MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE THE WORLD BANK OFFICE JAKARTA Indonesia Stock Exchange Building Tower II/12th Floor Jl. Jend. Sudirman Kav. 52-53 Jakarta 12910 Tel: (6221) 5299-3000 Fax: (6221) 5299-3111 Website: www.worldbank.org/id THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street NW Washington, DC 20433, USA Tel: (202) 458-1876 Fax: (202) 522-1557/1560 Website: www.worldbank.org Printed in November 2018 Mapping Indonesia’s Civil Service is a product of the staff of the World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the Government they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. For any questions regarding this report, please contact Audrey Sacks (asacks@worldbank.org). Copyright Statement: The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978-750- 8400, fax 978-750-4470, http://www.copyright.com/. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org. Acknowledgments T he Mapping Indonesia’s Civil Service report was prepared by a core team led by Audrey Sacks (World Bank). Jan Pierskalla (Ohio State University) was the lead researcher for this study. The authors thank Erwin Ariadharma and Prasetya Dwicahya for their invaluable support and input to this project as core team members. They also thank Yulia Herawati, Findi Firmanliansyah, Titiana Irawati, Fera Miasari, and Siti Zulva for cleaning and putting together the data set, Adam Lauretig and Andrew Rosenberg for the data analysis, and Daniel Yoo for writing support. This report was edited by Kelley Friel. The Government of Indonesia—Badan Kepegawaian Negara/National Civil Service Agency—collaborated on this project. Special thanks go to Bapak Bima Haria Wibisana (Head, Badan Kepegawaian Negara, National Civil Service Agency), Bapak Iwan Hermanto, and Bapak Bajoe Hargono, who have supported this collaboration from the beginning. This report was produced under the overall guidance of Kevin Tomlinson. We received helpful feedback on the analysis from Lily Hoo, Hillary Johnson, Zahid Hasnain, Bill Liddle, Dan Rogger, Dewi Susanti, Matthew Winters, Guo Xu, and Yongmei Zhou. Key comments were provided by Gael Raballand and Paula Andrea Rossiasco. The Mapping Indonesia’s Civil Service report is a product of the Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience Global Practice team in the World Bank Office, Jakarta. Support for this report has been generously provided by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of the Australian Government. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE i Executive Summary I ndonesia’s civil service has expanded by 25 percent in the last 12 years, which presents opportunities for the Government of Indonesia (GoI) to work toward the goal of reducing poverty and enhancing social welfare. Yet civil servants must be skilled, knowledgeable, and effective at their jobs to maximize their contribution to society and the economy. This report examines an original data set constructed from GoI data on all the country’s active civil servants to examine personal characteristics including age, gender, education level (which proxies for skill), and promotions. It addresses two important questions: 1. Are highly skilled and knowledgeable workers currently being attracted, recruited, and promoted? The study finds that Indonesia’s civil service recognizes merit in practice, elevating highly skilled civil servants to leadership positions. Civil servants with a postgraduate education are now twice as likely to be promoted as before 1999. Yet there are discrepancies in the educational background of frontline service providers across Indonesia. Better-qualified teachers and medical personnel are concentrated in wealthier regions. For example, over 67 percent of teachers in Java have a four-year university degree, compared with only 54 percent in Papua and West Papua. 2. Are civil servants from historically underrepresented groups, including women, being given equal opportunities for advancement and promotion? The data show large variation in gender balance between government departments at both the national and subnational levels. Men dominate the management-level positions at both levels of government, particularly at the top levels. Women are about 1 percentage point less likely than men to be promoted in a given year, and the gender penalty for women increased by 1 percentage point after 1999, particularly in the early stages of their careers. The study recommends government action in three policy areas: 1. Increase promotion opportunities for women and increase their overall representation in senior positions by 1) creating a leadership program that facilitates networking and MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE iii Executive Summary mentoring for female civil servants; 2) encouraging 2. Distribute skilled civil servants more evenly throughout more female graduates to apply to the civil service; and the country by improving the incentives for highly skilled 3) initiating a high-level dialogue to implement solutions service providers to rotate into poor and remote regions. to the gender-based promotion penalty. A leadership 3. Plan for the upcoming wave of retirements within program could help identify young talent that could the civil service by recruiting more women from top enter the echelon scale and ensure there are sufficient universities and hiring medical and teaching staff only numbers of women in talent pools for promotions. from licensed and accredited institutions. iv MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Education, Gender, and Indonesia’s Civil Service. . . . . . . . 3 Data and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Job Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Retirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Birthplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Geographic Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Explaining Civil Service Promotions in Indonesia. . . . . . . 17 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Discussion and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 References Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE v Acronyms BKN Badan Kepegawaian Negara (National Civil Service Agency) DKI Jakarta Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta (Jakarta Special Capital Region) GoI Government of Indonesia MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE vii Introduction I ndonesia’s civil service has expanded by 25 percent in recent years from around 3.6 million in 2006 to more than 4.5 million today. The civil service employs approximately 1.7 percent of the country’s population in 29 national, regional, and local government agencies and currently costs the Government of Indonesia (GoI) around 25 percent of annual government revenue. Although this recent growth creates new opportunities for the GoI to work toward the goal of reducing poverty and enhancing social welfare, it is necessary to ensure that civil servants are skilled, knowledgeable, and effective at their jobs to maximize their contributions to society and the economy. Academic and policy researchers find that an effective civil service is essential for the delivery of high-quality public goods and services (Doner, Ritchie, and Slater 2005), and for facilitating economic growth and improving human welfare (Besley and Persson 2010; Evans 1995; Evans and Rauch 1999; Rothstein and Teorell 2008). Yet, many governments fall short of this ideal (Rauch and Evans 2000), and there is evidence that the absence of a competent and effective civil service stifles economic development (Evans 1989; Roth 1968). Studies show that a meritocratic system of recruitment and promotion that hires and promotes the most skilled, knowledgeable, and effective candidates can help improve civil service productivity in two ways. First, such a system should enable the efficient delivery of higher-quality public services. Second, because it widens the pool of candidates, it should also increase diversity, which can lead to improvements in problem solving (Hong and Page 2001; Lazear 1999) and innovation (Herring 2009). Men have traditionally dominated Indonesia’s civil service – particularly its leadership positions. Before the 1998 political transition, the civil service was heavily centralized, and civil service appointments were often made to support regime stability (Evers 1987; McLeod 2008). Since then, important progress has been made in developing a meritocratic system of recruitment and promotion. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 1 Introduction This report addresses two important questions. First, are recommendations for improving the effectiveness of civil highly skilled and knowledgeable workers currently being service delivery. attracted to, recruited, and promoted in Indonesia’s civil The report starts by describing the history of Indonesia’s service? Second, are female civil servants being given equal civil service and then discusses the BKN database and opportunities for advancement and promotion? the methods used to analyze the data. It then presents Using an original data set constructed from the National descriptive statistics of Indonesia’s civil service and Civil Service Agency (Badan Kepegawaian Negara, BKN) identifies key patterns and trends. Next, it formally database that contains data on all Indonesian civil servants, investigates the determinants of civil service promotions, this report examines the composition of the country’s civil paying close attention to the role of gender and education. service and investigates the determinants of promotion. Finally, it discusses the results of the analysis and offers Based on these findings, it proposes a set of policy several policy recommendations. 2 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Education, Gender, and Indonesia’s Civil Service T he Indonesian civil service has its roots in the system of courtiers that dates back to the Javanese aristocracy (priyayi) and the Dutch colonial administration. The Dutch system of indirect rule merged the colonial state with the existing social strata of traditional leaders and employed Javanese aristocrats to govern the local population (Vickers 2005). At the time of independence, most top-level civil servants were Dutch citizens, and Indonesia’s civil service numbered around 50,000 (Tjiptoherijanto 2007). The newly formed Government of Indonesia (GoI) created a unitary state and supplanted the local aristocracy with a new class of national activists who had fought for independence. This led to the first major expansion of the civil service; it was supported by political parties, which were granted the authority to appoint civil servants (Feith 1962). The civil service became closely intertwined with the Golkar Party during former President Suharto’s New Order era (McLeod 2008). Following the political transition after his resignation in 1988, the civil service was transformed once again. National and local elections were accompanied by widespread decentralization reforms that reassigned essential government responsibilities to the district level. During this time, over 2 million civil servants, including teachers and healthcare workers, were transferred to district-level governments to shoulder these new responsibilities. Since then, Indonesia’s civil service has rapidly grown and has made large strides toward adopting a meritocratic system of recruitment and employment. Indonesia’s civil service currently employs over 4.5 million individuals and is comparable in size to other services in South and Southeast Asia (Tjiptoherijanto 2007). It operates under three national departments and agencies: the Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, the National Institute of Public Administration, and the National Civil Service Agency (Badan Kepegawaian Negara, BKN). Law No. 43/1999, which accompanied the 1999 decentralization reforms, codified a merit-based personnel management approach and enabled greater flexibility in supplementing civil servants’ salaries. The more recent Law No. 5/2014 outlines the regulatory groundwork for modernizing the civil service MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 3 Education, Gender , and Indonesia’s Civil Service and codifies the assessment of job performance and Female leaders in the civil service help to ensure that merit principles. However, concrete changes have been policies such as child health, nutrition, and childcare receive implemented slowly. much greater attention (Duflo 2012). Furthermore, there is evidence that a higher share of women in senior government Research has shown that the creation of a professional, positions is associated with lower rates of corruption across meritocratic, and efficient administrative structure was countries (Swamy et al. 2001). Research on gender quotas a crucial factor in the rapid development of East Asian in politics has also documented large gains in the quality countries (Amsden 1992; Johnson 1982; Wade 1990). In Japan of political leaders due to increasing female representation it enabled the creation of a “plan-rational” model that (Besley et al. 2017). supported economic development by facilitating flexible decision making and coordination between policy makers Indonesia has introduced gender quotas for female and the private sector (Johnson 1982). candidates in legislative elections (Shair-Rosenfeld A meritocratic system can also lead to important 2012) but not for the civil service. Although female productivity gains within the civil service by hiring and representation in the civil service has improved since promoting well-educated civil servants who can deliver the 1970s, the historical pattern of male dominance has public goods and services more effectively and efficiently. continued, which reflects deep-seated societal norms and Although educational attainment may not perfectly reflect biases (Azmi, Sharifah, and Basir 2012; Wright and Crockett civil servants’ quality, skill, or ability, a great deal of literature Tellei 1993). Recent surveys of women in the civil service on human capital finds that education is a reliable proxy for indicate that they are often overlooked for or reject skill (or at least the ability to signal skill) (Card 1999). promotions because they require relocating to rural or remote provinces. Most female civil servants are currently Enlarging the pool of candidates considered for recruitment employed as either teachers or nurses. and promotion should also improve workforce diversity, which can provide an advantage in solving difficult These trends raise the following questions. Are competent, problems due to differences in perspectives (that is, ways of well-educated civil servants actively promoted within formulating problems) and heuristics (that is, approaches to government? Are women well represented within the civil problem solving) (Hong and Page 2001; Lazear 1999). There service, and are they promoted to higher positions as often is also evidence that diverse teams are more likely than as men? How do these patterns vary among government homogeneous teams to be innovative (Herring 2009). One departments and echelons? The next section describes the important form of workforce diversity is gender diversity. data used to address these questions. 4 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Data and Methods T he BKN gave the World Bank access to its civil service database and is collaborating with the Bank’s Jakarta office to use the data to help inform civil service policies. The database contains information on all of Indonesia’s current civil servants,1 including their gender, age, educational attainment, place of birth, current workplace, job type, rank, and date of entry into the civil service.2 There are also data on each individual’s work history, which covers the workplace, work location, job type, and associated civil service rank for each official job assignment. The BKN database is used to construct a panel data set that contains information on each civil servant for each year of observation, and contains 51,674,834 records. The year of observation begins when an individual first entered the civil service and ends in 2015.3 For example, a teacher who entered the civil service in 1980 would generate a total of 36 civil servant–year observations. Because most civil servants spend their entire career (30–40 years) in government service, the data set covers a large portion of individuals who have been active since the early 1990s. Gender is indicated using a simple dichotomous variable that denotes whether an individual is identified as female. The educational attainment variable is coded as one of six categories: elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, diploma I/II/III (equivalent to one to three years of college), diploma IV/bachelor (four years of college), and postgraduate degree. Additional variables indicate birthplace, age, total years in the civil service, and rotations within the civil service. A dichotomous rotation variable is used to indicate when 1 The database excludes retirees, military personnel, police officers, and members of Badan Intelijen Negara (State Intelligence Agency). 2 There is no official information on civil servant salaries, but remuneration is determined by rank, job assignment, and age. 3 The data are restricted to civil servant years after 1980 to exclude the small number of individuals who serve longer than the mandatory retirement age allows. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 5 Data and Methods a civil servant is reassigned to a new working location. Age and healthcare workers) have no echelon level because they have total years of experience are constructed as count variables. no management responsibilities (see Table 1). The official echelon classification system is used to measure An ordinal variable based on this echelon hierarchy ranges career progression (see Table 1). The echelon indicates the from 0 to 11 to indicate career level.5 This variable is also used level of hierarchy an individual has attained in the civil to create a dummy variable that records promotion events service. Echelon levels for civil servants with management (coded 1 for each civil servant year with a positive change in responsibilities (known as structural employees) range the echelon variable and 0 otherwise, because moving up from the lowest level of V to the highest levels of Ia and Ib the echelon scale is the most important indicator of career (which include heads of national agencies, director generals, advancement).6 deputy ministers, inspector generals, and deputy cabinet secretaries).4 Most civil servants (that is, teachers and 5 Functional employees (those without management responsibilities) are assigned a 0. A coarser categorical grouping with five outcomes is also 4 Echelon V is included in the analysis, but Indonesia’s Aparatur Sipil Negara considered that combines several echelon ranks. (State Civil Apparatus) no longer recognizes it according to Law No. 5 Year 6 This career level variable does not reflect automatic advancement 2014 on Civil Service Apparatus. The highest rank that district government- along the golongan rank, a parallel dimension of career advancement level civil servants can attain is IIa. with implications for salary. 6 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service GENDER The data reveal substantial variation in gender balance across government departments. The proportion of women in government departments at the national level ranges from 0.00 to 0.83 (see Tables 2 and 3). The national government departments with the highest proportion of women are Indonesian National Military Headquarters (0.83), National Agency of Drug and Food Control (0.72), and Ministry of Health (0.61). The national departments with the lowest proportion of women are the National Search and Rescue Agency (0.16) and the State Civil Apparatus Commission (0.13). One agency has no female civil servants: the Secretariat General of Commission for the Supervision of Business Competition (0.00). There is also large variation (from 0.09 to 0.71) in the gender balance between subnational government departments (see Tables 4 and 5). The subnational-level departments with the highest proportion of women are Government of Ambon City (0.71), Government of Pekanbaru City (0.70), and Government of Palembang City (0.70). The subnational-level departments with the lowest proportion of women are Government of Tolikara District (0.23), Government of Yahukimo District (0.23), and Government of Pegunungan Arfak District (0.09). Men dominate structural positions at the subnational level (see Table 6). Women only hold 33 percent of structural jobs at this level, whereas functional civil service jobs are balanced with 49 percent women. The variation in gender balance between echelons is small in comparison, but men tend to dominate all echelons. Men hold over 70 percent of all national-level echelon positions (see Table 7). At the subnational level, nearly 91 percent of Echelon 1 positions MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 7 Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service are held by men, compared with 58 percent of Echelon 5 JOB TYPES positions (see Table 8). The most popular civil service job is teacher (guru), which comprises 26.43 percent of the national-level positions and EDUCATION 63.87 percent of subnational positions (see Tables 14 and 15). Educational attainment is coded on a 1–6 scale (1 = primary, 2 = junior high, 3 = senior high, 4 = D1/2/3 or associate AGE degree) 5 = D4/S1 or bachelor’s degree, 6 = S2/S3 or master’s The average age of civil servants is 45 years across all echelon degree or doctorate). Civil servants’ average educational positions in all government departments. The average age attainment ranges from 2.98 to 5.36 in the 20 largest of men and women is similar within each echelon: Echelon 1 government departments (mean = 4.02, variance = 0.44; see Tables 9 and 10). The following departments have the (51 for both), Echelon 2 (45 for women and 42 for men), highest average education levels in this group: Audit Board Echelon 3 (42 for both), Echelon 4 (45 for both), and of the Republic of Indonesia (5.36); Ministry of Research, Echelon 5 (47 for both). Technology and Higher Education (5.19); and Ministry of The department with the largest number of people Home Affairs (4.97). The following have the lowest average aged 20–30 is the Ministry of Finance (23,815) (Table 16). education levels: Ministry of Transportation (3.44), State The Ministry of Religious Affairs has the largest number Police (3.00), and Ministry of Defense (2.98). (42,101) of civil servants between the ages of 51 These patterns are similar in the 20 smallest government and 60 (see Table 17), followed by the Ministry of Research, departments (see Tables 11 and 12), where average education Technology and Higher Education (38,834), which also attainment ranges from 3.49 to 6.00 (mean = 4.95, variance has the largest number of staff (6,272) over the age of 60 = 0.47). The following have the highest average education (see Table 18). levels in this group: Secretariat General of Corruption Eradication Commission (6.00), Indonesian Creative Economy RETIREMENTS Agency (6.00), and Secretariat General of Commission for the Supervision of Business Competition (6.00). The lowest The number of retirements as a percentage of total civil are the Coordinating Ministry of Political, Legal and Security servants is expected to increase from 0.03 in 5 years to Affairs (3.87), the Secretariat General of People’s Consultative 6.41 in 10 years, 22.00 in 15 years, and 39.47 in 20 years (see Assembly (3.72), and the Secretariat General of the National Table 19). For each period, a greater percentage of men than Security Council (3.49). women is expected to retire, although this declines over time. The ratio of male to female retirees is 2 to 1 in 5 years, Within each echelon, average educational attainment 1.9 to 1 in 10 years, 1.65 to 1 in 15 years, and 1.5 to 1 in 20 years. across national departments is as follows (see Table 13): Echelon 1 (5.71), Echelon 2 (5.76), Echelon 3 (5.65), Echelon 4 (5.45), Likewise, a greater percentage of structural than functional and Echelon 5 (3.71). Within each echelon across subnational civil servants is expected to retire for all periods. The departments, average education attainment is as follows: percentage of structural retirees is expected to be 11.42 in Echelon 1 (5.72), Echelon 2 (5.73), Echelon 3 (5.64), Echelon 4 (4.48), 5 years, 30.80 in 10 years, 44.98 in 15 years, and 65.05 in and Echelon 5 (3.25). There are few differences in average 20 years. The percentage of functional retirees is expected education between men and women within echelons across to be 0.01 in five years, 6.36 in 10 years, 21.96 in 15 years, and all departments. 39.42 in 20 years. Over 20 percent of civil servants in the 8 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education will all other regions in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Lesser retire in the next 10 years. In the next 10 years, 54.37 percent Sunda Islands, Sumba Island, Timor, Maluku, and Papua and of teachers and 3.2 percent of medical personnel will retire. West Papua were the birthplace of zero or 1–2 Echelon 1 civil servants. BIRTHPLACE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION The Shannon Diversity Index is used to calculate the diversity of birthplaces within government departments.8 The most There is noteworthy variation in the distribution of civil diverse government department by province of birth among servants across the country. Figure 1 reveals that the number the 20 largest departments is the Ministry of Religious Affairs of civil servants per 1,000 working-age people is less than (12.17), and the least diverse is the Audit Board of the Republic 10 to 1,000 people in most parts of the country, but it is of Indonesia (8.49) (see Table 20). Among the 20 smallest much higher in some regions, especially in the eastern islands. government departments, the most diverse is the National The number of civil servants per 1,000 working-age people Resilience Institute of the Republic of Indonesia (5.86), and is 50–100 in many parts of Papua and West Papua and the the least diverse is the Secretariat General of Commission Maluku Islands, and exceeds 100 per 1,000 in some parts of for the Supervision of Business Competition (1.39) (see Table 21). Papua and West Papua. The national government department with the highest Figure 2 illustrates a similar pattern in the percentage of proportion of civil servants who work in the same province the total population that is civil servants. This ranges from in which they were born is the Ministry of Religious Affairs 0–2 percent in most parts of the country, especially in (81 percent) (see Table 22). By comparison, only 17.9 percent Java and Sumatra, but reaches over 4 percent in northern of Indonesian Creative Economy Agency civil servants work in Papua and West Papua and the Maluku Islands. their birthplace province. To further illustrate this pattern, the number of medical The proportion of all civil servants who are not from Java has personnel per 1,000 people is greatest in Papua and grown from 0.48 in the 1980s to 0.62 in the last seven years. West Papua, reaching over five people in some areas and The most common birthplaces of Echelon 1 civil servants 3–5 in other areas, as shown in Figure 3. In most other parts were Java Island around Central and West Java, Jakarta, and of the country, it ranges from 0–3 people: it ranges from Banten. Only one other region (northwestern Sumatra) 1–2 people in most parts of Sumatra, 0–1 in Java, and 1–3 was the birthplace of more than 10 Echelon 1 civil servants, in Kalimantan and Sulawesi. although several other regions had 5–10 individuals. Almost The number of midwives per 1,000 people closely mirrors 7 The team uses a retirement age of 58 for teachers, 65 for medical the distribution of medical personnel. It is highest in personnel, 65 for functional employees, 58 for structural employees, Papua and West Papua, at 4–12 people in some areas and and 60 for those in Echelons 1 and 2. s 8 The index is computed as follows: −  i = 1 pi ln pi , where pi is the fraction 3–4 in others, as shown in Figure 4. In most other parts of individuals of one type (i.e., province of birth) within a department divided by the total number of individuals within the department. A more diverse of the country, it ranges from 0–3 people, including 1–2 in department will have a higher index score. For example, with three provinces Sumatra, 0.06 to one in Java, and 1–3 in most parts of and 30 individuals, a department in which p1 = 10, p2 = 8, and p3 = 12 would be calculated −1  (0.33  ln(0.33) + 0.267  ln(0.267) + 0.4  ln(0.4)), for a Sulawesi and Kalimantan. diversity index of 1.08. For a more homogenous department of three provinces and 30 individuals, with and p1 = 24, p2 = 3, and p3 = 3, the Figure 5 shows that the number of civil service teachers calculation would be −1  (0.8  ln(0.8) + 0.1  ln(0.1) + 0.1  ln(0.1)), or a diversity index of 0.64. per 1,000 people is highest in parts of the eastern islands. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 9 Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service FIGURE 1 Number of Civil Servants per 1,000 Working-Age People per District (2014) Civil servants per 1,000 working-age people in 2014 NA 0 0–10 10–50 50–100 100+ It ranges from 11.3 to 51.51 in parts of Papua and West Papua (4.75–7 percent), South Sulawesi (4.75–5 percent), and West and the Maluku Islands. Parts of Central Kalimantan and North Nusa Tenggara (4.75–5 percent). Surrounding these regions Sulawesi also show a high number of teachers per 1,000 are areas that range from 4.5 to 4.75 percent, especially in people, but most parts of the country fall between 0.71–6.05 Sumatra, Java, and Kalimantan and Sulawesi. The regions with and 6.05–7.67. the lowest variations are once again in West Papua and Papua, where it is 3–4 percent. Figure 6 shows that there is large variation in the average education of medical staff across the country. The greatest Figure 7 shows the variation in average teacher education, variation is in parts of eastern Sumatra (4.75–5 percent), which fares slightly better. In most parts of the country, such Java and Central Java (4.75–5 percent), eastern Kalimantan as in Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi, it is 3–4 years. FIGURE 2 Percentage of Civil Servants as a Share of the Population, by District % of population that are civil servants NA 0–1 1–2 2–3 3–4 4+ 10 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE FIGURE 3 Number of Medical Personnel per 1,000 People Percent doctors Under 0 0–1 1–2 2–3 3–5 Over 5 FIGURE 4 Number of Midwives per 1,000 People Number of midwives per 1,000 people NA 0.06–1 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–12 FIGURE 5 Number of Teachers per 1,000 People Number of teachers per 1,000 people NA 0.002–1 1–2 2–3 3–5 5–8.6 11 Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service FIGURE 6 Average Education Level of Medical Staff Average education level of medical staff NA 3–4 4–4.25 4.25–4.5 4.5–4.75 4.75–5 It also reaches 3–4 years in Papua and West Papua, but Overall, these maps reveal the dramatic degree of in most parts of Java and Southwest Sulawesi, western geographic variation in the density of civil servants across Sumatra, the average teacher education level is a bachelor’s Indonesia. It is noteworthy that the eastern parts of the degree or higher. With the exception of Papua, all regions country have a relatively high number of civil servants of the country have areas in which the average teacher has relative to the size of the local population. This is likely some college education. a function of the extremely high population density on Java. Poverty is also highest in eastern Indonesia, possibly FIGURE 7 Average Education Level of Teachers KOTA SOLOK SIDENRENG RAPPANG PANIAI Avg teacher education NA No College 1–2 Yrs MALUKU BARAT DAYA 3–4 Yrs KOTA MATARAM BA+ 12 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service FIGURE 8 Percentage of Population Below the Poverty Line (2011) % of population in poverty in 2011 NA 0–5 5–10 10–25 25–50 requiring higher degrees of state intervention. Figure 8 This geographic distribution is also reflected in several shows that 25–50 percent of the population in Papua and social welfare indicators. As shown in Figure 9, the share West Papua and Maluku Islands lives in poverty. Poverty of households with access to safe sanitation is lowest in is also high in parts of the Lesser Sunda Islands, especially the eastern regions, especially in central Papua and on Sumba Island and Timor, but all other regions, including Maluku, where it ranges from 0 to 20 percent. It is also Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Java, have moderate levels of low in some rural parts of Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sumba poverty (0–10 percent). Island and is generally high in the urban parts of Java around FIGURE 9 Percent of Households with Access to Safe Sanitation (2011) % of population with access to safe sanitation in 2011 NA 0–20 20–40 40–60 60–80 80–100 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 13 Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service FIGURE 10 Percentage of Households with Access to Safe Water (2011) % of population with access to safe water in 2011 NA 0–20 20–40 40–60 60–80 80–100 Yogyakarta (80–100 percent) and Jakarta and Bandung in several regions, including Central Kalimantan and eastern (60–80 percent), in South Sulawesi in Makassar Sumatra, but it ranges from 40 to 60 percent in most other (60–80 percent), and Sumatra in the northeast around parts of the country. It reaches 80–100 percent in urban Medan (80–100 percent). areas around Jakarta, Central Java, and Balikpapan in Kalimantan. Access to safe water surrounding these areas Figure 10 displays similar results regarding access to safe is 60–80 percent. water. The share of households with access to safe water is lowest in the central parts of Papua, where it ranges from Finally, the percentage of births attended by skilled staff is 0 to 20 percent. It stands at 0–20 percent or 20–40 percent high in most regions of the country, as shown in Figure 11. It FIGURE 11 Percentage of Births Attended by Doctors and Midwives (2011) % births by skilled staff in 2011 NA 2.8–20 20–40 40–60 60–80 80–100 14 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Characteristics of Indonesia’s Civil Service ranges from 80 to 100 percent in Central Java and parts of Commission (0.068), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Java near Jakarta, eastern Kalimantan, many parts of Sumatra, (0.067) and Ministry of Tourism (0.057). See Table 23 for the and parts of other major islands. It is lowest in rural Papua, departments with the largest average number of rotations. where it ranges from 2.8 to 40 percent. District governments with the highest rotation rates are These patterns show the importance of ensuring that civil South Labuhan, East Kolaka, and Central Buton, and those servants are not only available to serve the public where with the lowest rates are Nduga, Sarmi, and Tolikara. For there is greatest need (particularly in the eastern provinces) teachers and medical personnel, the rotation rates are but also that they are well qualified and effective at 0.04 and 0.01, respectively. performing their jobs. CONCLUSION ROTATIONS In summary, the data show large variation in gender balance A rotation is when a civil servant is assigned to a new working between government departments at both the national and location. Rotation rates are relatively similar between men subnational levels. The proportion of women ranges from and women across education levels and echelons. Figure 16 0.00 to 0.83 at the national level and from 0.09 to 0.71 at the shows that rotation rates within the civil service peaked in subnational level. Men tend to dominate the composition of 2001 because of the reassignment of many civil servants to echelons at both levels, particularly in higher echelons at the district governments but have steadily declined since. This subnational level, where the proportion of men rises from trend is discussed in greater detail in the next section. 0.58 percent in Echelon 5 to over 90 percent in Echelon 1. Rotation rates increase for civil servants as education levels The data also show large variation in educational attainment increase. For men (women) with a primary school education, between government departments. Among the 20 largest the rotation rate is 4 (6) out of every 1,000 in a given year. government departments, it varies by two education levels But for civil servants with a master’s degree or doctorate, the on average, ranging from 2.98 to 5.36. Among the 20 smallest rotation rate is 75 (65) out of every 1,000. government departments, it varies by a similar amount, rising Men who rank high on the echelon scale experience fewer from 3.49 to 6.00. Education levels are relatively consistent rotations than those ranked lower. The rotation rate is 0.056 among echelons at the national level but vary considerably for Echelon 0 and 0.023 for Echelon 4. Rotation rates start at the subnational level. to decrease for women as the echelon increases, but they Larger government departments appear to employ a more increase at the highest echelon. The rotation rate for women diverse workforce by province of birth than do smaller is 0.053 for Echelon 0 and 0.055 for Echelon 4. departments, and lower echelons appear to be more diverse The government departments with employees who have than higher echelons. Finally, job rotation rates appear to the most job changes are the Ministry of Law and Human increase as education levels increase and to decrease for Rights (0.281 average job changes), Supreme Court of the both men and women as echelon increases, except for Republic of Indonesia (0.175) and Audit Board of the Republic women at the highest echelon, for whom they increase. of Indonesia (0.170). The departments with the fewest job The next section examines this variation to more formally changes are: the Secretariat General of the General Election explain the promotion of civil servants. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 15 Explaining Civil Service Promotions in Indonesia T his section assesses the effects of individual-level civil servant characteristics on promotion patterns throughout a career. It estimates a simple regression model that takes the echelon level or a promotion event as outcome measures. Career advancement is modeled as a function of a civil servant’s educational attainment, gender, work experience, and age. Additional fixed effects are included to control for province of birth, current department, and time: yidpt = γd + ηp + τt + xitβ +  + εidpt, Where yidpt is an outcome measure that indicates career progression for individual i at time t, γd is a civil service department fixed effect, hp a province-of-birth fixed effect, and tt a year fixed effect. xit is a vector of individual-level controls for gender, age, years of work experience, and dummy variables for educational attainment (elementary school is the reference category). Civil service department fixed effects are included to control for unobserved confounders. For example, some departments such as the central bank might be populated by individuals with high levels of educational attainment and have many high-echelon positions. Province-of-birth fixed effects are included to control for the influence of cultural and ethnic networks in the civil service. Year fixed effects are included to account for secular changes in promotion patterns. The model is estimated using ordinary least squares with standard errors clustered at the individual level. A more conservative model also includes individual-level fixed effects, which absorb the individual-level covariates and province-of-birth fixed effects. The results are robust to this specification. This analysis reveals two main findings (see Tables 24–26). First, Figure 12 shows that educational attainment has a positive and statistically significant effect on the probability of promotion, which suggests that Indonesia’s civil service recognizes merit in practice, elevating highly skilled civil servants to leadership positions. For example, having a bachelor’s degree increases the probability of promotion in any given year by 2 full percentage points above baseline. An advanced degree increases the likelihood of promotion by a staggering 6 percentage points. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 17 Explaining Civil Service Promotions in Indonesia FIGURE 12 Probability of Promotion by baseline probability of promotion, and is similar in magnitude Education Level to obtaining several years of college education. To analyze these two findings, this report assesses whether the premium for education and the penalty for gender have 0.075 changed in the aftermath of democratization in 1999: that is, whether the introduction of democratic accountability intensified the application of meritocratic norms in the civil 0.050 Probability service. The regression analysis is repeated adding interaction terms between education and gender and a post-1999 binary 0.025 variable to isolate changes in the effects of education and gender. To strengthen causal identification in these models, they add individual-level fixed effects to compare career 0.000 trajectories before and after 1999 for the same individuals. Primary Jr. High Sr. High Diploma Diploma Post- I/II/III IV/SI Grad The model facilitates a causal interpretation of the political Education transition’s influence on promotion patterns. Although there Probabilities calculated by averaging over all observations and varying the education. was news of President Suharto’s declining health and rumors that he would leave office, the timing of his departure and the regime’s transition following the Asian financial crisis Second, female civil servants are, on average, less likely to were unexpected (Pepinsky 2009; Fisman 2001). It is therefore be promoted than are their male counterparts (Figure 13). unlikely that the ruling coalition changed its approach to Controlling for age, work experience, educational attainment, promoting civil servants in anticipation of the transition. province of birth, and current department, women are about Any post-1999 changes in promotion patterns should thus 1 percentage point less likely than men to be promoted in a be attributed to reforms by the newly elected regime that given year. This promotion penalty is substantial, given the low gained control of civil service appointments. Furthermore, nearly all individuals in the military, civil service, and ruling party retained their positions after the transition (Hadiz FIGURE 13 Probability of Promotion by Gender 2004), which makes it possible to observe changes in promotions within the Indonesian civil service that were 0.04 caused by the transition.9 This regression also finds that educational attainment had 0.03 a positive and statistically significant (below the 1 percent Probability 0.02 level) effect on promotions before 1999 (Figure 14). Civil servants with a postgraduate degree are 4 percentage points 0.01 more likely to be promoted in a given year—a 200 percent 9 Because recruitment patterns might have shifted after 1999, a subsample of 0.00 Men Women the data that includes only individuals hired before 1999 is also analyzed to Gender address this concern. These individuals were subject to the same recruitment process. This permits comparisons of career trajectories before and after the Probabilities calculated by averaging over all observations and varying the gender. political transition for the same individual. 18 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Explaining Civil Service Promotions in Indonesia FIGURE 14 Probability of Promotion by rises more as the level of attainment increases. A civil Educational Attainment servant with a postgraduate education is now twice as likely to be promoted as before 1999 (an increase of 0.100 3 percentage points). This increase in the premium placed on education is 1–3 percentage points across additional models that were estimated to check the robustness of 0.075 the results, suggesting an increase in meritocratic practices Education in Indonesia’s civil service.10 Probability Elementary 0.050 Post-grad Figure 15 shows that the gender penalty for women increased by 1 percentage point after 1999. Before 1999, 0.025 women were 0.2 percentage points less likely to be promoted, on average, than men, holding all else constant. This represents a 13 percent penalty compared to the 0.000 Pre-1999 Post-1999 unconditional probability of promotion. This penalty increased by a full percentage point, representing a fivefold increase in the penalty. increase in the relative probability of promotion because the unconditional probability of promotion in the sample is only One important factor that might affect women’s civil 1.5 percent. service career prospects is the extent to which female leaders make promotion decisions. Therefore, the share The results also indicate that the premium for educational of women at the highest echelon ranks (Ia and Ib) is attainment has increased since 1999 for almost all included as a control variable in the models. This variable categories of education above elementary schooling and is also interacted with the gender and political transition variables. This produces two noteworthy results. First, female leaders tend to promote more civil servants after FIGURE 15 Probability of Promotion, the 1999 political transition compared to before. Second, by Gender female leaders in the civil service are more likely to promote men than women. Several additional models are once again estimated to check 0.04 the robustness of these results, and the findings are nearly identical to those described previously: the gender penalty has increased since 1999, and the estimate of the interaction Probability Gender Men term is the same (−0.01). This relationship appears to hold Women regardless of the model specification or sample. 0.02 Analysis of promotions to specific echelon ranks reveals some evidence of heterogeneous effects. Although female civil servants overall experience a promotion penalty, the 0.00 Pre-1999 Post-1999 10 The full results are available in the Appendix. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 19 Explaining Civil Service Promotions in Indonesia FIGURE 16 Proportion of Civil Service pattern is most pronounced for initial steps on the career Employees Rotated each Year, ladder. Once women have been promoted to a fairly high by Education Level echelon rank, additional promotions are not subject to a penalty: there is even some evidence that for promotions to echelons Ia and Ib women enjoy a slight advantage. This suggests that efforts to mitigate gender discrimination in Indonesia’s civil service are likely to be most relevant in the early stages of women’s careers. 0.10 Education Level 1 Proportion Rotations 2 ROTATIONS 3 4 A third way to investigate whether civil service promotions 5 are merit based is to analyze job rotation patterns—when 0.05 6 a civil servant is reassigned to a new working location, which can often follow or lead to a promotion. Figure 16 shows the proportion of rotations by education level over time. As expected, rotations are more common for less 0.00 educated civil servants and spiked in 2001 in the wake of the 1980 1990 2000 2010 decentralization reforms. Figure 17 shows that there are few Year gender differences in rotation rates over time. FIGURE 17 Proportion of Civil Service In a meritocratic system, more qualified individuals should Employees Rotated each Year, be more likely to be awarded job rotations, and men and by Gender women should have equal opportunities for rotations. The model shown is also used to examine the determinants of job rotations within the civil service, using the same regression specification as before but focusing on job rotations as the dependent variable. 0.10 The results of this analysis reveal that educational Proportion Rotations attainment increases rotation rates among civil servants, Gender Female holding all else constant. Having a senior high school or Male college education increases the probability of getting a job 0.05 rotation by 4–6 percentage points. This premium is slightly lower for civil servants with a postgraduate education, which increases the probability of getting a job rotation by 2 percentage points. However, the educational premium appears to disappear after the 1999 political transition. Civil 0.00 1980 1990 2000 2010 servants with a senior high school or college education are Year 3–4 percentage points less likely to be rotated after 1999 20 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Explaining Civil Service Promotions in Indonesia compared to before. This rate does not change for civil The analysis was also extended to uncover additional insights servants with a postgraduate education. into the mechanisms driving the results. To determine whether the impact of the 1999 political transition is being The results show that women are just as likely to experience driven by the corresponding regime change or the 2001 a job rotation as men. The difference in probability is decentralization reforms, the sample was restricted to 0.1 percentage points, and the estimate is statistically national government departments and agencies. The main insignificant. Furthermore, the results show that civil servants results hold after making this change, which indicates that in higher echelon levels are less likely to be rotated, but they are not being driven by the decentralization reforms. the size of this change is small. An increase in echelon level reduces the probability of being rotated by 0.2 percentage Another important question is whether the gender penalty points (see Table 27). can be interpreted in a different way. To address this question, two alternative scenarios are considered. First, CONCLUSION it could be that the 1999 political transition increased the demand for highly educated civil servants, and fewer women The results suggest that the civil service has made important were promoted because there were fewer highly educated progress in becoming more meritocratic in some ways. women. The findings would then reflect a lack of qualified Educational attainment was valued before 1999, and it women rather than a gender-based disadvantage. To explore has become an even more important determinant of civil this possibility, triple interaction terms were estimated servant promotions in recent years. However, holding all else among gender, education, and the post-1999 variable. The constant, women are even less likely to be promoted now results reveal that the gender penalty persists even among than before 1999. women with high levels of education. Second, if female civil Several additional tests were performed to evaluate the servants gained new labor market opportunities after 1999 sensitivity of the results. First, the models were estimated and exited the civil service, the results could then be driven using an ordinal echelon variable that ranges from 0 to 11 as by a decrease in highly qualified women in the civil service. the dependent variable, which did not change the substantive This is unlikely to be the case because there is no indication findings. Second, additional models that interacted the in the data that women exited the civil service in greater education and gender variables with year dummies were numbers after 1999. Other research also suggests that non-civil estimated to trace the effect of these variables over time, service labor market opportunities have not increased for and these results strongly support the initial findings. women in the post-1999 period (Buchori and Cameron 2012). MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 21 Discussion and Recommendations T hree policy areas merit more government attention and response: the promotion penalty women face; the low rates of rotation across districts and the inequitable geographical distribution of skilled civil servants; and planning for upcoming retirements in ministries, agencies, and subnational governments. First, increasing gender diversity within the higher ranks of the civil service would yield many benefits, including less corruption, enhanced innovation and problem-solving capabilities, and more gender-sensitive policies and programs. The potential for Indonesian women to be a substantial engine for economic growth, service delivery, and poverty reduction is not being fully realized. Despite the overall increase in employment opportunities and substantial gains in girls’ access to, and participation in, education over the past few decades, Indonesian women still participate significantly less than men in the labor market. Indonesia currently has 86.3 million women of working age (33.5 percent of the total population) who do not work outside the home. Women occupy fewer than 28 percent of Echelon 1–4 civil servant positions.11 To equalize promotion opportunities for women and increase their overall representation in echelon positions, the GoI could consider three interventions: a leadership program with training and mentoring, recruitment strategies, and high-level policy dialogue on the need for equity in promotions. First, the GoI could support a flagship leadership program to help identify young talent that could enter the echelon scale and ensure there are sufficient numbers of women in talent pools for promotions. The GoI could help women develop leadership skills and find new opportunities in the workplace through organized social networking events. The program 11 We assessed whether there is a relationship between the portion of women in the civil service at the district level and the following civil service outputs: the overall quality of public services provision (measured via an index), poverty rates, the number of births attended by skilled staff, enrollment rates, the share of asphalt roads, access to safe water and sanitation, and educational and health expenditures. We find some evidence that a higher share of female civil servants is associated with lower poverty rates, an increase in births attended by skilled staff, and a higher share of asphalt roads in the district. Given that these results do not measure causal effects and are not consistent across all indicators and specifications, we left this analysis out of the report. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 23 Discussion and Recommendations could pair female civil servants with mentors—successful conflict-affected areas, receive a special allowance (Tunjangan civil service leaders—to help them take advantage of career Khusus), which is worth the equivalent of one month’s wages. opportunities and solve complex issues. Second, the GoI Yet various studies have shown that these incentives have could partner with top Indonesian universities (see Table 28) not corresponded to improvements in teacher performance to identify and recruit promising undergraduate and graduate or student learning outcomes (SMERU, 2010; World Bank, students and encourage them to apply to the civil service. 2014, 2015; De Ree et al., 2015). Moving forward, to improve Third, BKN could convene a dialogue among high-ranking the incentive system, the GoI could link the incentives for civil civil servants in the largest national ministries to discuss the servants to rotate into remote regions with performance-based promotion penalties, including the barriers to rotation that measures (for example, service performance measures and women face; identify solutions; and formulate a commitment community feedback). A performance-based incentive system to implement them. The policy dialogue should include a for civil servants to rotate into remote regions would be fully careful legal review of the existing regulations governing consistent with the Civil Servant Law (UU 5/2014), which aims to promotions to ensure that they are gender neutral. put in place a merit-based bureaucracy system by encouraging the adoption of performance-based evaluation and the use of The second policy area relates to the low rate of rotations across performance-based incentives for civil servants. Currently, the the civil service (see Table 29). For civil servants with a master’s Ministry of Education and Culture, with support from the World degree or doctorate, the rotation rate is 0.075 for men and Bank, is implementing a pilot known as KIAT Guru. If the pilot 0.065 for women. The rotation rate is 0.053 for Echelon 0 and is effective, the GoI could consider tailoring and expanding 0.055 for Echelon 4. At the subnational level, the rotation rate the system nationwide and to health and other sectors. is generally low, between 0 and 0.18. For teachers and medical personnel, the rotation rates are 0.03 and 0.006, respectively. At Third, the upcoming wave of retirements presents an the same time, there is a large discrepancy in the educational opportunity for BKN to develop a strategy to address the background of frontline service providers across Indonesia. promotion penalty and distribution issues (see Tables 30 and 31). Over 40 percent of Central Jakarta’s and South Jakarta’s civil For example, medical personnel in Papua and West Papua have servants will retire within the next 10 years (see Table 32), as substantially lower rates of educational attainment than their well as 10 percent of DKI Jakarta’s midwives (Table 33). Over 23 peers in Java. Similarly, better-qualified and experienced teachers percent of the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher are concentrated in wealthier regions. For example, over Education will retire in the next 10 years. Among the largest 67 percent of teachers in Java have a four-year university degree, national ministries, 50 percent of Ministry of Religious Affairs compared with only 54 percent in Papua and West Papua. employees will retire in the next 20 years (Table 30). Increasing the rotation of highly skilled service providers into Within the next 10 years, over 50 percent of public school poor and remote regions could help reduce malnutrition and teachers and 3 percent of medical personnel will retire (Table 34). maternal mortality, improve learning outcomes, and ensure BKN should engage in medium- and long-term planning that that knowledge and skills transfers occur between the more takes these forecasts into consideration. It should then work and less skilled. Poor and remote regions have inadequate with the line ministries and district governments to ensure that and less-skilled service providers, who often receive little civil servants are hired according to a rigorous selection process exposure to training and/or career advancement. The GoI has and restrict the hiring of medical and teaching staff to graduates experience with offering incentives to civil servants, including of licensed and accredited institutions. BKN should also start health workers and teachers, to rotate into these areas. For a recruitment drive that targets aspiring female civil servants example, teachers working in remote areas, including in poor or graduating from top universities throughout the country. 24 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE References Amsden, Alice H. 1992. Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Azmi, Ilhaamie Abdul Ghani, Hayaati Syed Sharifah, and Siti Arti Basir. 2012. “Women Career Advancement in Public Service: A Study in Indonesia.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 58: 298–306. Besley, Timothy, Olle Folke, Torsten Persson, and Johanna Rickne. 2017. “Gender Quotas and the Crisis of the Mediocre Man: Theory and Evidence from Sweden.” American Economic Review 107 (8): 2204–42. Besley, Timothy, and Torsten Persson. 2010. “State Capacity, Conflict, and Development.” Econometrica 78 (1): 1–34. Buchori, Chitrawati, and Lisa Cameron. 2012. Gender Equality and Development in Indonesia. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Card, David. 1999. “The Causal Effect of Education on Earnings.” Handbook of Labor Economics 3: 1801–63. De Ree, Joppe, Karthik Muralidharan, Menno Pradhan, and Halsey Rogers. 2015. “Double for Nothing? Experimental Evidence on the Impact of an Unconditional Teacher Salary Increase on Student Performance in Indonesia.” No. w21806. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Doner, Richard, Bryan Ritchie, and Dan Slater. 2005. “Systemic Vulnerability and the Origins of Developmental States: Northeast and Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspective.” International Organization 59 (2): 327–61. Duflo, Esther. 2012. “Women Empowerment and Economic Development.” Journal of Economic Literature 50 (4): 1051–79. Evans, Peter. 1989. “Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State.” Sociological Forum 4: 561–87. Evans, Peter. 1995. Embedded Autonomy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Evans, Peter, and James Rauch. 1999. “Bureaucracy and Growth: A Cross-National Analysis of the Effects of ‘Weberian’ State Structures on Economic Growth.” American Sociological Review 64 (5): 748–65. Evers, Hans-Dieter. 1987. “The Bureaucratization of Southeast Asia.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (4): 666–85. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 25 References Feith, Herbert. 1962. The Decline of Constitutional Democracy Rothstein, Bo, and Jan Teorell. 2008. “What Is Quality in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. of Government? A Theory of Impartial Government Institutions.” Governance 21 (2): 165–90. Fisman, Raymond. 2001. “Estimating the Value of Political Connections.” American Economic Review 91 (4): 1095–102. Shair-Rosenfeld, Sarah. 2012. “The Alternative Incumbency Effect: Electing Women Legislators in Indonesia.” Electoral Hadiz, Verdi R. 2004. “Decentralization and Democracy in Indonesia: A Critique of Neo-Institutionalist Perspectives.” Studies 31 (3): 576–87. Development and Change 35 (4): 697–718. SMERU. 2010. Teacher Absenteeism and Remote Area Herring, Cedric. 2009. “Does Diversity Pay? Race, Gender, and Allowance: Baseline Survey. Jakarta, Indonesia: SMERU the Business Case for Diversity.” American Sociological Review Research Institute. 74 (2): 208–24. Swamy, Anand, Stephen Knack, Young Lee, and Omar Azfar. Hong, Lu, and Scott Page. 2001. “Problem Solving by Hetero­ 2001. “Gender and Corruption.” Journal of Development geneous Agents.” Journal of Economic Theory 97 (1): 123–63. Economics 64 (1): 25–55. Johnson, Chalmers. 1982. MITI and the Japanese Miracle. Tjiptoherijanto, Prijono. 2007. “Civil Service Reform in The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975. Palo Alto, CA: Indonesia.” International Public Management Review 8 (2): Stanford University Press. 31–44. Lazear, Edward. 1999. “Globalisation and the Market for Vickers, Adrian. 2005. A History of Modern Indonesia. Team-Mates.” Economic Journal 109 (454): 15–40. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. McLeod, Ross H. 2008. “Inadequate Budgets and Salaries as Wade, Robert. 1990. Governing the Market: Economic Theory Instruments for Institutionalizing Public Sector Corruption in and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization. Indonesia.” South East Asia Research 16 (2): 199–223. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pepinsky, Thomas B. 2009. Economic Crises and the World Bank. 2014. Teacher Reform in Indonesia—The Role Breakdown of Authoritarian Regimes: Indonesia and Malaysia of Politics and Evidence in Policy Making. Jakarta, Indonesia: in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, United Kingdom: World Bank. Cambridge University Press. World Bank. 2015. The Role of BOS in Improving Rauch, James, and Peter B. Evans. 2000. “Bureaucratic Education Outcomes in Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: Structure and Bureaucratic Performance in Less Developed World Bank. Countries.” Journal of Public Economics 75 (1): 49–71. Wright, Lorna, and Virginia Crockett Tellei. 1993. “Women Roth, Guenther. 1968. “Personal Rulership, Patrimonialism, and in Management in Indonesia.” International Studies of Empire-Building in the New States.” World Politics 20 (2): 194–206. Management & Organization 23 (4): 19–45. 26 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 1 Echelon Size across Ranks Echelon rank Number of civil servants % of civil servants Echelon 1A 240 0.01 Echelon 1B 46 0 Echelon 2A 2,903 0.07 Echelon 2B 6,495 0.15 Echelon 3A 29,584 0.67 Echelon 3B 22,562 0.51 Echelon 4A 148,750 3.39 Echelon 4B 37,365 0.85 Echelon 5A 5,537 0.13 Echelon 5B 197 0 No echelon 4,135,923 94.22 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 27 Tables TABLE 2 National Departments with TABLE 3 National Departments with Highest Proportion of Women Lowest Proportion of Women Proportion Proportion Department women Department women Indonesian National Military Headquarters 0.83 State Cryptography Agency 0.30 National Agency of Drug and Food Control 0.72 Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries 0.30 Ministry of Health 0.61 Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs 0.28 Ministry of Women Empowerment and 0.60 National Resilience Institute of the 0.28 Child Protection Republic of Indonesia Indonesian National Police 0.54 National Institute of Aeronautics and Space 0.28 National Anti-Narcotics Agency 0.53 Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources 0.28 Indonesian Financial Transaction Report 0.53 National Nuclear Energy Agency 0.27 and Analysis Center Indonesia Maritime Security Agency 0.27 National Library of the Republic of 0.52 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 0.27 Indonesia Ministry of Environment and Forestry 0.27 Ministry of Religious Affairs 0.50 Agency for the Assessment and 0.26 Ministry of Defense 0.49 Application of Technology Indonesian Creative Economy Agency 0.49 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 0.26 Indonesian Investment Coordinating Board 0.48 Ministry of Finance 0.26 Secretariat General of the National Human 0.48 Coordinating Ministry of Maritime Affairs 0.25 Rights Commission Ministry of Transportation 0.21 National Standardization Agency 0.48 Batam Indonesia Free Zone Authority 0.20 Population and National Family Planning 0.47 Board Secretariat General of Corruption 0.16 Eradication Commission National Board for Placement and 0.47 Protection of Indonesia Overseas Workers National Search and Rescue Agency 0.16 National Archives of the Republic of 0.46 State Civil Apparatus Commission 0.13 Indonesia Secretariat General of Commission for the 0 Secretariat General of the Judicial 0.46 Supervision of Business Competition Commission Ministry of Social Affairs 0.46 28 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 4 Subnational Departments with TABLE 5 Subnational Departments with Highest Proportion of Women Lowest Proportion Women Proportion Proportion Department women Department women Government of Ambon City 0.71 Government of Asmat District 0.34 Government of Pekanbaru City 0.70 Government of Yalimo District 0.32 Government of Palembang City 0.70 Government of Deiyai District 0.32 Government of Padang City 0.69 Government of Nduga District 0.32 Government of Minahasa 0.69 Government of Dogiyai District 0.31 Government of Padang Pariaman District 0.69 Government of Sumenep District 0.31 Government of Deli Serdang District 0.68 Government of North Nias District 0.31 Government of Agam District 0.68 Government of North Lombok District 0.31 Government of Tanah Datar District 0.67 Government of Mamberamo Raya District 0.30 Government of North Minahasa District 0.67 Government of Central Mamberamo District 0.30 Government of Siau Tagulandang 0.67 Government of Paniai District 0.29 Biaro District Government of South Manokwari District 0.28 Government of Jambi City 0.67 Government of Intan Jaya District 0.28 Government of Medan City 0.67 Government of Pegunungan Bintang District 0.28 Government of Gorontalo City 0.66 Government of Lanny Jaya District 0.26 Government of Pontianak City 0.66 Government of Puncak Jaya District 0.26 Government of Limapuluh Kota District 0.66 Government of Puncak District 0.25 Government of Aceh Besar District 0.66 Government of Tolikara District 0.23 Government of Bandar Lampung City 0.66 Government of Yahukimo District 0.23 Government of Batubara District 0.66 Government of Pegunungan Arfak District 0.09 Government of Simalungun District 0.66 TABLE 6 Subnational Gender Breakdown TABLE 7 Echelon Summary for by Structural versus Functional National Departments Categories Avg. Type of Civil Servant Proportion women Birthplace education Avg. Echelon diversity (rank) % Male experience Functional Employee 0.49 1 7.15 5.71 72.19 28.04 Structural Employee 0.33 2 8.37 5.87 78.15 28.08 3 9.73 5.67 76.46 24.3 4 10.73 5.45 72.06 21.18 5 9.01 3.71 74.11 21.77 Avg. education is measured on a scale of 1–6 (1 = primary, 2 = junior high, 3 = senior high, 4 = D1/2/3 or associate degree, 5 = D4/S1 or bachelor’s degree, 6 = S2/S3 or master’s degree or doctorate). MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 29 Tables TABLE 8 Echelon Summary for TABLE 10 Largest Government Departments Subnational Departments Department Number Avg. Avg. Ministry of Religious Affairs 232,700 Birthplace education experience Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 112,777 Echelon diversity (rank) % Male (years) Education 1 3.31 5.72 90.62 30.81 Ministry of Finance 69,089 2 8.96 5.73 86.18 27.79 Ministry of Defense 58,500 3 10.04 5.64 79.43 24.07 Ministry of Health 50,732 4 11.11 4.48 63.75 24.36 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 43,056 5 7.23 3.25 58.41 28.81 Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 30,439 Avg. education is measured on a scale of 1–6 (1 = primary, 2 = junior high, Ministry of Transportation 26,803 3 = senior high, 4 = D1/2/3 or associate degree, 5 = D4/S1 or bachelor’s degree, 6 = S2/S3 or master’s degree or doctorate). State Police 24,381 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 22,725 TABLE 9 Largest National Departments Attorney General’s Office 21,607 by Education Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning 20,019 Avg. education Ministry of Agriculture 19,543 Department (rank) Ministry of Environment and Forestry 17,501 Audit Board of the Republic of Indonesia 5.36 Central Bureau of Statistics 16,035 Ministry of Research, Technology and 5.19 Ministry of Education and Culture 15,810 Higher Education Ministry of Communication and Information 10,809 Ministry of Home Affairs 4.97 Technology Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 4.47 Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries 10,380 Ministry of Finance 4.45 Ministry of Home Affairs 8,356 Ministry of Health 4.37 Audit Board of the Republic of Indonesia 6,327 Ministry of Religious Affairs 4.33 Ministry of Education and Culture 4.23 Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries 4.21 Ministry of Agriculture 3.97 Attorney General’s Office 3.87 Central Bureau of Statistics 3.75 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 3.74 Ministry of Environment and Forestry 3.66 Ministry of Communication and 3.49 Information Technology Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial 3.45 Planning Ministry of Law and Human Rights 3.45 Ministry of Transportation 3.44 State Police 3.00 Ministry of Defense 2.98 Avg. education is measured on a scale of 1–6 (1 = primary, 2 = junior high, 3 = senior high, 4 = D1/2/3 or associate degree, 5 = D4/S1 or bachelor’s degree, 6 = S2/S3 or master’s degree or doctorate). 30 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 11 Smallest Government TABLE 12 Smallest Government Departments Departments by Education Number Department Avg. education of civil Department servants Secretariat General of Corruption 6.00 Eradication Commission National Resilience Institute of the Republic of 350 Indonesia Indonesian Creative Economy Agency 6.00 State Apparatus Empowerment and 342 Secretariat General of Commission for 6.00 Bureaucratic Reform Ministry the Supervision of Business Competition Secretariat General of People’s Consultative 313 National Agency for Combating Terrorism 5.86 Assembly Indonesia Financial Transaction Report 5.84 Maritime Security Agency of the Republic of 300 and Analysis Center Indonesia Secretariat General of the Constitutional 5.76 Ministry of Women Empowerment and Child 282 Court of the Republic of Indonesia Protection Coordinating Ministry of Maritime Affairs 5.75 Secretariat General of the Constitutional Court 239 Ombudsman of the Republic of Indonesia 5.60 of the Republic of Indonesia Secretariat General of Judicial Commission 5.47 Ministry of State-Owned Enterprises 235 State Civil Apparatus Commission 5.37 Indonesia Financial Transaction Report and 210 Secretariat General of Human Rights 5.27 Analysis Center Commission Coordinating Ministry of Political, Legal and 205 Ministry of Women Empowerment and 4.88 Security Affairs Child Protection Secretariat General of Human Rights Commission 203 State Apparatus Empowerment and 4.82 Secretariat General of Judicial Commission 198 Bureaucratic Reform Ministry Ombudsman of the Republic of Indonesia 125 Ministry of State-Owned Enterprises 4.82 Coordinating Ministry of Maritime Affairs 123 Indonesian National Military 4.31 Secretariat General of Corruption 86 Headquarters Eradication Commission Maritime Security Agency of the Republic 4.05 National Agency for Combating Terrorism 81 of Indonesia Secretariat General of National Security Council 71 National Resilience Institute of the 4.00 Republic of Indonesia Indonesian Creative Economy Agency 39 Coordinating Ministry of Political, 3.87 State Civil Apparatus Commission 32 Legal and Security Affairs Indonesian National Military Headquarters 13 Secretariat General of People’s 3.72 Secretariat General of Commission for the 4 Consultative Assembly Supervision of Business Competition Secretariat General of National Security 3.49 Council Avg. education is measured on a scale of 1–6 (1 = primary, 2 = junior high, 3 = senior high, 4 = D1/2/3 or associate degree, 5 = D4/S1 or bachelor’s degree, 6 = S2/S3 or master’s degree or doctorate). MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 31 Tables TABLE 13 Echelon Summary across TABLE 16 Departments with Most Civil All Departments Servants Aged 20–30 Birthplace Avg. Avg. Department Number Echelon diversity education Male experience Ministry of Finance 23,815 1 7.058 5.713 72.40% 28.06 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 10,956 2 9.948 5.761 83.70% 27.72 Ministry of Health 6,075 3 11.346 5.645 78.50% 24.28 Ministry of Research, Technology and 4,815 4/5 12.531 4.627 65.10% 20.59 Higher Education Avg. education is measured on a scale of 1–6 (1 = primary, 2 = junior high, Central Bureau of Statistics 4,270 3 = senior high, 4 = D1/2/3 or associate degree, 5 = D4/S1 or bachelor’s Ministry of Home Affairs 4,173 degree, 6 = S2/S3 or master’s degree or doctorate). Ministry of Transportation 3,975 Attorney General’s Office 3,863 TABLE 14 Most Popular Jobs at National Level Government of Jakarta Special Region Province 3,575 Ministry of Religious Affairs 2,972 Job Percentage in data Ministry of Agrarian and Spatial Planning/ 2,808 Teacher 26.43 National Land Agency Implementer 3.62 Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 2,453 Expert assistant 3.08 Meteorological Climatological and 1,900 General function 3.03 Geophysics Agency Lecturer 2.61 National Government Internal Audit Agency 1,731 Staff 1.70 Ministry of Environment and Forestry 1,629 Head lecturer 1.39 Ministry of Defense 1,613 Midlevel expert assistant 1.18 Audit Board of the Republic of Indonesia 1,528 General administrator 1.07 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 1,514 Young lecturer 1.05 Government of East Java Province 1,451 TABLE 15 Most Popular Jobs at Subnational Level Job Percentage in data Teacher 63.87 Staff 3.76 Implementer 1.88 General function 1.82 Nurse practitioner 1.66 Advanced nurse practitioner 0.82 Midwife practitioner 0.75 Technical/other administration 0.60 General administration 0.52 Secretary 0.47 32 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 17 Departments with Most Civil TABLE 18 Departments with Most Civil Servants Aged 51–60 Servants Aged 60+ Department Number Department Number Ministry of Religious Affairs 42,101 Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 6,272 Ministry of Research, Technology and 38,834 Education Higher Education Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 998 Government of Jakarta Special Region Province 33,736 Ministry of Religious Affairs 771 Government of East Java Province 21,117 Ministry of Health 533 Government of Central Java Province 17,924 Ministry of Agriculture 171 Ministry of Defense 17,777 Indonesian Institute of Sciences 99 Government of West Java Province 15,377 Attorney General’s Office 99 Ministry of Health 12,551 Ministry of Transportation 97 Ministry of Finance 10,754 Ministry of Industry 96 Government of North Sumatra Province 9,957 Ministry of Home Affairs 73 Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 9,755 Government of East Java Province 68 Government of Bandung District 9,598 Agency of Technology Assessment and Application 66 Government of South Sulawesi Province 8,611 Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources 55 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 8,409 Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries 52 Government of Bandung City 8,312 Ministry of Education and Culture 45 Government of West Sumatra Province 8,068 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 39 Government of Garut District 7,794 National Nuclear Energy Agency 36 Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning 7,725 Ministry of Environment and Forestry 29 Government of Malang District 7,636 National Institute of Public Administration 23 Government of Jember District 7,610 Government of Central Java Province 18 TABLE 19 Retirements by Gender, Functional and Structural Categories, and Echelon (percentage) Retire in Retire in Retire in Retire in Type 5 years 10 years 15 years 20 years Total retirements 0.03 6.41 22.00 39.47 F 0.02 4.08 15.60 29.78 M 0.04 7.77 25.74 45.12 Functional 0.01 6.36 21.96 39.42 Structural 11.42 30.80 44.98 65.05 Echelon 1 & 2 50.80 80.10 91.80 96.10 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 33 Tables TABLE 20 Largest National Departments TABLE 21 Smallest National Departments by Birthplace Diversity by Birthplace Diversity Birthplace Birthplace Department diversity Department diversity Ministry of Religious Affairs 12.17 National Resilience Institute of the Republic 5.86 Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 11.45 of Indonesia Education State Apparatus Empowerment and Bureaucratic 5.83 Ministry of Finance 10.95 Reform Ministry Ministry of Defense 10.81 Secretariat General of People’s Consultative 5.74 Assembly Ministry of Health 10.62 Ministry of Women Empowerment and Child 5.64 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 10.48 Protection Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 10.15 Secretariat General of the Constitutional 5.46 Ministry of Transportation 10.01 Court of the Republic of Indonesia State Police 9.92 Maritime Security Agency of the Republic 5.44 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 9.80 of Indonesia Attorney General’s Office 9.79 Indonesia Financial Transaction Report and 5.35 Analysis Center Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning 9.73 Coordinating Ministry of Political, Legal and 5.32 Ministry of Agriculture 9.70 Security Affairs Ministry of Environment and Forestry 9.60 Ministry of State-Owned Enterprises 5.31 Central Bureau of Statistics 9.52 Secretariat General of Judicial Commission 5.29 Ministry of Education and Culture 9.48 Secretariat General of Human Rights 5.21 Ministry of Communication and Information 9.08 Commission Technology Coordinating Ministry of Maritime Affairs 4.71 Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries 9.05 Ombudsman of the Republic of Indonesia 4.66 Ministry of Home Affairs 8.94 National Agency for Combating Terrorism 4.37 Audit Board of the Republic of Indonesia 8.49 Secretariat General of Corruption Eradication 4.31 Commission Secretariat General of National Security Council 4.26 Indonesian Creative Economy Agency 3.63 State Civil Apparatus Commission 3.23 Indonesian National Military Headquarters 2.38 Secretariat General of Commission for the 1.39 Supervision of Business Competition 34 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 22 Departments by Proportion TABLE 23 National Departments by Who Work in the Province of Average Number of Rotations their Birth Avg. Proportion who Department rotations work where they Ministry of Law and Human Rights 0.28 Department were born Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia 0.17 Ministry of Religious Affairs 0.81 Audit Board of the Republic of Indonesia 0.17 Indonesian National Military 0.77 National Board for Placement and Protection 0.14 Headquarters of Indonesian Overseas Workers Secretariat General of General 0.75 National Government Internal Audit Agency 0.13 Election Commission Attorney General’s Office 0.12 National Police 0.69 Central Bureau of Statistics 0.12 Ministry of Research, Technology 0.68 and Higher Education Ministry of Agriculture 0.12 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 0.67 National Agency of Food and Drug Control 0.12 Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial 0.63 Ministry of Religious Affairs 0.12 Planning/National Land Agency Ministry of Environment and Forestry 0.12 Central Bureau of Statistics 0.62 Registrar Office and Secretariat General of 0.12 National Search and Rescue Agency 0.62 the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Indonesia Ministry of Defense 0.62 Ministry of Finance 0.11 Ministry of Health 0.61 Ministry of Manpower 0.11 Ministry of Public Works and 0.59 Housing National Institute of Aeronautics and Space 0.10 Supreme Court of the Republic of 0.59 Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial 0.10 Indonesia Planning / National Land Agency National Population and Family 0.58 Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics 0.10 Planning Board Agency Ministry of Education and Culture 0.56 National Anti-Narcotics Agency 0.09 Ministry of Communication and 0.55 Ministry of Communication and Information 0.09 Information Technology Technology Attorney General’s Office 0.55 Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 0.08 Education National Anti-Narcotics Agency 0.54 Indonesian Institute of Sciences 0.08 Ministry of Industry 0.54 National Nuclear Energy Agency 0.07 National Resilience Institute of the 0.52 Republic of Indonesia Secretariat General of the General Election 0.07 Commission Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries 0.07 Ministry of Tourism 0.06 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 35 Tables TABLE 24 Promotion Analysis: Education Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Post 0 0 0 0 0 0 Democratization Education: junior 0.003*** 0.002*** high 0.0004 0 0 0.0004 0 0 Education: senior 0.01*** 0.004*** high 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Education: 0.01*** 0.005*** diploma I/II/III 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Education: 0.01*** 0.01*** diploma IV/S1 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Education: 0.04*** 0.03*** postgraduate 0.0005 0 0 0.001 0 0 Female −0.01*** −0.01*** 0.0001 0 0 0.0001 0 0 Age 0.001*** 0.001*** 0 0 0 0 0 0 Protestant −0.003*** −0.003*** 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Catholic −0.004*** −0.003*** 0.0002 0 0 0.0003 0 0 Buddhist −0.001 0 0 0.0001 0 0 0.002 0.003 Hindu −0.003*** 0 0 −0.001* 0 0 0.001 0.001 −0.02*** −0.02*** Confucian 0.01 0 0 0.01 0 0 −0.002 −0.003 Other 0.004 0 0 0.004 0 0 Years in civil −0.001*** −0.001*** service 0 0 0 0 0 0 Education: 0.0003 0.001*** 0.001*** 0.002*** 0.001*** 0.001*** junior high*post 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 democratization Education: 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** Senior High*post 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 Democratization Education: 0.01*** 0.002*** 0.002*** 0.002*** 0.002*** 0.002*** diploma I/II/ 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 III*post democratization Education: 0.02*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** diploma IV/ 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 S1*post democratization The second number in the regression table refers to the standard error. 36 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 24 Promotion Analysis: Education continued Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Education: 0.03*** 0.03*** 0.03*** 0.03*** 0.03*** 0.03*** postgraduate*post 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 democratization Sample Full Full Full Pre-1999 Pre-1999 Pre-1999 Department fixed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes effects Province of birth Yes No No Yes No No fixed effects Individual fixed No Yes Yes No Yes Yes effects Golongan fixed No No Yes No No Yes effects Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes N 51,674,834 51,674,834 51,674,834 30,130,880 30,130,880 30,130,880 R2 0.03 0.2 0.2 0.03 0.18 0.18 Adjusted R2 0.03 0.14 0.14 0.03 0.15 0.15 Residual standard 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 error (df = 51674125) (df = 48153553) (df = 48153537) (df = 30130174) (df = 29137554) (df = 29137538) The second number in the regression table refers to the standard error. * p 0.05. ** p 0.01. *** p 0.001. TABLE 25 Promotion Analysis: Gender Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Post 0 0 0 0 0 0 democratization −0.002*** −0.002*** Female 0.0001 0 0 0.0001 0 0 0.001*** 0.001*** Age 0 0 0 0 0 0 Education: junior 0.002*** 0.002*** high 0.0003 0 0 0.0004 0 0 Education: senior 0.01*** 0.01*** high 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Education: 0.01*** 0.01*** diploma I/II/III 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Education: 0.03*** 0.02*** diploma IV/S1 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Education: 0.06*** 0.05*** Postgraduate 0.0003 0 0 0.0005 0 0 (table continues on next page) MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 37 Tables TABLE 25 Promotion Analysis: Gender continued Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Promotion Protestant −0.003*** −0.003*** 0.0002 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Catholic −0.004*** −0.003*** 0.0002 0 0 0.0003 0 0 Buddhist −0.001 −0.0001 0.002 0 0 0.003 0 0 Hindu −0.003*** −0.001* 0.001 0 0 0.001 0 0 Confucian −0.03*** −0.02*** 0.01 0 0 0.01 0 0 Other −0.002 −0.003 0.004 0 0 0.004 0 0 Years in civil −0.001*** −0.001*** service 0 0 0 0 0 0 Female*Post −0.01*** −0.01*** −0.01*** −0.01*** −0.01*** −0.01*** democratization 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 Sample Full Full Full Pre-1999 Pre-1999 Pre-1999 Department fixed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes effects Province of birth Yes No No Yes No No fixed effects Individual fixed No Yes Yes No Yes Yes effects Golongan fixed No No Yes No No Yes effects Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes N 51,674,834 51,674,834 51,674,834 30,130,880 30,130,880 30,130,880 R2 0.03 0.2 0.2 0.03 0.18 0.18 Adjusted R2 0.03 0.14 0.14 0.03 0.15 0.15 Residual standard 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 error (df = 51674129) (df = 48153557) (df = 48153541) (df = 30130178) (df = 29137558) (df = 29137542) The second number in the regression table refers to the standard error. *p 0.05. **p 0.01. ***p 0.001. 38 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 26 Promotion Analysis: Education, Gender, and Religion Echelon Promotion Echelon Promotion Female −0.24*** −0.01*** −0.29*** −0.02*** 0.004 0.0002 0.01 0.001 Age 0.04*** 0.001*** 0.08*** 0.002*** 0.0004 0 0.001 0.0001 Education: Junior High 0.04** 0.001 0.24*** 0.01*** 0.02 0.001 0.03 0.002 Education: Senior High 0.29*** 0.01*** 0.75*** 0.04*** 0.02 0.001 0.02 0.002 Education: Diploma I/II/III 0.30*** 0.01*** 1.26*** 0.06*** 0.02 0.001 0.03 0.002 Education: Diploma IV/S1 0.62*** 0.02*** 2.12*** 0.09*** 0.02 0.001 0.02 0.002 Education: Post-Graduate 1.57*** 0.06*** 3.34*** 0.13*** 0.02 0.001 0.03 0.002 Protestant −0.06*** −0.002*** −0.09*** −0.002 0.01 0.001 0.02 0.002 Catholic −0.08*** −0.003*** −0.07** −0.002 0.01 0.001 0.03 0.002 Buddhist −0.15** −0.01*** −0.23 −0.03*** 0.06 0.003 0.17 0.01 Hindu −0.02 −0.00 0.03 0.005 0.03 0.002 0.07 0.01 Confucius −0.1 −0.04*** 0.08 −0.12*** 0.7 0.01 0.87 0.03 Other −0.42*** −0.02*** −0.90** −0.04* 0.15 0.01 0.4 0.02 Years in civil service −0.02*** −0.001*** 0.02*** 0.001*** 0.0003 0 0.001 0.0001 Sample Full Full Structural Structural Department fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Province of birth fixed Yes Yes Yes Yes effects Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes N 4,830,685 4,830,684 1,214,836 1,214,836 R2 0.17 0.02 0.39 0.05 Adjusted R2 0.17 0.02 0.38 0.05 Residual standard error 1.09 0.12 1.64 0.23 (df = 482991) (df = 4829980) (df = 1214132) (df = 1214132) The second number in the regression table refers to the standard error. * p 0.05. ** p 0.01. *** p 0.001. MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 39 Tables TABLE 27 Rotation Analysis: Education Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Post 0 0 0 0 0 0 Democratization Education: Junior 0.002 0.003 High 0.01 0 0 0.01 0 0 Education: Senior 0.04 *** 0.04 *** High 0.005 0 0 0.005 0 0 Education: 0.06 *** 0.06 *** Diploma I/II/III 0.005 0 0 0.005 0 0 Education: 0.05 *** 0.05 *** Diploma IV/S1 0.005 0 0 0.005 0 0 Education: 0.02 *** 0.03 *** Post-Graduate 0.01 0 0 0.01 0 0 Female 0.001 −0.0001 0.001 0 0 0.001 0 0 Age −0.0002 *** −0.0005 *** 0.0001 0 0 0.0002 0 0 Protestant −0.0005 −0.001 0.001 0 0 0.002 0 0 Catholic −0.001 −0.002 0.002 0 0 0.003 0 0 Buddhist −0.003 0.03 0.02 0 0 0.04 0 0 Hindu 0.01 *** 0.01 ** 0.005 0 0 0.01 0 0 Confucian −0.03 *** −0.03 *** 0.004 0 0 0.01 0 0 Other −0.03 *** −0.06 *** 0.01 0 0 0.02 0 0 Years in Civil 0.001 *** 0.0004 *** Service 0 0 0 0.0001 0 0 Echelon Level −0.002 *** −0.001 *** −0.001 *** −0.004 *** −0.002 *** −0.002 *** 0.0002 0.0003 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0005 Education: 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 Junior High*Post 0.01 0.005 0.005 0.01 0.005 0.005 Democratization Education: −0.03 *** −0.01 −0.01 −0.01 −0.01 −0.01 Senior High*Post 0.01 0.004 0.004 0.01 0.004 0.004 Democratization Education: −0.04 *** −0.02 *** −0.02 *** −0.02 *** −0.02 *** −0.02 *** Diploma I/II/ 0.01 0.004 0.004 0.01 0.004 0.004 III*Post Democratization 40 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 27 Rotation Analysis: Education continued Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Rotation Education: −0.03 *** −0.01 ** −0.01 ** −0.01 * −0.01 ** −0.01 ** Diploma IV/ 0.01 0.004 0.004 0.01 0.004 0.004 S1*Post Democratization Education: Post- 0.01 0.02 *** 0.02 *** 0.02 *** 0.02 *** 0.02 *** Graduate*Post 0.01 0.005 0.005 0.01 0.005 0.005 Democratization Sample Full Full Full Pre-1999 Pre-1999 Pre-1999 Department fixed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes effects Province of birth Yes No No Yes No No fixed effects Individual fixed No Yes Yes No Yes Yes effects Golongan fixed No No Yes No No Yes effects Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes N 4,142,301 4,142,301 4,142,301 2,419,217 2,419,217 2,419,217 R2 0.05 0.34 0.34 0.05 0.29 0.29 Adjusted R2 0.05 0.29 0.29 0.05 0.27 0.27 Residual standard 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.23 0.20 0.20 error (df = 4141593) (df = 3860303) (df = 3860287) (df = 2418528) (df = 2339432) (df = 2339417) The second number in the regression table refers to the standard error. * p 0.05. ** p 0.01. *** p 0.001. TABLE 28 Top Five Most Central Universities TABLE 29 Rotations by Gender, Education, and Echelon Centrality University (number of ties) Education Information Management and 39 Echelon Male Female level Male Female Computer Academy 0 0.06 0.05 1 0 0.01 Accounting Academy 39 1 0.04 0.03 2 0.01 0.01 Nursing Academy 37 2 0.03 0.02 3 0.05 0.05 Academy of Finance and Banking 37 3 0.04 0.01 4 0.05 0.05 Corporate Leadership Academy 32 4 0.02 0.06 5 0.06 0.06 6 0.08 0.07 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 41 Tables TABLE 30 Percent Retiring in 10 Largest National Agencies in the Next 20 Years Retire in Retire in Retire in Retire in Agency 5 years 10 years 15 years 20 years Ministry of Religious Affairs 0.40 6.60 22.70 50.00 Ministry of Research, Technology and 7.20 23.90 43.40 59.30 Higher Education Ministry of Finance 0 7.00 16.50 26.40 Ministry of Defense 0 10.00 36.50 65.40 Ministry of Health 1.30 11.80 29.10 44.70 Ministry of Law and Human Rights 0.00 7.50 22.50 35.70 Supreme Court of the Republic of 4.40 19.80 38.60 54.10 Indonesia Ministry of Transportation 0.50 9.30 21.60 37.10 National Police 0 8.90 31.90 54.10 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 0.20 12.30 34.90 56.90 TABLE 31 Percent Retiring in 10 Smallest National Agencies in the Next 20 Years Retire in Retire in Retire in Retire in Agency 5 years 10 years 15 years 20 years Secretariat General of Judicial Commission 0 4.00 7.60 10.60 Ombudsman of the Republic of Indonesia 0 2.40 8.80 11.20 Coordinating Ministry for Maritime Affairs 0.80 8.10 22.80 46.30 Secretariat General of Corruption 0 1.20 3.50 23.30 Eradication Commission National Agency for Combating Terrorism 0 1.20 16.00 23.50 Secretariat General of the National 0 16.90 33.80 52.10 Security Council Indonesian Creative Economy Agency 0 15.40 46.20 61.50 State Civil Apparatus Commission 0 3.10 9.40 25.00 Indonesian National Military Headquarters 0 0 15.40 15.40 Secretariat General of the Commission for 0 25.00 75.00 100.00 the Supervision of Business Competition 42 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE Tables TABLE 32 Retirements in the Next 10 Years TABLE 33 Midwife Retirements No. of % Civil servants No. of % Midwives District Name retirements retiring District name retirements retiring Central Jakarta 935 42.31 DKI Jakarta 95 10.12 Bandung 901 12.67 DI Yogyakarta 9 9.38 South Jakarta 607 47.31 West Java 191 2.64 Padang 568 14.35 Bali 41 2.52 Medan 373 22.42 South Sulawesi 76 2.29 Kupang 339 13.11 East Kalimantan 26 2.09 Tangerang 287 10.56 Banten 34 2.02 Semarang 285 15.36 Central Java 158 1.81 Pekannbaru 281 13.97 North Sumatra 110 1.53 Bogor 279 10.47 West Sumatra 42 1.47 TABLE 34 Retirements of Teachers and Medical Personnel (percentage) Retire in Retire in Retire in Retire in Occupation 5 years 10 years 15 years 20 years Medical personnel 0.10 3.20 10.80 23.60 Teachers 29.40 54.30 71.40 81.70 MAPPING INDONESIA’S CIVIL SERVICE 43