The World Bank Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program E ast A s i a a n d P ac i f i c C lea n S t o v e I n i t i at i v e S er i es 78075 Lao PDR Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR An Intervention Strategy May 2013 Copyright © 2013 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA All rights reserved. First printing: May 2013 Manufactured in the United States of America. The World Bank Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program E ast A s i a a n d P ac i f i c C lea n S t o v e I n i t i at i v e S er i es Lao PDR Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR An Intervention Strategy May 2013 Copyright © 2013 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433, USA All rights reserved First printing: May 2013 Manufactured in the United States of America. Photo credits: World Bank Front cover: Voravate Tuntivate Chapter 6: Patricia Ramos Peinado Other photos: Bounthanonh Pornthipasa and Voravate Tuntivate The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, or its affiliated organizations, or to members of its board of executive directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Contents Foreword ......................................................................................................................................v Foreword .....................................................................................................................................vi Acknowledgments .....................................................................................................................vii Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................................................................................................viii Currency Equivalents.............................................................................................................................................. viii Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................ix 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................1 Overview of Past Stove Programs.............................................................................................................................1 Promoting Renewable Energy Development ...........................................................................................................2 Study Background and Objective ..............................................................................................................................3 Study Method and Survey Instruments ....................................................................................................................3 Structure of This Report ............................................................................................................................................4 2. Overview of Household Cooking Fuels ................................................................................5 National Trends .........................................................................................................................................................5 Regional Variations in Fuel Switching ........................................................................................................................6 Summary Remarks ................................................................................................................................................. 11 3. Health Risks from Indoor Pollution and Household Cooking Environment ....................13 IAP Evidence in Lao PDR Households ...................................................................................................................13 Women’s Time Allocation and Firewood Collection and Cooking ...........................................................................14 Potential IAP Exposure and Results of the CSI Survey ..........................................................................................14 Summary Remarks .................................................................................................................................................16 4. Household Demand for Cookstoves and Supply-Side Issues ..........................................17 Profile of Cookstove Ownership .............................................................................................................................17 Cookstove Production ............................................................................................................................................20 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................................................22 5. Strategy to Promote Improved Cookstoves ......................................................................23 Building Public-Sector Capacity ..............................................................................................................................23 Building Supply-Chain Capacity ..............................................................................................................................24 Institutional Arrangements .....................................................................................................................................27 Summary Remarks .................................................................................................................................................29 6. Promoting Biogas Systems ................................................................................................31 Overview of Biogas Promotion in Lao PDR ............................................................................................................31 National Program Scale-Up: What Are the Challenges? .........................................................................................32 Proposed Pilot Financing Alternative ......................................................................................................................34 Summary Remarks .................................................................................................................................................35 7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................37 iii iv Contents Annexes A Selected Development Indicators for Lao PDR ...............................................................................................39 B Changes in Forested Area Distribution ............................................................................................................40 C Field Survey Methodology ..............................................................................................................................41 References...................................................................................................................................59 Boxes 1.1 Terminology Clarification....................................................................................................................................3 2.1 Rice Cooking Preferences in Lao PDR...............................................................................................................8 3.1 Women’s Disproportionate Burden of Firewood Collection.............................................................................14 4.1 Evidence of Potential Demand for Better Stoves.............................................................................................19 Figures 2.1 Energy Sources for Household Cooking............................................................................................................9 2.2 Fuels Always Used to Prepare Meals.................................................................................................................9 2.3 Household Cooking Fuel Mix in Rural and Peri-Urban Areas............................................................................10 2.4 Cooking Fuel Choice and Household Income...................................................................................................10 2.5 Household Expenditure on Cooking Fuels....................................................................................................... 11 3.1 Cookstove Features..........................................................................................................................................15 3.2 Combined Features of Cookstoves and Cooking Areas...................................................................................15 4.1 Cookstove Ownership in Rural and Peri-Urban Areas......................................................................................18 4.2 Cookstove Ownership Preferences by Household Income..............................................................................19 4.3 Household Satisfaction Level with Cookstoves Owned...................................................................................20 5.1 Cookstove Market Chain..................................................................................................................................25 5.2 Proposed Process to Form Alliance for Clean Cookstoves...............................................................................26 6.1 Proposed Alternative Financing for Pilot Biogas Program................................................................................35 C.1 Market Supply Chain: Key Survey Issues.........................................................................................................55 Map 2.1 Lao PDR, 2004...................................................................................................................................................7 Tables 2.1 Shift in Household Cooking Fuels in Urban and Rural Areas of Lao PDR...........................................................5 2.2 Solid Fuel Use for Household Cooking in Selected Provinces, 1995 and 2005..................................................6 4.1 Cookstove Types and Models on the Market in Lao PDR................................................................................18 5.1 Proposed Roles and Responsibilities of Implementing Institutions.................................................................28 6.1 Biogas System Installation...............................................................................................................................31 6.2 Sample Financing Arrangement.......................................................................................................................34 6.3 Proposed Institutional Roles and Responsibilities............................................................................................35 Foreword Today the vast majority of households in Lao People’s The prospects for moving toward modern forms of cook- Democratic Republic (PDR) continue to rely on fuelwood, ing energy in Lao PDR remain limited, particularly in rural in the form of firewood and charcoal, as their main source areas where there is an abundance of readily available of cooking energy. The widespread use of fuel-inefficient firewood that can be freely collected from the local envi- biomass cookstoves has increased the health risk from ronment. By contrast, most households consider elec- indoor air pollution for those who spend many hours in tricity too expensive for cooking, and the use of liquefied the household cooking area, primarily women and their petroleum gas (LPG) is limited to financially better-off young children, in turn, adding to public health expendi- urban areas located close to the LPG distribution net- tures and global greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, works. Thus, one can expect that firewood and charcoal the opportunity cost of collecting fuelwood deprives will remain the dominant cooking fuels in Lao PDR in the women of time they might otherwise use for educa- years ahead, suggesting an urgent need to introduce and tion or other productive activities. On the supply side, scale up the supply and use of cleaner-burning, more cookstove production is slow and labor-intensive, while fuel-efficient biomass stoves. smoke generated from poorly designed kilns degrades the quality of the local environment. Stove markets in Lao PDR are highly competitive, and there is a fairly high turnover rate. Households expect These phenomena persist in Lao PDR despite the coun- little from cookstove performance and could afford to try’s remarkable development achievements in recent pay significantly more for more durable models. Most decades. From 1995 to 2011, electricity connections consumers have no knowledge of the expected techni- increased fourfold, from 18 percent to 72 percent. By cal standards for improved cookstoves, and many are 2011, the country had achieved lower-middle-income unaware of the health risks linked to indoor air pollu- status within the World Bank Group. Over the past six tion caused by biomass cooking smoke. On the supply years, the Lao economy has experienced commendable side, artisan stove producers are unaware of the energy- growth, with gross domestic product rising nearly 8 per- efficiency levels of the stoves they make. They lack cent a year on average. Such robust growth has been technological know-how, as well as training in business accompanied by a significant reduction in the incidence management and marketing. of poverty. At the same time, economic development has relied heavily on the growth of mineral and energy In light of these supply- and demand-side realities, the exports; and agriculture, which accounts for nearly three- intervention strategy presented in this report focuses quarters of all employment, is growing at only 4 percent on setting and enforcing cookstove standards, raising annually, accelerating rural-urban disparities. the awareness of household consumers, building pro- ducer capacity, and improving market mechanisms and This situation is not atypical. Even in such advanced value chains. The strategy also envisions a scaled-up developing economies as China and Mexico, where niche market for biogas cooking, proposing the piloting most people have access to electricity, a large major- of an innovative financing mechanism for qualified farm- ity of residents continue to rely on solid biomass fuels ing households with livestock. This report reflects the to meet their daily needs. In China, some 700 million commitment of the World Bank Group and its partners people out of 1.3 billion, including most rural residents, in helping the Lao government to advance pathways to continue to use solid fuels for cooking and heating. Simi- cleaner cooking solutions that will contribute to poverty larly, virtually all of Mexico’s rural population—about 27 reduction, sustainable development, and inclusive low- million people—still depend on biomass for cooking. carbon growth. Various socioeconomic factors account for rural house- holds’ reluctance to adopt modern cooking methods; key among them are affordability, along with fuel availability Charles Feinstein and accessibility and cultural acceptability. Sector Manager, Water and Energy (EASWE) Sustainable Development Department East Asia and the Pacific Region The World Bank v Foreword The Government of the Lao People’s Democratic Repub- using livestock waste, which could significantly reduce lic (Lao PDR) is committed to providing all of its citizens imports of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and firewood pathways to cleaner cooking solutions. The 2011–25 and charcoal consumption. roadmap mandated under the Renewable Energy Devel- opment Strategy, approved in 2011, promotes cleaner This intervention strategy is closely aligned with the household energy, focusing on better biomass stoves and objectives and related health concerns of our govern- biogas systems. Currently, biomass cooking fuels, includ- ment’s Renewable Energy Development Strategy. We ing mainly wood and charcoal, comprise an estimated 70 are grateful to the World Bank team, who helped us focus percent of total energy consumption. Recognizing the on market mechanisms and business models, without important health and environmental implications of such the use of government subsidies, which can ensure the high dependence on biomass energy, the Renewable market availability of better cookstoves and program sus- Energy Development Strategy promotes the develop- tainability. In October 2012, we further strengthened our ment and market deployment of fuel-efficient and cul- commitment to working with the World Bank and other turally appropriate biomass stoves, whose estimated partner organizations by establishing a task force for technical potential could exceed 900,000. clean cookstoves and biogas. This task force is chaired by stakeholders across multiple sectors, including various Although our country lacks such conventional energy ministries, academia, nongovernmental organizations, resources as oil and natural gas, it is endowed with an and the private sector. These coordinated institutional abundance of renewable energy resources. Our coun- arrangements, together with the help of our World Bank try’s large biomass potential includes energy crops; team and other partner organizations, have well prepared organic waste, including residue from agriculture and us for implementing the next steps suggested in this forestry production and byproducts of the agroforestry report. industry; and municipal waste. It has been estimated that livestock waste for biogas production alone could Hatsady Sysoulath generate the equivalent of 500 gigawatt hours of electric- Director General ity each year. Our government aims to significantly scale Institute of Renewable Energy Promotion up previous efforts to develop household biogas systems Ministry of Energy and Mines Lao People’s Democratic Republic vi Acknowledgments This intervention strategy report was prepared through Agriculture and Forestry), Ministry of Science and Tech- the close consultations and collaborative spirit among nology, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Finance, National all stakeholders involved in the Clean Stove Initiative University of Laos, Asian Development Bank, Nether- (CSI) for the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR). lands Development Organisation (SNV), Lao Women’s The World Bank task team leader was Jie Tang, Senior Union, Lao Institute for Renewable Energy, and Participa- Energy Specialist, Sustainable Development Depart- tory Development Training Center. ment. The team consisted of Voravate Tuntivate (author of this report), Natsuko Toba (co-task team leader and The team is grateful to the many other colleagues who secondary author), Patricia Ramos Peinado, Veasna Bun, provided helpful comments and information. Among Nuyi Tao, Jaemin Song, Souksavanh Sombounkhanh, and them are peer reviewers Sameer Akbar and Srilata Teri Velilla. Dejan Ostojic, Program Leader of the CSI for Kammila of the World Bank, Sumi Mehta of the Global the East Asia and the Pacific Region, provided overall Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, and Konesawang Nghard- guidance. Annette Dixon, Country Director for Lao PDR, saysone, who provided additional data. The team also Keiko Miwa, Country Manager for Lao PDR, and Julia extends appreciation to Bounthanong Phonethipasa, Fraser, Sector Manager for Lao PDR, provided overall who conducted a field survey, and Rebecca Kary, who support. The CSI is being undertaken by the Infrastruc- provided initial editorial support. Finally, the team thanks ture Unit of the Sustainable Development Department, Norma Adams for editing the final version of the report. East Asia and Pacific Region, under the overall guidance of John Roome, Sector Director, and Vijay Jagannathan, The financial support of the Asia Sustainable and Alter- Sector Manager. Aldo Baietti, Lead Infrastructure Spe- native Energy Program (ASTAE) is gratefully acknowl- cialist and Program Manager of the Australian Agency edged. Created in 1992 as a Global Partnership Program, for International Development (AusAID)-East Asia and ASTAE’s mandate is to scale up the use of sustainable Pacific Region Infrastructure for Growth Trust Fund, also energy options in Asia to reduce poverty and protect provided guidance. the environment through promoting renewable energy, energy efficiency, and access to energy. Currently, The team wishes to thank AusAID for its generous fund- ASTAE is funded by the Government of the Netherlands, ing support through the East Asia Trust Fund. For their the Swedish International Development Cooperation cooperation in developing the intervention strategy and Agency (SIDA), and the U.K. Department for International hospitality, the team thanks the Institute of Renew- Development (DFID). ASTAE and AusAID will co-finance able Energy Promotion (Ministry of Energy and Mines), implementation of the CSI intervention strategy. Department of Livestock and Fisheries (Ministry of vii Acronyms and Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank MOH Ministry of Health AusAID Australian Agency for International MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Development Environment BPP Biogas Pilot Program MOST Ministry of Science and Technology CSI Clean Stove Initiative NGO Nongovernmental Organization DEDE Department of Alternative Energy NUOL National University of Laos Development and Efficiency PAFO Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office DLF Department of Livestock and Fisheries PM10 Particulate Matter up to 10 micrometers in ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance size caused by smoke Program PV Photovoltaic FAO Food and Agriculture Organization R&D Research and Development GACC Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves REF Rural Electrification Fund IAP Indoor Air Pollution RENMI Renewable Energy and New Materials ICBS Improved Charcoal Bucket Stove Institute IREP Institute of Renewable Energy Promotion RWEDP Regional Wood Energy Development Programme LAK Lao Kip (currency) SNV Netherlands Development Organisation Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers) LECS Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlements LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas Programme LWU Lao Women’s Union WHO World Health Organization M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Currency Equivalents MEM Ministry of Energy and Mines Currency Unit = Lao kip MOF Ministry of Finance LAK 8,000 = US$1 viii Executive Summary Today the vast majority of households in the Lao People’s Dem- of particulate matter (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ocratic Republic (Lao PDR) rely on solid fuels, primarily fire- were significantly higher in houses where wood-burning wood and charcoal, as their main source of cooking energy. stoves were used, compared to those that cooked with Census data show that household use of firewood and electricity. charcoal for cooking declined only 3 percent between 1995 and 2005. Over that period, a sizeable portion of The 2011–25 roadmap of the Government of Lao PDR’s Renew- households, particularly those in more economically able Energy Development Strategy identifies improved cook- advanced urban areas, switched within the fuelwood cat- stoves and biogas systems as specific areas for promotion egory, from firewood to charcoal. But as of 2005, close and development. The government recognizes that devel- to 90 percent of rural households and well over half of opment of renewable energy is key to ensuring national urban ones still depended on firewood to meet most of energy security, socioeconomic development, and their cooking needs. environmental and social sustainability. The Renewable Energy Development Strategy promotes policies that The prospects for using modern fuels as the main source of focus on small power development for self-sufficiency household cooking energy remain quite limited. Although and grid connection, biofuel production and marketing, some high-income urban households have begun using and the development of other clean energies (Lao PDR liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), the retail price is high rela- 2011). tive to household income. The fuel must be imported, and the distribution network is expected to remain lim- The Clean Stove Initiative (CSI), funded by the Australian ited to major cities along the border with Thailand and Agency for International Development (AusAID), contributes perhaps Vietnam. Similarly, the transition to electricity for to achieving the goals of the Renewable Energy Development household cooking energy has been difficult despite the Strategy, including its related health concerns. Lao PDR, steady rise in electricity service coverage. Indeed, from along with China, Mongolia, and Indonesia—all countries 1995 to 2005, electricity as the main source of cooking where most households use traditional biomass for cook- energy among urban households declined from 10.4 per- ing, with high numbers of premature deaths attributed cent to just 3.8 percent, reflecting a steady rise in the to air pollution from cooking with solid fuels and where retail electricity tariff for cost recovery. Given the high the World Bank has active clients—were selected for the prices of LPG and electricity, combined with the abun- study. The CSI in each country is implemented in four dance of readily available firewood, it is likely that fuel- phases. The first one centers on stocktaking review and wood will predominate as a source of household cooking market study, followed by development of the interven- energy in the foreseeable future. tion strategy in close consultation with government and other stakeholders. The second implements the inter- Continued reliance on fuelwood for household cooking under- vention strategy, focusing on institutional strengthening, scores the vital role of improved cookstoves in mitigating capacity building, and raising public awareness. The third the health risks from exposure to indoor air pollution (IAP), implements pilot programs to demonstrate the effective- especially among women and children. Smoke resulting ness of the institutional, policy, and market development from the incomplete combustion of solid fuels using measures in selected areas; while the fourth evaluates low-quality stoves in poorly ventilated kitchens contrib- their impact and generates lessons to be reviewed with utes to IAP , presenting a significant health hazard to government and other stakeholders and disseminated those who spend long hours in the kitchen or cooking through a regional forum (World Bank 2011). area, usually women and their young children (Ekouevi and Tuntivate 2011). A 2007 IAP study conducted in Lao This study is the key activity under the first phase of the CSI PDR confirms the strong association between high for Lao PDR. Its broad aim is twofold: (1) taking stock of levels of indoor air pollutants and respiratory illness in the current status of IAP and household cookstove use women and children (Mengersen et al. 2007). Although in Lao PDR and (2) proposing an effective intervention biomass combustion is not the only indoor activity that strategy to promote improved cookstoves. Stocktaking contributes to IAP , the study found that concentrations activities included a case study (i.e., CSI field survey), ix x Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR while development of the intervention strategy included The proposed intervention for scaling up the use of improved stakeholder consultations and two consultation work- cookstoves in Lao PDR relies on market-based mechanisms, shops. The CSI field survey, conducted in three selected supported by technical assistance and capacity building for provinces and Vientiane capital, consisted of (1) a house- the public and private sectors. It is widely thought that a hold cooking energy survey conducted separately in peri- market-based approach in commercializing improved urban and rural areas and (2) a market survey of biomass stoves is the best way to ensure efficiency of inter- cookstoves and the supply chain. In addition to the field ventions and sustainability of programs (Ekouevi and survey results, the study relied on a range of published Tuntivate 2011). In Lao PDR, the market mechanisms data, interviews with government officials and field employed will ensure that truly improved cookstoves are experts, and results of two consultation workshops. available on the market. It is envisioned that the public sector will work in partnership with the private sector, Findings from the CSI field survey in Lao PDR confirm that providing support for setting standards, creating and women and young children living in households that use fuel- promoting better technologies, delivering these tech- wood for cooking comprise the highest IAP risk-exposure nologies to households, and promoting information dis- group. Contributing IAP risk factors include whether the semination and public education and awareness. There is cookstove has a chimney or hood, household cook- a clear need to invest in research and development (R&D) ing practices, kitchen ventilation, and family members’ to explore new technologies and provide producers and awareness of the link between IAP and cooking smoke. distributors assistance in moving forward with these options. Finally, disseminating improved cookstoves will Although improved cookstoves are not yet available on the require multisector cooperation, with clearly designated market in Lao PDR, the CSI stocktaking activities reveal that roles and responsibilities among multiple stakeholders, the technical potential could be as high as 900,000 stoves. The including government agencies, academic institutions, CSI survey results show that current patterns, trends, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the private and preferences for cookstove ownership are favorable sector. for promoting and marketing better stoves. More than half of households in the CSI coverage area own and To further promote clean cooking solutions, Lao PDR will use more than one cookstove, and household income explore the potential niche market for the scaled-up use of is positively associated with the total number of stoves biogas systems. A critical review of past biogas programs owned. Thus, it appears that improved stoves would be in Lao PDR confirms that high upfront costs have pre- affordable for most households. Currently, the tao prayat sented the greatest obstacle to uptake among farming is the most popular type of commercially available cook- households with livestock. Past programs have relied on stove despite its short service life of about six months. large, unwieldy subsidies, which have represented up to Originally designed as an improved stove in the 1980s, 31–50 percent of total system costs; yet adoption rates the tao prayat has faced stiff market competition, caus- have remained low. ing producers to lower their standards to reduce costs, thus compromising the stove’s durability. This market fail- The alternative financing approach for the proposed biogas ure suggests the need to educate consumers about the piloting scheme—significantly cheaper than a direct sub- health risk of IAP linked to cookstove emissions to gen- sidy—uses interest-free loans or lease-purchase agreements erate demand for cleaner-burning, fuel-efficient stoves. to help households overcome upfront costs. Once funding for the current Biogas Pilot Project (BPP) ends in late 2012, On the supply side, the CSI study reveals key deficiencies in the intervention strategy proposes implementing a pilot cookstove production, including slow processes and weak biogas scheme, managed by the Ministry of Energy and quality control. Virtually all cookstove production in Lao Mines, using this alternative financing approach and other PDR utilizes the Artisan Production Model, meaning that corrective measures. Limited to 100 biogas systems, each stove is individually made by hand. The increased the scheme would offer qualified farming households use of charcoal among urban and peri-urban households interest-free access to the revolving Rural Electrification has generated greater demand for cookstoves, but profit Fund to cover upfront costs, with the loan repayable in margins are low; as a result, producers rely on a quick monthly installments over an agreed-to period. The proj- turnover and may not be interested in making more ect would provide an opportunity to build on what has durable stoves. In addition, the majority of producers lack been learned from the BPP in Lao PDR, along with les- appropriate training in business management and prod- sons from international experience. uct marketing, as well as the technological know-how to improve their production processes. Executive Summary xi This pilot biogas scheme, together with the proposed among qualified farming households with livestock. For approach for promoting a thriving market for better stoves, most households—including those in the lowest income offers an important pathway to cleaner household cooking. groups—who will continue to rely mainly on firewood, The results of this assessment indicate that a small pro- the proposed approach to creating a thriving stove mar- portion of wealthier households will be able to access ket offers an important pathway to cleaner cooking. The LPG and increasingly more urban households will transi- benefits are fewer premature deaths, healthier and more tion to purchased charcoal as their incomes rise. There productive lives, less drudgery for women, and less pres- is also a promising niche market for biogas systems sure on the environment. 1 Introduction Today the vast majority of households in the Lao People’s Overview of Past Stove Programs Democratic Republic (PDR) rely on fuelwood, primarily in the form of firewood and charcoal, to meet most of their Previous efforts to promote the use of improved cook- cooking needs. Each day a rural family consumes an esti- stoves in Lao PDR have been fragmented; yet such mated 5 kilograms (kg) of firewood for cooking, amount- programs have had a good track record in commer- ing to approximately 2 million tons per year. Census data cially disseminating stoves without requiring subsidies. show only a 3 percent decline in the use of firewood and The first program, albeit small, was initiated in 1997 by charcoal (from 97 percent to 94 percent) as the main Thailand’s Naresuan University through the Council for household cooking fuels between 1995 and 2005. Over Renewable Energy and the National University of Laos that decade, a sizeable portion of households, particularly (NUOL). With US$10,000 in financial support from the those located in urban areas of the central and south- Food and Agriculture Organization’s Regional Wood ern provinces and a small proportion in northern urban Energy Development Programme in Bangkok, the Coun- areas, switched from firewood to charcoal. However, as cil, in close cooperation with NUOL and the Participa- of 2005, more than 88 percent of rural households and tory Development Training Center, organized technology well over half of urban ones remained dependent on fire- wood as their main source of cooking energy. Access to electricity has expanded significantly over the past two decades; by 2010, virtually all urban house- holds in Vientiane capital had a connection (Annex A). Yet the country’s transition from cooking with solid fuels to using modern forms of clean energy has remained slow (Ekouevi and Tuntivate 2011). In fact, between 1995 and 2005, the percentage of urban households using electric- ity as their main source of cooking energy fell from more than 10 percent to less than 4 percent (table 2.1). Such fuels as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity are still viewed as supplemental, rather than alternatives, to fuelwood and are accessible only to higher-income house- holds. Thus, for the foreseeable future, heavy reliance on fuelwood for cooking is likely to continue, suggest- ing that family members who spend a disproportionate amount of time in the household cooking area—primarily women and their young children—will continue to face the health risks associated with indoor air pollution (IAP). Thai bucket stove 1 2 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR transfer to produce the improved charcoal bucket stove power development for self-sufficiency and grid connec- (ICBS), with training provided by Thailand’s Department of tion, biofuel production and marketing, and the develop- Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE). ment of other clean energy sources. The strategy’s road map for 2011–25, which identifies specific areas for pro- Thailand’s Royal Forest Department had developed the motion and development, includes improved cookstoves ICBS in the 1980s. Commonly referred to as the Thai and biogas systems. bucket stove, the ICBS has a conversion efficiency of 26–30 percent, compared to only 5–20 percent for the traditional bucket stove, resulting in a 30–50 percent fuel Improved Cookstoves savings. In practice, the ICBS provides a cleaner cooking The government’s strategy recognizes that biomass environment and a faster cooking time than traditional cooking fuels represent an estimated 70 percent of Lao three-stone, steel-ring tripod, or regular bucket stoves. PDR’s total energy consumption, with major implications Users who purchase fuel, such as charcoal, especially for human health and quality of life, local forest degrada- like the stove. Although the 1997 program is credited tion (Annex B), and the global climate. To address these with having introduced the first improved cookstove to issues, the strategy promotes the development and mar- the Lao PDR market, the Lao version of the Thai bucket ket deployment of the most energy-efficient, culturally stove, known locally as the tao prayat, cannot be con- appropriate cookstoves. sidered truly improved owing to a deterioration in quality control over time and a lack of standards and regulations. The specific types of activities called for include an initial The reasons for these shortcomings have included stiff market assessment and technical studies for improved competition from regular cookstoves, a profit motive, cookstoves in the country and preparing a program that and lack of appropriate training of producers in the tech- includes a service delivery framework and appropriate nical requirements for making improved stoves. business model; technology design, standardization and labeling; capacity building; and an information campaign. Other notable programs have been limited to training Subsequent activities include identifying projects for pilot conducted in selected provinces. For example, a DEDE- demonstrations and preparing feasibility studies; imple- supported program to train local stove producers was menting demonstration projects, information campaigns, implemented in 2006 and 2010 by the Institute of Renew- and training programs; and scaling up the improved cook- able Energy Promotion (IREP),1 Ministry of Energy and stove program. Mines (MEM). Another training project, funded by the WISIONS initiative of the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, To support the 2008 Ministry of Health (MOH) recom- Environment, and Energy in Germany, was carried out by mendations on reducing the adverse health effects of the Technology Research Institute of the Science, Tech- IAP caused by smoke emitted from traditional cook- nology, and Environment Agency under the Ministry of stoves (Mengersen et al. 2007), the strategy also calls Science and Technology (MOST), with technical support for raising women’s awareness of the associated health provided by the Netherlands Development Organisation risks of using energy-inefficient stoves, improving stove (SNV). The most recent program, initiated by the SNV in efficiency and ventilation in the household cooking area, 2011, is relatively larger and focuses on Savannakhet and and developing and disseminating information and edu- Champassak provinces. cational materials. Promoting Renewable Energy Biogas Systems Development The government’s strategy also envisions reducing the country’s heavy dependence on LPG imports by support- The Government of Lao PDR recognizes the development ing the promotion and development of biogas systems of renewable energy as a key component in ensuring for household and industrial use.3 There is significant national energy security, socioeconomic development, potential to develop biogas systems produced from live- and environmental and social sustainability. Its Renew- stock, agroindustrial, and municipal solid waste, as well able Energy Development Strategy, published in 2011 as wastewater treatment. Various donor organizations (Lao PDR 2011),2 promotes policies that focus on small have funded demonstration projects using livestock and other animal waste. To sustain these initiatives—and 1. Formerly the Department of Electricity. 2. The strategy identifies the MEM as having major responsibility for 3. As of 2006, LPG imports for household and industrial-scale use coordinating renewable energy development. totaled 871,800 kg. Introduction 3 thus reduce reliance on LPG imports, as well as fuel- Indonesia, and Mongolia. In each country, the CSI takes wood for cooking—the government aims, by the year a three-phase approach: (1) initial stocktaking to develop 2025, to have increased the number of households using an effective intervention strategy; (2) implementing the biogas by 50,000. strategy, with a focus on capacity building, enhancing the national enabling environment, and preparing pilot invest- To achieve this goal, the government will strengthen ment projects; and (3) implementing the pilot investment the capacity of an agency or organization charged with projects and scaling up improved stove use (box 1.1). The scaling up small-, medium- and large-scale biogas sys- initial stocktaking phase is critical not only for develop- tems. In partnership with private entrepreneurs and non- ing each country’s intervention strategy; it is also vital to governmental organizations (NGOs), it will first conduct designing subsequent activities and establishing policy technical studies, identify the most appropriate business dialogue with the respective countries’ institutional focal model and support mechanisms, and prepare a long- points. Throughout each phase, the CSI for East Asia and term program that includes monitoring plans for scal- the Pacific supports regional-level knowledge sharing. ing up household biogas systems. Subsequently, it will conduct an information campaign and training for system This study is the key activity under the first phase of installation and use, develop an accreditation scheme to the CSI for Lao PDR, which is funded by the Austra- certify installers, secure program financing, and pilot-test lian Agency for International Development (AusAID). the new business model. Finally, it will promote replica- The study’s broad aim is twofold: (1) taking stock of the tion on a national scale. current status of IAP and household cookstove use in the country and (2) proposing an effective intervention The strategy for biogas system promotion and develop- strategy to promote improved cookstoves. The results ment, like that for improved cookstoves, supports related will contribute to the government’s Renewable Energy MOH initiatives. For example, an ongoing effort by the Development Strategy and its related health concerns Environment and Occupational Health and Sanitation (e.g., IAP vulnerability of women and children). Department, working with the Center for Environmental Health and Water Supply, improves household hygienic conditions by constructing pour-and-flush latrines and Study Method and Survey Instruments carefully managing waste (e.g., requiring that all human and animal waste be outside a 30-meter radius of water This study’s stocktaking activities included a case study sources). The health benefits of using human and animal (i.e., CSI field survey), while development of the inter- waste in biodigesters include reducing parasites, viruses, vention strategy included stakeholder consultations and bacteria, and vector-borne diseases. two consultation workshops carried out in Vientiane. The study relied on four major data sources. The first comprised a range of published information, including Study Background and Objective literature and field reports on improved cookstove dis- semination, IAP , and household energy studies in Lao Lao PDR is one of four countries participating in the PDR, as well as data from the Lao PDR Population and World Bank’s Clean Stove Initiative (CSI) for East Asia Housing Census. The second source of information was and the Pacific. The program aims to promote clean, derived directly from interviews with government offi- energy-efficient cooking solutions for Lao PDR, China, cials and experts in the field. The third was taken from Box 1.1 Terminology clarification In this report, unless otherwise noted, the following definitions apply: • Cookstove refers to a biomass cookstove. • Improved cookstove refers to a clean-burning, energy-efficient cookstove. • Advanced cookstove refers to one that meets indoor air pollution and safety criteria, along with those for com- bustion and fuel efficiency. • Fuelwood includes firewood and charcoal. • Firewood comprises firewood, wood residues, and other woody biomass. Source: Author. 4 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR the two consultation workshops, which provided essen- Structure of This Report tial input for developing the proposed intervention strat- egy. The fourth was provided by results of the CSI field The structure of this report reflects the directional orga- survey, which was conducted in four selected provinces. nization of the study. Chapter 2 offers a detailed descrip- tive analysis of national- and regional-level household The CSI field survey consisted of two parts: (1) a house- fuelwood use, supplemented by a detailed analysis of hold cooking energy survey conducted separately in fuelwood consumption and expenditure among rural and peri-urban areas and rural areas and (2) a market sur- peri-urban households. Chapter 3 discusses the health- vey of biomass cookstoves and the supply chain. Both and gender-related issues linked to IAP exposure result- parts were conducted in the Vientiane capital and the ing from use of energy-inefficient cookstoves. A detailed provinces of Bolikhamsai, Khammouane, and Vientiane. analysis of potential exposure and risk factors is given as The first part focused on household demand for cook- an example, using data from the case study. Chapter 4 ing fuels and cookstoves, including questions related to analyzes household demand for cookstoves and the sup- the types of fuels and stoves used, cooking practices, ply chain in the case study area, while chapter 5 presents and household awareness of health risks from biomass the proposed intervention strategy to promote improved cooking smoke. The second part, which aimed to better cookstoves. Chapter 6 proposes a complementary pilot understand the entire market supply chain, was con- project for promoting the use of household biogas sys- ducted among stove retailers, wholesalers and traders, tems utilizing an alternative financing approach. Finally, and producers (Annex C). chapter 7 concludes. 2 Overview of Household Cooking Fuels Households in Lao PDR use a complex mix of cooking fuel; however, the gradual rise in the tariff witnessed in fuels. Based on national census results, this chapter recent years has caused these households to revert to begins by examining recent trends in rural and urban fuel using fuelwood (firewood and charcoal) as their main switching, including regional variability. Then, based on source of cooking energy. At the same time, the use the CSI survey findings, it presents a profile of cooking of sawdust,5 which was preferred among low-income fuels used by households, identifying the major drivers of households, has virtually disappeared owing to changes fuel selection and consumption and expenditure dispari- in logging policies and regulations (table 2.1). ties between rural and peri-urban areas. Another notable trend has been the shift within the fuel- wood category from firewood to charcoal. In rural areas, National Trends where nearly three-quarters of the population live, the use of charcoal as the main household cooking fuel rose Changes in the use of household cooking fuels in Lao more than fourfold between 1995 and 2005. Over the PDR over the past two decades reflect shifts in national same period, the increase in urban areas was more than policies and regulations and resource availability. In the threefold (table 2.1). This trend is expected to continue, past, urban households took advantage of the low retail given that charcoal emits less smoke than firewood, is electricity tariff,4 using electricity as their main cooking cleaner to use, and is affordable among middle-income households, particularly those in urban areas. 4. Previously, the electricity tariff was significantly lower than the overall cost of production (i.e., generation, transmission, and 5. In the past, freely available sawdust was collected from around distribution). sawmills, many of which have since closed down. Table 2.1 Shift in Household Cooking Fuels in Urban and Rural Areas of Lao PDR (Percent) 1995 2005 Main cooking fuel Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Electricity 10.4 0.1 1.9 3.8 0.1 1.1 Firewood 68.3 97.7 92.7 55.1 88.5 79.1 Charcoal 10.0 1.6 4.3 34.6 7.4 14.9 Sawdust 2.7 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.1 LPG 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Other 1.6 0.3 0.5 6.2 4.0 5.8 Source: NSC 2005. 5 6 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Regional Variations in Fuel Switching Central and Southern Provinces The census data indicate that, between 1995 and 2005, The proportion of firewood and charcoal used for house- the switch from firewood to charcoal for cooking in the hold cooking in Lao PDR varies by region (map 2.1). The central and southern provinces was far faster among findings highlighted in the subsections that follow con- urban households than rural ones (NSC 2005) (map firm that households overall are switching from firewood 2.1). Over that decade, significant numbers of urban to charcoal as their main source of cooking fuel. Further- households in the selected provinces of Khammouane, more, the pace of this fuel switching is faster among Bolikhamsai, Saravane, and Sekong shifted away from urban households than rural ones. It is accelerated in the firewood and toward charcoal for cooking. However, by capital city and economically well-off urban centers in the 2005, the vast majority of rural households still relied southern provinces, while more gradual among urban heavily on firewood, with only a modest rise in charcoal households in the northern provinces. use (table 2.2). Northern Provinces Among urban households in these four provinces, Sekong and Saravane saw the largest decline in firewood Firewood use predominates in the northern provinces; use, at 32 percent and 31 percent, respectively, and the however, households in urban areas are gradually switch- largest rise in charcoal use, at 29 percent and 31 percent. ing from firewood to charcoal. Five provinces—Phong- Among rural households, the decline in firewood use was saly, Luang Namtha, Oudomsai, Xiang Khoang, and a modest 6 percent on average, while the average rise in Houaphan—rely nearly exclusively on firewood as their charcoal use was under 2 percent, with the exception main household cooking fuel (map 2.1). In 1995, virtually of Saravane, which saw a 7 percent increase (table 2.2). all households in these five provinces depended on fire- wood. By 2005, that proportion had declined only about For households in Vientiane and Attapeu provinces (map 2 percent, with the exception of Houaphan.6 In the other 2.1), the census data reveal the same trend as for the three northern provinces—Bokeo, Luang Phrabang, and four above-mentioned provinces; however, the propor- Sayaboury—the proportion of households using fire- tion of households that continued using firewood is wood dropped to about 90 percent over the same period; somewhat higher, while the proportion that began using according to the 2005 Population and Housing Census charcoal is lower. By 2005, a large majority of urban (NSC 2005), about 10 percent had switched to either households in Vientiane and Attapeu (84 percent and 78 charcoal (4–5 percent) or other fuels (4–5 percent).7 percent, respectively) still used firewood, as did 96 per- cent of rural households in the two provinces. 6. As of 2005, 94 percent of households in Houaphan used fire- wood as their main cooking fuel; the prior decade witnessed a slight increase in the use of other, non-specified fuels (NSC 2005). 7. Field observations suggest that these non-specified cooking fuels tend to be site-specific and may include crop residue (e.g., corncob), other biomass residue, coal, and coal briquette. Table 2.2 Solid Fuel Use for Household Cooking in Selected Provinces, 1995 and 2005 (Percent households) Khammouane Bolikhamsai Saravane Sekong Cooking fuel/ household area 1995 2005 1995 2005 1995 2005 1995 2005 Firewood Urban 73 50 91 77 73 42 93 61 Rural 98 93 98 92 99 89 99 95 Charcoal Urban 25 43 7 16 23 54 7 36 Rural 1 3 2 3 1 8 0 1 Source: NSC 2005. Overview of Household Cooking Fuels 7 Map 2.1 Lao PDR, 2004 Source: World Bank. 8 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Household kitchen with LPG stove in peri-urban area Household cooking with charcoal stoves (tao dum) of Vientiane capital Economically Advanced Areas by about 8 percent (from 9 percent to 17 percent), sug- gesting a significant switch from firewood to charcoal. In the three most economically well-off areas of the The most dramatic shift over that decade occurred in country—Vientiane capital and the southern provinces of Champassak province, where firewood use declined 24 Savannakhet and Champassak—fuel-use patterns differ percent (from 98 percent to 74 percent) and charcoal use markedly from those of the other provinces (map 2.1). rose 21 percent (from only 2 percent to 23 percent). In the larger urban centers of these three areas, charcoal is the dominant household fuel. In 2005, about half of urban households in Vientiane capital and some 60 per- Cooking Fuel Profile of Rural and cent in Savannakhet and Champassak mainly used char- Peri-Urban Areas coal, reflecting a 25 percent decline in firewood use over the prior decade. By 2005, only about a third of urban In accordance with the recent census observation, CSI households in each of the three areas used firewood. survey results confirm the popularity of charcoal use for Interestingly, some urban households began using LPG cooking in urban areas and the continued prevalence of despite its relatively high price, including about 5 percent firewood in rural areas. Some 85 percent of peri-urban of those in Vientiane capital and about 2 percent and 1.4 households and 72 percent of rural ones said they used percent, respectively, in Savannakhet and Champassak charcoal for cooking; conversely, 80 percent of rural provinces. Also noteworthy was the decline in electricity households, compared to only 56 percent of peri-urban use owing to the steady rise in the retail electricity tariff. ones, reported using firewood. Most households use a By 2005, only 8 percent of urban households in Vientiane combination of firewood and charcoal to prepare their capital used electricity as their main source of cooking meals, often supplemented by LPG and electricity.8 energy, which was 14 percent less than a decade earlier. Among the households surveyed, all four sources of cooking energy were identified (figure 2.1). A majority of rural households in these three areas still rely on firewood for cooking; however, between 1995 8. In practice, most households in Lao PDR rely on a combination of and 2005, firewood use declined an average of 5 percent cooking fuels. In Vientiane capital, for example, about 69 percent of (from 86 percent to 81 percent), while charcoal use rose urban households were found to use several types of cooking fuels (ESMAP 1993). Box 2.1 Rice cooking preferences in Lao PDR Nearly all Lao PDR households in the CSI survey area own and use an electric rice cooker, recognizing its advantages of time savings, convenience of use, and inexpensive operation. But the rice preferred by most people in both peri- urban and rural areas is glutinous rice, which cannot be prepared in the traditional way using a rice cooker. Thus, even though rice is the country’s main staple food, the rice cooker is used only occasionally to prepare long grain rice. Source: CSI survey results. Overview of Household Cooking Fuels 9 Among the large majority of households that use fire- wood and charcoal, about three-quarters always use Energy Sources for Household Cooking Figure 2.1  these fuels to prepare their meals. By comparison, only 100 9–14 percent of the 85 percent of households that use 95% 92% electricity for cooking do so regularly (box 2.1). Electricity 90 88% 85% 84% tends to be used only occasionally; 69 percent of those 80% surveyed agreed that electricity is too expensive to use 80 72% for cooking. Among the 6–12 percent of households that 70 cook with LPG, which must be imported, less than half use it regularly owing to its high price (figure 2.2). 60 56% Percent 50 An analysis of the cooking fuel mix in the CSI survey area allows us to classify households into four groups: 40 (1) charcoal and firewood; (2) firewood only; (3) charcoal 30 only; and (4) firewood, charcoal, and LPG (figure 2.3). 20 In line with the census results, the CSI survey findings 12% confirm that about 92 percent of rural households rely on 10 6% firewood, charcoal, or a combination of the two as their 0 main source of cooking fuel, compared to about 88 per- Firewood Charcoal LPG Electricity Rice Cooker cent of peri-urban households (figure 2.3). Rural Peri-Urban Source: CSI field survey. What Drives Household To Select Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. Cooking Fuels? The CSI survey results reveal that key determinants of households’ choice of cooking energy in Lao PDR are resource availability and fuel pricing, along with ease of Fuels Always Used To Prepare Meals Figure 2.2  use, convenience, and cleanliness. The survey results confirm that fuelwood is inexpensive. About 96 percent 90 81% 83% of rural households and 79 percent of peri-urban ones 80 indicate that firewood is readily available. Some 93 per- 74% 72% cent of all firewood is freely collected by users from 70 around the house, in the household garden or nearby for- 60 est, or on public and private lands; most rural households Percent households do not purchase firewood, while those in urban areas 50 45% both collect and purchase it. 42% 40 With regard to charcoal, about 5 percent of rural house- 30 holds make their own. Those that purchase charcoal typi- 18% cally buy it in large fertilizer bags, each weighing about 20 14% 13% 20–30 kg, depending on the type of wood used to make 9% 10 the charcoal. The average retail price per bag is about LAK 25,000–30,000, with a slightly higher price in urban 0 Firewood Charcoal LPG Electricity Rice Cooker areas. Modern forms of cooking energy—primarily LPG, which is imported, and some electricity—are considered Rural Peri-Urban expensive by most households. The average retail price Source: CSI field survey. for 15 kg of LPG is about LAK 160,000. Currently, LPG Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital is available primarily along the borders with Thailand and and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. Vietnam and its use is limited to a small minority of finan- cially better-off households. 10 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Figure 2.3 Household Cooking Fuel Mix in Rural Cooking Fuel Choice and Household Figure 2.4  and Peri-Urban Areasa Income 110 8 100 Household monthly income (millions of LAK/month, average) 90 7 6,683 80 39% 46% 6 50% 5,737 70 5,052 60 5 Percent 15% 4,305 50 4,106 4 40 23% 3,447 27% 3,119 30 34% 3 2,582 20 22% 15% 2 10 12% 8% 6% 0 1 Rural Peri-Urban All Areas Charcoal and Firewood Firewood 0 Charcoal LPG, Firewood, and Charcoal Firewood only Charcoal only Charcoal and LPG, Firewood, Firewood and Charcoal Rural Peri-Urban Source: CSI field survey. Source: CSI field survey. Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. a. About 1 percent are unidentified, including some combination of firewood, charcoal, biogas, electricity, and other fuel types. Predictably, in both rural and peri-urban areas, those In reality, most households in Lao PDR use a mix of households with the lowest average monthly incomes cooking fuels, which is reflected in the monthly expendi- tend to use firewood only or some combination of fire- ture on all cooking fuels. In rural areas, the average per- wood and charcoal, underscoring that firewood users household expenditure on cooking fuels is LAK 75,025 generally are among the country’s poorest households. per month, more than one-third less than in peri-urban Conversely, those households with the highest average areas, at LAK 116,231 per month (figure 2.5). monthly incomes tend to use either charcoal only or a mix of firewood, charcoal, and LPG (figure 2.4). The disparity between rural and peri-urban areas observed in monthly household expenditure reflects several key features of the two main cooking fuels. That is, most rural Cooking Fuel Consumption and Expenditure The CSI field survey reveals that the average monthly consumption of firewood is slightly higher for a rural household, at 183 kg, than a peri-urban one, at 178 kg. This per-household consumption level is equivalent to 5–6 kg per household per day, which is about the same as the national average. For charcoal, the average monthly consumption is higher for an urban household, at 70 kg, than a rural one, at about 56 kg. The average monthly, per-household expenditure on charcoal is LAK 94,000 in urban areas, compared to about LAK 65,000 in rural ones. In terms of LPG consumption, a peri-urban household spends an average of LAK 98,000 per month, compared to LAK 91,000 for a rural household. Charcoal sold in large fertilizer bags Overview of Household Cooking Fuels 11 Figure 2.5 Household Expenditure on Cooking Fuels 200 178.75 178.29 180 160 Thousands of LAK per month, average 140 125.02 120 116.23 100 87.69 90.04 80 75.03 70.00 60 57.16 40 20 0 Cooking with firewood in peri-urban area Firewood only Charcoal only Charcoal and LPG, Firewood, Total Firewood and Charcoal Rural Peri-Urban cooking energy may not be easily achieved. LPG must be imported, and the distribution network is limited to major Source: CSI field survey. Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital cities along the border with Thailand and Vietnam; also, and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. the fuel price is quite high relative to household income, limiting use to a small segment of financially better-off urban households. Despite the steady increase in access to electricity service, greater use of electricity for house- households use firewood, which they freely collect. In hold cooking is hampered by its high cost, owing to the addition, most peri-urban households use charcoal, which increased retail tariff to ensure cost recovery. they must purchase. Finally, the price of charcoal in peri- urban areas is slightly higher than in rural areas. As the census data show, urban households in economi- cally advanced areas are rapidly switching from firewood to charcoal as their main source of cooking energy; even Summary Remarks in the northern provinces, urban households are slowly shifting from firewood toward greater charcoal use. The Results of the CSI survey in Lao PDR, which confirm lowest-income households continue using firewood, data from the recent national census, show that the vast along with charcoal, suggesting that, for the foresee- majority of households continue to rely on fuelwood— able future, most households will meet their cooking primarily firewood and charcoal—as their main source of needs using a mix of fuelwood, supplemented by limited cooking energy. The abundance of firewood that can be amounts of modern cooking energy. These findings have freely collected, combined with the high cost of mod- important health implications for those most at risk from ern energy, suggests that the switch to modern forms of indoor pollution, which is the subject of the next chapter. 3 Health Risks from Indoor Pollution and Household Cooking Environment Recent research on indoor air pollution (IAP) in Lao PDR mg per m3 for those in Bolikhamsai. These concentrations supports mounting worldwide evidence of the causal were about 2–6 times higher than the WHO 1-hour mean linkages between indoor pollution from biomass com- guideline value of 200 mg per m3 and about 14–30 times bustion emissions and a range of respiratory and other higher than the annual mean guideline of 40 mg per m3. diseases, with the household members who regularly PM10 and NO2 concentrations were significantly higher in breathe such cooking smoke disproportionately affected. houses that used wood-burning cookstoves, compared This chapter summarizes the key findings from this study to those that used electricity. Among those dwellings (Mengersen et al. 2007), along with supporting statistical that used cookstoves, PM10 concentrations were signifi- data from recent national surveys and other studies (Lao cantly higher in houses whose stoves lacked a chimney. Department of Statistics 2009; LWU 2001), before turn- ing to the CSI survey results, which identify those groups The study also confirmed a strong link between higher most affected by IAP and the contributing health risk fac- IAP concentrations and respiratory illnesses in women tors in the household cooking environment. and children, with the associated health outcomes partic- ularly strong for women. Incidence of virtually all health outcomes considered in the study was more than triple IAP Evidence in Lao PDR Households for women living in dwellings with higher NO2 concentra- tions. A health survey conducted under the study showed The IAP study conducted by Mengersen et al. 2007 that nearly half of women spent one-three hours per day revealed that many households in Lao PDR exhibit high in the cooking area, while nearly a quarter spent more concentrations of particulate matter (PM10) and nitrogen than six hours a day in this location. Nearly three-quarters dioxide (NO2) many times higher than the World Health (72 percent) of children spent more than five hours each Organization (WHO) guidelines. The study also showed day in the cooking area,9 while 17 percent spent more that IAP is much higher in households that use fuelwood than five hours close to the fire. Based on the survey as their main cooking energy and that women and chil- results, the study concluded that the more time women dren in such households are at greater risk of a range of and children spend close to the fire, the higher their risk respiratory illnesses. of respiratory illness (e.g., cold, fever, runny nose, sting- ing or watery eyes, coughing, itchy rash or eczema, bron- The study showed that the mean household value for chitis, and pneumonia). PM10 was 1,295 micrograms per cubic meter (mg per m3) in Vientiane and 1,060 mg per m3 in Bolikhamsai. These PM10 concentrations are about 25 times higher than the WHO 24-hour mean guideline value of 50 mg per m3 and 9. Contrary to expectations, the study observed that children living in up to 65 times higher than the annual mean guideline households where the cooking area is located in a separate building experienced greater health risks; the reason may be that dispersal of 20 mg per m3. For NO2, the mean household value of pollutants in the separate building may have been poorer than in was 1,196 mg per m3 for Vientiane households and 574 the main residence. 13 14 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Women’s Time Allocation and Firewood food preparation activities, averaging about 1 hour per Collection and Cooking day, compared to only 6 minutes a day for men. Since nearly 90 percent of households use firewood as their Like many women throughout the developing world, main cooking fuel, women, who bear the larger share women in Lao PDR shoulder most of the household bur- of household cooking responsibilities, are more heavily den for biomass collection and cooking. As previously exposed to the health risks of IAP. mentioned, some 90 percent of the country’s households use firewood as their main cooking energy and most rural households collect the firewood they use, suggesting a Potential IAP Exposure and Results of heavy responsibility for women. The most recent Lao the CSI Survey Expenditure and Consumption Survey (LECS), conducted in 2007–08, confirms that women spend twice as much The CSI survey results in Lao PDR confirm that, in house- time as men collecting firewood (i.e., an average of 12 holds that use fuelwood as their main cooking energy, minutes versus 6 minutes per day) (Lao Department of women and their young children are at greatest risk from Statistics 2009). While 12 minutes a day may seem like a IAP . Based on the survey findings, the following subsec- small amount of time, this figure represents the national tions offer a profile of this high-risk group and describe average, including those households that spend no time contributing IAP risk factors, including stove and kitchen collecting firewood. The survey found that women’s aver- characteristics, cooking practices, and awareness of and age firewood collection time had fallen by 6 minutes a attitudes toward the harmful health effects of cooking day since the 2002–03 LECS was conducted, which may smoke emissions. reflect the shift from firewood to charcoal use in urban and some peri-urban areas. Identifying Those at Greatest Risk In the five years between surveys, the average house- In 98 percent of the households surveyed, women are hold collection time remained the same, at 12 minutes responsible for daily meal preparation. In both rural and per day. However, one should not conclude from this find- peri-urban areas, women who cook for family members ing that overall fuelwood supply remained unchanged. are typically about 38 years old and spend about 2.25 The reality is that forest land distribution and thus fire- hours each day on meal preparation, meaning that this wood availability has been uneven (Annex B). Empirical group is especially vulnerable to IAP exposure. While evidence shows that, in areas where fuelwood utiliza- cooking, these women also tend to their young children tion is intensive (e.g., peri-urban and other zones with (i.e., under 6 years of age), who may stay in or near high concentrations of brick-making, lime-making, and the cooking area. Among rural households, 30 percent other commercial activities), women are walking longer reported the presence of young children in the cooking distances to collect firewood. In addition, firewood col- area when women are cooking, compared to only 16 lection is more intensive during the dry season, when percent of peri-urban households. This finding, combined families stock up (box 3.1). with rural households’ greater use of firewood for cook- ing—which emits more smoke than charcoal—suggests The 2007–08 survey results also indicate that women that young rural children are more vulnerable to IAP expo- spend a disproportionate amount of time involved in sure than their peri-urban counterparts. Box 3.1 Women’s disproportionate burden of firewood collection A 2001 case study conducted by the Gender Resource Information and Development Center of the Lao Women’s Union (LWU) found that women’s firewood collection time was significantly higher in the villages surveyed than the national average. Conducted in four villages of as many provinces—Pu Din Daeng (Vientiane), Nam Tuan (Sayaboury), Khangdone (Xiang Khoang), and Kang Phosi (Savannakhet)—the study concluded that women living in a household of 5–6 people spend 1–3 hours per day collecting firewood. Each year, these women carry 120–150 loads, each weighing 15–20 kg. Wood is carried on the back or shoulder, which is an especially arduous task for women who are pregnant or caring for small children, the sick, or disabled. Source: LWU 2001. Health Risks from Indoor Pollution and Household Cooking Environment 15 Deficiencies in the physical cooking area, combined with the stove deficiencies described above, suggest that most Lao PDR households need to improve their cooking conditions to eliminate, or at least minimize, the IAP threat from indoor cooking smoke. One-fifth of the households surveyed exhibit deficiencies in both their cookstoves (i.e., lacking a chimney and/or hood) and physical cooking area (i.e., lacking a window and/or vent). These combined deficiencies suggest that this group has especially poor cooking conditions (i.e., there is no way for the smoke to escape) and thus relatively high IAP exposure. Cooking conditions are comparatively bet- ter for the majority of households (71 percent) surveyed, Soot-lined kitchen walls surrounding firewood stove who indicated that their cooking area has a window and/ or vent. Only a small minority of households (8 percent) are relatively better off, having both a chimney and/or Deficiencies in the Physical Cooking hood for their cookstoves and a window and/or vent in Environment their cooking areas (figure 3.2). The CSI survey results revealed that the cookstoves used Whether a household has a chimney or hood for their by 91 percent of households in both rural and peri-urban cookstoves or a window or vent in their cooking area areas lack both a chimney and a hood. These deficiencies does not appear to influence their decision to cook inside are about 5 percent more prevalent among urban house- or outside the house. Among households that cook holds (93 percent) than rural ones (about 89 percent). In exclusively inside or outside the house (16 percent and addition, cookstoves with chimneys account for only 8 13 percent, respectively), about half in each group lack percent of the households surveyed, while those with a hood represent less than 1 percent of respondents (fig- ure 3.1). Combined Features of Cookstoves and Figure 3.2  Cooking Areas (percent households) Has window/vent in kitchen or cooking Cookstove Features Figure 3.1  No window/vent area and has in kitchen or (percent households) cooking area, chimney/hood, 8% and no Chimney, chimney/hood, 8% 20% Hood, 0.8% No window/vent in kitchen or cooking area, but has chimney/hood, 0.4% Has neither chimney nor hood, Has window/vent in 91% kitchen or cooking area but no chimney/hood, 71% Source: CSI field survey. Source: CSI field survey. Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital Note: Results are from rural and peri-urban areas in Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. 16 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR 15 percent had no opinion. While 54 percent strongly agreed that smoke is harmful to a person’s health, 30 percent disagreed and 16 percent had no opinion. Only 14 percent strongly agreed that cooking smoke is a big problem for their families, compared to 25 percent that agreed and about 50 percent that disagreed. These find- ings highlight the need for appropriately targeted edu- cation, awareness-raising campaigns, and information dissemination. Summary Remarks The CSI survey findings confirm the results of earlier IAP research, identifying women who use firewood and char- coal for cooking and their young children as the groups most at risk from IAP exposure (Mengersen et al. 2007; Typical three-ring steel tripod (kieng) in rural kitchen Lao Department of Statistics 2009). Women are espe- with dirt floor cially vulnerable since, in addition to spending long hours in the household cooking area, they are responsible for both a chimney/hood for their cookstoves and a window/ collecting and carrying the fuelwood used for cooking. vent in their cooking area, while the other half have a The survey also identified contributing IAP risk factors, window/vent but lack a cookstove chimney/hood. including key deficiencies in the cookstoves households use and their physical cooking environment, as well as family members’ lack of awareness of the health risks Risk Awareness and Attitudes from indoor cooking smoke. That cooking conditions are The CSI survey results indicate that a relatively large particularly poor for one-fifth of the households surveyed percentage of the households surveyed do not clearly and that a large proportion of households are unaware recognize the harmful health effects from breathing the of the health risks from IAP suggest the need for a well- smoke emitted from the incomplete combustion of solid targeted awareness-building campaign to educate fam- fuels used for cooking. About 50 percent agreed and 34 ily members on the harmful effects of breathing smoke percent disagreed that they experience difficulty breath- from the burning of solid fuels and the importance of ing as a result of using fuelwood for cooking, and about changing their current cooking practices. 4 Household Demand for Cookstoves and Supply-Side Issues Given that heavy reliance on fuelwood for cooking smaller percentage—15 percent in urban areas and 8 accounts for some 90 percent of Lao PDR’s more than percent in rural ones—own and use more than two. Most 1 million households (Annex A), the country’s poten- households maintain more than one stove as a precau- tial technical demand for improved cookstoves could tion against breakage since the stoves are not durable, total more than 900,000 stoves. Promoting the use of lasting only about six months on average. improved cookstoves would undoubtedly increase mar- ket potential to the same level or near technical potential. This chapter examines the cookstove ownership prefer- Stove Types and Models ences among households, the stove types and models The CSI survey identified eight cookstove types and currently available on the market, and production meth- models used by households in Lao PDR, all of which ods and other key supply-side issues to better under- are portable and commercially available (table 4.1). Also, stand the potential for promoting improved stoves. various non-commercial stoves are made by users at home. Stoves are available in small, medium, and large sizes according to cooking needs and preferences. For Profile of Cookstove Ownership example, large-sized stoves are used for cooking a large quantity of food at one time and thus may be used in The CSI survey findings estimate household cookstove food stalls, restaurants, and noodle shops, as well as demand at about 1.7 stoves, meaning that many house- for group functions (e.g., wedding parties and religious holds own more than one stove. More than half (52 ceremonies). percent) of the households surveyed in both rural and peri-urban areas own and use two cookstoves, while a Household kitchen in Bolikhamsai, featuring (from far left) Variations of the tao prayat (charcoal and tao cement) firewood stove, rice cooking pot, and tao prayat (charcoal) 17 18 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Table 4.1 Cookstove Types and Models on the Market in Lao PDR Stove type/model Description Tao prayat/charcoal Bucket-shaped, clay stove Tao prayat/firewood and charcoal Bucket-shaped, clay stove Tao dum/charcoal Cylinder-shaped, clay stove Tao dum/firewood and charcoal Cylinder-shaped clay stove Tao cement/firewood Bucket- or cylinder-shaped concrete stove Tao lek (steel)/firewood Bucket- or cylinder-shaped steel rod and metal sheet Kieng (tripod)/firewood Ring-shaped, metal tripod Sao sam khon/firewood Three-stone stove Sources: CSI field survey and interviews with stove producers in Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. Note: tao = stove; prayat = saving; dum = black; sao = post; sam = three; khon = pieces. The most popular type of cookstove is the tao prayat and less than 1 percent of those in peri-urban areas (fig- (charcoal model), which is owned and used by more ure 4.1). than four-fifths of all households and more than half of peri-urban ones, followed by the tao dum (firewood Interestingly, ownership and use of the charcoal version and charcoal model), used by more than two-thirds of the tao prayat is 23 percent greater among peri-urban of all households and over one-third of rural ones. households than rural ones (53 percent versus 30 per- Less than half of households, at 48 percent and 44 per- cent). By contrast, the steel tripod, which uses firewood, cent, respectively, use the steel tripod or tao cement is owned and used by 10 percent more rural households stove types, both of which use firewood only. The tao than peri-urban ones (29 percent versus 19 percent) prayat (firewood and charcoal model) is used by two- (figure 4.1). Also noteworthy is that financially better-off fifths of households, while the tao dum (firewood model) households tend to use the charcoal version of the tao is used by about one-third of households. Only one-tenth prayat, while lower-income households tend to prefer the of households use the tao lek, while use of the three- tao cement, tao lek, and steel tripod, all of which use stone stove is limited to 3 percent of rural households firewood exclusively (figure 4.2). Figure 4.1 Cookstove Ownership in Rural and Peri-Urban Areas 60 53% 50 40 Percent households 35% 32% 30 30% 29% 22% 24% 20 19% 20% 19% 18% 14% 10 6% 4% 3% 0.6% 0 Tao prayat, Tao prayat, Tao dum, Tao dum, Tao Tao lek, Steel tripod, Three stones, charcoal charcoal and firewood charcoal and cement, firewood firewood firewood firewood firewood firewood Rural Peri-Urban Source: CSI field survey in rural and peri-urban areas of Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. Household Demand for Cookstoves and Supply-Side Issues 19 Figure 4.2 Cookstove Ownership Preferences by Household Income 5.5 4.991 4.990 Household monthly income (million LAK) 5.0 4.769 Own one or more cookstoves 4.5 4.168 4.0 3.5 3.275 3.133 3.0 2.5 2.253 2.0 Tao prayat, Tao prayat, Tao dum, Tao dum, Tao Tao lek, Steel tripod, charcoal charcoal and firewood charcoal and cement, firewood firewood firewood firewood firewood Source: CSI field survey in rural and peri-urban areas of Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. Household Affordability Stove Durability and Customer Satisfaction The CSI survey findings show that peri-urban and urban The short service life of most cookstoves—about six households in the areas studied can afford all of the cook- months on average—has both advantages and disad- stove types and models, which are widely available in vantages. From the stove producer’s point of view, the local markets and neighborhood retail shops. But due short service life results in high turnover, meaning that to the stoves’ short service life, households may spend producers can make and sell more stoves, albeit with at least LAK 50,000–70,000 (US$6–9) per year for two a thin profit margin. From the household customer’s cookstoves. For poorer households in rural areas, this perspective, cookstoves must be replaced every six price range may be beyond reach. Household income is months, but they are inexpensive and affordable, with no positively associated with the number of stoves owned. upfront cost issues. However, households seldom take For rural households that own one, two, or more than into account—and many are unaware of—the added (and two cookstoves, the average monthly income is LAK 3.3, usually hidden) transaction costs that frequent repair and 3.6, or 4.4 million, respectively, compared to LAK 4.1, 4.7, replacement of stoves will incur. or 7.4 million in peri-urban areas. Box 4.1 Evidence of potential demand for better stoves As originally designed, the tao prayat cookstove has a durability of up to two years, but most of the types and models currently sold on the commercial market in Lao PDR last only about six months. Compared to regular bucket stoves, the tao prayat process requires more steps. Even though the stove costs more to make, its wholesale price is the same as that of regular bucket stoves. Owing to stiff market competition and low profit margins, stove producers have cut costs by reducing the tao prayat’s needed insulation, grate thickness, and number of grate holes. Not sur- prisingly, the grate is usually the first component that requires replacing. Despite the failure to conform to original specifications to ensure quality and durability, the tao prayat remains quite popular among buyers. Stove producers continue to make the tao prayat, albeit in small quantities, while retail shop owners lack sufficient supply to meet customer orders, suggesting a large potential market for truly improved cookstoves. Sources: CSI market survey and interviews with stove producers in Vientiane capital and Bolikhamsai, Khammouane, and Vientiane provinces. 20 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Figure 4.3 Household Satisfaction Level with Cookstoves Owned 0.7% 0.6% 0.5% 2% 10% 100 3% 5% 10% 8% 9% 8% 14% 90 11% 9% 80 21% 33% 70 39% 29% 60 Percent 50 72% 64% 60% 38% 16% 40 35% 30 24% 50% 20 30% 10 20% 21% 23% 17% 18% 0 1.4% Tao prayat, Tao prayat, Tao dum, Tao dum, Tao Tao lek, Steel tripod, charcoal charcoal and firewood charcoal and cement, firewood firewood firewood firewood firewood No opinion Not satisfied Somewhat satisfied Satisfied Very satisfied Source: CSI field survey in rural and peri-urban areas of Vientiane capital and Vientiane, Bolikhamsai, and Khammouane provinces. Despite the durability issue, most surveyed households Although most owners of the tao prayat and tao dum expressed satisfaction with the cookstoves they own and cookstoves were satisfied (figure 4.3), about three-fifths use. The level of satisfaction varied slightly by type and agreed that these stove types have a short service life. model. The tao prayat models—both charcoal (72 percent These somewhat contradictory findings suggest that satisfaction) and firewood and charcoal (64 percent satis- consumers may not expect much from the performance faction)—were the clear winners. The tao cement, which of these cookstoves or have never experienced the true uses only firewood, was another winner, with a satisfac- tao prayat, as originally designed, which meets expected tion rate of 60 percent. One-third of households were levels of quality and durability (box 4.1). dissatisfied with the steel tripod, which had the highest overall dissatisfaction rate (figure 4.3). Cookstove Production The CSI market survey confirms that all commercially available cookstove types and models described above are based on the Artisan Production Model.10 Interviews with stove producers on the outskirts of Vientiane capi- tal and in Bolikhamsai, Khammouane, and Vientiane provinces reveal that cookstoves sold on the market are individually made by local artisans in small family-owned businesses. Owners and workers are trained by other 10. The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (GACC) defines the Artisan Production Model as one where “stoves are made locally by small enterprises—often by trained artisans building mud stoves in place in people’s homes, typically based on a fixed design. The scale of production here is typically on the order of 100s to low 1,000s per year…. � Details are available at http://cleancook stoves.org/over- Local artisan edging clay of the tao prayat view/what-is-a-clean-cook stove/. Household Demand for Cookstoves and Supply-Side Issues 21 artisans, apprentice with other cookstove producers, or are self-taught. Typically, a production facility consists of one large shed without a wall and one or two kilns, depending on the scale of production, which is usually small given that stoves are handmade. Key stovemaking materials are mud, clay, cement, rice ash (black and white), and metal sheet. Most producers use clay as their main material to make and sell a terra-cotta cookstove, the most com- mon types of which are the tao prayat and the tao dum. They also use cement to make the tao cement stove and steel to make the tao lek, both of which are portable. The main energy inputs for the terra-cotta stove types are rice husk and/or firewood, depending on the type of Tao cement, tao dum, and tao prayat for sale kiln used, along with an electric-powered motor for mix- in neighborhood retail shop ing the clay. This machine is also used to mix cement for the portable tao cement stove. The CSI market survey and interviews with cookstove producers confirm that most stove producers have low Production Limitations capital and limited or no access to credit. Many produc- ers indicated that, owing to a lack of capital, it would be Production processes are slow and labor-intensive, incur- difficult for them to invest in new production techniques ring high costs; while quality control, based on visual and technology. At the same time, virtually all producers inspection, is weak. An analysis of production costs, col- expressed a keen interest in learning how to improve lected from the CSI market survey and interviews with their stove production techniques and processes.12 producers, indicates that producers have a thin profit margin; since they rely on fast turnover, they may not be interested in stove durability. At the same time, the Supply Chain Features increased use of charcoal as the main source of cook- ing energy among urban and peri-urban households has The CSI survey reveals that stove producers rely on two created greater stove demand. Market competition is channels to market their stoves. The first one is to deliver stiff, with truly improved cookstoves having to compete directly to retail shop owners, who in turn must pay the against regular bucket stoves and cheaper imitations.11 producers in full (in cash) upon delivery. Using this chan- nel requires that the producers own a truck for transport- Most stove producers lack appropriate training for mak- ing stoves to the retail shops; however, they receive a ing the tao prayat and even regular bucket stoves. Pro- better price. The second channel—by far the most com- duction technologies have not progressed since the tao mon—is to rely on wholesalers/traders, who purchase prayat was first introduced, and most producers use trial- and-error methods. Most do not understand the technical requirements for firing/baking or the most suitable types of kilns. In addition, they are unaware of the energy-effi- ciency levels of the stoves they produce. Lack of training and technological know-how, combined with stiff market competition and low profit margins, has led producers to cut corners to reduce costs. As a result, the quality and durability of stove types and models have deteriorated and fail to meet expected standards (box 4.1). Cookstove factory outside Vientiane capital 11. Cookstoves sold in the market are relatively inexpensive; the retail price range for small- and medium-sized stoves for family use is about LAK 25,000–35,000 (about US$3.00–4.40), with no price 12. With appropriate training, cookstove producers could produce difference between the so-called tao prayat and regular biomass the same number of high-quality tao prayat as traditional cookstoves cookstoves. in the same amount of time. 22 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR producers. With user feedback, producers would have a clearer understanding of how to improve their stoves to satisfy customers’ needs and preferences. Currently, producers lack access to such information, which the wholesalers/traders (middlemen) usually screen. Conclusion The current patterns and trends of cookstove ownership in the CSI field survey area reveal favorable conditions for promoting better stove alternatives. First, the vast majority of households purchase their cookstoves. Sec- Tao dum (at right) sold alongside bagged charcoal in ond, the steel tripod (kieng) and tao lek, although more neighborhood shop on the outskirts of Vientiane capital durable than the other models and types, are used by far fewer households, either because of their poor per- formance (i.e., the steel tripod is perceived as perform- stoves in bulk from producers, at about 200 stoves per ing worse than the three-stone stove) or safety concerns visit, and transport them to the retail shops, where they (i.e., the tao lek lacks insulation). Third, the tao prayat, are sold. originally designed as an energy-efficient cookstove, has the advantage of its recognized name. Finally, there is Given that stove producers seldom own a truck for trans- ongoing demand for the tao prayat, reflecting consum- porting stoves and usually lack knowledge and means ers’ willingness to pay for what they perceive to be a of marketing, wholesalers/traders play a key role in the better stove.13 Even if prices doubled, the cookstoves cookstove supply chain. Since virtually all wholesalers/ currently available on the market would be affordable traders protect their sources, the cookstove producers to most households. The current annual outlay for cook- usually depend entirely on those they consider most stoves among urban and peri-urban households suggests reliable to market their stoves. Some retail shop own- significant potential for introducing more energy-efficient ers located in the main market or along the main road stoves that are affordable. receive offers from other wholesalers/traders to supply cookstoves to their shops. In the areas surveyed, more Concurrent with promotional campaigns to introduce than four-fifths of cookstoves are purchased from the the improved stoves, parallel efforts are required to market, which functions as the hub of cookstove supply increase efficiencies at all levels of the supply chain (e.g., and demand; 15 percent are purchased from village or correcting for market failure of the tao prayat to meet neighborhood retail shops, and less than 5 percent are energy-efficiency and durability standards and build- bought from traders. ing the capacity of stove producers and distributors) to ensure that improved stoves are commercially available The supply-chain analysis confirms that cookstove pro- at an affordable price. Based on these findings, the next ducers require assistance in learning how to better mar- chapter proposes an intervention strategy for scaling up ket and sell their products. As part of the effort to improve household access to clean cooking solutions. supply-chain efficiency, there is a need for better commu- nication and information flow between stove users and 13. More than half of all of the households surveyed said they would be willing to pay LAK 10,000 more for a tao prayat than a tao dum. 5 Strategy to Promote Improved Cookstoves Findings from the CSI stocktaking activities show that Building Public-Sector Capacity existing market conditions in Lao PDR cannot create supply and demand for improved cookstoves. As dis- Public-sector capacity building and technical assis- cussed in the previous chapters, key market deficien- tance will focus on advising staff of national and local cies must be corrected. On the demand side, there is a governments and academic institutions on establishing significant need to educate household members about and enforcing standards, labeling, and certification for the link between the health effects of indoor air pollution improved cookstoves, as well as setting up a national (IAP) and energy-inefficient cookstoves and thus gener- cookstove testing laboratory. In addition, through sup- ate demand for better stoves. On the supply side, it is port for Research and Development (R&D), consumers important to work with manufacturers to up their game will be offered better stove choices. and raise stove producers’ awareness of the potential for scaling up their businesses. The government has a role to play in setting and monitoring the rules of the game, Cookstove Standards, Labeling, and while financing institutions need to step up, seeing inter- Certification est from the supply and demand sides. Results of the CSI market survey, combined with a his- torical review of the cookstove market, confirm that the Unlike past efforts to promote the use of improved cook- original durability and energy-efficiency standards for the stoves, which were rather fragmented and small in scale, improved stove models introduced in 1997 have not held the proposed intervention strategy will cover all prov- up, indicating the need to institute and enforce national inces. Scaling up will utilize a market-based approach, standards, labeling, and certification criteria. To be which is the most efficient way to ensure the ongoing aligned with international clean cookstove standards, the availability of improved cookstoves at affordable prices proposed standards for Lao PDR are expected to consist in the market. The public sector has an important role to of basic criteria on energy efficiency, emissions, safety, play in enhancing market mechanisms to correct for past and IAP . Given the country’s current socioeconomic and deficiencies. The sections that follow describe the capac- stove market conditions, the clean cookstove standards ity-building and technical-assistance activities needed for will account for existing levels of stove production tech- the public and private sectors, along with the supporting nology and pricing to ensure that local producers can institutional arrangements that stakeholders agree are meet these standards and customers can afford to pur- needed to ensure success. chase the stoves. In addition, flexibility will be built in so that standards can be raised as production technologies improve and more models and options for clean cooking become commercially available. This means that stan- dards will be regularly reviewed and updated to reflect changing conditions. 23 24 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Before establishing and enacting these cookstove stan- Educating Consumers and Offering Better dards, thorough consultations must be held with all key Stove Choices stakeholders. The Institute of Renewable Energy Promo- tion (IREP) of the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) As discussed in chapter 4, consumers who purchased and the Renewable Energy and New Materials Institute the tao prayat models were unaware that the majority (RENMI) of the Ministry of Science and Technology of these stoves failed to meet the fuel-efficiency com- (MOST) will manage the consultation process and estab- bustion and durability standards of the original type lish the process for issuance of certification, labeling, and models. Thus, the proposed intervention strategy and enforcement. This will ensure that cookstoves sold includes public education and information dissemination on the market meet energy-efficiency and emission stan- campaigns to correct for such market failures and ensure dards and consumers are informed about whether the the free flow of information. Currently, the two tao prayat stoves they purchase are truly improved. In addition, the models—designed for either charcoal or firewood and proposed intervention calls for MEM and MOST to set up charcoal use—are the only ones on the Lao PDR market mechanisms to implement and enforce stove standards, that could be considered for improvement and promo- certification, and labeling. tion as improved cookstoves. But as originally designed, the tao prayat focused only on fuel savings and did not directly address the harmful health impacts of cooking National Cookstove Testing Laboratory smoke. Thus, for this cookstove to be considered truly improved, such deficiencies would need to be corrected. The proposed intervention also calls for RENMI and the Faculty of Engineering, National University of Laos This suggests that more types, models, and technolo- (NUOL) to establish the first national cookstove test- gies with different energy-efficiency levels and emis- ing laboratory. Given past experiences of cooperation sions standards should be available to meet all segments between academic institutions and MOST, it is expected of market demand. These designs should reduce both that these two institutions will be able to share knowl- indoor air pollution (IAP) and fuel consumption. To pro- edge and technologies. The laboratory will be used to mote cookstove innovation, the proposed interven- assist the government in establishing cookstove testing tion will support R&D for developing and adapting new protocols to ensure that standards and methods are uni- improved models, engaging RENMI, academic and formly applied throughout the country. The laboratory will research institutions, and the private sector in both Lao both test the cookstoves and issue certificates for those PDR and abroad. In addition, IREP , RENMI, and the pro- that meet the standards. vincial offices of their respective ministries (MEM and MOST), along with the private sector and other project The laboratory will also function as a center for R&D on partners, will ensure that all models of improved cook- improved cookstoves and a training center for national stoves are promoted and disseminated throughout the and provincial government officials to test existing cook- country. stoves in national and local markets and new ones about to be introduced to the market. The laboratory will lead the effort to increase the number of cookstove models available on the market to better meet demand from all Building Supply-Chain Capacity market segments. As a training center, the laboratory will ensure that government officials in all provinces are As discussed in chapter 4, stocktaking activities show capable of running cookstove testing laboratories. that all cookstove production in Lao PDR is based on arti- san production techniques and processes. Local stove It is expected that RENMI and the NUOL Faculty of Engi- producers have limited capacity and technological know- neering will jointly establish and operate the national how. Most have never been trained to produce improved cookstove testing laboratory. Once established, the labo- cookstoves. None have the capacity to use advanced ratory will eventually expand to key provinces and ulti- technical designs beyond the tao prayat for developing mately all provinces, where it will share lessons learned. and producing improved stoves. Thus, a major focus of The main functions of the provincial testing laboratories accelerating the dissemination of improved cookstoves will be to (1) test cookstoves sold in the respective prov- on the supply side is building stove producer capacity. inces and (2) issue certification and labeling. Strategy to Promote Improved Cookstoves 25 Training Stove Producers Ensuring Producer Access to Financing The proposed intervention will engage private- and The CSI survey reveals that the majority of stove produc- public-sector institutions—with RENMI and the NUOL ers have limited access to financing for investing in new Faculty of Engineering expected to serve as lead agen- equipment to improve or expand production, and nearly cies—to work in partnership to train producers in new all rely on their personal savings to start their businesses. stove technology, techniques, and processes. As part of All of the producers surveyed expressed strong interest this effort, a technology development and training facility in improving their production processes and techniques if for improved stoves will be established where shortcom- it were possible. Their major hindrances are lack of capital ings in meeting fuel-efficiency and combustion standards and access to credit. To ensure that the skills they learn will be addressed. at the training facility can be applied, the proposed inter- vention will help qualified producers gain access to credit As previously mentioned, the stovemaking process is through a revolving fund that would allow them to take labor- and energy-intensive, involving about a dozen out interest-free loans over an agreed period of time. steps. These include mixing clay with carbonized rice The revolving fund, originally set up to help households husk, hand-molding to form the stove shape, carving overcome the high upfront cost of solar photovoltaic (PV) to shape the stove, air and/or semi-sun drying, making home systems, is operated by the IREP . Consultation grates, baking, and installing insulation and a metal sheet with the institute confirms that it would be possible to as the wraparound. utilize this Rural Electrification Fund (REF) for the CSI. The proposed intervention seeks to mobilize donor funding to The CSI survey findings show that some producers have be added to the REF earmarked specifically for the CSI. received complaints from neighbors about the smoke emitted when baking stoves and have had difficulty find- ing rice husks as the primary energy source for baking. Improving Market-Chain Efficiency Given this context, producer training will focus on explor- The proposed intervention will help cookstove producers ing alternative production processes and techniques, develop business plans and a producer network to gain baking and baking energy sources, and kiln designs. access to market information and intelligence and thus It is expected that RENMI will conduct these training understand marketplace dynamics. This activity is vital to activities since the institute has conducted research improving efficiency of the cookstove market chain: the on improved cookstoves and stovemaking in the past, numerous links that connect all actors and transactions including the design of large kilns for baking stoves. involved in the movement of cookstoves from producers to consumers (figure 5.1). Figure 5.1 Cookstove Market Chain Government policy and regulation Money Consumers Communication Transport Retailers Technical and business training Financial services Trading Market information and intelligence Production Stoves Source: Author. Traditional brick dome kiln 26 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Simple walled kiln Efficiency of the market chain generally depends on how well information flows among actors in the market chain. Improved cookstoves flow up the chain, while money Cutting tin-coated, metal sheet wraparounds for stoves in flows down the chain. The proposed producer training family-owned business outside Vientiane capital and capacity building would likely increase the supply of improved cookstoves on the market. But getting the right The proposed intervention strategy will pay attention to balance between supply and demand in the marketplace which types of market information should be generated takes more than a production focus. All too often, the for which actors in the market chain and how to make it market is unable to absorb rapid or sudden increases in accessible. This information flow will also include feed- supply that exceeds demand, often resulting in reduced back from consumers up the value chain. The proposed prices or a price collapse. To claim and maintain a com- strategy will include market surveys, focus group inter- petitive advantage, stove producers must have sound views, and demonstrations to link producers with con- business plans and decision-making based on dynamic sumers and the participation of and support to women information. In short, the cookstove production business and community groups. Information from these activities must be managed with due attention to new market will be fed back to retailers, wholesalers, and producers opportunities, changing needs of consumers, and how through capacity building provided to these actors. market trends influence buying. Therefore, training in business operations is as important as technical support to improve production techniques. Establishing an Alliance for Clean Cookstoves in Lao PDR In response to the CSI survey finding that virtually all cookstove production in Lao PDR is based on the Arti- Proposed Process to Form Alliance Figure 5.2  san Production Model, the intervention strategy will for Clean Cookstoves support the organization of cookstove producers into an alliance for clean cookstoves, which will allow members to exchange ideas and knowledge about their stove busi- nesses. A nongovernmental organization (NGO) experi- Engage enced in working with producers in the country could act academia and NGOs to form as a focal point for alliance members to gain access to Stove makers Alliance for knowledge and ideas. The NUOL, which will play a key club or Clean Cookstoves assocation in Lao PDR role in stove testing, R&D, and training, could provide additional support. If established, the Lao PDR alliance NGO Assist stove makers to would enable members to share knowledge and experi- organize a stove makers ences with other alliances in the region and ultimately club or association the world (e.g., through the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves) (figure 5.2). Source: Author. Strategy to Promote Improved Cookstoves 27 need to be convinced of the direct and indirect benefits of using the improved cookstoves (Ekouevi and Tuntivate 2011). Thus, the overall intervention strategy will begin with community- or village-level campaigns, reinforced by those at the national level. International experience shows that, without the active participation of all stakeholders—from local communi- ties and NGOs to governments and the private sec- tor—household energy projects cannot succeed. Thus, the proposed intervention will foster partnerships and cooperation among a broad array of stakeholders—rang- ing from the improved cookstove retailers and the Lao Women’s Union (LWU) to key ministries, including the MOH and MEM—to develop and implement public- information, education, and marketing campaigns to raise household awareness about the problem of IAP and cookstoves and promote adoption of improved stoves. Supported by the public awareness campaigns and related activities, the broad marketing campaign will Cooking with the tao dum at storefront outside household include activities and materials designed to help retailers market and sell improved cookstoves, accompanied by Raising Public Health Awareness and more targeted support to entrepreneurs for developing Marketing competitive marketing strategies. To further promote adoption of improved cookstoves, the proposed intervention will inform the public of the links between using cookstoves and the health impacts of IAP . Institutional Arrangements Past promotion programs limited their focus to reducing fuel needs and improving hygiene. As discussed in chap- The introduction and dissemination of improved cook- ter 3, the CSI findings confirm people’s lack of aware- stoves require both multidisciplinary expertise and mul- ness of the links between IAP exposure and respiratory tisector cooperation among all stakeholders, requiring and other illnesses despite evidence documented by the a common objective and policy. For cooperation to be Ministry of Health (MOH), which recommended rais- efficient, all stakeholder institutions must have clearly ing women’s awareness of the health impacts of using defined roles and responsibilities. The subsections that energy-inefficient stoves; increasing stove efficiency; follow detail the proposed institutional setting at the pol- improving household ventilation, especially in kitchens; icy level and the roles and responsibilities of the imple- and developing and disseminating information, educa- menting institutions. tion, and communication (IEC) materials.14 Empirical evidence elsewhere has shown that sensitizing Policy Context households to the risks incurred from cooking with inef- During stakeholder consultations, it was agreed that a CSI ficient stoves and inferior fuels requires particular focus working committee should be established and chaired by on campaigns designed to raise public health aware- the MEM (Director General of IREP). Other key member ness, including the use of IEC materials. Past programs ministries and organizations will include the Ministry of that assumed households would spontaneously adopt Agriculture and Forestry (MAF); MOST; Ministry of Infor- improved stoves often ended in failure since households mation, Culture, and Tourism; MOH; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE); NUOL; Ministry of Finance (MOF); Ministry of Industry and Commerce; 14. Using the same background studies as Mengersen et al. (2007), the Environment and Occupational Health and Safety Division of the and LWU. The IREP will serve as secretary of the work- Department of Hygiene and Prevention reported in 2008 on the vul- ing committee, whose protocols (e.g., regular meeting nerability of women and children to the health hazard of indoor pol- schedule and agenda) will be decided during the early lution from cookstove smoke. 28 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Table 5.1 Proposed Roles and Responsibilities of Implementing Institutions Institution Activity area/task Ministry of Energy and Mines Clean Development Mechanism (MEM) • Serve as the carbon finance coordinating entity for clean cookstoves in Lao PDR if it is • Institute of Renewable Energy found to be eligible for carbon finance Promotion (IREP) Coordination among Agencies • Serve as the coordinating agency for the CSI • Chair (Director General of IREP) the CSI working committee Clean Cookstove Standards • Draft clean cookstove standards and submit the draft standards for RENMI to review and submit to the Department of Standards and Copyright of MOST • Enforce the standards and labeling for clean cookstoves Training and Public Information, Education, Awareness, and Marketing Campaigns • Implement nationwide training, public education, social marketing, and promotion of clean cookstoves Ministry of Science and Technology Clean Cookstove Standards (MOST) (MOST) RENMI • Renewable Energy and New • Review, authorize, and submit proposed clean cookstove standards to the Department of Materials Institute (RENMI) Standards and Copyright of MOST for approval and enactment • Department of Standards and Copyright Department of Standards and Copyright • Approve and enact clean cookstove standards and labeling National University of Lao PDR (NUOL) Stove Testing, Labeling, and R&D (RENMI/MOST and NUOL) • Establish and operate the clean cookstove testing facility • Establish stove-testing protocols • Conduct R&D • Train national and local government officials on operating testing facilities Building Private-sector Capacity and Improving Production Techniques and Supply Chain (RENMI/MOST and NUOL) • Operate the clean cookstove training center and train stove producers • Transfer technology and train producers in design and production of clean cookstoves Ministry of Health (MOH) Public Health Campaign and Awareness Raising • Environmental and Occupational • Conduct nationwide public awareness and education campaigns and promote behavioral Health and Safety Division changes Lao Women’s Union (LWU) Ministry of Natural Resources and Clean Development Mechanism Environment (MONRE) • Serve as the designated national authority for approval Source: Stakeholders Consultation Workshop, May 2012. stages of implementing the proposed intervention. The Implementation Renewable Energy Development Strategy already has Through stakeholder consultations, it has been agreed a high-level committee in place under the government that the IREP will serve as the CSI focal point and coor- office, chaired by the MEM minister with members rep- dinating agency. The proposed institutional arrangements resenting all other 17 ministries. The working committee include various ministries, educational institutions, and will ensure that policy and strategic directives for the CSI organizations with grassroots-level support (table 5.1). are in line with national policy and the Renewable Energy It is possible that certain roles and responsibilities may Development Strategy. overlap. For example, two ministries (MEM and MOST) Strategy to Promote Improved Cookstoves 29 and an academic institution (NUOL) have capacity- Summary Remarks building and technical-assistance responsibilities. The MOH and the LWU will participate directly in education This chapter has highlighted the importance of a market- and awareness-raising campaigns, especially on issues based approach as the most efficient way to promote related to public health and the risk of IAP, since both improved cookstoves in Lao PDR. It has underscored the have strong grassroots support from local communities public sector’s role in enhancing market mechanisms, and awareness-raising know-how. including developing new stove technologies to give con- sumers more and better choices; providing infrastructure To measure progress and achievements during and fol- to support the dissemination of new cookstoves; estab- lowing implementation of the proposed intervention lishing national testing standards, labeling, and certifica- strategy, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) will be con- tion; intervening to correct for market failures; promoting ducted. Details of the M&E system (e.g., assigning and education, training, and awareness-raising activities; and scheduling tasks and setting indicators and targets) will assisting cookstove producers in overcoming deficiencies be developed at the outset of strategy implementation. and barriers. Long-term sustainability of the intervention is closely tied to the country’s capacity to carry out these activities. As a result, public- and private-sector capac- ity building and technical assistance are vital to success. Finally, implementation requires multisector cooperation, entailing close coordination among multiple stakeholders with clearly defined roles and responsibilities. 6 Promoting Biogas Systems The Government of Lao PDR is keen to establish a Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) and the Gov- national biogas program, building on the achievements ernment of the Netherlands. The Netherlands Develop- of the country’s Bigoas Pilot Program (BPP). Over a five- ment Organisation (SNV) provided €1.1 million to support year period, the BPP has installed 2,504 biogas digesters initial implementation in 2007–10, with another €550,000 in five provinces, covering 41 districts and 792 villages. provided for 2011–12. Major implementing entities The national program would extend coverage to an addi- include the Biogas Advisory Board (national level); Proj- tional six provinces. The initiative would be scaled up ect Steering Committee (regional level), with representa- under the Renewable Energy Development Strategy tives of various organizations offering program guidance in Lao PDR, with a goal of having significantly greater and coordination; and Provincial Agriculture and Forestry numbers of qualified farming households using biogas by Offices (PAFOs) and district-level coordinators (local 2025. Implementing this initiative would, in turn, reduce level). In addition, the SNV offers technical assistance. dependence on LPG imports, as well as firewood and The BPP is headquartered in the MAF’s Department of charcoal, for household cooking.15 Livestock and Fisheries (DLF). Over the BPP’s initial three years (2007–10), 1,996 bio- Overview of Biogas Promotion gas systems were installed. The initial target of 6,000 in Lao PDR systems, which reflected technical potential, was later revised down to 2,000, in line with market potential Currently, the BPP is the only active biogas promotion (table 6.1). Challenges to implementation in 2010–11 program in Lao PDR.16 This program was initiated in 2006 included natural disasters (e.g., protracted flooding in through a memorandum of understanding between the Khammouane and Savannakhet provinces) and extreme temperatures (e.g., cold weather, resulting in the death of more than 2,000 cattle). 15. The Government of Lao PDR has requested funding support from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to disseminate biogas sys- tems in the six additional provinces; however, at the time of this Table 6.1 Biogas System Installation writing, the ADB had not indicated whether it would be interested in supporting the proposed national biogas program. 16. Prior to the BPP , biogas efforts in Lao PDR were limited to small Systems installed (number) demonstration projects. Biogas technology was first introduced in 1983, with support from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Year(s) Target Actual Initially, family-sized biogas units were set up by the MAF , with FAO 2007–10 2,000 1,996 cooperation. Since 1993, the Science, Technology and Environment Agency (STEA) has been involved in developing pilot plants supported 2011 650 439 by Canada and Thailand. The UN-Habitat built 5 biogas systems in Oudomsai province; while the Lao-Chinese cooperation program 2012 450 -- installed 4 household-sized systems in Xiang Khoang and 30 systems Source: Personal communication with BPP program manager. in Vientiane, all of which are for demonstration purposes. 31 32 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR The BPP is well planned and executed. It builds on the cumulative experience and lessons learned from suc- cessful biogas programs in neighboring countries, includ- ing Cambodia and Vietnam, and the broader Asia region, including Nepal and China, adapting key components to Lao conditions. Four sizes of biodigesters are offered (4, 6, 8, and 10 cubic meters [m3]), and the cost range for the system, including the stove, is about US$441–706. Predictably, demand is limited mainly to relatively better- off farming households (i.e., livestock [cattle and pigs] and rice [with several water buffalo]). Typically, these live- stock and rice farmers are located in areas without read- ily available fuelwood, including deforested areas, and lack electricity access. Surveys of households participating in the BPP illustrate the biodigesters’ many economic, environmental, and Inlet for feeding slurry into the household biodigester, health benefits (TABI 2011). Economic savings for the Sikhottabong District, Vientiene capital average family include 1.5 hours per day in labor, US$89 in annual fuel and chemical fertilizer costs, and at least 44.9 kg of firewood and 32.5 kg of charcoal for cooking terms, uncertainty of the biogas business, unavailability each month. Environmental benefits include a reduction of replacement parts, and various cultural issues. in tree-cutting, which supports sustainable forest man- agement, and the treatment of manure for biofertilizer, which enhances soil productivity. In terms of health, the Stringent Qualification Criteria major benefit is a reduction in smoke-borne diseases To qualify for participation, the BPP requires farming associated with indoor air pollution (IAP). Added health households to have at least 5–6 cattle or at least 10 benefits are better hygiene and sanitation conditions, pigs—about twice the numbers originally required. The resulting from the use of animal and human waste to new criterion was put in place in response to Lao farm- reduce parasites, viruses, bacteria, and vector-borne dis- ers’ preference for having free-roaming cattle penned eases, thus contributing to the goals of the Ministry of only at night. The number of livestock may vary by year, Health (MOH) initiative.17 and it is quite difficult to foresee whether farmers can maintain the minimum number required to operate the biogas systems. Also most farmers maintain livestock National Program Scale-Up: as an investment and liquid asset, and market price risk What Are the Challenges? influences their decision on holdings. Thus, maintaining the required number of animals at all times to supply bio- Despite the above-mentioned benefits, the BPP has gas is not attractive. had a low adoption rate. Interviews with the the project manager and an assessment of promotional campaign High Upfront Costs and Unwieldy Subsidies materials indicate that the project has relied on good practices for social marketing, education, and informa- Like biogas projects in other countries, the BPP in Lao tion campaigns.18 The CSI field visits show that some of PDR provides participants a subsidy to defray the upfront the key barriers to greater customer participation, out- cost of the system, whose total investment requirement lined below, have involved stringent qualification criteria, averages about US$500. The BPP subsidy of US$219 (in high upfront system costs and lack of attractive financing kind and cash) is substantially higher than those provided under similar biogas projects in Vietnam and Cambodia, 17. Since 1990, the MOH’s Environment and Occupational Health at $60 and $150, respectively. The main justifications for and Sanitation Department, working with the Center for Environ- Lao’s higher subsidy are the farming households’ low mental Health and Water Supply, has been constructing pour-and- adoption rate, difficulty in accessing finance, and low flush latrines to improve household hygiene, requiring that all human and animal waste be located outside a 30-meter radius of water income levels.19 But even with the large subsidy (about sources and be carefully managed. 18. One promotional campaign offers LAK 100,000 to anyone who 19. To date, the total numbers of biogas systems adopted in Vietnam can successfully bring in one new customer. and Cambodia are estimated at 200,000 and 16,000, respectively. Promoting Biogas Systems 33 31–50 percent), the initial outlay–ranging from $222 to Quality Control and After-Sales Service $487 , depending on the size of the biodigester—may The BPP has put in place quality control and after-sales make the system unaffordable for many otherwise inter- service. Masons provide regular service during the first ested participants. Informal lending may be available in year after construction. After two years, the PAFOs con- the villages, but interest rates are extremely high. The duct a warranty inspection, and a warranty fee is paid for most preferred collateral for credit is the land deed. No the mason. About 11 percent of the subsidy is set aside farmer is willing to take such a risk, particularly since for the warrantee fees and put in an escrow account. alternative fuelwood is cheap or freely available from the Conversations with a few biogas users confirm that their local environment. systems are functioning well. Lack of Access to Financing Yet certain issues related to after-sales service have begun to emerge. Some customers noted they could Most Lao farmers lack access to formal lending, and not receive help when problems arose. Also, owing to microfinance is not widely available. In 2011, the BPP the small size of both the program and the country, cer- was able to secure support from the Agriculture Promo- tain system parts and components are unavailable in the tion Bank (APB) to provide small loans to program par- local market and must be imported. Replacements for ticipants. Unfortunately, the APB has decided to suspend the biogas lamp, an optional add-on part, are unavailable; this type of lending due to insufficient loan volumes to fortunately, this is not a serious issue since all BPP par- maintain the lending product. As a result, many inter- ticipants have access to electricity. However, in the long ested farmers without savings to pay for the biogas sys- run, the lack of spares and replacement parts will present tems will be unable to participate. a challenge, especially if the current pilot project scales up to the proposed national-level program. Uncertain Sustainability of the Biogas Business The BPP has succeeded in producing well-trained biogas Cultural Barriers system builders. Local masons receive extensive train- National scale-up will also require overcoming various ing (about three weeks) to ensure quality construction of cultural barriers related to customary farming and cook- the systems. As a result, the biodigester tank and entire ing practices and household time use. Since most live- system are of sound quality. However, for several major stock farmers do not pen their animals, as previously reasons, the program has not been able to establish a mentioned, they are not interested in spending extra sustainable biogas business for the local masons. First, time each day collecting dung, mixing it with water, and due to the low adoption rate, local masons trained by filling a biodigester tank. Even those few farmers who the BPP have been unable to obtain enough construc- pen their livestock are not interested in taking the time tion contracts to stay in business. Second, some masons needed to collect dung and take it to the digester tank, may lack sufficient capital to establish their businesses. particularly since collecting fuelwood each day takes rela- Third, there is competing demand for skilled masons and tively little time. plumbers in Lao PDR, owing, in part, to the recent con- struction boom. As a result, many skilled masons trained In terms of cooking practices, households that have by the BPP may find it easier to work in the construc- adopted biogas systems still use their cookstoves to pre- tion industry than to build biodigesters and install biogas pare traditional dishes in preferred ways. In addition, a systems. biogas stove requires that the user assume a standing position; however, the traditional cooking habit in Lao households is to be seated when using the stove. While urban households are gradually transitioning to a stand- ing position, rural households have not made the change. Biogas use could also require that households reallocate the time use of women and men. Men spend an average of 30 minutes a day tending animals, compared to 18 minutes for women (Lao Department of Statistics 2009); however, women spend about twice as much time as men collecting firewood. Thus, households will have to decide who will assume the added time burden of col- Cattle tethered in farmyard for easy manure collection lecting dung for the biogas system. 34 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Table 6.2 Sample Financing Arrangement Term of lease Subsidy and payment Three years Six years Initial payment, US$50–100 100 50 Monthly payment, US$6–10 10 6 Total payment 36 x 10 + 100 = 460 72 x 6 + 50 = 482 Source: Author. Note: The current estimated cost of the smallest biodigester system (4 m3) is about US$440. Summing Up is a revolving fund established by the government to help off-grid rural households overcome the high upfront Based on a critical review of the BPP , it appears that lack costs of solar PV home systems (ASTAE 2012). The REF of access to financing is the most critical barrier to adop- is considered a central component of Lao PDR’s off-grid tion of biogas digesters by otherwise interested farming rural electrification effort. Similarly, the proposed financ- households. Many of the barriers discussed above are ing solution for biogas will offer farming households interrelated and could be resolved with access to financ- interest-free access to the REF to cover upfront system ing. For example, once households can overcome high costs,21 with the loan repayable in monthly installments upfront system costs, the adoption rate may take off, in over an agreed-to period. This pilot program will require turn, bringing local masons more work.20 The next sec- cooperation between the DLF , which will implement the tion offers an alternative strategy to resolve this financing program, and the IREP , which will be responsible for issue. financial management (figure 6.1). Under the proposed intervention strategy, some 100 Proposed Pilot Financing Alternative participants in the proposed pilot scheme would use the REF to finance their biogas systems and enter into hire- The proposed intervention strategy will pilot an alterna- purchase agreements. Table 6.2 gives examples of pro- tive financing solution based on the country’s experi- posed financing arrangements. To reduce management ence in off-grid rural electrification. Implemented by the cost, especially for monthly payment collection, it is Institute of Renewable Energy Promotion (IREP), the off- expected that participants will make their monthly repay- grid program makes solar PV home systems available to ments using an experimental cellular phone program.22 remote households through hire-purchase agreements. Households can choose from a range of solar PV panel sizes. They pay an installation fee (the lowest is about Institutional Arrangements LAK 130,000 or US$16), lease the system, and make The proposed pilot financing scheme for 100 biogas monthly payments of LAK 10,000–25,000 (about US$1– systems will rely on existing institutional arrangements, 3) over 5 or 10 years, depending on what the household with the exception of financing, for which the IREP will can afford. At the end of the lease period, the household assume responsibility. The Ministry of Energy and Mines becomes the owner of the system. (MEM) will conduct promotional campaigns and social marketing; the MOH may collaborate in raising aware- Monthly repayments are deposited into the Rural Electri- ness about the health and safety benefits of biodigesters fication Fund (REF). As discussed in chapter 5, the REF (e.g., using animal and human waste to reduce parasites, viruses, bacteria, and vector-borne diseases) (table 6.3). 20. Other areas where improvements could be made include (1) Through close monitoring and evaluation (M&E), the promoting the management, use, and sale of slurry as an organic fertilizer to reduce expenditure on chemical fertilizers and generate additional income; (2) emphasizing livestock business management to address potential uncertainties in the livestock market and the 21. No subsidy is provided for the upfront cost. size of required livestock holdings for households to participate in 22. Currently, the IREP and the World Bank are exploring the devel- the biogas program; (3) addressing after-sales service, especially the opment of a monthly bill payment system using cellular phones for availability of spare parts, and consumer outreach; and (4) overcom- customers with off-grid solar PV systems. Likewise, the proposed ing cultural barriers through education, awareness-raising, and mar- pilot financing alternative for biogas will test monthly loan repay- keting campaigns. ment to the REF via cellular phone. Promoting Biogas Systems 35 Table 6.3 Proposed Institutional Roles and Responsibilities Institution Activity area/task Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) • Finance through the Rural Electrification Fund (REF); collect • Institute of Renewable Energy Promotion (IREP) and manage monthly payments • Conduct promotional campaigns and social marketing, pos- sibility in collaboration with the Ministry of Health (MOH) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) • Department of Livestock and Fisheries • Promote livestock and bioslurry management • Department of Agriculture • Conduct quality control and inspection Department of Agriculture • Support and coordinate bioslurry management Local masons • Construct and install biogas systems • Train and educate users Source: Stakeholders Consultation Workshop, May 2012. lessons learned on the financing alternative, coordination First, technical assistance will be provided to the DLF to between ministries, and other issues will be examined strengthen its capacity to educate farmers on livestock for their scale-up potential. business management. Second, in coordination with the Department of Agriculture, the use and commercial sale of bioslurry as an organic fertilizer will be promoted to Capacity Building and Technical Assistance reduce farmers’ expenditure on chemical fertilizers, gen- Because the main obstacle to biogas uptake is farming erate farmer income, and possibly increase the value of households’ lack of access to financing, the proposed their agricultural products. Third, the DLF will develop and capacity building and technical assistance will empha- draft updated standards for biodigesters, which will be size making biogas more financially attractive to farmers. confirmed and authorized by the MOST. External support This promotional effort will focus on four areas of activity. and research may be provided by the SNV, which devel- oped the current standards, and others. Finally, assis- tance will be provided to improve after-sales service, including quality control and inspection. Proposed Alternative Financing for Figure 6.1  Pilot Biogas Program Overcoming upfront cost barrier Summary Remarks Revolving REF Uptake of the existing BPP in Lao PDR has been slow, Initial payment of perhaps $50? and despite the large subsidy. If the current financing approach Payment made to masons monthly payment by were continued, covering 10,000 households would cellular phone require at least US$2.2 million for the subsidy alone. The alternative financing approach presented in this chapter Masons (biogas builders) and is considerably cheaper and potentially more sustainable materials and thus should be tried and tested. The proposed pilot- Construct biogas system ing of 100 systems will provide an opportunity to examine lessons learned from the BPP to chart a new course for a Helping in other areas, as needed more sustainable, scaled-up national program. Source: Author. 7 Conclusion Despite Lao PDR’s progress in recent decades to transi- would be affordable to most households. The tao prayat, tion toward modern forms of cooking energy, prospects the most popular commercially available cookstove, remain limited. The prices for both LPG and electricity especially among peri-urban households, was originally are relatively high in proportion to household income, and designed as an improved stove; the market failure to fuelwood is abundant and readily available, particularly in maintain standards for fuel efficiency suggests the need rural areas. Over the past two decades, increasing num- to educate household members about the links between bers of households have begun switching from fuelwood biomass cooking smoke and IAP exposure to generate to charcoal as their main source of cooking energy. This demand for truly improved cookstoves. shift has been more pronounced in urban areas than rural ones and is accelerated among households in the coun- On the supply side, the CSI study revealed key deficien- try’s most economically well-off provinces and capital cies that must be overcome in order to build a success- city. Thus, it is likely that fuelwood will continue to pre- ful market for improved stoves. Virtually all cookstove dominate as the main household cooking fuel, at least in production is based on the Artisan Production Model, the foreseeable future. meaning that stoves are made individually by hand, using slow, labor-intensive processes and low-input technol- Continued heavy reliance on fuelwood for household ogy with weak quality control. Businesses are small and cooking underscores the important role of improved fragmented, and may be difficult to organize. Many are cookstoves in mitigating health risks for household mem- family-owned, with limited or no access to financing. bers who spend many hours each day in the kitchen or As a result, most cookstove producers lack the financial cooking area, primarily women and their young children. capacity to invest in new technology. Because of their The findings of the CSI field survey reinforce results from thin profit margin owing to stiff competition, produc- Mengersen et al. (2007), which revealed a strong asso- ers rely on a fast turnover and thus may lack incentive ciation between indoor air pollution (IAP) and respiratory to make more durable stoves. Furthermore, they lack illness in women and children. The CSI survey findings training in business management and marketing, as well confirm that women and young children in households as technological know-how to improve their production that use fuelwood for cooking are in the highest risk techniques. group for IAP exposure. To correct for market deficiencies in both supply and Improved cookstoves are not yet available on the market demand, the proposed intervention strategy will use a in Lao PDR; however, the CSI field survey shows that market-based mechanism, which is widely considered current patterns, trends, and preferences for cookstove the most efficient way to sustainably promote improved ownership are favorable for promoting and marketing bet- cookstoves. As discussed in chapter 5, it is envisioned ter stoves. More than half of the households in the CSI that the public and private sectors will work in partner- study area use more than one cookstove, and household ship, with the public sector providing needed research income is positively associated with the total number and development (R&D), infrastructure, standards, edu- of stoves owned. Thus, it appears that improved stoves cation and raising of public awareness, and training and 37 38 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR other technical assistance for producers and distributors. international experience, the country has an opportunity In addition, the dissemination of improved cookstoves to chart a new course for developing a scaled-up biogas will require coordination across various ministries and program. cooperation among multiple stakeholders, with clearly designated roles and responsibilities. Summing up, achieving universal access to clean house- hold cooking solutions in Lao PDR requires a holistic To further promote clean cooking solutions, Lao PDR has approach. The results of this assessment indicate that a an opportunity to promote biogas use among a niche small proportion of wealthier households will be able to market segment (i.e., farming households with sufficient access LPG and increasingly more urban households will numbers of livestock to generate enough slurry to cre- transition to purchased charcoal as their incomes rise. ate methane gas). As discussed in chapter 6, uptake of There is also a promising niche market for biogas sys- the existing Biogas Pilot Program (BPP) has been slow tems among qualified farming households with livestock. to date, owing mainly to the high system cost, at about For most households—including those in the lowest US$500, and unwieldy subsidies. The proposed piloting income groups—who will continue to rely mainly on fire- of 100 biogas systems using an alternative financing wood, the proposed approach to creating a thriving stove approach offering interest-free loans and lease-purchase market offers an important pathway to cleaner cooking. agreements without upfront subsidies is less costly and The benefits are fewer premature deaths, healthier and should be tried. Building on what has been learned from more productive lives, less drudgery for women, and less past programs in Lao PDR, along with lessons from pressure on the environment. Annex A Selected Development Indicators for Lao PDR GDP per capita Household electrification, 2010 Total Total annual No. of Percent population, consumption, Total no. of households household Province/prefecture 2011 billion LAK LAK US$ households with electricity access Vientiane capital 829,206 4,195 8,866,633 1,043 128,207 127,388 99.4 Phongsaly 175,646 422 3,833,634 451 28,531 5,884 20.6 Luang Namtha 168,249 451 4,499,516 529 28,831 6,228 56.3 Oudomsai 306,293 781 4,274,925 503 46,244 21,508 46.5 Bokeo 169,005 411 4,082,970 480 27,606 19,061 69.0 Luang Phrabang 437,583 1,367 4,955,630 583 69,981 46,520 66.5 Houaphan 306,105 703 3,632,037 427 44,813 16,392 36.6 Sayaboury 371,558 1,665 7,229,061 850 66,614 51,978 78.0 Xiang Khoang 262,278 850 5,157,445 607 40,463 22,265 55.0 Vientiane 442,347 1,744 5,998,783 706 83,011 69,098 83.2 Bolikhamsai 269,425 959 6,039,547 711 41,127 33,639 81.8 Khammouane 385,235 1,247 5,411,716 637 61,524 44,636 72.6 Savannakhet 940,885 3,006 5,376,553 633 140,461 101,577 72.3 Saravane 375,282 963 4,308,527 507 78,555 57,623 73.4 Sekong 103,666 233 3,942,238 464 13,772 6,504 47.2 Champassak 685,098 2,558 6,303,044 742 108,568 84,962 78.3 Attapeu 132,236 355 4,588,648 540 22,729 9,328 41.0 Total 6,360,098 1,031,037 734,591 71.2 Sources: Lao Department of Statistics 2009; Ministry of Energy and Mines; and World Bank staff estimates. 39 Annex B Changes in Forested Area Distribution Distribution (%) Change (%) Land-use group and type 1982 1992 2002 1982–92 1992–02 1982–02 Current forest 49.142 47.162 41.491 -1.980 -5.672 -7.652 Dry dipterocarp 5.216 5.095 0.563 -0.121 0.468 0.347 Lower dry evergreen 0.374 0.361 0.237 -0.013 -0.124 -0.137 Upper dry evergreen 4.670 4.481 5.861 -0.189 1.380 1.191 Lower mixed deciduous 3.771 3.651 3.720 -0.120 0.069 -0.051 Upper mixed deciduous 32.907 31.463 23.224 -1.444 -8.239 -9.683 Gallery forest 0.383 0.370 0.119 -0.013 -0.251 -0.264 Coniferous 0.584 0.557 0.376 -0.027 -0.181 -0.208 Mixed coniferous 1.237 1.184 2.221 -0.053 1.037 0.984 Tree plantation -- -- 0.169 -- -- 0.169 Potential forest 36.142 37.971 47.095 1.667 9.496 10.971 Bamboo 6.153 6.469 2.276 0.316 -4.193 -3.877 Unstocked 27.448 28.680 42.636 1.232 13.956 15.188 Shifting cultivation area 2.523 2.642 2.183 0.119 -0.459 -0.340 Other wooded area 6.526 6.098 1.210 -0.428 -4.888 -5.316 Savannah/open woodlands 4.113 3.853 0.399 -0.260 -3.454 -3.714 Heath, shrub forest 2.431 2.245 0.811 -0.186 -1.434 -1.602 Sum of all forest area 91.8 91.1 89.8 -0.741 -1.246 -2 Source: FAO 2010. 40 Annex C Field Survey Methodology The CSI field survey consisted of (1) a household cook- were sampled, using a two-stage sampling method. In ing energy survey, conducted separately in peri-urban the first stage, some 30–40 rural villages from four prov- areas and rural areas and (2) a market survey of bio- inces were randomly selected, out of which about 15–20 mass cookstoves and the supply chain. The survey representative households were randomly selected. The was conducted in four prefecture/provinces: Vientiane market survey covered the entire cookstove supply chain capital, Bolikhamsai, Khammouane, and Vientiane. For (i.e., retailers, wholesalers and traders, and producers). peri-urban areas, the total sample size was 300 house- More than 80 retail shop owners were surveyed, and holds. A one-stage sampling method was used, with for every cookstove producer surveyed, one or two key representative households randomly selected from each wholesalers used by that producer were interviewed. village. For rural areas, approximately 600 households Lao PDR Clean Cook-Stove Initiative Household Identification Number Household Cooking Energy Survey • World Bank Sponsored Project Name of Province: District: Village: Name of Respondent: Date of Interview: / / (Date/Month/Year) Name of Interviewer: Signature: Name of Supervisor: Signature: Name of Field Supervisor/Editor: Signature: Data Key in By: Signature: RESPONDENT AGREES TO BE INTERVIEWED: Time Start: Time End: 41 42 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Section A. Information on Household Member Var Information on Respondent Name A1 What is the age of the respondent? years old A1 A2 What is the sex of the respondent? Male................................................................1 A2 Female............................................................2 A3 What is the educational level of the respondent? No Formal Education......................................0 A3 Primary School................................................1 Middle School.................................................2 High School....................................................3 College Education...........................................4 University Education.......................................5 Post-graduate Education.................................6 A4 What is the respondent’s relationship with the head of Head of Household.........................................1 A4 household? Spouse of Head..............................................2 Daughter.........................................................3 Son.................................................................4 Daughter-in-Law..............................................5 Son-in-Law......................................................6 Parents...........................................................7 Parents-in-Law................................................8 Other (specify) ..........9 If respondent is NOT “Head of Household� Var Information on Head of Household Name A5 What is the age of the head of household? years old A5 A6 What is the sex of the head of household? Male................................................................1 A6 Female............................................................2 A7 What is the educational level of the head of household? No Formal Education......................................0 A7 Primary School (grades 1–3)...........................1 Primary School (grades 4–7)...........................2 Middle School (S1–S4)....................................3 High School (S5–S6).......................................4 College Education...........................................5 University Education.......................................6 Post-graduate Education.................................7 A8 What is the marital status of the head of household? Married/Living Together..................................1 A8 Single/Never Married......................................2 Widower.........................................................3 Separated/Divorced........................................4 Other (specify) ..........5 If respondent is NOT “Spouse of the Head of Household� Var Information on Spouse of Head of Household Name A9 What is the age of the spouse of the head of household? years old A9 A10 What is the sex of the spouse of the head of household? Male................................................................1 A10 Female............................................................2 A11 What is the educational level of the spouse of the head of No Formal Education......................................0 A11 household? Primary School (grades1–3)............................1 Primary School (grades 4–7)...........................2 Middle School (S1–S4)....................................3 High School (S5–S6).......................................4 College Education...........................................5 University Education.......................................6 Post-graduate Education.................................7 Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 43 Household Member Total number of persons that eat and sleep in the household (fill Var in according to age). Name A12 Less than 6 years old Persons A12 A13 6–12 years old Persons A13 A14 13–18 years old Persons A14 A15 19–22 years old Persons A15 A16 23–45 years old Persons A16 A17 46–60 years old Persons A17 A18 61 and older Persons A18 A19 Total Persons A19 A20 How many persons in your household earn income? Persons A20 (include all income earned by everyone in the households) A21 Does your household usually prepare meals for the house- Yes................................................................. 1 A21 hold’s own consumption? No...................................................................2 Household Income Household Expenditure Var Var Nam Items Kips Nam Items Kips A31 Salaries (husband, wife, son, daugh- A41 Foodstuffs, beverages, cigarettes, ter, etc.) alcohol A32 Wages A42 Clothing A33 Income from farming, agricultural A43 Housing, rent, home repairs activities A34 Income from business activities A44 Transportation A35 Remittances received A45 Health care, medicines A36 Government allowances, welfare, A46 Education pension A37 Income from handicrafts A47 Other (specify) A38 Other (specify) A48 Other (specify) A39 Other (specify) A49 Other (specify) A40 Total household income A50 Total household expenditure 44 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Section B. Housing Unit Information Var Housing Information Name B1 What is the ownership status of this house? Own...........................................................................1 B1 Rent...........................................................................2 Rent Free...................................................................3 Parent’s/Family’s........................................................4 Other (specify)...........................................................5 B2 Is any part of your house used for business activity Yes.............................................................................1 B2 or commercial purposes or home industry, i.e., busi- No..............................................................................2 ness owned and operated by you or a member of your household? B3 If part of your house is used for business activity, Hair Salon or Barber Shop.........................................1 B3 please indicate type. Food Stall or Shop (prepare food to sell)...................2 Grocery & Beverage Shop.........................................3 Beverage Shop..........................................................4 Retail Store................................................................5 Tailor/Dressmaker......................................................6 Clothing Retail...........................................................7 Repair/Tool Shop (e.g., Television)..............................8 Other (specify) .....................9 What is the main source of drinking water Var What is the main source of water used by your Var for this household? Name household for other purposes, such as cooking and Name B4 hand washing? B5 Piped Water Into Dwelling.......................................11 Piped Water In Yard/Plot...........................................12 Into Dwelling......................................................... 11 Public Tap.............................................13 In Yard/Plot.............................................................12 Open Well Public Tap...............................................................13 In Dwelling.......................................... 21 Open Well In Yard/Plot.......................................... 22 In Dwelling...........................................................21 Open Public Well................................ 23 In Yard/Plot...........................................................22 Protected Well Open Public Well.................................................23 In Dwelling.......................................... 33 Protected Well In Yard/Plot.......................................... 34 In Dwelling...........................................................33 Public Well.......................................... 35 In Yard/Plot...........................................................34 Spring..................................................... 41 Public Well...........................................................35 Rivers/Stream......................................... 42 Spring......................................................................41 Pond/Lake............................................... 43 Rivers/Stream..........................................................42 Rainwater............................................... 44 Pond/Lake................................................................43 Tanker Truck............................................ 45 Rainwater................................................................44 Bottled Water.......................................... 46 Tanker Truck.............................................................45 Bottled Water...........................................................46 Var Kitchen Information Name B6 Does this (fire/stove) have a chimney, a hood, or Chimney....................................................................1 B6 neither of these? Hood..........................................................................2 Neither.......................................................................3 B7 Do you have a kitchen or separate room that is used Yes.............................................................................1 B7 as a kitchen? No..............................................................................2 B8 Is the cooking usually done in the house, in a sepa- In the House..............................................................1 B8 rate room/kitchen, or outdoors? In a Separate Room/Kitchen......................................2 GO TO Outdoors....................................................................3 B10 Other (specify) .....................4 B9 Are there any windows or vents in the kitchen area No Windows/Vents....................................................0 or kitchen One............................................................................1 More Than One..........................................................2 Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 45 Communication and Transportation Var Name B10 Mobile Phone YES............................................................. NO B10 .............. B11 Fixed Phone 1.....................................................................2 B11 .............. B12 Bicycle 1.....................................................................2 B12 .............. B13 Car 1.....................................................................2 B13 .............. B14 Pickup Truck 1.....................................................................2 B14 .............. B15 Motorcycle 1.....................................................................2 B15 .............. B16 TV 1.....................................................................2 B16 .............. B17 Radio 1.....................................................................2 B17 .............. B18 XXXXXXXXX 1.....................................................................2 B18 .............. B19 XXXXXXXXXX 1.....................................................................2 B19 .............. Section C. Identifying Fuel Types Please indicate which of the following fuels your household has Var used for any activity during the past 12 months. Used..................................................................Not Used Name C1 Charcoal 1.....................................................................2 C1 C2 Firewood 1.....................................................................2 C2 C3 Kerosene 1.....................................................................2 C3 C4 LPG 1.....................................................................2 C4 C5 Electricity 1.....................................................................2 C5 C6 Sawdust 1.....................................................................2 C6 C7 Rice Husk 1.....................................................................2 C7 C9 Coal Briquette 1.....................................................................2 C9 C10 Other (specify) 1.....................................................................2 C10 C11 Other (specify) 1.....................................................................2 C11 C8 Straw Stalk and Other Crop Residues 1.....................................................................2 C8 C9 Three to five years ago, did you use Straw Stalk and 1.....................................................................2 C9 Other Crop Residues? 46 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Section D. Charcoal Information on Charcoal Usage During the past 12 months, did your household use charcoal for any of the following purposes and how often does your household use it? Code: CODE: [1] = Main Fuel Var [1] = Yes Var [2] = Sometimes Purposes Name [2] = No Name [3] = Rarely D1 Cooking D1A D1B D2 Boiling Water D2A D2B D3 Business Activities D3A D3B D4 Other (specify) D4A D4B D5 D5A D5B If answered “NO� to all questions (D1A to D5A), go to Section E. D6 How does your household Purchase Only............................................................1 If the household only makes its obtain charcoal to use at Make My Own Charcoal............................................2 own charcoal, GO TO D7 home? Both Purchase and Make Own Charcoal...................3 Other (specify) .....................4 Var Charcoal: Monthly Expenditures and Quantity Used Name D7 Is the price of charcoal today lower, the same or Lower than 3–5 Years Ago.........................................1 D7 higher than 3–5 years ago? Same as 3–5 Years Ago..............................................2 Higher than 3–5 Years Ago.........................................3 Do Not Know.............................................................4 D8 On average, how much does your household spend Kips/Month D8 on charcoal each month? In which UNIT AND NUMBER OF UNITS does your What are the AVERAGE WEIGHT (kg) and PRICE PER UNIT of charcoal household usually purchase charcoal? your household usually purchases? TYPE OF UNIT CODE: [1] = Kg [2] = Large Bag WEIGHT IN KG PER BAG [3] = Small Bag If answered [1] in D9, If answered [2] or [3], [4] [4] = Other (specify) NUMBER OF UNITS enter kg in D9A enter kg per bag PRICE IN KIPS PER UNIT D9 D10 D11 D12 D13 D14 On average, how many days does the typical purchase lasts? Days D14 D15 On average, how many units of charcoal does your household Units/Month D15 usually USE per month? Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 47 For household that makes his/her own charcoal to use at home or answer [2] or [3] in D6. Compared to 3–5 years ago, do you have to spend shorter time, the same amount of time, or a longer time to obtain wood to make charcoal? CODE: CODE: [1] = Shorter Time Where did your household obtain [1] = Yes [2] = Same Amount of Time wood to make charcoal? [2] = No [3] = Longer Time D16A Forest D16D D17A Trees from Own Land D17B D18A Private Land D18B D19A Village Forest D19B D20A Other (Specify) D20B Section E. LPG Information on LPG Usage During the past 12 months, has your household used LPG for any of the following purposes and how often does your household use it? CODE: CODE: [1] = Main Fuel [1] = Yes [2] = Sometimes Purposes [2] = No [3] = Rarely E1 Cooking E1A E1B E2 Boiling Water E2A E2B E3 Public Land E3A E3B E4 Other (specify) E4A E4B If answered “NO’ to questions (E1A to E4A), Go to SECTION F. LPG: Monthly Expenditures and Quantity Used Which size of LPG cylinder does your household usually purchase (kg)? What was the price of LPG per cylinder? How many days does one LPG cylinder last? Kilograms Kips/Cylinder Days E4 E5 E6 Section F. Firewood Information on Firewood Usage During the past 12 months, has your household used FIREWOOD for any of the following purposes and how often does your household use it? CODE: CODE: [1] = Main Fuel [1] = Yes [2] = Sometimes Purposes [2] = No [3] = Rarely F1 Cooking F1A F1B F2 Boiling Water F2A F2B F3 Business Activities F3A F3B F3 Other (specify) F4A F4B If answered “NO’ to questions (F1A to F4A), Go to SECTION G. 48 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR F5 How does your household obtain firewood to use at Collect Only...............................................................1 F5 home? Purchase Only............................................................2 Purchase and Collect.................................................3 Other (specify)...........................................................4 Purchase Firewood The following questions are for a household that purchased firewood, i.e., answer [2] or [3] in F5. If household did not purchase firewood, skip this subsection. Firewood: Monthly Expenditures and Quantity Used F6 Is the price of firewood today lower, the same, or Lower than 3–5 Years Ago.........................................1 F6 higher than 3–5 years ago? Same as 3–5 Years Ago..............................................2 Higher than 3–5 Years Ago.........................................3 Do Not Know.............................................................4 F7 On average, how much does your household spend Kips/Month F7 on firewood per month? In which UNIT AND NUMBER OF UNITS does your What are the AVERAGE WEIGHT (kg) and PRICE PER UNIT of firewood household usually purchase firewood? your household usually purchases? TYPE OF UNIT CODE: [1] = Weight in Kg [2] = Bundle [3] = Stack or Pile [4] = Sack or Bag WEIGHT IN KG PER UNIT [5] = Cart Load If answered [1] in F8, If answered [2] to [7] in F7, [6] = Pickup Truck enter total kg usually enter kg per unit usually [7] = Other (specify) NUMBER OF UNITS bought bought PRICE IN KIPS PER UNIT F8 F9 F10A F10B F11 F12 On average, how many days does the typical purchase lasts? Days F12 F13 On average, how many units of firewood does your household Units/Month F13 usually PURCHASE per month? Collect Firewood F14 On average, of the total firewood used in a month, All (Collect Only)........................................................1 F14 how much does the amount of firewood that your Almost All..................................................................2 household collects account for? More Than Half..........................................................3 Half............................................................................4 Less Than Half...........................................................5 Small Portion..............................................................6 Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 49 The following are questions for households that collect firewood. If household did not collect firewood, skip the firewood collection subsection. In a typical collection, what In a typical collection, what is the AVERAGE WEIGHT (in kg) How many total days does unit(s) of measure do you use PER UNIT, and how many units does your household usually the typical collection of in collecting firewood? collect? firewood last? TYPE OF UNIT CODE: [1] = Weight in Kg [2] = Bundle WEIGHT IN KG PER UNIT [3] = Stack or Pile (I answer [1] in F15 enter total kg DAYS LAST [4] = Sack or Bag usually buy, if answer [2] to [7] PER EACH [5] = Cart Load in F15, enter kg per unit usually TOTAL NUMBER OF UNITS TYPICAL [6] = Pickup Truck collect). USUALLY COLLECT COLLECTION [7] = Other (specify) KILOGRAM UNITS DAYS F15 F16 F17 F18 F19 How many of these collected units (given in F15) of firewood did Units/Month F19 you use in a month? How much total time (hours per week) did the following household members take in collecting firewood or tree residues? Adult Male Adult Female Children (Boys) Children (Girls) F20 F21 F22 F23 In a typical collection, how many of the following household members are involved in collecting firewood? Adult Male Adult Female Children (Boys) Children (Girls) F24 F25 F26 F27 F28 Compared to 3–5 years ago, does your household have to spend a shorter CODE: F28 time, same amount of time, or longer time to collect firewood? [1] = Shorter Time [2] = Same Amount of Time [3] = Longer Time Where did your household Compared to 3–5 years ago, do you have to spend less time, same obtain firewood to use at home? amount of time, or longer time to collect wood to use at home? CODE: CODE: [1] = Shorter Time [1] = Yes [2] = Same Amount of Time [2] = No [3] = Longer Time F29A Forest F29B F30A Trees from Own Land F30B F31A Private Land F31B F32A Village Forest F32B F33A Other (specify) F33B 50 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Section G. Electricity Information on Electricity Usage During the past 12 months, has your household used electricity and electric cooking appliance(s) for any of the following purposes and how often does your household use them? CODE: CODE: [1] = Main Fuel PURPOSES/TYPE OF Var [1] = Yes Var [2] = Sometimes ELECTRIC APPLIANCE USED Name [2] = No Name [3] = Rarely G1 Cook Food G1A G1B G2 Boil Water G2A G2B G3 Rice Cooker To Cook Rice G3A G3B G4 Bake Food/Cake G4A G4B G5 Other (specify) G5A G5B If the household answered “NO� for G1 to G5, go to the next section. G6 On average, how much does your household spend on Kips/Month G6 ELECTRICITY per month? Does your household own any of the following electric appliances? CODE: [1] = Yes [2] = No Electric Hot Water Hot Plate Oven Rice Cooker Pot/Dispenser Electric Hot Pot/Wok G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 Toaster Oven Microwave Oven Other (specify) Other (specify) Other (specify) G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 51 Section H. Cooking Practicesa H1 Who usually prepares meals for the household? Head of Household.........................................1 H1 Spouse of Head of Household........................2 Daughter.........................................................3 Son.................................................................4 Daughter-in-Law..............................................5 Son-in-Law......................................................6 Mother-in-Law.................................................7 Maid................................................................8 Other (specify)................................................9 H2 What is the age of the person who usually prepares meals Years old H2 for the household? H3 How many people does he/she usually prepare meal for? Persons H3 H4 How many children under 5 years old are present in the child/children H4 kitchen or cooking area while cooking? Enter “0� for no children under 5 years old present while cooking. H5 While cooking, what position do you usually take, standing Sitting.............................................................1 H5 or sitting? Standing.........................................................2 Use Both Positions.........................................3 H6 Which one do you prefer? Sitting.............................................................1 H6 Standing.........................................................2 Use Both Positions.........................................3 Does your household prepare meal for household member for the following meals, and how long does it take to prepare each meal? CODE: [1] = Yes [2] = No Breakfast Time in Minutes Lunch Time in Minutes Dinner Time in Minutes H7 H8 H9 H10 H11 H12 a. To avoid misreading, the letter “I� was intentionally omitted from the ordering of survey sections; thus, Section H is followed by Section J. 52 SECTION J. BIOMASS STOVE OWNERSHIPa How satisfied are you with this Who did you buy stove? How many does this stove from? your household CODE CODE own? How many days Has your Market................. 1 Very Satisfied...... 1 How many have you used How much household ever How many No. of Stoves Local Shop........... 2 Satisfied.............. 2 months have this type of (in Kips) did used this type months did Mobile Trader....... 3 Somewhat Do not have to you been using stove during the you pay for of biomass your previous Stove Maker........ 4 Satisfied............ 3 enter�0� this stove? past 7 days? this stove? stove before? stove last? TYPE OF Made at Home..... 5 Not Satisfied....... 4 BIOMASS STOVE No. Months Days Kips Other................... 6 Yes............... No No Opinion.......... 5 Months Tao Prayat (Charcoal) J1A J1B J1C J1D J1E 1.....................2 J1F J1G Tao Prayat (Firewood J2A J2B J2C J2D J2E 1.....................2 J2F J2G and Charcoal) Tao Dum (Charcoal) J3A J3B J3C J3D J3E 1.....................2 J3F J3G Tao Dum (Firewood J4A J4B J4C J4D J4E 1.....................2 J4F J4G Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR and Charcoal) Tao Concrete J5A J5B J5C J5D J5E 1.....................2 J5F J5G Tao Lek (Steel) J6A J6B J6C J6D J6E 1.....................2 J6F J6G Kieng (Steel Tripod) J7A J7B J7C J7D J7E 1.....................2 J7F J7G Khon Sao Sam Khon J8A J8B J8C J8D J8E 1.....................2 J8F J8G (Three Stone) Other (specify) J9A J9B J9C J9D J9E 1.....................2 J9F J9G Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 53 J9 Please give reasons why you are satisfied or not satisfied with the biomass stove that you have been using the most during the past 7 days. If you can make changes in your cooking condition, which improvement on cooking would you like to see the most? CODE: [1] = First Priority [2] = Second Priority [3] = Third Priority [4] = No Need To Change [5] = No Opinion J10 Kitchen Area, Kitchen J16 Less Soot on Pots and Pans J11 More Space For The Cooking Area J17 Less Smoke While Cooking J12 Clean Kitchen Overall J18 Less Smoke When Starting Fire J13 Switch to Charcoal J19 Time Spent Collecting Firewood J14 Switch to LPG J20 Buy New Stove J15 Less Soot on the Ceiling and Wall 54 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR Section K. Attitude Statement (Interviewer reads the following statement and asks respondent whether he or she strongly agrees, agrees, disagrees, strongly disagrees, or has no opinion.) CODE: [1] = Strongly Agrees [2] = Agrees [3] = No Opinion [4] = Disagrees [5] = Strongly Disagrees Smoke from stove is good at chasing mosquitoes away. K1 Smoke from cooking fuels is a big health problem in my family. K2 Cooking with firewood is not very convenient. K3 Firewood is expensive for cooking. K4 Cooking with electricity is convenient. K5 I wish TAO PRAYAT would last more than one year. K6 Breathing is more difficult when using firewood for cooking. K7 Smoke from firewood is harmful to a person’s health. K8 Cooking with firewood creates better-tasting dishes. K9 Cooking with charcoal is very convenient to use. K10 Cooking with charcoal is harmful to a person’s health. K11 Electricity is expensive for cooking. K12 Breathing is more difficult when using charcoal. K13 Charcoal is not expensive for cooking. K14 Firewood is very hard to obtain in the market. K15 LPG is very difficult to obtain in the market. K16 LPG is expensive for cooking. K17 TAO PRAYAT is easy to find in the market. K18 TAO DUM is easy to find in the market. K19 It would be very good if we could use firewood, as well as charcoal, as the fuel for TAO PRAYAT K20 TAO PRAYAT is not durable. K21 TAO DUM is not durable. K22 I am willing to pay 10,000 kips more for TAO PRAYAT than TAO DUM. K23 THREE STONE K24 Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 55 Market Survey of Biomass Cookstove Retailer Interviews and Supply Chain The market survey team must select towns and/or com- munities that serve as the area’s trading center or towns To map cookstove producers, market surveys were con- and/or communities that have a well-established trading ducted both up and down the supply chain. To identify post or market serving the area/community. The survey the majority of cookstove producers, the approach was should include all types of cookstove retailers.b The sur- to start with retailers and move up the market chain to vey data are used to identify specific intervention activi- wholesalers and traders and ultimately the producers. ties at the retail and wholesale levels, as well as overall In addition, in collaboration with NGOs who have been intervention strategies. Specific steps for the field inter- working in the region to identify cookstove producers, viewer and accompanying questions for the retailers are surveys were conducted down the market chain from as follows: the producers identified by the NGOs and up the mar- ket chain, starting with the identified producers’ retailers 1. Profile and locate retail shop. (figure C.1). 2. Explore and examine cookstove sales and marketing in the retail market. The types of survey data collected included the geo- • How does the cookstove reach the market; that is, graphic location of production, sales, and market cover- how does the retail shop obtain the cookstove to sell age and wholesale and retail channels. Information was to customers? also collected on business models, financing sources, The overall goal is to describe the physical structure and market mechanisms; quality assurance methods of the cookstove market supply chain. and barriers to business expansion; and stove types, effi- • What are the types of cookstoves sold in the mar- ciency and emission levels, and cost range. ket? How many types of cookstoves are available in each of the markets selected (pictures of each stove type found in the market are required)? Figure C.1 Market Supply Chain: Key Survey Issues 1. Interview owners or key person. 2. Review, examine, and determine the business model for cookstove production and key processes, quality control, Producers marketing strategies, and financing. 3. Determine the cost structure, identify existing constraints/problems facing owner, and explore potential for improvement and expansion. 1. Interview wholesalers/traders to identify their role in market distribution. Wholesalers/Traders 2. Review and examine wholesale sales and marketing and determine the cost structure at this level. 1. Select trading centers and market to find retail shops that carry cookstoves and interview shop owner or key person. Retailers 2. Review and examine retail cookstove sales and marketing and determine the cost structure at this level. Source: Author. b. For example, in Cambodia, retailers include both shops and ped- dlers who travel from town to town selling cookstoves and cooking utensils. 56 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR • What kinds of stoves sell best? Do you know the 4. Identify the upstream market chain or structure for different stove features (e.g., efficiency, cleanliness, the cookstoves being sold for each retail shop selected convenience)? Do you give recommendations to for the survey. customers? If customers ask for a recommendation, • Does the store owner know where the cookstove which do you recommend and why? he/she sells is made? Who makes these stoves • Are there any “improved cookstoves� sold in the (manufacturer or individual artisan)? market? • What is the retail price of each of these cookstoves? 5. Identify individuals to be interviewed up the market • How far do these cookstoves have to be transported chain. from source to the retail shop? • Who are the suppliers for the retailer (wholesalers/ Transport is one of several critical factors in deter- traders and/or producers)? mining retail prices and profit margin (i.e., by ensur- ing that cookstoves easily and quickly reach the Wholesaler/Trader Interviews market at the least cost). It is important to check whether retail shop owners must bear the burden of Information from cookstove retailers and producers from transporting cookstoves from their sources to their the respective interviews up and down the market sup- shops. ply chain is used to identify the wholesalers and traders • As part of the cost structure analysis, what is the to be interviewed. The main aim of surveying these mid- profit margin (including retail price and cost of the dlemen to gather data on the cost structure of cookstove stove to the retailer)? distribution (i.e., for transport of stoves from produc- • How often does the retail shop get supply replenish- ers to the retail market and related logistics), which are ments? used to identify intervention activities at the wholesale • How many cookstoves are available and/or on dis- and retail levels and overall intervention strategies. The play at the shop? specific steps for the field interviewer and accompany- • How many cookstoves are sold per month? ing questions for the wholesalers/traders are as follows: • Who are the customers within the community or from other towns/villages within a certain radius in 1. Profile wholesaler or trader. kilometers? 2. Explore and examine cookstove sales and marketing It is important to determine the market area cover- in the wholesale market. age for the study. • What is the wholesale price of the cookstove? • Are the cookstoves sold on consignment basis or The wholesale price must be recorded to work out must retail shop owners first pay for the stoves (i.e., the cookstove’s cost structure. what are the terms of agreement with wholesalers • How far do these cookstoves have to be transported or stove manufacturers)? from producer to retail market? • Who are the retail shop’s cookstove suppliers? The answer to this question will determine the The answer to this question should explain how the approximate distance between production centers producer or manufacturer sells his or her cookstoves and retailers. Transport is one among several key (i.e., by supplying the retailer directly or relying on determinants of retail prices, profit margin, and other wholesalers or other traders). logistical factors needed to ensure that cookstoves • What is the relationship between the retail store can reach the market easily and quickly at least cost. owner and cookstove suppliers or manufacturers? • What is the overall transport cost? How long (years or months) has the shop owner • Does he/she know any other similar wholesalers? dealt with the particular supplier? Is the relationship Follow up by interviewing those identified. strictly business (formal or informal)? Is he/she will- • Is he/she is facing any competition from other ing to sell cookstove from other suppliers? Why or wholesalers? why not? • What was his/her means of transporting the cook- stove from the place of production to the retail shop? 3. Identify whether there are cookstove parts and/or repair A detailed explanation of this process is needed. services available. • What are the most difficult aspects and/or con- • Does the retail shop sell any spare parts for the straints faced by the wholesalers/ traders (e.g., lack cookstove? of truck or storage, damage or losses during trans- • Are there shops or individuals that offer cookstove port, or required capital or financing)? repair and maintenance services? Annex C. Field Survey Methodology 57 • What are the terms of agreement and payment • What is the size of the market in terms of number arrangement between wholesalers and cookstove of cookstoves sold each month and area (identify producers? towns and cities, including distance in kilometers This question seeks mainly to determine whether from the production facility)? wholesalers face financial obstacles. 5. Identify the producer’s business model. 3. Ask the wholesaler to identify cookstove producers • Is the business model characterized as “industrial (i.e., manufacturers and artisans). production, � “artisanal � “semi-industrial production, The interviewer will use this information to identify indi- production, � or “women-owned business�? viduals for the next level of the cookstove market supply • What is the monthly or annual production capacity? chain (i.e., either producers or retailers, depending on the • Over the past 12 months, how many stoves were survey direction). produced each month, on average? 6. Determine the source of financing for investment in Producer Interviews the production facility. The main objective of the interviews with cookstove • What was the total amount of money spent for start- producers is to collect information on production (facil- ing up? ity location, processes, technology, and cookstove types • Did the owner borrow the money to start this busi- and models), financing and marketing (capital invest- ness/production facility? ment, business model, and cost structure), and quality • From whom did he/she borrow the money and what assurance and constraints to expansion (standards and was the amount? rating procedure and after-sales service). This informa- • Does he/she have enough money to expand the tion is needed to help identify intervention activities at business or production? the production level and overall intervention strategies. • If he/she does not have enough money, what is the To obtain this data, it is necessary to identify and conduct likely source of financing? an in-depth interview with the key person at each produc- • How was the business started? What was the moti- tion facility. The specific steps for the field interviewer vation to become a stove producer (e.g., saw market and accompanying questions for the cookstove produc- opportunities, learned the business from friends or ers are as follows: relatives)? 1. Profile cookstove producer. 7. Identify the ownership of cookstove production. 2. Identify the geographic location of production to • Is production owned by one person, a partnership, determine accessibility and potential for expansion. or a company? • What is the address of the production facility? • Is the business registered with the authority? What • Is the production facility accessible by pickup truck is the type of registration? or is a larger vehicle required? • What is the existing space of the production facil- 8. Determine the stove types and efficiency/emissions ity? Are there any unused spaces or area that can be levels. used for expansion? • Does the owner or key person in the production facility know the efficiency and/or emissions level 3. Identify all of the cookstoves being produced at for each type of cookstove produced in this facility? each facility. • What is the efficiency or emissions level? • What are all of the types and models of cookstoves • Does he/she know what an improved or clean cook- made by the producer (provide pictures)? stove is? • Has he/she ever heard of an improved or clean 4. Determine how the cookstoves are produced at the cookstove? facility and sold to the market. • Does he/she think that his/her facility can produce • What are the retail channels? Are cookstoves pro- improved or clean cookstoves? Why or why not? duced at the facility sold directly to consumers, through middlemen (wholesalers/traders), or directly to the retail shop? 58 Pathways to Cleaner Household Cooking in Lao PDR 9. Determine the cookstoves prices. 11. Identify the production processes. • What is the price of the cookstove sold? or What • What are the production processes? is the price per unit that the owner charges his/her customer (i.e., wholesaler/trader or retailer)? 12. Identify whether the production facility utilizes any marketing mechanism. 10. Determine the cost structure and profit margin for • What are the sales processes? cookstoves produced at each facility. • What are the monthly costs for labor and materi- 13. Characterize quality assurance and after-sales service. als, energy, transport, and taxes (include all variable • What methods and procedures, such as standards costs)? and ratings, are used to assure quality? • What are the itemized fixed costs (e.g., land, build- • What after-sales service is provided? ings, machines, and kiln construction)? 14. Obtain the owner’s opinion about his or her main barriers to expansion or improving quality and production methods. References ASTAE (Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program). 2012. Lao PDR (Lao People’s Democratic Republic). 2011. Renewable Lao PDR—Power to the People: Twenty Years of National Energy Development Strategy in Lao PDR. Vientiane: Electrification. Washington, DC: World Bank. Government of Lao PDR. Ekouevi, K., and V. Tuntivate. 2011. Household Energy Access for LWU (Lao Women’s Union). 2001. Fuel for Life: Women, Men, Cooking and Heating: Lessons Learned and the Way For- and the Fuelwood Cycle in the Lao PDR. Vientiane: Lao ward. Energy and Mining Sector Board Discussion Paper Women’s Union Gender Resource Information and Devel- No. 23. Washington, DC: World Bank. opment Center (LWU GRID Center). ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Program). Mengersen, K., Lidia Morawska, Hao Wang, Fengthong Tay- 1993. Lao PDR Urban Electricity Demand Assessment phasavanh, Kongkeo Darasavong, and Nicholas Holmes. Study. Report Number 154/93. Washington, DC: World 2007 . Investigation of Indoor Air Pollution and Relationship Bank. to Housing Characteristics and Health Effects Observed by Occupants in Lao PDR. Executive Summary, Project FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2010. “Forest Cover for World Health Organization, International Laboratory and Land-use Changes in Lao PDR according to the for Air Quality and Health and Queensland University of National Forest Reconnaissance Survey. � Vongdeuane Technology. Vongsiharath, Department of Land Planning and Devel- opment, National Land Management Authority, Lao PDR NSC (National Statistics Center). 2005. Population and Housing (ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/i1067e/i1067e01.pdf). Census 2005. Vientiane: National Statistics Center. Lao Department of Statistics. 2009. The Household of Lao TABI (The Agrobiodiversity Initiative). 2011. Info Sheet, Biogas PDR, Social and Economic Indicators Survey Results on Facilities Development, Lao PDR. Expenditure and Consumption of Household 2007/2008 World Bank. 2011. “Clean Stove Initiative in the East Asia and (LECS 4). Vientiane: Ministry of Planning and Investment, � Concept Note. World Bank, Washington, Pacific Region. Department of Statistics. DC. 59 The World Bank The World Bank Group Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA www.worldbank.org/astae