INLAOO THE WORLD BANK POLICY PLANNING AND RESEARCH STAFF Infrastructure and Urban Development Department Report INU 4 Refrigerated Containers Joseph Sinclair and others Decemzber 1989 Technical Paper This document is published informally by the World Bank. The views and interpretations herein are those of the authors anc should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual activng on their behalf. I The Wodd Bank Refrigerated Containers Technical Paper December 1989 Copyright 1989 The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20433 All Rights Reserved First Printing: December 1989 This document is published informally by the World Bank. In order that the information contained in it can be presented with the least possible delay, the typescript has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The World Bank does not accept responsibility for the views expressed herein, which are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank or to its affiliated organizations. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions are the results of research supported by the Bank; they do not necessarily represent official policy of the Bank. The designations employed, and the presentation of material in this document are solely for the convenience of the reader and do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank or its affiliates. The basic structure and contents have been put together by Joseph Sinclair, who from an economic background, has spent from 1965 to date closely involved with many of the varied aspects of the container industry - initially working with SEA CONTAINERS Ltd but from 1981 onwards as a private consultant. He is a frequent contributor to various maritime journals on container related matters. Other co-authors are Steven H. Fraser, until recently Vice President Sales and Marketing, and Richard A. Lidinsky,Jr, Vice President, both of SEA CONTAINERS AMERICA, Inc. Other valuable input was provided by John Arnold,Jr, of the Ports and Waterways Institute, Louisiana State University. John R. Lethbridge, Ports Advisor, World Bank, was responsible for tine production of this Technical Paper and wrote the introduction. This Technical Paper was prepared unoef consultancy agreements to the Transport Division of the Infrastructure and Urban Development Department of the World Bank. - iii - TECHNICAL PAPER ON REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS TABLE OF CONTENTS page Part I - OVERVIEW 1.0 Objective ......................... 1 1.1 Introduction .........................., 1 1.2 Overview of refrigeration and perishable product transportation .................. 2 1.3 Refrigerated Transportation in the context of less developed countries .................. 4 1.4 Introduction of refrigeration technology and development .... 6 1.4.1 Air Flow .................. 7 1.4.2 Temperature control ........ ......................... 8 1.4.3 Temperature differentials ...... ..................... 8 1.4.4 Relative humidity ......... .......................... 8 1.4.5 Ripening gases .......... ............................ 9 1.4.6 Artificial atmospheres ....... ....................... 9 1.5 Microchip technology and remote monitoring ..... ............. 10 Part II - REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS - TECHNOLOGY/ENGINEERING 2.1 What is a refrigerated container? ...... ..................... 2.2 Technical factors . ........................................... 1 2.2.1 Design criteria ......... ............................ I 2.2.2 Choice of material .................................. I 2.2.3 Insulation factors .......... ........................ ' 2.2.4 Temperature control .......... ....................... . 2.2.5 Air distribution . .................................... 1 2.2.6 Capacity of refrigerating machinery ..... ............ 2 2.2.7 Control of atmosphere ......... ...................... 2CI 2.2.8 Accessibility for repairs ....... .................... 2O 2.3 Description and illustrations of types of refrigeration technology ............................................. 20 2.3.1 The container ...................................... 20 (a) Bottom air delivery .20 - iv - (b) Top air delivery ............................ 21 (c) Side air delivery ........................... 21 (d) Refrigeration machinery ..................... 21 (e) The integral and porthole types . . 22 (f) Temperature control and data logging ........ 22 2.3.2 Liquid bulk refrigeration containers .26 2.3.3 Ancillary Equipment .27 (a) Power packs . . 27 (b) Clip-on diesel generators . .31 (c) Underslung diesel generators . .31 2.3.3 Considerations .31 (a) Power requirements . .31 (b) Gable connections and multinational sockets . 33 (c) Maintenance and spare parts . .34 (d) Ship/shore voltage regulations . .34 2.4 International standards, regulatory agencies and regulations .34 Part III - REFRIGERATED CONTAINER TERMINAL AND TRANSPORT LOGISTICS 3.1 Logistics requirements for reefers in existing (small ports) .39 3.2 Minimum equipment/installation requirements for transporting reefers by truck and/or train .41 3.3 Size, types and logistical parameters governing dedicated reefer container vessels .41 3.4 Under-deck operation .43 Part IV - PRODUCT STOWAGE AND PRESERVATION 4.1 Packaging/stowing of cargoes in reefers .44 4.1.1 Types of packaging .44 4.1.2 Palletization .45 4.1.3 Air circulation requirements . . . 45 (a) Stowing frozen prodLcts .48 (b) Stowing chilled products .48 4.1.4 Description of floor .49 4.1.5 Details of Weight Restrictions .49 4.2 Cargo description/information and product preparation/preservation .51 4.2.1 General aspects of storage .51 4.2.2 Deterioration of fruits and vegetables .... .......... 51 (a) Physical deterioration ...................... 52 (b) Physiological deterioration .... ............. 52 (c) Chemical deterioration ...................... 52 (d) Pathological deterioration .... .............. 52 4.2.3 Handling techniques to reduce deterioration .... .... 53 (a) Post harvest practices ...................... 53 (b) Pre-shipment practices ...................... 53 (c) Discharge ................................... 53 4.2.4 Preservation of fruits and vegetables .... .......... 54 (a) Temperature ................................. 54 (b) Relative humidity ........................... 54 (c) Controlled atmospheres ....................... 55 Part V - REEFER TRANSPORT ECONOMICS 5.1 The transition from bulk to container reefer .... ........... 56 5.2 Problems associated with dead-heading of empty reefers ..... 58 5.3 Cost comparison: reefer vessels versus refrigerated container shipments ................. I ...................... 59 5.4 Purchase versus leasing: The role of the leasing company .. 62 Annex A: Bananas--A commodity study ............................. 64 Annex B: USDA Requirement for shipment by refrigerated container. 69 (a) Container ........................................... 70 (b) Fruit precooling ........... ........................ 70 (c) Loading ............................................. 70 (d) Temperature recorder and probes ..... ............... 71 (e) Documentation . ...................................... 72 (f) Treatment schedules ......... ....................... 72 Annex C: Characteristics of fruits and vegetables affecting transport .73 Annec D: Comparison of transport costs for bananas and Pineapples from Cote D'Ivoire to France .83 Annex E: Carrying temperatures and compatibility for various commodities .94 TECHNICAL PAPER ON REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS PART ONE - OVERVIEW 1.0 Objective One of the objectives of the World Bank in its lending activities for development is to assist its borrower countries in enhancing and widening their export opportunities through reducing the costs of transport, improving the quality of the products and exploring new opportunities for export potential. In the past, many countries were unable to export many of their products simply because of the lack of an appropriate transport technology and system. The development of the refrigerated container and the refrigerated liquid bulk container have enabled countries to enter export markets that were totally closed to them ten years ago. Although the transport of deep frozen meats and other similar commodities was possible through the use of refrigerated vessels and has been available for some time, the concept of "chilled" transport systems opened up enormous opportunities. For example, the export of fish from the Seychelles. Fish such as Red Snapper can be transported in an "iced" condition for periods up to 12 days and be sold on arrival as "fresh fish" able to command a value very much higher than its frozen counterpart thus substantially increasing the return to the country on its assets. Similarly, the use of refrigerated liquid bulk containers has enabled small Pacific island communities to produce and export chilled fruit juices which was hitherto impossible. For traditional commodities such as bananas, the use of refrigerated containers has enabled the costs of transport to be reduced and for the final quality of the fruit to be much improved. It is this ability to be able control the quality of the fruit at its final destination which enables the transport system to function economically. The system has also enabled many countries to compete in new markets which were previously inaccessible due to a lack of safe and efficient transport for perishable commodities. It is because of the potential of the refrigerated container for assisting countries to increase their limited export opportunities that this Technical Paper was prepared. It was considered that both the Bank's staff and those responsible for promoting exports in the borrowing countries should be aware of the technology and how it can work for their benefit. It is a technology which is continuing to develop. 1.1 Introduction Refrigeration is defined as the process of removing heat from an enclosed space for the purpose of lowering the temperature. In the context of transportation, containerization is the introduction of a standardized method of unitization which allows cargo to be moved globally and intermodally without the necetssity to handle that cargo en route. It has long been known that the retmoval of heat slows down the deterioration of perishable commodities such as foodstuffs. In the evolution of shipping, it was only natural that refrigerated transport would be developed and perfected, and it was inevitable that the development of the sophisticated packing methods implicit in containerization should ultimately be directed towards the integration of this new technology. A press advertisement in the early 1970s by the Sea Containers Group, asked: 'What if a container could provide precise, total control of refrigerated shipments, over any distance, at any temperature? It would open up the possibility of distant new mass markets for delicate perishables [and] it would virtually erase the 20% spoilage that is accepted for perishable shipments via old type cold containers." This Technical Paper will consider: * the development of refrigerated transport from the primitive use of ice for the transport of perishables, to the modern refrigerated container (Reefer);1 * the transformation of the refrigerated container itself into a highly sophisticated instrument in the transportation sector; * the technical aspects of the modern refrigerated container; * the logistical considerations affected within all other sectors which are touched by its employment; * and the new areas opened up by this equipment. 1.2 Overview of Refrigeration and Perishable Product Transportation We earlier defined refrigeration as the process of removing heat from an enclosed space for the purpose of lowering the temperature. This removal of heat is valuable as a means of preserving any product which would otherwise need to be consumed within a short time. In the main this relates to foodstuffs which deteriorate less rapidly as the storage temperature is lowered. Storage at low temperatures prolongs "shelf" life by decreasing the respiration rate of fruits and vegetables and by retarding the growth of most spoilage micro-organisms. According 1The term "Reefer" is commonly used to denote a refrigerated container. to the product, its intended storage period, and its proposed use, there are two principal low-temperature techniques: chilling and freezing. Had there been no development of mechanically controlled refrigeration, which dates only from the early 19th century, most perishable foods would have to be consumed where they are produced, and the transportation of foodstuffs over long distances in chilled or frozen form would be impossible. During this period, the industrial revolution in Europe drew its labor force from the rural areas, created a fast rising urban population which needed feeding, and simultaneously reduced the supply of locally produced produce. At the same time America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand were rapidly developing surpluses of meat and cereal products. While the latter were easily transported by conventional means, only the by-products of the meat could be similarly shipped, i.e., the wool, skins, and tallow. For many centuries the use of natural ice was the only means of preserving foodstuffs. The first experimental mechanical refrigerating system is thought to be that of Jacob Perkins in 1834, but this developed practical difficulties and was not followed up. The father of refrigeration machinery is more usually regarded as the American, Dr. John Gorrie, who introduced his cold air machine in 1849. This was later developed by Bell & Coleman of Scotland and others. The first experiment in transporting meat, in 1877, used the s.s. Frigorifique from Buenos Aires to Rouen in France. This ship used ammonia to produce low temperatures. Although not a complete success, the fact that at least some of the food was landed in edible condition demonstrated that development was proceeding along the right lines. A few months later a shipment of 80 tons of mutton from Buenos Aires to France on the s.s. Paraguay was discharged in perfect condition despite being at sea for over seven months. This cargo was frozen by means of a Carre ammonia machine. In 1879, ice making machinery manufactured by Bell-Coleman was placed on board the s.s. Circassia, a vessel of the Anchor Line trading between America and Great Britain, the machinery having previously been tested at the engineering works of D. and W. Henderson & Co, of Glasgow, where a consignment of meat was kept chilled at a temperature of 30°F for 90 days before being sold at Smithfield Market in London. However, the turning point is generally regarded as being the voyage of s.s. Strathleven in 1880 which carried 40 tons of frozen beef, mutton and lamb from Sydney, Australia to London where it was delivered in sound condition. The refrigeration was provided by a Bell-Coleman compressed air machine. It is possible that the greater demand for meat in Great Britain, where the reduction of the rural population was far more drastic than in France, contributed to the extra efforts made. Compressed-air machines were later replaced by carbon dioxide and ammonia systems and by the end of the 19th century a number of - 4 - refrigerated ships were entered in Lloyd's Register of Shipping. It was refrigeration which made it possible for such meat- producing nations such as Australia and Argentina to export much of their output to Britain and western Europe, usually in frozen form. More recently the development of more sophisticated refrigeration equipment has made possible the growth of an export industry in more rapidly perishable fruits and vegetables from less developed countries. 1.3 Refrigerated Transportation in the Context of Less Developed Countries One of the points of major impact which containerization has had on the economies of the less developed countries has been the consequent facility to export products whic:h otherwise posed too many transportation problems for their producing countries. Primary products have always played an important part in devreloping economies: forest and agricultural products such as logs, roughsawn timber, wood and paper pulp, plywood, rubber, copra, nuts, hides, wool cotton, fruit, vegetables, eggs and meat are obvious examples. Sea products such as fish, shell-fish and even seaweeds are also of importance. If this list is examined it will be seen that, historically, of all the products mentioned, those which have been least able to contribute to their producing country's export trade have been those which have required fairly sophisticated methods of handling and shipment not readily available to the country concerned. The most obvious examples are the perishable commodities where no facilities may have existed for pre-cooling, storing at low temperatures, delivering co vessel in the required condition, and the transportation across the ocean. Yet these products, by and large, are those which are most readily cultivated and gathered. Theoretically they are the most potentially viable products for a developing nation's economic growth The trade in bananas is a prime example of how this situation operates in practice. The product is one which is available throughout the year and the market in bananas is accordingly fairly stable. It s also one of the most popular fruits for developed nations to import. This was the case with Japan, for example, and the pattern has tended be repeated in other developing nations of the Far and Middle East. (See Table 1.1). -5- Table 1.1 Exporting and Importing Countries of Bananas (Unit: 1,000 tons) Exports Import Exporting Importing Countries 1983 1985 1987 Countries 1983 1985 1987 Costa Rica 1,009 857 943 U.S.A. 2,458 3,067 3,043 .Ecuador 910 1,075 1402 Japan 576 680 775 Colombia 786 783 962 Germany 459 589 699 Panama 652 686 676 France 441 426 442 Philippines 612 789 775 Italy 321 358 359 Guatemala 316 366 380 U.K. 307 324 359 U.S.A. 188 197 188 Canada 250 265 324 Martinique 156 154 171 Saudi Arabia 130 85 70 Taiwan 121 135 128 Netherlands 93 114 130 Brazil 92 105 81 U.S.S.R. 89 70 47 World 6.227 6.823 7.521 6.066 7.132 7.508 Source: FAQ Trade Year Book 1988 In this connection it is interesting to note that the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) at a meeting held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1980, emphasized "the utility of an updating of the study on maritime and inland transport of bananas, particularly with regard to technical innovations - inter alia, containerization and measures designed to reduce transport costs of bananas..." The summary and recommendations of the report issued by the UNCTAD secretariat in April 1982 commenced with the statement that "final demand for bananas (i.e. by consumers) tends to be elastic. It is therefore important to make every effort to stem the ever-rising tide of transport costs. The largest single element in the margin by which the c.i.f. (cost, insurance and freight) price of bananas exceeds the f.o.b. (free on board) price is the transport costs.... A further reason is that bananas ideally require refrigeration all the time from cutting to retailing. However, precisely because the transport cost is so high, it is the one which it will be most useful to seek to reduce.n -6- The summary goes on: "Containerization of bananas is becoming increasingly popular, particularly in the United States of America where it is expected to become the dominant method of transportation, if not the only one, before the end of the decade. Since containerization increases the proportion and hence the quantity of top quality fruit, it provides an incentive to adopt this mode of transport. Banana-producing countrieis which already participate in or plan to participatei in the transport of bananas, particularly to the United States, must bear this fact in mind when considering the purchase of new tonnage ...... "It would appear that most growers and producing countries benefit from unitization through lower losses of bananas during transport and the ability to market a larger percentage of top quality fruit.... The choice between the two types of containers, integrated and isothermic, will depend on a large extent on the import area, its inland distances and its climate.' The foregoing illustrates the impiortance of refrigerated containers as a tool to facilitate the expansion of a developing economy, by fostering expanded agriculturaL production (hence greater employment and improved local diets) while earning foreign exchange. Bananas are but one product: the efficiency and advantages of refrigerated containers are however, common to virtually all perishable product transportation. One of the major break-throughs in recent time has been the introduction of the liquid bulk refrigerated container. Both the reefer and the standard liquid bulk container have enabled less developed countries to import and export liquids such as cooking oil, fruit juices, palm oil, wines and rum with much greater efficiency and at reduced costs. In particular, for some small island countries, the liquid bulk reefer has enabled them to enter the export market for the first time with chilled fruit juices - even though they only produce very small quantities each month. Such trades are now firmly established in the southern Pacific. The reefer containers can be used in two way trades since they are not difficult to clean - i.e., cooking oil inward - fruit juices outward are examples. 1.4 Introduction of Refrizeration Technologv and Development The pioneering days of refrigerated transport, which go back to the mid-19th century, saw solutions of the major problem of temperature control (i.e. maintaining precise temperature) as dependent -7 - upon ensuring that the cargo was precooled to the right level and was sufficiently insulated during transport. This achieved, it was then necessary to maintain the level of refrigeration during transportation and to avoid delays which might adversely affect this requirement. Although recognition of the many factors which exert an influence on this situation, and the sophistication of techniques for handling them, have improved in the intervening century, the basic problem remains unchanged. The development of the refrigerated container is of much more recent origin, the earliest forms dating from the 1930s, although it was only in the late sixties that ship design permitted the transportation of large numbers of refrigerated containers in any one vessel. Indeed the first presentation we have found on record of a system describing the transport of cargo inside a refrigerated container on a vehicle was as recent as 1971. Although the technology had long been available to allow the transportation of temperature-sensitive products in refrigerated containers, at precise, predetermined temperatures, and to maintain those temperatures throughout the loaded cargo, while controlling gas levels and humidity, it was not generally utilized until recent times. There were a number of reasons for this delay, but it was mainly the result of a resistance to change by suppliers of the produce and potential users of the equipment who were concerned at the possibility of increased costs, as well as the potential problems of operating and maintaining sophisticated equipment. Several factors generally regarded as affecting the carriage of temperature-sensitive cargoes, can be singled out: Air flow Temperature control Temperature differentials Relative humidity Ripening gases Artificial atmospheres 1.4.1 Air Flow Involved in this consideration are: (a) The volume of air flow at various static pressures. 7T1., higher the speed of air on a surface, the higher is the heat exchange between the surface and the air. Accordingly, the volume of air flow paramount in ensuring a satisfactory cooling effect. (b) Air delivery pattern, including top or bottom evaporator air supply as well as the flooring system and the stacking pattern. Live cargoes, such as fruit and vegetables, breathe (or respirate); oxygen is absorbed, breaking down their carbohydrates into carbon - 8 - dioxide and water, thus producing heat. It is essential that the air circulates efficiently round the cargo to avoid any warm pockets. (c) The quantity of air recommended for the particular commodity being transported, i.e., air changes per minute. Commodities with high breathing rates require high air flow when accurate temperature is necessary; with lower air speeds the increase in temperature between blown and return air can be higher than the temperature accuracy allowance. As an example; a 20 ft. container loaded with 10,000 kg of bananas, with a respiration heat of 40 watts/ton at 12 C (53°F) with a ventilation rate of 30 volumes/hour (1200m3/hour), exhibits a difference of temperature between blown and return air, due to the fruit breathing, of 1C (1.8°F) and is lower than 0.4*C (0.7°F) with a rate of 80 volumes/hour (35,000 m3/hour). Thus, because considerable accuracy is necessary, the figure of 80 volumes/hour is usually adopted in order to ensure the preservation of many fruits over long periods. 1.4.2 Temperature Control The transportation of perishable commodities in refrigerated containers has been very dependent upon the! ability to introduce evaporator air into the cargo space with a tolerance of less than 0.5°C. This was not so important when only deep frozen goods were being transported. The only criterion then was to keep temperatures below a given limit in order to stop bacterial development and arrest chemical changes which would result in flavor changes. 1.4.3 Temperature Differentials The difference in temperature within the cargo space, especially the difference between supply and return is dramatically responsive to the introduction of various factors in the refrigeration technique such as: * the capacity of the control system * the volume of evaporator air * the effectiveness of floor design * the proper stacking pattern of cargo 1.4.4. Relative Humidity The lower the air temperature, the lower is the admissible quantity of water in it. As most refrigerated cargoes are mainly constituted of water (80/90% of total weiglat in the case of fruits), the drier the air, the higher is the water exclhange, and hence the greater the loss of weight suffered by the product. This is an important consideration: product weight loss affects not only the appearance, the taste, and the quality of the product, but has a direct effect on the economics of shipping the product, as many commodities are sold on arrival by weight. - 9 - To maintain high relative humidity, it is necessary to have a sophisticated capacity control system, a large evaporator coil and good evaporator air flow. It is also possible to program relative humidity to pre-determined levels of high or low humidity, but this increases the complexity of the system, complicates its reliability, is extremely costly and results in loss of utilizable space. 1.4.5. RiDenine Gases Living cargoes breathe out carbon dioxide. This gas has a different effect on different commodities. It can, for example, increase storage life of certain varieties of fruit, yet can cause disease in some apple varieties. Other gases can also have an influence on the storage of fruit. Ethylene stimulates the ripening of bananas and is produced by their breathing. As these gases have effects in very low concentrations and as their rates are difficult to measure, the only solution is to allow a sufficient intake of air. Most container refrigeration systems today include a way of introducing fresh air and rejecting contaminated air, i.e. air containing various ripening gases. They also have a method for extracting a small quantity of inside air to detect levels of ripening gas. It is theoretically possible to provide a sensing element and valve arrangement which would introduce outside air in response to the gas level. But this would also add enormously to the cost as well as reducing internal cubic capacity and affecting the system's reliability. 1.4.6. Artificial Atmospheres It is quite normal for artificial atmospheres, consisting principally of nitrogen, to be introduced to the loaded container at the beginning of a voyage. The Air Products group of companies produce a liquid nitrogen container system called the Cryo-Guard. The British Oxygen Company markets a system called Polarstream. Basically liquid nitrogen is injected from a number of spray heads situated along the length of the container roof. Droplets of the liquid nitrogen vaporize instantly, expanding 650 times their volume, pulling down the temperature uniformly throughout the container from ambient to sub-zero in under 30 minutes. Much work has been done, and continues to be done, to develop systems which can be used to slow down the rate of respiration and extend the storage life by control of atmosphere. Some methods, such as those mentioned above, are concerned with modifying the atmosphere inside the container. Others seek to modify the atmosphere inside the individual package being containerized, or of utilizing substances which will absorb the ethylene evolved by ripening fruit. Still others work by the application of a liquid coating to certain fruits. There is also the hyperbaric system which seeks to alter the air pressure. We shall be commenting on these various methods in more detail later in this Technical Paper. - 10 - 1.5. Microchip Technologv and Remote Monitoring The development of larger ships with more reefer capacity,2 as well as the increase in reefer handling capacity at ports and terminals, made it necessary to have some form of remote monitoring, or automated surveillance to replace manual observation. This started as a system for monitoring the performance of a group of refrigerated containers connected to a central power supply, but has now extended to the ability to monitor individual containers. It was the advent of affordable micro-processors and sophisticated electronics which made this possible in a cost-effective way. The function of the micro-processor based reefer control and diagnostic alarm system is to monitor and process signals from temperature sensors, switches, thermostats and pressure switches, to allow early detection of any failure, in order to prevent damage to the reefer unit or its cargo. The introduction of microchip technology into the controlling functions of container refrigeration units provided an ability to maintain a much more precise temperature control than was previously possible. At present more than half the fleet of integral containers have some form of micro-electronics and computerization. 2Typically, container ships are only fitted out to carry a small percentage of reefers because of the need to correct them to the ship's electrical power system. - 11 - PART TWO - REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS - TECHNOLOGY/ENGINEERING 2.1 What is a Refrigerated Container? Refrigerated containers (or thermal containers as they are defined in the International Standards Organizations's regulations) cover all freight containers that might be equipped with appliances for cooling or heating the cargo space. The basic design and testing requirements are laid down in ISO 1396/2.3 The ideal refrigerated container would be designed to cope with all the varying demands of the different trades in which it might be used; it would handle all possible variations in climatic conditions; it would take care of every variety of product which needs to be carried under temperature-controlled conditions; and it would operate within the total range of temperatures which might be required. However, no such unit exists and instead a variety of specialized units are used. Tables 2.1 and 2.2, and Figure 2.1 provide interesting analyses of the world refrigerated container population by country of ownership, structure, age and region of operations. There are two basic types of reefer containers used in international trade; the insulated box which is connected to a central plant cold air circulation system on board ship, sometimes known as an isothermic, or port-hole container, and the plug-in type integral refrigerated container which incorporates its own refrigeration unit within the standard module. Technical developments in isothermic, or porthole, containers have been less dramatic than in the integral reefer containers. Generally the porthole or central plant container operations are only economically viable in trade routes which offer large, constant volumes (say, 200-300 containers per ship) of homogeneous products, operating between a limited range of highly developed ports. The meat trade between Australia and Europe is a good example. The lack of demand for these units, other than for replacement of old units, derives from the advances in technology for integral unit relative to port-hole or clip- on units. The integral refrigerated container, on the other hand, has always been considered the unit best suited for trades with under- developed or developing countries where shore-side cooling appliances or cold storage facilities cannot always be provided. More importantly, the integral refrigerated container offers maximum flexibility in terms of products, trade range and volume. The growth in demand for these units has been explosive in the last few years as shown in Figure 2.2. 3See ISO (Int. Standards Org.) for thermal containers 2.4. - 12 - At present, the total inventory is estimated to be .25 million TEU. An integral reefer carries its own refrigeration capability. It is generally able to maintain temperatures between at least -18' and +20-C. It allows the shipment of as many different products each with different temperature settings as there are containers on board the vessel; and can carry frozen cargo on one voyage and chilled cargo on the next. The practical experience gained with the operation of reefer containers, as well as the studies undertaken in controlled laboratory conditions, has resulted in minimum risk carriage of a wide range of primary products. However, it is essential that close attention be given to the preparation of the cargo and supervision of its carriage throughout the transport chain. The most vital aspect of refrigerated cargo care is, of course, the commodity/temperature relationship, in conjunction with the requirements of ventilation and storage life. It is important to identify those cargoes which are sufficiently compatible to be carried in the same container, and those that are incompatible must be segregated. Table 2.1 Analysis of 20/40ft integral reefer and insulated container fleet by country and ownershi2 (actual units) Country of Carrier Lessor Other ownershio 20ft 40ft 2Oft 40ft 20ft 40ft UK 28,032 2,380 7,027 5,413 0 650 USA 186 14,114 5,207 7,122 625 0 Japan 11,841 8,617 0 0 100 6 West Germany 11,536 696 997 1,507 0 0 France 8,502 1,903 0 0 0 0 Denmark 1,867 2,808 0 0 0 0 South Africa 6,054 0 0 0 110 0 New Zealand 4,790 0 67 0 1,159 0 Netherlands 3,152 1,053 340 112 0 0 Australia 3,630 0 740 0 302 0 Poland 314 2,075 0 0 0 0 Hong Kong 1,375 1,031 0 0 0 0 Spain 2,680 300 0 0 0 0 Belgium 2,252 198 0 0 0 0 Sweden 1,686 271 0 0 0 0 Taiwan 937 636 0 0 0 0 Israel 205 815 0 0 0 0 Italy 1,126 266 0 0 0 0 Puerto Rico 0 528 0 0 0 0 Singapore 532 200 0 0 0 0 - 13 - Table 2.2 Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet by age and region Europe North Far East Mid-East Africa Austral- C.& S. Total America asia America Pre 1970 1,335 1,966 840 0 0 3 900 5,044 1970-75 19,002 6,147 2,750 0 14 2,181 10 30,104 1976-77 14,861 1,404 4,351 369 0 2,903 100 23,988 1978-79 16,557 4,397 1,392 42 5,946 1,308 142 29,784 1980-81 15,208 5,812 2,019 308 200 549 0 24,096 1982-83 13,633 6,528 3,793 130 480 1,343 0 25,907 1984-85 14,656 9,903 6,955 187 0 2,401 1,772 35,874 Total (units) 95,252 36,157 22,100 1,036 6,640 10,688 2,924 174,797 Total (TEU) 116,774 62,259 31,593 1,851 6,651 10,688 4,176 233,992 Figure 2.1 40 so rEU (X THOUSANVJ EUROPE I f6 774 AO AERICA 62 259 FAR EAST 31593 20rr AUSTRALASIA 10 688 AOT _ OTHER 12 67o '7erEs 50 '20 rorAL I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f? - 14 - Fizure 2.2 Integral Refrigerated ContaiLner InventorY 10 20 30 40 I I I U 1988 1987 _ 1986 1985 _ 1984 j7 I_ DAian I I * European 10 20 TEU ( x 7 000) - 15 - Treatment of cargo before loading it into a container is also important with many commodities, as is treatment immediately after removal from a container. Similarly, the container itself must be subjected to a pre-trip inspection prior to the cargo being loaded. This is particularly important if it has just been used on a "positioning" voyage, as an unrefrigerated general cargo container, to ensure the correct functioning and calibration of the machinery. 2.2 Technical Factors A great variety of technical factors have influenced the development of the reefer container. The more important issues are: * design criteria * choice of material * insulation factors * temperature control - air distribution D capacity of refrigerating machinery * control of atmosphere * easy accessibility for repairs 2.2.1 Design Criteria One of the aspects of reefer containers which has been subject to great innovation has been the desire to reduce the loss of stowage space as a result of incorporating a refrigeration unit into the integral reefer container. The refrigerated container, always a relatively expensive piece of equipment, has become even more expensive with every advance in technological development, such as the intro- duction of atmosphere control systems and microprocessors. Any ability therefore to increase the economic return for the cargo carried has to be welcomed. Clearly an increase in the volume of usable space is an obvious area, but there is a limit to the extent by which this can be achieved. The recommendations laid down by the International Standards Organization as to minimum internal dimensions of thermal containers, as well as the regulations governing the external dimensions of ISO containers, are some constraints. This is clearly illustrated by the preponderance of the 8.5ft standard height unit as shown in Figure 2.3 The most successful manufacturers are those who have balanced their technical advances with the requirement of maximum internal capacity. 2.2.2 Choice of Material The refrigerated container, no less than the dry freight container, has been the subject of much discussion between owners and operators concerning the ideal construction material. Although there have been protagonists of many different types of material, including - 16 - plywood and fibreglass, the main argument has centered around the respective merits of steel and aluminum. Figure 2.3 Distribution of Reefer Containers by Height 66% IrTEGRAL S 0% REFRINSUL A rED 77 065 rEu j 8" S5fl 9t9fr5 There is a delicate commercial/engineering compromise between the benefits of lighweight aluminum (in terms of savings in container tare and consequent ability to maximize cargo weight within legal limitations) and heavier steel containers (which enjoys the advantage of lower initial cost and cheaper subsequent repair costs). When applied to refrigerated containers the issue has been complicated still further by the high initial purchase price of the equipment and the desire of operators to obtain maximum cargo utilization. There is also the need to extent the useful life of the reefers as long as possible, as well as preserving their cosmetic appearance. This latter aspect is very important when transporting foodstuffs. It is necessary to distinguish between the 20 ft. and the 40 ft. reefer container. Where there has been a move towards the steel container, the preference for aluminum has nevertheless tended to persist in the case of the 40ft unit in order to keep tare weight as low as possible. The data in tables 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 as well as Figure 2.4 reveal that the integral reefer unit fleet increased in the period January 1983 to January 1986 by 42%. They also show clearly how the 40 ft. reefer unit has gained in popularity and how the steel container has gained in popularity despite the domination of the aluminum box in the category of 20ft units. - 17 - Table 2.3 Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet by cladding and region Steel Aluminium GRP/Plywood Total (units) Total (TEU) Europe 19,959 27,509 47,784 95,252 116,774 North America 2,927 32,718 512 35,157 62,259 Far East 1,504 19,723 873 2,100 31,593 Mid-East 16 1,020 0 1,036 1,851 Africa 16 10 6,614 6,640 6,651 Australasia 1,158 6,083 3,447 10,688 10,688 Central and South America* 682 1,342 900 2,924 4,176 Total 26,162 88,405 60,130 174,797 233,992 * Includes Caribbean Table 2.4 Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet by age and cladding Steel Aluminium GRP/Plywood Total Pre 1970 2 4,421 621 5,04 1970-75 838 20,903 8,363 30,lO. 1976-77 131 9,755 14,102 23,988 1978-79 2,291 9,516 17,977 29,78. 1980-81 2,738 11,395 9,963 24,096 1982-83 7,041 13,020 5,846 25,907 1984-85 13,221 19,395 3,258 35,87- Total (units) 26,262 88,405 60,130 174,,79 Total (TEU) 31,474 134,343 68,175 233,992 - 18 - Table 2.5 Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet by Length and cladding (actual units) Steel Aluminiunm GRP/Plywood Total 20ft 20,891 38,454 52,085 111,430 40ft 5,265 40,634 8,045 53,944 35ft 0 6,254 0 6,254 Other 106 3,063 0 3,169 Total 26,262 88,405 60,130 174,797 Source: Containerization International "World Container Census," published as a special report in September 1986. Figure 2.4 Distribution of Refrigerated Containers by Cladding }'YrEGRAL REEFER INSJIA A rF - 19 - 2.2.3 Insulation Factors Containers are normally insulated with polyurethane foam, although PVC, glass and polystyrene foams are also used. The insulation thickness is usually 75mm for the side walls and about 100mm for roof and floor. Unfortunately, the foams tend to deteriorate mainly as a result of uptake of water. As much as a 30% increase in heat inflow may be experienced after six years in use. The rate of deterioration does, however, depend largely on the trade route and the number of handlings per year. 2.2.4 Temperature Control In the early days of containerization, as we have seen, most cargoes were deep frozen and accurate temperature control was not critical. But as the refrigerated trade has expanded into the field of fresh produce, (carried in the chilled mode just above freezing point), it has become essential to maintain accurate temperature control. As a result of the recent incorporation of microchip technology into temperature control units, temperatures can now be controlled to within +/-0.2°C of set point. This is largely achieved by running the compressor continuously and reducing its cooling capacity by using some of the discharge gas as an artificial heat load or by reducing the volume of refrigerant pumped by the compressor. By-passing hot gas into the evaporator is a very precise method of temperature control. Unloading cylinders or the use of throttling valves are typical methods of reducing the volume of refrigerant pumped by the compressor. The Sea Containers' SEACOLD reefer machinery features a unique two stage combination of compressor capacity reduction and fine control by modulated injection of hot gas into the evaporator in order to achieve this accuracy of control. 2.2.5 Air Distribution In order to ensure a good temperature distribution, it is essential to have air uniformly distributed throughout the load. This is achieved by proper stowage of the cargo within the container. Poor stowage will result in poor air distribution, giving rise to longer drawdown times when produce is not pre-cooled, or to an excessive product temperature range. As far as container design is concerned, the type and frequency of battens on the side walls, the T-section floor and size of plenum chamber have a bearing on the efficiency of airflow as do the location and size of air grill and vents, - 20 - 2.2.6 Capacitv of Refriferatina Machinery Refrigerated containers are generally capable of maintaining an internal temperature of at least -18'C in ambient temperatures of 38.5'C and some are able to maintain temperatures as low as -25°C in ambient conditions of 50°C. Capacity is a function of the ambient temperature, set-point for cargo, and condition/design of the refrigerated machinery and container. 2.2.7 Control of AtmosRhere A large part of the development of the modern refrigerated container has been concerned with control of the atmosphere in the container. As mentioned above, fruits and. vegetables take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide during respiration. If the proportion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the surrounding atmosphere can be altered, the rate of respiration can be slowed down and the storage life of the produce extended. 2.2.8 Accessibility For Repairs As technology has advanced and has been applied to increase the utilisable space inside the refrigerated container, there has been a reduction in size of refrigeration machinery. This should have made the inspection, servicing and repair of the maLchinery become theoretically more difficult, but this has not occurred. As the brochure of one manufacturer points out: "SEACOLD was designed to ensure that: the machinery is simple to put into service and easy to maintain. Drop down doors over the electrical and control equipment compartments give convenient access to components at working level; servicing is further assisted by an easy to read wiring diagram used in conjunction with color coded and individually numbered electrical cables throughout." (see Figure 2.5). The developments in microchip technology to provide remote monitoring and diagnostic alarm systems have made servicing easier. 2.3 Description and Illustrations of Tyves of Refrigeration Technologv 2.3.1 The Container (a) Bottom Air Delivery Three types of air distribution are used. The bottom air delivery system is shown in Figure 2.5. An air space is provided - 21 - between the top of the cargo and the top of the container - the "load line." The evaporator fans draw return air from this area and pass this air through the evaporator coil. Here the air temperature is either cooled or heated, depending on controller set point requirements and ambient air temperature. The chilled or heated air is then passed down the delivery air ducts to the delivery air plenum chamber, where the air is forced through the tee bar floor and reaches all the lower stowed cargo and the rear door. The air is forced through the cargo by reason of the static air pressure differential between delivery air and return air, and the fan volumetric flow rate. Sensors in the return air and delivery air enable the controller to regulate the delivery air to the correct set point values. Also recording sensors mounted in the delivery or return air, permit a record to be kept on a chart recorder. (b) Top Air Delivery This system of air distribution was originally used mainly for palletized loads on flat floors. Air is drawn from the bottom of the container and is passed through the evaporator before being delivered to the top of the box through ducted passages. This system operates in the reverse of the natural law which says that hot air rises. It has been very largely superseded by the bottom air delivery system, made possible by the tee bar floor design. One benefit of this has been the avoidance of damage to which the ducting was prone when the containers were being handled by forklift trucks. (c) Side air delivery This system of air distribution is considered obsolete. Some of the earlier forms of integral refrigerated container feature a system where the cooling air was sucked in through the load and pushed across evaporator coils, down through the inner walls of the container, and out through the bottom. One such product used 8 cooling fans to replace the conventional single blower and ensure an even distribution of air at low velocity. It is generally felt that the bottom air delivery method of distribution is the most effective. (d) Refrigeration .Machinery Although various designs of mechanical refrigeration units are being constructed for reefers by several manufacturers, they all employ the same basic princ:ples and generally provide the same technical coverage. The basic characteristics are: - 22 - (i) Electrically driven components suitable for operating on a compatible power supply. (ii) Control of cargo temperature within predetermined limits. (iii) Forced circulation of refrigerated air round and through the cargo. (iv) Capacity control for the carriage of chilled cargo. (v) Water and air cooled condensing for above and below ship's deck operation. (vi) Built-in automatic controls, protective devices, and a method of continuous temperature recording. (e) The Integral and Porthole Tvyes We have referred earlier to the basic differences between these two systems of reefer container operation. A drawing of the CONAIR shipside cooling air supply system, Figure. 2.6, gives an indication of the way in which the porthole type containers are connected to the central fixed refrigeration system of a ship. Some of the characteristics of this system have been described by the manufacturers as follows: (i) accurate control of the temperature and the quantity of refrigerated air and prevention of tainting of one kind of cargo by another; (ii) accessibility of all parts of the system for operation, maintenance and repair; (iii) flexibility for fitting into ships of all types and connection to different kinds of refrigeration machinery, supply fans and coupling connections; (iv) accurate alignment of the couplings on the supply and exhaust sides of the refrigerated air system to allow connection instantly to the containers; As for the integral reefer, there are two basic types. The first incorporates a diesel generator unit as a permanent feature. The second relies entirely on an outside power source. This outside source may be a permanent electrical system on ship or shore, or a temporary electrical source, such as power pack, clip-on unit. (f) Temperature Control and Data Logsl ng The past few years have seen rapid development of equipment designed to improve temperature monitoring, provide more accurate - 23 - temperature control, furnish better storage, facilitate retrieval of operational data, and automate pre-trip inspections. This has been made possible entirely as a result of the incorporation of microprocessors into the integral reefer units. Although much of this development can be attributed to the efforts of manufacturers to improve their existing systems and to develop more sophisticated designs, tribute should also be paid to the work carried out by the Shipowners' Refrigerated Cargo Research Association (SRCRA), based in Cambridge, UK. The SRCRA has done a tremendous amount of research on projects both in the field and in the laboratory, working closely with both manufacturers and shipping lines. In the 1970s the SRCRA developed a hot gas injection system using two solenoid valves which inject hot gas into the evaporator section of a container reefer unit, thereby reducing the effective refrigeration capacity of the compressor. The solenoid valves are opened and closed by an electronic temperature controller. One solenoid valves is normally open in the compressor discharge line and the other is normally closed in the bypass from the compressor discharge to the evaporator inlet. This system was field tested using Stafa Control Systems (SCS) controllers which had been developed for the air conditioning industry. Although this system had its problems, it eventually proved reliable and enabled Geest Line to carry out some sophisticated trials with bananas over a period of several years. More sophisticated temperature controllers were then developed by Ward Brooke in UK, Refrigerating Machine Controls (RMC) in Switzerland, and others. More recently SRCRA has collaborated with the UK microprocessor control manufacturer Stonefield in the development of an advanced electronic control system with data logging and fault diagnosis functions which is described as "a total management concept for refrigerated containers." This unit, named the Sentinel, combines automatic pre-trip inspection, monitoring, display of alarm conditions in the reefer unit and data logging to long-term memory in a single unit. Initiation of the pre-trip inspection with the Sentinel is achieved via a specially designed membrane keyboard. Operation of the reefer unit is monitored by a number of temperature, pressure and electric current tranducers, with information processed and compared with pre-set reefer unit test data. Failure of any of the pass/fail criteria results in the appropriate alarm being displayed. As far as temperature control is concerned, when carrying frozen cargo, the Sentinel controls return air at temperatures between 4°C and -30°C. When carrying chilled cargo, the delivery air temperature is controlled in the range 4'C to +30°C. The control system maintains the setpoint within +/-0.25°C in the chill range and within +/-l°C in the frozen range. The Sentinel specification is only an example of what has been achieved. - 24 - Figure 2.5 Cutawav View of a Seacold Refrigerated Container CUTAWAY AiEW OF SEACOLD REEFER ,, ,,".,, .., ., ,,., 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~il,.,,.t /,ti8 .,,,,,,, ...... -, l 'I,,. iI t.'' ' I. ..'.'.. lSI. - 25 - Fi2ure 2. 6 Conair ShiRside Cooling Air Supply System Refrigerating Machine Se Pipes Flexible Coupling Air Cooler 7 * Casi2ng Below-Deck Insuiated Container Insulaced Supply and Exhaust Air Ducts _6 7 Z :t 26 - Many other companies offer similarly equipment. Carrier Transicold has introduced its Accu-Temp capacity control system with DataCorder and DataReader to provide data integrity and economy of maintenance time, particularly at the pre-tripping stage. Thermo King Corporation has developed a combined controller-recorder which they call the Thermoguard. The Klinge Corporation offers the Therm Monitor based on a hard-wired system and the portable Therm Logger data retrieval unit which, in conjunction with a keyboard and screen, transmits information to the Term Monitor as well as retrieving data from its memory. Remonsys Ltd of the UK has produced a unit called the Autolog which takes data communication to the point where it can be transmitted via a modem over telephone/telex to an office or repair depot. This unit has been employed with notable success in reefers carrying chilled lamb from New Zealand to Europe. Despite the introduction of the data logger with its digital display, reefer operators continue to use the chart recorder which has long been the instrument designed to provide a record of the refrigera- tion unit's performance over an entire trip. A major advantage of the chart recorder is that it displays reefer unit performance for an entire trip, whereas the digital display of the data logger shows temperature only at the given moment. With the chart recorder, maintenance personnel making daily rounds of containers can spot departures from normal performance which occurred since the last inspection and are symptomatic of unit malfunction. Data retrieval with chart recordesrs is a simple matter of removing the recorded chart. The record of the trip can be seen at a single glance. This has some advantage over having to study long lines of digital readout in order first to identify a particular container and then to decipher the data to determine the performance of the refrigera- tion unit. Although it might have appeared from the advent of the data logger that the chart recorder might become obsolete, this has not proved to be the case. Manufacturers of chart recorders, such as industry leader Partlow Corporation, argued strongly for their retention. Modified chart recorders are currently being produced by the Swiss manufacturer RMC with a smaller width and depth than those previously available to the market, in order to fit the requirements of the reduced space in the new generation of slimline refrigeration units. 2.3.2 Liguid Bulk Refrizeration Containers Reefer containers designed to carry liquid bulk consist of a stainless steel pressurized cylindrical tank. The capacity of a twenty- foot unit is 18,000 liters. The working pressure of the tank is in the range of 30 psi. The end pieces attached to the cylinder are comparable in proportion to those of an ISO container. The tanks are used to transport cargo in either chilled or frozen state. The tank and supporting refrigeration unit are designed to keep the liquid cargo at a stable operating temperature (± 1°C) over a range of -20° + 50°C. More precise control is required for chilled caLrgo than for frozen cargo. - 27 - The unit developed by Sea Containers uses a direct expansion regrigeration circuit operating on Freon gas. The coolant is a mixture of glycol and water which is cycled through an external heat exchanger. The power for the refrigeration unit is provided by an external power generator. 2.3.3 Ancillary Equipment (a) Power Packs The power pack is a transportable generating station in a 20ft ISO container. It is suitable for use on any type of ship as well as on land and can be handled and carried in the same way as any standard 20ft ISO container. It has many applications beyond the supply of power to refrigerated containers. It can be used for supplying power to container cranes and electrically heated tank containers, for lighting and heating of temporary on-site accommodation, and for any other situation where portable electrical power is required. The power pack developed by Sea Containers specifically for the refrigerated container carrier and terminal operator is illustrated in Figure 2.7. Its equipment is shown in Figure 2.8. It is capable of generating either 460V or 230V and can supply power to all normal types of electrically powered refrigerated containers. Its two diesel generators supply power to 36 receptacles, the utilisable number of which at any one time depends upon: * ambient conditions * the temperature range required to be maintained * the electrical power demand of the refrigerated container being used The integral fuel tank has a capacity of 4523 litres (1195 S gallons or 995 Imperial gallons) enabling the power pack to operate more than three days without refuelling. The special features of t,_. versatile and useful system are shown on an appended sheet. It may be asked why the reefer is not equipped with an independent power source as a matter of routine and, indeed, some refrigerated containers are equipped with diesel generators to prov4:-. independent electrical operation as an alternative to operation from outside electrical supply source. However, this means that the reefr is carrying at least 1,000 lbs. of equipment which is not permanentl; required and that it has an initial cost substantially higher than t e reefer which is not similarly equipped. Operators have found this fa. too high a price to pay for the convenience of occasional self- sufficiency. Furthermore, the development and growth of all-electric slimline reefer units, designed to maximize the utilization of the internal container space, could only be achieved by removal of the space required to accommodate the bulky and heavy diesel generator equipment - 28 - On the other hand, the all-electric units created a problem when the container was removed from its external source of electric power. With the increase in volume of sensitive chilled cargo movements, which required precise temperatuare control on a continuous basis, it was essential to have a system which would continue to generate the electric power needed to maintain this. There are two main systems whereby this is achieved, clip-on and underslung diesel generators. - 29 - Figure 2.7 General Arrangement of the Power Pack CC) . nl-ILe botles Air intake i .:scha! e I taI:In g H-t te IIe C(D li cnchIng nozz! e Contict pamel ouvres J. ;res ' \I Radiator fari Control circuit Gcnerator So I ' t anlfolrTners Generator No. 2 L Dirceracecane oni' of eni co Lo -:?:Cl a Co, l rig , Ecin /vtcr ;Me a . ~~~~~~~~~~Exhaust silencer II Exhaust silencer Electriealii po'er inpts an. pd |C_Entrance|- @% T . ........ . , k . I ~~~~~~door k iReefer Exhaust p):pe i Luboratge ta , Exhaust pipe R eefer | receptacle panel conr.ec: ion o,,an~! cor.ne- on epacepane! I CO;ch-e-.fniligco ozj regn-con..rci Electrical Po( er input and panel C(n - :-z remo:e moni:torng socKets X covers tnp anr ea CGENERAL ARRANGEMENT PLAN I Power Receptacle 4 Methodsof Refuelling Panel tJ} 00 l _ I 1 ; o methiods of refuelling the Power Pack tieI availabile: Each receptacle on both panels has its | I o ! * I I I kcont;IinertIsingan o-. n interlocked circuit breaker for _iIrmoured hose fitted with quick protection against overload and short u_Nase couplings. (This hose is circuit. The circuit breakers also ii_ =supplied w;ith the Pow er Pack ) ensure that the power output is 1 supplie with t o s,Aichedffadonatomtical a IVn41 I'iborigh a fillinig pipe wsithi a '3 sitched off andonaulomatically as I E llSI' screw connect ion for the power plugs are w ithdraxvn or It: vNllE1 i3 ti ig b) other method.- inserted. The receptacles will receive I 460V, 4 pin - 32 amp plugs, or 230V, 4 pin -50 amp plugs. 5 Remote Monitoring Di ilerent receptacles can be fitted to meet individual requirements The Po_ tr 11, k li it. own rt niote ! 4 _tiuilitoloiing s-;yt,.-III ak tlenloti? 0 indlicator lmox which ciii he posiliooevd '-r' - - ao.uv t lo th t iit Ina location on Ulitrol w. ai..... e: tv ral coue.,,ei for . A free standing control panel containis Iflany of the waining lghts air allthe control and indication activlted on tli,- I tlmotet ndicaitol box N equipment ofthe electrical systen_ an alaiIII will Therlie I re are foti 0 ) w and generator shut-down control. All W u ning lights to li(I,O iie tthe E p gi indicators are easihl visible from the fol lok%il g t o "A ide access door of tile ullit. I Geneiaioi l;hiu I.n tIhe caull' of .- . tif ShI-d % IIh t .1nunthel bnl'ieort 94 E-ti~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s bY exantin.itii III It ie o inirol kii?n'l In the Po'' ~I P.Ick- It elf ' 3 Electrical Power Input Requirement * _ V4 hen the Pow er Pack has not operated for a long period it may be 2 5 necessarv to supply electrical pow%er 6Emergency from an eixternal source- A socket ic 6 Emse n fitted to the outside of the Power Pack Control Panel for receiving and distributing this | nih uli u rl ni. ootrol pan powterto: ii i24 # X _' I I t it lie Powir P%i k s si(le act vss I the batterv charger; . . 2. the engine water jacket heaters; I\imi , pnovidi, fti the follnitng 3. the anti-condensation heaters in the A%.,f m n I I figh(inl alternators, control cabinet andl . receptacle panels; 1117, 1 _ I t Athe internal lightinig s-steni; c ; the internal sockets for opriat .np hand power tools. lt 230\V AC po A er is required. P lii Pk oI l. i,n tfilit eml .Ii IiV"ll i, - li d 3 - 31 - (b) Clip-on Diesel Generators The clip-on diesel generator as shown in Figure 2.9 is a self- contained portable generator set which clips on to the front end of the container and provides the necessary power when it is being moved long distances by road. This unit has been used with satisfactory results for many years, but it has a number of drawbacks in practice. The weight of the clip-on unit can restrict payload within the container and can cause unbalanced front-end loading. It can cause uneven weight distribution in places where axle weight limits are strictly defined, and it requires high-lifting equipment to install it on the container. These problems can be avoided with the other major system. (c) Underslung Diesel Generators The underslung diesel unit is of much more recent origin and has taken an increasing share of the market since 1985. By virtue of being mounted beneath the chassis on which the reefer is being transported, the underslung design is able to ensure even weight distribution and maximum payload capacity in areas where strict axle weight limits are imposed. The underslung unit also eliminates problems of unbalanced wear on chassis kingpins and rear bearings and permits better visibility for the driver. A typical design of an underslung unit is that manufactured by John Tate Inc. of California - the Power Source design. This unit features a Deutz F8L-912W three-cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled diesel engine and Lima brushless AC alternator rated at 15KW, 18.7kVA, connectable for 230V or 460V AC 3 phase 60Hz operation. A 50 gallon fuel tank is fitted as standard equipment, but the design allows for additional fuel modules for extended overland service. It is claimed that the unit can be fitted to the container in around 15 minutes. 2.3.3 Considerations (a) Power Requirements To operate under varying international conditions, the refrigeration machinery operates on electric power and, subject to specification, can accept both 220V and 440V, 3 phase, 50/60 hertz. While aboard ship and on the quayside, the reefer is normally plugged into an electrical power supply. While on a truck or in and area where electricity is not available, the reefer can be attached to a portable diesel generator which will supply suitable 220/440 volt power as required. As a broad generalization, reefer containers draw in the range of 6-14 kVA. Ideally refrigerated containers are equipped with both air-cooled and water-cooled condensors for maximum flexibility aboard ship. This enables them to be stowed either on deck or in the ship's hold. Clip-On diesel generator. 2105 mm (82 e8 in) Cyclone prefater Ou'Ck release panel fasIene,V air ntake , 2 F Ihaust rnufllef @ lseiiii" W -----..-.. °I 3 .~~~~~~~...; um~&memmmr mut t[>9|^;w|t 8s*S . , * , . , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~adi'ator fiffing cap inl r teade - loc-y . unum Sieacer- tloaiwrhg p.rung =..VAN~~~~ 678 mmmm um6mu69mun low ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~u **~*** mum mumummumumua~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~51-r (19 n y~~~~u ummemmmum mum mummummumums~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~(41,n b0f ~ mu umemu. mum uumuum.mumuu~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ulf11n * F! __~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(,,, on - -a-. . -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~eCln bl Th1C,n . - 33 - The tremendous disparity between electrical supplies in different parts of the world presents a constant logistical challenge in planning reefer activities. A survey of supply4 voltages throughout the world, produced by the British Standards Institution as an aid to exporters and shippers, reveals the variations in voltage. These occur not only between countries but also within countries between the voltage provided for domestic users, commercial users, and industrial users. (b) Cable Connections and Multinational Sockets In the same way that power supplies differ from area to area, so do the plugs and sockets employed. The use of varied types of electrical correctors has developed throughout the early period of growth of containerization and can be readily equated with geographical areas as a result of different shipping lines and operators adopting their own preferred systems. Figure 2.9 gives an indication of the most common types, their manufacturers and general areas of preference. In- line adaptors do exist, however, which allow connection of similarly rated plugs to incompatible receptacles. FiQure 2.9 Common Electrical Cable Connections Voltages Current Plug tyDes Locations 250V AC 60A 3-phase Kokmosha P-4602B-A Japan Mipco 634MP2 USA R&S F26540 380V-440V AC 32A 3-phase Kokosha P-W4333P-3H Europe Mipco 333MP CEE 173h 500V AC 30A Kokosha P-W4392B-A Australia Wilco 430 480V AC 60A Kokosha P-W4613P-A USA Mipco 634MP4 Japan R&S F26431 250V AC 50A Kokosha P-W4506B-A USA Mipco 534MP Japan R&S F29400 Europe 250V AC 30A Kokosha P-W4301B-A USA Mipco 334MP Japan R&S F21138C Europe 4See Annex F. - 34 - (c) Maintenance and Spare Parts A rule of thumb for the failure rate of reefers, as for most other industrial products, is around three percent. In the vast majority of these cases, the initial failuLre will be corrected with no resultant product damage. There is howevetr, a direct correlation between reefer cargo losses and the emphasis the carrier has made in training, investment in spare parts and manuals, regular pre-trip maintenance, and load maintenance. A responsible supplier will not be content merely with the provision of the reefer machinery. He will supply engineering support at start-up to ensure that the operators and mechanics are fully acquainted with operating protocols and with stowage, maintenance and repair of the equipment. Although the aim is to train the operator's personnel to be self-sufficient, engineering support should be continued through a service contract. Furthermore an inventory of spare parts should be recommended, based upon the number of units operating per vessel, the availability of spare parts in the product-originating area, the skills of the mechanics, and the frequency of service. These spare parts kits may be made available on a sale-or-return basis. As a reference, Annex A, gives a very good example of the issues of maintenance, repair and spare parts provision for the banana trade. (d) Ship/Shore Voltage Regulations Typically the standards for electrical equipment on vessels are covered by regulatory bodies such as Lloyds, Bureau Veritas and the American Bureau of Shipping, whereas standards pertaining to shore-side electrical equipment will be governed by national electrical codes. 2.4 International Standards. Rezulatory Agencies and Regulations In addition to the regulations governing the construction, testing, use and safety of freight containers generally, there are a number of other rules and agencies specifically concerned with refrigerated containers, as well as various bodies occupied with the conditions relevant to the carriage of perishable foodstuffs. A list such agencies, organizations and regulations, by no means exhaustive. would include the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the British Standards Institut:.,n (BSI), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC), the Agreement on -h.e International Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs (ATP), the International Commission on Rules for the Approval of Electrical Equipment (CEE), as well as the major classification societies; Lloyds, the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and Bureau Veritas (BV). The work of international standardization in the field of freight containers is carried out by Technical Committee 104 of ISO. - 35 - The secretariat is held by ANSI, the ISO member body for the USA, and close liaison is maintained with other ISO technical committees and with member countries spread throughout the world. ISO standards in the area of freight containers are concerned with dimensions, ratings, specifications, testing procedures, terminology and marking requirements. They are subject to constant revision, particularly in those areas where there is continuing development and where technology is constantly evolving. The standards for the refrigerated container, or thermal container as it is described by ISO, is continually updated with the most recent revision of ISO 1496/2-1979 (Thermal Containers) being produced in 1987. The scope and field of application specified on the first page of this document states: "ISO 1496 lays down the basis specifications and testing requirements for ISO series 1 thermal containers which are suitable for international exchange and for conveyance by road, rail and sea, including interchange between these forms of transport." ISO 1496 applies itself to dimensions and ratings, design requirements, testing, and electrical aspects of thermal containers. The range of container types to which ISO 1496 applies is given in Table 2.6. Of particular relevance to this Technical Note are: the thermal container - a freight container built with insulating walls, doors; floor and roof designed to retard the rate of heat transmission between the inside and the outside of the container; the insulated container - a thermal container having no devices for cooling insulated heating; and the mechanically refrigerated container - a thermal container served by refrigerating appliance. The conditions, specified by ISO are drawn on extensively by other bodies concerned with regulating, inspecting or testing equipment which is the subject of ISO considerations. For example, the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), in its rules for certification of cargo containers, has a detailed section on refrigerated cargo containers concerned with such areas as rating, marking, temperature indicators and controls, openings and drains, refrigerants, cooling unit, insulation, air leakage, heat transfer, and loading tests. Other inspection bodies follow roughly the same procedures. These bodies focus on the construction and use of the refrigerated container equipment. There are also a number of agencies which are concerned with the cargo being carried in these containers. The "Agreement on the International Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and on the Special Equipment to be Used for Such Carriage" (ATP) defines standards of insulation and refrigeration equipment performance. It also defines - 36 - maximum temperatures for frozen produce and chilled produce, but does not include fruit and vegetables. Examples are shown in Table 2.7. Table 2.7 Temperature Conditions for the Carriage of Certain Cargoes Quick (Deep) Frozen and Frozen Foodstuffs: -20°C Ice cream and frozen concentrated fruit juices -18'C Frozen or quick (deep) frozen fish -18'C All other quick (deep) frozen foodstuffs -14'C Butter and other frozen fats -12'C Frozen red offal, egg yolks, poultry and game -10°C Frozen meat -10°C All other frozen foodstuffs Foodsuffs Which Are Neither Quick (Deep) Frozen Nor Frozen: +30C Red offal + 6'C Butter T 4°C Game + 4°C Milk for immediate consumption 4'C Dairy products (yoghurt, cream and fresh cheese) + zC Fish (must always be carried "in ice") + 6C Meat products + 7°C Meat (other than red offal.) + 4°C Poultry and rabbits The European Economic Community has issued directives on intra-community trade in fresh meat where it is directed, for example, that "fresh meat must be chilled immediately after the post portem inspection and kept at ia constant internal temperature of not more than +7eC for carcases and cuts and +3'C for offal ........ Fresh meat for freezing must, after slaughter and the subsequent stabilization period, undergo rapid freezing. The frozen meat must be stored at a temperature of -12 C or colder." The United States Department of Agriculture has its own special requirements for treating fruit in refrigerated containers in order to ensure the demise of various kinds of fruit fly and other contaminating bodies. A document entitled Plant Protection and Quarantine Treatment Manual (PPQ), produced by the USDA, specifies the type and series of containers permitted to be used for the importation of fruit into the USA. It also lays down conditions governing: - 37 - Table 2.6 Classification of Thermal Containers Type Maximurn heat leakageD. code Type U* (WIK) lfo freight containers Design !emp.,atur.s design. tD J C. tCC t8. 18B Il 1A,A Ins;de Outside tlon K f" c K c 30 RQ tCef r atetdt 5 26 7 4d 2.5S -l tt I I T expendable refrigeit2nt 31 MechanicJly - 25 J7 255 -t 3t F3 tefrv3erated is 26 7 4 5 -a 31 43 a, cefngerated and 15 311 .3 heated d 1 255 -18 253 -20 ,3 Heated 15 26 37 48 18 23 -2Si 34 Spare 35 26 Mech.anicany refnigerated. 15 26 37 a Ms -TS .t 38 3J7 Refrigerated and J? q t 4 6 311 Zs7; 15 25 716 311 .2 heated, ielf-oowefed 1S 2S5 -t8 253 -20 '3 |Heate- SS 15 25 37 | C13 - 15 253 -20 s tlf-r?ovvwd f9 f jr - ___ X9 ~ ~ ~ ~_ ___. I I 40 Reff'gerated andfor heated. "th remnov- able equipment. 15 26 | 37t |oofriance located externattlly 41 Reafrierated and/or heated, vith remov- ab(e equiprnent. 5S 261 37 4S g V aporiance located 42 RafnVerjted and/or heated* w.ith remov- &ble erqu;ment. |26 46 | 6 86 | |ppli;.nce iocated 3 Stematly I I I I I 45 Inujlted j 1 Z5 37 |_ | 46 Insulated |26| 46 | 6 as 47 |S'a | I) The .alue aof U_. foe haa..ly .nslated contuners IryPes 30. 31. 32.23 . 33 40 4t, 41 1A f eleLiaed an aooro.vmate coetfl,c,nt of hejt ttansfer. K. of 0,4 W/m'. The volves of U_ for rGghtly in,td conrs-ers (rroei 42 0rd 4'61 are 'ated to en *ooro- mAe coeflc;ent of heat transfer. K. of 0.7 W/m. 21 A converion tabte for t .hnns/degrvee Crls;us 11 Q;ven for convene'ence In table 2. 31 Tnis category does not have so.c.red temoealtuee Gerurs: the C'l*l DeofforYSnce r dePendent on the caoab.hry of the erquipment anached tn any tif nsorti mrode. - 38 - - the pre-cooling of the fruit before it is loaded into the container; - the methods by which loading into containers is to be followed; - the types and application of temperature recorder and probes, the forms of documentation to be employed, and - the schedules of treatment which are permitted. These special requirements have been summarized by the Hoboken Methods Development Center of the USDA. They are an example of the stringent .conditions applied to perishable foodstuffs and are included in Annex B. Finally, the International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) should be mentioned. The purpose of the CSC is primarily to assure safety of human life and to facilitate international container transport and it has established a system of approving the initial container manufacture, and its subsequent examination and maintenance in safe condition. The container initially has to be provided with an approval plate and then has to be re-examined periodically. Although it is not specifically related to refrigerated containers, it has been a matter of much concern to manufacturers, owners, repairers and operators for many years. Officially enacted in 1977, it has been the subject of delays, negotiations and misunderstanding since its inception and still has problems of interpretation issues, particularly as it relates to responsibility in case of accident or death. - 39 - PART THREE - REFRIGERATED CONTAINER TERMINAL AND TRANSPORT LOGISTICS 3.1 Logistics Reguirements for Reefers in Existing (Small) Ports There are four major points to be considered in attempting to assess the logistical requirements relevant to the handling of refrig- erated containers in existing ports, particularly small ports which are lackinf in the more sophisticated handling equipment found in larger ports. First, it is necessary to estimate the probable throughput of refrigerated containers as this will initially be governed by the existing infrastructure and will dictate the requirements for additional infrastructure. Second, the question of whether the containers being moved through the port will be loaded with export or import cargoes or both must be addressed. Third, the requirements, facilities and problems associated with holding loaded reefer containers in the port area will have to be considered. Finally, the problem of providing temperature monitoring, servicing and repair facilities at the port has to be faced, including the decision as to whether these facilities are able to be provided or should be deferred. A general cargo vessel might bring in 2 or 3 reefers, or a dedicated fruit carrier might bring in 300 reefers. A holding area must to be provided for these boxes. A proper paved or gravel bed standing area will be required. It should be marked out with provision for access to the machinery for reading temperatures or servicing and to the rear doors for examination of contents. Inbound reefers arriving at a port, loaded with cargo, will need transportation facilities for directly delivery to consignees, or will need to be held at the port with some form of electrical power. This latter requirement can be satisfied by providing fixed power receptacles and sufficient electrical power to service the maximum quantity of loaded reefers held at any one time. In the absence of fixed power, a power pack can be provided, or the reefers can be placed on chassis with underslung diesel units, or clip-on diesel units provided. Outbound reefers arriving at the port will also need some form of electrical power at the port area while they await. the arrival of the vessel. Shipping lines are notoriously lacking in uniformity in equipment power requirements and electrical equipment. Some seven different types of reefer plugs are used by different operators and are 5Container handling equipment could also appropriately be dealt with here, but this is covered in section 3.2 below in respect of inland freight stations. Similar considerations apply in ports. - 40 - operated with different nominal voltages. If the port's decision is to provide receptacles for 460V, it will also need to make provision for transformers to handle those customers which require 230V. Receptacles are available which will accommodate interchangeable inserts/plugs. Another method is to fabricate extension jumper cables with the appropriate male/female connections. Assuming 1OKW for each reefer, 10 receptacles would require approximately l50kVA capacity for the transformer load, plug cabling and protection circuit breakers. A port's customers expect the port to provide a temperature monitoring service. The port will therefore have to train personnel in this function or contract the task to a private contractor. The provision of this service raises the issue of responsibility for providing skilled reefer technicians. Is this the responsibility of the shipping line or the port? There is no siLmple answer to this question as it is very much subject to the practices of the port in question and the importance attached by the shipping line to a call at that particular port. The absence of trained personnel at a particular port might not, in itself, be sufficient to deter a shipping line. In such a case, the shipping line might well provide its own personnel if other considerations are regarded as more important. However, some provision will be essential to cope with the situation of reefer temperatures going out of range, i.e. deviating from set point at other than defrost intervals. Refrigerated containers are moved using the same equipment as other containers, i.e.: * forklift truck with top lift attachment (20 ft./40 ft. spreaders) for up to 35 tons lift; * shifter; * straddle carrier; * side loader; * mobile cranes with a swivelling spreader (reach stacker); * rubber-tired gantry cranes; * rail-mounted gantry cranes; * chassis storage/yard tractors The choice will be governed by the existing container operations in the port, land constraints, and local port practices as well as by the volume of containers being moved. Span requirements and height of lift are other factors which may be determined by the available facilities and the required throughput. These will, in turn, affect the cost of operation. One effect of selecting the type of - 41 - handling equipment, is to reduce the potential damage to the reefer container. Figure 3.1 gives comparisons of different types of handling equipment, showing benefits and drawbacks to the various systems. While it is apparent that the high capital costs of procuring container handling equipment may be a problem for some freight stations, as it is for some ports, there are a number of ways in practice whereby this problem may be ameliorated, if not solved. Sometimes the operator, be it the shipping line or the shipper, will agree to provide the equipment, usually against the quid pro quo of a reduction in handling charges. More frequently the freight station operator, or port authority, will lease the equipment - or the shipping line or shipper will lease the equipment to the port. This system actually has several side-benefits, which will be discussed later in Part Five. 3.2. Minimum Equipment/Installation Requirements for Transporting Reefers by Truck and/or Train The main way in which the transport of reefers by truck or train differs from the transport of any other type of ISO container is the need to make some form of provision for electricity supply. This will only be necessary on those occasions when the cargo may be susceptible to damage should the temperature fail to be maintained within prescribed limits throughout the period of transport. Thus, the movement of a consignment of deep frozen meat, in a relatively low ambient temperature over a short distance, may only need the normal insulation provided inside the reefer container in order to ensure that the product is still perfectly acceptable some days later. On the other hand, chilled produce, which is highly sensitive to temperature change, would require continued refrigeration if transport persisted for more than a few hours. It is much easier to provide this electrical power when road transport is involved than when the movement is by rail. The two main methods by which power is supplied to a container loaded on a road vehicle when it is not equipped with its own diesel generating set are an underslung diesel generating set or a clip-on unit. For reefers transported on trains, electrical power must be provided to several boxes. This can be done through a fixed or mobile generating unit mounted on one of the rail cars. 3.3 Size. Types and Logistical Parameters Governing Dedicated Reefer Container Vessels The selection of an appropriate vessel for carrying refrige- rated containers involves several considerations including: * number of slots required; * container sizes, i.e. 20 ft., 40 ft., or a mix; - 42 - * voltage requirements, power consumption and ship's generator capacity; * receptacle standard to be used; * positioning of receptacle to allow for standard 60ft reefer cable fitted; * access to reefer machinery for monitoring and servicing; * under deck operation - cooling water and fittings; * remote monitoring and requirements; * cranes needed for loading/discharging; * trained electricians and reef-er engineers; * gas monitoring (fruits) The size of the vessel will be governed by the maximum number of reefer slots required per voyage. In the typical banana service, for instance, around 300 x 40ft reefers are carried per voyage. The hatch covers and cells should incorporate 20ft and 40ft fittings. Hatches are normally dedicated to the size of reefer requirements, but some vessels incorporate methods of converting a 40ft slot into 2 x 20 ft. slots. A ship's generator will normally operate on 380V-5OHz/440V- 6OHz. However some USA services use 230V for the reefers' receptacles. Power requirements of around lOkW per reefer should be allowed, making about l500kVA of generator capacity for every 100 reefers carried. The most popular receptacles by geographical area are: (a) for European services: CEE 17, amp, 3H, 440V; (b) for the USA; Mipco 334MP, 230V, 30 amp; (c) for Australia; Wilco 440V, 30 amp. Normally a group of 10 or 12 receptacles will be provided per hatch. They will be located in a suitable position to enable the reefer power cable to reach. In default of this, extensive cables need to be provided by the vessel. This is undesirable because it involves additional work to stow the extensive cables and to roll them out for use. Also there is a higher voltage drop which could result in a low voltage supply to the reefer. In the event of extension cables being laid on deck, there is an increased risk of an ingress of sea water into the receptacles. The vessel should be equipped with remote monitoring. The system to be used is dictated by the type of reefer being used. Most - 43 - use a small plug system with cables going to a central control panel on the bridge. Equipment is also required to monitor C02 levels in fruits producing carbon dioxide/ethylene gas, so that correct regulation of the fresh air vent is carried out to remove the gases. The maintenance of regrigerated containers onboard ship can be managed by the ship's engineers if there are only a few reefers carried on the vessel. However, where large numbers of reefer containers are carried, specialist refrigeration engineers and mechanics will have to be aboard, especially where chilled cargo is concerned and time is at a premium for carrying out a repair if ripening of cargo due to rising temperatures is to be avoided. In order to enable temperatures to be monitored and to allow the equipment to be checked, as well as to provide for repair of any breakdowns, it is important to permit access to the machinery on deck and in the cells. 3.4 Under-deck Overation Modern refrigerated containers ideally can be both air-cooled and water-cooled. The former is sufficient when the reefers are carried on the deck of the vessel. For underdeck stowage, however, the water- cooled system is imperative. This implies the need for fresh water quick release connections to be provided below deck, and for these to be compatible with the fittings on the reefers. - 44 - PART FOUR - PRODUCT STOWAGE AND PRESERVATION 4.1 Packagin2/Stowinz of Cargoes in Reefers Many perishable commodities are transported in some form of carton. The quality of carton tends to depend on the value of the product as well as, occasionally, the length of journey. Package designs which improve cooling rates and maintain small temperature gradients in the load usually have perforations to allow air to move freely through the carton. Pratically all fibreboard has a poor wet strength so there is a limit to the height at which cartons of fruit can be stowed without the load gradually sinking. A good quality tray pack/ carton can be stowed about nine high for a period of six weeks without collapsing. The effect of collapse is to reduce air gaps, make dunnage battens useless and increase the pressure drop through the load with a consequent reduction in the volume of air being circulated. 4.1.1 Types of Packaging The design of package plays an important part in transferring heat from the product to the cooling air. Two extremes can be illustrated. A citrus fruit may be packed unwrapped (although occasionally it may have a light paper wrapper) in ventilated cartons, thus achieving maximum cooling and heating rates, in contrast, wrapped pears in telescopic cartons with polyethylene liners, have a very slow rate of cooling. Some comparisons are provided by the following table: TABLE 4.1. AVERAGE HALF COOLING TIMES OF PALLETIZED CARTONS Pears 72.0 hours (polyethylene wraps) Traypack apples 60.0 hours (ventilated cartons) Wrapped citrus 48.0 hours (ventilated cartons) Unwrapped citrus 28.6 hours (ventilated cartons) Half cooling time is defined as the time taken for the product to cool through half the difference between its initial temperature and its store temperature. Individual cartons will cool at a faster or slower rate depending on the type of cooling system. The rate of air circulation within the container also has an effect on heat transfer from the package. It is possible to obtain improvements in cooling of cartons up to a maximum rate of air circulation of 90 times the empty volume of the space per hour. Above this level the returns are small as the increase in heat transfer coefficient from the surface is offset by the insulating effect of the carton material. The effect of different rates of air circulation on the cooling of palletised fruit is shown in Table 4.2. Generally, fruit and vegetables which have a high metabolic - 45 - heat production should always be carr'ied in packages which have a high rate of heat transfer to the surrounding air. Table 4.2 Average Half-Cooling Times With Different Air Circulations 60 Air Changes 90 Air Changes Non Ventilated Cartons 69.1 hours 54.6 hours Ventilated Cartons 26.6 hours 24.5 hours 4.1.2 Palletization Palletization had been used for many years prior to containerization as a system of assembling cargo into unit loads of manageable size. After the advent of containerization many shippers continue to be devoted to this system, even when the cargo is destined to be containerized. There were a number of reasons for this, but the foremost is that shippers and receivers are often unable to accept containers at their premises due to space Limitations. The early days of refrigerated ccntainer development witnessed a period of dispute between adherents of the palletization approach to the movement of fruit and vegetables, and the growing number of proponents of the reefer container. To somne extent this was resolved by the practice of putting pallets into conta:iners. At first this practice was regarded as valuable only for cargoes with high stowage factors, such as butter, which would otherwise have underutilized internal container space, i.e., cargoes that "weigh-out" before they "cube-out." However, because of the realization that the use of pallets within container resulted in a very much reduced iLncidence of damage, this system became more acceptable to shippers of exotic produce, such as grapes or kiwi-fruit, despite their low stowage factor. Also it was quickly recognized that containerization has more advantages than palletization, the major advantage being faster and cheaper loading and discharge. Since containers are handled very quickly, there is much less likelihood of product damage. Also, refrigeration control within containers is better than on pallets, so that control of product quality, which is reflected in price, is much better. 4.1.3 Air Circulation Reguirements When designing stowage patterns, it is necessary to distinguish between the air circulation requirements of frozen products and those of chilled products. - 46 - Figure 4.1 Top Airflow Pattern for Frozen Products A.! Duct L I Figure 4.2 StovaRe Pattern for Frozen Product - 47 - Fi2ure 4.3 Horizontal Airflow Stow . Air Duci v--!!--- -- -- Figure 4.4 Horizontal Airflov Stoivage Pattern i ,ieooIr Ok.Jck I ni ,,y rj(I.ale fHIcCKS - 48 - (a) Stowing Frozen Products The stowage pattern that ensures proper air circulation for frozen commodities is simple. The cargo is stacked as a solid block, with virtually no ventilation between the stack and little or no separation between the cargo and the walls, front, or back of the container. The height of the solid stack should allow a minimum of 3" of air space between the top of the stack and the ceiling of the container. Figure 4.1 illustrates the airflow pattern for frozen products. Figure 4.2 illustrates the stowage pattern. This stack allows refrigerated air to circulate evenly round the cargo, ensuring that heat penetrating the container does not come in contact with the cargo. The reason for this is that the products are loaded when frozen and only rise in temperature when affected by heat passing through the walls, floor and ceiling of the container. Air circulation around the load is necessary to remove this heat before it enters the product. (b) Stowing Chilled Products The significant difference in stowage patterns for chilled products is that refrigerated air must be circulated through the cargo. This is because the heat in the container is not only generated from the outside, it is also generated by the product itself. Respiration from the load requires that air circulate both around and through the load to remove respiratory heat. There are three standard loading patterns for transporting perishable food products, viz: horizontal airflow stow, block stow, or palletized cargo stow. The loading pattern is dictated by the commodity, the airflow characteristics of the carton, and the type of container being used. (i) Top air-delivery reefers require the horizontal airflow stow illustrated in Figure 4.3 and the stowage pattern shown in Figure 4.4. The loading pattern is critical - it maximizes the exposure of all cartons to the flow of circulating air. This pattern also makes efficient use of space in the container. Because the corrugated interior walls permit airflow down the outside of the load, cartons can be stacked directly against the side and front walls of the container. Space must be left to permit airflow behind the load down to the T-floors, enabling the airflow to return under the load to the evaporator section of the refrigeration unit. Because air takes the path of least resistance in returning to the refrigeration unit, it is important that all air passages be approximately the same size. Nonuniform spacing between cartons causes undesirable variations in temperature through the load. - 49 - (ii) Bottom air-delivery reefers require a block stow pattern as illustrated in Figure 4.5 in order to optimize performance. The cargo must cover the entire floor, beyond the rear floor air restrictors, to ensure proper temperature distribution. The most desirable pattern is a weave (bonded block) stow. To permit proper return air movement, the load must be stowed no higher than the red line on the reefer wall. (iii) For bottom air-delivery reefers carrying palletized loads, the stowage pattern illustrated in Figure 4.6 is recommended. 4.1.4 Description of Floor A typical form of reefer construction provides an exterior floor of steel cross members welded to bottom rails with aluminum pan and fitted with electrolytic barrier tape. The interior floor is an all-welded pan T-section of aluminum extrusions permitting a longitudinal airflow. 4.1.5 Details of Weight Restrictions The maximum permissible gross weight (which is not actually permitted in all countries) is 25,000 kgs (55,115 lbs) for 20'ft. containers and 32,570 kgs (71,650 lbs) for 40 ft. containers. This contrasts with the weights according to ISO recommendations which are 20,320 kgs. (44,800 lbs) for 20 ft. containers and 30,480 kgs. (67,200 lbs) for 40 ft. containers. Thus, the equiLpment is designed and tested to far more stringent standards than those which apply to its actual use. This margin exists to improve safety and reduce damages through more solid construction. Reefer containers at one time suffered from tare weights in excess of 4,000 kgs. This rose to in excess of 5,000 kgs. with diesel generator sets. The weight restriction on cargo capacity with legal weight limits made the use of the integral refrigerated container expensive. The loss of cubic capacity taken up by refrigeration machinery and diesel generator sets added to this expenses. As a result, modern slimline designs were developed which utilize a minimum of space and have, reduced the tare weight (without diesel generator) to a mere 3,000 lbs. - 50 - Figure 4.5 Block Stow Pattern Re Li!ne Figure 4.6 Block Stow Pattern for Palletized Cargo Urn,tizea Alternate plan B Top View (Nosel * 4e- | 40- 1 Tepal End is Rpa P>ositioning n s'I I _ , t w ~~~~~~~1 T.mes To Rep>eal Th,S i ., L ~~~~Ta,' Ena Of p os,oonno Tee FiooI 9 Times To Tail End Of Tee Ffoor - 51 - 4.2 Car2o Description/Information and Product Pre2aration/Preservation 4.2.1 General Aspects of Storage The quality and condition of a perishable commodity is the concern of everyone involved in its production and transportation. From the moment it is produced, until it is finally consumed, it is essential to maintain the quality at a high standard. This is complicated by the vast variations in preservation requirements of different commodities. The shelf life of strawberries may be measured in hours, while onions may be kept for many months without any effect upon their quality. The major consideration of this preservation process is the rate at which the different products breathe. Respiration is a complex series of chemical reactions, but basically it involves the conversion of starch to sugars and the transformation of these sugars into energy. During the normal process of respiration fruits take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide, water vapor, and a cons:iderable quantity of heat. The rate of respiration will tend to increase with ambient temperature, i.e. the higher the outside termperature, the hotter will become the commodity and the greater will be its rate of respiration. However, different commodities vary considerably in their respiration rate for any given ambient temperature. An avocado, for instance, will respire ten times faster than a lemon, and will generate ten times as much heat. The patterns of respiration will also differ. Some fruits are able to ripen and sweeten after they have been harvested. In these cases a state known as the climacteric is experienced at the beginning of the ripening process, when the respiration rate of the product will suddenly rise. Ethylene gas is emitted and this will, in turn, stimulate the ripening process in adjacent fruit. Apples, tomatoes, bananas, avocados and pears are examples of this type of fruit. On the other hand, most vegetables, citrus fruits aLnd grapes do not ripen after picking and their respiration rate remains constant at a given storage temperature. Another process which continues after harvesting is transpiration, or loss of water by evaporation, making it important to store harvested produce in an environment which protects it from excessive water loss. 4.2.2 Deterioration of Fruits and Vegetables Amongst the different kinds of deterioration which can affect the quality and appearance of fresh fruits and vegetables are the following: - 52 - (a) Physical Deterioration Physical injuries sustained during harvesting, packing, transporting or any intermediate handling are undesirable for several reasons. Any open wounds provide a means of ingress for disease organisms which are always present on or near fresh produce. Rough handling causes a rise in the rate of respiration which reduces the life of the product and bruising which can spoil its internal or external appearance. The effects of these injuries may not be immediately apparent, but will make their appearance at some later stage in the transportation chain. Common examples are increased decay, unsightly bruising, and physical damage caused by insects. (b) Physiological Deterioration Heat damage, caused by exposure to temperatures which are too high, will in due course result in shrivelling of the product or a change of color. If exposed to too low a temperature, sensitivev commodities may succumb to chill injury, with pitting and decaying exteriors, darkening of the flesh, and loss of flavor. Excessive ventilation may result in obvious dehydration. Where small products are involved, with a high ratio of surface area to mass (grapes and baby carrots are examples), water loss is soon apparent and the commodities are prone to wilting. The same situation pertains to leafy vegetables. On the other hand, too little ventilation results in a deficiency of oxygen and a build-up of carbon dioxide, which interferes with the normal process of respiration and can lead to discoloration of internal tissues. Another physiological process is sprouting, generally applicable to potatoes and other tubers, onions, ginger, etc. (c) Chemical Deterioration Any miscalculation in the concentration of chemical preparations used to protect fresh produce from fungal attack may cause injury to the product tissues. (d) Pathological Deterioration Pathological deterioration is a symptom of disease resulting from attack by fungi or bacteria. It frequently arises from the physical, physiological or chemical damage described above. Fungi characteristically produce an external mould growth which not only spoils the product thus affected, but by production of ethylene will have an adverse affect on healthy produce in the vicinity. Bacterial contamination results in foul-smelling rots. - 53 - 4.2.3 Handlinz Techniques to Reduce Det:erioration (a) Post Harvest Practices After harvesting it is essential that commodities prone to dehydration be appropriately treated once their water supply has been severed. A few crops, such as onions, may be deliberately left in the field for some time after harvest to dry their external tissues. Other, such as potatoes, are "cured" by being subjected to high humidity and moderate temperatures. Most commodities, however, are promptly collected and stored. It is at this stage that they are washed, sprayed, or chemically dipped to control decay. They mnay also be waxed to cut down evaporation of water. Specific chemicals will also be used at this stage to prevent future physiological disorders. (b) Pre-shipment Practices It is often desirable to pre-cool produce which is to be carried under refrigeration. Whatever the cooling capacity of the carrying medium, the higher the temperature of the cargo upon loading, the longer it will take to reduce to carryiLng temperature. This is particularly important when the produce is to be carried in refrigerated containers. It should be realized that fresh produce can sustain very substantial damage within only a few days umder unsuitable conditions. Peaches may ripen so quickly that they have virtually no shelf-life upon arrival. Whilst carrots loaded in apparently perfect condition may be discharged covered with black mould. Important, too, is the method of stowage within the container. All fruits and vegetables, whether packed in cartons, boxes, or bags, and whether refrigerated or ventilated, must be stacked in the container in such a way that adequate circulation of air can be achieved. The method of storage must take into account the position of the air vents in the particular container and must ensure the stability of the cargo in transit. The principle of ensuring that air goes through the stow rather than around the extremities is an important difference between live cargoes and frozen cargoes. When frozen goods are carried, the sole object is to prevent ingress of exterrnal heat, whereas with living cargoes their own heat has to be dissipated from the middle of the stow by the circulating air. (c) Discharge In container transport one of the most common causes of deterioration is delay after discharge from the vessel. If any delay will be experienced at the port of discharge, it is essential that the reefer container be connected to an appropriate cool air supply. This - 54 - is far more critical in the case of live (chilled) produce than in the case of dead (deep frozen) produce. For the former, any delay in discharging the cargo from the container, or in connecting the container to a supply system which will ensure its continued refrigeration, will permit a build-up of the products of respiration (carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat) and may lead to a deterioration of the cargo. 4.2.4 Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables If we look at the various conditions which will aid the preservation of perishables, while helping to delay their deterioration, we can identify a number of common factors: (a) Temperature This is the most important of the environmental factors because of its effect on respiration as described above. As a general rule, an increase of temperature of lO@C will result in an approximate doubling of the respiration rate. Furthermore, reducing temperature will inhibit the development of micro-organisms, whereas increasing temperature will speed the growth of moulds and bacteria. While it is true, within limits, that lowering the temperature will ensure better preservation of the product, some caution has to be exercised. The produce must not be frozen. Although water freezes at AC (32'F), fresh fruits and vegetables can normally sustain slightly lower temperatures as the substances in their juice, such as sugars, will inhibit freezing. Generally, the sweeter the fruit, the lower the temperature at which it will freeze. Care must also be taken with some produce to avoid the phenomenon known as "chilling". Many commodities are susceptible to physiological injury from exposure to temperatures well above their freezing points. Tropical fruits such as mangoes, pineapples, avocados, bananas and plantains are typical of those products which have to be kept at a relatively warm temperature during transit. This is particularly important when they are being shipped to areas where the ambient temperatures may be low enough to induce chill symptoms, such as parts of Europe during the winter months. Other produce subject to injury from lower temperatures include citrus fruits, tomatoes, cucumbers and aubergines. The temperature requirements for different commodities and their compatibility are presented in Annexes C and E. (b) Relative Humidity The majority of fruits and vegetables need a high relative humidity so as to avoid dehydration by evaporation. Only a few commodities, such as onions, garlic, ginger and dates, require a dry atmosphere. Loss of moisture is undesirable because it can adversely affect the appearance of the product; can result in significant weight loss, and can pre-dispose the product to invasion by micro-organisms. - 55 - On the other hand, too high a humidity may also be detrimental. Warm, over-moist conditions may lead to bacterial invasion and superficial mould growth. Regulation of relative humidity is a more difficult problem than the provision of controlled temperatures. For example, at temperatures only slightly above 0OC the relative humidity in the average refrigerated vessel approximates 85-90% and only minor changes can be achieved by adjustment of fresh air vents and refrigerant temperatures. (c) Controlled Atmospheres Fruits and vegetables take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide during respiration. If the proportion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the surrounding atmosphere can be altered, the rate of respiration can be slowed down and the storage life of the product extended. Much work has been done to develop systems which can be used to provide an artificial atmosphere. The introduction of gases, principally nitrogen, into containers prior to shipment permit long distance transport of such commodities as strawberries and iceberg lettuces. An alternative method is to modify the atmosphere inside the individual packaging by using polythene bags with varying thicknesses and therefore varying permeability to different gases. Another method is to utilize permanganate granules, either within the individual packages or throughout the container, to absorb the ethylene emitted by ripening fruits, thus extending their storage life. The atmosphere may also be controlled by altering the pressure. Certain commodities benefit fromi being stored under reduced pressure since the rate of respiration is effectively reduced. This is known as hypobaric storage. Hypobaric conditions may be described as "very low pressure," meaning less than ambient atmospheric pressure. However, this term is used to describe a system which preserves perishable commodities with a combination of less-than-ambient pressure, temperature control, ventilation and relative humidity control. A means of utilizing its process has been developed under the trade name Dormovac for the storage and transport of certain fruits and vegetables. In this system a vacuum pump continuously operates to maintain the desired low pressure setting, while a vacuum breaker injects precise amounts of filtered ambient air back into the cargo section. Thus, the desired low pressure is maintained, harmful gases are withdrawn from the commodity, bacterial growth is inhibited, and several air changes per hour take place, flushing the expelled gases out of the cargo section. This system has one important limitation. It requires a very robust sealed container to maintain reduced air pressure throughout the transit period. The higher cost for this container makes this method appropriate only for high value commodities. - 56 - PART FIVE - REEFER TRANSPORT ECONOMICS 5.1 The Transition from Bulk to Container Reefer About half of the world's refrigerated cargoes are carried in bulk form in specialized vessels operating on a "tramp" basis. The nature and requirements of the tramp trade resulted in the development of a range of vessel types of different sizes, speeds and cargo-handling methods. Refrigerated vessels have 4 or 5 holds, which are then divided into different groups of rooms which enables vessels to carry different commodities at different temperatures at the same time. Because reefer cargoes tend to be measured by cubic capacity rather than weight, vessel size/capacity is measured as "cubic foot bale capacity" rather than deadweight tonnage. The vessels are expensive to build and to operate and owners find it essential to minimize ballast, or positioning voyages. Therefore, some refrigerated ships are constructed to carry other cargoes such as cars, tractors, light general cargo and bagged cargoes on voyage legs when refrigeration is not required. Although this increases the versatility of the vessel, it also increases the capital cost. The recent demise of the Salen Group of Sweden which, together with the Lauritzen Group of Denmark, had dominated the reefer ship industry, owing about 50% of the entire industry between them, was attributed very largely to their failure in managing their dry cargo operations. As a result, the tendency of the past few years has been towards dedicated refrigerated container vessels, operating in the liner trades. On other routes, bulk reefer ships have been replaced by containerships with part-reefer container capacity. Initially, the containerships were built with their own refrigeration machinery and either a refrigerated hold, or the necessa,. ductings and couplings to permit the carriage of insulated porthole containers. More recently, vessels carrying integral reefer containers have begun to dominate especially for trades in sensitive perishable cargoes shipped in a chilled state. The premium outturns which these containers deliver has permitted the commodities to achieve a premium the marketplace. The number of vessels carrying reefer slots has increased considerably over the last decades. Currently about 55% of the container vessels with capacity in excess of 100 TEU have provisions :cr refrigerated containers. The majority of the vessels have 50 or less TEU of refrigerated container capacity as shown in Figure 5.1. However, about 3% of the container vessels have reefer capacities in excess of 300 TEU. The distribution of reefer slot capacity according to vessel size shown in Figure 5.2 indicates that about 2/5 of the slots are on - 57 - vessels over 1500 TEU but about 1/3 is on vessels of 500 TEU or less. Thus the availability of reefer capacity is widely dispersed among the world's container fleet. Figure 5.1 D i st.r i Dut i on of ;eefer Capac i ty Per Vessel 1989 20% t-25 51-100 201-300 401-500: 601-700 26-50 101-200 30 .-400 ';01-600 >700 NiaDer of TEU of ;eefer CaD&cIty Figure 5.2 Percentage of Peefer Capacit, in vessel Size Groups 2S. 2 15% <=2 0 501-150 1001-1500 2001-2500 3001-4000 251-5G0 751-1000 1S01-2C00 2500-3000 vessel Ce68eity in TEU - 58 - Figure 5.3 Percentage of Vessel Capacity Used for Peefers by Size Group IA% =250 501-750 7001-1500 2001-2500 3001-4000 251-5C0 751-1000 1501-2000 2500-3000 VeSeI Caeclty in MBJ For those vessels which have reefer slots, an average of 9% of their capacity is available for refrigerated containers. As show in Figure 5.3, this percentage is higher for the larger vessels, averaging about 11% for vessels over 1000 TEU. Most vessels with reefer capacity have between 5% and 20% of their capacity set aside for this purpose. 5.2 Problems Associated with Dead-heading of Empty Reefers Since there are no disposable refrigerated containers, a decision to containerize means facing up to the problem of container positioning. This provides no difficulty where the trade is balanced and the reefer container can be used in both directions. Unfortunately, this is rarely possible. While reefer containers may be employed to some extent for return loads of nonrefrigerated cargoes, their limited internal cubic capacity makes them unsuitable for a wide range of commodities. The cost and inconvenience of dead-heading a large proportion of a refrigerated container fleet can be significant. One of the benefits of the development of slimline units is that they occupy far less room. This increases the internal usable cubic space. When combined with the adoption of the clip-on or underslung diesel units (in place of generating equipment fitted permanently to the container), the reefer containers become more economically viable for carrying return loads of general cargo. 59 - 5.3 Cost Comparison: Reefer Vessels Versus Refrigerated Container Shipments The container has shown its advantage in most forms of general cargo movement: less damage, reduced pilferage, lower insurance rates, and faster rates of handling. In the trade between developed countries, saturation has been reached. All cargo that is containerizable has been containerized. In fact, there is even a tresnd away from containers towards pre-slung cargo systems in certain very regular trade routes where this type of technology provides an opportunity to reduce transit costs and to eliminate the costs of the container itself. What then are the advantages of using refrigerated containers, and what costs savings can be achieved by their use? For most refrigerated cargoes, shipping by conventional dedicated reefer ships is cheaper than using refrigerated containers provided there is a reasonable volume per shipment, making it worthwhile for a reefer vessel to call. This is particularly the case where there is a steady year-round volume of refrigerated cargo which lends itself to being pre-slung; where the route is equipped with modern tonnage having wide main deck hatches and 20-ton cranes; and where very little of the route is travelled empty. A typical example of this type of traffic is the transport of boxed Australian beef to the United States' markets with fruit and other products being carried on the return legs via Japan. The principal benefit of containerizing perishable products is the almost complete avoidance of losses and spoilage that occur with normal handling without containers. For example, each carton of bananas will be handled as many as six times before reaching its final destination, resulting in bruising and other damage. Furthermore, containerized fruit will have remained at a steady temperature from the time of stuffing to the moment of stripping. Thus the final quality of the fruit is far higher and it will command a better price compared to fruit transported by other means. Market studies show that this quality consideration can be worth as much as US$1.50 per carton. Typical premiums are US$1.00 for bananas and US$0.80 for pineapples. Table 5.1 provides a comparison between conventional reefer transport and that of reefer containers for the transport of bananas and pineapples from the Cote d'Ivoire to France. It should be noted that freight rates used for conventional reefer vessels are rather low, reflecting the age of the vessels which has enabled them to be depreciated to low book values. The table describes the individual activities concerned, and shows where savings might be made. The background material to the calculation of the container freight rate, including the return haul, and allowing for a small profit on the operation is presented in Annex D through Tables D.1-D.8. On a straight line cost basis, conventional shipping is cheaper than using refrigerated containers, but the reduction in carton handling contributes a significant advantage and helps to balance the costs. - 60 - When the premium for outturned fruit quality is applied, the results demonstrate the real benefit of using refrigerated containers. Table 5.1 Summary of Shippinz Costs for Bananas and Pineapoles Using Reefer Vessels and Refrigerated Containers Conventional Refrigerated BANANAS Reefer Vessel Container Stuffing of Container/loading truck 5,000 5,000 Transport from Shed to port (i) 5,000 5,625 Unloading truck (ii) 4,000 1,628 Reloading onto pallets and sorting 2,800 - Loading onto vessel and storing 2,000 included in freight Sea freight 39,640 68,180 Off loading at port of discharge 2,500 included in freight Handling, sorting, reloading onto truck (iii) 22,500 5,000 Transport to end destination (i) 6,000 6,750 Unpacking/stripping container 6,000 6,000 CFA 95,440 98,183 US$ 333.71 343.30 6% loss (iv) 19.08 352.79 343.30 Increased Value 8.9% -30.83 True Comparison 352.79 312.47 Note: Costs per metric ton - 61 - Table 5.1 (Cont.) Cost per metric ton (1,000 kilos) Conventional Refrigerated PINEAPPLES Reefer Vessel Container Stuffing of container/loading truck 6,000 6,000 Transport from shed to port (i) 6,000 6,750 Unloading truck (ii) 5,000 1,860 Reloading onto pallets and sorting 4,900 - Loading onto vessel and storing 2,240 included in freight Sea freight 53,011 77,590 Offloading at port of discharge 2,800 included in freight Handling, sorting, reloading (iii) 14,352 5,000 Transport to end destination (i) 7,000 7,850 Unpacking/stripping container 7,000 7,000 CFA 108,300 112,050 US$ 378.68 391.78 7$ loss (iv) 26.51 405.19 391.78 Increased value 8.9% 405.19 34.87 True cost comparison $405.19 $357.91 Notes: (i) Due to the weight of the container the transport cost per ton of cargo is higher. (ii) Conventional costs at the port are high due to the number of times the individual cartons are handled. (iii) Handling and sorting is a major item at destination. In many cases this happens many times. (iv) 6% loss of cargo resulting from damage/pillage increases the costs of transport for the balance. (v) Due to improved outturn the containerized bananas fetches an average $1.25 more per carton or 8.9%. - 62 - Finally, it should be noted that the container freight rate is based on a profitable service being operated with northbound cargo alone. If even a small volume of southbound cargo was obtained then the northbound freight rate can be reduced substantially making the argument for containerization even more compelling. 5.4 Purchase Versus Leasing: The Role of the Leasing Company The growth of containerization has been accompanied by an increasing reliance by ocean carriers upon leasing companies for a substantial portion of their container needs. More than 50% of the world container fleet is leased to ocean carriers and other container users. This proportion is virtually double what it was a decade earlier. The benefits of leasing include the ability to lease equipment as, when and where needed, thereby achieving higher equipment utilization and conservation of capital. Leasing also allows the ocean carrier to avoid accumulations of containers at locations where more containerized cargo is imported then exported. It also allows the ocean carrier to exchange types of equipment whose initial usefulness may have been outgrown, for other types of equipment more relevant to current needs. These benefits apply to all container leasing. The leasing of refrigerated containers offers further benefits. The refrigerated container is a very high-technology piece of equipment. Developments in the field of refrigerated technology are rapid and persistent. Because reefer equipment is so expensive, it may require an amortization period of several years. Therefore, an investor in reefer equipment may find that his capital expenditure has tied him to a piece of equipment which is relatively obsolescent. However, a leasing company will be able to tailor a lease agreement which restricts the user to a fairly short and limited period after which the lessee can exchange the containers for newer, more appropriate equipment. The lessee may even be able to arrange early termination of an agreement in order to replace equipment as required. He will be able to take advantage of short-term changes in equipment requirements by virtue of sudden increases or reductions in demand. This can be done without having to risk capital in purchases which may be of only temporary necessity. Leasing is fundamentally a method of transferring risk. The risks are taken by the leasing company. Because it is involved with a large number of lessees operating in a variety of trades worldwide, the leasing company is in a far better situation to dispose of surplus equipment than the individual user. In a field where technical developments are taking place rapidly, (even dimensions have been changing with the introduction of "hi-cube" boxes), the risk area is that much greater. The leasing company will have its own technical department and will be able to keep - 63 - abreast of all developments in the refrigerated container field. In some cases, the leasing company will provide the impetus for such developments. In addition to being able to offer the user the latest, most technically-advanced equipment, the leasing company can offer after-sales technical and management service. Thus far, the focus has been on the leasing of containers. There are also companies which are able to put together a total package comprising containers, port and terminal handling equipment, chassis and other types of road transport vehicles, power packs, and even vessels. These companies, by virtue of their more diversified marketing opportunities, are able to risk investment in equipment and ships which could be beyond the scope of an individual operator. This provides great scope for shipping lines, producers, shippers, or marketing companies to develop unitized services in areas where, without the support and advice of the leasing company, no such service might be feasible. As an example, in a 1980 proposal for a venture involving the movement of bananas from Central America to the United States, the terms of reference included: (a) The provision of an initial vessel on a "where is" basis. (b) The provision of refrigerated containers, diesel generating sets and chassis. (c) The provision of additional vessel and equipment as and when required. (d) The provision of power packs, as necessary, both on vessel and at ports and terminals. (e) The provision of shore container handling equipment, mobile crane for ship/shore transfer. (f) The provision of technical support, both at the planning stage and subsequently. (g) The provision of spare parts kits on sale or return basis, and (h) The availability of trained personnel in the commercial, diesel and refrigeration fields as well as crane and vessel operations, with the possibility of offering traLining to local personnel. - 64 - Annex A BANANAS - A COMMODITY STUDY - 65 - BANANAS - A COMMODITY STUDY There are a number of ways in which the banana trade differs from that of other commodities. The volume of movements of bananas is greater than for any other fruit. The supply is not subject to the same seasonality as other fruits, but demand fluctuates relative to the seasonal availability of local fruits. There are also important differences in handling and transport requirements. Bananas tend to be the most sentitive of all the major perishables. Also the transit time of bananas from point of origin to that of destination is used as part of their ripening period. One apparent result of the trend to refrigerated containerization has been a noticeable shift in banana trading patterns, presumably as a consequence of the desire to reduce the transit time and increase utilization of this more sophisticated method of shipment. Thus, Japan has tended to import bananas from the Philippines in place of Ecuador, services to the USA have commenced from Honduras and Costa Rica, other recent services are operating from the Cameroon in West Africa to France, while the UK maintains a somewhat protectionist policy towards its traditional West Indies suppliers. Bananas are often the first 'luxury' fruit imported by developing nations. Consumption tends to grow until such time as public taste and, possibly, an increase in the level of disposable income encourages the substitution of somewhat more exotic fruits. Consumption then drops to a lower level where it remains relatively stable. Traditionally, bananas were carred on the stem in refrigerated vessels. In 1958 cartons containing "hands" of bananas were introduced to reduce the labor required to handle the produce. The use of these '3 to 18 kg cartons rapidly became universal. Although this system was a great improvement on normal handling operations, it was still highly labor-intensive. This was reasonably acceptable in the producing countries which, by and large, had large pools of inexpensive labor, bU- it created problems in the importing countries where the added labor 4aS expensive. The desire to reduce handling costs still further resulted :M the growth of palletization. But for logistical reasons it was rare:; possible to palletize at point of loading. Since the pressure for palletization came from the importers, whose labor costs were general;; much higher, various methods were devised to effect this introduce pallets at the importing end. In Japan, palletization is often carried out in the ship's hold before discharge. Elsewhere the bananas are loaded onto pallets in the port area after discharge. The transition from palletization to containerization, which involves even less handling, received its impetus from the continuing - 66 - increase in labor costs, both in the importing and exporting countries. United Brands experimented with the idea of carrying bananas in refrigerated containers as long ago as the early 1970s. The results were so promising that in 1972 they inaugurated a twice-weekly service between Cortez, Honduras and Gulfport, Mississippi, employing two small self-sustaining cellular reefer vessels. The ships spent one day loading, one day discharging, and 2.5 days at sea. Each ship carried ninety 40 ft. integral containers. Each container carried 940 cartons or 17 tbns of bananas, a constraint introduced by road regulations which did not permit greater axle loads. Although containerization produced its own problems, it was seen as the solution to the major problem of banana handling. Bananas need to be refrigerated as soon as possible after picking. They need to be transported green and need to be careful:Ly handled to avoid damage. refrigerated containers provide far better control of the transit time, temperature and conditions for transport of bananas than loose or palletized shipments. The result of improvement in quality and the marketing of a superior product is a major explanation for the successful adoption of containers in this trade. Containers doubled their share of the banana trade in 1981 when Standard Fruit began a two vessel service using Salen Reefer services. The Salen Reefer Services operated ships on behalf of Castle & Cooke. This service used two containers ships of the Ro-Ro Strider class, each of 325 TEU capacity. They operated between Honduras, Guatemala and Texas. Next, Delta Steamship Company started a five vessel service and Compagnie General Maritime (CGM) containerized the French trade. CGM used containers of the porthole type in four vessels of 892 or 915 TEU. Since the inland leg in France is of very short duration, no more than one day, while the sea voyage is in excess of one week, the containers are cooled sufficiently en route for them to maintain their temperature during the journey to the main wholesalers. As a result. 1983 the USA was importing about 15% of its requirements in containers while France was taking about 60%. These percentages have continued increase since then. In 1983 the Geest Line began a containerized service betwee7 the UK and the Caribbean Windward Islands. Since it controlled the fruit from producer to distributor, it was able to optimize the transport system. It had already begun to unitize with pallets in 19 : In 1984 the two small vessels of United Brands, were placed with a single ship which carried 290 40 ft. containers. In place of :he refrigerated containers with their own generators, the cooling system was built on the ship. For transport over the road in the USA, skeletal trailers were equipped with clip-on diesel generators. This is similar to the system used by Standard Fruit. - 67 - CGM identified the following principal advantages of containerization of its Antilles trade (from Guadeloupe and Martinique): * Better fruit conservation and increased value, * Reduction in number of handling, * Higher quality handling at the distribution end, * Reduction of theft, * Better temperature maintenance and control, * Finer limits of temperature variation over the whole journey, and * Reduction of the maximum risk from entire hold to single container. The CAROL Lines introduced a containerized liner service from the Caribbean to Europe which offered refrigerated capacity for isothermic containers. Five fully cellular containerships of around 1,400 TEU offer 290 reefer slots on a ten-day service. Because of the longer voyage time associated with this multiport liner service, the CAROL service therefore tends to be used more as a back-up to conventional refrigerated services. The UNCTAD report on bananas has the following to say about the infrastructure and other requirements for a container service. "The type of containers to be used must be carefully considered. In trade to the United States, 40 ft. containers appear to be the dominant choice. In view of the excellent infrastructure between most plantations and the ports, this has not presented any serious problems in the exporting countries under review, but local conditions in other producing countries may make this size of container less suitable. The refrigeration machinery used in integral containers for bananas must be very powerful to enable it to extract the field heat from the bananas and it must have ventilation facilities to purge the gases released in the ripening process. Ventilation should be vertical from bottom to top and this means that ordinary reefer machinery, which is built to "hold" a certain temperature, but not to "draw it down," is incapable of handling fresh bananas. An attempt to load bananas into ordinary reefer containers was once made - with disastrous results. Before containerization was introduced, bananas were not refrigerated prior to loading on board the vessel. Whether containerization should change this procedure is an unresolved argument. The two services between Central America and the United States both - 68 - start up the refrigeration as soon as the stuffing of the containers begins, the other services do not. If no cooling is provided prior to loading, no electrical power is required in the producing area. If refrigeration is needed, however, the power supply to the reefer machinery can come either from individual generators (generator sets) or from a central power supply. Individual generator sets for each container generally consume one US gallon of diesel oil an hour on average, which is somewhat expensive, but large generator sets which can supply a nunmber of refrigerated containers are available. If integral containers are to be used, maintenance and repair facilities for containers, reefer machinery and generator sets will need to be established. Such facilities can very well be located in the producing countries where they will provide employment for quite a number of people. The use of isoth,ermic containers eliminates the need for special shore-side reefer repair shops, but not, of course, for container repair facilities which should be available at both ends of the trade. The container repair facilities muist consist of a workshop capable of carrying out routine repairs, including repairs to the insulation, as well as a simple sand blasting and painting facility. The cost of the workshop depends on the extent of equipment installed and it is difficult to provide guidance figures, but a sand blasting shed capable of treating one container a day can be set up in Honduras at a cost estimated by the surveyor to be about $5,000. The reefer machinery and generator set repair facilities are more complex. They should ideally be covered and contain separate workshops for compressors and generator sets. A large spare parts store must also be kept. Additionally, it would be necessary to have container checking facilities at each end of the service to check and locate damage and to refuel all the generator sets. Finally, a training facility would have to be established to train reefer and general mechanics, etc. in sufficient number to handle the day-to-day repairs of the containers utilized in the particular service." - 69 - Annex B USDA Requirement for Shipment By Refrigerated Container Source: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Hoboken Methods Development Center - 70 - USDA REOUIREMENTS FOR SHIPMENT BY REFRIGERATED CONTAINER (a) Container 1. Type and series must be USDA approved (see PPQ Treatment Manual M390.614). 2 Must be sound, in good working order, and the doors must have a tight seal. 3. Must be precooled to treatment temperature or below prior to loading. (b) Fruit Precooling 1. Some fruit needs to be preconditioned at certain temperatures prior to precooling, to minimize chilling injury. 2. Fruit must be precooled to treatment temperature, or to a uniform temperature not to exceed 4.5'C. 3. Fruit temperature must be checked manually before loading and the warmest fruit placed in the last quarter of the load. 4. Fruit must be loaded directly from the precooling storage area to the container, so the fruit temperature does not rise. (c) Loading 1. Each container must contain only one type of fruit loaded in one type of carton. 2. Fruit must be loaded so that the floor is completely covered and the load is of equal height throughout the container. 3. Bottom air delivery units must be loaded using "solid block" stow. Top air delivery units must be loaded using "horizontal air flow" stow. 4. A numbered seal must be placed on the loaded container. This must not be removed before the load has been cleared at the port of destination. - 71 - 5. Fruit temperatures must not be allowed to rise after loading and during the transfer of the container to the vessel. (d) Temperature Recorder and Probes 1. iust be USDA approved. 2. Temperature probes must be calibrated and placed in the fruit at the time the container is loaded. This must be done under USDA supervision or, in countries with which the USDA has a cooperative agreement, these activities must be conducted by qualified officials from that country. 3. Calibration is conducted using a mixture of ice and fresh water in clean insulated containers. The ice must be crushed and completely fill the container to the water level. The probes must be submerged in the ice water mixture without touching the sides or bottom of the container. The mixture must be constantly stirred and the reading stabilized at the lowest temperature obtainable must be recorded. Any probe which reads more then plus or minus 0;5°C from the standard of 06C must be replaced. The calibrations should be recorded to the nearest one-tenth of one degree. 4. Records of temperature are required from at least three locations. One sensor must be placed in the return air at the front of the load. Two fruit pulp sensors must be placed approximately 5 feet from the end of the load for 40 ft. containers and approximately 3 feet from the end of the load for 20 ft. containers. One sensor must be placed in a center box and one in a box at a side wall, both at one-half the height of the load. 5. Recorder must be mounted on the outside of the container so that fruit temperatures can be reviewed periodically. 6. Recordings of all temperature probes must be made every hour and printouts must be made available to the PPQ officer at the port of destination for final clearance of the container. 7. In addition to the recorder sensors in the container, each container must be equipped with one type "T" thermocouple wire sensor. This wire sensor is inserted into the fruit near one of the recorder sensors. The wire ends must be located on the outside of the container. The thermocouple wire sensor provides the means to measure fruit - 72 - temperature by use of a compatible portable temperature indicating instrument. Temperature measurements are to be taken and recorded at the time of discharge and compared to the temperatures from the temperature recorder. Discrepancies between these values should be further investigated by taking manual fruit pulp readings. (e) Documentation 1. A document must be prepared and signed by an approved official in the country of origin including the information as shown in the sample document "Certificate of Loading and Calibration for Cold Treatment in Self- Refrigerated Containers." 2. "Instructions to the Captain" and "Location of Temperature Probes" documents must be prepared and signed. 3. Distribution of the documents is as follows: (i) Original to the captain of the vessel (ii) Copy to captain to be given to PPQ officer (iii) Copy sent to PPQ office at port of destination (iv) Copy sent to Hoboken Methods Development Center (f) Treatment Schedules For treatment schedules see United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service administrative instruments 319.56.2d and the Plant Protection and Quarantine Treatment Manual Section VI, T107-T109. For further information contact the Hoboken Methods Development Center, Plant Protection and Quarantine, Animal and Plant Health Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 209 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey, 07030, USA. - 73 - Annex C Characteristics of Fruits and Veeetables Affecting Transport Source: Tropical Products Transport Handbook By: Brian M. McGregor - 74 - Table 4: Compatability groups Group 1: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 360F), 90-950/o relative humidity. Many products in this group produce ethylene. apples grapes (without parsnips apricots sulfur dioxide) peaches Asian pears horseradish pears Barbados cherry kohirabi persimmons beets, topped leeks plums bernes (except longan pomegranates cranberries) loquat prunes cashew apple lychee quinces cherries mushrooms radishes coconuts nectarines rutabagas figs (not with oranges' (Florida turnips apples) and Texas) *Citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to otner products. Group 2: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 20C (32 to 36°F), 95-1000/% relative humidity. Many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene. amaranth' corn, sweet' parsley' anise' daikon' parsnips' artichokes' endive' peas' asparagus escarole' pomegranate bean sprouts grapes (without raddichio beets sulfur dioxide) radishes' Belgian endive horseradish rhubarb berries (except Jerusalem artichoke rutabagas' cranberries) kiwifruit salsify bok choy kohirabi' scorzonera broccoli' ieafy greens snow peas brussels sprouts' leeks' (not with spinach' cabbage' figs or grapes) turnips' carrots' lettuce waterchestnul cauliflower lo bok watercress' celeriac' mushrooms celery' onions, green' (not cherries with figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb, or corn) 'these products can be top-iced Group 3: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 20C (32 to 36°F), 65-750/o relative humidity. Moisture will damage these products. garlic onions, dry Group 4: Fruits and vegetables, 4.5°C (40°F), 90-95% relative humidity. cactus leaves lemons' tamarilo cactus pears lychees tangelos' caimito Kumquat tangerines' cantaloupes'' mancarin' ughi fruit' clementine oranges'(Calif yucca root cranberries and Arizona) pepino citrus treated with bipMenyl rnay give odors to other products. 'can be top-iced. - 75 - Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued Group 5: Fruits and vegetables, 100C (50°F), 85-90% relative humidity. Many of these products are sensitive to ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chilling injury. beans kiwano pummelo calamondin malanga squash, summer chayote okra (soft shell) cucumber olive tamarind eggpiant peppers taro root haricot vert potatoes, storage Group 6: Fruits and vegetables, 13 to 15°C (55 to 60°F), 85-90%/o relative humidity. Many of these products produce ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chill- ing injury. atemoya granadilla papayas avocados grapefruit passiontruit babaco guava pineapple bananas jaboticaba plantain bitter melon lackfruit potatoes, new black sapote langsat pumpkin boniato lemons' ramOutan breadfruit limes' santol canistel mamey soursop carambola mangoes sugar apple cherimoya mangosteen squash, winter coconuts melons (except (hard shell) feijoa cantaloupes) tomatilios ginger root tomatoes, ripe .citrus treated wth tbiphenyl may give odors to other products. Group 7: Fruits and vegetables, 18 to 210C (65 to 70°F), 85-90% relative humidity. jicama sweetpotatoes- watermelon' pears tomatoes, white sapote (for ripening) mature green yams 'separate from pears and tomatoes due to ethylene sensivity. Group 8: Flowers and florist greens, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 90-95% relative humidity. allium treesia peony, tight aster, China gardenia buds bouvardia hyacinth ranunculus carnation iris, bulbous rose chrysanthemum lily squill crocus lily-of-the-valley sweet pea cymbidium orchid narcissus tulip adiantum (maidenhair) ground pine rhododendren cedar ilex (hoily) salal (lemon dagger and wood juniper leaf) fems mistletoe vaccinium galax mountain-laurel (huckleberry) woodwardia fern - 76 - Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued Group 9: Flowers and florist greens, 4.50C (400F), 90-950/c relative humidity. acacia delphinium orchid, alstromeria feverfew cymbidium anemone forget-me-not ornithogalum aster, China foxglove poppy buddlela gaillardia phlox caiendula gerbera primrose calla gladiolus protea candyluft gloriosa ranunculus clarkia gypsophilla snapdragon columbine heather snowdrop coreopsis laceftlower statice cornflower Iilac, forcea stephanotis cosmos lupine stevia dahlia marigolds stock daisies mignonette strawflower violet zinnia adiantum (maidenhair) eucalyptus myrtus (myrtle) asparagus (plumosa. hedera phulodendren sprenger) lex (holly) pittosporum buxus (boxwood) leatherleaf (baker pothos camellia fern) scotch-broomern croton leucotrice, drooping smilax, southern dracaena magnolia woodwardia fern Group 10: Flowers and florist greens, 7 to 10°C (45 to 50°F), 90-95% relative hu- midity. anemone eucharis orchid, cattleya bird-of-paradise gioriosa sweet william camellia godetia chamaedora corcyine (ti) palm podocarpus Group 11: Flowers and florist greens, 13 to 15°C (55 to 600F), 90-95% relative hu- midity. anthurium heliconia poinsetta ginger orchid, vanda diffenbachia staghorn fern - 77 - Chill Sensitivity Most tropical products are subject to chilling injury when transported or stored at lower than recommended temperatures. This damage often becomes apparent af- ter the products warm up. Products injured may show pitting, discoloration, water soaked areas, decay, and failure to ripen. The following Table 5 lists tropical and other products that sensitive to this injury. Table 5: Products sensitive to chilling injury atemoya guavas plantain avocados haricot vert pomegranates babaco jaboticaba potatoes bananas jackfruit potted plants beans jicama pummelo bitter melon kiwano pumpkins black sapote langsat rambutan boniato lemons santol breadfruit limes sapodilia calabaza malanga soursop calamondin mamey squash canistel mangoes sugar apple cantaloupe mangosteen sweet potatoes carambola melons tamarillo chayote okra tamarind cherimoya olive taro root cranberries oranges (California tomatillo cucumbers and Arizona) tomatoes custard appie papaya tropical flowers eggplant passionfruit ugli fruit feijoa pepino watermelon ginger root peppers white sapote granadiila pineapples yam grapefruit Freeze Sensitivity Many products are recommended to be transported or stored at temperatures only 1 ° to 3°C (2-6°F) above their freezing points. Thermostats, however, on some trailers and van containers are set 1 0 to 30C (2-6°F) higher than the recommend- ed temperature of 0°C (320F) for chilled products to avoid freezing. The following Table 6 lists a small number of products according to their sensitivity to freezing. Most tropical products are damaged by chilling injury before they freeze. Moisture Loss Sensitivity Most products need to be transported and stored at a high relative humidity. Some products are more susceptible to moisture loss than others. Moisture loss results in wilting and shriveling. To reduce moisture loss, products must be adequately precooled before transit. Some products also are waxed, film-wrapped, package- iced, or top-iced. Relative humidity during transit and storage must be maintained as much as possi- ble. Table 7 lists products by their moisture loss rate in storage. - 78 - Table 6: Products susceptible to freezing injury' Most susceptible: Moderately susceptible: Least susceptible: apricots lettuce apples onions (dry) beets wlo tops asparagus limes broccoli, oranges brussels sprouts avocados okra sprouting parsley cabbage. bananas peaches cabbage, new pears mature or savory beans, snap peppers, sweet carrots w/o lops peas dates bernes (except plums cauliflower radishes, w/o tops kale cranbemes) potatoes celery spinach kohlrabi cucumbers squash, summer cranberries squash, winter parsnips eggplant sweetpotatoes grapefruit rutabagas lemons tomatoes grapes salsify turnips w/o tops The most susceptible products will be injured by one light freezing, moderatefy susceptible products will recover from one or two light freezings, wnile least susceptible procucts can be iigntly frozen several times. Fresh products that are lightly frozen should not be handled Thawing stiouid be done at 40C (400F). 'Source Hardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7) Table 7: Moisture loss rate of products' High Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: apricots avocados parsnips blackberries artichokes' pears broccoli' asparagus peas cantaloupes' bananas peppers chard' beets' pomegranates cherries brussels sprouts' quinces Chinese vegetables cabbage' radishes' figs carrots, topped' rhubarb grapes cauliflower, rutabagas' green onions unwrapped sweet potatoes guavas celeriac' squash, summer kohirabi celery' (soft shell) leafy greens' coconuts tangerines lycnees corn, sweet' tomatoes mangoes cranberries yams mushrooms endive' papayas escarole' Low Loss Rate parsley' grapefruit apples peaches green beans cauliflower, wrapped persimmons leeks' cucumoers, waxed pineapples lemons eggpiant plums and prunes lettuce garlic raspberries limes ginger root strawberries nectarines kiwifruit cut flowers okra melons vegetables with tops oranges onions, dry potatoes pumpkins squash. winter (hard shell) 'can be top-iced. 'Source: largeiy from Safeway Stores. Inc. (25) - 79 - Ethylene Sensitivity Never transport or store fruits and vegetables that produce a lot of ethylene with products that are sensitive to it. Ethylene can cause premature ripening of some products and will ruin others, such as plants and cut flowers. Cucumbers and celery turn yellow in the presence of ethylene, while lettuce will turn brown. Potas- sium permangante pads can be used to absorb ethylene during transit and storage. Table 8 lists products that produce ethylene along with products that are sensitive to it. Table 8: Products that are ethylene producers or ethylene sensitive Ethylene producers: Ethylene sensitive: apples manaontaen bananas, unripe leafy greens apricots nectarines Belgian endive lettuce avocados papayas broccoli okra bananas, ripening passionfruit brussels sprouts parsley cantaloupes peaches cacbage peas chermoya pears carrots peppers figs persimmons cauliflower potted plants guavas plantains chard spinach honeydew melons plums cucumbers squash Kiwifruit, ripe prunes cut flowers sweetpolatoes mnamey quinces eggplant watercress mangoes rambutan florist greens watermelon tomatoes green beans yams kiwifruit, unripe Odor Sensitivity Never transport or store odorous products with products that will absorb the odors. Table 9 lists products that produce odors with products that can absorb them. Table 9: Products which produce or absorb odors Odor produced by: Will be absorbed by: apples ...................... cabbage, carrots, celery, figs, onions, meat, eggs, dairy products avocados ...................... pineapples carrots ...................... celery citrus fruit ...................... meat, eggs, dairy products ginger root ................ ....... eggplant grapes fumigated w/ ................. other fruits and vegetables sulfur dioxide leeks ...................... figs, grapes onions, cry . ...................... apples, celery, pears onions, green ........ , corn, figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb pears ............... ....... cabbage, carrots, celery, onions, potatoes ootatoes .... .................... apples, pears pepoers. green . ....... .... pineapples s.ror!iy scentec ...... citrus fruit vege!aIeS - 80 - Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables. Temperature Relative Product °C OF Humidity Approximate (percent) storage lite Amaranth 0-2 32-36 95-100 10-14 days Anise 0-2 32-36 90-95 2-3 weeks Apples -1-4 30-40 90-95 1-12 months Apricots -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-3 weeks Artichokes, globe 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks Asian pear 1 34 90-95 5-6 months Asparagus 0-2 32-35 95-100 2-3 weeks Atemoya 13 55 85-90 4-6 weeks Avocados, Fuerte. Hass 7 45 85-90 2 weeks Avocados, Lula, Booth-1 4 40 90-95 4-8 weeks Avocados, Fuchs, Pollock 13 55 85-90 2 weeks Babaco 7 45 85-90 1-3 weeks Bananas, green 13-14 56-58 90-95 1-4 weeks Barbados cherry 0 32 85-90 7-8 weeks Bean sprouts 0 32 95-100 7-9 days Beans, dry 4-10 40-50 40-50 6-10 months Beans, green or snap 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 days Beans, lima, in pods 5-6 41-43 95 5 days Beets, bunched 0 32 98-100 10-14 days Beets, topped 0 32 98-100 4-6 months Belgian endive 2-3 36-38 95-98 2-4 weeks Bitter melon 12-13 53-55 85-90 2-3 weeks Black sapote 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-3 weeks Blackberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Blood orange 4-7 40-44 90-95 3-8 weeks Blueberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2 weeks Bok choy 0 32 95-100 3 weeks Boniato 13-15 55-60 85-90 4-5 months Breadfruit 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-6 weeks Broccoli 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Brussels sprouts 0 32 95-100 3-5 weeks Cabbage, early 0 32 98-100 3-6 weeks Cabbage, late 0 32 98-100 5-6 months Cactus Leaves 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeks Cactus Pear 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeks Caimito 3 38 90 3 weeks Calabaza 10-13 50-55 50-70 2-3 months Calamondin 9-10 48-50 90 2 weeks Canistel 13-15 55-60 85-90 3 weeks Cantaloups (3/4-slip) 2-5 36-41 95 15 days Cantaloups (full-slip) 0-2 32-36 95 5-14 days Carambola 9-10 48-50 85-90 3-4 weeks Carrots, bunched 0 32 95-100 2 weeks Carrots, mature 0 32 98-100 7-9 months Carrots, immature 0 32 98-100 4-6 weeKs Cashew apple 0-2 32-36 85-90 5 weeks Cauliflower 0 32 95-98 3-4 weeks Celeriac 0 32 97-99 6-8 months Celery 0 32 98-100 2-3 months Chard 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Chayote squash 7 45 85-90 4-6 weeks - 81 - Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and aipproximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables-Continued Temperature Relative Product °C F Humidity Approximate (percent) storage life Cherimoya 13 55 90-95 2-4 weeks Cherries, sour 0 32 90-95 3-7 days Cherries, sweet -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 2-3 weeks Chinese broccoli 0 32 95-100 10-14 cays Chinese cabbage 0 32 95-100 2-3 months Chinese long bean 4-7 40-45 90-95 7-10 days Clementine 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks Coconuts 0-1 5 32-35 80-85 1-2 months Collards 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Corn, sweet 0 32 95-98 5-8 days Cranberries 2-4 36-40 90-95 2-4 months Cucumbers 10-13 50-55 95 10-14 days Currants -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-4 weeks Custard apples 5-7 41-45 85-90 4-6 weeks Daikon 0-1 32-34 95-100 4 months Dates -18 or 0 0 or 32 75 6-12 months Dewberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Durian 4-6 39-42 85-90 6-8 weeks Eggplants 12 54 90-95 1 week Elderberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-2 weeks Endive and escarole 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks Feiioa - 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeks Figs, fresh -0.5-0 31-32 85-90 7-10 days Garlic 0 32 65-70 6-7 months Ginger root 13 55 65 6 months Gooseberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 3-4 weeks Granadilla 10 50 85-90 3-4 weeks Grapefruit, Calit. & Ariz. 14-15 58-60 85-90 5-8 weeks Grapefruit, Fla. & Texas 10-15 50-60 85-90 6-8 weeks Grapes, Vinifera -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 1-6 months Grapes, American -0.5-0 31-32 85 2-8 weeks Greens, leaty 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Guavas 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeks Haricot vert 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 days Horseradish -1-0 30-32 98-100 10-12 months Jaboticaba 13-15 55-60 90-95 2-3 days Jackfruit 13 55 85-90 2-6 weeks Jaffa orange 8-10 46-50 85-90 8-12 weeks Japanese eggplant 8-12 46-54 90-95 1 week Jerusalem Artichoke -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 4-5 months Jicama 13-18 55-65 65-70 1-2 montns Kale 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks Kiwano 10-15 50-60 90 6 months Kiwitruit 0 32 90-95 3-5 months Kohlrabi 0 32 98-100 2-3 months Kumquats 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks Langsat 11-14 52-58 85-90 2 weeks Leeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 months Lemons 10-13 50-55 85-90 1-6 months Lettuce 0 32 98-100 2-3 weeks Limes 9-10 48-50 85-90 6-8 weeks - 82 - Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate tran4it and storage life for fruits and vegetables-Continued Temperature Relative Product 0C OF Humidity Approximate (percent) storage life Lo bok 0-1 5 32-35 95-100 2-4 months Loganberries -0 5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Longan 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks Loquats 0 32 90 3 weeks Lychees 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks Malanga 7 45 70-80 3 months Mamey 13- 5 55-60 90-95 Mangoes 13 55 85-90 2-3 weeks Mangosteen 13 55 85-90 2-4 weeks Melons: Casaba 10 50 90-95 3 weeks Crenshaw 7 45 90-95 2 weeks Honeydew 7 45 90-95 3 weeks Persian 7 45 90-95 2 weeks Mushrooms 0 32 95 3-4 days Nectarines -0 5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks Okra 7-10 45-50 90-95 7-10 days Olives, fresh 5-10 41-50 85-90 4-6 weeks Onions, green 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeks Onions, dry 0 32 65-70 1-8 months Onion sets 0 32 65-70 6-8 months Oranges, Calif. & Ariz. 3-9 38-48 85-90 3-8 weeks Oranges, Fla. & Texas 0-1 32-34 85-90 8-12 weeks Papayas 7-13 45-55 85-90 1-3 weeks Passionfruit 7-10 45-50 85-90 3-5 weeks Parsley 0 32 95-100 2-2.5 months Parsnips 0 32 95-100 4-6 montns Peaches -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks Pears -1 5 to -0.5 29-31 90-95 2-7 montns Peas, green 0 32 95-98 1-2 weeks Peas, southern 4-5 40-41 95 6-8 days Pepino 4 40 85-90 1 month Peppers, Chili (dry) 0-10 32-50 60-70 6 months Peppers, sweet 7.13 45-55 90-95 2-3 weeKs Persimmons, Japanese t 30 90 3-4 montris Pineapples 7-13 45-55 85-90 2-4 weeks Plantain 13-14 55-58 90-95 1-5 weeks Plums and prunes -0 5-0 31-32 90-95 2-5 weeks Pomegranates 5 41 90-95 2-3 months Potatoes, early crop 10-16 50-60 90-95 10-14 days Potatoes, late crop 4 513 40-55 90-95 5-l0 montns Pummelo 7 9 45-48 85-90 12 weeks Pumpkins '0'13 50-55 50-70 2-3 months Quinces -0 5-0 31-32 90 2-3 months Raddichio 0-1 32.34 95-100 2-3 weeks Radishes, spring 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeks Radishes, winter 0 32 95-100 2-4 months Rambutan 12 54 90-95 1-3 weeks Raspberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Rhubarb 0 32 95-100 2-4 weeks Rutabagas 0 32 98-100 4-6 months - 83 - Annex D Comparison of Transport Costs for Bananas and Pineapples From Cote D'Ivoire to France The following tables - D.1 and D.8 were developed to enable Table 5.1 on pages 60 and 61 to be built up. - 84 - Table D.A Seasonal Fluctuation In Production Ouantities According to figures received from a planters association a) BANANAS PAYLOAD: 18,000 Kgs Net per 40' SEACOLD reefer CONTAINER TONNAGE PRODUCED TOTAL TONS NUMBER OF DURING THE NET DAYS WEEKS PER REEFERS FOLLOWING PERIOD TONS WEEK PER WEEK Oct. 1-Jan. 31 30,600 123 18 1741 97 Feb. 1-May 31 24,650 120 17 1438 80 Jun. I-Sept. 15 8,400 107 15 550 31 Sept. 15-Sept. 30 2,400 15 2 1120 62 66,050 365 52 NA NA N.B.: The apparent error in the column tons per week is due to decimals taken into account by the computer when calculation (123 days - 17.57 weeks.) b) PINEAPPLES: PAYLOAD: 14,500 Kgs Net per 40' SEACOLD reefer CONTAINER TONNAGE PRODUCED TOTAL TONS NUMBER OF DURING THE NET DAYS WEEKS PER REEFERS FOLLOWING PERIOD TONS WEEK PER WEEK Sept. 1-May 31 38,500 273 39 987 68 Jun. 1-Aug. 31 6,100 92 13 464 32 0 0 0 0 0 44,600 365 52 NA NA N.B.: The fact that the computer takes decimals into account when calculating explain the "apparent" calculation errors. REMARKS: The above tonnage is only part of the total yearly export. Other cargoes should normally be available in case of need. An average of: 77 Reefers Bananas ) seems to be a 71 Reefers Pineapples ) good mix - es - Table D.2 Summary of Costs c) CONSOLIDATED COSTS AT PORT COST FOR COST FOR OF LOADING AND DISCHARGE BREAK BULK BREAK BULK In French Francs per 1000 kgs. BANANAS PINEAPPLES Discharging the trucks at Abidjan 69 98 Loading on board 60 100 Freight 811 1,060 Discharging on quay 343 475 Sorting, etc. (relevage) (average) 93 93 1,376 1,826 d) COMPARISON OF COSTS BREAK BULK CONTAINERS PER CONTAINER LOAD IN FRENCH F. FRENCH FR. FRENCH FR. Bananas 18,000 kilos 24,776 20,320 Pineapples 14,500 kilos 26,480 20,320 e) COMPARISON OF COSTS BREAK BULK CONTAINERS PER CONTAINER LOADS IN US$ US$ US$ Bananas 18,000 kilos 4,331 3,552 Pineapples 14,500 kilos 4,629 3,552 - Unfortunately costing per each item both in Abidjan and LE HAVRE were not available. Cost for a "grouped" series of handling were received not itemized. - Although sorting according to brands, maturity, etc. are effected at time of loading in Abidjan, it is common knowledge that this operation has to be done again at least for 60% of the cargo at the discharge of the conventional vessel in Marseilles. This expensive operation called relevage is avoided when using containers. - 86 - Table D.3 Costs for a Container Vessel 1) CURRENCY: 1 US$ - 5.72 French F. & 286 CFA - F. FR 50 2) BUNKERS: Red wood nr. 1 - 100.00 US $ Marine diesel oil - 150.00 US $ 3) BOOKINGS & FREIGHTS: ABIDJAN container number of payload freight type of total freight MARSEILLES type containers kilos p.container currency in US$ Bananas RFS 40' 77 18,000 1,016,000 C.F.A. 273,538 Pineapples RFS 40' 71 14,500 1,016,000 C.F.A. 252,224 Total 148 NA NA NA 525,762 Total freight per round trip per vessel 525,762 Total Costss 27,329,068 Expected Total Profit/(Loss) for the Service 10,568 Cost: of the Transport: Bananas 56.44 C.F.A. per kilo Pineapples 70.07 C.F.A. per kilo - 87 - Table D.4 Vessel Costs for a Reefer 'Vessel a) Number of days: 365 user days b) Vessels: 1) Number of ships: 3 vessels in service 2) Allocated speed: 16 knots 3) Vessel's CHARTER rates and main details: BOXER CHARTER R. DWT CAPAC TEU's 40' Nbr. PLUGS TYPE US$/DAY METRIC/T. CAPACITY CAPACITY AVAILABLE Ship nr 1 8,000 9,000 570 275 150 4) Vessel's FUEL consumption : Main engines & Avxiliaries BOXER MAIN ENGINE Red Wood Nrl at : Auxiliaries (M.D. OIL) TYPE -------------- --------------------------------------------------- VESSEL 15 knots 16 knots 17 knots 18 knots Reefer conf. Normal conf. ship nr 1 25.00 33.00 42.50 58.00 7.50 2.50 5) Voyage details at a speed of : 16 knots days at sea:days at sea:days in port:days in port FROM TO DISTANCE in REEFER in STANDARD in REEFER in STANDARD configur. configur. configur. configur. Abidjan Marseilles 3,350 0.00 0.00 2 0 Marseilles Abidjan 3,350 8.72 8.72 1 0 Total 6,700 8.72 8.72 3 0 Allocated number of days 9 9 3 0 Number of days per R.T. Theoretical 20.45 Allocated 21.00 Theoretical number of round trips per vessel 17.38 Theoretical number of round trips yearly with 3 vessels 52.14 Allocated total number of round trips per year for weekly departures 52 - 88 - Table D.4 (cont.) COSTS TO OPERATE A DEDICATED REEFER CONTAINER SERVICE WITH 3 VESSELS 1) Charter Cost Per Vessel RATE IN US$ PER DAY NUMBER OF DAYS CHARTER COST IN USS 8,000 365 2,920,000 Total Charter Cost in US$ 8,760,000 2) Fuel Cost Main Engine(s) Per Vessel:100 US$ Per Metric Tons Red Wood nr.l per days at days at total days consumption cost in total fuel round sea in sea in at metric tons US$ per cost in trip Reefer CFG STDRD CFG sea day round trip US$ Ship nr 1 9.00 9.00 18.00 33.00 59,400 1,032,429 Total Fuel Costs Main Engines 178,200 3,097,286 3) Fuel Cost Auxilliaries (or Power Packs) in Reefer Configuration Per Vessel pr days days US$ per consumption round trip at sea in port m.t./MDO m.t./day round trip US$ Ship nr 1 9.00 3 150 7.50 13,500 234,643 Total auxilliaries fuel cost in reefer configuration 40,500 703,929 4) (bis) Fuel Costs Auxilliaries in Non Refrigerated Configuration Per Vessel per days days US$ per consumption round trip at sea in port m.t./MDO m.t./day round trip US$ Ship nr 1 9.00 0 150 2.50 3,375 58,661 Total auxilliaries fuel cost in non reefer configuration 10,125 175,982 Total fuel cost main + auxilliaries 228,825 3,977,196 - 89 - Table D.5 Expenses in Port for Refrigerated Containers 1) Call Costs Abidjan 1,800,000 C.F.A. per call Marseilles 31,000 French F. per call 2) Stevedoring Costs Abidjan empty containers 26,050 C.F.A. per container full containers 33,300 C.F.A. per container Marseilles empty containers 1,000 French F. per container full containers 1,000 French F. per container d) Miscellaneous Expenses: 1) Commission on Cargoes Freight In 2.50 % on freights Freight Out 5.00 X on freights Forwarders 0.00 % on freights 2) Miscellaneous Other Expenses: Cost of study and travelling exp. 125,000 US$ lump-sum Coordination center Abidjan 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year Reefer Engineers 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year (2 men) PORT EXPENSES Abidjan C.F.A. per Number of US$ Total Description of the operations Container Containers per call US$ Discharging empty 40' containers 33,300 1L48 17,232 896,073 Loading full 40' containers 26,050 148 13,480 700,982 P.T.I. on reefers 22,400 1.48 11,592 602,764 Harbour dues, tugs, etc. 1,800,000 1 6,294 327,273 Repositioning empty units 0 0 Total Abidjan Port Expenses 48,598 2,527,091 - 90 - Table D.5 (cont.) Marseilles French F./ Number of US$ Total Description of the operations Container cont./ship per call US$ Discharging full 40' containers 1,000 148 25,874 1,345,455 Loading empty 40' containers 1,000 148 25,874 1,345,455 P.T.I. on reefers 500 0 0 0 Harbour dues, tugs, etc. 31,000 1 5,420 281,818 Repositioning empty units 0 0 Total Marseilles Port Expenses 57,168 2,972,727 Grand Total Port Expenses 5,499,818 Freights Commissions Commissions in US$ in US$ Agency outwards 5.00 % on freights 27,339,636 1,366,982 Agency inwards 2.50 % on freights 27,339,636 683,491 -Total Commissions 2,050,473 Freights Insurance Insurance on cargo in US$ in US$ 1.25 Z on freights 27,339,636 341,745 Total Cargo Insurance NA 341,745 Total in Miscellaneous US$ Cost of study and travelling exp. 125,000 US$ lump-sum 125,000 Coordination center Abidjan 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year 174,825 Reefer engineers 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year 174,825 Total Miscellaneous Expenses 474,650 Grand Total Other Expenses 2,866,869 - 91 - Table D.6 Rental. Maintenance and Insurance Costs for Containers Rentals Container Number of US$ Rate Number of Total Rental Types Containers Per Cont. Days in US$ Reefer Containers 815 17.50 365 5,205,813 Total Rental Costs in US$ 1,825 5,205,813 Maintenance Cost Container Number of US$ Rate Number of Total Rental Types Containers Per Cont. Days in USA Reefer Containers 815 3.00 365 892,425 Total Maintenance Costs in US$ 1,825 892,425 Insurance Costs Container Number of US$ Rate Number of Total Rental Types Containers Per Cont. Days in US$ Reefer Containers 815 0.43 365 126,947 Total Insurance Costs in US$ 1,825 126,947 - 92 - Table D.7 Costs for Containers and Power Packs 1) Containers and Power Packs (only for vessels without plugs) to be rented: Container Number Total Total Number Of Total Number Type Per Vessel At Sea On Shore Spare Parts of Units Reefers 40' 148 444 296 75 815 2) Container & Power Pack Rental and Other Costs Container All rates are expressed in US dollars per day Type ---------------------------------------------------------- Rentals Maintenance Insurance Reefers 40' 17.50 3.00 0.426750 3) Container Capacity Average Payload Tare Weight Gross Weight Internal Capacity per in in in Voluine in Container Type Kilos Kilos Kilos Cubic M. Reefers 40' 28,077 4,432 32,509 131 4) Power Packs: Only for vessels without or without sufficient power plugs Number of reefer plugs per unit 36 Fuel consumption (Marine diesel oil) 39 L/H (full power) A tank container of 21.500 liters 21 days supply (F.P./36 plugs) 5) PTI (pre trip and inspection) of reefer containers Abidjan 22,400 C.F.A. per PTI Marseilles 500 French F. per PTI - 93 - Table D.8 Summary of all Income Per. Port Freights Freights In US$ In US$ Gross Freight Collected Per Round T. Total Abidjan/Marseilles 156,382,720 27,339,636 Marseilles/Abidjan 0 Total Gross Freights in US$ 156,382,720 27,339,636 Costs Costs in French F. in US$ Summary of all Expenses Per Main Item Tot.al Total Charter costs 50,107,200 8,760,000 Fuel costs 22,749,564 3,977,196 Containers and power packs rental costs 29,777,248 5,205,813 Container & power packs maintenance costs 5,104,6571 892,425 Container & power packs insurance costs 726,139 126,947 Port Expenses 31,458,960 5,499,818 Commissions to agents & forwarders 11,728,704 2,050,473 Cargo insurance 1,954,784 341,745 Miscellaneous expenses 2,715,000 474,650 Grand Total of all Costs 156,322,270 27,329,068 French F. US$ Expected Profit (Loss) 60,450 10,568 - 94 - Annex E Carrying Temperatures and Compatibility For Various Commodities Source: 2nd Container Technology, 1978 - 95 - Carrying Temperatures for Various Commodities Commodities Carrving Temperature Freezing Ventilation Storage Temperatures Limits Temperatures Life Days 1. Fruits Apple 0 -0.5/2 -1.5 below 3%CO2 - Apricot 0.5 -0.5/0 -I Yes 20 Avocado 4.5/12.5 -0.5 Yes 30 Banana GrosMichel 12 12.'13 -1 .Uaximum 24 Cavendish 12 12'13 -1 Possible 24 Robusta 12 12/13 -I When 24 Valery 12 12,113 -1 Cooled 24 Lacatan 14 14/15 -1 24 Bluebernes -0.5 -1/0 -1 Yes 30 CapeGooseberry -0.5 -1/0 -1 Yes 30/40 Cherrv -0.5 -1/0 -1.5 Yes 20 Chinese Gooseberrv -0.5 -0.5/0.5 -1.5 Yes 40 (Kiwi Berry) Cranberry 2 2/4.5 -1 Yes 60 Grape -0.5 -1/0.5 -1.5 Yes 50/,100 Grapefruit 10 4.5/15.5 -1 1%CO2Max 40 LemOn 10 0/15.5 -1.5 1%C02 Max 80 Lime 10 4.5/15.5 -1.5 1 CO2Max 50 Litchi 0 -0.5/1.5 - Yes 40,50 Mandarin 4.5 0/7 -1.5 1%CO2 Max 40 Mango 9 7/10 -1 Yes 20 40 Mangostecn 4.5 4.5/10 - Yes 40 Melon Honeydew Casaba 10 10/21 - Yes 90 Canteloupe 3 2/4.5 - Yes 15 Water 10 4.5/10 - Yes 15 Nectannes -0.5 -0.5/0.5 -1 Yes 30 Olive(fresh) 7 7/10 -1.5 Yes 35 Orange 4.5 0/7 -11-0.5 1%orMax 40'50 Passion Fruit(Granadilla) 7 5.5/10 - Yes 30 Pawpaw(Papaya) 7 4.5/10 -1 Yes 20/30 Peach -0.5 -0.5/-I -1 Yes 30 Pear -0.5 -1/0.5 -1.5 3%C02 60/150 Persimnmon -0.5 -1/0.5 -2 Yes 30/60 - 96 - Carrying Temperatures for Various Commodities Commodities Carrying TemperEtum Freezing Ventilation Storage Temperstures Limitu Teirn tures Life Days Pineapple 8.5 7/10 - yes 30 Plantuin 12 12/13 -1 Max 24 PlumC, -0.5 -0.5/0.5 -1 Yea 20/35 Pomegrnate 0 0/2 -3 Yes 30 Pommelo 10 4.5/15.5 -1 1%orMa. 40 Quince 0 -0.5/4.5 -2 Yes 60 TargeruneOrange 4.S on -1.5 1%C02MaX 40 (Satsuma. Clementine) 2; Vegetables ArtichokeGlobe 0 -0.5/4 -1 Yes 14/20 ArichokeJerusalem 0 -0.5/4 -1 Yes 60 Asparagus 0 0/1 -0.i Yea 20 Aubergine(EggPlant) 7 7/10 -0.5 Yes 14 Beans Grten 0 0/7 -0.5 Yes 20 Shelled 0 0/2 -0.5 Yes 14 Beetroot 0 0/1 -0 5 Yes 60/90 BroccoliSprouting 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 10 WinterCauliflower 0 0/1 -Oi Yes 30 BmtselSptouts 0 0/1 -0.5 Yea 30 Cabbage 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 20 Carrots 0 -0.5/0.5 -1 Yes 70 Cauliflower 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 30 Celery 0 0/1 -0.5 Yea 60/90 Chicory(Witloot) 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 14/20 Cucumber 7 7/10 -0.5 Yes 14 Garlic 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 150 Ginger 4.5 1.5/12.5 - Yes 150 Leek 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 60 Lettuce(Iceberg) 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 40 (othiervaneties) 0 0/1 0 Yes 20 Marrow(Courgette, 7 7110 -0.5 - 60 Summer Squash, Zucchins) Onions 0 0/1 -0.5 - 30/120 Peasinpod 0 0/1 -0.5 - 7/20 Pepper(sweet) 6.5 7/10 -0.5 - 20 Potatoes Wame 7 4.5/10 -0.5 - 60 upward Seed 4.5 1.5/7 -0.5 - 150 Pumpkin 10 10/12.5 -0.5 - 60/90 Rhubarb 0 0/1 4 5 - 15/30 Salsify 0 0/1 -l - - Squash Winter 10 7/12.5 4 5 - 60/90 SweetPotato 12.5 12.5/15.5 -1 - 120 Tomato Green 12.5 10/15.5 -0 5 - 20 Fir, ripe 7 7/10 -0.5 - 14 3. OtherItems Bacon(oruafrozen) -1 -2/4.5 - No 30 Beef Chilled -1.5 -1.5/0 - No 40 Quarter -1.5 -1.5/0 - seenote3 70 Package -1.5 -1.5/0 - No 70 Beer 2 0.5/3 - No 120 Bulbs(1) 21.5 Unidentifiedmixed 4,5 0/12.5 - - Daffodil/narcissus 10 2: 12.5 -1.5 YeS 120 Gladiolus 10 3/10 -3 Yes 150 Lily 0 -1/3 -1.5 Yes 10 Tulip 10 4.5/20 -2 Max 120 Dahlia 4.5 4.5/7 -1.5 Yes 150 Buter oruafrozen 0 -1/4.5 - No 30 Caviar 0 -/l - No 150 - 97 - Carrying Temperatures for Various Comrmodities Commodiuics Carryig Tempeature Freezing Venulauon Storage Temocratum~ L±cmitj Tempertumes LifeD0ays 3. OLtheriems i3acon(orafrozen) -1 -2/45 No 30 Bccf Chillcd -1.5 -1No/0 4No0 Quarter .1.5 -I.S/O seenote3 70 Package -1.S - 1.5/0 No 70 Beer 2 0.5/3 - No 120 Uulbs(l) Z1.5 - - Unidcntiired rixcd 4.s 0/12.5 - Daffiodi,nurcissus 10 2/12.5 -1.5 YaS 120 Gladiolus 10 3/10 -3 Ycs 150 ily 0 -1/3 -1.5 Ycs ISO Tulip to 4 5/20 -2 Max 120 )ahlia 4 5 4 5/7 *1.5 Ycs 150 Butter or as frozen 0 -1/4.5 - No 30 Caviar 0 -2/1 No ISO Chcesc(2) 2 0/10 Ycs Chocolatc 7 4.5/12.5 - No l50 Confcctionary 7 4.5/12.5 - No 150 Crcamors&frozcn 0 -1/0.5 - No 10 Shell,liquidasfrozen 0 -1/0.5 -3 Ycs ISO Fats 0 -1/4 5 - No - F:sh Iced -0.5 -1.5/0 - NO 14/20 Sall -0 5 -214.5 - No 150 1 rozen -0. -Z/4.5 - No 150 Flowers,cut(4) 0 -0.5/4.5 -0.5 Yes - FlonsLsgrcers 0 -.05/4.5 -0.5 Ycs upto30 Gameora,frozcn 0 1 5/0 14 Ham -0 5 1.5/0.5 No Fresh currant orasfrozen anned 4.5 0/10 - No flops 4 5 -V210 - Yes I LAmb& mutton -1.5 -1I5/0 - No 30 Packaged -1 5 -15/0 - No 70(1) Lard 0 -1.5/4.5 - No ISO Margarine 0 -I.S/O.S - No ISO Mcat products or as frozen -05 -I.S/0.S - No Mi,lk 1'asturiscd 0 40 5!1 - No 14 Stcrlised 0 40.5/1 - No 30 Concectrated 0 -0.5 / - No Nuts Chestnluts, lIra?sl 0 -1/1 5 - No IS0 Othir, 21 -1,10 . No ['[jots . 01 5 - Yrs l'urkorasfrozet S -I 5/ - No Ict Salt 4$ -1,7 - No 120 P'oultr yorasfrozcn - -1 5,1.5 - No 14 Secd 0 .li O No 300 irecs 0 0'2 Y Ycs WinV}C i) 4 /12.S - No Aci,'c 2 4. S; No 14 D)redor as froicn d 10 . No Il) 1tp.,,,,I1',.-,/ .ro. .,,t., vt........... tt, . -.....Thf r.t/l ¶03W,t tif ssp.ratt, (2) 1;;rMperatwerl -y Wvy Wao it I-/ bitee,c - tt - t1 , t f s ,rItv; '.:r it' ,d ,trl jf rI,, iov.t" r (j) 1)tt h'"'cv, r*rt :rlURUJfhof r. 0 ] C0)2--hec, v 1,rdcfo/ a^ .. bs-ar ...l ta m etvssdy ... e, on (4) (i f-t Fuh rs A o, i ... i twc ii rcqw,eird fi.r aOtt 17uwcr lskcly to bC Carrted aufr fghtA. : r j,;IQja . t of t',ao u..o i. ln....r wCrA lHomcers w... h el u I " a h i1'h.r ftc...pcraui rc. e g orchids have a shArt stumgr life. Advice sh.a.d.. Ie bUc sou if at till fritsible - 98 - Table 4: Compatability groups Group 1: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 360F), 90-95% relative humidity. Many products In this group produce ethylene. apples grapes (without parsnips apricots sulfur dioxide) peaches Asian pears horseradish pears Barbados cherry kohirabi persimmons beets, topped leeks plums bemes (except longan pomegranates cranberries) loquat prunes cashew apple lychee quinces cherries mushrooms radishes coconuts nectarines rutabagas figs (not with oranges' (Florida turnips apples) and Texas) 'Citrus treated with tipnenyi may give odors to other products. Group 2: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 95-100O/o relative humidity. Many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene. amaranth' corn, sweet' parsley' anise' daikon' parsnips artichokes' endive' seas' asparagus escarole' pomegranate bean sprouts grapes (without raddichio beets' sulfur dioxide) radishes' Belgian endive horseradish rMu0arb berries (except Jerusalem artichoke rutaoagas cranbermes) kiwitruit saisify bok choy kohIrabi' scorzonera broccoli' leafy greens snow peas brussels sprouts' leeks' (not with spinach' cabbage' figs or grapes) turnips' carrots' lettuce watercnestnut cauliflower lo bok watercress' celeriac' mushrooms celery' onions, green' (not cherries with figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb, or corn) 'these products can be top-ced. Group 3: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 360F), 65-750/o relative humidity. Moisture will damage these products. gartic onions, dry Group 4: Fruits and vegetables, 4.5°C (401F), 90-950/o relative humidity. cactus leaves temons' tamarillo cactus pears lycnees tangelos- caimito kumquat tangerines' cantaloupes'- mandarin' ughi fruit' clementine oranges-(Calif yucca root cranberries and Arizona) pepino citrus trealed wii, nifnenyi may give odors to otner oroaucis * can oe top-iced - 99 - Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued Group 5: Fruits and vegetables, 100C (500F), 85-900/o relative humidity. Many of these products are sensitive to ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chilling injury. beans kiwano pummelo calamondin malanga squash, summer chayote okra (soft shell) cucumber olive tamarind eggplant peppers taro root haricot verl potatoes, storage Group 6; Fruits and vegetables, 13 to 15°C (55 to 601F), 85-900/o relative humidity. Many of these products produce ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chill- ing injury. atemoya granadilla papayas avocados grapetruit passiontruit babaco guava pineapple bananas laboticaba plantain bitter melon lackfruit potatoes, new black sapote langsat pumpkin boniato lemons' rambutan breadfruit limes santol canistel mamey soursop carambola mangoes sugar apple cherimoya mangosteen squash, winter coconuts melons (except (hard shell) tetjoa cantaloupes) tomatillos ginger root tomatoes, ripe 'CitruS treated witn biphenyl may give odors to otmer products. Group 7: Fruits and vegetables, 18 to 21°C (65 to 70°F), 85-900/o relative humidity. jicama sweetpotatoes - watermelon' pears tomatoes, white sapote (for ripening) mature green yams- 'separate from pears and tomatoes due to ethylene sensiv,ty. Group 8: Flowers and florist greens, 0 to 20C (32 to 360F), 90-95% relative humidity. allium freesia peony, tight aster, China garcenia buds bouvardia hyacinth ranunculus carnation iris, bulbous rose chrysanthemum flly squill crocus lily-of-the-valley sweet pea cymbidium orchid narcissus tulip adiantum (maidenhairi grourd oDne rhododendren cedar iex hOlly) salal (lemon dagger and wood unioer leaf) terns mistletoe vaccinium galax mourtain-laurel (huckleberry) woodwardia tern - 100 - Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued Group 9: Flowers and florist greens, 4.50C (400F), 90-95% relative humidity. acacia delphinium orciad, alstromeria feverfew cymtidium anemone forget-me-not ornitrogalum aster, China foxglove poppy buddleia gaillarcia phlox calendula gerbera primrose calla gladiolus protea candytutt gloriosa ranunculus clarkia gypsopnilla snapdragon columoine heather snowdrop coreoosis laceflower statice cornflower Jllac, forced stephanotis cosmos luOine stevia dahlia marigolds stock daisies mignonette strawflower violet zinnia adiantum (maidennair) eucalyptus myrtus (myrtle) asparagus (plumosa. hedera philodendren sorenger) ilex (holly) pittosporum buxus (boxwood) ieatherleaf (baker pothos camelia fern) scotch-broomern croton leucothoe, drooping smilax, southern dracaena magnolia woodwarCia fern Group 10: Flowers and florist greens, 7 to 100C (45 to 50F), 90-95%0 relative hu- midity. anemone eucharts orchid. cat:leya bird-of-paradcse giocrosa sweet william camellia gocetia chamaeoora corcvline (ti) oalm podocarpus Group 11: Flowers and florist greens. 13 to 150C (55 to 600F), 90-950/% relative hu- midity. anthurium heliconia potnsetta ginger orchid, vanda ditfenoacnia stagnorn fern - 101 - Chill Sensitivity Most tropical products are subject to chiling injury when transported or storec at lower than recommended temperatures. This damage often becomes apparent af- ter the products warm up. Products injured may show pitting, discoloration, water soaked areas, decay, and failure to ripen. The following Table 5 lists tropical and other products that sensitive to this injury. Table 5: Products sensitive to chilling injury atemoya guavas plantain avocados haricot vert pomegranates babaco jaboticaba potatoes bananas jackiruit potted plants beans licarna pummelo bitter melon kiwano pumpkins black sapote langsat rambutan boniato lemons santol breadfruit limes sapodilla calabaza malanga soursop calamondin mamey squash canistel mangoes sugar apple cantaloupe mangosteen sweet potatoes carambola melons tamarillo chayote okra tamarind cherimoya olive taro root cranberries oranges (California tomatillo cucumbers and Arizona) tomatoes custard apple papaya tropical flowers eggplant passionfruit ugii fruit feiloa pepino watermelon ginger root peppers white sapote granadilla pineapples yam grapefruit Freeze Sensitivity Many products are recommended to be transported or stored at temperatures only 1 ° to 3°C (2-6°F) above their freezing points. Thermostats, however, on some trailers and van containers are set 10 to 30C (2-6°F) higher than the recommend- ed temperature of 0°C (320F) for chiiled products to avoid freezing. The following Table 6 lists a small number of products according to their sensitivity to freezing. Most tropical products are damaged by chilling injury before they freeze. Moisture Loss Sensitivity Most products need to be transported and stored at a high relative humidity. Some products are more susceptible to moisture loss than others. Moisture loss results in wilting and shriveling. To reduce moisture loss, products must be adequately precooled before transit. Some products also are waxed, film-wrapped, package- iced, or top-iced. Relative humidity during transit and storage must be maintained as much as possi- ble. Table 7 lists products by their moisture loss rate in storage. - 102 - Table 6: ProdUcts susceptible to freezing injury' Most susceptible: Moderately susceptible: Least susceptible: apricots lettuce aoples onions (dry) beets w/o tops asparagus limes broccoli, ornanges Drussels sprouts avocados okra sprouting parsley cabbage, bananas peaches cabbage, new pears mature or savory beans, snap peppers, sweet carrots w/o tops peas dates berries (except plums cauliflower radJishes, w,o tops kale cranberries) potatoes celery spinach Kohirabi cucumbers squash, summer cranoerries squash, winter parsnips eggplant sweetpotatoes grapefruit rutabagas lemons tomatoes grapes salsify turnips wlo tops The most susceptiole products will be injurea Oy one lighit freezing, rroderately sisceptioie products will recover from one or two light treezings. wni,e least susceptiole products can oe lightly frozen several times. Fresh products that are ligniy frczen should not oe nandlecd Thawing sriouid be done at 4OC (40OF) 'Source: Hardenburg, Watada, and wang (7) Table 7: Moisture loss rate of products' High Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: apricots avocados parsnips blackberries artichokes' pears broccoli' asparagus peas cantaloupes' bananas peppers chard' beets' pomegranates cherries brussels sprouts' quinces Chinese vegetables cabbage radishes' figs carrots, topped' rhuoarb grapes cauliflower, rutaoagas' green onions' unwrapped sweet pctatoes guavas celeriac' squasn, summer kohirabi celery- (so't shell) leafy greens' coconuts tangerines lychees corn, sweet' tomatoes mangoes cranberries yams mushrooms encive' papayas escaroie' Low Loss Rate parsley' graoefruit apples peaches green oeans cauliflower, wrapped persimmons ieeKs cucu moers, waxed pineapples emons eggpiant plums and prunes ,etuce garlic raspberries lmes ginger root strawberries nec:ar "es kiwifrutt cut tlowers oKra melons vegetables with tops' crar;es onions, ory cotatoes - mpkins squasn, winter (hard shell) 'can be top-iced. 'Source: largely Ifrom Safeway Stores. Inc (25) - 103 - Ethylene Sensitivity Never transport or store fruits and vegetaoles that produce a ot of ethylene with procucts that are sensitive to it. Ethyene can cause premature ripening of some procucts ana will ruin others. such as plants and cut flowers. Cucumbers and celery turn yellow in the presence of ethylene, while lettuce will turn brown Potas- sium permangante pads can o)e used to absorb ethylene during transit and storage. Table 8 lists products that procuce ethylene along with procducs that are sensitive to it. Table 8: Products that are ethylene producers or ethylene sensitive Ethylene producers: Ethylene sensitive: apoles mangosteen bananas, unripe leafy greens apricots nectarines Belgian endive lettuce avocados papayas broccoll okra bananas, ripening passiontruit brussels sprouts parsley cantaloupes peaches cabbage peas cherimoya pears carrots peppers figs persimmons cauliflower pctted plants guavas olantains chard spinach honeydew meions plums cucumbers squash wiwifruit, ripe prunes cut flowers sweetpotatoes mamey quinces eggplant watercress mangoes ramoutan fiorist greens watermelon omatoes green beans yams kiwitruit, unripe Odor Sensitivity Never transport or store odorous products with products that will absorb the odors. Table 9 lists products that produce odors with products that can absorb them. Table 9: Products which produce or absorb odors Odor produced by: Will be absorbed by: apples ........................ cabbage, carrots. celery, figs, onions. meat, eggs, dairy products avocados .........,.............. pineapples carrots ........................ celery citrus fruit ........................ meat, eggs, dairy products ginger root ........................ eggplant grapes fumigated w/ ................. other fruits and vegetables sulfur dioxide leeks ........................ figs, grapes onions, dry .. ...................... apples, celery, pears onions, green ........................ corn, figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb pears ......................... cabbage, carrots, celery, onions, potatoes potatoes ................ apples, pears peppers, green ....................... pineapples strongly scented ............. .... citrus fruit vegetaoies ' - 104 - Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage lite for fruits and vegetables. Temperature Relative Product 0C OF Humidity ApDroximate (percent) storage life Amaranth 0-2 32-36 95-100 10-14 days Anise 0-2 32-36 90-95 2-3 weeks Apples -1-4 30-40 90-95 1-12 months Apricots -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-3 weeks ArtichoKes, glooe 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks Asian pear 1 34 90-95 5-6 months Asparagus 0-2 32-35 95-100 2-3 weeks Atemoya 13 55 85-90 4-6 weeks Avocados. Fuerte, Hass 7 45 85-90 2 weeks Avocacos, Lu,a, Booth-I -1 40 90-95 4-8 weeks Avocacos, Fuchs, Pollock 13 55 85-90 2 weeks Babaco 7 45 85-90 1-3 weeks Bananas, green 13-14 56-58 90-95 1-4 weeks Barbados cherry 0 32 85-90 7-8 weeks Bean sprouts 0 32 95-100 7-9 days Beans, dry 4-10 40-50 40-50 6-10 months Beans, green or snap 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 days Beans, lima, in pods 5-6 41-43 95 5 cays Beets. bunched 0 32 98-100 10-14 days Beets, topped 0 32 98-100 4-6 months Belgian endive 2-3 36-38 95-98 2-4 weeks Bitter melon 12-13 53-55 85-90 2-3 weeks Black sapote 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-3 weeks Blackberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Blood orange 4-7 40-44 90-95 3-8 weeks Blueberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2 weeKs Bok choy 0 32 95-1C0 3 weeKs Boniato 13-15 55-60 85-90 4-5 months Breadfruit 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-6 weeks Broccoli 0 32 95-100 r0-14 days Brussels sprouts 0 32 95-100 3-5 wee;s CaDbage. early 0 32 98-100 3-6 weeks Cabbage. late 0 32 98-100 5-6 months Cactus Leaves 24 36-40 90-95 3 weeks Cactus Pear 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeks Caimito 3 38 90 3 weeks Calabaza 10-13 50-55 50-70 2-3 months Calamondin 9-10 48-50 90 2 weeks Canistel 13-15 55-60 85-90 3 weeKs Cantaloups (3/4-slip) 2-5 36-41 95 1D days Cantaloups (full-slip) 0-2 32-36 95 5-14 days Carambola 9-10 48-50 85-90 3-4 weeKs Carrots, bunched 0 32 95-100 2 weeKs Carrots, mature 0 32 98-100 7-9 months Carrots, immature 0 32 98-100 4-6 weeks Cashew apple 0-2 32-36 85-90 5 vveeKs Cauliflower 0 32 95-98 3-4 weeks Ceieriac 0 32 97-99 6-8 months Celery 0 32 98-100 2-3 months Chard 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Chayote squash 7 45 85-90 4-6 weexs - 105 - Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life for fruits and vegetables-Continued Temperature Relative Product °C OF Humidity Approximate -(ercent) storage life Chenrnoya 13 : 90-95 2-4 weeks Cherries, sour 0 32 90-95 3-7 days Cherries, sweet -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 2-3 weeks Chinese broccoli 0 32 95-100 10-14 Cays Chinese cabbage 0 32 95-100 2-3 months Chinese long bean 4-7 40-45 90-95 7-10 days Clementine 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks Coconuts 0-1 5 32-35 80-85 1-2 months Collards 0 32 95-100 10-14 days Corn, sweet 0 32 95-98 5-8 days Cranberries 2-4 36-40 90-95 2-4 months Cucumbers 10-13 50-55 95 10-14 days Currants -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-4 weeks Custard apples 5-7 41-45 85-90 4-6 weeks Daikon 0-1 32-34 95-100 4 months Dates -18 or 0 0 or 32 75 6-12 months Dewberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days ourian 4-6 39-42 85-90 6-8 weeKs Eggpiants 12 54 90-95 1 week Elderberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-2 weeks Endive and escarole 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks Felfoa 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeus Figs, fresh -0.5-0 31-32 85-90 7-1,3 zas Garlic 0 32 65-70 6-7 --'-'-s Ginger root 13 55 65 ' 6 'r-s Gooseberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 3- e Granadilla 10 50 85-90 3-4 s Grapefruit. Calif. & Ariz. 14-15 58-60 85-90 6-3 Grapefruit. Fla. & Texas 10-15 50-60 85-90 Grapes, Vinifera -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 - Grapes, American -0.5-0 31-32 85 28 .. Greens, leafy 0 32 95-100 . '0.s Guavas 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 .. Haricot vert 4-7 40-45 95 7- ': Horseradish -1-0 30-32 98-100 10- 2 -- Jaboticaba 13-15 55-60 90-95 2-3 Z3,i Jacktruit 13 55 85-90 2-6 ^ Jaffa orange 8-10 46-50 85-90 8-12 4*-') Japanese eggplant 8-12 46-54 90-95 1 wee? Jerusalem Artichoke -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 4-5 ^---- Jicama 13-18 55-65 65-70 1-2 -c-s Kale 0 32 95-100 2-3 ,eews Kiwano 10-15 S0-6 9 6 morrs Kiwitruit 0 32 90-95 3-5 Ctcr'ls Kohlrabi 0 32 98-100 2-3 mon-s Kumquats 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeKs Langsat 11-14 52-58 85-90 2 weeKs Leeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 months Lemons 10-13 50-55 85-90 1-6 months Lettuce 0 32 98-100 2-3 weeks Limes 9-10 48-SO 85-90 6-8 weeks - 106 Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life tor fruits and vegetables-Continued T emperature Reiative Product °C F Humidity Aoproxirate --.i-., - -- -'.(percent) storage iife -to bok- - 0-1.5 32-35 95-100 2-4 months Loganbernes -05-0 3t-32 - - 90-95 2-3 days Longan - 1 5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks Loquats 0 32 90 3 weeKs Lychees 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks Mlatanga - - -. 7 45 70-80 3 montrs Mamey 13-1 5 55-60- - 90-95 lManooes 13 55 85-90 2-3 weeks Mangosteen 13 55 85-90 2-4 weeks Mulons: Casaba - 10 50 90-95 3 weeks Crenshaw 7 45 90-95 2 weeks Honeydew 7 45 90-95 3 weeks Persian - 45 90-95 2 weeKs Mushrooms 0 32 95 3-4 days Nectarines -0C5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks Okra 7-1^0 45.50 90-95 7-10 days Olives, fresh 5-10 41-50 - 85-90 4-6 weeks Onions, green 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeks Onions, dry . ' 32 6 65-70 -'- 1-8 months Onion sets - 0 -- 32 65-70 6-8 months Oranges, CaJ4.P & Ariz.' 3-9 : 38-48 .. 85-90 3-8 weekS Oranges, Fla.-& Texas 0-1 32-34 85-90 8-12 weeks Papayas --. 7-13 7 45-55 85-90 1-3 weeks -Passiontruit - . '7-10 45-50 - 85-90 3-5 weeKs Parsley 0 - 32 95-100 - 2-2.5 montrs Parsnips 0 32 - 95-100 - - 4-6 montns Peaches -0.5-0- 31-32 90-95' 2-4 weeKS Pears -1.5 to -0 S .- 29-31 . 90-95' 2-7 mor.ths Peas, green . ' 0 . 32 - 95-98 12 weeKs Peas. soutnern .a-s .- 40.41- . *. 96 days Pepino 4 40 85-90 1 montn Peppers, Chili (dry) 0-10 - 32-50'. 60-70 56 months Peppers, sweet 7-13, . - 45-55 - 90-95 . 2-3 weeks Persimmons, Japanese *1 30 90 3-4 months Pineapples 7-13 - 4;-5: 85-90 2-4 weeks Plantain 13-14 55-58 - 90-95 1-5 weeks Plums and prunes -0 5-:: 31-32 90-9S5 2-5 weeKs Pomegranates. 5 41 90-95 - 2-3 montns Potatoes, early croo 50-60 90-95 10-14 days Potatoes, late crop 4 5-13:, 40-55 90-95 5-10 monTms Pummelo . 7-9 45-48. 85-90 -2 weeKs. Pumpkins 10-13 50-55 . 50-70 ' 2-3 montis Quinces -0 5-0 31-32 90 - 2-3 monrtns Raddichio 0-1 32-34 - - 95-100 2-3 weeKs - Radishes. stno 0 3 2 9i1 -00 34 weks RalJlS1eS WlTe -0 ;2 95-100 - . 2-4 m0ntl1S RaOisl,es, winter- Ramoutan : 12. - 54 90-95 - 1-3 weeKS Raspoerries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days Rhubarb 0 32 95--10 Oa 2-4 weeKs RuraDagas 0 32 9B 100 4.6 monrns.