Gender-Segregated Transportation in Ride-Hailing: NAVIGATING THE DEBATE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was supported in part by the World Bank Group’s Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE), a multi-donor trust fund administered by the World Bank to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment through experimentation and knowledge creation to help governments and the private sector focus policy and programs on scalable solutions with sustainable outcomes. The UFGE is supported with generous contributions from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. This project was conducted by the IFC Gender and Economic Inclusion Group under the overall guidance of Henriette Kolb. It was led by Alexa Roscoe with research by Vandana Vasudevan and support by Ahmed Nauraiz Rana and Charlotte Ntim. Technical comments were provided by the World Bank Group’s Muneeza Mehmood Alam, Karla González Carvajal, Lisa da Silva, Karla Dominguez Gonzalez, Aphichoke Kotikula, Nato Kurshitashvil, Elleanor Robbins, and Carol Marina Tojeiro. Editing was conducted by Lucy Williams and Marcy Gessel, and design by Groff Creative LLC. The team would like to thank the many experts around the world who generously contributed their time and expertise: An-Nisa’s Mehnaz Sarwar; Annisa Cars’ Sade Agboola; Bolt’s Gareth Taylor and Sandra Särav; Cabify’s David Pérez Piñeiro; Careem’s Colin Judd and Gemma McKeown; ChaufHer’s Danielle Wakelin and Greg Wakelin; Didi Chuxing’s Liang Sun, Melody Hua Tu, Lilian Linlin Liu, Evelyn Yinghan Pan, Qin Lian; FemiTaxi’s Charles-Henry Calfat Salem; Fyonka’s Abdallah Hussein; GoJek’s Josefhine Chitra and Siti Astrid Kusumawardhani; GoPink Cabs’ Anuradha Udayshankar; Grab’s Marian Panganiban; Green Cab’s Amiene van der Merwe; International Transport Expert Heather Allen; Harvard’s Ammar. A. Malik; Jaubra’s Alvimar da Silva; Kapten’s Sergio Pereira; Koala Kabs’ Shailaja Mittal; Lady Bug’s Kamal Buddhabhatti; Ladybird Logistics’ Fredrik Morsing, Payin Marfo, and William Tewiah; Lily Rides’ Syed Saif; Meru’s Nilesh Sangoi; Miss Taxi Ghana’s Esenam Nyador; OECD ITF’s Magdalena Olczak, Sharon Masterson, and Wei-Shiuen Ng; Ojesy’s Evilita Adriani; Ola Mobility Institute’s Aishwarya Raman; PickMe’s Tasnim Salie; Priyadarshini’s Susiben Shah; Riding Pink’s Denise RP; Rosy and Pink Cabs’ Mandy Welsh; Sakha Cab’s Meenu Vadhera; She Taxi’s Mohammed Sunish; TaxShe’s Vandana Suri; The Barefoot Facilitator’s Rehana Moosajee; The City of Buenos Aires’ Julieta Bramuglia; Uber’s Abhinav Bahl, Dana Al-Zaben, Karim Dabbour, Rachel Freidlander-Holm, Rana Kortam, Rebecca Payne, and Renata Gagetti; The Urban Catalysts’ Sonal Shah; Viira Cabs’ Revathi Roy; Vital Voices’ Eugenia Podesta; and Women Cab’s Shailendra Singh. IFC is grateful for company contributions that made the analysis in this report possible, including company data from Uber related to its work in Brazil and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Foreword The COVID-19 pandemic has wreaked havoc across the world. But several countries are beginning to gradually reopen their economies. As people look to get back to work, a growing number of employers, local governments, and transportation authorities are asking not only how to revive transportation systems but also how to ensure that in a post-pandemic world they are accessible, affordable, and safe for all. Inclusive, safe, and affordable transportation is even more crucial for women. Without inclusive transportation, women are denied their right to move freely in public spaces and are less likely to find good jobs. Women face barriers both as passengers and transportation service providers, ranging from underrepresentation across the sector to widespread safety and security concerns. The public sector has long looked to gender-segregated offerings, such as women-only train carriages, as one potential solution to address women’s transportation needs—though not without substantial debate. Increasingly, the private sector is looking to the same solution, trying to attract women as drivers and riders, most notably in the emerging ride-hailing industry. To date no analysis has considered the success of these efforts in increasing women’s mobility, as riders or drivers. This discussion paper takes a first step toward analyzing the development and business impact of gender- segregated transportation in the private sector, drawing on interviews with over 30 companies and newly available data. It finds that ride-hailing and other individual forms of transportation are widely adopting women-only services, and seven distinct models are emerging. Each of these models presents distinct opportunities for women as drivers and riders, but also faces considerable operational barriers. This paper unpacks the debate surrounding segregated services and if they can support women—while offering suggestions for the future. IFC’s role is to highlight and address key questions that emerge in the private sector in emerging markets around the world—and women’s access to jobs and assets is one of the most intractable issues these economies face. I hope the issues raised in this paper help the transportation sector “build back better” after the pandemic to develop the inclusive transportation offerings needed for women to thrive.  Sincerely,  Hans Peter Lankes  Vice President, Economics and Private Sector Development International Finance Corporation i © International Finance Corporation 2020. All rights reserved. 2121 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 Internet: www.ifc.org IFC, a member of the World Bank Group, creates opportunities for people to escape poverty and improve their lives. We foster sustainable economic growth in developing countries by supporting private sector development, mobilizing private capital, and providing advisory and risk mitigation services to businesses and governments. This report was commissioned by IFC through its Gender and Economic Inclusion Group, which works with IFC clients to reduce gaps in economic opportunity between women and men in the private sector while enabling companies and economies to improve their performance. For more information about IFC’s gender work, please visit www.ifc.org/gender. IFC does not guarantee the accuracy, reliability, or completeness of the content included in this work, or the conclusions or judgments described herein, and accepts no responsibility or liability for any omissions or errors (including, without limitation, typographical errors and technical errors) in the content whatsoever or for reliance thereon. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank Group concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of the World Bank Group or the governments they represent. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to IFC Communications, 2121 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433. ii Contents i FOREWORD 2 Executive Summary 7 Introduction and Methodology 11 Women and Transportation 21 Gender-Segregated Transport in Mass Transit 29 Operational Challenges and Solutions in Emerging Models of Gender-Segregated Transport 41 Case Studies 42 Sakha Cabs Combines For-Profit and Nonprofit Models to Get Women on the Road in India 45 Fyonka’s Women Exclusive Model Takes to the Road in Egypt 47 Lily Ride and Ojek Syari Launch Moto Services for Women in Indonesia and Bangladesh 50 Taxshe and Koala Kabs Target High-Value Customers in India 51 The Government of Kerala Supports the Development of She Taxi 53 PickMe Pilots a Rider Opt-In Option in Sri Lanka 54 Green Cab South Africa Finances Green Vehicles for Women Drivers 55 Regulatory Barriers Shut Down Rosy and Pink Cabs and Pink Ladies in the United Kingdom 58 Uber’s “Women Rider Preference” Feature Launches in Saudi Arabia and Brazil 61 Didi Chuxing and 99 Introduce “Algorithmic Prioritization” and Driver Opt-In 63 Ladybird Logistics Introduces Women Drivers to the Business of Long-Distance Transport 67 Revisiting the Debate 70 REFERENCES 1 Executive Summary WHY THIS PAPER existing models have been met with varying degrees of commercial success and that the approach might Inclusive transportation is a key, but often reinforce social norms that restrict women’s freedom underemphasized, catalyst for gender equality. and mobility without increasing their safety. As transport providers women are widely underrepresented and as passengers they face persistent Existing analysis of GST has focused almost and global challenges in terms of accessibility, exclusively on mass transit models, such as trains or affordability, and safety. This has large-scale buses, with limited reference to the increasing implications both in terms of women’s freedom of prevalence of ride-hailing services or other transport movement and in access to jobs and markets: the services. This paper seeks to fill that gap by capturing International Labour Organization (ILO 2017) has insights from existing studies on mass transit and by written that transport gaps reduce women’s labor force adding new findings on passenger and logistics participation by more than 15 percentage points. services, with a focus on ride-hailing. Research was conducted through interviews and consultations with In the face of these challenges, the market continues to more than 30 companies, featured in case studies show demand for gender-segregated transport (GST) throughout the paper, as well as with experts on models, including, increasingly, in ride-hailing and gender and transportation. This report seeks to capture other e-mobility services. A six-country ride-hailing the debates related to GST, women’s mobility, and study by the International Finance Corporation found economic participation as well as the practical 20 percent of women riders said the lack of women operational challenges specific to GST. drivers limits the number of trips they take, and 44 percent said they would be more likely to use the BUSINESS IMPLICATIONS service if they had the option of selecting a woman driver. Evidence of driver demand continues to grow; No single model defines emerging GST services. This at Uber Brazil, more than half of women started paper identified seven different delivery models (see driving more when a GST offering was introduced. table ES.1). The first of these, “women-exclusive” Interest in GST in ride-hailing is evident not just in services, represents what may be most commonly survey results but also in the increased emergence of understood as GST—namely, those in which the transportation start-ups that specialize in GST around platform registers exclusively women drivers, who are the world. matched only with women riders. However, the others outlined in table ES.1 have adopted variations that Yet, GST remains heavily debated both in terms of its provide drivers, riders, or both with different levels of benefits to women and its efficacy within broader ability to opt into the services. The level of choice transport systems. Proponents claim that it helps meet given to users and the option of whether this choice women’s urgent needs for safe transportation, one of sits with the driver, rider, or both, are the two key the biggest barriers to women’s economic participation, factors that distinguish the models. and represents an important step forward for women whose movement is constrained. Critics claim that 2 Table ES.1 Operational models for gender-segregated transport services Model Description Indicative companies Women- The platform registers only women drivers, who Lily Ride—Bangladesh (page 47) exclusive are matched exclusively with women riders. Femitaxi—Brazil An-Nisa—Kenya Fyonka—Egypt, Arab Rep. (page 45) GoPink Cabs, Meru Eve, Pink Taxi, Women’s Cabs, She Taxi (page 51), Sakha Cabs—India (page 42) Ojesy—Indonesia (page 47) ChaufHer—South Africa Rosy and Pink Cabs, Pink Ladies—UK (page 55) Open The platform registers only women drivers but Miss Taxi Ghana—Ghana customers enables drivers to serve both women and men Priyadarshini—India riders. Lady Bug—Kenya Green Cab—South Africa (page 54) Driver opt in Women drivers may elect to serve either men or 99—Brazil (page 61) women passengers or opt in to serve only Uber’s “Women Rider Preference” women passengers at any time; passengers are feature—Saudi Arabia and Brazil (page 58) not able to opt in to receive a female or male driver. Rider opt in Women riders may select female drivers; drivers PickMe—Sri Lanka (page 53) may not elect to serve only women passengers. Algorithmic Women drivers and passengers are automatically Didi Chuxing—China; 99—Brazil (page 61) prioritization matched when the pairing would not increase pickup wait times; neither drivers nor riders opt in or out of the selection. Limited The platform registers exclusively women drivers Taxshe and Koala Kabs—India (page 50) clientele for a select group of riders, particularly children Annisa Cars—United Kingdom or families but also groups such as corporate clients. Delivery and Women drivers offer delivery and logistics Ladybird Logistics—Ghana (page 63) logistics services, such as food delivery or in-city Viira Cabs—India services transport. 3 Gender-segregated models of all types face additional Companies also intentionally addressed some of the complexity in managing service delivery and making a largest barriers to women’s representation as drivers: profit. Ride-hailing relies on successful management of safety risks, restrictive social norms, and training. driver supply and customer demand. GST models Much of women’s low participation in ride-hailing is introduce or exacerbate unique operational challenges, due to strong social norms against entry into a including (a) low driver supply due to women’s severe nontraditional sector—or, in some markets, into the underrepresentation in the transport sector; (b) highly labor force at all. This barrier is reinforced by the dynamic demand among both riders and drivers for a perception of driving as a risky profession: many of the GST service; (c) potential for increased passenger wait companies featured here made proactive efforts to times or reduced driver incomes; and (d) the accurate meet with family members as part of their recruitment identification of user gender identity. All these factors strategy, or even to get their formal buy-in into the can make reaching scale and breakeven difficult for process. Most companies interviewed also invested GST companies. heavily in recruitment and training beyond levels typical for cab or ride-hailing companies. To answer these challenges, companies have adopted a variety of responses, particularly narrowing coverage DEVELOPMENT IMPACT to certain hours, locations, or client types. By limiting the areas where or times when services are available, For drivers, GST does appear to offer a pathway into a companies could better match demand and supply and sector in which women are widely underrepresented. manage user expectations regarding safety. Notably, For women who would not otherwise opt to work in companies have taken opposing approaches to transportation or for those who would not be in the optimizing hours of operations. Some provide the labor market at all, GST can make driving more option only during the day, when more women drivers appealing. For instance, in a survey ahead of the are on the road, while others have the option only at launch of its “Women Rider Preference” service night, when rider demand peaks. following the legalization of women’s driving in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Uber found that 74 percent Another common response to operational challenges of prospective drivers were only interested in driving has been to focus on serving specific customer groups, for other women. particularly those that have expressed consistent demand or willingness to pay higher prices—for Equally notable, in some instances women who started instance, families with children or corporate clients by driving with GST arrangements went on to drive all providing transport benefits to their employees for customers. For instance, Uber Saudi Arabia reported work before or after hours. Similarly, some companies that women who started with “Women Rider have increased prices for women-provided services, Preference” decreased use of the program over time either by charging base prices above market rates or by and opted to serve both men and women riders as they charging a supplement for those opting into the became more comfortable working as drivers. This product. This strategy reduced the number of women finding was echoed anecdotally but repeatedly by other who could use the product but also ensured driver companies in various forms. For example, in Ghana, incomes did not decrease because of a more limited Ladybird was able to recruit for the more rigorous job customer base. of long-distance oil transport from groups of women who had already learned to drive local buses. 4 For riders, GST addresses social norms but not GST can get more women moving where they face necessarily other barriers related to inclusive transport, safety fears or restrictive social norms. However, such as affordability. Low driver supply, rather than geographical restrictions or pricing premiums, where lack of customer demand, continues to be the key they exist, mean that the service would remain out of barrier to growth for most companies interviewed, reach for many who would otherwise benefit from the implying a continuing need among women riders for service, limiting further growth. Additionally, previous GST. However, demand is highly variable, peaking at studies on mass transit have identified negative night or when passengers are traveling alone, externalities from GST, such as the expectation that indicating that GST is more likely adopted when there women travel only in carriages reserved for them, is a high perception of safety and security risk among reducing their overall mobility. other means of transport. Addressing safety and security in transportation remains a concern for women drivers and riders as well as a key determinant of their transportation choices. Ride-hailing companies are under increased pressure to COVID-19 and the Ride-Hailing track, monitor, and, increasingly, report on safety and Industry: security incidents either through public reporting or through information sharing with relevant authorities. Research for this report took place in late 2019 and GST is typically adopted alongside an evolving set of early 2020, ahead of the global spread of COVID-19. In responses, including in-app emergency response the months since, the ride-hailing industry has been severely impacted. Many markets have seen near buttons, location sharing, and automated alerts for complete collapse in travel and some governments when trips go off course. have implemented lockdowns which have included the prohibition of ride-hailing services. Early data indicates GST represents a single piece of the transport that women may be disproportionately impacted by ecosystem—other solutions for women are urgently the pandemic due to rises in care responsibilities, job required. For both drivers and riders, demand for GST loss, exposure as front-line workers, and incidence of is in many ways reflective of a transportation gender-based violence. ecosystem that often fails to meet mobility needs for At the time of publication, most locations remain under safe, affordable, and accessible services. GST is one at least some health-related mobility restrictions. possible response among many to increase inclusive However, a call has also emerged to “build back better”: transportation for women and other underserved to focus on solutions which do not replicate existing groups. Other proven responses include (a) keeping challenges, but which solve them. For ride-hailing, this public transport costs low; (b) timing public services to call has two immediate implications: first, ensuring that meet women’s transport patterns outside peak women are not pushed out of the industry due to a rise commuting hours; (c) adopting the design of safety and in global unemployment, and second, ensuring that security measures, such as increased lighting; (d) services can continue to meet women’s transport addressing social norms around women’s mobility; (e) needs. The findings of this report indicate that gender- providing bystander and anti-harassment training for segregated transport may be one of many urgently passengers; (f) recruiting women into nontraditional required solutions to transport innovation. roles across the sector; and (g) introducing low-cost ride-hailing options like motorcycles or pooled rides. 5 6 Introduction and Methodology EMERGING DEMAND Within the report findings, one set of responses stood out: just under 20 percent of women riders said the In 2019, Forbes ran an article asking, “Do Women- lack of women drivers limits the number of trips they Only Spaces Still Matter?” (Kerpen 2019). In her take take, and 44 percent said they would be more likely to on the topic, Fenson (2019) was more definite, titling use the service if they had the option of selecting a her article “Why Women-Only Spaces Still Matter.” woman driver. Although there were some variations in Similar pieces have appeared everywhere from the responses across the six countries, the overall pattern Times of India (Kohli 2019) to Apolitical (Fatima of demand remained consistent: often, women riders 2019) and CNBC (Hochman 2018). They were written wanted to be driven by female drivers. Specifically: in response to the increase in companies, ranging from parks to gyms to co-working groups, that offer services “Seventeen percent of female riders surveyed only for people who identify as women. say that not having a woman driver limited their use of the service—ranging from just 4 The growing prominence of gender-segregated spaces percent in Egypt to 31 percent in South Africa. raises a number of important questions, most notably, These women say they would take an average “Do they succeed in supporting women?” Increasingly, of 7.6 more trips a month—an increase of 69 this question is being asked in a sector that is often percent—if guaranteed a woman driver.” underrated as a catalyst for women’s mobility and (IFC 2018, 52) economic participation: transportation. Demand can be higher in different contexts: 90 In 2018, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) percent of women riders on the Sri Lanka platform combined data from Uber with surveys of over 11,000 PickMe reported wanting the option of selecting a male and female drivers and riders across six countries: woman driver; of those, 25 percent reported a the Arab Republic of Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, willingness to pay higher prices to do so (page 53) South Africa, and the United Kingdom. The resulting (IFC Forthcoming B). report, Driving toward Equality: Women, Ride- Hailing, and the Sharing Economy (IFC 2018), These findings reflect a wider trend. Gender-segregated represented the first global study on gender and transport (GST) is valued not just by riders but also by ride-hailing. It found that women have markedly women drivers, who are widely underrepresented in different usage patterns and preferences from men. As the transport sector. For instance, data from Uber’s drivers, women face unique barriers to entry, adopt pilot of its “Women Rider Preference” in Brazil found different driving patterns, and prioritize different that more than half of women who used the feature benefits. As riders, they have distinct product drove more overall and during the night, when women preferences, take more frequent trips, and travel for a are least likely to be on the road. (see page 58). greater variety of purposes than men do. In both cases, safety and security remain at the forefront of whether Further, women’s continued interest in GST is revealed and how women choose to travel and work. not just by survey results but by the prevalence of companies that have adopted models that permit only 7 To date, analysis of GST has focused almost exclusively on mass transit models such as trains or buses, with limited reference to the increasing prevalence of segregated ride-hailing or other individual transport services. This paper seeks to fill that gap by capturing insights from existing studies on mass transit and adding new findings, with a focus on ride-hailing. women drivers, only women riders, or both, most of To date, analysis of GST has focused almost them established since 2015. The researchers for this exclusively on mass transit models such as trains or report conducted interviews with more than 30 buses, with limited reference to the increasing companies that provide GST services; that does not prevalence of segregated ride-hailing or other represent a comprehensive list of all companies individual transport services, such as taxis or chauffeur globally. Nor is GST purely in the purview of niche or services. This paper seeks to fill that gap by capturing small transport providers. In China and Latin America, insights from existing studies on mass transit and Didi Chuxing and 99 have begun automatically adding new findings on passenger and logistics matching women drivers and riders under certain services, with a focus on ride-hailing. It does not seek circumstances (page 61). In Saudi Arabia and Brazil, to advocate for or against GST but rather to capture Uber launched a “Women Rider Preference” service, emerging debates, as well as to highlight findings which allows women drivers to opt in to exclusively around the variety of existing models currently serving women passengers (page 58). In South Africa, operating under the broad umbrella of GST, with Bolt is partnering with Green Cab (page 54) to explore particular emphasis on the unique operational whether women-provided services attract more women challenges that companies face and responses they have to the sector. adopted. WHY THIS PAPER STRUCTURE AND METHODOLOGY GST increasingly represents a mainstream offering; yet, This paper is divided into five main sections: it also remains heavily debated both in terms of its benefits to women and its efficacy within broader 1) Women and Transportation (page 11). This section transport systems. Proponents claim that it helps meet provides a brief overview of the literature on women’s urgent needs for safe transportation—one of women’s engagement with transportation as the biggest barriers to women’s economic providers and users, with a focus on inclusive participation—and represents an important step transportation as a catalyst for women’s rights and forward for women whose movement or job prospects economic participation. are constrained. Critics claim that existing models have been met with varying degrees of commercial success 2) GST in Mass Transit (page 21). This section briefly and that the approach risks reinforcing social norms reviews where and how GST has been adopted in that restrict women’s freedom and mobility. mass transit models, focusing on the debates associated with its long-term impact on women’s mobility and safety. 8 3) Emerging Models of GST (page 29). This section Defining gender-segregated details the findings of interviews with over 30 transport companies that provide GST, with a focus on Given the number of differences ride-hailing. It describes seven specific models identified during the research and reviews the among operating models, there is no unique operational challenges associated with GST single commonly accepted definition in individual transport, as well as operational of gender-segregated transport. responses that companies have adopted to serve This paper takes a broad approach, women as drivers and as riders. analyzing services in which only 4) Case Studies (page 41). This section tells the stories women are permitted as drivers, only of companies that have adopted different variations women are permitted as passengers, of GST services—sometimes with success, or both. For the different models sometimes without. This section includes case identified in this research, see page 3. studies from models that range from ride-hailing to logistics, from motorcycles to buses, and from more than a dozen countries around the world. 5) Revisiting the Debate (page 67). This section reviews the development impact of GST in emerging models, revisiting two questions: whether it supports women’s mobility and whether it supports women’s increased economic participation as drivers. The first two sections draw on a literature review of existing research on women and transportation. For the second two sections, which focus explicitly on GST in ride-hailing and other forms of individual transport, researchers conducted interviews with more than 30 ride-hailing companies as well as global experts on inclusive transportation. Few quantitative evaluations of GST in individual transportation have been conducted; however, the discussion paper draws on data from two sources, when available: previously unpublished data from companies interviewed for this report and survey data from IFC 2018, which captures perception and use data around women’s interest in women-provided transportation. 9 10 1. Women and Transportation Inclusive transportation is one of the key catalysts for women’s economic participation, enabling access to jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities. It is also an essential element of ensuring the right of freedom of movement. However, too often women are held back by transport that is unaffordable, inaccessible, or unsafe. This section outlines how transport can support gender equality, how women’s use of transportation differs from men’s as both providers and users, and what gaps women face in terms of safety, access, and employment. Finally, it highlights early research on women in ride-hailing and outlines how new models either reflect or alter established patterns of women’s “Mobility is often engagement with transportation. the first mile in a long road towards ECONOMIC IMPACT OF WOMEN’S TRANSPORT realizing women’s EXCLUSION economic emancipation” Gaps in women’s transport have large-scale economic implications. The World (Chughtai 2019). Bank has noted that “poor urban transport design has a disproportionately negative effect on women, preventing them from accessing jobs, schools and health centers” (Wellenstein and Gill 2019). Among the most notable of these impacts is reduced involvement in the labor force. The International Labour “The unquantified Organization (ILO 2017) has noted, “Limited access to safe transportation is economic impact the greatest challenge to participation that women face in developing arising from the countries, reducing their [labor force] participation probability by 15.5 trips women cannot percentage points.” For example, in Jordon, 47 percent of women reported take would be they have refused a job because of lack of access to transportation (Aloul, enormous.” Naffa, and Mansour 2018). Another study in Jordan noted that transportation —Nato Kurshitashvili, played a disproportionately high role in keeping women with limited World Bank transport education from the labor market (Kasoolu and others 2019). specialist When transport does not keep women from work entirely, it often limits their options to the closest or safest choices. As World Bank transport specialist Nato Kurshitashvili notes, “The unquantified economic impact arising from the trips women cannot take would be enormous.” • In Buenos Aires, men’s commuting patterns gave them access to 80 percent more jobs than women (Quiros, Mehndiratta, and Ochoa 2014). 11 • In Mexico, “employers also used issues of ‘security’ WOMEN AS TRANSPORT USERS to deny promoting women” (Graglia 2014, 393). Women have different transport preferences and usage • In Bangladesh, only 35 percent of working women patterns than men. Key gender differences in transport travel outside of their community for their jobs, use include these: compared with 56 percent for men, and only 3 percent take buses, compared with 8 percent for • Trip purpose. Women take more nonwork trips men. This difference reduces women’s access to than men do, often traveling with children, a employment opportunities (Kotikula, Hill, and Raza situation which reflects their greater roles in 2019; World Bank 2019a). caregiving and household management (Crane 2007; Sánchez de Madariaga 2013). Gaps, steps, • In Sri Lanka, a World Bank study found waiting areas, and lack of ramps in transit sites “constraints exist on a continuum from, for represent significant challenges for women who are example, the most conservative preferences that often carrying grocery bags or accompanying women’s paid work (if any) be limited to the children. physical homestead environs (such as through petty trade or small enterprise work), to preferences for • Transport mode. Women are more likely than men shorter commutes, to restrictions on or lack of to use public transportation as well as slower forms support for long-distance commuting and domestic of transit. The combination of social constraints or overseas migration” (Solotaroff, Joseph, and and low economic resources results in lower access Kuriakose 2017, 20). to private and intermediary means of transportation (Babinard 2011). In the United States, for example, • In Delhi, a study on college choice for female women represent 64 percent of the people riding students found that “women are willing to choose a Philadelphia’s subways and buses, 62 percent in the college that is in the bottom half of the quality Chicago Transit Authority, and 60 percent of transit distribution over a college in the top 20% for a in Boston, New York, and Washington, D.C. route that is perceived to be safer” (Borker 2018). (Goodyear 2015). Opening women’s access to transportation could be a • Trip length, frequency, and cost. Women often catalyst for economic and social development. Doing travel more frequently than men do on shorter trips, so will require addressing transportation design, as driving up their total costs and resulting in well as challenges in security, affordability, and increased price sensitivity (Allen 2018). Transport accessibility. costs for women are driven by their increased number of trips and at times by the need to move across multiple forms of transit, necessitating multiple tickets. “The life stages of women affect their mobility patterns and behaviors far stronger than for men,” noted international transportation expert Heather Allen. 12 • Trip timing. Because women are more likely to more difficult than men’s. He explains further: “For travel for reasons other than commuting, the example, at an individual level women are less likely to traditional “rush hour” ramp up of public transport own a vehicle. At a neighborhood level, on a rainy day vehicles may not effectively meet their needs, some cities have ankle length water on the streets. resulting in increased wait times (Duchène 2011). While men can roll up their pants and walk right through the water, in some South Asian cultures it may Ammar A. Malik, director of research at Evidence for not be considered appropriate for women to do so. At Policy Design at the Harvard Kennedy School, offers a a societal level despite the fact that our economies are three-tier framework to understand how transport growing, social norms about child-care responsibilities provision affects the physical mobility of women: the and what is the proper role for a woman in society level of the individual, the level of the neighborhood or restricts them from accessing jobs.” city, and the level of society. Malik argues that at all three levels specific factors make women’s mobility 13 WOMEN AS TRANSPORT • “Lack of access to education, training, and PROVIDERS information. Karla González Carvajal and Muneeza Mehmood • Work organization: (rolling) shift work, early- Alam of the World Bank Group note that “The morning or late-night working hours, split shifts, transport industry remains heavily male-dominated, weekend work, combined with a lack of safe which only makes it harder for women service users to transport to and from work. make themselves heard, and limits incentives for the sector to become more inclusive” (Carvajal and Alam • Work environment: lack of workplace and policy 2018). Comprehensive figures are difficult to obtain adjustments, lack of facilities (including toilets), because official data typically categorize employees inappropriate uniforms. under the broad category of “transport and communications” (Turnbull 2013). Available surveys • Gender stereotyping and sex discrimination: gender- indicate that women remain underrepresented both as based occupational segregation underpinned by the direct employees of transport systems and as other myth that women are unable or physically unfit to providers, such as drivers and truckers. In the United perform certain duties, tasks, or roles. States, women accounted for just under 15 percent of transportation occupations in 2017 (U.S. Census • Violence and harassment against women: urban Bureau 2017). Women represent only 22 percent of the public transport workers exposed to physical and European Union transport workforce, and even nonphysical violence because of the jobs they do.” less—below 5 percent—for some occupations, such as drivers (Cook and others 2018). Data for emerging As a result, “most departures in the transport industry markets are limited. appear to occur within the first five years of employment” (Baruah 2019, 32). Legal, structural, and social barriers contribute to women’s low representation in the sector. The World Further, a report by the International Transport Bank (2019a) “Women, Business and the Law” report Workers’ Federation (Wright 2019) highlights how the notes that transport is among the sectors most affected future of work in transport will affect women by differences in law for men and women: 21 differently than men. It notes that women accounted economies place job restrictions on women in for three-quarters of the job losses in transport transport and 29 restrict women from working night between 2008 and 2011. For example, while hours, limiting the shifts they can take. Legal automation can bolster improved working conditions, limitations are reinforced by negative perceptions of it can also lead to job losses in areas in which women the industry and limited career development are concentrated, such what happens when self-serve opportunities (Godfrey and Bertini 2019). One analysis ticket machines replace ticket vendors, particularly in by the International Association of Public Transport the informal sector. Women also may be less likely to (Suciu, Sadoux, and Gonzalez 2010, 36) breaks down gain access to the training and upskilling necessary to women’s underrepresentation in transport into five take advantage of new or improved roles created by interrelated causes: technology in the sector. 14 “…women’s needs as Women’s experiences and earnings in ride-hailing differ from men as well. An Uber-Stanford study (Cook and transport users are often others 2018) on drivers in Chicago found a 7 percent prioritised over discussion “gender pay gap” in earnings due to the times of day women choose to drive as well as their reduced speed, of women as transport resulting in fewer paying rides. Issues of women in ride-hailing are discussed further in a subsequent workers.” section. — Tessa Wright (2019, 31) SAFETY AND SECURITY Challenges related to safety and security are global and are present across all forms of transport. Safety and security concerns keep women from engaging as providers and users, with gender-based violence imposing disproportionate constraints on women’s mobility and use of transport. Desolate bus stops and train cars, dimly lit park-and- ride lots and parking structures, and overcrowded transit vehicles represent stressful settings for many women, who often feel compelled to change their transportation modes and travel patterns in order to avoid them (Loukaitou-Sideris 2009). • In New York City, a survey found that over a third of women do not feel safe on public transport late at night and that the shift to taxis or for-hire vehicles during these times results in a “pink tax” of US$26 to US$50 per month for increased safety (Kaufman, Polack, and Campbell 2018). • In Brazil, ActionAid’s (2014) Safe City for Women survey revealed that 86 percent of women had been harassed in a public space and 44 percent on public transport. The situation was most severe in the country’s biggest cities, where 100 percent of women in São Paulo and 66 percent in Rio suffered harassment on public transport. 15 • In Mexico City, according to the national violence WOMEN AND RIDE-HAILING against women survey (carried out by the National Institute for Statistics and Geography), the forms of Most studies on women and transport have focused on violence that were most frequently reported were mass transport. Individual transport, and particularly offensive or sexualized comments, unwanted emerging models such as ride-hailing, represent a touching and groping, and fear of being assaulted or different set of dynamics for women both as drivers abused. According to the 2016 National Survey of and as riders. IFC’s (2018) study Driving toward Victimization and Perceptions of Safety, nearly 88 Equality: Women, Ride-Hailing, and the Sharing percent of women aged 18 years and over feel Economy leveraged data from Uber and surveys of unsafe in public transport, and approximately 80 more than 11,000 drivers and riders across six percent feel unsafe on the streets in Mexico City countries to offer early insights into where ride-hailing (UN Women 2017). specifically reflects or changes existing dynamics around women and transport. The following section • In Lima, a World Bank study revealed similar adopts key findings from that report, first considering findings, noting that while for men in the Peruvian findings related to women as drivers, then women as capital, speed was a decisive factor in choice of riders, and then cross-cutting factors such as safety and transport, for women personal security and security. protection from harassment mattered most (Gómez 2000). Women as drivers • In Egypt, a 2014 study by HarassMap found that • Women identify the ability to work when they 95 percent of women surveyed in Greater Cairo want to as the key benefit of using ride-hailing experienced sexual harassment (Fahmy and others apps. Across the six markets studied, three-quarters 2014). of the women drivers surveyed rank it among their top three benefits. It helps them juggle other Sexual harassment also extends to women service commitments. For example, 91 percent of mothers providers, leading to their wide underrepresentation in driving with the Uber app are also the primary the sector and reinforcing the concept of caregivers for their children. transportation as a male-dominated space. According to a 2017 survey by the European Transport Workers’ • Ride-hailing apps reduce barriers to entry for Federation, 63 percent of respondents had faced women to work as drivers. Low barriers to entry violence. Of these, 49 percent faced violence from make it relatively easy for women to enter an customers, 22 percent from colleagues, and 17 percent occupation few have traditionally pursued. from managers or supervisors. Among the women who However, the proportion of women drivers remains reported an incident, 80 percent did not believe that low, reflecting other barriers such as the regulatory their complaint had negative consequences for the requirement for a commercial license in some perpetrator or had made the workplace safer, a serious markets, social mores, and low rates of financial concern for women who seek to develop careers in the and digital inclusion. transport sector (Bakran 2018). • Women tend to drive more selectively than men. On average, they drive fewer hours than men and are less likely to drive at night or sign in daily to the 16 24 • Women drivers report a higher income boost than men do. The average earnings achieved by all percent of women who drive using the Uber app increased across each market studied, ranging from 11 women say that ride- percent in Mexico to 29 percent in Egypt. The hailing increases their premium women earn over men likely reflects the women’s lower previous income and employment sense of independence. status. (IFC 2018) • Some women drivers use ride-hailing to support other entrepreneurial activities. Fifteen percent of app. By reducing their hours and not driving at women drivers run businesses separate from their times of peak demand, women could be limiting ride-hailing activities—broadly the same rate as men their earnings or ability to earn volume-based (12 percent). Some of these entrepreneurs use incentives. Still, the women surveyed are just as income to smooth the cash flow of their operations likely as their male peers to turn a robust profit and to build their credit profiles, while others from driving, despite being less likely to own their recruit riders as potential advisers, investors, and own vehicle outright. customers. 17 63 • Social norms limit the extent to which women participate in ride-hailing as drivers. Overall, 11 percent of women drivers surveyed say their family percent of or friends disapproved of their decision to sign up, but attitudes toward women drivers vary widely by respondents had faced market. More than half of current male drivers surveyed in Egypt and Indonesia would be unhappy violence. Of these, 49 if a woman in their family wanted to sign up; in percent faced violence contrast, more than half of men say they would be happy in India, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. from customers, 22 percent from colleagues, • Women may also face discrimination once on the road. Of women drivers surveyed, 14 percent and 17 percent from believe some riders have canceled on them because of their gender, a proportion that rises to about a managers or supervisors. quarter in Egypt and Indonesia. The extent of these —According to a 2017 survey by the European Transport restrictive norms reveals both the scope of the Workers’ Federation challenge of recruiting women into ride-hailing and the pioneering nature of the women who have chosen to drive. • Ride-hailing increases women’s mobility and sense of independence as riders. Almost a quarter of Women as riders women surveyed say that ride-hailing increases their sense of independence—a figure which climbs to • Ride-hailing helps women meet complex over a third of women in India and South Africa. transportation needs. Women represent a large Similarly, 24 percent of women surveyed across the portion of the existing user base globally, and the six markets identify getting to places not served by majority in Indonesia. Women’s ride-hailing usage public transport as a major benefit of ride-hailing. patterns mirror their diverse transportation needs: Going out at night is the third most popular use of they tend to make shorter, more frequent, and more ride-hailing among women globally, and 7 percent types of trips compared with men. Women are more of women say they were previously unable to make likely than men to use ride-hailing to go shopping, these trips. travel to health services, and visit relatives. • Cost is a key consideration for women. They tend • Ride-hailing helps mothers manage the complexity to spend a higher proportion of disposable income of traveling with children. Thirty percent of than men on meeting travel needs, especially in women, compared with 22 percent of men, travel emerging markets. Information about the price they with children. Almost two in five mothers surveyed will pay when booking is identified as the biggest strongly believe that ride-hailing helps them move benefit of using the Uber app by the women riders around with their children. surveyed—especially in Egypt and India—while men primarily cite the ease of booking through the app. 18 • Lower-cost ride-sharing models could help more Drivers and riders women access ride-hailing. In locations with multiple options, women are more likely than men • To attract women as riders and drivers, the ride- to choose lower-cost trips such as ride-sharing hailing industry needs to continue to enhance (UberPOOL) or motorcycle (UberMOTO)—except security features and minimize perceived threats. where security concerns or social mores override the Personal security is a determining factor in women’s cost benefits. choice of transportation options. They are more likely than men to be attracted to ride-hailing because of security features such as the data trail that the app creates for every ride and the ability to receive information about their driver in advance. For women riders, these features may increase not only their own sense of security but also that of their family members. • Security emerges as a key barrier to the recruitment and retention of women drivers. Sixty-four percent of women drivers surveyed cite security concerns as a reason more women do not sign up to become drivers, and 26 percent cite security concerns as a reason they do not drive more. Financial and digital exclusions remain barriers to women’s participation in ride-hailing and in the sharing economy more broadly. • Financial exclusion means women are less likely to have a bank account and own assets that enable participation in the sharing economy. Women surveyed across the six countries studied are less likely than men to own the car they drive. Overall, the proportion of women surveyed who identify getting the money to buy or access a vehicle as the biggest sign-up barrier they face ranged from 17 percent in Egypt to 40 percent in South Africa. • Seventeen percent of women riders surveyed identify the lack of women drivers as a reason not to use the Uber app more often. Attracting more women drivers could therefore encourage more women to ride, thereby further increasing demand for women drivers and creating a virtuous cycle. 19 20 2. Gender-Segregated Transport in Mass Transit GST remains a heavily debated response to women’s transportation challenges. Even proponents of GST tend to see it not as a long-term solution to inclusive transportation for women, but rather as one step toward a stage at which GST is no longer needed. Heather Allen, an international expert on transportation issues, articulated a common position: “If the provision of segregated mass transit helps women access the education and employment opportunities that otherwise they wouldn’t have, there is a rationale to it. But in no case do I see it in mass transit as being ‘the’ solution.” GST models have been adopted across geographies and cultural contexts, and there is evidence they can serve to improve mobility for women who might not otherwise be able to move freely. Yet, opponents point out that GST may lead “Whether gender- to unintended side effects, including inefficiencies in transport provision and segregated the reinforcement of restrictive social norms. This section reviews the debates transport is going related to GST in mass transit in terms of demand, its implications for to deal with what women’s mobility, impacts on efficient transport planning, and emerging policy are more debates. The following section applies these debates and shares new research fundamental on individual transportation, with a focus on ride-hailing. societal issues, I think the jury is still DEMAND out on that one.” —Rehana Moosajee, One argument in favor of GST services notes that demand for it among riders founder of The Barefoot has remained consistent across diverse geographies and cultural contexts. For a Facilitator and former snapshot of select examples of how GST has been adopted in mass transit, member of the Mayoral please see page 25. When women in Afghanistan were asked to name their top Committee—Transport, requests for public transport, “availability of transport reserved for female city of Johannesburg passengers” was one of the top priorities in each of the five cities surveyed, in proportions ranging from 45 percent to 84 percent of respondents (IFC Forthcoming A). In Mexico, surveys found similarly high demand, again strongly linked with concerns around safety and security: “During a public opinion survey, asking women if they feel safe while traveling, more than half (66%) of the women surveyed reported no, claiming that they would prefer women-only transportation because they were too afraid to travel alongside men. Among the 44% who did 21 not unwaveringly agree with this statement, 48% made a special notation on the side of the “Unfortunately there survey saying that they disagreed only because are safeguards that we they felt that women-only buses and subway cars in particular were not well guarded. That have to take. We have is, they believe women-only transit to be safer, but only if the men were forced to respect it” seen way too much (Graglia 2014, 399). violence against women. The quotation sheds light on the context of GST: it is I think that is the bigger used by women as a means of avoiding sexual contention than whether harassment or attacks. This implies that if safety and security were enforced across the transport system, this is taking us a step demand for GST would drop substantially. back.” Regardless of women’s motivation, evidence from —Eugenia Podestá, senior director of economic Brazil shows that a substantial percentage of them empowerment and entrepreneurship, Vital Voices would not only prefer GST but would be willing to pay higher fares to obtain it. Researchers asked 300 users of the local Supervia railway system to test an app which allowed them to choose to pay more to 2014, 401). GST may be of particular value to women select a women-only car. Results showed that using who face strong social norms against any independent the app, 70 percent of women would select a women- travel. In those instances, “the suggestion that women only carriage at no additional cost, and a third of can move in groups offers them the opportunity to female riders would be willing to pay more to travel move securely without the presence of a male family in the reserved space. The same study identified a 34 member” (Babinard 2011). Certainly, in some percent to 55 percent lower occurrence of harassment instances women prefer the travel environment of in cars where gender segregation was respected segregated transport. As one commuter, in a blog post, (Kondylis and others 2020). described her use of the New Delhi metro, “The body language of women in this car feels different. They MOBILITY look carefree. Some listen to music on their headphones or read a book or newspaper, rarely Perhaps the most disputed aspect of GST is the degree looking up. They don’t have to worry about being to which it increases women’s overall mobility rather groped or stared at by creepy men” (Shah 2016). than reinforcing existing restrictions. The analysis of women-only transportation in Mexico City cited Even when women may benefit from greater mobility previously showed that “women who had access to in the short term, there is an active debate as to the their own transportation, be it buses, subway cars, or mid- to long-term effects of GST. “I see the human women-driven taxis, were far more likely to increase impact, where women are more comfortable in these their mobility than women who did not” (Graglia segregated spaces than they are in mixed-gender spaces. But from a policy perspective, it doesn’t solve the larger problem women are facing,” said World 22 Bank economist Muneeza Mehmood Alam. Too often, she added, implementers consider gender segregation “Sex segregation should as a single solution without addressing the core issues not be the default that create unsafe conditions for women in public places. World Bank gender specialist Karla Dominguez response to harassment Gonzalez echoed this reservation: “I don’t know of any in public transport, country where GST is happening but there are [also] complementary steps to change social norms.” as it does not foster Opponents argue that GST will produce a gender- behavioral change.” segregated city as women end up with fewer or more —Sonal Shah, transport specialist (Shah 2019, 31) restrictive means of transportation. For instance, women who opt not to use segregated models may face immediate repercussions through social judgment or men agree that ‘women who chose to ride in a public increased discomfort or safety risk in mixed space are more sexually open’ and 20 to 24 percent environments. In the words of one commenter agree that ‘if a woman is harassed in public space, it is (Monroe 2017), the question, “‘What were you partially her fault; she could have chosen the reserved wearing?’ will be replaced by the admonition ‘Were space.’” Proposals to introduce segregated carriages in you sitting in the women’s carriage?’” Indeed, the the London metro system were beat back largely previously cited study of the Rio Supervia (Kondylis because of similar protests from feminist groups (BBC and others 2020) found that women were willing to 2017). pay for the segregated service, but that “half of the 23 EFFICIENCY “It is comforting to know Another argument made against GST addresses the that the entire train is for difficulties of running a segregated system efficiently, challenges that can result in underuse, overcrowding, us. We can get into any or nonenforcement of separated spaces. compartment without Variations in demand can lead to underusage or worrying about space.” overcrowding. A study of pink buses introduced in —A commuter on the Mumbai Ladies Special Lahore, Pakistan, in 2012 found that the need for (Karangutkar 2018) financial subsidies escalated over time because of the low ridership (Daha 2014). More common are reports of overcrowding. A commuter in the Indian state of caregivers who are both men and women (Japan Kerala observed that, although nearly the same Experience 2018). In Mexico City, spaces on buses are number of men and women travel in buses during reserved for women and children as well as the elderly nonpeak hours, women are often the ones who end up or disabled. without a seat—because a small number of seats are reserved for women, and all the remaining “general” The challenges have led several cities to halt efforts to seats are occupied by men (Navya P. K. 2017). In provide GST. Jakarta, for example, introduced women- Mumbai, the Ladies Special was the first women’s-only only commuter trains in 2012 and removed them six train in the world, initially with service just twice a day months later because dedicated trains were popular and later extending to eight runs during peak hours during peak commuting periods but not throughout (Bhatt 2018). Although the service has transported the day (Asia News 2013). The city continues to more than a million women in one of the busiest provide women-only seats within the city-owned suburban lines globally (Bhatt 2018), it still TransJakarta buses. Women-only passenger cars in underserves the needs of Mumbai’s female commuters. Seoul were introduced three times without success, in A survey conducted by the Western Indian Railways in 1992, 2007, and 2011. In 1992 the service was ended 2018 revealed that commuters wanted more such because of lack of enforcement. Efforts to offer the trains because the existing ones were overcrowded cars in 2007 and 2011 were dropped because of (Ahmed 2018; Bhatt 2018) and in 2018 Bangaluru opposition to the special cars, including claims of extended the hours of its women-only carriages (Times “reverse discrimination.” The Daegu Metropolitan of India 2018) Transit Corporation also tried to implement the policy in 2013, but it faced similar public resistance (Jang Overcrowding can also decrease the efficiency of GST 2016). if men enter spaces reserved for women, as sometimes this occurs during peak commuting times. Enforcement POLICY AND REGULATION is complicated on systems whose rules permit access to other groups or segregate spaces only certain times of Few policy decisions speak directly to the legality or the day. In Toyko, women-only cars were introduced in illegality of gender-segregated services. However, in the May 2005 by nine private railways. Each of these United Kingdom one gender-segregated service for trains provides a car reserved for women until about women was suspended after local authorities deemed it 9:30 p.m. Some of the services also allow access to to be discriminatory (page 55). In 2006 Rio de Janeiro young boys and individuals with disabilities and mandated the provision of women-exclusive carriages 24 Select Adoptions of Gender Segregation in Mass Transit LATIN AMERICA Brazil: In 1995, São Paulo’s metro system became the first to introduce a women-specific carriage in its trains within Brazil, but low enforcement led to the feature being pulled. Following reports that documented high rates of sexual harassment and assaults, it was reintroduced in 2014 through local legislation that mandated the inclusion of at least one dedicated carriage for women per train during peak commuting hours (Constantine 2014). Mexico: Mexico City boasts Latin America’s largest metro system, and since 2008 a number of carriages on metro trains and buses have been specifically allocated for women and children. Further, many stations have an area that is monitored by security personal to ensure that only women enter the space (Davison 2019). The city has committed to reviewing the effectiveness of segregation policies in its 2019 gender and mobility plan (City of Mexico 2019). 25 Select Adoptions of Gender Segregation in Mass Transit ASIA Japan: Women-only cars were introduced in May 2005 in Tokyo by China: The cities of nine private railways following the Guangzhou and Shenzhen publication of a survey by the Tokyo adopted women-only carriages police that revealed the prevalence of in the city metro, but incidents of “chikan” (being touched enforcement of the spaces has without consent). Each of these trains been limited (Wee and Marchi provide a car reserved for women until 2018; Zhen 2017). about 9:30 p.m. Some of them also allow young boys and individuals with disabilities and caregivers, both men and women (Japan Experience 2018). Thailand: Since 2014, the State Railway of Thailand has included women-only carriages for three of Thailand’s most important train routes. The women-only carriages are lilac with dark pink curtains (rather than the usual light blue) and are available to women during the day or night. India: Mumbai launched its women-only trains in 1992, operating on three of its most popular routes. Initially the trains were offered twice a day, but the operations were later extended to eight times a day, transporting over a million women. However, according to a survey Indonesia: Jakarta introduced women-only conducted by Western Indian Railways in 2018, commuter trains in 2012 and in 2013 but then the service is still found to underserve the needs scrapped the system and reconverted the trains. of female riders (Ahmed 2018). Nationally, the Although the trains were popular with women Indian Motor Vehicles Act has stipulated that a during rush hours, mixed trains were found to be certain percentage of seats on buses must be packed at all times. With overcrowding being one reserved for women (Mohapatra 2017). of the major issues cited by railway operators, women-only trains were taken out of service (Asia News 2013). However, Indonesia’s public, city-owned TransJakarta buses still provide separate seats for women. 26 Select Adoptions of Gender Segregation in Mass Transit Germany: In 2016, a private German EUROPE rail operator, MRB, introduced women- only carriages on one of its routes. Although the company denied any links, the move came soon after several women faced sexual assault on New Year’s Eve in Cologne the previous year (Brady 2016). Austria: For female passengers traveling alone, many ÖBB Eurocity and ÖBB Intercity trains, as well as certain evening trains, offer special ladies’ compartments. The company also provides ladies’ couchette compartments The United Kingdom: “Ladies on ÖBB night trains. Male passengers are Only” compartments, which had been in requested to move to the other place for a century since the Victorian era, compartments and to keep these special were abolished on British trains in 1977, two places free for women. The trains also years after the UK Parliament passed the Sex feature a breast-feeding compartment for Discrimination Act. A proposal to revive mothers and their babies (ÖBB n.d.) women-only carriages put forth in the Parliament in 2015 was withdrawn after public protest. during peak hours on weekdays, and the city of São challenging because the cars were labeled “for women” Paulo followed suit in 2014. As a whole, definitive but not “only for women,” giving no legal basis to stances for or against segregated services remain the segregate passengers by force (Wee and Marchi 2018). exception rather than the rule. Shenzhen city, which reserved the first and last carriages on the metro for women around the same Uncertain legal status has also hampered authorities time, faced the same issue (Zhen 2017). Other cities attempting to apply provisions for existing services. In have more active enforcement: In Mumbai, inspectors the case of São Paulo, gaps in clarity weakened the are tasked with monitoring compliance and guiding law; specifically, peak hours were not explicitly defined men out of segregated carriages. They also have the and no provisions were made for men entering the ability to punish offenders. Traveling in female carriages (Curzi 2017; Sanghani 2015). Similarly, in compartments is punishable under the Indian Railways China the cities of Guangzhou and Shenzhen have Act with eviction from the train, a monetary penalty, reserved metro cars for women but have found it and/or forfeiture of the pass or ticket. Similar measures difficult to enforce rules on access to the space. In a are in place in Dubai, where men found in the New York Times article on segregation in the dedicated women-only carriages at the end of each Guangzhou system, a Metro representative noted that train face a monetary fine (Jinman 2015; the National stopping the behavior of male riders has been 2019). 27 28 3. Operational Challenges and Solutions in Emerging Models of GST To date, little analysis has addressed gender segregation in individual transport models such as taxis, logistics services, or, notably, emerging models such as ride-hailing. Research for this brief, which included interviews with more than 30 companies, identified seven models, ranging from those that exclusively match women drivers and riders to those that provided “opt-in” features to those that automatically match women riders and drivers. Companies leverage a wide variety of means of transport, from tuk-tuks and motorcycles to cars. GST in ride-hailing introduces new questions around operational models, challenges, and responses as well as reopening the debate around whether segregated options promote inclusive transport for women. In GST, companies face unique or heightened challenges in terms of (a) the low availability of GST in ride-hailing women drivers, (b) highly dynamic demand, (c) the potential for increased introduces new wait times or reduced driver incomes, (d) the identification of user gender, and, questions around as a result of these factors, (e) difficulty in reaching scale and breakeven. Many operational models, companies have responded with one or more of the following: increasing challenges, and prices, limiting geographical coverage or hours of operation, focusing on responses as well as specific customer groups, focusing on increased safety and security features, reopening the investing in training and recruiting, and supporting vehicle financing. Case debate around studies on select companies in the following section tell stories of how each of whether segregated the operational models have evolved and how the companies have opted to options promote respond to operational challenges. inclusive transport for women. GST IN RIDE-HAILING Operational models in ride-hailing This research identified seven delivery models for GST: six focused on passenger transport and the seventh on logistics and courier services. The first of these, “women-exclusive” services, represents what may be most commonly understood to be GST—namely, when the platform registers exclusively women drivers, who are then matched exclusively with women riders. However, the others, outlined in table 3.1, have adopted variations providing drivers, riders, or both different levels of ability to opt in. 29 Table 3.1 Operational models for gender-segregated transport in ride-hailing Model Description Indicative companies Women- The platform registers only women drivers, who Lily Ride—Bangladesh (page 47) exclusive are matched exclusively with women riders. Femitaxi—Brazil An-Nisa—Kenya Fyonka—Egypt, Arab Rep. (page 45) GoPink Cabs, Meru Eve, Pink Taxi, Women’s Cabs, She Taxi (page 51), Sakha Cabs—India (page 42) Ojesy—Indonesia (page 47) ChaufHer—South Africa Rosy and Pink Cabs, Pink Ladies—UK (page 55) Open The platform registers only women drivers but Miss Taxi Ghana—Ghana customers enables drivers to serve both women and men Priyadarshini—India riders. Lady Bug—Kenya Green Cab—South Africa (page 54) Driver opt in Women drivers may elect to serve either men or 99—Brazil (page 61) women passengers or opt in to serve only women Uber’s “Women Rider Preference” feature— passengers at any time; passengers are not able to Saudi Arabia and Brazil (page 58) opt in to choose a female or male driver. Rider opt in Women riders may select female drivers; drivers PickMe—Sri Lanka (page 53) may not elect to serve only women passengers. Algorithmic Women drivers and passengers are automatically Didi Chuxing—China; 99—Brazil (page 61) prioritization matched when the pairing would not increase pickup wait times; neither drivers nor riders opt in or out of the selection. Limited The platform registers exclusively women drivers Taxshe and Koala Kabs—India (page 50) clientele for a select group of riders, particularly children or Annisa Cars—United Kingdom families but also groups such as corporate clients. Delivery and Women drivers offer delivery and logistics services, Ladybird Logistics—Ghana (page 63) logistics such as food delivery or in-city transport. Viira Cabs—India services 30 The level of choice given to users and whether this DYNAMIC DEMAND choice sits with the driver, rider, or both are the key distinguishing factors among the models. After those Even where demand for women-provided transport factors, the companies featured in the study include a services is high, it is often also highly dynamic. wide range of delivery models, from traditional cab services to ride-hailing to logistics services, as well as For riders, this variability appears in previous research, vehicle types, from motorcycles to tuk-tuks to cars. which found that women’s preference to be matched Although the largest group of active companies was with a woman driver was highest at night, at 40 concentrated in South Asia, GST models have percent of respondents, followed by when traveling increasingly been adopted globally in countries from alone and by when traveling in a new city, respectively. Brazil to Kenya to Indonesia. Despite these differences, A smaller percentage want the option to select a several operational challenges and solutions arose woman driver during the day during the normal course consistently across models, vehicle types, and countries of travel (see figure 3.1). Companies interviewed for of operation. this paper that offered opt-in models reported heavier use when women were ordering transportation for OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES children or at night, when there is an increased perception of security risks. In Kenya, riders reported The variety of GST models reflects a range of different switching apps at night to one which provided them solutions to the increased operational challenges that the option to select a female driver (IFC 2018). women-provided transport services face over standard Similarly, 90 percent of women users of PickMe ride-hailing and e-logistics models. These challenges wanted the ability to select a woman driver, but largely include low driver supply, highly dynamic demand, the they wanted the option when traveling alone, at night, potential for increased wait times, the potential for or with children (page 53) (IFC Forthcoming B). decreased driver income, and accurate gender identification. Demand from drivers also varies. For instance, in Uber’s “Women Rider Preference” feature in Saudi LOW DRIVER SUPPLY Arabia (page 58), some women use the main app during the day and switch to the Women Rider Although demand for women-provided transport can Preference feature when driving at night. Care be strong, the supply of women drivers is limited. In responsibilities are also a determining factor in driver the six countries captured in the Driving toward participation. “Most of our drivers are mothers and Equality study, IFC (2018) found women drivers they tend to take holiday around the same time,” said represented up to 4.5 percent in Mexico but under 1 Sade Agboola, founder of Annisa Cars, London. In its percent in Egypt and India. This lack of participation first months of operation, Fyonka in Egypt (page 45) by women occurs not just in ride-hailing but in the struggled to explain a sudden drop in drivers on the transportation industry more broadly. Many of the road—until its office staff discovered that school companies interviewed for this paper undertook exams were approaching, and women were staying dedicated recruitment, training, and licensing programs home to help their children study. Drivers returned to to build the pipeline of drivers. Two companies, the road following the end of exams. PickMe (page 53) and Ola, either paused or withdrew women-exclusive pilot programs specifically because of Variable demand introduces two challenges into the the lack of women drivers. network. First, extremes of demand and supply tend to 31 be much higher for GST networks than for those that Figure 3.1 Women riders’ demand for serve both men and women. For instance, although a women drivers ride-hailing network may see demand throughout the Q: When using Uber, do/would you prefer male or women day with peaks during commuting hours or social drivers in the following situations? (Women only) times, a women-provided network may have very low demand during the day, with much higher demand at Percent night. Second, the period of highest demand, evenings and nights, is also the period when women are least likely to be on the road, thus increasing the disparity Mexico 24 61 51 38 between the supply of and the demand for drivers. POTENTIAL FOR INCREASED WAIT TIMES OR 20 46 53 46 South Africa REDUCED DRIVER INCOMES Unaddressed supply and demand disparities can increase wait times and reduce driver incomes. Because India 19 55 42 43 women represent a small minority of transport providers, including ride-hailing drivers, the number of drivers may not be sufficient to meet rider needs. If, as United Kingdom 11 41 37 29 a result, wait times increase, women face reduced mobility, and they could also end up waiting in locations where they face a higher risk of the type of harassment that they are trying to avoid by using Indonesia 15 35 36 29 women-provided services. Supply-demand mismatches also affect drivers. For Egypt, Arab Rep. 14 29 30 23 instance, if drivers have to travel longer distances between each ride, they are likely to serve fewer customers and their total income will go down, unless they are paid on an hourly basis. During the day At night Traveling alone In a new city SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE UBER RIDER SURVEY 2017. NOTE: THE AVERAGE PROPORTION CITING “NO GENDER PREFERENCE” ACROSS ALL FOUR CATEGORIES IS ~47 PERCENT. 32 IDENTIFICATION OF USER GENDER identity may not be accepted by the system. The models also place the onus on individual drivers to Accurate matching requires companies to be able to determine whether to accept a rider’s gender identity. identify which drivers and riders are women. For drivers, this is less difficult because personal FUNDING, SCALE, AND PROFIT information, such as license data, is routinely collected as part of the registration and verification process, One analysis conducted by researchers at the However, most companies do not routinely collect University of California Los Angeles determined that a rider gender information. Depending on local privacy “gender-based system would have to pay higher wages and data regulations, companies may opt either to ask to recruit more women drivers…in addition, it would riders to self-identify or to use photo or name- have to charge women lower fares as compensation for matching algorithms to automatically assign users a longer wait times.” The study indicates that such gender. models “could be profitable by increasing the pool of women customers” (Guo and others 2018). Companies An-Nisa Taxi, a women-exclusive ride-hailing service interviewed faced decisions of whether to operate as in Kenya, also found that digital literacy can be a for-profit entities, to prioritize social impact over barrier. When launching the service, the team initially profit, or to operate hybrid models in conjunction with found many male names registering on the app and foundations or nonprofit entities. booking rides. Eventually, the team realized that men were downloading the app and booking for their Lady Bug, an offshoot of Little Cab in Kenya, Uganda, family members who did not have phones or did not Tanzania, and Zambia, was clear about the need to know how to register. That practice limited An-Nisa’s operate a for-profit company. “As much as we want to ability to confirm rider identification. be part of the growth of women, we don’t want to start something that is not profitable for them and difficult Companies interviewed for this paper largely indicated for us to sustain,” said Kamal Budhabhatti, Little Cab that the decision whether to cancel a ride is left in the founder. Susieben Shah, founder and chief executive hands of users; for instance, if a man used an account officer of Priyadarshini Taxi Service in India, was not his own to request a woman driver, the driver similarly frank: “My priority now is to systematically could cancel the ride without penalty. Those companies approach investors. I don’t want money to buy cars also indicated that such incidents of misuse are low but to hire good talent. To have proper marketing, hire and do not represent a serious restriction on a business development person, a social media–savvy operations. person. To expand I need good hands on deck.” The impetus to reach breakeven in GST has to be Another challenge is reflecting diverse gender identities. considered in the wider context of ride-hailing, in Most operational models assume users’ gender identity which many companies are not yet profitable. matches the sex of their birth and that they have a Regardless, several companies cited obtaining funds as binary identity of either male or female.1 Someone who their biggest problem. Typically, for the companies identifies as a woman but whose license, registered interviewed, entrepreneurs bootstrapped with their name, or physical attributes may not reflect this own money or with that of angel investors within the 1 The World Bank Group defines “gender identity” as “each person’s deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender (e.g. of being a man, a woman, in- between, neither or something else), which may or may not correspond with the sex they were assigned at birth or the gender attributed to them by society. Note that this sense of self is not related to sexual orientation. Gender identity is internal; it is not necessarily visible to others.” See World Bank 2019b. 33 friends and family circle. One entrepreneur explained ENABLING DRIVER OR RIDER OPT-INS that private venture capitalists look for scale, which can be hard to achieve without substantial upfront Each of the models described takes a different investment. approach to driver and rider choice. For “women- exclusive” models, users opt in by selecting the Other founders intentionally prioritized development company in the first place—in other words, by opening impact over profit, at least as an initial motivation for the app or registering to drive with that specific entering the space. “We are not close to making profits, company. However, for drivers, the choice can be a not even operational breakeven; we are subsidizing long-term one: unless they leave the app or find everyone,” confirmed Syed Saif, founder of Lily Ride another job, they only have the option of driving for bike ride-sharing service in Bangladesh. “We are doing women. This option may be best for women who this for a social cause. We want to do the right thing, would not otherwise drive professionally. to develop the ecosystem and take pride that in our country we are the first people to have done this thing With opt-in models, users have more choice on when for women.” and whether to engage with the limitations. Although one Sri Lankan company, PickMe (page 53), piloted an Hybrid and social enterprise models also have proved option in which riders but not drivers selected the app, useful to provide training and to address the key the majority of companies place choice in the hands of barrier to growth, the number of women drivers on the drivers, directly addressing the key supply barrier for road. Recruitment and training can represent GST. For users, this meets demand for gender substantial expenses, so joint models have enabled matching, while for the company itself, it ensures that charity or development partnerships at the pipeline users maximize their use on the app by continuing to level while keeping the main business of driving drive or ride with the same company, rather than separate. These issues will be addressed further in the switching to competitors. next section, on operational responses. Placing choice in the hands of drivers also encourages OPERATIONAL RESPONSES women who might not otherwise be on the road to register to drive. For instance, Uber (page 58) launched Women-provided transport companies have met its “Women Rider Preference” feature in Saudi Arabia increased operational complexity with one or more when, following the legalization of women’s driving, approaches: increasing prices, limiting geographical some 74 percent of women surveyed said they would coverage or hours of operations, focusing on specific be interested in driving only for other women. customer groups, focusing on increased safety and security features, increasing investment in training and LIMITING GEOGRAPHICAL COVERAGE OR recruiting, and increasing vehicle financing. Not all HOURS OF OPERATION companies interviewed for this paper adopted each of those responses, but each approach was widespread Another way to enforce efficient matching between across the models captured here. drivers and riders is to reduce the hours or locations in which the company is active. This option helps ensure that drivers do not have to drive long distances between riders. For instance, Fyonka, an Egypt-based app, limits coverage in Cairo to the locations where 34 demand is sufficient (page 45). Lily Ride (page 47), a drivers to cancel requests from areas they believe are women-only two-wheeler ride-hailing service in unsafe. Although offering such options gets drivers on Bangladesh’s capital, Dhaka, does not accept ride the road, it further limits the population that can requests from the northern district of Uttara because benefit from these services—and particularly restricts the women would have to travel on a highway low-income women who are more likely to live in connecting Dhaka to that outer suburb. High-speed high-risk areas. traffic makes highways dangerous for two-wheelers and increases the risk of accidents for the driver. “In Notably, companies have taken opposing approaches trying to provide safe transport for women, I cannot to optimizing hours of operations. Some, such as Ojek risk the lives of my own women drivers, so we do not Syari (page 47), Lily Ride (page 47), and a pilot by take these requests,” said Syed Saif, the founder of Lily PickMe (page 53), provide the option only during peak Ride. operations, when more women drivers are on the road. Others, like Lady Bug in Kenya, run the option only at Several other companies also provide drivers with night, when rider demand peaks. “Lady Bug service more scope than is typical to select routes depending will be open for requests to all customers from 6am on road safety or crime risk. Femitaxi, a Brazilian until 6pm, after which only ladies will be allowed to ride-hailing company that employs only female drivers make a request” the company founder, Kamal and operates in São Paulo and Brasilia, allows its Buddhabhatti, announced in 2016 (Amos 2016). 35 FOCUSING ON RELIABLE AND HIGH-VALUE opt-in product, as in the case of PickMe (page 53). For CUSTOMER GROUPS drivers, this process helps address the risk of reduced incomes as a result of serving fewer riders. At the same Another way to manage complex network dynamics is time, it reduces the population of women who may be to focus either on groups with predictable demand or able to obtain women-provided services or, on high-value customers. This category includes alternatively, the frequency with which these services corporate customers, especially those that provide are used. transportation for their employees after certain hours of the day. For Sakha Cabs in India (page 42), Women Cabs in Bangaluru, India, which began in corporate clients account for 80 percent of fleet use. 2014, is growing by offering service to high-end Miss Taxi Ghana targets the diplomatic community. Its clients. The company offers premium cars and the founder, Esenam Nyador, reported, “Our contact promise of safety and a high-quality customer numbers are with the embassies. Our security is built experience. on us knowing who we are serving and the person who recommended them.” The familiarity of a closed However, not all entrepreneurs find charging higher clientele makes the women drivers comfortable about prices viable. Revathi Roy, a “serial entrepreneur” in taking male passengers as well. Consistent demand the ride-hailing business in India, has started two such also can be created through subscription models. Ojek companies. Her first, ForShe, was sold and was Syari (page 47), for example, provides a given number followed by Viira Rides, a logistics services firm with of rides to and from work for subscribers in Indonesia. cabs and two-wheelers driven by women. She says getting the pricing right remains one of the harder Another consistent customer segment is children and parts of the business: “If a ride is available for 100 families. For instance, two companies, Taxshe and rupees and I charge you 300 just because I have a Koala Kabs of India (page 50), run a model with woman driver. What sense does that make?” women drivers that caters to school pickups and dropoffs. Families receive reliable transportation, and Higher pricing is also less applicable to moto taxis women work only for limited periods, typically such as Ojesy and Lily Ride (page 47) or to companies returning home during school hours. PickMe (page 53) that offer tuk-tuk options. Lady Bug in Kenya offers noted that many clients who use the rider opt-in model two sets of fares, one for newer cars and one for older were not making the selection for themselves, but cars. rather for school or other local transportation for their children. ENABLING VEHICLE FINANCING INCREASING PRICES Because of gaps in women’s financial inclusion, access to financing for vehicles, along with associated costs Some, but not all, companies increased prices for like insurance, represents a much larger barrier to women-provided services, either by charging floor entry to the sector for women than for men (IFC prices above market rates for nonsegregated services or 2018). In addition, financing vehicles can represent a by charging a supplement for customers who use the high-cost, depreciating asset that can be difficult for women to pay off, particularly if driving part time. In the case of the government-backed women taxi service 36 She Taxi in India, women drivers were given took proactive steps to address those barriers within concessional loans by the government to buy their cars; their recruiting, training, and operations. however, when earnings were not enough to repay the installments drivers protested, demanding further For instance, the founding teams of Sakha Cabs (page concessions (page 51). Several companies addressed 42) and Ladybird (page 63) spoke about hosting events this challenge by facilitating drivers’ access to vehicles. for recruits’ families or even going directly to the At Taxshe (page 50) and Sakha (page 42), companies homes of their drivers to convince the household that initially own the vehicles, but when drivers start to driving is a safe and productive form of work for earn sufficient income they make contributions to car women. Another, Priyadarshini Cabs, interviews the payments and have the option of taking over the lease family of the woman driver-aspirant as well. “If the and eventually owning the vehicle. However, those family doesn’t support the woman, she can’t be a drivers who do not wish to own the car may continue driver because 8 hours can become 12 hours. If she has driving on behalf of the companies. children and the family does not support her in looking after them when she is away, trust me, she will bang TACKLING SECURITY CONCERNS AND the car in stress,” said Susieben Shah, the company’s SOCIAL NORMS founder. “Once her confidence is shaken, [she] will never be able to get behind the wheel.” Another Many of the companies interviewed recognized the company, Ojek Syari (page 47), goes so far as to get degree to which safety, security, and social norms written permission from drivers’ family members. disproportionately impact women in transport and 37 Shailja Mittal, of Koala Kabs in India, said that that “Women come in very company’s biggest challenge is to keep drivers from dropping off because of conflicts with care enthusiastic in the responsibilities. “It is not that they don’t want to work. But the conditions in their home don’t let them,” beginning. Extremely Mittal explained. Husbands insist that the woman enthusiastic. Then I tell cook the food before going to work, cook again in the evenings, and take full responsibility for the children as them go back home and well. Koala Kabs employs a counselor to listen to the speak to your husbands. woman’s problems and to talk to family members and try to solve the issues between them. Mittal explained, After they speak to them “Since they are coming with so much baggage, so many restrictions, they tend to give up very soon. some of them will come Getting them out of that cocoon again and again is the back in a very sorrowful big challenge.” voice saying my husband Both drivers and their families relied on assurances of says this, my husband the increased safety and security features many companies adopted. Sakha Cabs was able to conduct says that.” inter-city transport services, which usually requires —Esenam Nyador, founder, Miss Taxi Ghana drivers to sleep overnight in the car, by ensuring that women could stay overnight in a secure room. Ladybird enabled women’s participation in long- distance oil transport by sending women out in teams of two. These measures added to features that have Lily Ride (page 47) gives free training to any woman been increasingly adopted across the transportation who wants to learn to ride a scooter to grow the industry, such as location sharing and in-app links to number of potential women recruits. emergency responders. Firms also invested in specialized training and INVESTING IN TRAINING AND LICENSING licensing. For instance, Ladybird (page 63), a long- distance transport provider focusing on oil delivery, The low supply of women drivers is widely recognized worked with an arm of the Ghanaian armed forces to as the key barrier to growth for women-provided provide training in intense hardship and survival. transport services. Some companies, including Sakha Many companies support the licensing process, Cabs (page 42), approached training from a social particularly in jurisdictions where personal and impact perspective, running separate foundations or commercial licenses require separate administrative nonprofits that enabled subsidized training. Others, processes. such as Uber Saudi Arabia (page 58), grew the market of drivers by funding licensing and training of women drivers through social impact initiatives. Moto service 38 ALTERNATIVES TO SEGREGATED TRANSPORT In addition to the companies that provide one of the seven models of GST outlined earlier, several companies interviewed reflected on why they had chosen not to pursue it—or why they had piloted and pulled the offering. Rationales reflected alternative Other companies, including the Other companies have initiated approaches to inclusivity and firms that offer GST options, segregated products but have concerns with operational emphasized the need to promote since withdrawn them. In India, efficiency. “We have considered women’s inclusion in ride-hailing Ola launched Ola Pink, which has matching women drivers and and to develop robust safety and since closed. As Aishwarya women riders; however, this security features. In the words of Raman, associate director and system would be countereffective Colin Judd, head of government head of research at the Ola to the whole idea of ride-hailing, relations and public policy at Mobility Institute, noted, which is to create as much Careem, “Careem actively “Matching a woman driver only efficiency as possible—allocating promotes the participation of with a woman passenger does the closest driver possible,” said women in the ride hailing industry not always lead to asset Sergio Pereira, director at Kapten. as passengers and entrepreneurs. maximization for the driver herself “Given the percentage of women When it was announced in 2018 and reduces her ability to earn drivers is very low at 4 to 7 that women in Saudi Arabia were more. We should be open to percent, but [there are] around 45 going to be allowed to drive, we women drivers ferrying any and to 50 percent women riders, this quickly opened up the Careem all passengers, and increase the feature would be platform to women drivers—or drivers’ remunerative counterproductive.” Josefhine Captinas—and have had relative opportunities. This would inspire Chitra, senior manager at Gojek success in onboarding them to other women to take up driving noted that GST could send the drive in the Kingdom.” as a livelihood opportunity which wrong message: “Rather than is a step towards wider social and segregation, our focus has always economic empowerment.” In Sri been on inclusion and creating a Lanka, PickMe piloted a Lady safe ecosystem for everyone, Fleet, which allowed riders to including women. We hope contact a call center and request everyone, regardless of their sex a woman driver, and plans to and gender, can feel safe when relaunch the service (page 53). traveling with us.” 39 40 4. Case Studies 41 CASE STUDY Sakha Cabs Combines For-Profit and Nonprofit Models to Get Women on the Road in India SUMMARY RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING In India, social norms and limited mobility for DRIVER PROFILE women have created a demand for gender- segregated transport. However, start-ups that aim In an interview, Meenu Vadera, the founder of to meet this demand face two key challenges: first, Sakha Cabs, repeatedly emphasized one point: it is potential drivers from low-income households need not enough to teach driving and get women a support to get on the road, and, second, high care license. Industry players and the government have responsibilities are almost completely borne by to recognize the fundamental societal factors that women. Sakha Cabs aims to overcome these prevent more women from entering this domain challenges through the adoption of a rights-based and from achieving a critical mass of women training program. drivers in India. Sakha Cabs recognized early on that many prospective women drivers belonged to BACKGROUND the poorest households and were often unaware of driving as a viable profession for them. Women Sakha Cabs is a car service operating in Delhi, come from households whose income is typically Indore, Jaipur, and Kolkata. Unlike taxis, car below the government poverty line of 3,900 rupees services in India traditionally work on the fixed- (US$55) per month. Even those who showed price model of duration and kilometers covered. interest in signing up did not have the proof of For instance, a car may be hired for a four-hour identification required to obtain a license. Many hire for a distance of up to 40 kilometers or an eight-hour hire for a distance of up to 80 kilometers, with charges for overages. Sakha straddles the old call-a-cab model and ride-hailing: customers call a phone number to book a ride or “Employing women drivers in strategic, book on the company’s website. Additionally, high-visibility locations like police Sakha’s vehicles are equipped with a safety button stations, airports, or hop-on-hop-off that connects to a 24-hour call center which can buses not only supports women’s track the driver on GPS. employment but also projects a sense of safety in public places for women travelers.” —Meenu Vadera, founder, Sakha Cabs 42 “Women drivers [are] not students or people just wanting to top up their income from other sources. They have come in because they want a job with faced issues of domestic violence or resistance from security, permanence, and so on. They family members who did not support women don’t want the uncertainty of not working as taxi drivers. knowing whether they will get a ride or not.” RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING —Meenu Vadera, founder, Sakha Cabs Sakha Cabs recognized that merely teaching driving skills would be insufficient to create successful drivers. As a result, it created a nonprofit BUSINESS MODEL called Azad Foundation, with which it formed a strategic partnership. Azad Foundation provides a Sakha manages the market by focusing on client training program combining knowledge about bases with large, consistent demand. The model women’s rights, communication, and life skills. follows several verticals: rides booked through the Family members are also engaged to ensure buy-in. call center, business-to-business services, and Trainees pay Azad Foundation 2,000 rupees private placement, with an upcoming product for (US$30) as a “commitment fund” to ensure they tourists. The company has also overcome are vested in the training. challenges to long-distance travel by enhancing security for drivers, expanding their geographical remit. 43 CASE STUDIES—SAKHA CABS continued • Target market. Business-to-business services • Time and geographical scope. Sakha cabs is include contracts with large corporations, such able to operate on a 24-hour schedule and to as PwC and Ernst & Young, that provide the support citywide and long-distance travel. majority of company revenue and engage 80 When it started, the company proposed an 8 a.m. percent of the fleet. The service is used mainly to 8 p.m. model, assuming women would find it by women employees of these companies who difficult to work outside those hours. However, work in late-night shifts and would prefer a after getting on the road, drivers asked for female driver to take them home. The remaining extended service hours, including 24 hours and, 20 percent of the cabs are used for trips booked more recently, for inter-city tours requiring through the call center, for both local and overnight stays. Customarily in India, on inter-city transportation. overnight trips the cab driver sleeps in the car or makes other ad hoc arrangements. However, • Private placement of chauffeurs. Here, Sakha Sakha’s drivers are able to accept such trips acts like a placement agency to provide because the company arranges their concierge services to clients. A contract is signed accommodations, taking responsibility for their outlining the terms of engagement with the security. employer and including timing, leave, overtime rates, and so on. The woman driver then begins • Payment model. Drivers earn a basic to receive her salary directly from her new guaranteed income, which they have the option employer. Although these opportunities allow to build upon by working overtime. Meenu the women drivers the possibility to earn more Vadera believes this is the preferred model for money, the familiar issues of women’s mobility resource-poor women who already come from arise. If it has been a long day, the woman driver vulnerable contexts and hence do not wish to may be unable to find reliable public transport at take on high-risk entrepreneurial models of a late hour. Sakha has hence added the clause that investing in cars and bearing all the related after 8 p.m. the driver must be paid the fare costs. required to go home by an auto, as it is not feasible to wait for a bus at a late hour. Finally, in future, Sakha is planning to open a new line of business, that of women tourist guides. 44 CASE STUDY Fyonka’s Women Exclusive Model Takes to the Road in Egypt SUMMARY work, women were committed to the job: “We thought retention would be a big problem. Fyonka, Egypt’s women-only ride-hailing company, However, 70 to 80 percent of the partners who was born out of three factors: limited mobility, a started with us in the first month are still with us high demand for safe and secure transportation, and today.” Founded in December 2018, the company limited career opportunities for women. In its first had more than 500 driver-partners in its database year of operations, the company has seen high as of November 2019. The company is seeking to interest among female drivers, with over 500 prove gender-segregated ride-hailing can be a registered and a wait list for activation. However, success by prioritizing security, reaching out to long-term success for the business will require drivers’ families, and targeting service areas to successfully building the rider market and managing specific times and specific locations within Cairo. difficult network dynamics, including how best to balance limited time and service locations. SECURITY AND SUPPORT FYONKA Removing the norms forbidding interactions with men in a confined, private space, as well as the real At 23 percent, female labor force participation in or perceived security risks of doing so, opened up Egypt is among the lowest in the world (World the pipeline of women drivers in Cairo. Fyonka also Bank 2019a). Limitations on women’s economic ensured the security of drivers in other ways. All the participation are particularly acute in vehicles have an emergency button that can be used nontraditional sectors like transportation. This in a crisis and a photo verification feature in the lower participation is driven by factors like digital app. When the driver arrives at the customer pickup and financial inclusion but also by restrictive social point, the customer can view her picture, name, and norms: in IFC’s (2018) study on the ride-hailing mobile number on the app to confirm that this is, in industry in Egypt, 57 percent of Egyptian men fact, her driver. Fyonka also has partnered with surveyed said they would be unhappy if a female MAYDAY, an Egyptian roadside assistance member of their family signed up to drive a cab. application, so that if the driver needs any help with Fyonka’s founders, Abdallah Hussein, Mostafa El Kholy, and Omar Shaaban, knew that they would have to overcome these barriers to start a ride- During high school final exams, there hailing company designed for women. Fyonka, was a huge drop in the number of drivers which means ribbon or bow in Arabic, is Egypt’s on the road. Inquiries revealed mothers only all-female ride-hailing service. It matches an were staying at home to ensure the exclusively female driving force with an exclusively children studied. “We never thought this female ridership base in select zones of Cairo. would affect our business.” Hussein says that despite facing widespread perceptions that women are not committed to —Abdallah Hussein, cofounder, Fyonka 45 CASE STUDIES—FYONKA continued changing tires or jumpstarting the vehicle, for “Before we started Fyonka, our main example, help will arrive within 30 minutes. worry was that we wouldn’t be able to attract enough drivers. This was a big REACHING OUT TO FAMILY misconception. We have double of what we need. We have a wait list of drivers The high importance given to security is reassuring wanting to join us.” not only for the drivers but also to their family —Abdallah Hussein, cofounder, Fyonka members. One founder recalls a case of a woman driver who wanted to join the company, but her brother, who was a driver with another ride-hailing and hence carrying their household responsibilities company, opposed his sister’s idea of working for almost completely. The opportunity to generate Fyonka. However, when Fyonka’s executives met income on a convenient schedule is what typically the brother and spoke to him about the safety attracts women drivers to the sector—83 percent features in the vehicle and app, he was convinced identified the ability to work at times that suit that the risk for his sister was low. them as a key benefit (IFC 2018). TIME AND GEOGRAPHIC Fyonka’s own trip data revealed how closely RESTRICTIONS domestic and care responsibilities influence women’s driving patterns. For instance, during After market research showed high demand for high school final exams, the company saw a huge travel after midnight, Fyonka plans to extend the drop in the number of drivers on the road. current operating hours from 8 a.m. – midnight to Inquiries revealed mothers were staying at home to 8 a.m. – 3 a.m. Fyonka is also scheduled to expand ensure their children studied. “We never thought its operations across new areas. Currently it this would affect our business,” Hussein said. operates in 15 of the 20 districts in Cairo, where it Likewise, during the festive season of Ramadan, could potentially offer its services. The criteria for when Muslims traditionally fast during the day selection of districts is safety, contiguity, and and have a feast after sunset, the company noted a presence of a rider market. The company is hopeful drop in the number of available drivers two hours that with a fresh round of funding it will be able to before the fast was broken. The women drivers had onboard more drivers and expand the operating gone home to cook the food for the evening meal. areas. After being approached by a women’s scooter club in Alexandria, Fyonka also intends to The founders note that continuing to address social launch Fyonka Scooters in the city. barriers will help more women get on the road or earn more from ride-hailing. “It will have a ripple WORK PATTERNS effect if females are able to penetrate such a male-dominated market. They will be able to enter Most of Fyonka’s drivers are 20 to 35 years old. A similar fields which they were not able to a few majority are single mothers—divorced or widowed years ago,” Hussein said. 46 CASE STUDY Lily Ride and Ojek Syari Launch Moto Services for Women in Bangladesh and Indonesia SUMMARY ways for women to obtain moto rides. “Whenever you see a woman on a motorbike you can make In cities like Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Jakarta, out who is going with their peer and who is taking Indonesia, motorbike taxis are justifiably popular. a ride, because when they are ride-hailing, they In addition to being easier to navigate in dense put a bag in front of them as a barrier from the traffic, these modes of transport enjoy a lower cost male driver and sit really uncomfortably. But if per ride that is more suited to women’s need for this issue were not there, even more people would affordable transport. However, drivers are almost be using two-wheeler taxis,” Saif said. He ended always male, meaning that women passengers up founding Lily Ride, which matches women sitting on the pillion have to overcome social moto drivers with women passengers, the norms related to physical proximity and are too following year. often subject to sexual harassment. In a BBC (2019) interview, Arundhati, a working Over the past five years two companies, Lily Ride mother, said the route that used to take her one and of Bangladesh and Ojek Syari of Indonesia, have half hours by bus now takes only half an hour on a launched gender-segregated apps that have Lily Ride scooter. “When I read the newspaper of evolved very different business plans. Lily Ride many, many incidents, I feel scared to go by bus. has extended to women-only services and Ojek But when I started using Lily, it saved my time. It Syari, since rebranded SyariHub, has evolved from saved my money as well!,” she said. transport into services ranging from nannying to tutoring in the Quran. Both have turned gender- segregated moto services into an effort to become gender-segregated super apps. “Whenever you see a woman on a Lily Ride, Bangladesh motorbike you can make out who is going with their peer and who is taking a BACKGROUND ride, because when they are ride-hailing, they put a bag in front of them as a In 2017, when Syed Saif’s wife took a trip on a barrier from the male driver and sit motorbike through a ride-hailing service, she was really uncomfortably. But if this issue in for an unpleasant surprise when the driver were not there, even more people would subsequently began sending her text messages. be using two-wheeler taxis.” The incident prompted Saif to think about better —Syed Saif, founder, Lily Ride 47 CASE STUDIES—LILY RIDE AND OJEK SYARI continued BUSINESS MODEL of women driving motos in Dhaka. To grow the pool of lady drivers, Lily Ride gives free training to All of Lily Ride’s drivers are women. About 22 any woman who wants to learn to ride a scooter. percent are full-time employees who earn a salary “We have 17 full timers now. But we have trained and add a small portion of variable incentives, more than 130. Many just wanted the training, and while the remaining are “hobby ride-hailing did not want to become drivers. So we trained drivers”—people who pick up ad hoc rides when them anyway, free of cost. It is open for any convenient. All riders also are women, a significant woman,” Saif said. As a start-up, the company portion of whom are university students and depends on existing drivers to teach newcomers, so working women looking for a fast transportation there is a waiting list for training. Sometimes solution in a notoriously gridlocked city. The women leave during training because of segment of customers who request rides on emergencies back in the village or because the demand at irregular intervals makes up about 30 family does not allow them to continue. percent of the market. The remaining 70 percent of the market constitutes advance booking customers. Lily Ride’s vision is to see 20 percent to 30 percent Those customers book rides for several months at of the drivers on two-wheelers through Dhaka’s a time, giving pickup time and destination. Pricing roads be women and to have at least 200 women is on par with other competitors that offer moto on its direct payroll, up from the current 17. But services and is well below the cost of a car or even the big challenge is funding. Until now the a three-wheeler, or tuk-tuk. company has been funded by angel investors. To supplement the ride-hailing business, the company HIRING AND TRAINING is establishing new business lines. The first of these, CHALLENGES Lily Tailor, offers door-to-door custom tailoring service for women’s clothes by women tailors. The Saif pointed out that the service has seen huge next planned set of activities will extend into demand from passengers from the time of its soft e-commerce. launch in December 2017, but because of the paucity of women two-wheeler drivers, the company has been unable to meet the demand. The Ojek Syari Becomes first round of drivers recruited through social SyariHub media knew how to drive a two-wheeler and had the relevant license. The second round of drivers BACKGROUND were harder to identify because of the social stigma At the beginning of 2013, the mayor of Lhokseumawe, in Aceh, Indonesia, a conservative region where Islamic (Sharia) law has been implemented, announced that he would push for a 48 “Women in my community want to be HIRING CHALLENGES able to be part of a woman’s network to run their businesses. My app helps them A big challenge is finding enough women drivers do that, without compromising their because the population of women drivers of Islamic values.” two-wheelers is much smaller than women car drivers. The drivers are usually mothers, often —Evilita Adriani, founder, SyariHub single mothers, looking for some ancillary income. Ojesy recognizes the social norms that might keep law prohibiting women from straddling women from getting on the road by reaching out to motorcycles or bicycles. Women would not be families, even to the extent of getting written allowed to straddle motorbikes other than in an permission from a male member of the family, such “emergency” and would not be allowed to hold as a father, brother, or husband. onto the driver because that posture was against Islamic culture (BBC 2013). In 2015, the province FROM RIDE-HAILING APP TO passed a bill to ban unmarried couples from riding LIFESTYLE HUB a motorcycle together, meaning women could not ride pillion on moto taxis driven by men (BBC In a survey to find out what most drove women to 2015). Elsewhere in Indonesia, no explicit join the platform, Ojesy found that women were prohibition has been made against joint riding, but most motivated not by income but by “making the practice remains frowned upon. contacts with other women.” Recruits often operated a side business selling food or clothes or BUSINESS MODEL household-related items. By coming onto the platform, the women drivers felt they could access Ojek Syari (also known as Ojesy) was founded in a new customer base. This motivation provided the 2017 and has since completed 80,000 trips for inspiration for the company’s next iteration: a women passengers. Ojek operates through a rebrand to SyariHub, a platform for Muslim subscription model in which riders pay for a set women and families to connect and find services. number of trips per month; typically they are Currently, SyariHub helps women find nannies, predictable rides such as school runs or commutes catering, massages, and tutors for teaching the to work. Of the about 1,000 drivers on Ojesy, Quran, in addition to rides for themselves and some 200 women are employees on salaries, their children. By broadening the services offered working from 5 a.m. to 7 p.m., and an additional by and to women, SyariHub could be said to be the 800 work part time to meet the demand for one-off first gender-segregated super app. rides outside subscriptions. All the vehicles are owned by the women who enroll with them. 49 CASE STUDY Taxshe and Koala Kabs Target High-Value Customers in India SUMMARY PRICING In India, two companies, Koala Kabs and Taxshe, Rates for this service are at a premium over are trying to manage demand by focusing on two standard ride-hailing services. But the target consistent, high-value segments: children’s school customers are affluent enough to pay the higher transport and corporate customers. price for what they see as a safer option. Additionally, fares are split between six to eight BUSINESS MODELS children in each car to increase affordability. The premium pricing allows women drivers to earn Taxshe and Koala Kabs are two services in India more while working fewer hours than they would that have women drivers handling school runs for have had to in a general ride-hailing service. “We women, dropping off and picking up children. have waiting lists of four to five thousand Both services stem from a need to provide a secure children,” said Suri. “The demand is so high for a trip for a group with high safety needs. Both service like ours.” companies position the drivers as “Mammas,” who are as caring as the children’s own mothers POLICY CHALLENGES would be. The biggest challenge these two services face is The drivers use the interval between the start and whether that type of service would fall under end of school to pick up younger children in the regulations for cabs or school transport. The law area and take them to their neighborhood daycare in India is yet to clarify whether and how the rules centers and preschools. The strategy works because for a school van could be applicable to a service preschools begin mid-morning and finish earlier that ferries children in cars. School vans have to than regular schools do, so the drivers can be back follow a color code, and the drivers need to have a at the school gates in time to pick up the older commercial license. On the other hand, commercial children. licenses are not needed for a taxi, creating a dilemma for cabs doing school runs. School vans DRIVERS also sign a contract with the school while Koala Kabs and Taxshe are contracted directly with Predictable routes, hours, clients, and income help parents as suppliers of private transport. All school women drivers manage their work and home transport vehicles have to have a speedometer that commitments. Taxshe’s drivers are allotted duties does not cross 25 miles per hour. Taxshe and Koala near their homes so that once they drop the Kabs reported difficulty complying with this children off they may take the cars they are driving regulation, because in the evenings they do other to their homes during school hours. The cars serve trips, such as to the airport for adult women as free publicity for the company to encourage customers, and thereby are required to drive at more women to join, said Vandana Suri, Taxshe’s higher speeds. owner and founder. 50 CASE STUDY The Government of Kerala Supports the Development of She Taxi BACKGROUND supported through the process of obtaining a driver’s license. The government enacted three In 2013, the Kerala government’s Department of regulatory exceptions for the business to take off: Social Justice opened an autonomous institution called Gender Park. Gender Park is a platform that • It allowed the cars to be light pink instead of the brings together gender policy, research, education, yellow, white, and black that are the mandatory and social initiatives toward reducing gender gaps colors of taxis in the state. in society. Headquartered in Trivandrum, Gender Park has a sprawling campus in the city of • It allowed advertisements on the sides of the car Kozhikode, in northern Kerala. As part of its to enable the venture to earn extra income, off-campus activities, it began a women-only waiving the levy that is otherwise applicable. transport service, called She Taxi, to encourage women to enter the male-dominated profession of • The women were permitted to wear a uniform professional driving. in the same colors as that of the cab—pink and light blue—instead of the khaki uniform donned BUSINESS MODEL by male taxi drivers. The government contracted with an automobile The business’s operations, including running the manufacturer, Maruti Suzuki, and a finance call center through which rides were booked, company to provide vehicles to women at scheduling a driver’s trips, monitoring the trip, and concessional rates. The cars were bought on loans handling complaints, were managed by a private offered at discounted interest rates by designated agency. The agency earned a commission of 13 banks or financial institutions. Drivers without a percent on every She Taxi trip. In addition, the ad license were trained in Maruti’s driving school and revenue was shared between the driver and the private agency. DRIVER PROFILES “Initially we were worried that there Kerala is characterized by high rates of female would be backlash from male taxi literacy, education, work participation, and life drivers, who are all unionized, but that expectancy, along with the tradition of matrilineal didn’t happen. People are scared to do inheritance. Consequently, She Taxi’s drivers anything to She Taxi because they know represent a diverse demographic, including women they are government backed.” from higher socioeconomic backgrounds who —PT Mohammed Sunish, chief executive officer, joined the labor force for the first time to get an Gender Park extra income for their families. 51 CASE STUDIES—SHE TAXI continued • Hours and locations. The drivers were available BUSINESS GROWTH AND CHALLENGES 24 hours a day and made intra- and inter-city trips. Their overnight stays were helped by an Starting with five drivers in 2014, the She Taxi fleet arrangement that Gender Park had with the grew to 50 drivers in 2017. Business was flourishing local authorities of different districts in Kerala with each driver earning between US$700 and in which She Taxi drivers could use the $1,200 (50,000–85,000 rupees) per month. restrooms of the government guest houses However, the drivers demanded further concessions (accommodation for traveling government on the purchase of cars. Some drivers took their officials) while on long-distance trips. vehicle and absconded, defaulting on their loans. Other drivers were reportedly unhappy because of • Approach to safety. She Taxis were equipped high competition from app-based ride-hailing with separate emergency buttons for the driver services, whereas She Taxi continued to rely on a and the rider that connect to a full-time control call center. In addition, prices were administered by room as well as to the police contact number. the government, because it was a state-backed Phone numbers of all emergency response enterprise, so the service did not use dynamic systems in the city, such as police, hospitals, pricing (Jayaram 2018). ambulance, automobile repair shops, fire stations, and safe night shelters for women, Following several rounds of negotiations with the were available to the drivers. drivers, the company has now been relaunched. She Taxi has developed an app for booking and was set to relaunch in December 2019 with 50 cabs and a popular Kerala film star as a goodwill ambassador, unveiling the new improved version of the service. In the relaunch, the company planned to take both male and female passengers to expand the passenger base. 52 CASE STUDY PickMe Pilots a Rider Opt-In Option in Sri Lanka SUMMARY The initial product was offered through a call center, rather than through the main app, with In Sri Lanka, over 90 percent of women have been rides requested an hour in advance. Riders also harassed on buses or trains (UNFPA 2017). A paid an increased fee of 100 rupees (US$0.55) over study from Oxfam (Butt and Sekram 2019) found standard rates in the app, which was passed on to that strong social norms not only restricted the driver. Even with these limitations, demand women’s mobility but also enabled sexual outstripped the company’s ability to deliver the harassment by discouraging victim or bystander product at scale because of the limited number of interventions. In this context, PickMe decided to women drivers working in Sri Lanka. pilot a rider opt-in model in order both to serve women’s needs as riders and to test whether a A subsequent survey found that demand for gender-segregated solution would get more drivers women drivers is high but dynamic. Some 90 on the road. percent of women riders would like the option to select a woman driver, but the four reasons for PICKME LADY FLEET preferring the service—when traveling alone, at night, to an unknown destination, or with PickMe is a platform that facilitates services children—represent only a portion of overall rides. ranging from passenger transport on tuk-tuks and However, 25 percent of interested riders would be cars to long-distance transport and delivery. In a willing to pay a higher rate for the service. Of month-long pilot, a gender-segregated option these, 23 percent would be willing to pay a 30 called PickMe Lady Fleet was available in intra- percent to 50 percent surcharge and 18 percent city vehicles. Uniquely among the companies would be willing to pay a 60 percent to 100 interviewed for this brief, riders, rather than percent surcharge (IFC, Forthcoming B). drivers, opted in to the service. Men could be in the car as long as a woman passenger requested the PickMe ran the pilot for a month and plans to ride. Women also commonly used the app to relaunch the product in the app once it reaches a request transportation for their children to and target number of women drivers in 2020. It also from school. plans to extend the option to tuk-tuks, among the most popular options locally, which will both in- crease affordability for riders and open the option to a larger number of women drivers. Obtaining more drivers is a key motivation for PickMe. “We want to 90 percent of PickMe’s women riders see if more women will come into the platform only would like the option of selecting a to drive other women” said Tasnim Salie, director at woman driver: of those riders, 25 PickMe. “Not enough women are taking advantage percent would be willing to pay a of the opportunity for work that ride-hailing can surcharge to use this service. offer. Hopefully PickMe Lady Fleet can help.” 53 CASE STUDY Green Cab South Africa Finances Green Vehicles for Women Drivers SUMMARY GETTING WOMEN ON THE ROAD AND IN THE DRIVER SEAT Over the past decade Green Cab, based in Cape Town, South Africa, has found a way to distinguish Next, Green Cab is partnering with the itself in a crowded market by providing international ride-hailing company Bolt to combine environmentally sustainable transport. In its next the existing environmentally friendly offering with phase, the company plans to combine an “open customer” model of women-provided environmental and social impact by creating a transport, hiring only women to operate its vehicles women-only driver service. but allowing men, women, and groups and select clientele such as corporations to book its vehicles. GREEN TRANSPORT Gareth Taylor, country manager at Bolt South To create a green-transport service in South Africa, Africa, said, “For us, the issue is that less than five Green Cab has had to bring climate-smart percent of the more than 1 million drivers on our technology to the local market. The company bases platform globally are women. By working with its fleet on the all-electric BMW-i3 model, which Green Cab we hope to obtain valuable input and has zero carbon emissions but higher upfront costs feedback from a women-provided transport service and longer return on investment. “But so much of that would enable Bolt to make the changes and the expense is the actual operating cost such as fuel upgrades that would make us more attractive to and maintenance: averaged over five or six years, female transport service providers in the future.”  electric vehicles drastically drop costs per trip,” noted Amiene van der Merwe, founder and Van der Merwe sees this first as a social impact managing director. initiative through driving transformation of a sector that employes fewer women drivers, but also Part of Green Cab’s market development strategy as a business initiative because women drivers are is to target high-value customers, such as hosts of well received in terms of safety and customer conferences and large events which are likely to satisfaction. For instance, Green Cab plans to prioritize social and environmental impact and sponsor different local causes and will train drivers which can bring in large groups of customers. The to speak to riders about them. Van der Merwe company calls this offering “Conferencing with a noted that she sees women drivers as great Conscience.” Green Cab also offers point-to-point potential salespeople, helping to drive support of transfers and chauffeur rides to the private sector the monthly causes championed by the company. and tours and charters to Cape Town’s active The company is confident that drivers who engage tourist market. with riders will get higher tips and income. 54 CASE STUDY Regulatory Barriers Shut Down Rosy and Pink Cabs and Pink Ladies in the United Kingdom SUMMARY “By refusing to allow this app, you are telling women that they are safe at all The regulatory context of gender-segregated times, and this is simply untrue. As much transport is often opaque. In two cases in the as we would like to believe this, reports United Kingdom, the founders of Rosy and Pink on assaults on women by men confirm Cabs faced regulatory backlash that forced the that women are becoming more close of their GST offerings. vulnerable when travelling alone, especially at night.” ROSY AND PINK CABS —Mandy Welsh, founder, Rosy and Pink Cabs When Mandy Welsh decided to launch a taxi service in Glasgow, Scotland, that would hire women drivers for women passengers, she envisaged Explaining her business objective, Welsh stated, transporting “grannies to Bingo and kids to school.” “Women deserve to feel safe and make their own The idea came from seeing an increasing number of choices about who drives them home—and this media reports about women being sexually app is designed to do that. It has also been assaulted when traveling alone. Welsh created the designed with female drivers in mind, to help them service because she believes that some women feel feel safer when they are out driving, particularly at safer being picked up by another woman and that night. I created this as I feel passionately about some men feel safer knowing their partner, child, or helping ensure women have a choice and feel safe.” mother is being picked up by a women. The model was that female taxi and private-hire drivers would pay a membership fee of 25 pounds a month for the first month and 10 pounds per month subsequently, which would allow them to “They were just so appalled by the idea. use the platform whenever they wanted. It was They said I was discriminating, and I was targeted at women, such as stay-at-home mothers, being sexist. I wasn’t discriminating who wanted to have a flexible schedule and to earn against men, I was discriminating some extra money. against sexual predators.” —Mandy Welsh, founder, Rosy and Pink Cabs 55 CASE STUDIES—ROSY AND PINK CABS, PINK LADIES continued But Welsh encountered unexpected legal hurdles. In the meantime, she plans to submit a petition to When she applied for the license required to the Scottish Parliament arguing that her original operate a taxi service, she was stalled by the idea is not discriminatory because women should Glasgow City Council on the grounds that such a be given the choice of a women-only service. “I still service was discriminatory against male cab want to guarantee female drivers for female drivers. Welsh was surprised, because women-only passengers if they want them. I still believe 100 cab services exist in other parts of the United percent in the idea,” Welsh said. Kingdom, such as in London. PINK LADIES, UNITED KINGDOM In an interview with a local news journal, Glasgow’s licensing convener Alex Wilson said, “If Pink Ladies, Warrington, began in 2005 as an it was the other way round we would be looking at exclusive, women-only car club. The company’s 14 discrimination against females. The whole not- Renault Kangoo vehicles were owned by the club picking-up-male passengers is a concern to me. I members, who paid to hire a driver when they don’t think we should discriminate at all” wanted to use the car club. The club produced its (Sandelands 2019). own magazine and organized days out for its 14,000 members—15 percent of the women in “I just didn’t understand why they would be so Warrington (Barkham 2009). The idea stemmed offended by an all-female app. I didn’t think I was from an observed need to provide women with a proposing anything terrible, I was trying to help,” comfortable, safe transport option (Manchester Welsh said. Her lawyer has also gone on record Evening News 2010). stating that the council did not seem to like the concept itself (McCaffrey 2019). In November 2008, council officials posed as customers using the Regulation of Investigatory The founder was informed that she had to open the Powers Act, designed to combat terrorism and service to everyone, irrespective of gender. Welsh, serious crimes. A few months later, in May 2009, therefore, plans to relaunch the app by opening it charges were pressed against the founders, Andrea up to all self-employed certified male and female Winders and Tina Dutton, by Warrington Council taxi and private hire drivers who may be looking in Cheshire for operating an unlicensed private hire to earn extra cash or increase their current wages. company. The founders held that if they had A membership fee would be charged every month registered under the taxi licensing system, sex to gain access to the app and a commission would discrimination laws would have compelled their be taken on each fare (Welsh n.d.). She attempted a women drivers to pick up both male and female crowdfunding project for 5,000 pounds for start- customers. up costs, licensing, and marketing. 56 The company overcame that hurdle and, as of because of “unrealistic expectations,” red tape, 2010, media reports announced its plans to expand and too many hurdles to overcome (Hirst 2015). to other countries, beginning with France. Pink Ladies had 45 employees, uniformed lady One 79-year-old service user told a reporter that it chauffeurs who were trained in self-defense and was a “big loss” to the town of Warrington and did more than driving, including helping the that she was unsure how she would cope without elderly and running errands for clients (Manchester Pink Ladies. A woman driver, 50, said, “For the Evening News 2010). However, nearly 10 years past few months I have had the enormous pleasure after it was launched, the high-profile service to be of some service to our ladies of this town. closed down on New Year’s Eve 2014. Founder They gave me a sense of purpose, my dignity at Tina Dutton admitted in a news report that she having a job” (Hirst 2015). was unable to renew the company’s permits 57 CASE STUDY Uber’s “Women Rider Preference” Feature Launches in Saudi Arabia and Brazil SUMMARY In 2018, Uber launched the “Women Rider 74 percent of prospective women drivers Preference” feature, which is designed to give interviewed in Saudi Arabia said they women driver-partners in Saudi Arabia the choice would only be interested in driving to select a preference of women riders. This feature women riders. was initially developed to fit a unique context: Saudi Arabia had just lifted the ban on women driving, and many saw it as a necessary transition passports and to travel without male guardianship. step to meet growing interest from Saudi women However, longstanding restrictions mean that seeking to get into the workforce. More than a gender gaps in women’s economic participation are year on, the feature has been well received, and substantial: less than 17 percent of women in Saudi drivers, 74 percent of whom initially indicated they Arabia are in the labor force (World Bank 2019a) would be interested in driving only women riders, and both legal and social norms continue to are shifting to the full app, increasingly opting to normalize the segregation of men and women in drive both women and men. Next, Uber is piloting public and professional life. the Women Rider Preference feature to meet the challenges of an entirely different context—Brazil. DEMAND FOR GENDER- SEGREGATED TRANSPORT LIFTING THE BAN ON WOMEN DRIVING IN SAUDI ARABIA In Saudi Arabia, women make up Uber’s key rider base and take the majority of all trips on the app. In June 2018, Saudi Arabia lifted the ban on Even in this context, however, some riders women driving as part of a program of economic experienced pushback about traveling in a confined and social reforms targeted at increasing economic space with male drivers, particularly when growth and women’s labor force participation. In traveling alone. August 2019, reforms were broadened to include legislation that allowed women to apply for The lift of the ban offered the potential to get women into the workforce. Research conducted with third-party research firm Ipsos found that 78 percent of women planned to apply for a license (Jacobo 2019) and almost 31 percent of those Putting the choice in the hands of surveyed indicated that they were interested in drivers means that the company does driving as an earnings opportunity (Uber Team not impose any of the limitations 2019). However, many women drivers were put off implicit in gender-segregated by the idea of driving men: Uber’s market research transportation. 58 “Before launching the Women Rider BRINGING THE WOMEN RIDER Preference feature, we found through PREFERENCE FEATURE TO THE research carried out in partnership with MARKET Ipsos that a large percentage of prospective women drivers interviewed Rather than develop a feature that exclusively would only be interested in driving matched women drivers and riders, Uber worked women riders. Today, a number of on the Women Rider Preference feature, which women driving on the app still use the gives women driver-partners in Saudi Arabia the feature, while others choose to turn it choice to select a preference of women riders. off and use the app without a preference Riders are not able to elect to be paired with to riders.” female drivers. The model had a soft launch in June 2018 and a full launch in April 2019. Putting —Dana Al Zaben, senior public policy associate, the choice in the hands of drivers means that the Uber company does not impose any of the limitations implicit in gender-segregated transportation, such with prospective women drivers found that 74 as a smaller market size or fewer trips. percent of prospective women drivers interviewed would be interested only in driving women riders. GETTING WOMEN ON THE ROAD “Safety is at the heart of everything we do,” said The Women Rider Preference was rolled out as Rana Kortam, Uber’s former manager of global part of Uber’s Masaruky, or “Your Path” Initiative, women’s safety policy. “We’ve been hard at work which attempts to increase women’s participation launching multiple new technological safety in the workforce through access to affordable features, strengthening our background checks, transportation, in addition to increasing women’s reforming our policies, and working with over 200 access to flexible, part-time work. “The first advocate organizations around the world to rounds of drivers that signed up were pioneers,” continue to do better on safety. Our approach to said Dana Al Zaben, Uber’s senior public policy rider and driver safety goes beyond who they’re associate. “These were among the first women to matched with. However, in Saudi Arabia, women drive in the Kingdom [of Saudi Arabia], not just on wanted the choice to drive women, and providing Uber.” In the months following the lift of the ban, that choice to them meant unlocking significant more and more women received licenses and a opportunities for their economic empowerment; broader spectrum of women registered to drive. something we care deeply about.” Drivers’ engagement with the Women Rider Preference also evolved over its first year of operation. Although the vast majority of women had begun by stating they would only drive if they could be matched with other women, over time 59 CASE STUDIES—UBER continued many transitioned from the Women Rider But the biggest barrier lies in the supply of drivers. Preference to the full app, driving both men and More than 50,000 licenses were issued to women women. An even larger portion of women now opt across Saudi Arabia in the first six months of 2019 in and out of the Women Rider Preference, for (Corder 2019), but training schools are instance when shifting between day and night overwhelmed by the demand for licenses following driving. legalization, with wait lists up to six months. Licensing fees are also substantial, costing about BARRIERS TO GROWTH US$660 (2,500 riyal). As part of the Masaruky Initiative, Uber dedicated US$266,000 (1 million Operational and market challenges remain. First, riyal) to covering licensing costs for women. many female riders use the account of a male family member, meaning they would not be FROM SAUDI ARABIA TO BRAZIL matched with women drivers. Additionally, since the app relies on name matching rather than on After a year in Saudi Arabia, Uber announced self-identification, it functions most effectively with plans to pilot the Women Rider Preference feature names that only have female usage. Another in a second country—Brazil. operational challenge is verifying identification, because women wear niqabs and cannot be While a very different context to Saudi Arabia, required to remove them for photos. Brazil also poses a number of challenges for women, particularly in regards to gender-based violence (ActionAid 2014). By trialing the feature in a new location, Uber planned to test whether it had potential for a larger roll-out. At the time of writing, Uber began with a pilot in 11 cities. In the first stage, Uber Brazil found that over half of women drivers who used Women Rider Preference took more trips overall in the observed post-launch period. Importantly, they also found that over half of women who used the feature drove more at night, the time when women are typically least likely to be on the road. This early data reinforces the insights from Saudi Arabia, suggesting that GST can offer a pathway for women to drive more with ride-hailing services. 60 CASE STUDY Didi Chuxing and 99 Introduce “Algorithmic Prioritization” and Driver Opt In SUMMARY male driver who has 10,000 rides without complaints. In its home market of China, Didi Chuxing uses “algorithmic prioritization”—a model that Melody Tu, secretary general of the Didi Women’s automatically links women drivers and riders as Network, noted that an important feature of the one of several safety dimensions it uses when algorithm-based matching is that women are not dispatching orders. In the newer market of Brazil, subject to increased danger or harassment while the company is also piloting a new feature, waiting for a vehicle that might occur if few 99Mulher, which enables women drivers to opt-in women drivers were available. “Imagine a woman to drive only women. Both sit alongside other rider standing in the middle of the night on the evolving safety features. curbside calling for a ride. There will probably be very few woman drivers on the road. You will be ADJUSTING THE ALGORITHM exposing the woman passenger to a long wait, FOR A SAFER PICKUP which is not necessarily safe if we are focused exclusively on pairing her with a woman driver,” In China, Didi uses a unique system of Tu said. At the same time, Tu also noted that every “algorithmic prioritization,” which includes driver new filter reduces the pool of available drivers for and rider gender among many factors in deciding that particular woman rider. “So it is a balancing which users and drivers to pair. Specifically, the act. We are always trying to improve the order-dispatching algorithm enables women riders algorithms based on new data insights so that we to be automatically paired with another driver if can reach that delicate balance of convenience and there is a matching request within a given area and safety for women.” pickup time. However, if pickup times increase beyond an acceptable period, then the algorithm Matching women drivers and riders is one in a will prioritize other driver features, for instance a suite of safety features. Others include a virtual safety assistant for women users on ride-sharing product Hitch, which provides users with more information on their fellow passengers and the driver, including driving history, car condition, and “It is a balancing act. We are always the last verification time. Further safety features trying to improve the algorithms based include enhanced driver verification procedures for on new data insights to reach that long-distance trips, reminders to use Share Status delicate balance of convenience and and other in-trip safety features, an alert and safety for women.” intervention mechanism when algorithms detect abnormal route deviation from a stop, and a direct —Melody Tu, secretary general of the Didi Women’s sharing contact with emergency response services Network through an in-app SOS button. 61 CASE STUDIES—DIDI CHUXING AND 99 continued FROM CHINA TO LATIN AMERICA In response to local needs, the company explored a variety of different features in addition to including In 2018, Didi acquired ride-hailing company 99 in algorithmic preference. First, in many Latin Brazil and has since started services in Chile, American markets Didi offers a feature called Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Panama. dynamic geofencing to identify hot safety zones Apart from safety protections for all users, the that might be dangerous to drivers and passengers, company needed to invest more in protecting while maintaining basic services to underprivileged women drivers in the face of new, unique safety neighborhoods. Didi reports that it received challenges. In China, for instance, women positive feedback from women drivers in Brazil represented about 10 percent of drivers, most of that with this feature on the app, their families whom worked on a part-time basis. According to a would feel safe enough to allow them to go to the 2019 survey from 99, women make up 17 percent road at night. Didi also noted that safety of 99’s drivers and full-time women drivers work innovations accessible to all drivers tend to benefit longer hours than their male counterparts. The more women drivers, who are more vulnerable in average age of women drivers in Brazil is between risky scenarios. 35 and 44; over half of them are mothers and a majority are the sole wage earner of a family. For its next step, 99, Didi’s wholly owned subsidiary in Brazil, began trial operations of 99 Women (99Mulher), a women-driving-women program, in select Brazilian cities in December 2019. In the pilot program, verified female drivers would be able to choose in the app whether they wish to pick up only women passengers. 99 will monitor match accuracy, acceptance rates, user wait time, and feedback to evaluate the effects of the project. 62 CASE STUDY Ladybird Logistics Introduces Women Drivers to the Business of Long-Distance Transport SUMMARY “They were going to be trailblazers because we didn’t have any females in One sign that demand for women drivers is not Ghana driving trucks. So it was also their purely spurred by passenger interest is the idea of helping to start something increasing extension of women’s transportation totally different that attracted them to companies beyond personal transit to courier and the job.” delivery services. Ladybird Logistics is among the few companies promoting women drivers into one —Payin Marfo, managing director, Ladybird of the most difficult of these spaces: long-distance Logistics oil delivery to Ghana’s mining industry. Spurred initially by a desire to build women’s representation in this burgeoning industry, the BACKGROUND company worked with partners ranging from vehicle manufacturers to the Army of Ghana to William Tewiah had been the chief executive officer set up systems to proactively address the social of Zen Petroleum Limited for 10 years and had norms and security risks that keep women off the spent much of his time and energy in those years road, thus allowing women truck drivers to battling with his truckers about pilferage of the fuel successfully compete with men. they were transporting to Ghana’s mines. “Every time they delivered fuel there was always a big argument about 100 liters going missing or 500 liters going missing. And in some cases, they were “It is generally proven if you give a actually taking fuel out and putting water in it. In woman a $100 in this part of the world, pure frustration I decided to start our own transport the woman will spend more on business,” he said. Tewiah wanted to break the education, health, and welfare than the existing format and do something completely equivalent male. So that was another different. Therefore, he thought of hiring women compelling reason for us. We felt we drivers, despite no one being very positive about the could kill several birds with one stone by idea that women could drive trucks. But Tewiah going down this route of hiring women.” thought of that as merely a training issue. What appealed to him about the idea was that the new —William Tewiah, chief executive officer, Zen women hired would not have preconceived ideas Petroleum about how things are done in this line of business but would approach the job with a fresh and open mind. It also supported the company’s social corporate responsibilty objectives. 63 CASE STUDIES—LADYBIRD LOGISTICS continued Payin Marfo was appointed as managing director “The results are overwhelming. Ladybird of Ladybird Logistics, created as a long-distance Logistics has just overproved everybody. trucking company with a focus on oil delivery and Today we have at least a couple of other an initial contract to serve Zen Petroleum. As of customers who want to do the same August 2019, Ladybird employed 21 fully trained thing! We have started this for other drivers, with 16 recruits in the pipeline. companies as well. It’s been a tremendous success, it has broken a RECRUITMENT barrier in transportation.” —Fredrik Morsing, managing director, Scania West Recruitment proved to be the first substantial Africa challenge for Ladybird. The initial job posting resulted in applications from mainly South Africa, but just a single application from Ghana. Marfo also heard that Metro Mass Transit, a government underwent a licensure review and driving test, public transport company, had several women followed by an interview and a medical test. driving their long buses. The good news was that Successful candidates received an allowance, and the license needed to drive those buses was the those who had to relocate were supported with same as the one needed to drive trailer-trucks in accommodations. Ghana because the vehicles were in the same weight category. Targeting the female drivers of Transitions from Metro Mass to Ladybird—from a Metro Mass seemed like the most logical way to local to a long-distance and arguably more difficult recruit for Ladybird because, although they did not job—were spurred by higher wages but also a know how to drive an oil transport tanker, they at desire to be a leader in a new space for women. As least had the license to do so. Recruiting Metro Marfo said, “The first batch of women that we Mass employees resulted in 11 women joining the recruited were courageous, they were bold women first cohort of Ladybird trainees. Each candidate willing to join us on this journey to start something totally different and were willing to give us a try. I wouldn’t say it was only because of the attractive benefits or salary. They were going to be “Existing transporters have upped their trailblazers because we didn’t have any females in game because of what the ladies have Ghana driving trucks. So it was also their idea of done. They have realized you cannot helping to start something totally different that keep making excuses when you have attracted them to the job.” Ladybird Logistics proving you wrong.” Realizing that families of the women would play a —William Tewiah, chief executive officer, Zen crucial role in their making the radical decision to Petroleum become truck drivers, Marfo urged the women to 64 be completely candid with their families and get the Armed Forces Mechanical Transport School buy-in of their spouses/partners before signing up. (AFMTS) was approached to partner with the West African Training Academy (WATA) which is the TRAINING AND PARTNERSHIPS training outfit of Swedish truck manufacturer Scania and the German development agency, GIZ, In 2018, Scania AB, the Swedish manufacturer of in developing the driver training curriculum and commercial vehicles, had begun a drive to promote plan for Ladybird Logistics Limited. the inclusion of more women in transportation in West Africa. Along with the organization “Greater The special training costs Ladybird Logistics close Accra Transport Executive” and the German to US$5,000 per person, so the company signs a development agency GIZ, Scania aspired to boost bond with the recruit, in the presence of a the number of woman drivers in Accra’s public guarantor, before the training commences. Only transport system. one woman quit at a different time during the training process without repaying the bond. The timing was just right for Ladybird. In exchange for the purchase of their trucks, Scania SECURITY agreed to train women in driving the vehicles under its “women moving trucks” project. The Safety and security concerns that exist across the partnership was helped by Esenam Nyador, who transport sector are exacerbated in the context of runs Miss Taxi Ghana, a woman-only taxi service, long-haul trucking, where trips can be as long as and is an evangelist for getting more women into 400 kilometers and often require an overnight stay transportation in Ghana. in locations not designed to accommodate both men and women. Although male drivers on such But it was felt that the training was not enough assignments would spend the night sleeping inside because the terrain the women truckers would be the truck, for women this is not a safe option. driving on was dangerous on their way to mines in Ladybird takes extra precautions for the safety of remote areas. Addressing this concern required a the driver on overnight trips. First, a woman driver partnership between the West African Transport travels with either a male or female escort on such Academy, Scania’s training outfit, GIZ, and the trips. In addition, because the trucks deliver fuel to Ghana Armed Forces Mechanical Transport mines in remote areas, drivers are advised to stop School. in whichever town they find themselves before nightfall, so that they don’t drive after 6 p.m. At For Ladybird, training was not only about learning that town they stay in accommodations that are to drive a Scania truck but also about instilling prearranged by the company. discipline, professionalism and providing the ladies with defensive driving, basic self-defense and security tips. To address this context, the Ghana 65 CASE STUDIES—LADYBIRD LOGISTICS continued VISION IMPACT Tewiah and Marfo’s vision for Ladybird Logistics Tewiah is unequivocally appreciative of the new is indeed ambitious. Tewiah wants Ladybird to do transportation company that he invested in. He 60 to 70 percent of Zen’s business, up from the believes it has exceeded expectations and has gone existing 25 percent. He would also like Ladybird beyond stopping the fuel pilfering problem to to get into the inter-city transportation business, pushing up industry standards. which he feels would be a huge opportunity because it is unsafe and erratic. “Having ladies Tewiah said it makes better sense to give business drive buses will bring a whole new freshness to to Ladybird than to the old transporters because that sector,” Tewiah said. the returns are three times more than an equivalent truck. Fredrik Morsing, the managing director of Marfo would like to expand and get new Scania West Africa, who has been involved with customers and transport products in addition to Ladybird Logistics since the beginning, said that petroleum. When she shares her vision for the Ladybird is one of Scania’s most advanced company with her drivers, Marfo tells them: “We customers despite being in operation for less than a are only in Ghana now. But the vision that I have year. He observed that Ladybird has among the for this company is for us to stretch outside Ghana best drivers and best accident statistics and that the and for us to support and add value to companies company is proactive in dealing with accidents and outside Ghana.” has very professional management. 66 5. Revisiting the Debate Can GST in Ride-Hailing Form Part of an Inclusive Transportation Ecosystem? INTRODUCTION The question of whether GST can form part of an inclusive transportation ecosystem can be divided into two interrelated points: First, can it support women’s freedom of movement, and by extension greater economic participation? Second, can it encourage women to work more in a sector in which they are widely underrepresented? This section reviews evidence for answers to both questions as well as other solutions that could support equality in transportation. DOES GST HELP WOMEN MOVE MORE FREELY? It is notable that the key roadblock Ongoing and global demand for GST suggests that these services support for the companies women’s mobility in the short-term. Reports of overcrowding and interviewed for this challenges matching demand to available space remain one of the biggest paper was not difficulties in mass transit. In individual transit, the key roadblock for the sufficient rider companies interviewed for this paper was not sufficient rider demand but, demand but, almost almost universally, lack of women drivers. However, demand is variable, universally, lack of peaking at night or when passengers are traveling alone or in an unfamiliar women drivers. environment. Thus GST is more likely adopted when there is a high perception of safety and security risk among other means of transport— safer transport would likely reduce demand for GST. GST can get more women moving where they face safety fears or restrictive social norms. However, geographical restrictions or pricing premiums, where they exist, mean that the service remains out of reach for many who would otherwise benefit from it. Further, previous studies on mass transit have identified negative externalities of GST, such as the expectation that women travel only in segregated carriages. 67 DOES GST IN RIDE-HAILING WHAT ARE OTHER SOLUTIONS TO ENCOURAGE WOMEN TO DRIVE IMPROVE INCLUSIVE TRANSPORT MORE? FOR WOMEN? Two patterns have emerged repeatedly throughout the Proven transport solutions that support women interviews for this research: that GST offers a path to (European Union 2014; IFC 2018; Acker and Ng start driving for women who wouldn’t otherwise 2018; ITF 2019; World Bank 2019a; Wright 2019), consider driving as an occupation and, once women include but are not limited to: take that first step, they transition into other work in the sector. Danielle Wright described this pattern among the • Increasing the frequency of public transport and the women who drive for her women-exclusive company, hours available to coincide with women’s travel ChaufHer, in South Africa: “A lot of women who work patterns; for the general ride-hailing services said they don’t drive at night because they end up picking up men who are • Supporting affordable transport, including offering drunk. But they would like to drive. Many are off-peak fares and fare integration among different unemployed, single mums who are unable to find means of transport to reduce the number of tickets employment. So this helps them.” Several companies required for each trip; indicated that they see GST as way to attract women users into the wider ride-hailing space, as representatives • Providing safe and well-lit waiting spaces to reduce of Bolt (page 54), PickMe (page 53), and Uber (page 58) security risks and increase comfort at stops; suggested. Once women start driving, they sometimes transition into other opportunities. When women’s • Designing services to enable easier travel with driving was legalized in Saudi Arabia, 74 percent of children and shopping bags; women interviewed by Uber said that they would only • Supporting the employment of women in be interested in driving if they had the option of driving nontraditional roles, through measures such as only other women, resulting in Uber’s Women Rider ensuring access to training and promotion Preference feature. However, a year after the feature opportunities and providing shift schedules that launch, many of the women who started driving with accommodate care roles; Women Rider Preference have become more comfortable on the road and have expanded their • Enabling access to participation in driving through driving to both men and women (page 58). Uber Brazil upskilling and digital and financial inclusion, such saw that more than 50 percent of women who used the as responsible vehicle finance; feature started driving more when the offering was introduced. A similar pattern was seen with Ladybird • Providing bathroom facilities for both passengers employees, who started driving buses in Ghana and and drivers, as well as work schedules that enable were then recruited and trained for the more arduous drivers to use these facilities; and task of long-distance oil transport (page 63). • Tackling social norms that restrict women’s The evidence remains anecdotal but consistent across mobility, including shifting attention to perpetrators companies and regions. Future research could leverage of sexual harassment and increasing support for company data to track previous employment histories active bystander interventions. and the long-term retention of women in the industry. 68 These and other solutions across the public and private sector are urgently needed to support an inclusive transport ecosystem for women. 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