary of Education Lending by Fiscal Year 1963 - 1974 Fiscal Year Bank IDA Total 1963 5.0 5.0 1964 17.6 17.6 1965 6.0 23.5 29.5 1966 2.75 31.2 33.95 1967 15.5 36.3 51.8 1968 10.6 L3.6 24.2 1969 57.3 24.5 81.8 1970 52.3 27.6 79.9 1971 68.2 39.7 107.9 1972 133.6 46.8 180.4 1973 161.6 131.95 293.55 1974 134.4 18.7 153.1 Total 1963-1974 642.25 4i6.45 1058.7 ANNEX 7 COMPARISON OF EDUCATION EFFICIENCIES IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS, LATIN AMERICA (a) Successful Completers and Dropouts in Primary Education Total Country Urban Rural Successful Successful Successful Completers Completers Completers ------ as a % of entrances ---------- Colombia 27.3 47.3 3.7 Dominican Republic 30.4 48.1 13.9 Guatemala 25.4 49.6 3.5 Panama 62.3 80.7 45.3 Average Percentage Completers 39 51 22 (b) Efficiency of Primary Education Years to Produce a Successful Completer Input/Output Ratio Total Total Ideal Country Rural Urban Country Rural Urban Colombia 5 11 66 8 2.4 13-2 1.7 Dominican Republic 6 14 27 9 2.3 4.5 1.6 Guatemala 6 14 70 10 2.3 11=6 1.6 Panama 6 9 12 8 1.5 1.9 1.2 Source: Based on Unesco Report, "The Statistical Measurement of Educational vvc_s age"l A?WTh1VV Q AVAILABILLITY OF CO-MPLETE PRIMAKY SChOOLS IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS Percentage of the Total Number of Primary Schools in Each Category (Rural and Urban) which Ofrer the Complete Number of Grades Complete Urban Cormplete Rural Schools as a % Schools as a % Number of of Total oi Total Countries Urban Schools Rural Schools (a) Countries by GNP Per Capita I Up to $120 (excluding India) 9 53 36 India 57 49 II $121 - 250 7 72 32 III $251 - 750 16 77 62 IV $751 - 1,500 2 89 56 V Over $1,500 6 100 99 (b) By Major Regions Africa 16 79 54 Asia (excluding India) 9 94 66 India 57 49 South and Central America 10 88 34 Europe 5 98 99 Source: Based on data in the 1972 Unesco Statistical Yearbook ANNEX 9 Page 1 of 2 FEMALE ENROLLMENT AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS 1! 1960 1965 1970 PRIMARY SCHOOLS A. Countries by GNP per capita I - Up to $120 35% 37% 38% II - $121-250 42% 43% 44% III - $251-750 43% 44% 45% IV - $751-1,500 48% 49% 49% V - Over $1,500 49% 49% 49% B. By Continents Africa 37% 38% 40% The Americas 49% 49% 49% Asia 2/ 38% 39% 38% Europe 49% 48% 49% Oceania 48% 47% 48% Developed Countries 49% 49% 49% Developing Countries 39% 40% 40% World 2/ 43% 44% 44% SECONDARY SCHOOLS A. Countries by GNP per capita I - Up to $120 19% 23% 28% II - $121-250 27% 30% 29% III - $251-750 37% 41% 41% IV - $751-1.500 45% 44% 45% V - Over $1,500 47% 47% 48% ANNEX 9 Page 2 of 2 1960 1965 1970 SECONDARY SCHOOLS (Continued) B. By Continents Africa 31% 30% 32% The Americas 49% 49% 49% Asia 2/ 35% 36% 35% Europe 45% 46% 47% Oceania 42% 42% 44% Developed Countries 48% 51% 49% Developing Countries 31% 26% 35% World 2/ 44% 44% 43% 1/ Complete equity between the sexes would imply a female enrollment ratio of 49%. 2/ Not including Peoples' Republic of Chinn and epmnoratic Republic of Vietnam. Source: Unesco 1972 Statistical Yearbook. ANNEX 10 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE BUDGET AND GNP Countries by GNP Per Capita 1960 1Q65 1Q70 Budget GNP Budget GNP Budget GNP I Up to $120 6.7 1.8 9.6 2.3 13.2 2.9 (No. of countries) (5) (6) (12) (11) (7) (6) II $121-250 20-. 3.6 21.8 3.2 18.9 3.8 (No. of countries) (3) (1O) (14) (17) (7) (7) III $251-750 15.3 2.3 14.6 2.9 13.5 3.0 (No. of countripe) (8) (17) (15) (20) (15) (13) IV 1751-15500 6.1 2.1 8.3 2.2 10.1 3.1 (No. of countries) (2) (3) (5) (5) (5) (8) V Over $1,500 12.9 3.8 19.5 5.5 17.8 5.8 (No. of colntries) (4) (14)) (4) ) (14) (10) (12) ~)T TT~T Tr c nT r'Th A Tm'T (ml- 7 7rMT -rmT TDTC' ?UBLIC~~ T"T'UCTO EXhNDu (In US Dollars-Current Prices) P!er Capita of E'opulation/PEupil Countries by GNP Per Capita 1960 1965 1970 Population Prupil Population Pu-pil Population rupil I Up to $120 1 16 2 21 2 i8 II 121-250 5 33 6 4O 9 49 III $251-750 7_L_ I I 41 3 9 58 10 57 IV $751-1,500 17 114 29 164 34 179 V Over $1,500 67V 338 113 504 168 749 Source: Based on data compiled by Unesco. Aiu'jFNX .U.1 _,. ...,... ... . SCHOOL TEXTBOOK PRODUCTION/:! Countries by No. of Books Enrollment Textboos -pe GNP per capita (000's) (000's) studeni. Up to $250 Ghana 19 1,518 0.01 Cameroon 30 956 0.(:3 Nigeria 340 3,871 0.0£ Uganda 259 768 0.34 Kenya 592 1,404 0.422 Tunisia 1,580 1,070 1-4F Sri Lanka 4,229 2,653 Egypt 9,694 5,187 '.87 Average 0.73 $251-1,500 Chile 1,695 2,345 0.72 Argentina 3,973 4,359 0.91 Malaysia 6,945 2,274 3.05 Singapore 2,396 513 4.6kP Spain 30,592 5,879 5.20 Average 2.91 I/ Schnnl txtboonks for nrimarv and secondarv eduication. Source: Unesco 1971/72 Statistical Yearbook. ANNEX 12 INTERNAL EFFICIENCY!' Percent Dropouts Lowest Median Highest T. ESTLMTATED PERCENT DROPOLTT IN COHORTS ENTERING PRIMARY EDUCATION AROUND 1960 A. Countries by GNP per capita I - Up to $120 27.9 57.5 81.3 II - $121250 13.2 49.0 75.5 III - $251-750 8.8 45.1 74.7 IV - $751-1,500 6.7 45.7 60.6 V - Over $1,500 0.7 9.7 56.8 B. Countries in Major Regions Africa 26.2 54.0 81.3 Lat.in America33.1 61.6 74.7 Asia 0.7 20.2 64.0 Europe 0.7 18a3 48.3 II. ESTIMATED PERCENT DROPOUT IN COHORTS ENTERING SENIOR SECONDARY EDUCTIArLT IN AROUND 1960 A. Countries by GNP per capita I - Up to $120 5.0 43.2 47.9 II - $121-250 5.2 46.0 62.0 III - $251-750 5.0 28.3 69.1 IV - $751-1,500 11.4 13.9 23.4 V - Over $1,500 4.8 15.0 22.1 B. Countries in Major Regions Africa 7.5 41.9 61.4 Latin America 8.5 18.5 28.3 Asia 4.8 18.1 57.8 Europe 8.2 11.4 21.8 1/ The survey covered the educational systems of 58 countries for the years 1960-61 and 1967-68. Source: Based on clata compiled by Unesco. ANNEX 13 EDUCATION AT THE FIRST AND SEGOND LEVELS STUDENT/TEACHER RATIO Countries 19o6 1965 1q70 by GNP First Second First Second First Second per capita Level Level -evel Level Level Level I - Up to $120 39 42 42 19 21 21 !I - $121-250 42 42 43 21 24 25 III - $251-750 37 36 37 15 14 19 IV - $751-1,500 31 30 36 17 18 15 V - Over $1,500 28 25 24 18 17-1 Source: Unesco 1972 Statistical Yearbook.