Palm Oil Handbook Commodities and Export Projections Division Economic Analysis and Projections Department November 1981 TECHNICAL CONVERSION FACTORS Meal yield Oil yield Palm kernels 52.5 46.5 Source: FAO, Technical Conversion Factors for Agricultural Commodities, Rome, 1972. November 1981 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. I. INTRODUCTION ............................. II. THE PRODUCT................................................... II - 1 A. Physical Characteristics................................. II - 1 B. Methods of Extraction (Production)....................... II - 2 C. Various End-Uses......................................... II - 5 D. Marketing of the Product................................. II - 6 III. PRODUCTION.o... o............................... III**o*oo*oooooooo 11 1 A. Geographical Distribution................................ III - 1 B. Some Factors Affecting Supply............................ III - 3 IV. CONSUMPTION AND TRADE......... .............................. IV - 1 A. Consumption.............................................. IV - 1 B. Exports and Imports............ ......................... IV - 5 C. Market Structure and the Trading of Palm Oil............. IV - 15 V. INTERNATIONAL PRICES AND MARKET PARAMETERS.............oo .o V - 1 A.* Prices................................................... V - 1 B. Supply Elasticities...................................... V - 4 C. Demand Elasticities...................................... V - 4 VI. SPECIAL ISSUES................................................ VI - 1 A. Barriers to Trade and Protection......................... VI - 1 November 1981 Tables Page No. II - Al Some Technical Characteristics of Fats and Oils........... II - 2 II - BI Oil Palm Yields........................................... II - 4 III- Al Palm Oil Production in Major Producing Countries, Five-year Averages and Percentage Shares 1960-79........ III - 2 III- A2 West Malaysia: Estimated Production Costs for Rubber and Palm 0i1..................................... III - 4 IV - Al Share of Palm Oil in Total Imports and Total Apparent Consumption in Selected Countries and Country Groups, 1979............................................ IV - 3 IV - A2 Per Capita Consumption of Visible Fats in Selected Countries Both Developed and Developing Countries in 1975................................................. IV - 4 IV - Bl Exports of Palm and Palm Kernel Oils by Selected Countries and Regions..................................* IV - 6 IV - B2 Palm Oil Exports by Major Exporting Countries, Five- Year Averages and Percentage Shares, 1960-79............ IV - 7 IV - B3 Average Growth Rates of World Exports for Thirteen Oils and Fats.......................................... IV - 8 IV - B4 Malaysia Export of Crude and Processed Palm Oil by Country of Destination.................................. IV - 9 IV - B5 Imports of Palm and Palm Kernel Oils by Selected Countries and Regions................................... IV - 11 IV - B6 Palm Oil Imports by Major Importing Countries, Five- Year Averages and Percentage Shares..................... IV - 12 V - Al Prices of Selected Fats and Oils C.I.F.Europe, 1960- 1980 and 1985........................................... V - 2 V - A2 Correlation Matrix of Prices for Selected Fats and Oils... V - 3 V - B1 Summary Sheet for Commodity Supply: Price and Income Elasticities of Palm Products.. ................. V - 6 V - Cl Summary Sheet for Commodity Demand: Price and Income Elasticities of Palm Products...o..................... V - 8 VI - 1 Selected Preference-giving Countries or Group of Countries: Import Duties and Preferential Rates for Selected Oilseeds, Vegetable Oils and Oilcakes.......... VI - 2 Figure V-1 PALM AND PALM KERNEL OIL PRICES....................... V - 5 November 1981 I-1 I. INTRODUCTION After a period of slow growth between 1955-1963, world production of palm oil has been expanding rapidly since the late 1960s. In line with the increasing trend of output, world trade in palm oil more than doubled between 1969 and 1979. About 90 percent of palm oil exports go to markets in indus- trialized countries, but exports to new markets in developing countries have shown the most rapid growth. Indonesia, Ivory Coast and Malaysia now account for the bulk of total world export of palm oil, with Malaysia contributing a very large portion of that total in 1981. This rapid expansion of international trade in palm oil has been en- hanced, in part, by the growth of processing in some of the producing areas. The successful establishment and growth of a processing industry in Malaysia in the last five years, for example, has meant that an increasing larger pro- portion of palm oil exports is now in refined or fractionated form and this har. helped widen the end-uses of palm oil and facilitated the penetration of new markets, particularly in Asia and in Eastern Europe. The most rapid increases in the consumption of palm oil during the last two decades have been in the industrialized countries-especially in Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Together these countries have been Importing about 60 percent of the palm oil traded internationally. The United States has become an important consumer only in the last few years. Following the market condition of most other fats and oils, prices of palm oil and palm kernel oil have been fluctuating widely for sometime. Since most fats and oils are interchangeable, end-uskers tend to substitute one oil for another. Consequently, prices of individual fats and oils are largely determined through the simultaneous interaction of supplies and demands for all fats and oils in international markets. Although palm oil production and trade are expected to continue to expand, competition from other fats and oils is likely to remain keen. *This is the first of a number of handbooks on specific fats and oils. This Handbook should be read in conjunction with the Fats and Oils Hand- biok. November 1981 II-1 II. THE PRODUCT A. Physical Characteristics The oil palm produces two kinds of oils, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm oil contains almost the same fatty acids as other fats and oils. Palm kernel oil is closely akin to coconut oil. Both oils compete with other vegetable oils and with animal and marine oils and fats for edible and industrial uses. One important characteristic of fats and oils is the extent to which their fatty acids are saturated. Oils with a high degree of unsaturated fatty acids--for example, soybean oil--are generally liquid at room temperature in temperate climates, and are thus called "soft" oils. Oils or fats with a large proportion of saturated fatty acids, such as palm oil, are usually solid or semisolid. 1/ It is the degree of unsaturation that largely determines the ultimate use of a given fat or oil. Palm oil and other vegetable fats and oils tend to melt between 200 to 300 C (680 and 950 F). They have relatively low iodine values and consist of glycerides containing high percentages of such saturated acids as lauric, myristic, and palmitic. Fats from fruits of many members of the palm family, notably coconut and babassu oils, contain large amounts of combined lauric acid. Because of such complex mixtures of glycerides, each of which has a different melting point, fats and oils have no distinct melting points or solidifying points. 2/ Palm oil and palm kernel oil, like other fats and oils are in- soluble in water and, with the exception of castor oil, are insoluble in cold alcohol. However, most fats are soluble in ether, carbon disulfide, chloro- form, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum benzine, and benzene. Table II-Al represents a summary of some of the major characteristics of selected fats and oils. The principal acids from palm oil are stearic and palmitic while palm kernel oil contains lauric acid. The solidification point for palm oil ranges from 240 to 300 C and that for palm kernel oil is between 190 and 300 C. 1/ IBRD, Commodity Paper No. 23, 1976. T/ For more details see Fats and Oils Handbook. November 1981 11-2 Table II-Al: SOME TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FATS AND OILS Fat/Oil Main Iodine Solidification Point Fatty Acid Number (Centigrade) Soybean Oil Linoleic 121-142 -18 to -8 Sunflower Oil Linoleic 115-135 -19 to -16 Groundnut Oil Oleic 84-105 -2 to 3 Cottonseed Oil Linoleic 101-107 2 to 4 Rapeseed Oil Linoleic 94-1Q5 0 Olive Oil Oleic 78-95 -9 to 0 Palm Oil Stearic/Palmitic 44-56 24 to 30 Coconut Oil Lauric 7-10 14 to 25 Palm kernel Oil Lauric 16-23 19 to 30 Fish Oil Linoleic 110-180 -4 to 24 Tallow Stearic/Palmitic 45-55 30 to 38 Lard Stearic/Palmitic 58-77 22 to 32 Source: IBRD B. Methods of Extraction (Production) Most oil palms start to bear fruits in about two and a half to three years after planting. For unimpeded growth and high yields to take place, climatic and soil conditions must be favorable. Oil palm thrives well on flat to gently undulating clay soils. Where soils are not sufficiently fertile, fertilizers are often applied to improve yields. One hectare of oil palm can take up as much as 42 kg of fertilizer 1/ Plenty of sunshine and well- distributed rainfall averaging about 2,000 mm per year are also a pre- requisite. Depending on the variety of palm seedling planted and the level of maintenance, minimum yields of about 2.5 tons of fresh fruit bunches (ffb) per hectare which provide about 200 to 225 kg of palm oil and around 135 kg of kernels can be expected. Table II-Bl shows possible yields by age of tree when the high yielding varieties (D by P palms) are planted. To ensure high 1/ IBRD, Report No. 1160-PNG, 1976, p. 13. November 1981 EI-3 grade oil, the fresh fruit bunches must be carried (usually by trucks) to mills for processing aon after they are harvested. Extraction of Oilst Fats and oils may be recovered from oil-bearing tissues by two main methods--rendering and pressing. The crudest method of rendering oil from oleaginous fruit consists of heaping them in piles, expos- ing them to the sun and collecting the oil that exudes. In somewhat im"roved form, this process is used in the preparation of palm oil; the fresh palm fruits are boiled in water and the oil is skimmed from the surface. With many oil-bearing seeds and nuts, rendering will not sifficiently liberate the oil from the cellular structures in which it is held. In such cases, the cell walls are broken down by grinding, flaking, rolling, or press- ing under high pressures to liberate the oil. The technology for extracting oils from seeds and nuts has been evolving over several centuries. There have been many transitions from traditional, labor-intensive presses to modern labor-saving machines. The most traditional application of pressing technique consists in the crushing of (oil palm) seeds in mortars until oil exudes. The Dutch or Stampee press invented in the 17th century was used almost exclusively in Europe for pressing oilseeds until the early part of the 19th century, when the hydraulic press was developed. The yield of oil from the hydraulic press was considerably higher than that from earlier processing methods because of the much higher applied pressure. The modern screw press later replaced many of the hydraulic presses because it is a continuous process, has greater capacity, will normally remove more oil and requires less labor. The general sequence of modern operations in pressing oilseeds and nuts is as follows: (1) the seeds are passed over magnetic separators to remove any stray bits of metal, (2) if necessary, the shells or hulls are removed; (3) the kernels are converted to coarse meal by grinding them between grooved rollers or with special types of hammer mills; and (4) they are pressed in hydraulic or screw presses with or without preliminary heating, depending on the oil-bearing material and the quality of oil desired. Table II-BI: OIL PALM YIELDS* Z 0 Age of Tree Kernel in Palm kergel Palm ker1cl Years After FFB Oil in FFB Oil FFB Kernel oil ja Total Oil Cake . Planting (MT/acre) (Percent) (MT/acre) (Percent) (MT/acre) (MT/acre) (MT/acre) (MT/acre) 3 2.40 15.00 0.360 3.6 0.086 0.040 0.400 0.042 4 4.80 16.50 0.792 3.9 0.187 0.088 0.880 0.091 5 7.75 17.75 1.376 4.2 0.326 0.153 1.702 0.158 6 8.95 19.25 1.723 4.5 0.403 0.191 1.914 0.195 7 10.00 20.00 2.000 4.5 0.450 0.222 2.222 0.218 8 10.50 21.50 2.258 4.5 0.473 0.251 2.509 0.229 9 10.50 22.00 2.310 4.5 0.473 0.257 2.567 0.229 10 10.30 22.00 2.266 4.5 0.464 0.252 2.518 0.225 11 10.10 22.00 2.222 4.5 0.455 0.247 2.469 0.221 12 9.90 22.00 2.178 4.5 0.446 0.242 2.420 0.216 13 9.70 22.00 2.131 4.5 0.437 0.237 2.371 0.212 14 9.50 22.00 2.090 4.5 0.428 0.232 2.322 0.208 15 9.30 22.00 2.046 4.5 0.419 0.227 2.273 0.203 16 9.10 22.00 2.002 4.5 0.410 0.222 2.224 0.199 17 9.80 22.00 1.958 4.5 0.401 0.218 2.176 0.195 18 8.70 22.00 1.914 4.5 0.392 0.213 2.127 0.190 19 8.50 22.00 1.870 4.5 0.383 0.208 2.078 0.186 20 8.30 22.00 1.826 4.5 0.374 0.203 2.029 0.181 21 8.10 22.00 1.782 4.5 0.365 0.198 1.980 0.177 22 7.90 22.00 1.738 4.5 0.356 0.193 1.931 0.172 23 7.70 22.00 1.694 4.5 0.347 0.188 1.882 0.168 24 7.50 22.00 1.650 4.5 0.338 0.183 1.833 0.164 25 7.30 22.00 1.606 4.5 0.329 0.178 1.784 0.160 * Yields are based on estates planted with higher yielding varieties (D by P palms), 60 palms per acre. /a Assuming a ratio of palm oil to palm kernel oil of 90:10. 7 Assuming a yield of 48.5 tons of cake per 100 MT of palm kernels. Source: IBRD. 4 0 Or November 1981 II-5 A technique that supplements operations involving presses is the use of solvents. Cakes obtained by pressing procedures still retain - substantial percentage of residual oil. Such residual oil can be removed with solventq. The Problem of Pests: One majer problem faced by farmers in certain palm oil producing areas is how to control pests that adversely affect the growth and hence the yield of oil palms. Since poor yields translate into reduced supply of oil palm produts, some measures of combating diseases and pests are already available. After planting, the young oil palm seedlings are increasingly sprayed with special chemicals. The purchase of chemicals and spraying equipments obviously add to oil palm project costs. C. Various End-Uses: Palm oil and palm kernel oil have been used for both food and non- food purposes. In West Africa, for example, palm oil has traditionally been used in the preparation of food. In most industrialized countries, palm oil was used only for industrial purposes until recently. R,!ever, improved fractioning techniques have allowed it to compete with other fats and oils in the manufacture of margarines, shortenings, salad 11s, confectionery and ice cream. 1/ In addition, palm oil is an important ingredient in the manufacture of soaps and candles and is still widely used in the tinplate industry. Its extensive use in the manufacture of soaps and in the preparation of fatty acids for industrial applications is attributed to the property thaL f,ts are hydrolyzed quite readily. Like many oilseeds, palm kernel meal caL be used in animal feeds. 1/ IBRD, Commodity Paper No. 23, 1976. November 1981 11-6 D. Marketing of the Product Marketing of oil palm products is a complex process. Government intervention at some stage of the production and marketing process is a common feature in most exporting countries. In some West African countries the export trade is the monopoly of marketing boards. By monopolizing exports and dealing directly with importers, these organizations can strengthen their bar- gaining position. This influence is, however, relatively limited because of the extensive degree of interchangeability of many oils and the existence of numerous suppliers of any one kind. Nearly all of the palm oil sold is on forward contract with brokers, selling agents, state trading agencies and independent dealers being in- volved. A market-clearing price is determined as the buyers and sellers make bids and counter bids. November 1981 11-7 REFERENCES FAO, Technical Conversion Factors for Agricultural Commodities, Rome, 1972. Dietary Fats And Oils, Rome, 1980. Formo, D, Bailey's Industrial Oil Ard Fat Products, 1979. IBRD, Prospects for Palm Oil, Commodity Paper No. 23, 1976. Prospects and Structure of the World Fats and Oils Economy," 1979 Report No. 3220-MA, 1981. Report No. 1160-PNG, 1976. Mielke 6 Co., Oil World, Hambui:g, Germany, P.R. PORLA, Paimoil Statistical Handbook, Malaysia, 1980. November 1981 II-1 III. PRODUCTION A. Geographical Distribution After a period of slow growth between 1955-1965, world production of palm oil expanded rapidly in recent years. The share of palm oil which constituted about 5 percent of global production of all fats and oils in 1970 rose to about 7 percent in 1975 and is expected to approach 15 percent in the early 1980s. 1/ Table III-Al shows the major palm oil producing countries and regions as well as their shares in world palm oil production. Palm oil is produced mainly in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The key producers include Indonesia, Malaysia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Zaire. Malaysia is the world's largest producer of palm oil. It accounted for 31.5 percent of world production between 1970 and 1974 but by 1979 its share of world output had increased to 33.6 percent. Besides Malaysia, Indonesia and Ivory Coast have increased their shares of palm oil output significantly. The share of the former grew from about 12 percent in 1974 to 13 percent in 1979 while that of the latter rose from 3.9 percent to 4.2 percent during the same period. One traditional but important producer of palm oil that is losing its relative position internationally is Nigeria whose share in world output fell by 50 percent between 1964 and 1979. It is now a net importer of palm oil. The other is Zaire. Although the relative shares of Latin American producers in world production are small and sometimes negligible, more and more countries are attempting to diversify their economies by cultivating oil palm. Colombia and Paraguay are already making some progress. 1/ IBRD, "Prospects And Structure of the World Fats And Oils Economy", 1979. November 1981 111-2 Table T1-Al: PALM OIL PRODUCTION IN MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES, FIVE-YEAR AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGE SPARES 1960-79 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1979 Country - - '000 at Percent '000 at Percent '000 at Percent 000 at Per.ent 1000 at Western Africa 763.64 59.93 750.98 53.88 995.23 43.02 855.2 36.4 1155.5 Nigeria 497.98 39.09 431.60 30.96 533.40 23.06 480.40 20.80 675.0 Chana 32.20 2.53 49.20 3.53 61.00 2.64 20.30 0.86 15.0 Liberia 40.48 3.18 41.20 2.96 7.00 0.30 15.60 0.66 28.0 Sierra leone 36.20 2.84 41.40 2.97 58.00 2.51 48.50 2.06 48.0 Dahomey 38.80 3.05 32.92 2.36 42.60 1.84 28.10 1.20 28.0 Ivory Coast 22.86 1.79 30.50 2.19 91.43 3.95 99.10 4.22 158.0 Togo 0.66 0.05 2.80 0.20 4.70 0.20 6.10 0.26 19.0 Cameroon 38.64 3.03 48.36 3.47 57.60 2.49 54.30 2.31 80.0 Central African Rep. 0.88 0.07 0.64 0.05 0.50 0.02 0.60 0.03 2.6 Congo, PR. 6.62 0.52 6.18 0.44 6.14 0.27 3.80 0.16 7.2 Eq. Guinea 3.12 0.24 3.96 0.28 4.16 0.18 4.10 0.17 4.7 Gabon - - 1.56 0.11 2.48 10.11 2.40 0.10 1.4 Gambia 1.42 0.11 2.08 0.15 2.02 0.09 2.20 0.09 2.8 Guinea 8.80 0.69 13.80 0.99 40.56 1.75 35.90 1.53 40.0 Guinea Bissau 6.40 0.50 8.00 0.57 8.00 0.35 4.40 0.19 4.8 Sao Tome/Principe '.78 0.14 1.18 0.08 0.99 0.04 1.10 0.05 1.0 Angola 26.80 2.10 35.60 2.55 74.60 3.22 39.10 1.66 40.0 Eastern Africa 225.04 17.67 172.58 12.38 182.82 7.90 184.10 7.8 173.9 Tanzania 0.32 0.03 0.78 0.06 1.64 0.07 1.50 0.06 2.7 Burundi 1.00 0.08 1.00 0.07 1.00 0.04 1.00 0.04 1.2 Zaire 223.72 17.56 170.80 12.25 180.18 7.79 181.6 7.43 170.0 Latin America - Caribbean 27.67 2.18 53.48 3.84 92.15 3.98 90.20 3.80 149.3 Brazil 1.28 0.10 10.22 0.73 6.78 0.29 7.10 0.30 16.0 Colombia 0.01 0.00 9.72 0.70 38.62 1.67 36.30 1.54 62.1 Costa Rica 6.00 0.47 10.00 0.72 14.44 0.62 16.50 0.70 24.5 Ecuador 0.46 0.04 2.52 0.18 6.00 0.26 9.00 0.38 24.7 Ronduras 1.12 0.09 1.40 0.10 7.28 0.32 5.20 0.22 10.5 Mexico 13.36 1.05 13.00 0.93 11.32 0.49 11.30 0.48 7.0 Paraguay 3.94 0.31 3.12 0.37 7.72 0.33 4.80 0.20 4.5 Venezuela 1.50 0.12 1.50 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 West Asia - Pacific 256.00 20.10 416.86 29.90 1,043.31 45.10 1,204.70 51.30 2,985.0 China Rep. - - - - 10.00 1.73 114.00 4.85 184.0 Indonesia 147.52 11.58 176.42 12.65 273.72 11.84 299.60 12.75 610.0 Malaysia 108.48 8.52 240.44 17.25 728.10 31.47 790.00 33.61 2,180.0 Philippines - - - - 1.49 0.06 1.10 0.05 11.0 Others 1.47 0.12 16.00 0.70 64.6 World Total 1,273.82 100.00 1,393.90 100.00 2,313.52 100.00 2,350.20 100.00 4,528.3 Source: FAO, Production Yearbook. November 1981 111-3 World production of palm oil in the 1980s -is expected to continue to increase as a result of new plantings/replantings undertaken by such countries as Papua New Guinea, Chile, Philippines, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia. In term of the decision to invest in oil palm estates or small- holdings, the high costs tend to relate to establishment, machinery (mills), labor and infrastructure. Estimated typical costs of establishing and operat- ing a hectare of oil palm based on economic life of 30 years for oil palm trees are illustrated in Table III-A2 for Malaysia and these are compared to the costs of planting rubber under similar assumptions. B. Some Factors Affecting Supply One of the major factors affecting increasing supplies of palm oil has been the massive effort by the governments of many producing countries to establish oil palm estates, smallholdings and to replace wild groves with modern varieties. For example, it is indicated that despite recent higher world prices for Indonesia's major tree crop products, only oil palm has shown sustained large increases in production, due to investment programs by Government and private estates. 1/ The producers of palm oil, like other farmers, take into account the price at which they will sell their product. Their response to price is discussed in Section V-B. 1/ IBRD, Report No. 2939-IND, July, 1981. FOR RUBBER AND PALM OIL (in U.S. cents per kg) OD RUBBER PALM OIL Type of Cost Amount Type of Cost Amount Fixed: Fixed :. Total amortized /a 4.4 Settlement cost 1 4.4 Administration .7 Mills .4 4.4 -. 5.5 Variables: Variables: Tapping 10.7 Maintenance 3.1 Cultivation / 3.8 Fertilizer i.. 3.3 Diseases and pests .2 Diseases and pests .4 Collection 15.0 Assisted polination 1.1 Processing 2.6 Processing 4.9 Transportation: Transportation: Plantation to port 3.7 Plantation to port 3.7 3.7 3.7 Total 40.4 IE Total 22.0 .S /a Based on establishment costs of US $1,450 per hectare and an economic life of 30 years for rubber trees. /b Includes weeding, draining, and fertilizer. 7FT F.o.b. excluding export taxes. 77T Based on establishment costs of US $1,680 per hectare and economic life of 30 years for oil palm trees. /e Includes felling and cleaning costs, construction, roads, and allocation for land input. T Computed from average fertilizer costs on FELDA schemes of US $10 per hectare per month. Sources: Figures are averages based on surveys of private and Government plantations and mills in Malaysia. USDA, The Palm Oil Industry in West Malaysia, June 1977. November 1981 III-5 REFERENCES FAO, Production Yearbook(s) IBRD, Prospects for Palm Oil, Commodity Paper No. 23, 1976. Report No. 2939-IND, July 1981. "Prospects And Structure of the World Fats and Oils Economy,", 1979. Mielke & Co., Oil World Digest, Hamburg, Germany. PORLA, Palmoil Statistical Handbook, Malaysia, 1980. USDA, The Palm Oil Industry in West Malaysia, June, 1977. November 1981 IV-1 IV. CONSUMPTION AND TRADE A. Consumption Since 1960 more than half of world palm oil output is consumed in producing countries. Regional consumption of fats and oils generally reflect regional production patterns and natural storage conditions. Economic protection and lower transport costs also play an important role in the pre- ference for locally produced fats and oils. Thus traditional palm oil producing countries like Colombia, Ghana, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Malaysia, Nigeria and Zaire have had long histories of consumption of the product. The consumption of palm oil is now increasing in many non-producing developing countries. Substantial quantities of palm oil are currently being consumed in India and Pakistan, 1/ where palm oil was hardly known until a few years ago. Industrialized countries account for more than half of world cons- umption of all fats and oils and have been the main export market for fats and oils produced in developing countries. Within the industrialized countries, the most rapid increases in the consumption of palm oil during the last two decades have been recorded in the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Together these countries have been importing about 60% of the palm oil traded internationally. Unlike a number of industrialized countries which have been major consumers of palm oil for sometime, the United States has become an important consumer only in recent years. The growth in demand for palm oil in the United States seems to reflect movements in relative prices of other fats and oils. The use of vegetable oils in consumer products has increased at the expense of animal fats, as the latteros relative prices rose, and the price of palm oil declined, relative to those of other vegetable oils (see the section on prices). 2/ 11 India has recently started producing some palm oil. 2/ IBRD, Commodity Paper No. 23, 1976. November 1981 IV-2 The industrialized countries also consume the largest part of palm kernel oil traded, with the United States being the only major market showing significant growth. Imports of palm kernel oil into developing countries for consumption have risen at a fast rate but remain less than 10% of the total. 1/ The consumption of palm oil has also increased in the centrally planned economies. Although China produces palm oil, its imports in 1979 amounted to 7% of all fats and oils imported and palm oil constituted 5% of all fats and oils consumed. The USSR and Eastern Europe also imported and consumed more palm oil in 1979 than previously. Table IV-Al shows the share of palm oil in total imports and total apparent consumption in selected countries and economic regions in 1979. In general, per capita consumption of fats and oils depends mainly on incomes. It is noted, therefore, that demand for fats and oils increases rapidly at low income levels. At high income levels-roughly those now reached in Japan, Western Europe and United States--the demand for fats and oils due to increases in income levels off at about 30 kg. per capita (see Section V-C on income elasticities of demand). 2/ Table IV-A2 points to high levels of consumption of all fats and oils in the industrialized countries while the levels for developing countries are relatively low. 1/ FAO, Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil in the World Fats and Oils Economy. 2/ IBRD, op. cit, p.11-1. Table IV-Al: SHARE OF PALM OIL IN TOTAL IMPORTS AND TOTAL APPARENT CONSUMPTION 91 IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND COUNTRY GROUPS, 1979 0 m Imports ('000 tonnes) Apparent consumption ('000 tonnes) Countries Total Share of Total Share of Palm Oil Fats & Oils Palm Oil (%) Palm Oil Fats & Oils Palm Oil (%) Developing Countries 939 6,901 14 3,652 24,828 15 Algeria 4 286 1 4 308 1 Kenya 47 59 80 47 70 67 Morocco 4 245 2 4 287 1 Mexico 2 260 1 9 771 1 Venezuela - 100 - - 255 - Egypt - 456 - - 623 - Iraq 130 164 79 130 172 76 Iran - 350 - - 480 - Saudi Arabia 30 80 38 30 80 38 Bangladesh - 90 - - 170 - India 400 1,172 34 400 4,452 9 Pakistan 201 489 41 201 46 21 China 45 606 7 229 4,738 5 Developed Countries 1,206 11,024 11 1,206 32,009 4 U.S.A. 148 770 19 145 7,805 2 EEC 694 5,880 12 694 9238 8 Other Western Europe 70 989 7 70 2,984 2 Japan 139 1,705 8 139 2,143 6 USSR/E. Europe 109 1,209 9 109 8,453 1 World 2,145 17,925 12 4,858 56,837 9 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1980. November 1981 IV-4 Table IV-A2: PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF VISIBLE FATS IN SELECTED INDUSTRIALIZED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, IN 1975 Per capita consumption of Countries Visible Fats in Grams Per Day Netherlands 72.0 United States of America 64.0 Sweden 56.0 Spain 48.0 Mexico 27.2 Japan 27.2 Malaysia 22.4 South Africa 19.2 Philippines 16.6 Nigeria 16.0 Brazil 14.4 Indonesia 9.6 India 8.8 Sri Lanka 8.0 Thailand 4.8 Source: American Oil Chemists Society Journal, Vol. 53, No.6, June 1976. eovomber 1981 IV- 5 B. Exports and Imports World exports of palm oil expanded rapidly during the last decade from about 860.9 thousand tons in 1969 to about 2,294.7 thousand tons in 1979. Tables IV-B1 and IV-B2 indicate the levels of exports of palm oil by major exporting countries and regions. Palm oil exports grew at an average rate of 13.1% a year. This growth rate is faster than that of any other major fat or oil exported during this period. Export of soybean and rapeseed oils increased at an annual rate of 9.1% and 6.7% respectively (Table IV-B3). Malaysia is the leading world exporter of palm oil and its share of total world exports averaged 60% per annum between 1975 and 1979. 1/ In general, about 90% of world exports of palm oil go to industrialized coun- tries. Given this direction and pattern of trade, Malaysia-s major markets have been Canada, Germany FR, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. Its principal markets in developing areas include India, Iraq, Pakistan and Singapore. Malaysia also exports large quantities of refined palm oil products (Table IV-B4). Other important developing country exporters of palm oil are Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Papua--New Guinea, and Zaire. These countries compete for the traditional industrialized markets of Western Europe and North America. Indonesia's share of world exports was maintained at an annual rate of 18.4 percent between 1975 and 1979. The average annual share of world palm oil exports had been 3.8 percent for Ivory Coast, 4.9 percent for Nigeria and 1.2 percent for Papua-New Guinea during the same period. At the close of the last decade the rate of growth of exports by Indonesia fell substantially and by 1980 the Ivory Coast emerged as a producer having the second largest growth rates of both production and export of palm oil (Table IV-Bl). The Ivory Coast now accounts for almost all the export from Africa amounting to 5% of world exports. 1/ Market share computed from Table IV-B2. Table IV-Bl: EXPORTS OF PALM AND PALM KERNEL OILS BY SELECTED COUNTRIES AND REGIONS 00 Export Period ('000 tonnes) 1970-79 Product/country 1970-72 1977-79 1980 Annual average increase (average) (average) (preliminary) ('000 tonnes) (%) PALM OIL Africa (10 countries) 150 90 70 -8 -5.3 of which: Ivory Coast 30 70 50 6 9.6 Zaire 80 10 10 -10 -31.7 Asia and Pacific (5 countries) 760 2,100 2,810 149 13.1 of which: Malaysia 550 1,610 2,300 111 13.4 Indonesia 200 390 480 27 9.8 World 910 2,240 2,890 146 11.0 PALM KERNEL OIL /a Africa (17 countries) 260 160 180 -13 -6.2 of which: Nigeria 130 90 110 -4 -3.7 Asia and Pacific (2 countries) 50 160 240 17 20.8 of which: Malaysia 30 140 210 18 39.5 Indonesia 20 20 20 -1 -2.8 World 320 330 420 3 1.0 /a Including oil equivalent of palm kernel exports. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1980. .U wbLz gIV-7 L f*!-s. P.l'f Ott -XPORTS ST MAJOR qX?IORTTIV COCNTRIES, FIVE-YEAR AVERAGES AND PERCE.WAGE SHARES, 1960-79. 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1979 -untry -000 Mt. Percent '000 Mt. Fercent '000 Mt. Percent 'U0 Mt. Percent t WESTERN AFRICA 191.67 11.3o 105.45 14.96 86.02 5.18 10S.41 4.95 65.2 Nigeria 147.64 20.11 65.23 9.25 5.96 0.44 7.66 0.36 0.0 Ghana 0.06 0.00 0.30 0.04 - - 0.02 0.00 0.0 Liberia - - - - 0.23 0.01 1.38 0.06 2.5 Sierra Leone - - - - - - - Dahomy (Benin) 11.61 1.90 10.86 1.54 11.65 0.86 3.22 0.15 3.0 Ivory Coast 0.80 0.14 0.92 0.13 48.90 3.62 81.80 3.84 49.5 Togo 0.43 0.07 0.09 1.09 0.08 0.08 0.00 0.00 Cameroon 8.26 1.34 8.42 1.19 7.15 0.54 7.96 0.37 7.0 Central Afr. Rep. 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Congo Peop. Rep. 3.31 0.54 0.66 0.09 - - 0.00 0.00 0.0 Eq. Guinea 2.91 0.47 5.03 0.42 3.00 0.22 3.22 0.15 3.2 Gambia - - - - - - - - - Guinea - - - - - - - - - Guinea-Bissau 0.07 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.0 Sao Tome/Principe 0.95 0.15 0.54 0.07 0.19 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.0 Angola 15.45 2.52 13.44 1.90 7.35 0.54 0.92 0.04 0.0 EASTERN AFRICA 148.87 24.31 114.24 16.21 89.98 6.67 22.40 1.05 0.0 Tanzania 0.08 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Surundi -- - - - - - - - Zaire 148.79 24.30 114.19 16.20 89.97 6.67 22.40 1.05 0.0 LATil AXERICA 2.28 0.37 3.67 0.52 5.22 0.18 2.68 0.13 2.1 Brazil - - - - - - - - - 2olombia - - - - - - - - - Costa Rica 0.39 0.06 0.17 0.02 0.19 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.0 Ecuador - - - - - - - - - Roaduras 0.14 0.02 0.83 0.11 0.49 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.0 Mezico - - - - - - - - - Paraguay 1.75 0.28 2.67 0.37 4.54 0.33 2.62 0.13 2.1 Venezuela - - - - - - - - - EAST AFRICA-PACIFFIC 222.31 36.31 385.44 54.69 903.67 67.05 1,663.90 78.10 1,706.8 China Rep. - - - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.0 Indonesia 113.88 18.60 153.56 21.78 229.70 17.04 391.90 18.40 350.8 Malaysia 108.43 17.71 231.38 32.90 673.97 50.00 1,271.98 59.70 1,356.0 Philippines - - - - - - 0.04 0.00 0.0 NEMNA 0.09 0.01 - - 0.67 0.04 0.09 0.01 0.1 Bahrain - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Lebanon - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Portugal - - - - 0.67 0.04 0.09 0.01 0.1 Spain 0.09 0.01 - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.0 Syrian Arab Rep. - - - - - - - - - OTHERS 47.01 7.67 95.93 13.61 262.15 19.45 335.25 15.74 507.5 Austria - - - - - - - - - Belgius-Luzembourg 7.73 1.26 4.96 0.70 2.72 0.20 7.04 0.33 9.4 Czechoslovakia - - - - - - - - - Denmark 0.07 0.01 1.!^ 0.22 0.10 0.00 2.82 0.13 5.0 Prance 1.65 0.26 0.65 ^ 09 1.47 0.10 1.06 0.05 1.0 Germany, FR 3.12 0.50 3.54 0.50 7.24 0.53 18.50 0.90 15.1 Hong Kong - - - - - - 0.11 0.01 0.1 India - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 ttaly 0.10 0.01 0.14 0.01 0.61 0.04 0.42 0.02 1.0 Japan 0.18 0.02 0.11 0.01 0.43 0.03 0.38 0.02 0.2 Mali - - - - - - - - - Netherlanda 5.45 0.89 10.00 1.41 47.40 3.51 63.46 2.98 56.7 Nicaragua 0.24 0.03 - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.0 Norway - - - - - - - - - Papua-New Guinea - - - - 4.33 0.32 26.18 1.23 29.4 Singapore 27.02 4.41 74.15 10.52 196.43 1-.57 212.54 9.98 383.3 Sweden 0.28 0.04 0.16 0.02 0.54 0.04 1.28 0.07 1.8 Uganda 0.37 0.06 0.33 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 United Kingdom 0.80 0.13 0.30 0.04 0.33 0.06 1.70 0.08 1.2 Suriname - - - - - - - - 2.5 WORLD TOTAL 612.23 100.00 704.73 100.00 1,347.72 100.00 2,129.73 100.00 2,281.7 Source: FAO, Trade Yearbook. November 1981 IV-8 Table IV-B3: AVERAGE GROWTH RATES OF WORLD EXPORTS FOR THIRTEEN OILS AND FATS Growth rate per year (%) Oils and fats 1960-1969 1970-1979 Palm 1.97 13.16 Palm Kernel -2.94 0.59 Soybean 6.19 9.07 Sunflowerseed 20.65 5.18 Cottonseed -4.30 1.92 Groundnut 2.58 -0.48 Rapeseed 22.40 6.74 Olive 2.33 2.72 Coconut -0.76 1.98 Lard 0.036 1.39 Tallow 6.13 2.38 Butter 1.65 2.98 Fish 12.89 0.96 Source: PORIM, "A Statistical Analysis of the World Export and Price Relationships of the Major Oils and Fats with Special Reference to Palm Oil," Malaysia, 1980. z Table IV-B4: MALAYSIA EXPORT OF CRUDE AND PROCESSED PALM OIL BY COUNTRY OF DESTINATION (Tonnes) 'C 1970 1975 1979 Destination Crude Processed Total Crude Processed Total Crude Processed Total USA 19,938 - 19,938 262,624 75,107 337,731 7,840 102,752 110,502 U.K. 74,923 - 74,923 162,565 626 163,191 126,409 35,893 162,302 Netherlands 32,965 - 32,965 163,637 1,303 164,940 89,004 79,301 168,305 )xaq 63,241 - 63,241 74,616 - 74,616 - 66,478 66,478 India 128 - 128 23,117 - 23,173 12,173 270,506 282,679 F.R. Germany 6,738 - 6,738 23,079 1,016 24,095 44,606 19,038 63,644 Canada 11,932 - 11,932 23,95 - 23,955 - - - Japan 11,002 - 11,002 50,825 9,165 59,990 8,835 120,604 129,439 Italy 5,042 - 5,042 7,033 - 7,033 23,021 - 23,021 Pakistan - - - 10,262 - 10,262 5,578 62,271 67,849 Stgapore 143,341 - 143,341 49,059 106,619 155,678 8,552 518,280 528,832 Others 32,680 - 32,680 106,639 9,396 116,035 32,155 268,056 300,211 OTAL 401,930 - 401,930 957,411 203,232 1,160,693 358,173 1,543,179 1,901,352 Note: Export of PFO started only from 1975. Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia. November 1981 IV-10 Most of the industrialized country importers are engaged in the re- exports of palm oil. The leading re-exporters have been the Netherlands and Germany, FR. Since 1975 the average annual share in .rld export trade of the former has been 3 percent and that of the latter about 1.0 percent. 1/ From the developing world, Singapore is the major re-exporter. Its re-exports amounted to about 10 percent of total exports in each of the years between 1975 and 1979. Imports: A fairly recent feature of the trade in palm oil is the fact that the biggest part of the growth in imports has been taken by develop- ing countries (Table IV-B5). The share of developing Importers has grown from 15% to over 40% in the last ten years. 2/ However, industrialized countries still account for some 60 percent of total world imports. The fastest and largest expansion in import demand in the developing region has been in India, Iraq and Pakistan. Sizeable markets have also been developed in certain countries in Africa. The most likely prospect is that many more developing countries, some of them producers and exporters in the past, would soon become iet importers if their domestic outputs of palm oil continue to decline while their consump- tions increase. A case in point is Nigeria, a country that once dominated world export trade in palm oil but is now a net importer of vegetable oils. The above scenario implies that as the potential for expanding con- sumption diminishes in industrialized countries, an increasing share of the world production of palm oil (as well as some other fats and oils) will be marketed in developing countries. The traditional importers of palm oil in industrialized countries are likely to continue to import at about current levels (Tables IV-B5 and IV- B6). Imports into these countries have shown little increase in the last few years, with Japanese and EEC imports almost unchanged. They may also undertake some drastic adjustments of their imports in the light of the overall world fats and oils situation in a given period. For example, the United States imported 424.3 thousand tons of palm oil in 1975 because of the need for 1/ See Table IV-B2. 2/ FAO, "Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil in the World Fats and Oils Economy", 1981. November 1981 IV-11 TABLE IV-B5: IMPORTS OF PALM AND PALM KERNEL OILS BY SELECTED COUNTRIES AND REGIONS Imports (000 tonnes) Product/Count)y 1974-74 1974-76 1977-79 1979 Annual Growth (average) (average) (average) rate (%) PALM Oil Total developing countries 150 320 840 940 21.9 Africa 30 50 90 100 21.5 of which: Kenya 10 20 50 50 32.3 Latin America 10 10 10 10 3.6 Near East 90 100 150 160 5.8 of which: Iraq 90 80 120 130 3.9 Asia and Pacific 20 160 570 630 38.6 of which: India - 30 390 400 - Pakistan - 100 150 200 - Asia: Centrally Planned - 10 30 40 - Total developed countries 790 1,240 1,180 1,210 5.9 of which: United States 120 330 180 140 6.5 EEC 540 650 660 690 3.1 Japan 40 130 140 140 15.9 USSR/E.Europe 10 20 80 110 24.9 World 930 1,560 2,020 2,150 9.8 PALM KERNEL OIL /a Total developing countries 10 20 33) 30 9.8 Total developed countries 320 350 330 360 0.9 of which: United States 40 70 70 80 7.2 EEC 230 240 210 220 -0.9 Japan 10 10 10 10 0.6 USSR/E.Europe 10 - - - - World 330 370 360 390 1.4 /a Including oil equivalent of palm kernel imports. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization. November 1981 Table TV-86: PALM OIL IMPORTS BY MAJOR IMPORTING COUNTRIES. FIVE-TEAR AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGE SHARES 1960-4 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1979 Country/Region '000 Mt. Percent '000 Mt. Percent 1000 Mt. Percent '000 Mt. Percent ' ii. EAST AFRICA 4.10 0.72 8.76 1.38 18.68 1.50 41.47 2.06 33.5 Kenya 1.76 0.30 5.94 0.93 13.36 1.07 36.80 1.83 47.0 Mozambique 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.07 0.88 0.07 0.76 0.04 3.3 Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) 0.36 0.06 0.30 0.04 0.50 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.0 Sudan 0.16 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.0 Tanzania 0.06 0.01 0.41 0.06 1.56 0.12 3.42 0.17 2.6 Uganda 1.76 0.30 1.43 0.22 2.29 0.18 0.38 0.02 0.6 Zambia 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.0 WEST AFRICA 3.61 0.63 6.61 1.04 8.82 0.70 19.48 0.77 19.0 Angola 0.06 0.01 0.34 0.05 0.05 0.00 4.48 0.22 1.8 Cameroon 0.15 0.02 0.78 0.12 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.0 CAR 0.19 0.03 0.93 0.14 1.56 0.12 0.13 0.01 0.1 Congo PR 0.10 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.49 0.03 0.84 0.04 1.0 Benin 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Eq. Guinea 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Gabon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.66 0.13 3.4 Gambia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.0 Ghana 0.21 0.03 1.45 0.22 3.78 0.30 6.70 0.33 6.0 Guinea 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Ivory Coast 2.55 0.44 1.94 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Liberia 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.0 Malt 0.17 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.73 0.06 0.08 0.00 0.4 Senegal 0.01 0.00 0.78 0.12 1.86 0.14 2.80 0.14 3.7 Sierra Lone 0.02 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Togo 0.15 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Niger 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.01 1.74 0.09 2.6 EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC 37.56 6.60 76.67 12.12 229.97 18.42 160.63 7.97 245.4 Khmer Rep. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 China Rep. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.62 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.0 Piji 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.0 Rong Kong 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.01 0.46 0.02 0.3 Korea Rep. 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.02 1.03 0.08 4.76 0.24 11.9 Malaysia 3.98 0.70 0.12 0.01 1.37 0.10 0.32 0.02 0.0 New Guinea 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.0 Philippines 4.99 0.87 6.99 1.10 4.32 0.34 1.40 0.07 1.0 Singapore 28.54 5.01 69.34 10.96 221.36 17.73 148.18 7.36 223.2 Thailand 0.05 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.10 0.00 5.48 0.27 9.0 Indonesia - - - - - - - - - SOUTH ASIA 34.13 6.00 8.39 1.32 33.70 2.70 390.76 19.40 607.3 Bangladesh 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Burma 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.98 0.30 5.9 Sri Lanka 0.uO 0.00 0.75 0.11 0.50 0.04 0.38 0.02 0.0 India 34.13 6.00 5.52 0.87 23.27 1.86 240.92 11.95 400.0 Pakistan 0.00 0.00 2.12 0.33 9.93 0.79 143.68 7.13 201.4 EMENA 5.64 0.99 5.63 0.88 8.85 0.70 24.26 1.20 154.1 Algeria 0.65 0.11 0.72 0.11 1.00 0.08 1.88 0.09 4.1 Bahrain 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.0 Cyprus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Iran 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.0 Israel 0.37 0.06 0.78 0.12 1.08 0.08 0.36 0.02 0.1 Jordan 0.72 0.12 1.94 0.30 3.13 0.25 1.84 0.09 2.3 Kuwait 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Lebanon 0.13 0.02 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Libyan AR 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.84 0.04 1.0 Malta 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.01 0.0 Morocco 0.27 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.70 0.08 3.5 Syria 3.40 0.59 1.92 0.30 3.39 0.27 8.52 0.42 11.0 Turkey 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.94 0.44 0.0 UAR 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.1 Iraq 130.C Saudi Arabia 2.0 November 1981 IV-13 Table TV-B6: (continued) ... (IMPORTS) 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1979 Country/Region 000 Mt. Percent 000 Mt. Percent '000 Wt. Percent '000 Mt. Percent 1W0E. LAC 5.25 0.92 4.56 0.72 6.27 0.50 10.61 0.53 11.74 Argentina 0.26 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.0 Barbados 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Brazil 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.80 0.04 2.0 Chile 0.42 0.07 1.43 0.22 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.0 Colombia 1.11 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Costa Rica 1.08 0.18 1.61 0.25 0.46 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.0 Ecuador 1.51 0.26 0.94 0.14 5.39 0.43 5.38 0.27 7.4 E1 Salvador 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Guatemala 0.01 0.009 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Guyana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 HEonduras 0.29 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 2.22 0.11 0.0 Jamaica 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.0 Martinique 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04 Mexico 0.17 0.02 0.19 0.03 0.16 0.01 1.96 0.10 2.3 Nicaragua 0.01 0.00 0.18 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Peru 0.09 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Trinidad 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Venezuela 0.27 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 OT4ERS 678.28 64.11 521.97 82.51 941.59 75.45 1,367.11 67.87 1,342.1 Australia 2.49 0.43 2.96 0.46 10.01 0.80 20.32 1.0 26.7 Austria 1.28 0.22 0.19 0.03 3.24 0.25 6.66 0.33 6.6 Belgium Lux. 40.19 7.06 26.51 4.19 25.06 2.00 33.74 1.68 43.2 Canada 11.53 2.02 11.08 1.75 18.32 1.46 35.62 1.77 18.4 Denmark 3.84 0.67 1.58 0.24 8.56 0.68 14.68 0.73 19.0 Paeroe Ia, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Finland 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.82 0.06 1.60 0.08 1.1 Prance 34.90 6.13 38.00 6.00 49.14 3.93 63.72 3.16 69.5 Germany PR 86.57 15.22 115.07 18.19 140.40 11.25 189.18 9.39 174.9 Iceland 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.0 Ireland 4.14 0.72 3.16 0.49 4.25 0.34 5.96 0.30 9.6 Italy 27.59 4.85 38.18 6.03 51.11 6.14 54.50 2.71 71.7 Japan 15.30 2.69 25.70 4.06 70.35 5.63 137.72 6.84 139.0 Netherlands 74.50 13.10 69.32 10.95 137.56 11.02 175.42 8.71 167.0 New Zealand 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.36 0.02 0.80 0.04 0.0 Norway 0.64 0.11 0.22 0.03 9.93 0.79 3.24 0.16 4.9 Portugal 14.29 2.51 15.48 2.44 18.85 1.51 18.80 0.93 20.0 South Africa 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.01 0.97 0.07 3.70 0.18 3.3 Spat 0.22 0.03 2.39 0.37 5.70 0.45 6.50 0.32 10.2 Sweden 2.03 0.35 2.54 0.40 7.50 0.60 17.88 0.89 20.5 Switzerland 1.55 0.27 2.59 0.40 4.93 0.39 5.96 0.30 6.2 UK 136.70 24.04 122.85 19.42 212.13 16.99 225.00 11.17 228.7 Us 15.25 2.68 37.15 5.87 147.86 11.84 269.60 13.38 146.6 Yugoslavia 1.11 0.19 1.31 0.20 0.14 0.01 1.66 0.08 2.9 Chian 0.03 0.00 0.32 0.05 0.00 0.00 20.68 1.03 44.9 Cuba 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Czechoslovakia 0.72 0.12 0.79 0.12 5.27 0.42 0.52 0.03 0.0 angary 1.04 0.18 0.54 0.08 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 Poland 1.08 0.18 1.84 0.29 8.41 0.67 14.98 0.74 10.9 USSR 1.22 0.21 2.06 0.32 0.00 0.00 38.66 1.92 98.3 WORlD TOTAL 568.57 100.00 632.59 100.00 ,247.88 100.00 2,014.32 100.00 2,433.1 Source: FAO, Trade Yearbooks November 1981 IV-14 greater use (substitute) of other oils following the simultaneous production shortfalls in coconut and groundnut oils in 1973/74; but this figure had declined to 300.4 thousand tons in 1976 and 140 thousand tons in 1979. 1/ Like the United States, the average levels of Imports rose signi- ficantly in Canada between 1975-79 both in absolute and relative terms compared to 1970-74 (Table IV-B6). Average Canadian import was up from 18.3 thousand tonnes in 1970-74 to 35.6 in 1975-79--an increase of 94.5 percent. In absolute terms, the largest importers of palm oil during 1975-79 continued to be France, Germany FR, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. For the period in question, the average share of world imports was 3.2 percent for France, 9.4 percent for Germany, 8.7 percent for the Netherlands, 11.2 percent for the United Kingdom and 13.4 percent for the United States. Palm kernel oil is almost exclusively imported by industrialized countries, the United States being the only major market showing significant growth. Imports into developing countries have increased but remain less than 10 percent of the total. Generally, palm kernel oil is in close technical and economic competition with coconut oil in world markets. In the centrally planned economies, China and the USSR are likely to become potential markets for palm oil. Between 1975-79, China accounted, on average, for 1.0 percent of world imports and the share of USSR was about 2.0 percent. A few years earlier (1970-74), imports of palm oil by these two countries were either negligible or non-existent. It is worth noting that refined palm oil products from developing countries (mainly from Malaysia) are now being exported in large quantities. Refined palm oil is exported to India, North America, Japan, Pakistan and the USSR. The main markets for palm olein include India, Japan and Saudi Arabia. Palm stearin's final rarkets appear to be largely in the EEC and, to some extent, in China (see Tables IV-B4 and IV-B5). 1/ USDA, U.S. Fats and Oils Statistics 1963-1978, Statistical Bulletin, No. 631, Table 52. (USDA quoted values in thousand po-nds); and Hancock, Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil in the World Fats and Oils Economy, 1981. November 1981 IV-15 C. Market Structure and the Trading of Palm Oil State trading agencies and cooperative trading organizations in palm oil producing countries market their products through private companies, inde- pendent dealers or other intermediaries in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Germany. Although the United States is becoming an important marketing center, the three countries mentioned above constitute the major terminal markets. The market for processed palm oil products is dominated by a few companies involved in the processing of palm oil and manufacturing of fat and oil-based products. The processors and manufacturers purchase the bulk of the crude oil needed through brokers and dealers at terminal markets. Palm oil is sold mostly on forward contract. Many of the companies that process and obtain by-products from palm oil own distribution and retail outlets. For example, a large British-!ased company, Lever Brothers, manufactures products with high pkAm oil content (especially soap) and undertakes their distribution. Other companies exist as distributing chains for the manufacturers. A lot of processing and refining of palm oil takes place in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Germany and Malaysia. The processed products are absorbed mainly by Singapore, India, Iraq, Japan, the United States, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. November 1981 IV-16 REFERENCES American Oil Chemists Society Journal, Vol. 53, No. 6, June 1976. FAO, Trade Yearbook(s) Palm Oil and Palm Yernel Oil in the World Fats and Oils Economy," 1981. IBRD, Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities, Report 814, 1980. Commodity Trade And Price Trends, 1981. Prospects for Palm Oil, 1979. Mielke & Co., Oil World Digest, Germany F.R. PORLA, Palmoil Update, Malaysia, Sept. 1981. Palmoil Statistical Handbook, Malaysia, 1980. USDA, World Trade in Selected Agricultural Commodities. Fats and Oils Statistics, 1963-78, Statistical Bulletin No. 631. November 1981 V-1 V. INTERNATIONAL PRICES AND MARKET PARAMETERS A. Prices Following the lead of most other fats and oils, prices for palm oil and palm kernel oil fluctuated widely during the last two decades (1960-80). These fluctuations have been partially cplained in terms of simultaneous increases or declines in production and export of major fats and oils. In- creased or decreased levels of fats and oils output are related to changes in the normal weather pattern (for example, typhoons affect coconut harvesting in the Philippines, droughts reduce soybean yields in US), to disease (in the case of oil palm) and to planting decisions made. Since most fats and oils are interchangeable, end-users tend to sub- stitute one oil for another. Consequently, prices of individual fats and oils are mostly determined through the simultaneous interaction of supplies and demand for all fats and oils in international markets. Table V-Al gives a general picture of prices of selected fats and oils since 1960; and Table V-A2 is the correlation matrix of prices of these fats and oils. The increased possibility of substitution of one oil for another, made practicable by technological improvements of refining of fats and oils, has encouraged the use of cheaper oils (such as palm and soybean oils) at the expense of high-priced oils (such as butter and olive oil). This has tended to depress the general price level of high-priced oils. 1/ Currently the prices of palm oil as well as those of most fats and oils are on a downward trend in West European markets. The price of palm oil declined by $100 (or 17 percent) from $600 per ton in July to $500 in August. Over the same period the prices of palm kernel oil and coconut oil went down from $617 and $586 to $570 and $565, respectively. A downward trend was also detected for soybean oil price which fell by 23% from $529 to $406 during the same period. As the volume of coconut oil trade is about four times greater than that of palm kernel oil, palm kernel oil prices tend to follow those of coconut oil. The price series for palm kernel oil and coconut oil show that 1/ IBRD, Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities, Report No. 814/80. 0 Table V-Alt PRICES OF SELECTED PATS AND OILS C.r.P. EUROPE, 1960-1980 AND 1985 (In US dollars per metric ton) t' (D Year Soybean Sunflower Cottonseed Groundnut Rapeseed Olive Palm Coconut Palm Kernel Ptsh Lord Butter Tallow 1960 225 243 235 326 219 585 228 312 317 155 214 8s1 142 1961 287 311 305 331 280 561 232 254 263 139 225 706 158 1962 227 246 266 275 221 631 216 251 255 104 218 822 137 1963 223 236 243 268 215 871 222 286 287 160 216 900 141 1964 205 255 250 315 252 586 240 297 299 203 251 911 168 1965 270 294 278 324 263 663 273 348 353 217 293 910 200 1966 261 263 333 296 244 661 236 324 271 196 282 833 180 1967 216 212 378 283 206 690 224 328 249 127 205 817 144 1968 178 172 305 271 161 681 169 399 367 99 169 709 129 1969 228 213 291 332 200 666 181 361 306 150 216 709 166 1970 307 331 354 379 293 699 260 397 429 240 271 733 202 1971 323 375 392 441 295 727 261 371 335 221 262 1,048 176 1972 270 326 324 426 232 916 217 234 244 182 251 1,209 179 1973 465 480 500 546 395 1,399 378 513 491 342 373 975 ?56 1974 795 903 939 1,077 745 2,174 669 998 1,010 559 602 1,216 448 1975 619 739 726 857 551 2,436 434 393 439 344 479 1,669 340 1976 438 581 593 741 415 2,166 406 418 433 372 480 1,740 371 1977 576 639 622 852 584 2,234 530 578 620 472 618 2,247 421 1978 607 665 661 1,079 597 2,427 600 683 764 4$1 626 1,982 483 1979 662 772 798 889 621 2,701 654 985 992 450 693 2,698 612 1980 598 632 657 863 570 2,500 674 673 669- 450 644 2,352 487 Descriptions Soybean Oils Crude, US, c.I.f. Rotterdam Coconut Oil: Philippines/Indoneian. bulk, c.l.f. Rotterdam. Sunflower Oil: Any origin, ex-tank Rtotterdam For 1973, Dutch$ 5o prior to 1973, White Ceylon. 12, bulk Cottonseed Oils US, PBST, c.i.f. totterda. ex-tank, Rotterdam. Groundnut Oils Nigerian/Gambian/Any Origin, c.i.f. Europe Palo Kernel Oils West African, c.I.f. U.K. Rapeseed Oil Dutch, f.o.b. ex-aill Fish Oil Any origin, crude, c..f. Europe. Prior to atch 1973, Olive Oil: Spanish, edible, 1 drums Peruvian, semi-rolled. Palm Oil: Malaysian, 51, c.I.f. U.T. Lard: EEC refining quality, c.i.f. U.K. Prior to February 1973, tS, Prime Steam c.i.f. UK. Putter Dutch, bulk, unealted, UK markets. Tallow: US, bulk, ble-chable fancy, c.i.f. Rotterdam. Price Index weighted by current world exports (1974-400). Soure:e Oil World Digest, and Public Ledge Table V-91: SUMMARY SIEET FOR COMMDDITY SUPPLY: PRICE AND INCOME ELASTICITIES OF PALM PRODUCTS . Variables Own Price Elasticity Quality Country Quantity Price Form of Short- Lag Long- Data Period Method Data Number R2 Signi- variable variable variable run Period run Interval Source of data ficance /a /b /c /d e f/ / Philippines S F AL .299 1 .66 A 1953-66 D X 14 .975 X (number of palm trees) S W AL -.0008 1 -.012 A 1953-66 S I 14 .973 0 NOTES /a Supply - S, Exports - X. 7W Farm level - F, Wholesale * W, Retail * R, Unit Value - U, c.i.f. - C, f.o.b - B. 7F Actuals a A, First differences = F, 7ogaritbas - L, Prices Deflated - P. 7d- Annual * A, Quarterly - Q, Mdthly - M, Weekly * W, Daily - D, Cross-sectional = C. 7e Are Computation a C, Graph - C, oestimate - R, Ordinary Least Squares * 0 Simultaneous Equation Method S 8, Flexibility - P. /f Data Source Indicated, Insert * X, Otherwise - 0. 7g Significant at 95% - X, Nonsignificant at 95% - 0, Otherwise blank. Source: UNCTAD, Survey of Commodity Demand And Supply Elasticities, 1974. November 1981 V-4 the former had been enjoying a slight premium over the latter but this premium has been slowly eroded in the last few years (Table V-Al). International price trends of palm and palm kernel oils for the period 1960-1980 are illustrated in Figure V-1. B. Supply Elasticities By its very nature, producers of oil-bearing trees, such as oil palm, are likely to be less responsive to price changes than producers of annual crops. Unlike annual crop producers who can adjust their production plans quickly (usually within a year) to changes in the market prospects for such crops, producers of palm oil and other oil-bearing tree crops lack this option. Their investment in oil palm is partially based on price expectations for a longer period. Once the trees have been planted, producers have no choice but to harvest even in the face of falling prices. Crops left un- harvested became a major source of diseases which endanger the life of the trees and thus future harvests. Two studies on the price elasticity of palm oil production in Malaysia and the Philippines support the expectation that the response of palm oil producers to changes in price is relatively low. The Malaysian study indi- cated that production of palm oil is highly inelastic both in the short- and long-run. 1/ That study provides short-term and long-term price elasticities of -0.7671 and 0.1629, respectively. The Philippine study 2/ found a short-run elasticity of 0.299 and a long-run elasticity of 0.66 (Table V-B1). C. Demand Elasticities A 1971 study of demand for palm oil in the Philippines came up with an income elasticity of 1.0, a long-run own price elasticity of demand of -0.302 to -0.381, and a long-run cross price elasticity of export demand of 1/ H.S. Khera, The Oil Palm Industry of Malaysia, 1976, p. 197. 2/ A.V. Nyberg, "The Philippine Coconut Industry," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1968. November 1981 V-5 Figure V-1: PALM AND PALM KERNEL OIL PRICES - Palm Oil Price (US$/MT) Palm Kernel Oil Price (US$/MT) .0~ IM.0 8W .0 - 8 = 700.00 @.0. 600..0 s.0 3W.0- z&0.0 100.0 2W.0 80 6 N 65 70 72 74 7 76 t 0 Table V-I: SUMMARY SHEET FOR COMMODITY SUPPLY: PRICE AND INCOME ELASTICITIES OF PALM PRODUCTS Variables Own Price Elasticity Quality Country Quantity Price Form of Short- Lag Long- Data Period Method Data Number R Signi- variable variable variable run Period run Interval Source of data ficance /a /b /c /d e f/ / Philippines S F AL .299 1 .66 A 1953-66 D 1 14 .975 K (number of palm trees) S W AL -.0008 1 -.012 A 1953-66 S I 14 .973 0 /a Supply - S, Exports - 1. 7V Farm level - V, Wholesale * W, Retail - R, Unit Value - U, c.i.f. - C, f.o.b - B. 7c- Actuals - A, First differences - F. Logarithms - L, Prices Deflated - P. 77 Annual A, Quarterly - Q, Monthly - M, Weekly - W, Daily - D, Cross-sectional *. 7e Are Computation - C, Graph - G, (uestimate - E, Ordinary Least Squares * 0 Simultaneous Equation Method * S, Flexibility - F. /f Data Source Indicated, Insert X 1, Otherwise - 0. fg Significant at 95% - X, Nonsignificant at 952 - 0, Otherwise blank. Source: UNCTAD, Survey of Commodity Demand And Supply Elasticities, 1974. November 1981 V-7 -0.874. 1/ The high income elasticity of demand for palm oil in the Philippines is consistent with a priori expectations that the demand for fats and oils is inversely related to income (Table V-Cl). A more recent (1981) study estimated world export demand for palm oil to be about -0.82 (when export volume is regressed on own price) and -0.49 (when palm oil prices are regressed on export volume). 2/ 1/ A.E. Recto, "An Analysis of the International Demand for Philippine Coconut Products," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1971. 2/ C.S. Chow and B. Yusof, "A Statistical Analysis of the World Export and Price Relationships of the Major Oils and Fats with Special Reference to Palm Oil," August 1981. Tablp V-C1: SUMMARY SHEET FOR COMMODITY DEMAND: PRICE AND TNCOME ELASTICITIES OF 0 PALM PRODUCTS a Variables Own Price Elasticity Other Price Elasticities Quality Country Quantity Price Form of Long-run Variables ElastLetty Income Data Period Method Data Number of Signit1- variable variable variable Value Elasticity Interval Source Dat R2 ance Ia /b /c /d /e /f I Philippines 0 W AP From -.302 to -.381 1.0 A 1950-67 S & TS 19 (Palm oil) " (except M W AP From -.874 to -1.278 Cottonseed Prom .814 From 2.3 A 1950-67 S 6 TS to demand) oil to 1.278 to 2.5 Pals kernel Prom .780 oil to .997 " (Lauric D W LP -.241 .522 A 1951-66 TS X 14 X Oils) US - us D W LA -.238 .596 A 1953-66 TS x 14 X - Europe D W LP -.786 .144 A 1933-66 TS 2 14 1 D t LA -.570 .614 A 1953-66 TS X 14 X Us D W LA -.220 .368 A 1953-66 TS X 14 X (per capita) . Europe 0 W LA -.579 .197 A 1953-66 TS X 14 X (per capita) Philippinee D W LA -.093 .583 A 1953-66 S X 14 .50 0 (Copra) /a Demand - D, Imports M. 7 P Worm level F F. Wholesale * W, Retail * R, Unit Value U ., c.t.f. * C, f.o.b. * 8. 7F Actuals * A. First diffeiences F 9, Logarithms * L, Prices Deflated * P. 71 Annual - A, Quarterly , 0, Monthly - 1, Weekly - W, Daily * D, Cross-sectional * C. 7e Arc Computation - C, Graph - C, Guestimate - 8, Ordinary Least Squares - 0, Sitataneous Flustion Methods * S, Flexibility * P. 7T Data Source Indicated, Insert w X, Otherwise * 0. 7g Significant at 952 - I. Nonsignificant at 952 - 0, Otherwise blank. Sourcei UNCTAD, Survey of Commodity Demand and Supply Elasticities, l,4. 114 vembr 1981 V-9 References A.E. Recto, "An Analysis of the International Demand for Philippine Coconut Products," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1971. A.V. Nyberg, "The Philippine Coconut Industry," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1968. C.S. Chow and B. Yusof," A Statistical Analysis of the World Export and Price Relationships of the Major Oils and Fats with Special Reference to Palm Oil," August 1981. H.S. Khera, The Oil Palm Industry of Malaysia, 1976. UNCTAD, "Survey of Commodity Demand And Supply Elasticities," 1974. e November 1981 VI-1 VI. SPECIAL ISSUES A. Barriers to Trade and Protection One major obstacle to increased international trade is the existence of trade barriers and restrictions. These restrictions have taken various forms such as quotas, special preference schemes, tariffs, variable levies, $voluntary" export restraint, etc. Protection for technical reasons is partly through standards concerning product quality, packaging and labeling. A case in point is the fact that for a while, refined palm oil products from develop- ing countries were not considered to meet the quality requirements of indus- trialized regions. However, that is now changing as refined palm oil products from producing countries are being supplied to several industrialized and developing markets. Table VI-1 shows existing duties, preferential rates and tariffs that affect trade in oil palm products (as well as in other major fats and oils) in Canada, Japan, United States and in the EEC. The main preferential schemes and the duty rates shown on the table are with respect to M.F.N., G.S.P. and ACP. 1/ In order to enhance proper comparison of the duty and tariff structures we will turn briefly to GSP and ACP. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) The principles and objectives of preferences in favor of developing countries were formally accepted in Conference Resolution 21 (II) of the Second Session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development held in New Delhi in 1968. The objectives of the generalized non-reciprocal, non- discriminatory system of preferences were to increase export earnings, promote industrialization and to accelerate rates of economic growth of developing 1/ M.F.N.= Most favored nation status; G.S.P. = Generalized System of Preferences, and ACP refers to the preferential treatment granted by the EEC to 60 countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific (ACP). J. Table VI-It SELECTED PREFERENCE-GIVING COONTRIES OR GROUP OF COUNTRIES: IMPORT DUTIES AND 0 PREFERENTTAL RATES FOR SELECTED OILSEKDS, VEGETABLE OILS AND OILCAKES 0 CANADA EEC JAPAN UNITED STATES M.P.N. C.S.N. M.P.N. C.S.1'. ACP M..F.N. c.5.P. rates rates rates rates rates rates rates rates rates ad valores ad valorem or ad valorem or or Yen/kg /b U.S. cents/lb. Copra free /c free /c free /c S1.87 /c Coconut oil crude 10 7-ee 5-10 T5-7 (10% /d /L CO.20 /s free refined 17.5 12.5 8-15 6.5-13 free (or YT0 Copra cake free /c free /c Pree /c 0.1 /C Groundnute freq /C free /c tree /c 97 /c Grountnut oil crude 10 ' iee 5-10 7 refined 17.5Lb 12.5 8-15 7c . free Y17-23 /h /c 04 /c Groundnut cake free /c free 7W free - 7 an.3 7W Palm kernels free T free 7e free 7c free 7c Palm kernel oil crd 10 free 8% /C free / tree reined 19.5 [leg M 0:~-13 free Palm kernel cake free /C free /e free /c 0.3 /c Palm kernels free 7c free 7c free 7c free 7c Palm kernel oil crude 10 free 5-10 2.5-7 refined 17.5 12.5 8-15 6.5-13 free 8t /c free /I free Pals kernel cake free /C free /C free 7 @0.3 /c Palm oil crude 10 free 4-6 2.)-4 82 /j 4% free /k /c refined 17.5 12.5 8-14 8 .' -12) free Soybeans free /c free /c free /c 61 /c Soybean oil crude 10 /f 77 5-10 2.5-10 /b free V refined 17.37 7F 8-15 /C free Y17-23 l 7W 22.5% /c Soybean meat free 7c- free T7W f ree 7F 90.3 7-c /a when ranges are shown, the lower end gives the tariff for oils for technical or industrial uses other than the manufacture of foodatuffo, and the higher end of the range gives the tariff for oils for other uses. The tariffs shown do not Include that (202 M.F.M. and 182 GSP) charged on oils in solid state, for uses other than Industrial. in packings of 1 kg. or less. /b Whenever alternative (ad valorem or specific) duties are shown, the highest applies. 7T Not included in GSP schemes and, therefore, the X.V.W. rate applies to GSP beneficiaries. 74- To be reduced to 9% by I January 1987 as a result of the Tokyo Round of MTNs. 7e- To be reduced to zero on I January 1981 as a result of the Tokyo Round of MTN*. 7 To be reduced to 7.51 by 1 January 1987 aa a result of Tokyo Round of MiTN&a.< STo be reduced to 15% by I January 1987 as a result of Tokyo Round MiTHs. h Temporary duties. General duties are higher. For soybean oil, duties to be hound at Y17-20.7/kg. as a result of Tokyo Round of HiTNs. The lower rate applies to oils with more than 0.6 acid value, the higher rate to other oils. /I De facto rats. The bound rats for Inedible oils is @3/lb. 71To be reduced to 7% as a result of the Tokyo Round of X2THs. 1k De facto rate. The bound rate for oil for uses other than the metallurgic Industry io #3/lb. to be reduced to 40.5/lb. as a result of the Tokyo Round of HiTNe. Sources PAO. *Review of the ftin Prefore.aflal Schemes to the Ollsesda, Oils and Ollaw.als Sector.* CMofE iT117, Yanuary 1991 A November 1981 VI-3 countries. I/ The GSP are considered not binding and preference-givinr countries have the right to change or amend the schemes at any time. The Second Lome' Convention anc ACP The convention known as Lome' II was signed on October 31, 1979 between the EEC and a number of African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (ACP). The Convention, which is broadly similar to Lome'I, extends the contractual, non-reciprocal, preferential system (established under Lome' 1) in favor of ACP countries. From Table VI-1 it is seen that as regards fats and oils, customs free entry is granted to most of ACP countries' products falling under the Brussels CCC Nomenclature Nos.15, 04 (fats and oils of fish and marine mammal, whether or not refined), 15.07 (fixed vegetable oils, fluid or solid, crude, refined or purified), 15.12 (animal or vegetable oils and fats, wholly or partly hydrogenated, or solidified or hardened by any other process, whether or not refined but not further processed). In varying degrees, many countries with GSP schemes allow certain tropical vegetable oils exported by developing countries to enjoy some degree of tariff preferences. For example, oil palm products enter the US duty-free whereas in Canada only palm oil is duty free but refined palm oil faces a sizeable tariff. In Japan oil palm r,' kicts are not included in GSP, there- fore, the M.F.N. rate applies to GSP beneficiaries. Since under the Lome' Convention imports of oilseeds, oils and related products into the EEC from ACP countries enjoy duty-free treatment, and therefore higher possible margins of preference compared to GSP (although GSP rates equal to zero are widely found) and considering the fact that on the average, tariffs of major countries with GSP and of the EEC on processed/re- fined palm oil are similar, it seems clear that more can be done in terms of reducing trade barriers and extending of existing preferences to a wider range of countries. 1/ FAO, "Review of the Main Preferential Schemes in the Oilseeds, Oils and Oilmeals Sector," CCP of 81/3, January 1981. REFERENCES FAO, "Review of the Main Preferential Schemes in the Oilseeds, Oils and Oilmeals Sector," CLP of 81/3, January 1981. UNIDO, Technical And Economic Aspects of Oil Palm Fruit Processing.