A g r i c u lt u r e G l o b a l P r a c t i c e 99505 Gender in Climate- Smart Agriculture Module 18 for the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Module 18 for the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook Published by the World Bank Group and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Fund for Agricultural Development The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of, The World Bank Group (WBG) or of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), or of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) concerning the legal or devel- opment status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. 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Contents Acknowledgments v Acronyms and Abbreviations vii Module 18 Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 1 Module 18 Overview 2 Thematic Note 1 The Role of Innovative Technologies for Gender-Responsive CSA 16 Thematic Note 2 Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Approaches 24 Thematic Note 3 Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Through the CSA Project Cycle 31 Thematic Note 4 Household and Community-Driven Development 41 Thematic Note 5 The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 52 Innovative Activity Profile 1 Harnessing Information and Communication Technology for Gender-Responsive CSA 66 Innovative Activity Profile 2 Using Impact Investment to Promote Gender Equality and CSA 74 Innovative Activity Profile 3 CSA for Fisheries: The Fao-Thiaroye Fish Processing Technique 80 BOXES 18.1 Examples of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices 3 18.2 Gender-Equitable, Decent Work in the Rural Green Economy and Climate-Smart Agriculture 4 18.3 Women’s Adoption of Transformational Changes in Agricultural Practices: Evidence from Bangladesh, Kenya, Senegal, and Uganda 6 18.4 Increasing Rural Women’s Income through Climate-Smart Agriculture in Western Kenya 7 18.5 Regional and Global Policy Initiatives That Support CSA 12 18.6 Safe Access to Fuel and Energy in Darfur 18 18.7 Small-Scale Mechanization in Conservation Agriculture:Who Benefits? 19 18.8 Water Harvesting or Recycling Systems for Women’s Home Gardens 21 18.9 Examples of Tree-Based Landscape Initiatives 25 18.10 Steps in Implementing a Gender-Responsive Landscape Approach in Projects 26 18.11 Analytical Consideration for Developing Indicators 35 18.12 Moving Beyond Sex-Disaggregated Data at the Household Level: Measuring Plot Managers’ Agricultural Productivity 35 18.13 Describing and Classifying Men’s and Women’s Multiple Roles in the Community 42 18.14 Community-Driven Development, Resilience, and Gender in Land Rights 42 18.15 A Toolkit for Analyzing Differences in Men’s and Women’s Assets in Relation to Individual Rights and Household Roles 43 18.16 Community-Driven Development and Household Methodologies in India’s National Rural Livelihoods Mission 44 iii 18.17 GALS in the Rehabilitation and Community-Based Poverty Reduction Project, Sierra Leone 47 18.18 FAO’s Socio-economic and Gender Analysis Approach 49 18.19 Using Climate Science and Community-Based Approaches to Enhance Women’s Yields and Land Holdings 49 18.20 The R4 Rural Resilience Initiative–Impacts on Gender 57 18.21 Gender-Sensitive Social Protection and Climate-Smart Agriculture 58 18.22 The Climate Change and Gender Action Plan for Bangladesh 59 18.23 Principles for Successfully Delivering Information to Farmers 67 18.24 Interactive Radio for Delivering Climate Services 69 18.25 Using Tablets to Reach Women with Plant Health Advice 69 18.26 Agricultural Advice through M-Kilimo in Kenya 71 18.27 The Calvert Foundation and Clean Energy Technologies for Women 76 18.28 Village Capital’s Impact Investment Model 77 18.29 Plan Vivo: Payment for Ecosystem Services through a Voluntary Carbon Sequestration Scheme in Uganda 78 18.30 The Success Story of Women Fish Processors in Côte d’Ivoire 82 FIGURES 18.1 Conceptual Framework for Enhancing Gender and Social Equity in Nutrition- and Climate-Smart Agriculture 6 18.2 Components of a Climate-Smart Landscape 25 18.3 An Improved Smoking Kiln: The Thiaroye Fish Smoking Technology 81 TABLES 18.1 Potential Gender Considerations of Various CSA Practices 9 18.2  Frameworks, Tools, and Approaches for Collecting Sex-Disaggregated Data and Gender Analysis in Relation to Climate-Smart Agriculture 11 18.3  Major Intervention Areas and Associated Options for Policy and Institutions to Catalyze Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Actions 29 18.4 Objectives and Information Needs for Three Types of Analyses Pertinent to Designing Gender-Responsive CSA Projects 32 18.5  Checklist for Setting Up a Monitoring and Evaluation System at the Formulation Phase 33 18.6 Checklist for Monitoring and Evaluation at the Implementation Phase 33 18.7  Checklist for Monitoring and Evaluation at Mid-term and during the Final Evaluation Phase 34 18.8  Indicator Index Card: Example of a Tailored Indicator for Gender in CSA for a Research Component of an Agricultural Productivity Project 36 18.9  Example of a Results Chain for an Agricultural Project with a Focus on Gender in CSA 37 18.10 Sample Indicators for Measuring Results in an Agricultural Project with a Focus on Gender in CSA 38 iv Contents A c k n o w l e d gm e n t s This Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture module was pre- The team would like to thank the reviewers for their pared jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization excellent, substantive comments, suggestions, and contri- (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development butions: Jacqueline Alder (FAO), Salomon Asfaw (FAO), (IFAD), and the World Bank. The coordination team con- Tobias Baedeker (World Bank), Joshi Bharati (CARE), sisted of Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa (World Bank), Ilaria Fir- Ademola Braimoh (World Bank), Lynn Brown (consult- ­ mian (IFAD), and Kaisa Karttunen (FAO), with technical ant), Diji Chandrasekharan Behr (World Bank), Todd Crane support from Christine Heumesser, Eija Pehu, and Ademola (International Livestock Research Institute [ILRI]), Karl Braimoh from the World Bank; Clare Bishop-Sambrook Deering (CARE), Estibalitz Morras Dimas (IFAD), Ilaria from IFAD; and Ilaria Sisto and Szilvia Lehel from FAO. Patti Firmian (IFAD), Natasha Hayward (World Bank), Christine Kristjanson (consultant) offered valuable guidance for the Heumesser (World Bank), Ileana Grandelis (FAO), Flavia ­ entire module in addition to writing two Thematic Notes Grassi (FAO), Emily Hillenbrand (CARE), Kaisa Karttunen and one Innovative Activity Profile. (FAO), Heather Mae Kipnis (International Finance Corpo- The preparation of the module involved many individu- ration [IFC]), Mimako Kobayashi (World Bank), Patti Krist- als within the three organizations and other development janson (World Agroforestry Centre [ICRAF]), K ­ anchan agencies. The team is extremely grateful to all authors and Lama (Women Organizing for Change in Agriculture and coauthors: Solomon Asfaw (FAO), Clare Bishop-Sambrook Natural Resource Management [WOCAN]), Szilvia Lehel (IFAD), Yvette Diei (FAO), Ilaria Firmian (IFAD), Norbert (World Bank), Leslie Lipper (FAO), Federica Matteoli Henninger (World Resources Institute [WRI]), Christine (FAO), Carmen Neithammer (IFC), Sibyl Nelson (FAO), Heumesser (World Bank), Sophia Huyer (CGIAR Research Maria Nuutinen (FAO), Eija Pehu (World Bank), Leisa Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Secu- Perch (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP]), rity [CCAFS]), Patti Kristjanson (consultant), Corina Lefter Alejandra Safa (FAO), Sarah Scherr (EcoAgriculture), (FAO), Szilvia Lehel (FAO), Yufei Li (IFAD), Giuseppe Virginia Seiz (consultant), Ilaria Sisto (FAO), Anita Spring ­ Maggio (FAO), Azzurra Massimino (World Food Program (University of Florida), Libor Stloukal (FAO), Sanna-Liisa [WFP]), Ingrid Mollard (consultant), Christiane Monsieur Taivalmaa (World Bank), David Treguer (World Bank), and (FAO), Morgan C. Mutoko (consultant), Julia Navarro Marialena Vyzaki (World Bank). (World Bank), Sibyl Nelson (FAO), Monica Percic (FAO), Technical edits from Kelly Cassaday (consultant) Aina Randrianantoandro (FAO), Janie Rioux (FAO), Natalia improved the readability and sharpened the key mes- Winder Rossi (FAO), Andrea Sanchez Enciso (FAO), Lar- sages substantially. James T. Cantrell provided invaluable issa Setaro (IFAD), Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa (World Bank), guidance and support throughout the preparation of the Andreas Thulstrup (FAO), and Leon Williams (IFAD). module. v A C R ON Y M S A ND A B B R E V I AT I ONS CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CCAFS Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (program of the CGIAR) CCGAP Climate Change and Gender Action Plan (Bangladesh) CDD Community-driven development CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CO2 Carbon dioxide COP21 21st session of the Conference of the Parties CSA Climate-smart agriculture CSO Civil society organization FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FFS Farmer Field School FHH Female-headed household FTT Thiaroye Fish Smoking Technology GAAP Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project GACSA Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture GALS Gender Action Learning System GCF Green Climate Fund GEF Global Environment Facility GHG Greenhouse gas HHMs Household Methodologies IAP Innovative Activity Profile ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre ICT Information and communication technology IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFC International Finance Corporation IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IGWDP Indo-German Watershed Development Program ILO International Labour Organization ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JFFLS Junior Farmer Field and Life School vii KACP Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project M&E Monitoring and evaluation MCC Millenium Challenge Corporation MICCA Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture Programme of FAO NAPA National Adaptation Programs of Action NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NGO Nongovernmental organization PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PSP Participatory scenario planning REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SAFE Safe Access to Fuel and Energy SDG Sustainable development goal SEAGA Socio-economic and Gender Analysis TN Thematic Note UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Progamme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USAID United Sates Agency for International Development VSLA Village savings and loan association WBG World Bank Group WEAI Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index WEMAN Women’s Empowerment Mainstreaming and Networking WFP World Food Program WOCAN Women Organizing for Change in Agriculture and Natural Resource Management WOTR Watershed Organization Trust WRI World Resources Institute Currency is in U.S. dollars unless otherwise noted. viii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Photo: Ray Witlin/World Bank MODULE 18 Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Introduction design, monitoring, and evaluation; to effectively scale up T and enhance the sustainability of efforts that are already his module provides guidance and a comprehen- underway; or to p ­ ­ ursue entirely different solutions. The tar- sive menu of practical tools for integrating gen- get audience includes development agencies (multilateral der in the planning, design, implementation, and and bilateral); civil society and nongovernmental organi- evaluation of projects and investments in climate-smart zations; research, advisory services, and academic organi- agriculture (CSA). The module emphasizes the impor- zations; the private sector; and professional associations tance and ultimate goal of integrating gender in CSA prac- and networks related to CSA and gender issues. The mod- tices, which is to reduce gender inequalities and ensure that ule also aims to help governments better integrate gender men and women can equally benefit from any intervention into their CSA strategies and policies. It adds a new dimen- in the agricultural sector to reduce risks linked to climate sion to the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook (World Bank, change. Climate change has an impact on food and nutri- FAO, and IFAD 2008) and builds on other online learning tion security and agriculture, and the agriculture sector is and resources available by highlighting recent research evi- one of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases. It is crucial dence and experiences with CSA that can inform the deci- to recognize that climate change affects men and women sions of a wide range of stakeholders about opportunities differently. The initial assumption is that social differences, for future gender-responsive agricultural investments and particularly gender inequality, must be taken into account to interventions. strengthen the effectiveness and sustainability of CSA inter- This module contains five Thematic Notes (TNs) that ventions. Women are key players in the agricultural sector, provide a concise and technically sound guide to gender yet compared to men, they own fewer assets and have access integration in the selected themes. These notes summarize to less land, fewer inputs, and fewer financial and extension what has been done and highlight the success and lessons services. learned from projects and programs. The three Innovative The content is drawn from tested good practice and Activity Profiles (IAPs) describe the design and innovative innovative approaches, with an emphasis on lessons features of recent projects and activities, which could be learned, benefits and impacts, implementation issues, and considered for scaling up. The profiles are aimed at inspiring replicability. These insights and lessons related to gender in technical experts about possibilities that they can explore CSA will assist practitioners to improve project planning, and adopt in project design. 1 module 18 Overview T his overview describes the CSA approach, dis- Conference on Food Security, Agriculture, and Climate cusses why gender is essential in the context of Change. A growing number of international actors have CSA, and synthesizes key issues relating to invest- endorsed CSA as a means of building widespread climate ment in gender-responsive CSA, including major policy resilience while contributing to food and nutrition secu- implications and institutional linkages. It is important to rity, development goals, and GHG mitigation. Given this emphasize that “gender,”1 as discussed in this module, is a ambitious set of objectives, an important part of the CSA relational concept and not an alternative term for “women.” approach is to identify potential trade-offs and prioritize It is also vital to note that gender equality and gender equity actions (Neufeldt et al. 2013; McCarthy, Lipper, and Branca are different concepts. Gender equality is equal participa- 2011). tion of women and men in decision making, equal ability Food and nutrition security are pressing global con- to exercise their human rights, equal access to and control cerns, especially since the widespread surge in food prices of resources and the benefits of development, and equal in 2008 and 2010 (Beddington et al. 2012). An important opportunities in employment and in all other aspects of rationale for investing in CSA is that agricultural growth their livelihoods (FAO 2013). Gender equity is fairness of is the most effective way to reduce poverty and increase treatment for women and men, according to their respec- food and nutrition security in low-income economies that tive needs (IFAD 2015). Equity and equality both need to be depend heavily on agriculture—precisely those econo- considered in designing CSA interventions. mies where the majority of the world’s poor and food- insecure people live (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD 2008). An important driver of agricultural growth is higher The CSA Approach returns to farm production; to increase those returns, pro- CSA is an approach to developing the technical, policy, and ducers in large numbers must adopt agricultural practices investment conditions—the enabling environment—to that increase productivity and use resources such as land support actions aimed at achieving sustainable agricul- and water more efficiently, effectively, and in an environ- tural development for food and nutrition security under mentally sustainable manner. Strategies designed under a changing climate. CSA aims to sustainably improve agri- a CSA approach take into account specific contexts and cultural productivity and enhance food security, increase capacities, as well as prevailing economic, environmen- farmers’ resilience and adaptation to climate change, and tal, and social situations, including gender relations (FAO reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 2013). See box 18.1 for specific examples of CSA practices, where possible (FAO 2013).2 FAO launched the term CSA and Thematic Note 1 for information on innovative tech- in the background document prepared for the 2010 Hague nologies for gender-responsive CSA. CSA approaches entail greater investment in manag- ing climate risks, which are occurring more rapidly and with greater intensity than in the past (Nelson et al. 2010; 1  “Gender” refers to the social attributes and opportunities asso- ciated with being male and female and the relationships between IPCC 2014), by understanding and planning for adap- women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between tive changes that may be needed in farming or landscape women and those between men (see http://www.un.org/women- management practices and reducing or removing GHG watch/osagi/conceptsandefinitions.htm). emissions where possible. CSA explicitly considers the 2  http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture/en/. development or adoption of technologies and practices 2 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.1  Examples of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices These examples of climate-smart agricultural practices ■■ Cover cropping ensures that fields are covered by veg- come from case studies in East Africa, West Africa, and etation that protects soil from eroding between crop South Asia. Note that the practices are context specific— production cycles. Some cover crops also enhance soil in other words, they will be applied differently in dif- fertility or suppress pests. ferent environments. A practice may be climate smart ■■ Conservation agriculture involves maintaining a in one context but not in another, depending on how, permanent organic soil cover from cover crops, inter- where, and why it is used. Practices also have different crops, or residues/mulch, minimizing soil disturbance social dimensions depending on the area and culture in through tillage, and diversifying crop rotations (for which they are implemented. example, with legumes). Conservation agriculture is discussed in detail in Thematic Note 1. Improved land and water management practices ■■ Efficient use of fertilizer means that producers opti- mize the amounts and types of fertilizer (synthetic and ■■ Agroforestry, in which trees are planted together with organic) they use. Examples of efficient fertilizer prac- crops on the farm, generally makes use of trees that pro- tices include using a mix of fertilizer components that duce or are primarily used for fruit, fodder, or fuelwood. reflects actual soil and crop needs; deep placement of Aside from these benefits, the trees can reduce runoff fertilizer; microdosing; and changing from one fertilizer or erosion, enhance soil fertility, and provide shade— application at the beginning of the crop cycle to three functions that are important for adapting to climate (smaller) fertilizer applications throughout the crop change—in addition to sequestering carbon, which has cycle. benefits for mitigating the effects of climate change. ■■ Improved, high-yielding varieties are grain, legume, ■■ Terraces and bunds are physical structures placed fruit, and vegetable varieties that have been bred to along contours to slow the runoff of water and enhance improve and increase yields and that are purchased its absorption. They can be an important measure for and used in conjunction with other CSA practices. adapting to water scarcity arising from climate change. ■■ Stress-tolerant varieties are bred specifically to be ■■ Water harvesting structures and systems are another adapted to climate challenges in a particular region, important adaptation measure with food and nutri- such as droughts, floods and submergence, saline or tion security impacts—collect water from a surface acidic soils, and pests. area for irrigation or for improved filtration. These ■■ No-till or minimum tillage practices involve opening systems can be small or large, ranging from individ- the soil only where the seeds are placed, with as little ual farms and plots to a much more considerable area. soil disturbance as possible; it is a component of con- Structures can include water ditches and water pans, servation agriculture. which must be managed well to control mosquitos ■■ Alternate wetting and drying for rice management and malaria. involves improved water management and reduces ■■ Improved agricultural water management includes GHG emissions. small-scale irrigation and improved management of water from ground and surface sources. Improved livestock management practices ■■ Planting pits are pits of different sizes used for plant- ing and to help conserve water. ■■ Improved feed management entails storing animal ■■ Crop residue mulching involves leaving crop material feeds (stover, grass, grain) and making better use of on the field after the harvest to improve soil texture, feed (by combining types of feed), growing grass vari- prevent erosion, and encourage water filtration. eties specifically suited to the agro-ecological zone, and many other practices, such as fodder conservation and animal fattening. Improved soil fertility and crop management practices ■■ Livestock manure management is the collection and ■■ Composting involves removing crop residues to allow storage of livestock manure for future application to them to decompose and then adding them back to the producers’ fields. soil to improve soil fertility and texture and allow for ■■ Destocking is a planned effort to reduce the num- improved water filtration. ber of livestock and manage the herd more efficiently MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 3 Box 18.1  Examples of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices (Continued) (by selling animals if drought is projected, for example), Other practices as opposed to sudden distress sales provoked by hard- ■■ Improved postharvest practices, such as improved ship. It improves resilience and reduces GHG emissions. storage and processing methods, reduce food losses ■■ Switching to livestock species or breeds that are more and women’s workloads and improve food safety. adapted to water scarcity and resistant to disease ■■ Improved cooking stoves can influence agricultural can include buying or breeding such animals or even practices because they require less wood, which can changing the type or species of animal produced. For reduce women’s workload and the time needed to pre- example, Zebu cattle and small ruminants are more pare food. tolerant of water scarcity. ■■ Fisheries and aquaculture involve the breeding, rear- ■■ Pasture management, which includes rotational grazing ing, and harvesting of plants and animals in all types and setting paddocks aside in case of drought, improves of aquatic environments. risk management and reduces GHG emissions. Source: Bernier et al. 2015; FAO 2013. Box 18.2  Gender-Equitable, Decent Work in the Rural Green Economy and Climate-Smart Agriculture Green jobs and the promotion of a green economya are As this module emphasizes, climate change has multi- crucial to achieve economic and social development in ple implications for rural women, so a greener economy an environmentally sustainable manner. When aligned will not necessarily translate into equal access to produc- with decent work principles,b particularly gender equal- tive jobs and decent work for women. Women’s ability to ity, they lay a strong foundation for a well-balanced engage in green jobs may be limited by their comparatively approach to sustainable agriculture and rural develop- more restricted access to training, skills development, ment.c Sustainable agriculture has the potential to be a and modern technologies. Young rural women may be net creator of jobs that provide higher returns to labor additionally disadvantaged by their age and lower socio- inputs than conventional agriculture. Rural women are economic status. For this reason, it is crucial to integrate significantly involved in crucial green economy sectors gender-related differences and specificities into interven- such as agricultured and energy, and clearly they can tions aimed at promoting green economic development potentially benefit by turning their reliance on natural and climate-smart approaches in agriculture. Creating resources into opportunities for green and decent jobs. synergies between targeted and innovative rural employ- For instance, rural women can participate in a wide ment programs, gender-sensitive responses to climate array of newly emerging employment opportunities, change, and green growth strategies has the potential to lift from running small, resource-based businesses and the rural women out of poverty and contribute to the devel- environmental maintenance of nurseries and forests to opment of sustainable, climate-smart rural landscapes. engaging in water and land management, rural ecotour- This effort will involve integrating decent work principles ism, or bio-fuel production based on small-scale, low-in- (sensitive to gender equality and age) into the broader put agriculture. agricultural and rural development policy agenda. Source: Monika Percic and Corina Lefter (FAO) a The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP 2011) defines a green economy as one that results in improved human well- being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. b Defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO) on its website, “Decent Work Agenda: Promoting Decent Work for All” (http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/decent-work-agenda/lang--en/index.htm). c Promotion of “sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all’’ is embedded into the proposal for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) under SDG 8. d In this module, agriculture includes also livestock, forestry, fisheries, and management of natural resources. 4 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture that can ameliorate food and nutrition insecurity and in agriculture, based on better data and evidence (Quisumb- poverty. ing et al. 2014), and for projects and programs to shift to At the plot, farm, and landscape levels, a CSA plan may gender-transformative approaches (Meinzen-Dick and include many well-known techniques of sustainable land Quisumbing 2013). By the same token, CSA strategies are management, such as mulching, intercropping, agroforestry, unlikely to be effective, let alone equitable or transformative, and pasture management. CSA plans also include considera- without active attention to gender (Bernier et al. 2015). tion of innovative practices, programs, and policies—exam- Gender-responsive policy and practice recognize and ples include improved seasonal weather forecasting and address the specific needs and realities of women and men crop or livestock insurance based on weather-related risks— based on the social construction of gender roles. Gender- not just at the farm level but at the subnational, national, transformative interventions seek to transform gender roles and regional levels. Thinking about the landscape level and and promote more gender-equitable relationships between not just about CSA practices at the farm or community level men and women. They challenge the underlying causes of can be critical when addressing adaptation and mitigation gender inequality that is rooted in broad political, economic, challenges that require greater diversification in land use and sociocultural structures. Because gender-transformative across the landscape and the management of multiple land approaches seek to change rigid gender roles and relations, uses at the landscape scale (see Thematic Note 2, “Gender- such approaches often go beyond the individual level to Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Approaches”). CSA focus on interpersonal, social, structural, and institutional also has potential to be a net creator of green jobs that pro- practices to address gender inequalities (Morgan 2014). vide higher returns to labor than conventional agriculture Gender as it pertains to many sectors—health, educa- (box 18.2). tion, agriculture—and many domains within agriculture (from crop and livestock production to natural resource management and agro-processing) is also pertinent to CSA, Integrating Gender into CSA Initiatives but only recently have gender and CSA been researched To succeed, the climate-smart agricultural practices together to provide more empirical guidance for decid- described in box 18.2 depend on institutional and behav- ing how they should be considered together in designing ioral change, which is not possible without social analysis projects, programs, and policies.5 These studies suggest (including gender analysis) influencing policies, projects, that more female as well as male farmers adopt climate- and other interventions aimed at achieving sustainable CSA. smart technologies and practices in agriculture when Social inequality and social inclusion, particularly in refer- women’s awareness, knowledge, and access to information ence to gender, have been recognized as a foundational issue about such practices increases—with the ultimate effect in development for at least 40 years,3 and a growing body of strengthening the resilience of households, communi- of evidence demonstrates that more equal gender relations ties, and food systems exposed to climate-related shocks within households and communities lead to better agricul- and climate change. Even more fundamentally, these stud- tural and development outcomes, including increases in ies suggest that a host of other factors can influence female farm productivity and improvements in family nutrition producers’ adoption of climate-smart approaches, includ- (Farnworth, Kristjanson, and Rijke 2013; Farnworth and ing legal or sociocultural constraints on women’s accumu- Colverson 2015). A number of documents reflect the con- lation and control of assets and resources, constraints on sensus that gender-based constraints must be addressed to women’s mobility, as well as the likely effects of climate- increase agricultural productivity, improve food and nutri- smart practices on women’s time and labor commitments tion security, reduce poverty, and build the resilience of or share of the benefits. rural populations.4 Recent work calls for development prac- Beuchelt and Badstue (2013) present a helpful frame- titioners to understand and systematically engage with the work for thinking about opportunities and trade-offs in complexities and variability of gendered roles and resources interventions, policies, and actions aimed at enhancing gen- der and social equity in CSA (figure 18.1). The inner part of the circle shows key considerations that include livelihood 3  For example, Boserup’s landmark book on women and economic development was published in 1970. 4  Recent examples include World Bank (2009), Meinzen-Dick et al. 5  See, for example, Beuchelt and Badstue (2013) and Bernier et al. (2010), and FAO (2011). (2015). MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 5 Figure 18.1 Conceptual Framework for Enhancing planting date or changes in crop varieties), yet practices Gender and Social Equity in Nutrition- leading to more transformative change (such as diversified and Climate-Smart Agriculture livelihoods and an increase in assets) are needed if agri- culture is to withstand the effects of climate change while •G en bringing about improved productivity and food and nutri- • If de r- tion security, increased economic growth, shared prosper- gn ne ea sures ed resp y m ed o ity, and the ultimate goal of growth with social equality nati of tr alys si s or , all n at is r an de s/c de- is od d nutritio comes om off ns Institutions ia siv es w Im pe (boxes 18.3 and 18.4 present examples). Producers will d e • An Gend an nc ple mal and informal or th ac a (for ) require enhanced targeted incentives, improved agricul- ge me ing e nd i ve ntat n (Fo alth, poverty reductio ity, tural services, more efficient input and output markets, er-t s (hum Pla he natural resource n, aly r tors ion • rans secu cation of alter Live and policy changes. Policy changes are particularly criti- physical, social) an, natural, financial sustainability) mitiga system out Nutrition- formativ n lihood as and climate- cal for effective, sustainable, and inclusive CSA. For exam- smart ting trade-offs ple, securing women’s right to own land (and thus protect e approaches agriculture entifi their investments in CSA) may require efforts to address n s F od a e ts d customary and civil law regarding property rights; in areas I o • , F (fa ood sys s it i e g, where the definition of a household excludes women from rm t e m a c tiv in in g es s m a s y s t e m , p r o c n) participation in farmer groups, women’s inclusion in CSA •C om bi r k e ti n g , v a u e c h a i nin Mo ) initiatives will be restricted. ed • J g qu nit o r o n gat • P in g a n t i oin ant t le itati art d e v alu a gre ag arn ve & icipatory analysis x -dis ps ing q u a li s e and t a ti v e m e t h o d s ( c k l o o estab ba lishment of feed Box 18.3 Women’s Adoption of Transformational Source: Beuchelt and Badstue 2013. Changes in Agricultural Practices: Evidence from Bangladesh, Kenya, Senegal, and Uganda assets, institutions, and broader food system activities (such as processing) and outcomes (such as food and nutrition security). The outer part of the circle shows the main pro- Transformational CSA practices include those that gram cycle steps of planning and design, implementation, contribute to diversified livelihoods, aim to buffer and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Opportunities exist the household against climate change, increase assets, to integrate gender into CSA initiatives at each phase of the take a relatively long time for benefits to accrue, and project/program cycle seen in figure 18.1. Thematic Note 3, require substantial investments of time, labor, or cash. “Monitoring and Evaluation through the Project Cycle,” An intrahousehold study in four countries in East and West Africa and South Asia reports that improvements describes these opportunities in detail. in women’s access to information and credit enhance Sex-disaggregated data on CSA in countries as diverse the likelihood that they will adopt new, transforma- as Kenya, Senegal, Uganda, and Bangladesh show that tional CSA practices. Local agricultural groups are key both men and women are indeed taking up new agricul- sources of information on CSA, and for women, in tural practices that are likely to enhance their resilience6 to particular, they are also important for sharing labor. the effects of climate change. These practices have tended The study also finds that although male farmers sup- to feature incremental changes (such as modifications in ported by extension officers are more likely to make transformative changes, female farmers who receive extension advice are not. The risks and trade-offs 6  “Adaptive capacity” is the ability to adapt. “Resilience” is the ability specific to women as they decide whether to invest to absorb and recover from change, stresses, and shocks (exam- in new practices imply that without more targeted ples include extreme events such as droughts or floods). Hills et support and services that address women’s needs, the al. (2015) operationalize the concept of resilience by developing a challenge of achieving the multiple goals of CSA will monitoring instrument for project managers. This instrument can remain significant. be used for program planning and management of projects aimed at enhancing the resilience of communities, better managing eco- Source: Author, based on findings reported in Bernier et al. system services, and creating positive and sustainable development 2015. impacts. 6 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.4 Increasing Rural Women’s Income through Climate-Smart Agriculture in Western Kenya Climate change in northwestern Kenya—a major source which enabled them to make further investments in their of food crops and livestock products for the country as agricultural enterprises. a whole—may provoke major changes in the produc- The women report that now they can pay their chil- tivity of key agricultural enterprises, with far-reaching dren’s school fees without difficulty. Some use the pro- implications for national food and nutrition security ceeds from milk sales to make monthly contributions and farmers’ livelihoods. A pilot project under FAO’s to the National Health Insurance Fund for their family Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) members. They have improved household nutrition by program, initiated in Kenya in September 2011, focused applying compost and manure to home gardens and on small-scale female and male dairy farmers, with the growing passionfruit. The members of this group were aim of integrating CSA into the farming system and among the 90 percent of the female-headed households improving farm and milk productivity, income, and in the project area who perceived that the adoption of livelihoods. climate-smart agriculture practices had increased their In the Kamotony area, women concerned about pro- incomes and household food and nutrition security. viding for their children in hard economic times formed They also suggest that the adoption of CSA practices has a group but could not determine what they could do to generally reduced their stress levels and enhanced cohe- improve their prospects. Through the pilot project, they sion in their homes. received training in CSA practices and decided to estab- The success has made it easier for the women groups’ lish a tree nursery. Sales of indigenous tree seedlings, to adopt some practices such as agroforestry, which ordi- tea cuttings for planting material, ornamental trees, and narily would be difficult for cultural and gender reasons. garden flowers gave them a financial stepping-stone The trees they planted provide herbs and fuelwood; time for investing in dairy production. They increased their that is no longer spent collecting wood is used produc- farms’ milk productivity after applying the knowledge tively in other activities. Looking forward, this women’s gained through training in improved fodder produc- group will use income from milk sales not only to build tion, feed storage, and dairy cattle management. The new social capital as a dairy management group but also to practices allowed them to reduce risks and access credit, increase their financial capital through regular savings. Source: Adapted from Mutoko, Rioux, and Kirui 2015. Lessons from development partners suggest that par- and marketing—and diversify their income-earning oppor- ticipatory, inclusive approaches aimed at building adap- tunities (Njuki et al. 2011). In other words, they promote tive capacity, such as farmer-to-farmer extension or transformational change in agriculture and acknowledge farmer-led innovation, are scalable, but individual inno- women’s role in that process. vations—including some that are particularly attractive to women—are difficult to scale out, because they are suited to Key Issues and Emerging Trends highly specific environments and contexts.7 Another lesson Relating to Gender in CSA from climate change adaptation projects is that it is valu- able to recognize that women make an active and impor- The sections that follow highlight issues and emerging tant contribution to climate adaptation based on their local trends with significant implications for gender in CSA. Spe- knowledge and capacity, and that it is limiting and sim- cific aspects of many of these issues are taken up in the The- plistic to view them as passive victims of climate change matic Notes and Innovative Activity Profiles. (Otzelberger 2011). Successful adaptation projects increase women’s opportunities to add value to their agricultural Gender and adoption of CSA practices activities—for example, through agricultural processing A recent study by World Bank and ONE (Levelling the Field: Improving Opportunities for Women Farmers in Africa, World  For example, see Waters-Bayer et al. (2015). 7 Bank and ONE 2014) reports that in six African countries, MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 7 productivity per hectare is significantly lower on women’s the relative importance of various requirements for women farms than on men’s farms, ranging from 13 ­ percent lower to adopt the practice. This type of assessment to date has in Uganda to 25 percent lower in Malawi. A separate study been subjective and based on expert opinion, but more and in Niger finds that on average plots managed by women more sex-disaggregated evidence is being gathered on these produce 19 percent less per hectare than plots managed by requirements and impacts, and it will provide a broader evi- men, and the gender gap tends to be widest among Niger’s dence base in the future. most productive farmers (Backiny-Yitna and McGee 2015). More research is also needed—and some is underway9— Reinforcing earlier findings on the gender gap in agriculture to make the type of information provided in table 18.1 con- (FAO 2011), the researchers attribute the gender produc- text specific, given that many very localized social, cultural, tivity gap to the challenges women experience in access- and biophysical factors will influence this evaluation. For ing, using, and supervising male farm labor; to the fact that example, women’s ability to control the income from fruit women use less fertilizer, of lower quality, than men use; and trees may be high in some communities but low in others to the fact that land ownership is lower among women than due to social stigmas, and their control of that income can men. As Thematic Note 3 on M&E describes, these reasons also change from high to low if the income from that activ- for the gender productivity gap are similar to the typical ity increases and the men take it over. Options such as con- constraints on women’s (and often men’s) uptake of CSA servation agriculture have high potential to increase crop practices. They include a lack of the following: yields under certain conditions, but not in others with cer- tain water or soil constraints. Conservation agriculture can also increase women’s labor burden (Beuchelt and Badstue ■■ Land ownership, or long-term user rights 2014). Investment in research to develop tested (by women ■■ Access to agricultural credit and men) “CSA options by context” will help to fill the ■■ Access to productive farm inputs (including fertilizers, real—and wide—knowledge gap encountered by local and pesticides, and farming tools) national policy makers seeking to develop adaptation and ■■ Access to timely labor mitigation plans. Project managers could use table 18.1 as ■■ Support from extension and other rural advisory a guide to the kinds of questions they might ask about the services effects of improved CSA technologies and practices pro- ■■ Access to markets and market information posed in target communities.10 ■■ Access to productive land ■■ Access to weather and climate information Gender-differentiated perceptions and impacts of Box 18.4 describes a climate change project led by FAO climate risks, adaptive capacities, and approaches that targeted women and CSA. The project addressed ­several Everyone operating in the agricultural sector faces many of these constraints by building the capacity of women’s types of risk that are often interrelated, including those groups to use CSA. posed by markets and prices, policies, institutions, and pro- Determining just how men’s and women’s constraints duction in addition to weather and climate risk. Evidence may differ by climate-smart option is a first step in under- indicates that women farmers are more exposed to climate standing the range of issues that must be considered in risks compared to men for many of the same reasons that designing projects and programs to make agricultural sys- farm productivity is lower for females than males—namely, tems more resilient (table 18.1). Based on experience in women have fewer endowments and entitlements, they South Asia and Africa in the CGIAR’s Climate Change, Agri- have less access to information and services, and they are culture, and Food Security (CCAFS) program and expert opinion,8 table 18.1 indicates the relative contribution (high, medium, low) of a given practice to CSA goals—adapta- 9  For example, in the CGIAR (http://humidtropics.cgiar.org/), FAO tion, mitigation, and food and nutrition security—as well (http://www.fao.org/climatechange/micca), the ODI project on as its gender impact (here measured as the degree to which Gender Equality and Climate Compatible Development (http:// women are likely to control income from the practice) and cdkn.org/project/gender-equality-climate-compatible-develop- ment/), and other programs. 10  Beuchelt and Badstue (2014:715) also provide guidance on key 8  See https://ccafs.cgiar.org. The CGIAR is the Consultative Group questions for exploring the potential effects on women and men of on International Agricultural Research. conservation agriculture practices. 8 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 18.1  Potential Gender Considerations of Various CSA Practices Contribution to CSA Goals Relating to Gender Impact Requirements for Adoption of Practice Potential Relative Potential Household Amount of for Women Female Female Food Women’s Time until to Benefit Female Access Female Access to Climate Mitigation Security and Control of Benefits from and Youth to and Access to Cash and Change (Reducing Nutritional Income From Are Increased Labor Control Water for Ability to CSA Options/Practices Adaptation GHGs) Impacts Practice Realized Productivity Availability of Land Agriculture Spend it Stress-tolerant varieties High Low High Low Low Medium Medium High Low High High-yielding varieties Low Low High Low Low High Medium High High High Conservation agriculture High Medium High Low High High Low–Medium High Low Low Improved home gardens High Medium High High Low High High High High High On-farm tree planting High High Low–Medium Low High Medium High initially; High High Medium Low later Composting Medium Medium Medium Medium Low Medium High Medium Low Low Small-scale irrigation High Low High Low–Medium Low High Medium High High Medium Fodder shrubs High Medium–High High High Medium Medium High High Medium Low–Medium Herbaceous legumes High Medium High High Medium High High High Medium Low–Medium Improved grasses High Medium High High Low High High High Medium Low (for example, Napier) Livestock genetic High Medium Medium–High Low–High High High Low–High Low High Medium improvement Restoration of degraded High High Medium Low High High Low–High High Low Low rangeland Source: Author, based on a range of expert opinions. Note: Beuchelt and Badstue (2014: 715) also provide useful guidance on key questions for exploring similar kinds of potential effects on women and men of conservation agriculture practices. MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 9 less mobile.11 Some climate-related risks can impede the (table 18.2). Thematic Notes 3 and 4 describe additional adoption of a new practice that reduces those very risks; approaches. for example, an increased incidence of drought may dis- courage producers from planting trees. In other instances, Institutions, policies, and finance options improved practices can in fact mitigate climate risks (the It is clear that policies, institutional arrangements, and impacts of increased variability in rainfall can be reduced investments that create an environment conducive to gen- by planting drought-tolerant crop varieties). Access to mar- der-responsive CSA will be needed as countries continue kets may reduce certain climate-related risks for women (by to develop plans for climate change adaptation and mitiga- reducing the risk of on-farm storage losses), but it can also tion as well as strategies for promoting gender equality in increase them (by increasing their exposure to market price agriculture (see Thematic Note 5, “The Role of Institutions volatility). for Gender-Responsive CSA”). As an initial step, the CCAFS Perceptions and types of climate-related risks faced by program and FAO have been working with climate nego- male and female farmers can also differ. A review of agricul- tiators (men and women) from many countries to build tural innovation and female farmers in Africa (Doss 2001) their CSA capacity and support their active participation in concludes that women lack incentives to adopt soil manage- global climate meetings. ment measures on their plots because of the risk of losing Because a wide array of ministries and organizations oper- access to the land and their investments. As a consequence, ate at the nexus of gender and CSA, forward-planning pro- they are more exposed to climate risk. Investments are cesses that link research to policy and practice are critical. For clearly needed in projects and interventions that reduce the example, FAO’s Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture risks (such as losing access to land) that present formidable (MICCA) program, along with the CCAFS program, World barriers to women wanting to adopt new technologies and Agroforestry Centre, and Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, practices and actively participate in markets. Livestock, and Fisheries, has engaged national stakeholders Approaches based on information and communication from research, practice, and policy and interactively shared technology (ICT), including radio, TV, cellphones, and and analyzed scientific evidence and field experience from social media, promise to enhance women’s access to CSA over 40 projects related to CSA, some with a gender focus, in and weather and climate information, reduce the perceived integrated farming systems in Kenya (Chesterman and Neely risks, and strengthen women’s participation in commodity 2015). Key policy recommendations reflect the need to con- value chains (see Innovative Activity Profile 1, “Harnessing sider how CSA fits into development priorities; fill knowledge Information and Communication Technology for Gender- gaps; connect interdisciplinary research, practice, and policy; Responsive CSA”). A World Bank study on whether and how integrate farm and landscape systems; and ensure the inclu- ICT could support agro-enterprises operated and managed sion of women and young people (Chesterman and Neely by women in Kenya and Zambia concludes that women and 2015). Support for, and investment in, such inclusive dia- men differ in their access to, use of, and need for ICT tools logues are essential in making gender equality an integral part (World Bank 2015), and Zambia is now developing a pilot of the planning processes. project to introduce ICT solutions targeted at women. Like One knowledge gap that is only beginning to be many studies, the World Bank study finds a high demand addressed concerns the type of financing and invest- for extension information among women farmers; that level ment opportunities capable of promoting gender and of demand presents an opportunity to train agricultural CSA (for an example, see Innovative Activity Profile 2, extension officers to use ICTs to reach an increased number “Using Impact Investment to Promote Gender Equality of farmers more cost effectively. The study provides a use- and Climate-Smart Agriculture”). The Climate Invest- ful step-by-step guide to introducing ICT-based solutions ment Funds and Global Environmental Facility (GEF), with a gender focus in agricultural projects (World Bank which finances adaptation and mitigation and also aims 2015:xvi). to mainstream gender, offers opportunities to support Within the wide range of frameworks, tools, and gender-responsive CSA initiatives. New climate financ- approaches for collecting and analyzing sex-disaggregated ing instruments are also under development; the Green data, some recent options are particularly useful for CSA Climate Fund (GCF) could reach $100 billion per year from 2020 if commitments are maintained. The GCF has  See, for example, Ahmad et al. (2014) and Jost et al. (2015). 11 mandated that implementing institutions fully integrate 10 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 18.2 Frameworks, Tools, and Approaches for Collecting Sex-Disaggregated Data and Gender Analysis in Relation to Climate-Smart Agriculture Tool/Method/Approach Description and Sources of Additional Information Gender transformative agricultural Development of impact pathways and theories of change to achieve gender outcome. (See CGIAR 2012; research in development approach http://aas.cgiar.org/publications/using-theory-change-achieve-impact-aas#.VQCHTmacwiE). Gender and climate change research Two training guides with resources and participatory action research tools for collecting, analyzing, in agriculture and food security, and and sharing gender-responsive information about agricultural communities, households, and individuals gender and inclusion toolboxes: facing climate change. Modules include coproduction of knowledge, climate-resilient agriculture, climate (i) FAO and CCAFS (CGIAR), and information services, and climate change mitigation. Tools include village resource map and goal tree, (ii) CCAFS (CGIAR), World perceptions of women’s empowerment, climate-information ranking, information flow map, changing Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), and farming practices, cobenefit analysis, and many others. (See http://www.fao.org/climatechange/micca/75949/ CARE International en/ and http://ccafs.cgiar.org/research-highlight/new-toolbox-gender-and-inclusion-climate-change- projects#.VRGpQ2acwiG). Gender asset gap (International Food “Reducing the Gender Asset Gap through Agricultural Development” explains the importance of tangible Policy Research Institute [IFPRI]) assets (land, labor, and animals) and intangible assets (education, financial capital, and social networks) for development and outlines the wide gap between men and women in the use, control, and ownership of such assets. Through practical lessons and recommendations, the guide shows how to collect data and design and monitor projects to address the gender asset gap. It specifies how each step of a project, from design to evaluation, can attend to gender differences, and it identifies qualitative and quantitative tools for collecting and analyzing sex-disaggregated data on assets. (See http://gaap.ifpri.info/; http://www.ifpri.org/ publication/reducing-gender-asset-gap-through-agricultural-development; http://genderassetgap.org/sites/ default/files/ResearchBrief2.pdf.) Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture The index is based on five factors that are considered indicative of women’s overall empowerment in the Index (WEAI) (IFPRI, USAID) agricultural sector: decisions over agricultural production; power over productive resources such as land and livestock; decisions over income; leadership in the community; and time use. Women are considered empowered if they score adequately in at least four of the five components. Data on individual men and women in the same household are used to calculate a women’s empowerment index and a gender parity index. (See IFPRI 2012; http://www.ifpri.org/book-9075/ourwork/program/weai-resource-center.) Mapping gendered farm management Provides a method for classifying gendered farm management systems with pilots of four different systems (IFPRI) approaches to collecting and georeferencing information on the dominant pattern in each area. (See Meinzen-Dick et al. 2012; www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01153.pdf.) Integrating gender in agricultural value Provides a five-phase approach for analyzing and integrating gender in value-chain analysis and chains (USAID) development: mapping gender roles and relations along the value chain; moving from gender inequalities to gender-based constraints; assessing the consequences of gender-based constraints; taking action to remove gender-based constraints; and measuring the success of actions. (See Rubin, Manfre, and Nichols Barrett 2009; https://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/resource/files/gender_agriculture_value_chain_guide.pdf) Guiding questions to explore potential Set of questions in the following categories: food security and nutrition diversity, health, access to effects of conservation agriculture information and technology, resources and labor, income, and marketing and value chains. (See Beuchelt and on women and men in smallholder Badstue 2013; http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12571-013-0290-8.) agricultural systems gender in their projects. It has a gender policy and action and merits more attention. Box 18.5 describes some key plan and is developing new gender-responsive indica- regional and global policy initiatives to support CSA. tors.12 Climate finance can also be provided by govern- ments through instruments such as National Climate Key Messages Change Funds, National Climate Change and Agricul- tural Investment Plans, National Adaptation Action/ This module highlights the importance of gender considera- Adaptation Plans, and Nationally Appropriate Mitiga- tions in the context of CSA, touching on critical issues and tion Actions. The degree to which these instruments are giving examples of major considerations and good practices gender responsive varies considerably across countries for effective projects and investments in this area. One of the most significant points is that many knowledge gaps remain with regard to CSA and gender. More information is becoming  See https://portals.iucn.org/union/sites/union/files/doc/boell-iucn 12 available on technical aspects of CSA, yet information on the _gcf_indicators_workshop_report_final.pdf. socioeconomic factors surrounding CSA, such as the reasons MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 11 Box 18.5 Regional and Global Policy Initiatives That Support CSA At the global level, the United Nations Framework Conven- and face to face to identify high-priority investment areas tion on Climate Change (UNFCCC) addresses issues related and knowledge gaps. Participants identified gender as an to CSA through a number of frameworks such as REDD+ important cross-cutting topic. (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Deg- In March 2015, the Global Forum for Innovations in radation, conservation and sustainable management of for- Agriculture featured a global CSA summit.a Later in 2015, ests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks) as well as COP21 (21st session of the Conference of the Parties) will the Ad-Hoc Durban Platform, National Adaptation Plans, be held in Paris, France, and aim to achieve a legally bind- and technology transfer (Campbell et al. 2014). At the 20th ing and universal agreement on climate from all nations. session of the Conference to the Parties of the UNFCCC, Even though CSA is starting to be discussed more sub- the Parties adopted the Lima Work Programme on Gen- stantially in these arenas, social and gender issues remain der, a two-year work program that includes, among other largely in the domain of civil society organizations, which tasks, a review of the implementation of all gender-related try to participate more in the global dialogue. mandates by the UNFCCC Secretariat and various activi- At the regional level, the Africa CSA Alliance—formed ties related to gender-responsive climate policy, mitigation, by several governments, nongovernmental organizations, technology, adaptation, and capacity building. and research bodies—aims to scale up the adoption of CSA The Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture practices. Convened by NEPAD/CAADP,b and aligned (GACSA), launched at the UN Climate Summit 2014, is with the African Union’s 2014 Malabo D ­ eclaration,c the a voluntary association of national governments, inter- alliance conducted vulnerability and capacity assess- governmental organizations, development banks, and ments across Africa. Three countries (Ethiopia, Niger, and private, civil society, and research organizations. It aims ­ Zambia) were selected to develop proposals for scaling to build national and international support for efforts out CSA.d It remains to be seen if this alliance can raise to increase food production while enhancing people’s the resources to achieve its goal of empowering 6 million resilience to climate change and lowering agriculture’s smallholder farmers by 2021. So far, gender is not a cen- GHG emissions intensity (FAO 2013). The Knowledge tral issue, although each country will likely take different Action Group of GACSA initiated consultations online approaches in its scaling-out efforts. Source: Authors. a  (http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/gfia-focuses-on-sustainable-and-climate-smart-agriculture/282516/. b  NEPAD is the New Partnership for Africa’s Development; CAADP is the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme. c   The Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods (http://caadp.net/sites/default/files/documents/sustaining-CAADP-momentum/Malabo_Declaration_on_Accelerated_ Agricultural_Growth_and_Transformation_for_Shared_Prosperity_and_Improved_Livelihoods_adopted_June_2014-2.pdf). d  See http://africacsa.org. that farmers fail to adopt CSA practices, remains limited. efficiency and equity-related benefits of gender-responsive Many agricultural project innovations face the same issues, so CSA investments, policies, projects, and programs. the lack of information on socioeconomic constraints is per- The Thematic Notes and Innovative Activity Profiles in haps not unique to CSA technologies. A general lack of sex- this module demonstrate that new technologies must be disaggregated data means that little evidence is available on appropriate to women’s and men’s different resources and the benefits of investing in approaches that seek to transform needs, and women’s innovations need to be recognized and gender roles and promote more ­ gender-equitable relation- supported. This imperative implies an increased investment ships between men and women. New tools and approaches, in strengthening agricultural extension and advisory services, such as the Women’s Agricultural Empowerment Index and as well as climate information services, in order to serve both the Gender and Inclusion Toolbox (table 18.2), have been women and men. In addition, institutions—public and pri- developed in recent years to fill the knowledge gaps, but vate, at all levels—need to address women’s and men’s unique they must be used more widely to generate evidence on the priorities. Policy processes must include women’s voices to 12 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture achieve more gender-responsive agricultural- and climate- Boserup, E. 1970. Woman’s Role in Economic Development. related policies. Central to this outcome are local-level institu- London, UK: George Allen and Unwin. tions—local government, agricultural advisory services, civil Campbell et al. 2014. The Role of Agriculture in the UN society organizations (CSOs), and nongovernmental organi- Climate Talks CCAFS Info Note CGIAR Research Pro- zations (NGOs)—that are working on the ground closely gram on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Secu- with women and men, as they are the ones that will enable the rity (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark. https://ccafs.cgiar scaling up and sustainability of CSA projects. .org/publications/role-agriculture-un-climate-talks# .VcgjY0XZ5ek. 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Washington, DC: Agricultural Network Initiative (SIANI), Stockholm International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Environment Institute, and SIDA. http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2 Farnworth, C. R., M. F. Sundell, A. Nzioki, V. Shivutse, and /id/127424. M. Davis. 2013. “Transforming Gender Relations in Agri- Meinzen-Dick, R., A. Quisumbing, J. Behrman, P. Biermayr- culture in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Discussion Brief. Swedish Jenzano, V. Wilde, M. Noordeloos, C. Ragasa, and N. M. International Agricultural Network Initiative (SIANI), Beintema. 2010. “Engendering Agricultural Research.” Stockholm, Sweden. IFPRI Discussion Paper 973. International Food Policy GACSA (Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture). Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. http://www. 2014. “Framework Document.” GACSA Series Docu- ifpri.org/publication/engendering-agricultural-research. ment. Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/climate-smart- Meinzen-Dick, R., B. van Koppen, J. Behrman, Z. Karelina, agriculture/41760-02b7c16db1b86fcb1e55efe8fa93ffdc5. V. Akamandisa, L. Hope, and B. Wielgosz. 2012. “Putting pdf. Gender on the Map: Methods for Mapping Gendered Hills, T., E. Pramova, H. Neufeldt, P. Ericksen, P., Thornton, Farm Management Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa.” A. Noble, E. Weight, B. Campbell, and M. McCartney. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01153. International Food Policy 2015. “A Monitoring Instrument for Resilience.” CCAFS Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. Working Paper 96. CGIAR Research Program on Cli- Morgan, M. 2014. “Measuring Gender Transforma- mate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). tive Change.” Program Brief AAS-2014-41. CGIAR Copenhagen, Denmark. https://ccafs.cgiar.org. Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems, IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). Penang, Malaysia. http://aas.cgiar.org/publications 2014. “Guidelines for Integrating Climate Change Adap- /measuring-gender-transformative-change. tation into Fisheries and Aquaculture Projects.” Rome, Mutoko, M., J. Rioux, and J. Kirui. 2015. “Adoption of Cli- Italy. http://www.ifad.org/climate/asap/fisheries.pdf. mate-Smart Agricultural Practices: Barriers, Incentives, ———. 2015. “Gender glossary.” http://www.ifad.org/gender Benefits, and Lessons Learned from the MICCA Pilot Site /glossary.htm. in Kenya.” Background Report 9. Food and Agriculture IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2012. Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. “Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI).” http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4396e.pdf. IFPRI, Washington, DC. Ndiaye, O., B. Sodoke Komivi, and Y. Diei-Ouadi. 2014. Jost, C., F. Kyazze, J. Naab, S. Neelormi, J. Kinyangi, R. “Guide for Developing and Using the FAO-Thiaroye Pro- Zougmore, P. Aggarwal, G. Bhatta, M. Chaudhury, cessing Technique (FTT-Thiaroye).” Food and Agriculture M. Tapio-Bistrom, S. Nelson, and P. Kristjanson. Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. 2015. “Understanding Gender Dimensions of Agri- Nelson, G. C., M. W. Rosegrant, A. Palazzo, I. Gray, C. Inger- culture and Climate Change in Smallholder Farm- soll, R. Robertson, S. Tokgoz, T. Zhu, T. B. Sulser, C. Ring- ing Communities.” Climate and Development. doi: ler, S. Msangi, and L. You. 2010. “Food Security, Farming, 10.1080/17565529.2015.1050978. and Climate Change to 2050: Challenges to 2050 and Martson, C. P., C. Pareira, J. Ferguson, K. Fischer, H. Olaf, Beyond.” IFPRI Issue Brief 66. International Food Policy W. Dashwood, and W. M. Baird. 2001. “Effect of Com- Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. https:// plex Environmental Mixture from Coal Tar Containing ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/food-security-farming-and- Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) on Tumor Ini- climate-change-2050-challenges-2050-and-beyond# tiation, PAH-DNA Binding, and Metabolic Activation of .Vcgm_kXZ5ek. Carcinogenic PAH in Mouse Epidermis.” Carcinogenesis Neufeldt, H., M. Jahn, B. Campbell, J. R. Beddington, 22(7): 1077. F. DeClerck, A. De Pinto, J. Gulledge, J. Hellin, M. 14 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Herrero, A. Jarvis, D. LeZaks, H. Meinke, T. Rosen- Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), stock, M. Scholes, R. Scholes, S. Vermeulen, E. Wollen- Rome, Italy. berg, and R. Zougmoré. 2013. “Beyond Climate-Smart SFP ACP/OCT (Strengthening Fishery Products Health Agriculture: Toward Safe Operating Spaces for Global Conditions in ACP/OCT Countries). 2010. “Improved Food Systems.” Agriculture and Food Security 2:12. doi: Smoking Technique to Make Exports to the EU Market 10.1186/2048-7010-2-12. Possible.” SFP Info 14: 1. Njuki, J., S. Kaaria, A. Chamunorwa, and W. Chiuri. 2011. Simko, P. 2002. “Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic “Linking Smallholder Farmers to Markets, Gender, and Hydrocarbons in Smoked Meat Products and Smoke Fla- Intra-household Dynamics: Does the Choice of Com- vouring Food Additives.” Journal of Chromatography B. modity Matter?” European Journal of Development 770: 3–18. Research 236: 426–43. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2011 Otzelberger, A. 2011. “Gender-Responsive Strategies on Cli- “Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustain- mate Change: Progress and Ways Forward for Donors.” able Development and Poverty Eradication—A Syn- Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and BRIDGE, thesis for Policy Makers.” Nairobi, Kenya. http://www Brighton, UK. http://docs.bridge.ids.ac.uk/vfile/ .unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger upload/4/document/1107/Gender%20responsive%20 /GER_synthesis_en.pdf. strategies%20on%20climate%20change_progress%20 Waters-Bayer, A., P. Kristjanson, C. Wettasinha, L. van Veld­ and%20ways%20forward%20for%20donors.pdf. hizen, G. Quiroga, K. Swaans, and B. Douthwaite. 2015. Quisumbing, A. R., D. Rubin, C. Manfre, E. Waithanji, M. “Exploring the Impact of Farmer-Led Research Sup- van den Bold, D. Olney, and R. Meinzen-Dick. 2014. ported by Civil Society Organisations.” Agriculture and “Closing the Gender Asset Gap: Learning from Value Food Security 4(4): 1–7. Chain Development in Africa and Asia.” IFPRI Discus- WHO (World Health Organisation). 2011. “Gender Main- sion Paper 01321. International Food Policy Research streaming for Health Managers: A Practical Approach.” Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. http://www.who.int/gender/mainstreaming/Gender_ Rubin, D., C. Manfre, and K. Nichols Barrett. 2009. “Inte- Manual_Glossary.pdf. grating Gender in Agricultural Value Chains (Ingia-VC) World Bank. 2015. “Supporting Women’s Agro-enterprises in Tanzania.” Greater Access to Trade (GATE) Project. in Africa with ICT: A Feasibility Study in Zambia and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Kenya.” Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank. Washington, DC. org/curated/en/2015/02/23989243/supporting-womens- Sérot, T., R. Baron, M. Cardinal, C. Cataneo, C. 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Food and MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 15 TH E M AT I C N O T E 1 The Role of Innovative Technologies for Gender-Responsive CSA T his Thematic Note describes innovative technolo- without limiting options for continuing to produce food in gies that highlight opportunities and issues rel- the future (Garnett et al. 2013). Sustainable intensification evant to the challenge of finding gender-responsive includes, for example, approaches that rely on natural pro- CSA approaches. It defines “innovative technologies” very cesses and ecosystems, decrease external inorganic inputs, broadly to include agricultural inputs (improved seed, fer- minimize waste, and combine traditional and new technol- tilizer), tools or machines (plow, mills, mobile phones to ogies in innovative ways. Such approaches can build climate obtain and exchange market information, and so forth), resilience and adaptive capacity, improve management of or techniques and strategies (practices to enhance soil fer- competing land-use systems at the landscape level, and in tility, retaining crop residues to prevent erosion, improved parallel, reduce poverty, enhance biodiversity, and reduce water management methods) that can be introduced in a GHG emissions. new context through a user-driven process of adoption and Gender differences within and outside of a household adaptation. relate to differing needs and preferences, access to assets and resources, vulnerability to risk and willingness to take on risk, modes of access to information, and sources of Innovation and Climate-Smart information. All of these factors influence whether and Agriculture how specific land management practices, including CSA Historically, innovation in agriculture is often focused on practices, are adopted (Villamor et al. 2014; Pandolfelli et introducing a recommended package of technologies or al. 2008). Research by Prolinnova on farmer-led research best practices, without necessarily considering the different in Africa, Asia, and Latin America indicates that experi- accessibility, relevance, and impacts of these technologies ments with introduced technologies tend to bring more for women and men. More recently, farmer-led innovation benefits to medium-scale and better-off farmers. For has been shown to generate “locally appropriate innova- poorer households, especially those headed by women, tions and adaptations” that introduce benefits in the form of experiments based on endogenous innovation using local improved yields, food and nutrition security, incomes, and resources were found to be more relevant. When female environmental outcomes. Studies of farmer-led research and male farmers’ capacity to experiment and innovate and innovation suggest that for scaling up, the focus—rather was strengthened, they were equally innovative and rec- than being placed on any specific technology or technology ognized by farming peers as well as external actors in this package—should be on understanding and replicating the capacity (Wettasinha 2014). innovation processes in which producers (female and male) The potential for innovative CSA technologies to generate test and adjust current and new technologies and manage- additional benefits related to gender equality is greatest where ment strategies to meet their needs, preferences, and oppor- these technologies contribute to sustainable agricultural tunities (Waters-Bayer et al. 2015). intensification, when they are adopted by women to improve In the context of CSA, much technological innovation their own situations, and at the same time involve less time, is aimed at sustainable agricultural intensification—in labor, and energy, particularly for women, but also for men other words, at increasing food production from exist- and resource-poor households in general. The next sections ing farmland with reduced environmental impacts and look specifically at climate change and women’s work burden. 16 Climate Change, Women’s Work Burden, a wider range of choices to make in their productive and and Labor Constraints reproductive spheres, and directly and indirectly enhance household climate resilience. Although women’s time use patterns vary by region, income As with all new agricultural technologies, innovative status, and livelihood, most women in rural areas work an CSA technologies will have gender-specific impacts and average of 16 hours a day, mainly on unpaid chores and pro- may alter the labor allocation within the household, as ductive activities (Carr and Hartl 2010; ActionAid 2013). well as the distribution of benefits. Some ostensibly labor- Across developing countries in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, saving agricultural technologies (examples include zero men work on average 12 hours a week less than women, and grazing or “cut-and-carry” feed systems for dairy cows) in some countries in West Africa and elsewhere men work as may introduce additional tasks, add to the work on other much as 50 percent less than women.13 The typically over- tasks, and/or shift peak labor demand to other stages in the burdened rural woman has little time to participate in paid agricultural cycle (sometimes because of increased pro- economic activities and education. duction) (Doss 2001). In most cases, women will benefit The impacts of climate change, through increased tem- from labor-saving technologies and practices if they reduce peratures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent women’s time and labor and are accessible and affordable. extreme events, will in many cases require women to travel Where women (particularly poor or landless women) rely longer to collect water and fuelwood, increase the frequency on income from farm labor, the introduction of technolo- of crop failures, and accelerate trends such as male migra- gies that reduce women’s labor burden can actually reduce tion from rural areas to earn cash to mitigate the risk of crop their incomes, as occurred after mechanical threshers were failure. In many parts of the world, from southern Africa to introduced in Bangladesh and row seeders were adopted in Latin America and Central Asia, the male exodus from rural Vietnam (Beuchelt and Badstue 2013). It is vital to distin- areas is reducing the farm labor force. Women’s expanding guish between technologies that reduce women’s paid ver- farm responsibilities require them to assume all agricul- sus unpaid labor and assign priority to technologies that tural tasks in addition to domestic chores, including tasks reduce unpaid labor. traditionally performed by men. Chronic illnesses such as To look more closely at CSA technologies and the trade- HIV/AIDS increase with male migration and further limit offs involved for women and men, the sections that follow the supply of family labor. Recent studies (World Bank and present two examples of innovative and potentially labor- ONE 2014, among others) conclude that the gradual loss saving technologies for CSA. The first is flexi-biogas, and the of adult male labor in the household and women’s expand- second is conservation agriculture. ing responsibilities for managing agricultural activities may partially explain the gender gap in agricultural produc- tion and could potentially limit women’s ability to benefit Flexi-biogas: Reducing fuelwood collection from CSA technologies. For these reasons, when practices Flexi-biogas is a new technology that provides cooking gas, and technologies are developed for CSA, the overall labor lighting, and even electricity for smallholder farmers with requirements and labor impacts on all household members livestock. The basic design consists of a plastic digester bag must be considered. under a greenhouse covering together with simple input and output pipes, and pipes to transport biogas to home or stor- Labor-Saving, Climate-Smart age. Compared to conventional biogas systems, flexi-biogas Technologies: Who Benefits? costs less and is easier to install, use, and maintain—features that appeal particularly to women. The technology’s port- Labor-saving technologies and practices, defined as “tools ability makes it suitable even for landless households (Sova- and equipment which reduce drudgery and/or improve effi- cool, Kryman, and Smith 2014). An advantage for female ciency of performing various farming or household activi- smallholders, who typically own few livestock, is that one or ties,” (Bishop-Sambrook 2003) play several important roles. two cows are sufficient for a flexi-biogas system. They reduce the burden on women through potential time In 2011, the International Fund for Agricultural Devel- and labor savings, provide men and women farmers with opment (IFAD) piloted a flexi-biogas program in Kenya; following positive feedback, it was scaled up in Rwanda  http://www.ifad.org/gender/learning/role/workload/61.htm. 13 and India. Over three years of implementation, the system THEMATIC NOTE 1: The Role of Innovative Technologies for Gender-Responsive CSA 17 showed great economic and social benefits in terms of time and labor savings for women, environmental impact, Box 18.6 Safe Access to Fuel and Energy in Darfur and climate change mitigation. Specifically, this experience showed the following: Traditional cooking practices and the harvesting of fuelwood can have significant global warming effects ■■ By providing an alternative source of fuel, flexi-biogas and reduce resilience to climate change by contrib- saved women 2–3 hours per day previously spent gath- uting to land degradation and health problems. In ering fuelwood. They dedicated that time to income- Sudan, FAO and its partners have addressed the mul- generating activities or simply to leisure, both of which tiple risks and challenges faced by women in access- greatly enhanced their quality of life (IFAD 2014b). ing and using cooking fuel. The project introduced ■■ The ability to use biogas stoves inside the house, instead fuel-efficient mudstoves for vulnerable households, of cooking outside on fires, allowed women to engage and trained women in North and West Darfur States more with family members and increased their status in the local production and use of mudstoves, with within the family. The ease of using biogas compared to several positive impacts. The stoves reduced the open fires made men more willing to take responsibility amount of fuelwood needed for cooking by 35–60 for cooking. percent, and beneficiaries spend less money on fuel. Furthermore, a number of women started to sell ■■ Women, girls, and other household members suffered stoves as an income-generating activity. The project less from the chronic respiratory diseases and eye infec- has had a noticeable impact on safety and health. It tions caused by cooking over wood or charcoal fires. has reduced the incidence of gender-based violence ■■ Environmental benefits included reduced methane by reducing the number of times that women must emissions (owing to improved management of livestock go out to collect fuelwood. Exposure to indoor air manure) and less need of fuelwood (which also reduced pollution also declined, so women and children expe- deforestation and land degradation). rienced fewer respiratory illnesses and other health ■■ Crop productivity was enhanced when the bioslurry complications. produced as a waste product was applied to fields as an At a global level, experiences such as those from organic fertilizer, improving soil health and increasing Darfur are coordinated through the Safe Access to yields by 6–10 percent (Sovacool, Kryman, and Smith Fuel and Energy (SAFE) partnership, which addresses 2014). Biogas stoves were also used to keep the tem- the multisectoral challenges and risks associated with access to energy in protracted crises and complex perature suitable for chicks, decreasing poultry mor- emergencies, including the links between climate tality, reducing women’s labor, and increasing women’s change impacts and the use of traditional stoves and income (Sovacool, Kryman, and Smith 2014). biomass for cooking. A farmer-driven process of incremental improvement Source: FAO 2010b and Practical Action 2014. to the flexi-biogas system (supported by IFAD and Biogas International) developed low-cost enhancements that improved its digestion and reliability. Following reports of tillage and cultivation; and (iii) diversify crop rotations, low gas generation during the rainy season, different sizes especially by including legumes (Kassam et al. 2009). These of system were developed to respond to the local needs of principles can inform a suite of Good Agricultural Practices the entire household throughout the year (Sovacool 2015). adapted to the specific agro-ecology and socioeconomic Another effort to provide women with safe access to fuel and context in which they are implemented (Giller et al. 2009). energy is described in box 18.6. In the long run, they can improve climate resilience by improving soil structure, fertility, and moisture retention; lessening the effects of droughts; and reducing irrigation Reducing Women’s Labor with requirements. Conservation Agriculture The labor-saving benefits of conservation agriculture Conservation agriculture consists of three core principles: are mainly related to minimum tillage (involving mulch- (i) maintain permanent organic soil cover by using cover ing, cover crops, and the use of herbicides for weeding). crops, intercropping, and/or mulch provided by residues Conservation agriculture interventions have implications of the previous crops; (ii) minimize soil disturbance from for investment decisions concerning mechanization and 18 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture herbicide use, crop choice, and residue management. Con- servation agriculture practices may affect household nutri- Box 18.7 Small-Scale Mechanization in Conservation tion in terms of the availability of particular crops, wild Agriculture: Who Benefits? plants, insects, and small animals (Farnworth et al. forth- coming). They also have important implications for labor Cultural norms and gender-biased access to, and con- requirements and allocation both within and outside the trol over, productive resources—such as livestock or household, which can either reduce or increase women’s mechanized farm equipment—affect women’s role workloads (for an example of how mechanization in conser- differently in animal-drawn tillage systems versus vation agriculture affected women’s workload, see box 18.7). mechanized tillage systems. Although women gener- Who benefits from conservation agriculture, and in what ally do not access or control small-scale farm machin- way, is contingent on the gender relations within the specific ery, when farmers can afford it, women may benefit social context, gender roles in decision making over technol- indirectly in terms of labor savings. ogy adoption, form of farming currently practiced (plow or The FACASI Project (Farm Power in Conservation hoe based), access to and control over productive assets, and Agriculture for Sustainable Intensification) promotes women’s roles in the production system. the use of appropriate mechanization in conserva- For instance, in hoe-based systems in southern Africa, tion agriculture systems in sub-Saharan Africaa by introducing two-wheel tractors to overcome labor where women are responsible for land preparation, conser- shortages and the limited availability of draft ani- vation agriculture disturbs the soil on a smaller area because mals at crucial moments in the agricultural calendar. women dig planting basins rather than follow the traditional Two-wheel tractors allow timely land preparation and practice of inverting soil across the entire field. Digging planting. Timely planting leads to better crop estab- planting basins increases women’s labor in the first years of lishment and fewer weeds—which reduces weeding, adopting conservation agriculture, but over time their labor a task traditionally designated to women (Baudron et in land preparation decreases compared to traditional hoe al. 2012; Van Eerdewijk et al. 2014). Two-wheel trac- tillage. In areas farmed with plows, where men are typically tors and other small mechanized equipment can be responsible for preparing land, minimum tillage reduces used for multiple purposes and ease traditional tasks the time men spend on land preparation but can actually undertaken by women, such as pumping and trans- increase women’s labor requirements for weeding, because porting water (Biggs et al. 2011; Diao et al. 2012). In more weeds grow with minimum tillage compared to plow- Bangladesh, local manufacturers produced self-pro- pelled reapers and then connected them to a two- ing. Weeds can also increase in hoe-based minimum tillage wheel tractor to harvest. Small mechanized threshers systems, so in both cases it is important to address concerns and shellers are also available; this equipment affects related to saving women’s labor, including issues with obtain- harvesting and postharvest operations, which are ing herbicides and concerns with herbicides’ negative impact often overlooked when conservation agriculture’s on health (they affect women and men in different ways and benefits are evaluated in terms of labor and time. to different degrees) and the environment (Baudron et al. Again, attention should be paid to how mechaniza- 2012b; Nyanga et al. 2012). On the other hand, if weeding is tion affects women’s income-earning opportunities.b an important source of wage income for women, promoting For example, another conservation agriculture tech- herbicide use as a conservation agriculture practice can have nology, direct rice seeders, eliminated the need to negative consequences by eliminating this income-earning transplant rice (an important source of wage labor opportunity. The definition of “weeds” also requires consid- and income for women) and affected household eration. Many plants destroyed by herbicides may in fact be incomes in areas where they were introduced. important foodstuffs collected by women when they weed,  See http://facasi.act-africa.org/index.php?com=1. a so herbicide use can affect household food and nutrition  Beuchelt and Badstue 2013. b security (Beuchelt and Badstue 2013). Leaving crop residues on fields to create mulch, which is a key practice of conservation agriculture, can also increase livestock feed or to purchase a resource that was previously the labor intensity of weeding (Baudron et al. 2012b). It freely provided in the form of open grazing of crop residues also reduces the availability of crop residues to feed live- left in the field. stock, and if women are responsible for feeding livestock, or Where land is plentiful, reduced tillage may encourage grazing small stock, they may be forced to travel farther for men to enlarge the area they farm, which may generate THEMATIC NOTE 1: The Role of Innovative Technologies for Gender-Responsive CSA 19 more labor for women in harvesting and postharvest opera- resources, women are important agents of change, whose tions. In this case, the peak labor requirement shifts from different adaptation strategies, compared to those used by land preparation to harvesting and from men to women. men, must be considered. A World Bank study in Bolivia In India, diverse conservation agriculture practices had dif- (Ashwill et al. 2011) reveals, for example, that men focus ferent impacts on women’s labor input. Two different rice on large-scale community interventions such as irrigation, intensification systems required 69 percent more or 70 per- whereas women prefer practical improvements such as cent less work by female household members compared to planting new crop varieties or supplementing traditional their current practices, depending on the system adopted revenue with diversified production activities. It is therefore and the roles played by women in rice production in dif- essential to draw on the local knowledge of female and male ferent regions.14 These effects may be positive or negative, smallholders to develop strategies for families and commu- depending on the importance of women’s labor as a source nities to adapt to and cope with changing climates. of income. Another relevant example, also from Bolivia, is the IFAD- Other practices such as the diversification of crop rota- funded Economic Inclusion Program for Families and Rural tions or intercropping can highlight men’s and women’s con- Communities (ACCESSOS). During the design phase, par- trasting crop preferences and threaten women’s control over ticipatory consultations were held in 20 municipalities using crops that are key to household food and nutrition security. the gender-responsive Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Although men typically focus on crops with a higher market Analysis framework (CARE International 2009). This frame- value, prioritizing yield, appearance, and market demand, work emphasizes differential vulnerability within commu- women often prioritize crops that are more nutritious, bet- nities and households to identify who is vulnerable and why, ter tasting, and easier to cook. If these different preferences and it has practical guidelines on how to apply a gender and priorities are not recognized, women may resist efforts lens. Community members explained their difficulties and by extension agents and others to promote crop types or crop potential opportunities when dealing with current climate rotations based on characteristics such as drought resistance variability. For example, because of temperature increases in or nitrogen fixing (Beuchelt and Badstue 2013). the highlands, women farmers tend to explore the possibil- Recent reviews of anecdotal evidence on gender-specific ity of growing fruit trees, because fruit has a higher market impacts of conservation agriculture systems on household value than current crops such as potatoes. labor15 emphasize the highly localized and context-specific The program aims to recover indigenous environmen- nature of those impacts. Few findings are clear and consist- tal knowledge, especially women’s knowledge, so that it can ent enough to apply across countries or regions. A practical be blended with modern techniques and technologies for a response is to conduct in-depth participatory consultations more effective response to climate change. Based on the local prior to encouraging the adoption of conservation agricul- knowledge of the community, a list of potential adaptation ture practices. These consultations must involve male and practices can be identified, such as the restoration and adap- female stakeholders for an accurate assessment of how spe- tive management of soil and vegetative cover, home gardens cific changes in practices are likely to affect men and women with a large number of local species (or a better water sup- and how they are likely to unfold over time. ply; see box 18.8), and improved food preservation systems. Practices particularly suited to women and girls will be iden- tified and shared with participating communities, which Blending Indigenous and Modern will also be trained in the concept of intellectual property Technologies and Valuing Women’s (IFAD 2014a). Knowledge All communities are engaged in an autonomous climate Policy and Social/Cultural Issues change adaptation process, triggered by ecological changes in the natural systems. Given their responsibilities to man- Many studies have found that women are at least as willing age critical household assets, and as stewards of natural as men to adopt innovative climate-smart technologies, but they typically face different and often less visible obstacles. These obstacles can include formal legal or regulatory issues 14  See http://ccafs.cgiar.org/are-there-gender-impacts-climate-smart regarding women’s land tenure (women without formal title -agriculture#.VT4YMCGqqko. to land cannot obtain credit to finance climate-smart inno- 15  See, for example, Beuchelt and Badstue (2013). vations). They may also include informal social and cultural 20 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture process if they are to help refine and improve technologies Box 18.8 Water Harvesting or Recycling Systems and practices to fit their own needs. Evidence shows that for Women’s Home Gardens involving women in facilitated innovation can initiate a vir- tuous circle of empowerment characterized by increasing confidence, status, and engagement in community activities, Home gardens are typically women’s domain in including activities unrelated to agriculture (Waters-Bayer developing countries, but their productivity is often constrained by a lack of water, an issue that will et al. 2015). become increasingly common in many areas due to Identifying women as the primary users of particular climate change. Small-scale rainwater harvesting, or innovative technologies that meet these criteria or that con- gray-­water recycling systems combined with simple cern traditional female tasks such as cooking (biogas is one irrigation systems can ensure a significant and steady example) may, however, unknowingly reinforce unequal supply of water for home gardens, even in times of gender roles and power relations. In promoting the use of drought, and permit year-round vegetable cultiva- innovations, it is essential to have a detailed understanding tion with significant nutritional impacts for families. of the complexities of the policy and social context and their By reducing the risk that a lack of water will lead to effect on women’s ability to engage in processes of innova- crop failure, such systems can increase the value of an tion and adoption of new tools and ways of work. Both men asset and activity over which women have control and and women need to be engaged in planning and implemen- encourage greater investment in food production in tation to develop a broad understanding of the technologies, home gardens. Small-scale rainwater harvesting sys- tems can also reduce the time that women and girls their benefits, and the changes they will bring to people’s spend collecting water and increase time and energy lives, as well as to identify potential obstacles and unfore- available for education and productive work. seen consequences for everyone. For this strategy to succeed, extension agents and facilitators must be sensitive to gen- der issues and willing and able to encourage critical reflec- tion on traditional ideas about women’s and men’s roles norms that dictate whether women can leave the farm to and responsibilities within the household and community secure resources that need to be purchased (fuel, herbicides, (Beuchelt and Badstue 2013). or even manure are some examples), the types and amount of work considered suitable for women, and women’s role Conclusions in decision making at the household or community level. It is a priority to address these restrictions, because they limit The examples provided here show that aside from their other women’s ability to adopt new technologies and to build the social, biophysical, and technological aspects, climate-smart climate resilience and adaptive capacity of their households technologies have substantial and highly context-specific and communities. implications for gender roles. Similarly, gender roles influ- Climate-smart technologies that are easier for women ence and drive the adoption of CSA technologies. Consider- to adopt tend to have no or low cost, to require behavioral ing that no “one-size-fits-all” approach exists for projects to changes more than the acquisition of new tools or equip- support women’s uptake of innovative, climate-smart tech- ment, or to take place wholly on the farm using available nologies and promote women’s engagement in the innova- inputs. A study in Kenya found that women’s access to credit tion process, it is important that all CSA projects: is positively associated with the adoption of CSA practices, but access of the household to credit is not a factor in adop- ■■ Are based on a clear understanding of the local produc- tion of CSA (Bernier 2015). As a general rule, innovations tive and reproductive roles of men and women, and requiring limited external inputs and generating clear ben- knowledge gained through participatory processes. efits spread quickly, primarily through informal farmer- ■■ Consider men’s and women’s different access to, and to-farmer networks, though organized knowledge-sharing control over, physical and financial resources, including events can also be effective (Waters-Bayer et al. 2015). Like- land, livestock, and access to credit or income from off- wise, processes of innovation that are centered on the farm farm work. and rely on locally available resources are more accessible ■■ Ensure women’s participation in decision-making pro- for women and for poorer and more marginalized groups. cesses by establishing community-level bodies with an Women must be empowered participants in the innovation adequate representation of women members. THEMATIC NOTE 1: The Role of Innovative Technologies for Gender-Responsive CSA 21 ■■ Analyze the potential and actual effects on labor require- Bishop-Sambrook, C. 2003. “Labor Saving Technologies and ments of the household and hired laborers. Practices for Farming and Household Activities in East- ■■ Provide men and women with equal access to training ern and Southern Africa: Labour Constraints and the and services. Support the development of capacity for Impact of HIV/AIDS on Rural Livelihoods in Bondo and project staff, extension agents, and others involved in Busia Districts Western Kenya.” International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Food and Agriculture disseminating new technologies and facilitating inno- Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and Govern- vation, and create appropriate opportunities for female ment of Japan. Rome, Italy. community members. CARE International. 2009. “Climate Vulnerability and ■■ Target information on CSA to women and young peo- Capacity Analysis Handbook.” London, UK. http:// ple, using gender- and age-appropriate communication insights.careinternational.org.uk/publications/climate channels. -vulnerability-and-capacity-analysis-handbook. Carr, M., and M. Hartl. 2010. “Lightening the Load: Labor- References and Key Sources Saving Technologies and Practices for Rural Women.” of Additional Information International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome, Italy. Angelou, N., G. Elizondo Azuela, S. G. Banerjee, M. Bhatia, Diao, X., F. Cossar, N. Houssou, S. Kolavalli, K. Jimah, and P. I. Bushueva, J. G. Inon, I. Jaques Goldenberg, E. Por- Aboagye. 2012. “Mechanization in Ghana: Searching for tale, and A. Sarkar. 2013. “Global Tracking Framework: Sustainable Service Supply Models.” IFPRI Discussion Sustainable Energy for All.” Vol. 3 of Global Tracking Paper 1237. International Food Policy Research Institute Framework. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://docu (IFPRI), Washington, DC. ments.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/05/17765643 Doss, C. R. 2001. “Designing Agricultural Technology for /global-tracking-framework-vol-3-3-main-report. African Women Farmers: Lessons from 25 Years of Expe- Ashwill, M., M. Blomqvist, S. Salinas, and K. Ugaz-Simon- rience.” World Development 29(12): 2075–92. sen. 2011. “Gender Dynamics and Climate Change in FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Rural Bolivia.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Nations). 2010a. Climate-Smart Agriculture: Policies, Baudron, F., J. A. Andersson, M. Corbeels, and K. E. Giller. Practices, and Financing for Food Security, Adaptation, 2012b. “Failing to Yield? Ploughs, Conservation Agricul- and Mitigation. Rome, Italy: FAO. ture, and the Problem of Agricultural Intensification: An ———. 2010b. “UNEP and Partners in Sudan Joint Pro- Example from the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe.” Journal of gramme on Environment and Natural Resources Man- Development Studies 48(3): 393–412. agement: Darfur Timber and Energy Project.” “FAO in Baudron, F., P. Tittonell, M. Corbeels, P. Letourmy, and K. Emergencies” website, http://www.fao.org/emergencies E. Giller. 2012. “Comparative Performance of Conserva- /fao-in-action/projects/detail/en/c/195682/. tion Agriculture and Current Smallholder Farming Prac- ———. 2010c. “What Woodfuels Can Do to Mitigate Cli- tices in Semi-arid Zimbabwe.” Field Crops Research 132: mate Change.” FAO, Rome, Italy. 117–28. Bernier, Q., R. Meinzen-Dick, P. Kristjanson, E. Haglund, C. ———. 2013. “Guidance Note: Safe Access to Firewood and Kovarik, E. Bryan, C. Ringler, and S. Silvestri. 2015. “Gen- Alternative Energy.” Rome, Italy. der and Institutional Aspects of Climate-Smart Agricul- Farnworth, C. J. “Gender and Conservation Agriculture in tural Practices: Evidence from Kenya.” CCAFS Working East and Southern Africa: Towards a Research Agenda.” Paper 79. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Forthcoming. Denmark. Garnett, T., M. C. Appleby, A. Balmford, I. J. Bateman, T. Beuchelt, T. D., and L. Badstue. 2013. “Gender, Nutrition, G. Benton, P. Bloomer, B. Burlingame, M. Dawkins, L. and Climate-Smart Food Production: Opportunities and Dolan, D. Fraser, M. Herrero, I. Hoffmann, P. Smith, P. K. Trade-offs.” Food Security 5: 709–21. Thornton, C. Toulmin, S. J. Vermeulen, and H. C. J. God- Biggs, S., S. Justice, and D. Lewis. 2011. “Patterns of Rural fray. 2013. “Sustainable Intensification in Agriculture: Mechanisation, Energy, and Employment in South Asia: Premises and Policies.” Science 341(6141): 33–34. Reopening the Debate.” Economic and Political Weekly Giller, K. E., E. Witter, M. Corbeels, and P. Tittonell, P. 2009. XLVI(9). “Conservation Agriculture and Smallholder Farming in 22 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Africa: The Heretics’ View.” Field Crops Research 114(1): Sovacool, B. K., M. Kryman, and T. Smith. 2014. “Scal- 23–24. ing and Commercializing Mobile Biogas Systems in IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). Kenya: A Qualitative Pilot Study.” Renewable Energy 76: 2014a. “The Gender Advantage: Women on the Front 115–25. Line of Climate Change.” Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad. van Eerdewijk, A., K. Danielsen, M. Hailemariam, and E. org/climate/resources/advantage/gender.pdf. Mukewa. 2014. “Gender Matters in Farm Power: Gender ———. 2014b. “Initiative for Mainstreaming Innovation Dynamics in Small-Scale Maize Mechanization.” Royal (IMI) Project: Making Biogas Portable: Renewable Tech- Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam, the Netherlands. nologies for a Greener Future.” Rome, Italy. Villamor, G. B., M. van Noordwijk, U. Djanibekov, Ma. E. Kassam, A., T. Friedrich, F. Shaxson, and J. Pretty. 2009. “The Chiong-Javier, and D. Catacutan. 2014. “Gender Differ- Spread of Conservation Agriculture: Justification, Sus- ences in Land-Use Decisions: Shaping Multifunctional tainability, and Uptake.” International Journal of Agricul- Landscapes?” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustain- tural Sustainability 7(4): 1222–27. ability 6: 128–33. Moser, C. 2012. Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Waters-Bayer, A., P. Kristjanson, C. Wettasinha, L. van Vel- Practice, and Training. London, UK: Routledge. dhizen, G. Quiroga, K. Swaans, and B. Douthwaite. 2015. Nyanga, H. P., F. H. Johnsen, and T. H. Kalinda. 2012. “Gen- “Exploring the Impact of Farmer-Led Research Sup- dered Impacts of Conservation Agriculture and Paradox ported by Civil Society Organisations.” Agriculture and of Herbicide Use among Smallholder Farmers.” Inter- Food Security 4(4): 1–7. national Journal of Technology and Development Studies Wettasinha, C., A. Waters-Bayer, L. Van Veldhuizen, G. Qui- 3(1): 1–24. roga, and K. Swaans. 2014. “Study on Impacts of Farmer- Pandolfelli, L., R. Meinzen-Dick, and S. Dohrn. 2008. “Gen- Led Research Supported by Civil Society Organizations.” der and collective action: motivations, effectiveness and Working Paper AAS- 2014–40. CGIAR Research Program impact.” Journal of International Development 20(1): 1–11. on Aquatic Agricultural Systems, Penang, Malaysia. Practical Action. 2014. “Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2014: World Bank and ONE. 2014. Levelling the Field: Improving Key Messages on Energy for Poverty Alleviation.” Rugby, Opportunities for Women Farmers in Africa. Washington, UK. DC: World Bank and ONE. THEMATIC NOTE 1: The Role of Innovative Technologies for Gender-Responsive CSA 23 TH E M AT I C N O T E 2 Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Approaches T his Thematic Note aims to facilitate the applica- involve dynamic processes for managing land, water, and tion of gender-responsive climate-smart landscape forest resources (Buck and Bailey 2014); for example, the approaches for project teams focusing on landscapes components of a climate-smart landscape can include cli- rather than on work at the farm or village level, which is the mate-smart practices at the field and farm scale, diversified scale at which many CSA projects operate. The note sets out land uses across the landscape, as well as the management the steps required for men and women to participate equally of multiple land uses at the landscape scale (figure 18.2) in such initiatives and for their benefits to be distributed fairly. (Scherr, Shames, and Friedman 2012). These approaches Communities and people live in landscapes, where they involve interventions that integrate spatial, ecological, and are united by complex linkages and challenges. Farmers, socioeconomic considerations (gender issues being one livestock producers, foresters, and fisherfolk use, manage, among many socioeconomic considerations). A landscape and conserve natural resources, biodiversity, and the eco- approach presents many challenges (Sayer et al. 2014), but in system services they provide. Because the knowledge of many places around the world, it is aiding people and com- these individuals is the key to sustainable management of munities to protect biodiversity, produce food, and secure landscapes, it is important to think beyond climate-smart rural livelihoods. (Box 18.9 provides examples of tree-based agriculture to climate-smart landscapes (Scherr, Shames, landscape initiatives.) This Thematic Note summarizes good and Friedman 2012). The demand for land and water practices at the landscape level that have potentially high will be even greater in the future as the population grows payoffs with respect to CSA and particularly with respect to and other drivers of change come into play, including an gender equality. increasingly variable and harsh climate. It is a demanding task to develop an understanding of climate risks together Gender-Responsive Landscape with an understanding of how people interact within their Approaches in Practice communities and landscapes, but projects and policies that do so are more likely to devise good (and sometimes Conservation approaches responsive to climate change quite simple) solutions to climate challenges (IFAD 2012). often focus on natural resources and not on the poor The range of tools and approaches available to map risk communities and men and women who depend on those and vulnerability at the landscape level is expanding rap- resources, although many NGOs and others use commu- idly. For example, better spatial analysis supported by geo- nity-focused livelihood approaches. A landscape approach graphic information systems can identify how investments tries to bring these perspectives together to ensure that or management practices in some parts of a landscape or protecting natural resources provides benefits to individu- watershed can produce benefits or reduce negative impacts als, households, and communities. Despite knowledge in other parts (for example, by linking hydrological systems gaps, it is increasingly clear that a number of gender issues or wildlife habitats to make them more effective or tenable) are inherent in a landscape approach, including but not (IFAD 2012). limited to participation, power in decision making, and As with climate-smart interventions at the farm or village voice. Few landscape approaches have been undertaken level, interventions at the landscape level have multiple goals, with an explicit gender focus. If landscape planning is to including enhanced productivity, increased resilience/adap- be effective, it must incorporate women’s as well as men’s tation, and reduced GHG emissions. Landscape approaches concerns, yet a real knowledge gap remains with regard to 24 Figure 18.2  Components of a Climate-Smart Landscape Source: Scherr, Shames, and Friedman 2012. research and planning tools such as participatory mapping Examples of Tree-Based Landscape Initiatives Box 18.9   and future scenarios can help to clarify the reality on the ground. Landscape approaches involve a host of decision mak- ■■ Rehabilitated natural forest: Expansion of natural ers who are managing agriculture, livestock, forests, and forest in areas that are not currently forested. fisheries; formulating policies at different levels of govern- ■■ Agroforestry (agri-silviculture, silvo-pastoral- ance (local to international); and engaging in processes that ism, agro-silvo-pastoralism): Increase in number/­ introduction of trees in existing cropland, pastoral require learning and adjustment over time to respond to a land, and agro-pastoral land. changing environment. A critical gender issue here is that ■■ Productive forest: Expansion of commercial tim- very few women are in management or leadership positions ber and bamboo plantations. in agricultural value chains and food systems, so they are not ■■ Restocking of degraded natural forest: Increase in participating in high-level discussions. Even at the local and stock of existing degraded natural forest. community levels, targeted strategies are needed to allow ■■ Tree-based buffer zone along riverbanks and women to attend and actively engage in key meetings, train- boundaries of water bodies: Expansion of natural ing, and processes. forest along water bodies. Successful landscape approaches involve inclusive stake- ■■ Woodlots: Expansion of small-scale production holder consultations with the communities, government, of tree products such as woodfuel or timber for private sector, and other actors that will maintain and construction. enhance landscapes and the services they provide over the For additional examples on landscape approach, see https:// long term. Experience shows that involving multiple sectors www.youtube.com/watch?v=uetUPdZB-tQ and stakeholders from the outset will enhance the diagno- sis of problems, the assessment of alternatives for managing resource use, and the evaluation of performance and results how gender plays out in different landscapes. For example, (World Bank 2014). One example of inclusive consultation it is not clear whether or how different types of landscape is participatory landscape mapping, which is used to com- initiatives benefit or challenge women and men in differ- municate qualitative local knowledge related to the land- ent ways, or how women (men) shape landscapes in dif- scape, transmitted from multiple perspectives, including ferent settings. By ensuring that women are fully involved, those of different socioeconomic groups (IFAD 2009). THEMATIC NOTE 2: Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Approaches 25 The involvement and coordination of various ministries— land, water, agriculture, environment, finance, and climate Box 18.10 Steps in Implementing a Gender- change focal points and so on—poses a governance challenge. Responsive Landscape Approach Local governments (district and municipal) are playing an in Projects increasingly important role in planning and implementing landscape approaches (World Bank 2014). Yet in policy and 1. Define the boundaries of the landscape, consid- planning debates—where whoever has the strongest voice ering the strength of interlinkages between land typically sets the agenda—women are often underrepre- uses and livelihoods in the geographical area of sented, and their viewpoints are not included. Knowing what interest, and also the existence of relevant insti- aspects of the landscape women are responsible for, including tutions to deal with problems at the scale being non–income generating aspects, is therefore critical. considered. Involve women and young and mar- The types of structural transformation involved in adapt- ginalized people in defining these boundaries, ing to climate change will require long-term approaches as their needs and opportunities can easily be conceived in terms of generations rather than short-term overlooked. project cycles. A long-term perspective usually entails con- 2. Explore how climate affects socioecological tinuous political and financial commitments, which might processes on the landscape. Landscape approaches spanning one or more watersheds require spatial use public funds, either from national sources or devel- tools to understand landscape structure and opment cooperation. These funds can be used to support climate variation; distribution of water as governed approaches such as covering transaction and initial costs by landscape pattern and climate; biodiversity to adopt a specific technology, or to support the use of a pattern as controlled by drainage basin attributes; variety of approaches that are designed at the grassroots and agricultural and forest productivity as level and are already known to work. A common element of determined by landscape structure, water, and these approaches is that they acknowledge that rural people land use practices. manage landscapes through their activities (Rosendahl et al. 3. Consider the institutional and policy frame- 2015). Box 18.10 outlines the steps involved in implement- work, identify key decision makers at different ing a gender-responsive landscape approach in projects. levels, and identify strategies that can promote inclusiveness and transparency. 4. Develop a long-term, shared vision for the land- Landscape Approaches with Positive scape through an inclusive and participatory Gender Impacts process aimed at generating knowledge that is salient, credible, and reliable to all stakeholders. The sections that follow present examples of landscape Share data and communicate plans widely, via approaches that are known to have produced positive gender ICTs where feasible, and taking into consideration impacts. They include sustainable land management in sev- the information channels and literacy levels of eral East African countries and watershed restoration in India. men and women. Pursue strategies that empower women and others to share their viewpoints and innovations. Vi Agroforestry and Sustainable Landscape 5. Set specific goals and expected outcomes for the Management in East Africa short and medium term that are linked to this Vi Agroforestry16 is a Swedish NGO that promotes sustain- vision. able land management practices intended to improve farm 6. Devise a framework for inclusive monitoring and productivity and livelihoods and sequester carbon across evaluation of landscape interventions to ensure that the implementation of the vision is on the landscapes.17 This NGO also supports village savings and right track. The framework should allow for periodic adaptation to changing conditions within or outside the landscape.  See viagroforestry.org. 16  This section draws on information in Shames et al. (2012) unless 17 Source: Based on World Bank 2014. otherwise noted. 26 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture loan associations (VSLAs), farmer enterprises, and the to address these issues include investments in training development of demonstration and learning sites (Shames designed to reach out to women—hiring female commu- et al. 2013). To reach large numbers of farmers, the NGO nity facilitators; timing visits, seminars, and training to trains community facilitators (men and women), who in ensure women’s participation (in the afternoon, for exam- turn train farmers to use improved and sustainable land ple); and ensuring that women receive information directly. management practices. Another innovation is to provide seedlings of “women’s In western Kenya, with support from the World Bank trees”—the species that provide fuelwood, fodder, shade, BioCarbon Fund, Vi Agroforestry has been implement- and fruit rather than species that provide just poles and ing the Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project (KACP) since timber (desired by men). 2009, involving over 60,000 smallholder farmers, roughly Participation and leadership in small groups and one-half women (World Bank 2010; Vi Agroforestry 2015). umbrella groups are also critical for women, and here, Carbon payments are made to community groups, not rotating leadership systems and rules can help, along individuals. These groups are required to have strategies to with targeting a certain number of women leadership engage women fully as participants and beneficiaries. Key positions within groups. Communication efforts can also benefits of this initiative, along with sequestered carbon, highlight the important role of women in these kinds of include higher yields of staple food crops, enhanced techni- initiatives. Efforts that enhance women’s access to loans cal skills in implementing improved and more sustainable and insurance have also been found to be good oppor- agricultural land management practices, and improved tunities for increasing women’s benefits from landscape food and nutrition security, among others (Shames et al. initiatives. 2013). This landscape initiative faces gender disparities related Watershed Restoration in India to land and tree tenure, labor, knowledge, benefit shar- ing, participation, and leadership. A review found that In Maharashtra, work with small-scale producers to restore in projects where contracts were signed at the household watersheds has given attention to equity and gender issues, level, and women were not the official owners of land or with the result that natural resources have been improved of the trees planted, women were prevented from being and conserved, and livelihoods have improved. Projects full participants and beneficiaries (Shames et al. 2012). In funded by the Indo-German Watershed Development Pro- response, KACP designed contracts that could be signed gram (IGWDP), and implemented by an independent, state- by groups, and the project does not require women to wide NGO, the Watershed Organization Trust (WOTR), in own land to participate actively and claim benefits. Con- partnership with the Indian government’s National Bank for tracts require the names of both female and male house- Agriculture and Rural Development, have been regenerating hold heads and stipulate that decisions and payments be land by planting trees and engaging in other water and soil authorized by both. conservation efforts (WOTR 2002; D’Souza and Lobo 2004; In its work at the landscape level, Vi Agroforestry has also WRI 2005). found (as discussed in the Overview) that careful attention These landscape-focused watershed development proj­ must be given to those whose labor is increased by new prac- ects have devised several strategies to ensure that poor tices. Often it is the woman’s workload that increases, and families and women participate and benefit. Participating strategies may be needed to prevent or remedy this problem. villages limit tree cutting and ban grazing on land desig- In other cases, however, practices such as planting trees and nated for regeneration. Community members contribute improving water management can reduce the substantial their unpaid labor. There is a focus on capacity building: amount of time that women spend gathering fuelwood and Local men and women learn techniques for planting trees carrying water. and grassland and for conserving water and soil, such as the Studies also indicate that in many communities the rela- construction of simple water harvesting and irrigation sys- tive lack of education, information, and services for women tems, all of which assist them to become more climate-smart relative to men restricts women’s ability to adopt new managers of their resources. practices and take advantage of new opportunities such as To increase women’s involvement in decision making, carbon payment schemes (Shames et al. 2012). Strategies WOTR works with landowning couples wherever possible. THEMATIC NOTE 2: Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Approaches 27 In the village of Darewadi, after five years, the increased that lend themselves to adding the important considerations availability of wells, subsistence crops, and fodder had of climate and gender and making them more explicit. reduced women’s household labor significantly. Women also earned cash as project laborers and benefited from drudg- Conclusions ery-reducing assets made possible by increased incomes, such as kitchen gardens and household toilets (Lobo and The realization of gender-responsive, climate-smart land- D’Souza 2003:16). Another strategy aimed at empowering scapes will require a concerted effort at multiple levels and women has been to urge village assemblies to elect women scales, characterized by innovation in devising, implement- to the Village Watershed Committees. ing, and administering the corresponding policy and insti- To encourage greater self-confidence and independence, tutional arrangements. This note suggests that a theory of WOTR has also trained village women in record-keeping change for making climate-smart landscape approaches and organizational skills, helped them to form savings more gender responsive involves the following: and credit groups, and provided microfinance to women’s groups. The IGWDP has taken an approach of consensus- 1. Knowing what men and women want from their indi- based decision making in participating villages, enhancing vidual plots of land and from collective land—which the likelihood that poor minorities will benefit from water- requires methods to research and capture women’s shed development programs in areas of highly skewed land needs. ownership. 2. Identifying the coordination required across institu- In seven drought-prone districts of northern Karna- tions in the community, and among institutions across taka, a watershed development project known as Sujala a landscape, to meet women’s interests and the con- increased water availability (World Bank 2014) and raised straints to carrying out the necessary coordination. household incomes significantly, especially among poorer 3. Delivering the type of coordination that is needed. This groups (World Bank 2014). The project addressed gender effort requires an understanding of how the constraints issues by taking an inclusive approach (facilitated by an identified in (2) could be addressed and an understand- NGO) based on participatory watershed planning, which ing of how coordination works. For instance, does it involved communities and technical teams. The resulting come about only through ensuring women’s represen- Sujala Watershed Action Plans reflected a vision shared tation in the various groups involved? Or are incentives by all stakeholders that guided subsequent soil and water needed to establish the type of coordination that can conservation investments. Treatments on the upper and respond to women’s needs (compared to the response lower reaches of watersheds raised water tables, brought provided by the type of coordination currently in place)? degraded land under cultivation, enabled farmers to diver- sify into higher-value crops (including horticultural crops), This theory of change implies, as shown in the examples, and raised agricultural productivity. Remote sensing and that the type of research undertaken and how it is carried geographic information systems helped to monitor project out—for example, as action research or through partici- performance and impacts. The project also integrated a live- patory approaches (such as the use of focus groups) or lihood component to improve equity between farmers with long-term studies—is critical. The goal is to have a good land, the landless, and women. understanding of the gender sensitivity of the current coor- dination and planning mechanisms, to make it possible to assess how well they respond to women’s needs. For example, Policies and Institutions to Enable how suitable are the tree-based landscape approaches that Gender-Responsive Landscape Actions have been identified? What level of coordination is needed A range of potential policy and institutional options can cat- in efforts to harmonize policies? How gender-sensitive are alyze and support new interventions at the landscape level current planning approaches? (table 18.3).18 Although these options do not have a “cli- Based on that understanding, the next challenge is to mate-smart” or gender focus per se, they reflect principles establish institutional arrangements to make climate- smart landscape approaches more responsive to gen- der concerns. For example, if participation is considered  Proposed by Shames, Clarvis, and Kissinger (2014) and Gray et al. 18 the best means of achieving gender-responsiveness, it (2015). may be necessary to strengthen the capacity of women 28 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 18.3 Major Intervention Areas and Associated Options for Policy and Institutions to Catalyze Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Actions Intervention Area Possible Policy Options 1. Clarify land rights and •• Reform land-use planning and land tenure policies to increase community ownership over resources and responsibilities, especially create greater security of access to and use of natural resources. women’s land rights. •• Decentralize policies for natural resource management and provide more authority to community resource organizations to empower them to make decisions (enabling women’s full participation and leadership). 2. Encourage equitable •• Create or invest in incentive schemes to involve women (including in leadership roles), and compensate losers multistakeholder involvement and encourage their participation (for example, payments for ecosystem services) in integrated landscape and collective action. management initiatives. •• Encourage policies that enable collective action and equitable stakeholder engagement, such as the formation and legal standing of common interest groups that include and empower both men and women. 3. Overcome institutional •• Conduct a thorough review of current landscape and restoration programs and policies to identify social/ barriers to integrated gender and institutional barriers to implementing integrated landscape management principles, to identify gaps landscape management. in capacity, knowledge, and investments. •• Create a common set of guidelines for integrated and inclusive landscape management, with endorsement from relevant government agencies. 4. Create conditions for adaptive •• Encourage spatial aspects in local development planning and strengthen participatory land-use planning climate-smart landscape approaches that include women and marginalized people. planning and management. •• Create incentives for more coordinated and systematic planning and linking government budgets and planning. 5. Create mechanisms and •• Work with ministries of finance, donors, and other financiers to increase financing for gender-responsive, supporting policies for climate-smart landscape management in landscapes where rural households are particularly vulnerable to sustainable and long-term climate change, and where significant opportunities exist for scaling up agroforestry and other improved land financing of integrated and and water management practices that benefit both women and men. Bottom-up approaches like Negotiated climate-smart landscape Green Territorial Developmenta create a basis for successful mechanisms and policies. management. •• Create incentives for, and reduce perceived risks of, integrated and climate-smart landscape management to encourage public and private investments through risk reduction guarantees and other risk reduction mechanisms. 6. Invest in a solid gender- •• Invest in, and ensure projects have created incentives for, women and men in research institutes, academic disaggregated evidence base extension programs, and NGOs to establish and track important landscape-level restoration as well as and knowledge-sharing gender-related indicators, create knowledge-sharing platforms, and establish monitoring and evaluation platforms for gender- systems that support long-term analysis and adaptive management (and link to existing drought monitoring responsive, climate-smart and early warning systems). landscape management. •• Identify female and male champions and leaders of integrated landscape management who can play a critical role in raising awareness and promoting this approach and represent different cultural and resource groups and sectors. These champions can be assisted by investing in opportunities to take the lead in documenting climate-smart landscape management successes. Source: Adapted from Shames, Clarvis, and Kissinger 2014 and Gray et al. 2015. Note: This table adds gender and climate considerations to table 2 in Gray et al. (2015). a  See “Technical Meeting on Negotiation Environment and Territorial Development—Green NEGOTIATED TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT (GreeNTD),” at http://www.fao.org/nr/land/lr-home/technical-meeting-on-negotiation-environment-and-territorial-development-green-negotiated- territorial-development-greentd-the-technical-meeting-on-negotiation-environment-and-territorial-development-green-n/en/. (individually or in groups) to speak about their collective References and Key Sources of issues, negotiate for their interests, understand the con- Additional Information sequences of their actions in terms of their household’s AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa). 2014. food situation and overall well-being, track their situation “Africa Agriculture Status Report: Climate Change and over time, and bring that evidence to bear in discussions. Smallholder Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa.” AGRA, If gender-responsiveness is to be achieved through policy Nairobi, Kenya. change, it is vital to identify women and men who can act Buck, L. E., and I. D. Bailey. 2014. “Managing for Resilience: as champions in the policy arena and raise their aware- Framing an Integrated Landscape Approach for Over- ness of the issue, and then invest in approaches to build coming Chronic and Acute Food Insecurity.” EcoAgri- a cadre of champions to support policy change over the culture Partners on behalf of the Landscapes for People, longer run. Food and Nature Initiative, Washington, DC. THEMATIC NOTE 2: Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Landscape Approaches 29 D’Souza, M., and C. Lobo. 2004. “Watershed Development, for Success?” Sustainability Science. doi: 10.1007 Water Management, and the Millennium Development /s11625-014-0281-5. http://www.cifor.org/library/5207 Goals.” Presented at the Watershed Summit, Chandigarh, /landscape-approaches-what-are-the-pre-conditions- India, November 25–27. for-success/. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Scherr, S. J., S. Shames, and R. Friedman. 2012. “From Cli- Nations). 2013. “FAO Policy on Gender Equality: mate-Smart Agriculture to Climate-Smart Landscapes.” Attaining Food Security Goals in Agriculture and Rural Agriculture and Food Security 1(12). http://www.agricul Development.” FAO, Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org tureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/12. /docrep/017/i3205e/i3205e.pdf. Shames, S., M. H. Clarvis, and G. Kissinger. 2014. “Financing Gray, E., N. Henninger, C. Reij, and R. Winterbottom. 2015. Strategies for Integrated Landscape Investment: Synthe- “Integrated Landscape Management for Enhancing Resil- sis Report.” In Financing Strategies for Integrated Land- ience in Dryland Africa.” Background Paper prepared for scape Investment, edited by S. Shames. Washington, DC: a report on the Economics of Dryland Resilience in Sub- EcoAgriculture Partners, on behalf of the Landscapes for Saharan Africa. World Resources Institute, Washington, People, Food and Nature Initiative. DC. Shames, S., E. Partners, Q. Bernier, and M. Masiga. 2013. IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). “Development of a Participatory Action Research 2009. “Good Practices in Participatory Mapping.” IFAD, Approach for Four Agricultural Carbon Projects in East Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad.org/pub/map/PM_web.pdf. Africa.” International Food Policy Research Institute ———. 2012. “Climate-Smart Smallholder Agriculture: (IFPRI), Washington, DC. What’s Different?” IFAD, Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad. Shames, S., E. Wollenberg, L.E. Buck, P. Kristjanson, M. org/pub/op/3.pdf. Masiga, and B. Biryahwaho. 2012. “Institutional Innova- ———. 2013. “Increasing Adaptive Capacity through Par- tions in African Smallholder Carbon Projects.” CGIAR ticipatory Mapping.” IFAD, Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad. Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and org/pub/map/pm_v.pdf. Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark. http:// ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/doc_422.pdf. Lobo, C., and M. D’Souza. 2003. “Qualification and Capac- ity-Building of NGOs and Village Self-Help Groups for Vi Agroforestry. 2015. http://www.viagroforestry.org/. Large-Scale Implementation of Watershed Projects: The World Bank. 2010. “First African Emission Reductions Pur- Experience of the Indo-German Watershed Development chase Agreement for Soil Carbon Signed in the Hague.” Programme in Maharashtra.” Revised version of a paper World Bank, Washington, DC. http://go.worldbank. published in Journal of Rural Development 18(4). Water- org/4IY4O4P960. shed Organization Trust (WOTR), Ahmednagar, India. ———. “Moving Toward a Sustainable Landscape Approach Rosendahl, J., M. A. Zanella, J. Weigelt, and J.-M. Durand. to Development: Background and Rationale for a Sus- 2015. “Pro-poor Resource Governance under Changing tainable Landscape Approach.” Agriculture and Environ- Climates.” International Fund for Agricultural Develop- mental Services Department Notes. Issue 12, June. ment (IFAD), Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad.org/climate WOTR (Watershed Organization Trust). 2002. “Darewadi /story/iass/IASS_web.pdf. Watershed Project.” Project summary paper. Ahmedna- Sayer, J. A., C. Margules, A. K. Boedhihartono, A. Dale, gar, India. T. Sunderland, J. Supriatna, and R. Saryanthi. 2014. WRI (World Resources Institute). 2005. “Wealth of the “Landscape Approaches: What Are the Pre-conditions Poor.” WRI, Washington, DC. 30 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture TH E M AT I C N O T E 3 Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Through the CSA Project Cycle T his Thematic Note provides concrete examples of work/results chain. To that end, the project design must how to improve the monitoring and evaluation include (and be informed by) significant analysis of gender (M&E) of gender in CSA projects throughout the issues. The key gender issues to be examined in CSA proj­ project cycle at the field level. The note offers guidance for ects are (i) access to and control over productive resources making M&E an effective management tool to (i) track and and inputs; (ii) access to information and the use of existing assess gender-responsiveness and progress in CSA activities; knowledge; (iii) division of labor and time use between men (ii) identify bottlenecks and enabling and disabling factors and women; (iv) existing skills, capacity needs, and priori- that both men and women encounter in adopting and ben- ties in the uptake of CSA practices; and (v) participation in efiting from CSA; (iii) evaluate the quantity, quality, and decision making and sharing of expected benefits from the sustainability of benefits from CSA interventions for men project, and how these aspects are determined by gender and women farmers; and (iv) monitor and evaluate the out- and power relations. These issues both inform and need to comes and impacts of CSA activities on women and men be addressed in project design and project implementation farmers. Monitoring and evaluation of integration of gen- documents such as manuals, capacity building plans, etc. der in CSA projects can be complicated due to the different dimensions (productivity, adaptation, mitigation) of CSA, Analytical Work for Project Design which involve cooperation among a number of stakeholders at Identification Phase with diverse backgrounds at different levels. To ensure that women and men benefit equally from CSA activities, the collection of gender-related information and M&E System for Gender in CSA its analysis will inform a project’s design and ultimately its A robust M&E system is a diversified system that employs implementation. Table 18.4 describes three types of analy- a broad mix of instruments, methods, and information ses and offers specific guidance on the objectives and infor- sources that capture different perspectives from various mation needs for each type: gender-responsive stakeholder sources, enhance the triangulation of data, and provide a analysis, gender-responsive problem analysis, and gender more complete picture of a project’s issues, progress, out- analysis more generally.20 An assessment of the role of youth comes, and impacts. A mix of internal and external sources also should be kept in mind. increases the reliability and validity of data. The use of a diverse set of tools is particularly relevant for gender in CSA, as it is critical to have a complete quantitative and qualitative providing an articulation of the underlying rationales, assumptions, and theories of how the initiative’s strategies lead to intended out- picture of gender progress and achievements while a project comes (see UNDP 2011; Stein and Valters 2012; and Vogel 2012). is implemented and after it has been completed. 20  Two examples can help the reader to understand how some of these Gender should be mainstreamed within the overall M&E guidelines are followed in practice. The first is from a pilot project in system, including the theory of change19 or logical frame- Kenya to integrate CSA into a livestock system; the work emphasized female-headed households and the analysis looked at men’s and women’s decision making (FAO 2012b). The second comes from a   19 There is no consensus on a standard definition of theory of project to enhance climate change mitigation in a hillside conserva- change. It is commonly understood as a tool or methodology to tion agriculture project in Tanzania; the analysis includes a discus- map the logical sequence of an initiative from inputs to outcomes, sion of the gender-based division of labor (FAO 2012a). 31 Table 18.4 Objectives and Information Needs for Three Types of Analyses Pertinent to Designing Gender-Responsive CSA Projects Type of Analysis Goals, Elements, Guidance 1. Gender-responsive a. Identify and assess the gender-mainstreaming capacity of the key organizations that may be involved in the project, stakeholder analysis which could represent the interests of men and women from different socioeconomic groups. Consider partnering with a women’s organization to ensure that women’s knowledge of climate and agriculture is incorporated into the project, and also to secure women’s participation in decision making about CSA practices. Identify men’s and women’s specific needs for adopting CSA practices. b. Describe how information is shared between organizations and determine whether these channels will be sufficient for facilitating the work of the project. Identify who has access to the information available to the target community. c. Pay attention to who participates (include young people and households headed by women as well as men) and who has a say in decision making, because it will affect who benefits from project activities. Highlight men’s and women’s potential roles in the project, because this will help to clarify how women’s participation will be guaranteed. 2. Gender-responsive a. Identify the specific risks associated with the impacts of climate change in the context of the project, identifying which problem analysis risks are considered most serious by men and women, respectively. Discuss possibilities for reducing GHGs and any negative impacts on women. On the basis of the roles and responsibilities of men and women in different groups, identify who bears the risks of both climate-related impacts as well as climate change related activities. Identify the opportunities for reducing risks and whose livelihood activities are involved. Document men’s and women’s roles in relation to food security, including roles in producing and processing food b.  and in managing agricultural activities. Document the strategies used by men, women, and youths to cope with food insecurity, especially in relation to the climate risks identified in the analysis. c. Describe which resources are present for coping with climate risks and which resources are needed. Investigate whether there are differences in access to or control over these resources and practices for men and women and how those differences may affect proposed solutions. 3. General gender a. Document what men and women do—their income-generating activities as well as their caregiving and household analysis management work. An understanding of men’s and women’s division of labor and time use will be crucial for evaluating how CSA practices may change what people do and how they spend their time, which is crucial for ensuring that no single group of participants is overburdened. b. Describe what men and women know—which can include information on men’s and women’s relative literacy levels and the specific knowledge they call upon in times of climatic or food stress (such as opting to produce different varieties or species of crops and animals, or changing their food preservation and storage practices). c. Verify men’s and women’s capacity gaps that will need to be filled for successful CSA. Checklist for M&E at the Project Formulation Phase will need to watch for any new gender-related issues that arise during implementation, including widening gender dispari- The analyses conducted in the identification phase provide ties or negative impacts such as an unsustainable increase the information for developing the gender-related objec- in labor for women when undertaking some CSA activities, tives in relation to CSA for the overall project and each or a tendency for men to take control of women’s activities component. They also pave the way for developing a gender- that have proven successful. Table 18.6 provides a checklist responsive results chain for the project (an example of gen- of gender considerations to be used during implementation. der in a CSA results chain is provided in the final section of this note). The issues that require attention when a project is first being formulated are listed in table 18.5. Checklists for M&E at Mid-term and End Evaluation Phase of the Project Checklist for M&E at the Project The evaluation examines progress toward project objectives Implementation Phase and specific CSA outcomes and suboutcomes, including The gender-related information collected and analyzed gender-related outcomes. A gender-responsive evaluation in the previous phases is the basis for gender-responsive, should be inclusive and participatory and assess how gender results-based management of the project. The project team and power relations and their driving factors have changed 32 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 18.5 Checklist for Setting Up a Monitoring and Evaluation System at the Formulation Phase Define clear, gender-responsive objectives in relation to CSA for the overall project and for each component. Defining objectives for gender in CSA supports the design of a set of indicators to track results that will be included in the M&E guidelines/manual. Develop a results chain for the project that includes gender-responsive indicators for CSA along the results chain (see “Examples of Gender-Responsive Indicators,” later in this note).a Collect baseline data for outcome indicators related to gender in CSA, and set performance targets for gender-responsive indicators. Identify specific evaluations and other M&E tools to assess progress on gender in CSA and the quality of implementation for gender- responsive activities. Ensure that a distinct budget is allocated for gender-responsive activities (for example, funds for gender expertise, gender analysis, gender training of staff). Mainstream gender in the M&E guidelines, implementation manual, and other relevant documents used to implement the CSA project. The mainstreaming of gender in the M&E guidelines includes the following: •• Developing a results chain for the project, which includes gender-responsive indicators for CSA. •• Identifying the specific evaluations or the component(s) of larger evaluations or studies to be conducted in the course of the project that can inform on progress in gender in CSA. •• Identifying the information flow/feedback and responsibilities for reporting on progress. •• Identifying project staff and staff from implementing agencies that will report, analyze, assess, and use sex-disaggregated data in CSA for decision making. •• Developing reporting formats for project staff and implementing agencies that specifically require information on gender in CSA. Ensure that the project staffing and project capacity development plan reflects M&E, gender, and CSA needs.b Effective M&E for gender in CSA relies on a strong collaboration between project gender specialists, M&E officers, and other project staff and implementing agencies. Ensure that the terms of reference for the project staffing and project capacity development plan include gender and CSA issues. Budget for the overall M&E system, including any capacity development needed to capture gender-related data in CSA. a  For an example, see the section in this note, “Example of Gender in a CSA Results Chain.” b  For an example of a capacity needs assessment, see FAO (2010); for an example of a capacity-building guide, see CCAFS and FAO (2012). Table 18.6  Checklist for Monitoring and Evaluation at the Implementation Phase Ensure that men, women, boys, and girls affected by the project receive information on planned activities and can express themselves (have voice and agency) during implementation. Be aware of power relations between men and women within the household and how they may affect participation or the acceptance of changes in the agricultural activities people perform. Ensure gender-responsive CSA activities are included in quarterly and annual plans, monitored, and reported. In this way, gender in CSA activities will be identified in the project’s plans; otherwise little progress will materialize in CSA outputs and outcome for men and women farmers. When planning, ensure that the target for the number of beneficiaries of a CSA activity is disaggregated by sex. Monitor progress of gender in CSA through quarterly and annual plans and reports. Quarterly and annual reports will also include outputs and outcome results based on an agreed format that is informed by the understanding and mainstreaming of gender in CSA. Conduct data auditing and supportive supervision to ensure the quality of the data reported at all levels of the project and build the capacity of staff involved in M&E. These actions will improve the quality, reliability, and regularity of data collection. Ensure that implementing agencies are committed to reporting on gender in CSA by supporting continuous sensitizing (including training and refresher training) on gender and M&E in the context of CSA. Develop mechanisms to hold M&E implementing agencies accountable. Integrate gender in the supervision of CSA projects. If needed, provide further technical assistance on gender, CSA, and M&E. Include gender in reviews of progress, issues, and recommendations. Provide technical assistance in gender and/or M&E based on the issues identified through supervision. as a consequence of the intervention. UN Women (2015) evaluations that have been undertaken. An additional provides guidance on how to manage gender-responsive important output of the evaluation phase is the sharing evaluation, and IFPRI and ILRI (2014) on how to collect of findings on gender dimensions of CSA so that others gender and assets data in evaluations. This examination is can learn from the knowledge acquired during the project. based on the gender-responsive indicators developed for Table 18.7 lists the important steps during this part of the the project, available sex-disaggregated data, and targeted project lifecycle. THEMATIC NOTE 3: Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Through the CSA Project Cycle 33 disaggregation and including women in all households is Table 18.7 Checklist for Monitoring and Evaluation at Mid-term and during the Final Evaluation critical to provide a more truthful picture of women farmers Phase in CSA (see box 18.12). The third group consists of indica- tors tailored explicitly to a particular activity—for exam- Assess if the priorities identified by men and women in the planning phase have been met. Ensure that all groups have an ple, the number of gender-responsive technologies for CSA opportunity to voice their views on the CSA practices that have been demonstrated in the project area. In addition, indicators can implemented (and whether those practices respond to their priorities). also consider disaggregation by age groups or other vulner- Conduct qualitative and quantitative evaluations to assess able groups, where appropriate. progress and results. Identify bottlenecks and draw lessons learned for gender in CSA. Areas of focus include who has benefited from the Table 18.8 presents an example of a tailored indicator for CSA project, the quality of the benefits from CSA for both women gender in CSA developed for a component of an agricultural and men, which barriers may have arisen to the uptake of CSA productivity project. practices and how men’s and women’s time-use has changed. Ensure that final evaluation reports highlight the findings of the various gender evaluations, the sex-disaggregated and gender-responsive indicators. Setting Performance Targets Important areas to highlight may include the gender-based division of labor, changes in capacity of men and women as a result of the project, for Indicators and equitable distribution of benefits. Typically, performance targets are set for all indicators along Disseminate lessons learned, materials, and results on gender in CSA within the project and to external stakeholders. the results chain. Targets are particularly difficult to set at The dissemination of lessons learned can be under various formats, the outcome level as opposed to the output level. One of the including women and men farmers’ storytelling, case studies on women main challenges is to be pragmatic about what is feasible to farmers and CSA crop and/or livestock technologies, research papers achieve, particularly over the short life of a project, versus on CSA extension services and innovation and subsequent impact on women and men, fliers or radio programs targeted to different groups the ambitions of the project investors and government. To of farmers on lessons learned, and other formats. set reasonable targets at the outcome level, several methods can be used in a complementary manner: ■■ Define targets based on previous experiences, also from Examples of Gender-Responsive other organizations working in the sector. Past per- Indicators formance analysis and/or historical trend analysis can Gender mainstreaming demands the development of gen- be used if a project is in its second phase or if similar der-responsive indicators along the entire results chain. It is ­project/component interventions have been undertaken important that all implementers have a common under- in the past. standing of each indicator. Box 18.11 presents analytical ■■ Conduct a strategy analysis and review the theory of considerations found to be relevant and useful while devel- change and take into account the level of budget alloca- oping indicators related to gender dynamics in agriculture. tion, the implementation plan, the level and sequencing Because gender-responsive indicators measure the status of project activities, and the implementation capac- and roles of women and men, along with changes in gen- ity of the project staff to set targets and plan impact der relations in the household and in communities over assessments. time, they point out whether gender equality and equity ■■ Review research, evaluations, expert opinions and are achieved—for example, if the number of women in impact assessments as well as sector-specific analysis to community decision-making bodies has increased (CIDA define targets. 1997). Gender-responsive indicators can be divided into three groups based on the information source. The first Targets do not provide information on why a project fails group includes indicators with a sex disaggregation based or succeeds, however, and they do not give a complete picture on female-headed households (FHHs)—for example, the of progress on gender equality and equity and achievements number of female heads of household who received train- in terms of CSA. They can trigger the following questions: ing in best practices for CSA. The second group consists of indicators that disaggregate and analyze data by sex or ■■ Why were some gender-related CSA targets not met, combine information on women in both female- and male- and how can the program address these issues? headed households—for example, the number of women ■■ Are the results chain (theory of change) and the plan- farmers trained in CSA best practices. Going beyond FHH ning and sequencing of activities and outputs adequate 34 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.11 Analytical Consideration for Developing Indicators To understand gender dynamics in agriculture, it is contexts, social norms or barriers increase the complex- essential to go beyond a comparison of male and female ity of the challenge for women to diversify their agri- farmers or of male- and female-headed households. cultural and nonagricultural livelihood strategies in Understanding the different situations of women in both ways that will help them adapt to climate change. For male- and female-headed households in terms of their example, social norms may prevent women from pur- access to and control of productive resources, services, suing off-farm activities to diversify their sources of and employment opportunities is critical for solving the income—and consequently influence women’s level of complex challenges smallholders face (see box 18.12). vulnerability, incomes, and ability to pay for the cost of Differences in farmers’ levels of adoption of improved diversifying their farming practices.b In some countries, practices are affected by many factors, which may con- only men have the right to cultivate certain crops or to found the estimated effects of CSA. For example, many access markets when production shocks occur.c Another studies highlight productivity differentials between male consideration is that many CSA practices require a high and female farmers, yet the farmers who adopt certain investment in time or labor (to build stone bunds and practices may also be the ones who are more likely to have terraces, for example) and thus are costly for households higher efficiency in production due to unobserved fac- with few working-age adults or with more working-age tors such as their ability or openness to innovation.a Cli- women than men.d If these prevailing differences across mate adaptation patterns are also heterogeneous across gender lines are not taken into account when establishing gender lines, and if this selection effect is not accounted indicators and targets relating to climate change adap- for, it can also cause the benefits of climate adaptation to tation, the potential for women to benefit from adapta- be overestimated. tion could be overestimated, and the potential for men to Experience shows that women typically face differ- benefit could be underestimated—providing a mislead- ent constraints than men, and that the feasible options ing indication of what the project can achieve in terms open to women differ from those open to men. In certain of adaptation. Source: Solomon Asfaw and Giuseppe Maggio (FAO). a  Quisumbing and Pandolfelli 2010. b  Hallward-Driemeier and Hasan 2012. c  Erenstein et al. 2012. d  As discussed in Beuchelt and Badstue 2013. Box 18.12 Moving Beyond Sex-Disaggregated Data at the Household Level: Measuring Plot Managers’ Agricultural Productivity The report Levelling the Field: Improving Opportunities that data disaggregated at the individual and farm plot for Women Farmers in Africa provides insights into good levels can inform gender analyses with respect to a wide practice for examining gender differences in agricul- variety of issues. It is particularly revealing because it tural productivity by going beyond the use of sex-disag- moves away from the assumption that all household gregated data at the household and head of household members have similar access to inputs and use them level. An approach that looks at specific plot managers at the same level of effectiveness, with matching levels to determine how levels of agricultural productivity of productivity. Based on this new and robust data, the differ between women and men takes into account the report presents clear evidence attesting to the breadth fact that in many African countries, men and women and depth of the gender gap in African agriculture. manage their own plots. This approach demonstrates Source: based on World Bank and ONE 2014. THEMATIC NOTE 3: Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Through the CSA Project Cycle 35 Table 18.8 Indicator Index Card: Example of a Tailored Indicator for Gender in CSA for a Research Component of an Agricultural Productivity Project Indicator: Number of Gender-Responsive CSA Technologies Developed by Research Definition Technologies developed are defined as technologies that have successfully been validated and tested by research and are ready to be promoted via extension services. The technologies developed include both new and improved technologies. Only technologies financed/supported by the project funds are accounted for. CSA technologies are defined (in this specific project context) as technologies that contribute to an increase in agricultural productivity and technologies that contribute to the efficient and sustainable use of land and water resources. Gender-responsive technologies are defined as: (i) technologies based on needs and interest of female farmers; (ii) technologies that reduce time and labor for women farmers; (iii) and technologies that are accessible and affordable by women farmers. Technologies reducing women’s farm labor and the time that female farmers need to perform household duties could enable them to devote more time to productive farm activities (Definition from the World Bank Project “Ethiopia: Agricultural Growth Project II Gender Working Group”). Technologies will be disaggregated by major type: (i) agricultural productivity; (ii) land management; and (iii) water management. Justification This indicator allows for the tracking of the number of CSA technologies developed that are gender responsive. If a CSA technology that is developed is gender responsive, it is assumed that it will contribute to an increase in the adoption of CSA technologies by women farmers. Depending on the project context/results chain, this indicator can be used in the results framework (component level) in the Monitoring, Evaluation, and Learning manual of the project. Unit Number Frequency The indicator will be reported on once a year on July 15th of each year. Data will be available at the level of the National Agricultural Research Center/Coordination Unit. The indicator is measured yearly starting year 2013. Data source Data will be collected from the regional research centers and national research center by the research component project expert based on a list of technologies validated, provided by the centers, and using the reporting formats developed by the project. Calculation The expert of the coordination unit at the National Research Institute in charge of the research component of the project and collection will be responsible for cross-checking the quality of data coming from the regional research centers, collecting data from the methodology National Research Institute, aggregating and calculating the indicator. The regional research centers reporting data are only the research centers supported by the project to develop technologies under the project. Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Baseline 0 Target value — 15 30 35 Current value — Comments: Note: — = not available. Source: World Bank–funded “Ethiopia: Agricultural Growth Project II.” to reach the current targets for men and women pro- in achieving targets, such as specific policies, current ducers in terms of CSA? government sector strategies and reforms, and potential ■■ Why were some targets missed or surpassed? Have other synergies with other government and/or donor projects. parts of the project been affected because targets were Finally, it is important to acknowledge that M&E is a missed or surpassed? Is there a relationship between dynamic process, in which targets for indicators along the missed or surpassed targets and the quality of planning results chain can be readjusted during the project cycle undertaken for the project? based on changing conditions, issues in implementation, ■■ Do targets for men and women producers in terms of and other factors. CSA need to be adjusted? ■■ What lessons emerge from this experience? What cor- Example of Gender in a CSA responding recommendations can be made to achieve Results Chain the project’s goals? An example of a results chain is shown in table 18.9. It high- It is also particularly important to conduct a contex- lights a potential pathway toward strengthening the benefits tual analysis to identify factors that may affect progress for men and women farmers from CSA as a consequence 36 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 18.9 Example of a Results Chain for an Agricultural Project with a Focus on Gender in CSA Inputs •• Budget for research and development of ➡ Activities ➡ •• Train Ministry of Agriculture as well as federal Outputs •• Increased participation of women gender-responsive CSA technologies. and regional staff on gender equality in CSA. beneficiaries in project or programs. •• Budget for identification of existing gender- •• Conduct participatory research on CSA •• New gender-responsive CSA technologies responsive CSA practices and dissemination technologies and the socioeconomic in crop and livestock production developed of gender-responsive CSA practices in general. challenges for women to adopt CSA. through participatory research and •• Budget allocated for gender training for all •• Conduct value-chain analysis to understand transferred to extension services. implementing agencies and for follow-up and different roles of women and men and •• Extension packages on good practices corrective action. women’s preferred value chains. in gender-responsive CSA developed by •• Budget for development of gender-responsive •• Support land right policy drafting and extension services. good practices and solutions in CSA implementation of land certification programs. •• Land certification/titling policy enacted and extension materials. Identify and address conflicts between approved by parliament and implemented. •• Budget for supporting land certification customary and civil law regarding women’s •• Policy support to facilitate access to production reforms with land rights for women. rights. inputs and financial services in place. •• Project staff with skills and knowledge on •• Identify and disseminate good practices and •• Men and women farmers trained in identified gender issues and analysis. extension packages for gender-responsive CSA. gender-responsive value chains. •• Train/hire women extension workers. Raise •• Training for men and women farmers awareness and train extension workers on conducted on gender-responsive CSA gender-responsive CSA practices. technologies on-farm or at functional farmer •• Organize on-farm demonstrations for CSA training centers (with demonstration plots, technologies and practices as well as visits, trained extension officers in gender and CSA, farmer innovation fairs, videos, and so on, for appropriate equipment and inputs, use of both men and women. meteorological data, and other resources). •• Work with women’s associations and women •• Training conducted for men and women leaders. farmers in business development and •• Network with gender experts in grassroots marketing and selected value chains organizations. •• Improve women famers’ access to meteorological information and price and marketing information. Medium-Term Outcome •• Men and women farmers adopt gender- ➡ Outcome •• Crop and livestock productivity of men and ➡ Impacts and Long-Term Goals •• Men and women farmers with increased responsive CSA technologies and practices women farmers increased. resilience. for crop and livestock production. •• Proportion of women farmers’ production •• Men and women farmers with improved •• Men and women farmers with land title/ sold in selected value chains increased. livelihood and food and nutrition security. certificate. •• Farmers’ capacity increased. •• Reductions of GHG emissions and/or •• Men and women farmers linked to increase in carbon sequestration. cooperatives and traders in selected value •• Sustainability of environment and natural chains. resource use increased. •• Men and women farmers have access to production inputs (for example, labor, credit, seed, fertilizer, pesticides). of activities related to research, extension services, and land (see bottom-right box of table 18.9). Typically, the desired rights. Table 18.10 offers examples of indicators for measur- impacts are for men and women farmers to (i) become more ing results. resilient with improved livelihoods; (ii) achieve food and To develop a robust results chain like that in table 18.9, nutrition security; and (iii) contribute to reducing GHG it is critical to define an outcome statement for each com- emissions from agriculture while sustainably using natural ponent and subcomponent for a project (objective tree). resources, thereby ensuring that the principals of gender The theory of change or results chain describes the process equality and equity, related to the equal access to resources to achieve the project outcome of a CSA intervention. Com- and equal participation and fairness of treatment respec- bined with government policies, investments, and other tively, are considered in the design and implementation of donors’ interventions, the CSA intervention contributes the intervention and visible in the project’s outcomes and to the impacts/long-term goals for women in terms of CSA impacts. THEMATIC NOTE 3: Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Through the CSA Project Cycle 37 Table 18.10 Sample Indicators for Measuring Results in an Agricultural Project with a Focus on Gender in CSA Medium-Term Outcome Indicators Number of farmers who adopted CSA practices (sex-disaggregated and by specific CSA practice) Land area where gender-responsive CSA practices have been adopted as a result of the project Number of improved irrigation systems adopted by farmers (disaggregated by sex) Number of farmers provided with new and improved irrigation and drainage services (disaggregated by sex ) Number of livestock units subject to CSA practices as result of the project Number of small- and medium-scale agribusinesses with production and/or supply contracts with women farmers Number of farmers engaged in an outgrower scheme/contract farming scheme (disaggregated by sex) The average time of men and women to reach the nearest market Number of functional associations (for example, market cooperatives, producer associations) created in the project area (disaggregated by type of association) Number of farmers part of functional associations (disaggregated by sex and by type of association, for example, market cooperative, producer association) Number of farmers with use or ownership rights recorded (disaggregated by sex) Number of farmers who purchased and applied the recommended package of inputs last season, share of which women (disaggregated by sex and input) Hectares of cropland planted under improved or certified seed (disaggregated by sex)a Number of farmers who have attended the training and are adopting CSA technology as a consequence (disaggregated by sex) Number of farmers who use (a) weather and climate information services; (b) price information on a regular basis (disaggregated by sex) Subsidies and incentives for promoting and mechanisms for conducting GHG accounting in the agricultural sector in place (yes/no; disaggregated by type of subsidy) Social safety nets (cash transfer, food distribution, seeds and tools, and conditional cash transfer) identified in agricultural policies and national strategies as resilience/coping mechanism) (yes/no) Agricultural policy in place which explicitly states an intention to reduce GHG emission (yes/no) Outcome Indicators Percentage change in crop yield per hectare and year as result of the CSA intervention (disaggregated by male-/female-headed households and household members) Percentage change in yield per livestock unit and year as result of project (on household level, disaggregated by male-/female-headed households, household members, and by yield type, for example, yield may refer to milk, honey, or livestock) Percentage of production sold in selected value chains per year (at household level, disaggregated by male-/female-headed households and household members) Social safety nets available to the target population (yes/no) Impacts/Long-Term Goals Indicators Farmers who consider themselves better off (for example, livelihood, income, nutrition) now than before the CSA intervention (disaggregated by sex) Income from agricultural and nonagricultural sources (disaggregated by male-/female-headed households) Percentage change in proportion of rural population below $1 (Purchasing Power Parity) per day or below national poverty line Net carbon balance (GHG emission in tons of CO2-equivalent emission/ha/year) of project (for example, disaggregated by emission source or activity) Land area affected by medium to very strong/severe soil erosion in the project area Annual total volume of groundwater and surface water withdrawal for agricultural use, expressed as a percentage of the total actual renewable water resources (in the project area) Area restored, or re/afforested as result of the project; land area under forest cover/land area under other relevant land cover a  Use or ownership rights covers land tenure situations, customary or statutory, individual or collective on private or public lands and can accommodate all ownership systems. “Recorded” should be interpreted as a means to unambiguously record land tenure information in the land administration system that reflects the current situation whether graphically, textually, or numerically. It covers a wide range of mechanisms, including mapping, surveying, ­ ector titling, registering, or computerizing land tenure rights. It is not restricted solely to registration/recording of land property rights (World Bank Core S Indicator). 38 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Medium-term project outcomes (table 18.9) should reflect Conclusion farmers’ behavioral change as a consequence of project out- A robust and diversified M&E system enables the project puts and activities. The example in table 18.9 focuses on teams to track and assess gender-responsiveness and prog­ behavioral changes as a consequence of activities related to ress in CSA activities, identify challenges and bottlenecks, research, extension services, and land rights. More broadly, and evaluate the benefits, outcomes, and impacts of the such outcomes include the adoption of CSA practices and intervention for men and women farmers throughout the links to cooperatives and traders in selected value chains. project cycle. The design of M&E system requires several Smallholder producers’ access to markets generates income steps. In the identification stage, practitioners conduct ana- and investments in their own businesses and often increases lytical work and collect gender-related information based farmers’ ability and incentives to adopt new technologies. on comprehensive gender analysis; the purpose is to derive Medium-term outcomes should further reflect access to, an understanding of the challenges and requirements of and control over, land and other productive assets, which are men and women farmers in relation to climate change key for women farmers to improve productivity and liveli- and CSA and use that understanding to inform the proj­ hoods, and to contribute to household food security. There ect design. In the formulation stage, practitioners develop is a need for a sound institutional, legal, and policy environ- the project objectives related to gender and CSA; design a ment and for a sound project design that facilitates access results chain, alongside a theory of change as well as gen- to inputs, supports women’s financial inclusion, and sup- der-responsive indicators and performance targets for each ports CSA practices—for example, by providing financing, indicator; and determine the budget for gender-responsive enhancing women’s use of tools and equipment that reduce activities. In the implementation stage, progress in gender- the labor input on the farm, providing support for women responsive activities and CSA is monitored, and precautions to hire labor, or providing women with community-based are taken to avoid widening gender disparities or negative childcare centers. impacts and further gender-related challenges. In the proj­ To achieve the outcomes, a range of outputs of a proj­ ect evaluation stage, practitioners examine progress toward ect (goods and services) are provided. Indicators typically project objectives and specific CSA outcomes and subout- measure the number of goods and number of farmers or comes, including gender-related outcomes, and disseminate extension workers trained by the intervention, disaggregated the findings. by sex. Project activities typically translate the project inputs— the amount of human, financial, and material resources References and Key Sources devoted to the project—into outputs. In the example of a of Additional Information results chain given in table TN3.6, the outputs, activities, Beuchelt, T. D., and L. Badstue. 2013. “Gender, Nutrition, and inputs can be categorized as follows: and Climate-Smart Food Production: Opportunities and Trade-offs.” Food Security 5: 709–21. ■■ Extension services and farmer training centers strength- CCAFS and FAO (CGIAR Research Program on Climate ened (through the provision of human resources and Change, Agriculture, and Food Security and Food and equipment) to deliver gender-responsive CSA training Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012. and training for selected value chains. “Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research in Agriculture and Food Security for Rural Develop- ■■ Agricultural research, which produces gender-respon- ment.” CCAFS and FAO, Rome, Italy. sive CSA technology. CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency). 1997. ■■ A land rights policy that establishes rights for women is “Guide to Gender Sensitive Indicators.” CIDA, Ottawa, enacted and approved by parliament and implemented. Ontario, Canada. http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/inet /images.nsf/vLUImages/Policy/$file/WID-GUID-E.pdf Table 18.10 presents examples of indicators for medium- Erenstein, O., K. Sayre, P. Wall, J. Hellin, and J. Dixon. 2012. term outcomes and the achievement of long-term goals for “Conservation Agriculture in Maize-and Wheat-based a CSA intervention with a focus on gender. The indicators Systems in the (Sub) Tropics: Lessons from Adaptation measure results at the project level and include relevant Initiatives in South Asia, Mexico, and Southern Africa. indicators at the institutional level. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 36(2): 180–206. THEMATIC NOTE 3: Monitoring and Evaluating Gender Through the CSA Project Cycle 39 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Farmers: Resources, Constraints, and Interventions.” Nations). 2010. “Capacity Development Guiding Report World Development 38(4): 581–92. for the MICCA Programme in Kenya: Capacity Needs Stein, D., Valters, C. 2012. “Understanding Theory of Change in Assessment.” Mitigation of Climate Change in Agricul- International Development.” Justice and Security Research ture (MICCA) Programme Background Report 1. FAO, Programme Paper 1. Justice and Security Research Pro- Rome, Italy. gramme, London School of Economics, London, UK. ———. 2011. “Mainstreaming Gender into Project Cycle UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2011. Management in the Fisheries Sector: Field Manual.” FAO, “Handbook on Planning, Monitoring and Evaluating for Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/ba0004e Development Results.” UNDP, New York, NY. http://web /ba0004e00.pdf. .undp.org/evaluation/guidance.shtml#handbook. ———. 2012a. “Socio-economic Survey: CARE-MICCA UN Women, 2015. “How to Manage Gender-responsive Pilot Project in the United Republic of Tanzania. Final Evaluation: Evaluation Handbook.” New York, NY. Report.” Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publica (MICCA) Programme Background Report 3. FAO, tions/2015/4/un-women-evaluation-handbook-how-to- Rome, Italy. manage-gender-responsive-evaluation. ———. 2012b. “Socio-economic Survey: EADD-MICCA Vogel, I. 2012. “Review of the Use of ‘Theory of Change’ in Pilot Project in Kenya. Final Report.” Mitigation of Cli- International Development.” Review Report for the UK mate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) Programme Back- Department for International Development (DFID), ground Report 4. FAO, Rome, Italy. London. http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/mis_spc Görgens, M., and J. Zall Kusek. 2009. Making Monitoring and /DFID_ToC_Review_VogelV7.pdf. Evaluation Systems Work: A Capacity Development Toolkit. Wong, S. 2003. “Indonesia Kecamatan Development Pro- Washington, DC: World Bank. gram: Building a Monitoring and Evaluation System for Hallward-Driemeier, M., and T. Hasan. 2012. “Empowering a Large-Scale Community-Driven Development Pro- Women: Legal Rights and Economic Opportunities in gram.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Africa.” World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank. 2004. “Monitoring and Evaluation: Some Tools, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Methods, and Approaches.” World Bank, Washington, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). 2014. DC. GAAP Gender & Assets Toolkit: A Toolkit on Collecting ———. 2012. “Gender Issues in Monitoring and Evaluation Gender & Assets Data in Qualitative & Quantitative Pro- in Agriculture.” Toolkit. World Bank, Washington, DC. gram Evaluations. IFPRI, Washington, DC. World Bank and ONE. 2014. Levelling the Field: Improving Quisumbing, A. R., and L. Pandolfelli. 2010. “Promis- Opportunities for Women Farmers in Africa. World Bank ing Approaches to Address the Needs of Poor Female and ONE, Washington, DC. 40 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture TH E M AT I C N O T E 4 Household and Community-Driven Development A lthough national and international policy implementing policies and programs that affect their responses to climate change typically receive the livelihoods most attention, evidence of the importance and ■■ Enhancing the impact of public expenditure on the potential of community-level adaptation is growing (Bryan local economy at the community level. and Behrman 2013). Climate impacts and vulnerability are highly context specific, varying by country, region, commu- To understand and contextualize CDD, it is important to nity, household, and individual. Gender affects the vulner- differentiate the multiple roles that men and women play ability of individuals to climate change, the risks to which at the community level. Box 18.13 reviews the terminology they are exposed, and their ability to participate in adapta- used in describing those roles. tion (Bryan and Behrman 2013). CDD is often concerned with placing decision making By engaging at the level of the community and household, and resources for local development goals directly in the practitioners can develop a more accurate understanding hands of concerned communities. It typically refers to the of the vulnerability context, potential climate impacts, and way in which a policy or a project is designed and imple- their linkages to gender issues and then plan more appropri- mented, not to the content of a policy or project compo- ate responses. A range of household and community-driven nent. CDD has usually been applied as part of efforts to development methodologies are relevant to addressing gen- reduce rural poverty through an emphasis on human and der issues in CSA and can be adopted by and incorporated in social factors, broad-based participation and empower- a wide range of development projects and in public service ment, participatory governance and accountability, and delivery. demand-driven approaches. CDD bottom-up approaches leverage social networks and social capital, support autono- mous adaptation at the community and household level, What Is Community-Driven Development? and strengthen community institutions (because generally Community-driven development (CDD)21 is a way to design they are more responsive to learning and feedback from and implement development policy and projects that facili- their own communities than from government institutions) tates access to social, human, and physical capital assets for (World Bank 2014). Box 18.14 describes how the World the rural poor by creating the conditions for the following: Bank used CDD methods following the tsunami in South- east Asia to improve resilience for women displaced from ■■ Transforming rural development agents from top-down their homes and farms. planners into client-oriented service providers CDD approaches can be powerful tools to build climate ■■ Empowering rural communities to take responsibility resilience and adaptive capacity that is specific to the local for their own socioeconomic development (specifically, social, cultural, ecological, and agricultural context and that by building on community assets) also factors in gender differentials with a CSA perspective ■■ Enabling community-level organizations—especially (World Bank 2014). These community-driven approaches those of the rural poor—to play a role in designing and provide opportunities to build on local or indigenous knowledge of food systems, landscapes, and weather pat- terns, to learn from local institutions, and to engage and lev-  See IFAD (2009). 21 erage local networks. Importantly, they have proven effective 41 Box 18.13 Describing and Classifying Men’s Box 18.14 Community-Driven Development, and Women’s Multiple Roles in the Resilience, and Gender in Land Community Rights Community managing role. Activities undertaken The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami primarily by women at the community level, as an affected 2.5 million people and caused $11 billion extension of their reproductive role, to ensure the damage in 14 countries. In Indonesia, the World provision and maintenance of scarce resources of col- Bank and Multi-Donor Trust Fund supported a lective consumption, such as water, energy sources, project—the Reconstruction of Aceh Land Admin- health care, and education. This work is unpaid, istration System (RALAS)—to empower women undertaken in “free” time. through land titling to address the loss of hous- Community politics role. Activities undertaken ing and agricultural land, make land tenure more primarily by men at the community level, organizing secure, and provide a family safety net. Dispute at the formal political level, often within the frame- resolution and social protection for women and work of national politics. This work is usually paid, vulnerable groups were anchored in the local inter- either directly or indirectly, through status or power. pretation of Islamic law and traditional (adat) Women community leaders’ politics role. Activ- practices. ities undertaken by individual women and groups RALAS included a Community-Driven Adjudi- of women who have become leaders through own- cation process to land titling that involved commu- ership of property, wealth, and inheritance, family nity land mapping. The aim was to increase women’s backgrounds, and leadership training. This work may access to land, going beyond procedures to under- be unpaid or paid and is usually linked to women’s stand the sociocultural constraints to obtaining empowerment. land. Various multiple land tenure regimes, tradi- tional and formal, were noted. Some systems were Source: FAO 2012; Spring and Swallow 2015. gender neutral, and some assigned equal rights to women and men. Men were regarded as the heads of households and as land owners. The disaster had created opportunities for social and physical reor- in addressing many of the underlying causes of climate vul- ganization, however, and women showed dynamism nerability by reducing poverty, improving natural resource in the recovery and reconstruction process when management, strengthening institutions, and addressing they assumed primary responsibility for income issues of gender equality and women’s empowerment (IFAD generation, managing household resources, and 2009). nurturing the family. They also played a significant Even in CDD, purposive arrangements may be required role in translating the individual grievances associ- ated with the recovery of land and property rights to mainstream gender. For example, in the Philippines, a and in strengthening the social agenda for property Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) assessment of ownership. CDD projects found that it was primarily men who received RALAS required dedicated advocacy and policy dis- paid positions while women had the volunteer positions. semination to promote women’s land rights because The assessment also found that without specific efforts to women lacked information about their legal rights, consult and empower women as decision makers, the selec- and men mostly retained land titles. The absence of tion of community development projects reflected men’s sex-disaggregated data also limited the government’s interests. MCC’s approach to resolving these gender issues capacity to address women’s concerns. But women in CDD included a review of all training material; train- took great interest in community-level land map- ing for gender-inclusive approaches; the establishment of ping exercises and had higher levels of participation a competitive gender project fund; and the establishment in community-based activities under RALAS than in of project targets for women as decision makers and paid other programs. employees, with performance incentives. The approach has Source: Spring’s adaptation from World Bank 2011. been adopted across the Philippines government. 42 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture What Are Household Methodologies for Gender Equality and Social Inclusion? Box 18.15 A Toolkit for Analyzing Differences in Men’s and Women’s Assets in Relation to In contrast with community-driven approaches, household Individual Rights and Household Roles methodologies (HHMs) focus on empowering members of individual households to realize their development potential to create stronger, more resilient, and sustainable livelihood The International Food Policy Research Institute’s systems and to improve food, nutrition, and income secu- Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project (GAAP) rity (IFAD 2014a). The use of HHMs by IFAD and others details the nature of asset differentials between women builds on a growing understanding that, in many regions, and men as a way to pinpoint gender differentials in households are not always cohesive units with shared needs, assets and resources. GAAP’s toolkit for researchers and practitioners provides clear definitions of various resources, benefits, and goals. Often women and men within types of rights to assets (for example, access entitle- the same household pursue separate livelihoods. Women ments, decision-making control over use, rights to usually have fewer productive assets than men and are less make claims on output, rights to transfer assets to able to make independent decisions. Women are commonly others, and rights to exclude others from access or overburdened with productive work and domestic tasks. use). GAAP surveys in various countries such as South These inequalities hinder the general motivation and pro- Africa and Uganda delineate categories of women ductivity of household members and are often a significant (wives, female household heads, and widows) having factor contributing to climate vulnerability. different resources and vulnerabilities and distinguish The purpose of HHMs is to strengthen the overall well- between individual ownership, joint ownership with being of the household and all of its members by enabling spouses and others, and collective group ownership. them to work together to improve relations and decision Some findings suggest that assets of women heads of making and to achieve more equitable workloads. CDD is household (most of whom are widows, divorced, sep- arated, or cohabiting without marriage) have more often used to identify and address common problems at the control over assets than those of married women or community level, often resulting in community-led imple- adult daughters who live in male-headed households. mentation of small-scale infrastructure projects or the deliv- ery of services, whereas HHMs focus less on assets (physical, Source: Behrman et al. 2014; ICRW, “Measuring Property financial, natural) and more on people—especially on who Rights: Gender, Land, and Asset Survey” (http://www.icrw. org/where-we-work/measuring-property-rights-gender- they want to be and what they want to do. Household land-and-asset-survey). members’ ability to understand the causes of their current situation—and their willingness to act upon the findings, overcome obstacles, and make the most of the options avail- able to improve their lives—are crucial for unlocking the climate disasters and the benefits they obtain from mitiga- household’s potential and taking advantage of adaptation tion. It does not support consideration of cultural restric- opportunities such as CSA. tions that make it difficult for women to negotiate their The particular contribution of HHMs is that the “black needs, or take into account the gender issues that relate to box” of the household is unpacked—in other words, broken specific needs and interventions. into its units based on gender, age, and family roles. Many Rather than addressing the symptoms of gender inequal- interventions in past decades used the Unitary Household ity, HHMs tackle the underlying social norms, attitudes, Model, which regarded the household as a single unit (black behaviors, and system with household members. Work- box). Assets and needs assessments, interventions, and adop- ing through these issues with the household helps to build tion were done by the male household head with no differ- awareness of how inequalities in gender roles and relations entiation among household members in terms of objectives, can have a strong influence on the household’s climate constraints, costs of adoption, decision-making control, or resilience and ability to adapt. Tools to ascertain women’s access to the benefits. The Unitary Household Model does and men’s activities, resources, and risks in CSA have been not recognize and support the culturally defined, gendered developed through IFPRI’s Gender, Agriculture, and Assets domains of independent and/or joint control over resources Project (GAAP), funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates within households that affect the costs women bear in Foundation (box 18.15). THEMATIC NOTE 4: Household and Community-Driven Development 43 Community-Driven Approaches and Household Methodologies for CSA Box 18.16 Community-Driven Development and Household Methodologies in India’s Community-driven and household approaches are particu- National Rural Livelihoods Mission larly valuable with regard to climate change adaptation and the shift to CSA. Both CDD and HHMs identify agricultural and livelihood practices as well as coping strategies that cause India’s Ministry of Rural Development established the or exacerbate vulnerability but persist due to local custom or National Rural Livelihoods Mission to reduce rural tradition (CARE International 2011). Both approaches iden- poverty, using community and household methods. tify costs and benefits of CSA practices at the community Through participation in self-help groups, house- and household levels, make communities and household holds get access to government support and micro­ finance, based on household livelihood plans that are members aware of them, and ensure that steps are taken to appraised by the other members of the self-help group spread costs and benefits fairly, in a manner acceptable to and then submitted jointly as the group’s Micro- all community or household members (Bryan and Behrman Investment Plan. Climate change adaptation is being 2013). Facilitating adaptation and introducing CSA require mainstreamed into these plans by training commu- continuous learning, planning, feedback, and adjustment, nity facilitators in climate issues. The project, which based on climate information and forecasts as well as local is financed by the Government of India with addi- experience of climate impacts and the effectiveness of CSA tional support from the World Bank and the Global practices in addressing them. For these processes to work, Environment Facility, aims to reach all poor rural effective channels of communication must be established households in India. The World Bank’s contribution between governments and institutions and the people they of $1 billion through the National Rural Livelihoods serve in households and communities to share their expe- Programme targets some 4.8 million rural households riences and ideas (CARE International 2011). CDD and at a cost of around $200 per household. HHMs also ensure that projects are responsive to the needs, Source: IFAD. priorities, and aspirations of those individuals who are most vulnerable to climate change by involving them in plan- ning and implementing policies and projects and promot- ing empowerment, transparency, and accountability (CARE HHMs can overcome these limitations by targeting the International 2011). most marginalized households with the greatest risk of being excluded from traditional CDD initiatives and by addressing gender dynamics within the household. Note Benefits of Combining Community- that using HHMs alone while failing to address issues at Driven Development and Household the community level will also have shortcomings—par- Methodologies ticularly with regard to promoting climate resilience and Though generally successful, CDD has a number of short- CSA, which typically involve improving the management comings. For example, the most marginalized households of the natural resources on which the whole community in a community may not be able to participate in com- relies. Another risk is that adaptation strategies may be munity activities because they lack access to resources such harmful or unsustainable if pursued by many house- as land, labor, money, or even time, or because they are holds in the community. In sum, to build resilience suc- excluded for social or cultural reasons. In addition, CDD cessfully, action and coordination are needed at multiple efforts may support women’s empowerment by strength- scales (Bryan and Behrman 2013). Box 18.16 presents an ening their economic opportunities and decision-making example from India in which CDD and HHMs formed the capacities in community groups or organizations, but such basis of a project focusing on rural livelihoods and climate efforts may not necessarily address gender disparities within change adaptation. the household. As women become more empowered in the Some resistance is likely to accompany the promotion of community, tensions can increase between male and female new behaviors that lie outside a community’s cultural norms, household members, and females may continue to be dis- and it is likely to continue until a critical mass of households empowered within the home. begin changing their behavior. To create an environment that 44 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture supports positive change, it is essential to engage with com- A participatory approach to vulnerability assessments munity leaders and men. Gaining the support of traditional generates a richer understanding of these issues by using leaders, who are often the gateway to rural communities, can the local knowledge of women and men to identify and be crucial to ensure that the community accepts new ideas. plan appropriate activities to reduce the vulnerability of the Specific efforts also need to be made to engage with men, entire community. The approach is also effective in raising who may be reluctant to accept changes in the gender divi- awareness of adaptive capacities and vulnerabilities within sion of labor within the household, or who may feel threat- the community, in terms of the complex interactions of cli- ened or humiliated by it. Like traditional leaders, however, mate change and gender. It also can accelerate the momen- men can become strong advocates for change if supported tum to address the issues identified. appropriately to free themselves and their households from The assessment needs to consider the different livelihood cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequalities. At the assets of the communities, such as human capital (educa- community level, men using HHMs can find it helpful to tion, health, knowledge, and skills), social capital (such as form groups to support each other. Informal groups can also social networks, formal and informal groups, common rules, be useful to reach potential participants. and sanctions), economic capital (such as savings, credit, and tools), and natural capital (land and water resources, trees, wildlife, and biodiversity). Women and men have dif- Examples of Community-Driven ferent amounts and combinations of livelihood assets and Development and Household participate in different activities (farming, raising livestock, Methodologies collecting firewood, and so on), each of which will influence their vulnerability to climate change. The sections that follow illustrate some CDD and HHM One approach, often used by IFAD and developed by the approaches that are amenable to CSA activities. They include World Agroforestry Centre (Boureima et al. 2012) to assess participatory vulnerability assessments, Junior Farmer Field the vulnerability of the livelihoods of four groups (adult and Life Schools, HHMs for envisioning change, the Gen- men and women; young men and women), has been applied der Action Learning System, the Transformative House- to develop strategies for adaptation to climate change hold Methodology, and engaging with men and traditional in three countries in the Sahel (Burkina Faso, Mali, and leaders. Niger). The breakdown by age group is important, because the knowledge and capacities of young women and men are likely to differ from those of the older generation. The Participatory Vulnerability Assessment World Agroforestry Centre’s approach builds on the com- As discussed, it can be a challenge to design projects and munity’s knowledge of local conditions and involves four programs that address issues related to climate change and main steps: (i) assessing the situation and vulnerability of are also gender responsive. Holistic approaches should be village-level threats; (ii) undertaking vulnerability analy- adopted to ensure that tackling one problem does not lead sis by specific groups of people; (iii) developing a plan for to another. Participatory vulnerability assessments are an adaptation to climate change; and (iv) monitoring activities effective tool for understanding the dynamics of climate by communities. change, gender, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity within As with many participatory vulnerability and capacity a rural community in a holistic way. analysis tools, this approach allows communities to ana- Vulnerability assessments are often conducted nationally lyze their exposure to risks, threats, and shocks and then or regionally. They focus on climate and environment varia- develop adaptation strategies. This approach not only devel- bles and macrolevel data on poverty and economic activities. ops action plans but builds communities’ capacity to work Vulnerability is also determined at the community, house- together to respond to adaptation risks and opportunities. hold, and individual levels by socioeconomic factors, live- In other words, the process is as important as the resulting lihoods, and individual capacity and access to knowledge, adaptation actions. Gender-responsive adaptation planning information, services, and support. National and regional can lead to better livelihood options and incomes, improved vulnerability analyses risk overlooking some of the most yields, more food and nutrition security, and improved vulnerable people and groups and missing the underlying management of natural resources, as well as reduced work- causes of their vulnerability (CARE International 2011). loads for women and their families. THEMATIC NOTE 4: Household and Community-Driven Development 45 Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools with each other and with their children in terms of accessing more resources, benefits, and social capital. Initiated by FAO in Asia over 20 years ago to promote The process at the household level has four main steps: integrated pest management, Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) employ participatory learning processes to enhance rural communities’ capacity to improve food production and 1. Creating a household vision of where the household livelihoods in ways that are tailored to their specific needs. would like to be in two to three years’ time. Household Field schools have spread across the globe and evolved members need to understand one another’s different well beyond integrated pest management to encompass aspirations, negotiate for common goals, respect their objectives in education, community development, and the differences, and identify how each household member empowerment of women and young people. will contribute to the overall vision. It is important to Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools (JFFLSs), which identify the different priorities of men and women, boys specifically support the acquisition of agricultural, busi- and girls. Key questions include the following: Where ness, and life skills by young people, simultaneously pro- are we now and why? What strengths and opportuni- mote business development, access to markets, and group ties can we build on? What challenges and obstacles cooperation (through inclusion in producer organiza- might we encounter, and how can we overcome them? tions). The approach has been designed in recognition The men and women in the household then consolidate of the fact that young people in rural areas, particularly their visions based on the overall household priorities young women, require support to overcome significant and set objectives and milestones. The visioning pro- challenges in accessing credit, markets, and opportuni- cess can also enable young people to gain a voice at the ties for decent employment. To date, JFFLS are estimated household level by identifying their own visions and to have trained more than 30,000 young women and sharing them with other household members. men, although the exact number of beneficiaries is dif- 2. Preparing an action plan, which entails identifying ficult to monitor because civil society groups and com- the opportunities available to help household mem- munities themselves have pursued the approach on their bers realize their vision, identifying the challenges own. Piloted in 2003–04 in Mozambique and Kenya, spe- they may encounter, and breaking the vision journey cifically in communities ravaged by HIV/AIDS, JFFLSs into achievable, time-bound steps. Creating pathways have expanded to approximately 20 countries in Africa, to change with steps on the way is a central element of Asia, and the Middle East, consistently achieving positive the change process, both to ensure that it is realistic and results on the ground. to monitor progress and make adjustments if needed, Climate change is one of the latest topics introduced to ensuring that opportunities are equally provided to JFFLS training. In the climate change sessions, participants both men and women. learn about the causes of climate change as well as options 3. Implementing the action plan and monitoring its to improve the resilience and adaptive capacity of crop and progress. livestock production, forestry, and fisheries in the context 4. Graduating from the need for external support for of a changing climate. Many of the practices discussed in implementing HHMs and ensuring sustainability. JFFLSs not only help agriculture adapt to climate change but enhance productivity and food and nutrition security as The two main entry points for implementing HHMs well as generate mitigation benefits. are groups and individual households. In group-based approaches, groups formed for savings and credit, natu- ral resource management, or FFSs are the means of reach- Household Methodologies for Envisioning Change ing individuals with HHM tools. A group may also use the Household visioning, starting from individual visions of visioning and planning tools to achieve its own goals. Indi- betterment and building up to household visions, lies at vidual household mentoring focuses specifically on (and is the heart of HHMs, together with other participatory tools especially effective for) reaching the poorer, marginalized to reveal intrahousehold gender dynamics (IFAD 2014a). households that often are excluded from mainstream devel- HHMs are not about empowering women and disempower- opment initiatives, including membership in groups. Over ing men. Rather, both women and men see that they benefit time, mentoring by trained mentors empowers these house- economically and personally from a more equal relationship holds and enables them to join groups. 46 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture To date, more than 100,000 people have benefited from HHMs in IFAD-supported programs in Malawi, Nigeria, Box 18.17 GALS in the Rehabilitation and Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Uganda (IFAD 2014a). Par- Community-Based Poverty Reduction ticipants report impacts across the full range of livelihood Project, Sierra Leone assets and on household members’ influence over and access to those assets, enhancing the sustainability and resilience The Gender Action Learning System (GALS) meth- of their livelihoods to climate change and other shocks. Par- odology has been implemented in the IFAD-sup- ticipatory decision making and shared workloads increase ported Rehabilitation and Community-Based Poverty agricultural productivity, and both male and female house- Reduction Project in Sierra Leone, where it has played hold members are able to engage in value chains. Men par- an important role in ensuring that female farmers and ticipate more in household tasks, women have a greater female household members have benefitted from the voice in decision making in the household, and there is project’s investments in rehabilitating swampland to more transparency in how resources and benefits are used. grow rice, groundnuts, and vegetables and rehabili- Food and nutrition security and incomes are improved, tating tree crops such as cocoa, coffee, and oil palm. joint investments in land and businesses are undertaken, The project is cofinanced by the Global Environment and the capacities of household members are strengthened. Facility. Its activities have made farming more resilient to climate change by emphasizing the development More girls and boys attend school and go on to tertiary edu- of rainwater harvesting infrastructure and improved cation. Individuals are happier with themselves and other drainage and irrigation systems, as well as the intro- household members, including co-wives. And, as indica- duction of improved seed and agronomic practices, tors of profound behavioral change, a reduction in gender- through Farmer Field Schools. The GALS method based violence and excessive alcohol consumption has been has increased women’s confidence to speak in public, reported by many participants. engage in planning for climate-resilient development, and participate in educating other community mem- bers about climate change adaptation. By the end of Gender Action Learning System (GALS) 2015, 4,500 households will have participated in the The Gender Action Learning System (GALS)—developed by project’s GALS activities. the Women’s Empowerment Mainstreaming and Network- Source: IFAD. ing (WEMAN) Programme of Oxfam Novib—has been rolled out in Nigeria, Rwanda, Uganda, and other countries since 2008 with the support of IFAD and other donors. 22 on gender action learning for individuals, households, and The methodology aims at addressing unequal gender and groups as participants establish a long-term vision and time- social relations and enhancing ownership of project activi- bound milestones by analyzing past achievements; mapping ties by the target groups. Applied at the household, group, opportunities and challenges; examining relationships, or community level, GALS can be used in many thematic resources, and power in the household and community; and areas, including CSA. It can be implemented by national sharing strategies and identifying possible solutions. Stage 3 and local CSOs, project management staff, or extension or (1–3 years) features gender mainstreaming in economic community development services. Women and men from interventions (in this instance, CSA) based on mapping of participating groups or communities can also “emerge” as activities, stakeholders, and gender inequalities and partici- facilitators for others and over time build up their own net- patory action research. Box 18.17 presents an application of work of peer facilitators. GALS in Sierra Leone. GALS is implemented in three main steps or stages. Stage 1 (1 month) consists of preparatory work as GALS activities are introduced and adapted incrementally as part of Transformative Household Methodology a community-led design process. Stage 2 (6 months) focuses The Transformative Household Methodology (developed by Send a Cow Ethiopia) supports household members   22 IFAD (2014b) and Oxfam Novib. See also the Gender Action to identify their different roles and responsibilities as well Learning website (“What Is GALS at Scale?”), http://www.galsats as their access to and control over resources and related cale.net/. benefits, using the Harvard Gender Analytical Tools and THEMATIC NOTE 4: Household and Community-Driven Development 47 participatory rural appraisal tools (IFAD 2014c). Com- of women and men, so engaging with them in gender munity development workers or volunteer facilitators sensitization activities gives a sense of ownership of from within the community lead the process of identify- development programs and increases the likelihood ing households and organizing them into self-help groups. of success. A Zambian NGO, Women for Change, has Four households from each group are selected to be developed a methodology for targeting chiefs and tradi- trained to teach other group members to perform house- tional leaders that uses a training of trainers’ approach hold and gender analysis. The visual methods that are that builds their awareness and enables them to better used to show the responsibilities of each household mem- support their own communities. By acting as coaches ber help to press home the imbalances within the house- and mentors for community members, the chiefs and hold and make visible the often hidden work of women traditional leaders enable positive behavioral changes and girls. Households then create action plans, which are to take place. followed up regularly over a period of one month to one year. Regular meetings are held between members of the Policy and Social/Cultural Issues self-help groups to share their experiences. Most house- and Lessons Learned holds have shown significant changes in gender relations, with women’s role in decision making increasing and tra- The issues and lessons that are especially pertinent here ditional gender roles weakening. include the scope for sustaining and scaling up community- driven and household approaches; the capacity for link- ing these local knowledge and bottom-up approaches to Engaging with Men and Traditional Leaders national policies and climate science; and policy and CDD The following two approaches have been used in Zambia in climate change disaster management. to create a supportive, enabling environment for engaging with men and traditional leaders to foster positive behavior Sustainability and Scaling Up change: HHMs and CDD tend to be sustainable if well facilitated ■■ Men’s Campfire Conferences. Men’s Campfire Confer- and structured, and if they move away from consider- ences (IFAD 2014d) were initiated in Zambia in 2009 ing the household as a male preserve. FAO, IFAD, and and have since spread to Malawi and Tanzania. The pur- the World Bank have produced a variety of toolkits for pose is to create a space where men can talk about gen- ascertaining gender access to assets and resources (for an der issues and women’s equality and to develop a critical example from FAO, see box 18.18). They have success- mass of gender-responsive men within communities to fully paired these tools with technical and interpersonal exert positive pressure on their peers. In an environ- interventions to mitigate the effects of climate change, for ment that replicates what men traditionally do (sit which the benefits are clear and the target groups are keen around a fire to chat, drink beer, and discuss things they to maintain and scale up their achievements, even without would not talk about with their wives), trained facilita- external support. In communities that have used GALS, tors lead the discussions to focus on the problems the groups may even pay allowances to community facilita- participants face and possible solutions. Initially used tors, once the benefits have been demonstrated. House- to address gender-based violence, the methodology holds that have experienced the benefits of HHMs often is suitable for addressing any issue that requires men become advocates and share the methodology with others. to challenge traditional beliefs about their role in the When household or community-driven approaches are household and the role of women. implemented through services such as agricultural exten- ■■ Chiefs and traditional leaders. Traditional leaders sion (for example, FFSs) or community development, they (IFAD 2014e). can be powerful agents of change in can be integrated into those services and scaled up region- rural areas. Their approval can give legitimacy to new ally or nationally. CDD and HHMs typically cost little and ideas and approaches, and they face no language or are highly scalable, which is part of their appeal, enabling other sociocultural barriers. They can also perpetuate national programs to reach the scale required for climate negative aspects of the culture that hinder the rights change resilience. 48 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.18 FAO’s Socio-economic and Gender Box 18.19 Using Climate Science and Community- Analysis Approach Based Approaches to Enhance Women’s Yields and Land Holdings Under FAO’s Socio-economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA) approach, a series of manuals and tech- A project in northern Ghana introducing conservation nical guides were developed to assist development agriculture (no tillage with mulch and cover crops) to agents and humanitarian staff, governments, farm- women and to male landowners increased soil carbon ers’ organizations, research institutions; and policy content and doubled women’s incomes and the size of makers to formulate projects, programs, and pol- their land holdings. The local headman and husbands icies for sustainable and equitable development. initially provided land to the women to use the new SEAGA’s Rural Households and Resources: A Guide conservation agriculture techniques promoted by the for Extension Workers, helps extension and commu- project, which increased yields and reduced the agricul- nity workers to highlight major issues affecting rural tural workload, but the women had to drop out of the households and provides users with resources and project the following year when the men took the land tools for collecting, analyzing, and sharing infor- back for their own production. mation about the constraints, opportunities, and Two years later, project staff remedied this problem priorities faced by communities, households, and through interventions that used local gendered norms individual household members with regard to basic to work with organizations of women farmers. Some resources such as water, land, credit/savings, and women adopted conservation agriculture on fam- time. The guide assists extension and community ily land, while others purchased land outright using workers to apply a participatory and gender-sensi- revenues from increased yields. Gender-responsive tive approach to their planning and work with rural strategies and leadership promoted through commu- households and people, and it provides examples nity-driven development were keys to the successful of ways to move toward improved management of turnaround. A similar successful project in Cambodia household resources, better information collec- helped women and men to adopt conservation agri- tion and analysis, and the development of gender- culture. With increased yields and sales, some women responsive projects. purchased land and farm machinery. They gained more time for their women’s organization; some Source: FAO 2004. became leaders. Managed in this way, targeting both sexes or women only and taking different assets, needs, pref- erences, goals, and priorities of men and women into account, CSA interventions expand women’s inde- Linking Local Knowledge and Bottom-Up Approaches pendent and joint domains of control and benefits. to National Policies and Climate Science Source: Spring and Swallow 2015. To develop an accurate picture of climate vulnerability and impacts, local knowledge must be combined with cli- mate science (for an example, see box 18.19). Community Policy and CDD in Climate Change Disaster methodologies are effective in raising awareness of climate Management science at the community level, incorporating local knowl- edge to understand how expected changes in the climate Most government policies are gender neutral. They seldom will specifically affect people’s livelihoods, and planning distinguish between groups of men and women that are appropriate strategies for adaptation. Actions at the com- marginalized or vulnerable and groups that are relatively munity and household levels need to be linked to higher- protected. Yet the effects of policies can differ greatly across level national and subnational planning, and they can play these groups. Taking gender-related factors into account in an important role in downscaling these plans to local and policies related to increasing sustainably agricultural pro- household levels. ductivity and incomes, building resilience to climate change, THEMATIC NOTE 4: Household and Community-Driven Development 49 and increasing carbon sequestration in soils while reducing References and Key Sources of GHGs (the three pillars of CSA) (FAO 2013) can diffuse ten- Additional Information sions over status and power that may threaten household and Akamandisa, V. M. 2013. “Engaging Traditional Leadership community security related to climate change and climate for Women’s Rights in Zambia.” In Transforming Gender disaster management. For example, a government freeze on Relations in Agriculture in Sub-Sahara Africa, edited by land transactions and transfers can prevent land-grabbing C. Farnworth, M. F. Sundell, A. Nzioki, V. Shivutse, and and dispossession following a climate-induced disaster and M. Davis. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish International prevent women’s disenfranchisement. Government-coordi- Agricultural Network Initiative (SIANI), Stockholm nated and community-based approaches designed to restore Environment Institute. http://www.sei-international.org resilience in terms of property rights, agricultural produc- /publications?pid=2380. tion, and marketing benefit from women’s inclusion in the Behrman, J., Z. Karelina, A. Peterman, S. Roy, and A. Goh. process. These efforts are more successful when carried out 2014. “A Toolkit on Collecting Gender and Assets Data in by both women and men at the field and decision-making Qualitative and Quantitative Program Evaluations.” Gen- levels. CDD and community land mapping allow communi- der, Agriculture, and Assets Project (GAAP). Washington, ties to move ahead, but women require basic awareness of DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) land and property rights to succeed. A valuable method is to and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). http://gaap.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/GAAP_Toolkit_ foster community ownership of the gender agenda by build- Update_FINAL.pdf. ing on local ideas and customs that are favorable to women. Bishop-Sambrook, C. 2013. “Can Household Methodolo- gies Contribute to Changing Lives of Rural Poor Peo- Conclusions ple?” International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Social Reporting Blog, October 8. http://ifad-un The examples provided here show how practitioners, by .blogspot.it/2013/10/can-household-methodologies- engaging in participatory processes at both the community contribute.html. and household levels, gain a clearer understanding of the ———. 2014. “Why We Need to Look Inside the Family, different roles and the different vulnerabilities of men and in the International Year of Family Farming.” Interna- women. Based on that understanding, practitioners can plan tional Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Social more appropriate responses. In summary, it is important Reporting Blog, January 6. http://ifad-un.blogspot. that all CSA projects require the following: it/2014/01/why-we-need-to-look-inside-family-in.html. Boureima, M., A. T. Abasse, C. Sotelo Montes, J. C. Weber, ■■ Make integrated use of HHMs and CDD tools to address B. Katkoré, B. Mounkoro, J.-M. Dakouo, O. Samaké, H. issues at both the household and community levels. This Sigué, B. A. Bationo, and B. O. Diallo. 2013. “Participa- approach not only prevents issues at the household level tory Analysis of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate from being marginalized but prevents an overly narrow Change: A Methodological Guide for Working with Rural Communities.” Occasional Paper 19. World Agroforestry focus on natural resources managed by the household Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. and not by the entire community. ■■ Involve national services when possible from the begin- Bryan, E., and J. Behrman. 2013. “Community Based Adap- tation to Climate Change: A Theoretical Framework, ning in implementing CDD and HHMs to ensure own- Overview of Key Issues, and Discussion of Gender Dif- ership of the approaches and scalability. ferentiated Priorities and Participation.” CAPRi Working ■■ Consider also using HHMs and CDD as knowledge Paper 109. International Food Policy Research Institute management tools and communication channels to (IFPRI), Washington, DC. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499 inform households and communities about both scien- /CAPRiWP109. tific knowledge on climate change and existing national CARE International. 2011. “Understanding Vulnerability to climate change planning. Climate Change: Insights from Application of CARE’s ■■ Chose the HHMs and CDD approaches that are most Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis (CVCA) appropriate to the local context and the project’s needs— Methodology.” London, UK. http://careclimatechange depending on local capacity, engagement of national ser- .org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/CARE_Understand vices, availability of budget and time, and similar variables. ing_Vulnerability.pdf. 50 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture CCAFS and FAO (CGIAR Research Program on Climate ———. 2015d. “Reaching the Poorest through House- Change, Agriculture, and Food Security and Food and hold Mentoring.” IFAD, Rome, Italy. http://www Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012. .ruralpovertyportal.org/country/voice/tags/uganda “Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research /uganda_mentoring. in Agriculture and Food Security for Rural Develop- Lal, R., A. Spring, and R. Welch. 2013. Report of the External ment.” CCAFS and FAO, Rome, Italy. Evaluation Team (EET) of Feed the Future Innovation Chakrabarti, S. 2014. “Household at the Heart of Change.” Lab for Collaborative Research on Sustainable Agri- International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) culture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM Social Reporting Blog, July 31. http://ifad-un.blogspot Innovation Lab). July. Processed. .it/2014/07/households-at-heart-of-change.html. Makanza, M., with J. Biira. 2013. Drawing Lessons from the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United GALS Methodology: The CREAM Case Study. Oxfam Nations). 2004. “Rural Households and Resources. A Novib, Gender Action Learning in CREAM in Rural Dis- Guide for Extension Workers.” FAO, Rome, Italy. www tricts in West Nile, Uganda. Processed. .fao.org/docrep/012/al206e/al206e00.pdf. Mayoux, L. 2012. “Gender Mainstreaming in Value ———. 2013. Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. Rome. 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GALS Phase 1 Gender Jus- tem in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and tice Review and instruction videos (Multilane Highway Uganda.” IFAD, Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad.org/knotes Framework, Transferring to Vision Journeys, Gender /household/cs_hh.pdf. Balance Trees, Social Empowerment maps). http://www ———. 2014c. “Case Study: Transformative Household .oxfamnovib.nl/Approach.html. Methodology, Ethiopia.” Rome. http://www.ifad.org Spring, A., and K. Swallow. 2015. “Feed the Future Learning /knotes/household/cs_ethiopia.pdf. Agenda Literature Review: Improved Gender Integration ———. 2014d. “Case Study: Men’s Campfire Conference, and Women’s Empowerment.” U.S. Agency for Interna- Zambia.” Rome. http://www.ifad.org/knotes/household tional Development (USAID), Feed the Future FEED- /cs_campfire_zambia.pdf. BACK, Washington, DC. ———. 2014e. “Case Study: Chiefs and Traditional Leaders, Turinayo, A. 2013. “Highlights from the IFAD Household Zambia.” Rome. http://www.ifad.org/knotes/household Methodologies Workshop and Writeshop in Entebbe, /cs_men_zambia.pdf. Uganda.” International Fund for Agricultural Development ———. 2015a. “A Family That Works Together Can Over- (IFAD) Social Reporting Blog, October 11. http://ifad-un. come Poverty.” IFAD, Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad.org blogspot.it/2013/10/highlights-from-ifad-household.html. /story/feature/idf2015/index.htm. WEMAN Global. “Gender Action Learning.” http://www ———. 2015b. “Equal Rights Begin in the Home: House- .wemanglobal.org/2_GenderActionLearning.asp. hold Mentoring in Uganda.” IFAD, Rome, Italy. http:// World Bank. 2011. “A Work in Progress.” World Bank, Wash- www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/voice/tags/uganda ington, DC. /uganda_rights. ———. 2014. “Climate and Disaster Resilience: The Role for ———. 2015c. “Household Methodologies for Results and Community-Driven Development.” World Bank, Wash- Impact in IFAD-supported Programmes and Projects.” ington, DC. IFAD, Rome, Italy. http://www.ifad.org/gender/learning ———. 2015. “Gender Equality as Smart Economics: /household/Household_methodologies_e.pdf. A Work in Progress.” World Bank, Washington, DC. THEMATIC NOTE 4: Household and Community-Driven Development 51 TH E M AT I C N O T E 5 The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA T his Thematic Note examines the central role of Institutions are not the same as organizations. Institu- institutions and policies in gender-responsive CSA, tions are the “rules and norms that constrain human behav- focusing on their roles in promoting inclusiveness, ior,” whereas organizations are “the players” (North 1993). providing information and training, enabling innovation at In this respect, agents/players such as households and firms the local level, encouraging investment, and targeting women have preferences and agendas, whereas institutions govern and poor resource-dependent communities to adopt and how resources are allocated (Khalil 1995).24 benefit from CSA. The note reviews the roles of the state, This note groups institutions according the following collective action, and market institutions at multiple levels, main categories: giving particular attention to local institutions and institu- tional linkages across all administrative levels. It draws on ■■ Public sector institutions, including institutions respon- experiences from agricultural development, natural resource sible for local governance management, participatory community-led development, ■■ Collective action institutions, such as farmers’ unions, sustainable livelihoods, and resilience to identify the key cooperatives, local groups, and civil society aspects that must be considered by gender-responsive CSA ■■ Research institutions programs and the various stakeholders involved in them. ■■ The private sector (industrial and financial) This set of actors therefore includes not only markets and Background and Challenges state institutions but local, informal, and customary institu- Although the technical components of CSA often receive the tions, all of which have the potential to influence the adop- most attention, the institutional and policy aspects of CSA tion and use of CSA.25 For example, customary institutions are absolutely vital for programs to achieve sustainable and can include the traditional role played by local chiefs in allo- equitable results. Financial, physical, human, and natural cating land to community members, or the local sociocul- capital; social networks; institutions; and legal and policy tural norms that dictate which activities are appropriate for frameworks are all critical for ensuring asset entitlements, males and females to pursue. If appropriate and ­ supportive coping resources, and social capital (Kasperson, Kasperson, and Turner 1995; Adger 2003). Institutions are “the rules of the game in a society or, 24  Confusion sometimes arises over the distinction between organi- more formally, the humanly devised constraints that shape zations and institutions because the two concepts tend to overlap. human interaction,” (North 1990) and they consist of a wide Some organizations, such as governments, embody and represent the “rules of the game” through the laws, norms, and standards that range of stakeholders. Institutions can also be understood as the government promulgates and works by. At the same time, if an settled, widely prevalent, and standardized habits and con- analysis concerns the capacity of a ministry to implement a project, ventions defining social practices and—more formally—as organizational aspects are considered, such as structure, staffing, constitutional and operational rules governing different and resources. kinds of organizations.23 25  In this respect, Kabeer’s (1994) Social Analysis Framework pro- vides an ideal analytical framework and structure to examine gen- der issues related to CSA in the institutional realms of the state,  Ostrom, in IFAD (2014). 23 market, community, and family/household. 52 institutional structures are not in place, the need for a gendered factors that apply to the ability to adopt certain local knowledge base, as well as the innovations required production practices. Such factors can include perceptions to implement CSA, may be overwhelming to smallholder of women’s abilities, literacy, mobility, and competing house- women and men. hold tasks. They can also include gender-within-institution Although state and market-related stakeholders must frameworks and arrangements, which are often implicit, certainly play an important role in operationalizing CSA, as in extension services or higher-level agricultural poli- climate change will require innovative thinking at all scales cies that are biased toward male-oriented or cash crops and and levels (Ostrom 2009, 2010). In addition to these tradi- large-scale farmers. tional state and market actors, it is essential to consider the For that reason, inclusiveness is an obvious and cru- role of civil society, including community-based organiza- cial criterion for evaluating whether institutional arrange- tions such as land rights groups, landless minorities, mem- ments and policies ensure that both women and men can bership organizations such as cooperatives and producer benefit from CSA in an equitable manner. The following groups, and other organizations, especially those involved in sections describe critical additional gender considerations agriculture or development assistance. related to the key functions of institutions in the context of All of these stakeholders will need to recognize the rel- CSA—information, investment, innovation, and insurance evance of gender relations. Specifically, they will need to (Meinzen-Dick, Bernier, and Haglund 2013). recognize that individual institutions and organizations are gendered and can produce and reproduce inequalities in the Information distribution of resources and power; in this way, they create disadvantages for some groups that affect their vulnerability, Because CSA is a knowledge-intensive approach, institu- resilience, and ability to adapt, take risks, or try new tech- tions must facilitate access to this knowledge if they are to nologies. Conversely, if designed with care, institutions and support the development and uptake of good practices.26 organizations can create positive gendered impacts through Recent research by CCAFS in Kenya, for example, demon- their interventions. strates that traditional channels of information in agricul- Understanding the complexities and criteria for an tural development programs—extension services, farmer ­ enabling environment for gender-responsive CSA requires organizations, and agri-service providers—do not consist- a thorough examination of the institutions and policies cur- ently show a strong positive effect on women’s awareness of rently linked to agriculture, climate change, and gender, tak- CSA. ing the perspectives of the main stakeholders into account Institutions need to be better equipped and tailored to and focusing on identifying strategic as well as practical reach out to and direct CSA-related information to ben- gender needs. The nexus of gender, climate change, and eficiaries (women in particular) through the most suit- agriculture is complex, however. Interventions in these three able technologies and information channels. Improved domains are not always well aligned because of a failure to approaches for delivering targeted messages can include recognize and manage the trade-offs that may result in pol- mobile phones, radio, and television or providing infor- icy contradictions. As climate shocks and climate variability mation at specific venues where prospective beneficiaries become more extreme and unpredictable, these aspects of gather (markets, places of worship, and so on). The choice institutions and institutional arrangements and the policy of delivery method should recognize that the quality and environment will become even more important. quantity of information available to women is often influ- enced by their capacity to access ICT; for example, in certain contexts women are less likely than their male counterparts Key Functions of Institutions Related to own a mobile phone (23 percent less likely in Africa, 24 to CSA and Their Gendered Implications To ensure that institutional arrangements enable small- 26  According to baseline studies conducted by CARE International holders to produce food, adapt to climate change, reduce in India, less than 25 percent of women farmers reported having and/or remove GHG emissions, and build resilience in a access to agricultural extension services in the previous 12 months, gender-equitable manner, it is fundamental to have a thor- less than 40 percent had access to agricultural inputs, less than 15 ough understanding of the diverse realities of both men percent had access to output markets, and just over 43 percent said and women smallholder farmers in different environments. they had received no market information (CARE International In this effort, it is equally important to examine a host of 2013). THEMATIC NOTE 5: The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 53 percent in the Middle East, and 37 percent in South Asia) demand. Although credit can ease the cash constraints on (GSMA Development Fund 2010). FFS approaches that investments in CSA, formal credit institutions may not be directly engage men and women during all stages of the available in rural areas; if they are, they may be unwilling to cropping, marketing, and farm decision-making cycles may lend to smallholder women. Often the larger loans required have potential for explicitly addressing gender inequalities for some agricultural investments remain unobtainable, as in access to information. women do not own assets (like land) that are accepted as An additional consideration is that complex institu- collateral by banks or moneylenders. tional arrangements often govern the extent to which Microfinance institutions and rotating savings and credit climate knowledge can become an action resource. Small- groups provide a viable alternative for many. According to scale female producers, for example, will need to develop CARE International’s Pathways for Empowerment Program management skills to use climate information (provided in India, just 2.5 percent of women farmers reported that through new services and products) effectively (Hansen formal agricultural cooperatives met their requirements et al. 2011). One approach to building such management for agricultural finance, whereas 89 percent said that their skills (and adaptive capacity, the neglected “middle pillar” of source of agricultural finance was their own savings as well CSA) is through Participatory Scenario Planning (PSP). PSP as their self-help group (Njuki, Kruger, and Starr 2013). is a multistakeholder forum for accessing seasonal climate VSLAs—village savings and loan associations—are one forecasts and “translating” them into information related to successful model.27 These groups (“collectives”), which are local livelihoods and development, which can then be used complementary to microfinance institutions, serve people to guide decision making and seasonal planning. By target- who live in remote places, have low and irregular incomes, ing women and men it enables equitable access to climate and need to save cash in small amounts. Significant bene- information by smallholders, agricultural extension, and fits can accrue from linking VSLAs to CSA programming. support services. Impact assessments in Kenya, Ghana, and VSLAs offer a way to reach large numbers of smallholders Niger demonstrate positive impacts from this approach. with a financial service (based on the capacity to tap their Farmers have adjusted planting times, diversified seed and own financial resources), while at the same time enabling crop choices, and moved livestock and assets away from them to learn from each other and to use their numbers flood-prone areas. Having gained trust in climate informa- to access inputs, aggregate their produce for sale, negotiate tion, they now actively listen for it. PSP multiplies its impact better prices for inputs and produce, and eventually influ- by institutionalizing climate communication at scale while ence service providers and policy makers. There is potential serving as a forum that gives voice to and supports partici- for the group to join an external agricultural production or pants, including marginalized groups, in adapting to climate marketing entity and, because of better cash flows, maximize change (CARE International 2012). profits from their products by selling at an opportune time. In many cases, several years will elapse from the time that producers adopt a climate-smart approach and realize its Investment benefits, so they will need targeted income support/financ- The investment required to pursue CSA is one of the most ing over extended periods. Given that the financing needs28 pervasive constraints restricting small-scale producers, for climate change adaptation, mitigation, and agricultural especially poor and female producers, from adopting prom- development span many sectors to meet the interrelated ising practices. As research has shown in various regions of objectives of CSA, the funds deployed by public institutions Africa, shortages of cash to hire labor, sponsor communal or development partners for these purposes will need to be labor parties, or purchase inputs may critically reduce the used as efficiently and synergistically as possible. The adop- ability of female-headed households to sustainably intensify tion of CSA improves the prospects of accessing climate production (Pender and Gebremedhin 2006), gain access to finance for adaptation and mitigation, but local communi- labor-saving technologies (von Braun and Webb 1989), or ties, and women in particular, are still disconnected from access capital to repay credit (Chipande 1987). Millions of small-scale producers, often working in  See Allen and Staehle (2008). 27 isolation, have little power or influence. Many live and   28 Adaptation to climate change within the agricultural sector is work in remote areas disconnected from support systems. expected to entail a cumulative cost of $225 billion to 2050 (Lobell, Demand for their produce is extremely low or nil. Their Baldos, and Hertel 2013). Note that only 0.01 percent of all global credit needs are relatively low because of this absence of grants address climate change and women’s rights together. 54 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture these new sources of financing, making it essential to ensure such as these underline the need to promote gender-respon- equality in access to these resources. sive programming and implementation for CSA initiatives. Where critical assets are required for investment, some Many training and technology-promotion programs are form of external assistance by the state or development part- designed to intervene at the level of community groups or ners may be necessary to enable women to engage in CSA. cooperatives, and they often require or encourage a level Financial resources apply to productive inputs (knowledge of cooperation between individuals and groups, as well as and technologies) as well as incentives to adapt more inte- with government programs and market agents. Some pro- grated approaches. Consequently, access to financing and grams explicitly acknowledge and identify differences in the different local to national investment schemes for imple- technology needs of male and female farmers (Swaziland’s menting gender-responsive CSA continue to be needed and Ministry of Agriculture takes this approach) (Perch and developed in parallel with appropriate institutional capacity. Byrd 2015). Policies and institutions related to market structure, intellectual property rights, and investments in education, Innovation training, and research capacity directly shape both the crea- The state and strength of local institutions and infrastruc- tion and diffusion of new agricultural technologies, includ- ture often directly shape farmers’ access to and use of new ing those that can help farmers mitigate or adapt to climate technologies. Often, the most binding constraints occur at change. Almost all CSA activities assume that individuals or the adoption stage and impede access to and use of new groups can make decisions about how to use land, forests, technologies by poor women and men farmers. They can water, and other resources (property rights) impinging on include static, unfair, poorly functioning or poorly inte- the use of agricultural technology, which often is not the grated input or output markets; weak or local institutions case. A detailed understanding of the institutions concerned and infrastructure; inadequate or ineffective extension can help ensure that CSA programs are truly inclusive and systems; and missing credit and insurance markets. Local gender equitable when it comes to developing and diffusing institutional arrangements, such as property rights, cul- technology for CSA. tural views of innovation, and gender norms may hinder the development of vibrant, local innovation systems (Meinzen- Insurance Dick, Bernier, and Haglund 2013). These constraints all have distinct gender considerations. The role of informal insurance institutions, such as social In the same vein, the potential trade-offs in promoting and familial networks, in cushioning against shocks has CSA technologies may also be significant from a gender per- been widely documented.31 These social institutions are spective and must be analyzed with care. Women farmers capable of dealing with some idiosyncratic shocks like ill- often lose control over the resources, products, and market ness, yet complex shocks arising from climate change are niches they traditionally manage once they become lucrative; expected to overwhelm these more traditional insurance men will often take over production and marketing, even systems. For climate shocks that affect a whole community, of women’s traditional crops.29 What appears as progress a local group or network probably cannot provide adequate from one perspective may, when considered from another insurance, because all members will be affected. Another perspective, actually reveal negative side effects, such as consideration is that climatic and nonclimatic stressors and women’s increasing dependence and diminishing income changing trends can disrupt social networks and informal opportunities,30 power, and traditional status. Trade-offs “insurance schemes,” especially among certain members of society (the poorest, the elderly, women, and female-headed households).32 29  See, for example, Doss (2001); Berti, Krasevec, and FitzGerald In these scenarios in which complex climatic and (2004); World Bank (2009); and Momsen (2010). other shocks are at work, public programs (disaster risk 30  For example, a project promoting maize-bean intercropping in Zambia found that women were reluctant to adopt the intercrop- ping system because they feared losing control over bean cropping and their entitlements to the beans. They worried that household 31  For examples from the Philippines, see Quisumbing, McNiven, food consumption and nutrition would suffer if their husbands and Godquin (2012). sold the beans for cash and used the income either for themselves 32  For a detailed analysis from Mozambique, see Osbahr et al. or to purchase nonfood items. (2008). THEMATIC NOTE 5: The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 55 reduction and social protection programs, as well as insur- private institutions they turn to for support and guidance. ance programs; see the examples in boxes 18.20 and 18.21) The sections that follow review the key institutions that are will become increasingly important, especially for groups likely to be involved and their respective roles. The Climate considered to be vulnerable or marginalized. Insurance Change and Gender Action Plan for Bangladesh, described packages will need to be tailored to different groups of cli- in box 18.22, provides a good example of a comprehensive ents (men and women, with or without a guarantee). Hybrid framework incorporating all stakeholders and key functions models and innovative institutional arrangements to pro- required for gender-responsive CSA. vide financing and insurance will also be needed. Experi- mental models, for example in Ethiopia,33 are attempting to Public Sector Institutions link insurance and credit providers, and the state is playing an active role in encouraging private sector involvement. In Crucial governmental actions that support CSA include the future, it seems likely that such hybrid institutions will the enactment and enforcement of conducive agricultural need to be involved to deliver financing and insurance prod- policies; the improvement of relevant infrastructure and the ucts catering to the specific needs of small-scale producers, distribution of incentivizing agricultural subsidies; and the including women. provision of pertinent weather-related information, as well as weather, climate, and extension services (Reid et al. 2010; Swanson and Rajalahti 2010). In this context, pro-poor gov- Key Institutions in CSA and Their Roles ernance and tenure of natural resources are essential, given Increasing evidence shows that fundamental constraints that access to, and management of, natural resources play to, and opportunities for, women’s livelihood strategies key roles in climate adaptation strategies. Promoting tenure, and adaptive capacity are linked to the assets they pos- access, and control rights, often through the mediation of sess and their degree of access to income, common prop- development agencies or NGOs,34 is crucial for communi- erty resources, and social capital (including networks and ties that depend on natural resources to adapt climate-smart institutions), mediated by their socially defined rights and approaches to agriculture successfully. responsibilities (Quisumbing et al. 2015). Gender and A comprehensive review of the national policy mix35 can social differences are dynamic and nuanced within com- disentangle whether the existing national frameworks: munities; a greater understanding of these differences is critical for climate-smart smallholder agriculture pro- ■■ Address climate change as a threat multiplier (including gramming. Understanding how these differences affect risk the threat of gender inequalities). perceptions, weather and climate information needs, and the communication and investment strategies pursued by women and men in their interactions with a wide array of 34  See the CARE Pathways website, “Ensuring Women’s Access to institutions is therefore critical to reaching the most mar- Land and Forest Resources: Stories from CARE’s Pathways Pro- ginalized groups. gram in India,” http://www.carepathwaystoempowerment.org For all of these reasons, CSA cannot be the purview of /country-focus-update-pathways-india/. ministries of agriculture or environment alone but should 35  For example, a comprehensive review could include national engage gender bureaus and other ministries, as well as other plans/acts related to agriculture, livestock, environment, energy, actors and groups that are more likely to have the infrastruc- wildlife, forestry, the national strategy for climate change (to be ture for engaging with women farmers and producers and to implemented, for example, through a National Adaptation Pro- address issues of gender in general. In parallel, it will be vital gram of Action, National Action Program, Nationally Appropriate to understand the different levels of trust and engagement Mitigation Actions, and National Agricultural Innovation Projects, and so forth), national REDD+ strategy, land policy, family law, exhibited by men and women with respect to the public and and others (see Perch and Byrd 2015). For example, a review of National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPAs) highlights that  See the Agricultural Technology Adoption Initiative website, 33 while all African NAPAs mentioned and gave priority to poverty, “Interlinking Weather Index Insurance with Credit to Allevi- the treatment of gender inequalities as a key factor in adaptation ate Market Failures and Improve Agricultural Productivity in capacity was treated less consistently and often assigned less prior- Ethiopia,” http://www.atai-research.org/projects/­interlinking- ity. The same study also noted the limited attention given to gen- eather-index-insurance-credit-alleviate-market-failures-and- der in mitigation activities, particularly those focused on rapidly improve-agricultu. reducing carbon emissions (Perch, 2011). 56 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.20 The R4 Rural Resilience Initiative–Impacts on Gender The R4 Rural Resilience Initiative (R4), a strategic part- farmers by contributing to their access to productive nership between the World Food Programme and Oxfam assets, as well as by supporting women’s savings groups America, is a comprehensive risk management approach through the Saving for Change program, a cornerstone to help communities become more resilient to climate of the R4 initiative in Senegal. Women claimed that variability and shocks. R4 currently reaches over 31,000 they felt empowered: In addition to having increased smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and Senegal through access to land, seed, and water for irrigation and drink- a combination of four risk management strategies: ing, they benefited from training in numeracy, literacy, improved resource management through asset creation and business. Having more food and water available (risk reduction), insurance (risk transfer), livelihoods also meant that they no longer had to travel far from diversification and microcredit (prudent risk taking), home to fetch water, with consequent gains in terms and savings (risk reserves). Often women and women- of time dedicated to their children or small busi- headed households are the most vulnerable groups in nesses. The study found a reduction in stress as women rural communities. Recent studies have highlighted the became more confident about their ability to feed their impact of R4 on their food and income security.a families, as well as pay school fees and other expenses In Ethiopia, an impact evaluation showed that insured through small financial gains from selling their surplus female-headed households increased their agricultural crops. investments, spending more on hired labor and oxen Some of the best practices developed through the R4 compared to other insured farmers and the uninsured. initiative include the following: These households decreased the amount of land that they sharecrop out. “Sharecropping out” land is a significant ■■ Equal participation of men and women in Commu- obstacle to improving livelihoods, as the person who nity-based Participatory Planning and management farms the land retains one-half or two-thirds of the yields. committees at the village level, leading to better tar- Sharecropping out land is more common among female- geting and more accurate identification of needs headed households, which are more likely to lack the oxen ■■ Inclusion of activities that explicitly target women and labor needed to cultivate their own land. Across all and improve their economic opportunities, such as districts, and more than all other groups, insured female- the development of vegetable gardens, the expansion headed households increased the amount of improved and improvement of rice cultivation, and the creation seed planted and the total amount of compost applied. of savings groups They also took out an increasing number of loans. ■■ Inclusion of men in activities traditionally reserved In Senegal, a study conducted by the Institute of for women, such as the savings groups, which can Development Studies found that R4 benefits women increase and stabilize a household’s resources Source: Azzurra Massimino (WFP). a  WFP and Oxfam America, R4 quarterly report (July–September 2014). https://www.wfp.org/content/r4-rural-resilience-initiative- quarterly-report-jul-sept-2014. ■■ Reflect socioecological intersections (taking into unaffordable or offer significant barriers to entry (Warbur- account both biophysical and human aspects, including ton et al. 2011), particularly for women smallholders—can gender relations). be ill-suited to local agro-ecological conditions and ignore ■■ Identify cross-linkages and encourage convergence and the processes through which local people evaluate and make coherence across policies. decisions (Newsham and Thomas 2011). The complemen- tary roles of other actors and multistakeholder partnerships The limited ability of macrolevel policies in isolation to in general need further exploration as part of the strategy translate into tangible benefits on the ground suggests that for integrating CSA and gender considerations into public greater government attention to gender and CSA is neces- policies. sary. Yet government-provided advisory services and climate Policy frameworks that enable coherence and conver- information—which often advocate technologies that are gence across gender, climate, and agriculture should be THEMATIC NOTE 5: The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 57 Box 18.21  Gender-Sensitive Social Protection and Climate-Smart Agriculture Social protection programs are critical elements of women’s capacities and needs with respect to resources poverty alleviation strategies. They include social assis- and skills development. Integrating social protection tance (for example, in the form of cash transfers, school approaches with other livelihood-focused programs, feeding, food-for-work) and social insurance (such as including CSA initiatives, has even greater potential than old age and disability pensions and unemployment any of these approaches on their own (FAO 2015). insurance). Evidence from Latin America and emerg- The design of social protection policies and programs ing from sub-Saharan Africaa shows that such programs with links to CSA creates opportunities to have greater have clear, positive impacts on food security, human impact, including the following: capital, and the economic and productive capacity of labor-constrained communities (The Transfer Project ■■ Reaching out to rural women to enhance their role 2014). as natural resource managers and as mothers and Access to social protection has proved to be effective caretakers in protecting the poor from the effects of shocks, includ- ■■ Enhancing financial and human capacity to invest ing the adverse effects of climate change. Social protec- in adaptation measures and more effective natural tion programs can reduce the need to resort to negative resource management coping strategies, such as selling of productive assets, ■■ Multidimensional targeting to include economic, reducing the amount and quality of food consumed, social, and environmental risks and vulnerabilities dropping out of school, avoiding productive investments, as criteria, such as overlapping income poverty, food and overexploiting lands and forests. These programs security, and climate-risk maps can also help build capacity. ■■ Linking social protection management and informa- Social protection approaches are good ways to pro- tion systems with climate-related early warning sys- mote women’s economic empowerment and reduce tems, to promote timely and flexible responses when inequalities. Evidence shows that social protection severe weather events strike schemes can facilitate women’s access to resources and ■■ Designing public works programs aimed at increasing promote their role as decision makers in the household, incomes, while generating “green jobs” in waste man- as well as in natural resource management. These out- agement, reforestation, and soil erosion prevention comes do not happen automatically, however (De la O ■■ Linking social protection to key financial services Campos 2015 [Forthcoming]). Asset transfer schemes such as credit and weather insurance to reduce uncer- and public works programs must include an analysis of tainty and impacts related to climate variability Source: Natalia Winder Rossi (FAO). a  For information on the impact of national social cash transfers in Sub-Saharan Africa, see the website for the FAO-UNICEF From Protection to Production Project, http://www.fao.org/economic/ptop/home/en/. widely encouraged.36 Some already exist, such as Mozam- county level. In addition, harmonization among investors bique’s Gender, Environment, and Climate Strategy, which and development partners is needed to mainstream gen- identifies linkages, trade-offs, and risks as well as synergies der-responsive CSA into national programming, budgetary that could deliver a one-stop package of services for ben- processes, and prioritization of investments with adequate eficiaries (Perch and Byrd 2014). Another example is the governance mechanisms in place. Climate Change and Gender Action Plan (CCGAP) for Bangladesh, described in box 18.22. Future work should aim to strengthen planning at the Collective Action Institutions: Farmers’ Unions, country level, ensuring that it is in line with national initia- Cooperatives, Local Groups, and Civil Society tives and building on existing structures at the national and Research shows that women producers see farmers’ organiza- tions and groups as important support structures for adopt-   36 As successfully promoted by IUCN; see http://genderandenvi ing practices and approaches to CSA, particularly when such ronment.org/works/climate-change-gender-acton-plans-ccgaps/. groups build understanding, foster dialogue, and support 58 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.22 The Climate Change and Gender Action Plan for Bangladesh The Climate Change and Gender Action Plan for Ban- address climate change in a gender-responsive manner. gladesh (CCGAP), developed jointly by the International The CCGAP is aligned to four key pillars of Bangladesh’s Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009): (i) Government of Bangladesh, provides a comprehensive Food Security, Social Protection, and Health; (ii) Com- framework for policies and initiatives for the full range of prehensive Disaster Management; (iii) Infrastructure; relevant government structures, development partners, and (iv) Mitigation and Low Carbon Development. The NGOs, research institutions, and the private sector to table lists CSA-specific interventions of the CCGAP. CSA-specific interventions of the CCGAP By public institutions, development •• Making agricultural extension services more gender-responsive, working in collaboration with partners, and the private sector government, NGOs and the private sector •• Leasing land/water bodies to women, providing crop insurance and/or other safety nets for female farmers, and access to financial instruments By research institutions •• Promoting research on different agricultural products and their impact on the livelihoods of women, research on climate-resilient crops, cropping patterns, and varieties responsive to the needs of women •• Establishing a “Climate Field School” for women farmers and incorporating gender considerations in the development of new agricultural technologies and promotion of CSA practices, such as alternative fodder/food for livestock (for example, paddy/grass varieties that tolerate saline soils); new poultry and cattle genotypes; introduction of mulching practices; wet resources utilization; and homestead plant nurseries •• Documenting, disseminating, and promoting indigenous knowledge and practices applied by women By local community groups and •• Developing financial literacy of women and linking women to markets through ICT-based approaches NGOs •• Establishing ICT centers at the community level (information hubs), solar powered radio/TV with special programs aimed at easy access for women Source: based on MoEF (2013). negotiation to help mitigate exclusionary pressures.37 These Empirical evidence highlights the importance of col- collective action institutions are important partners for pro- lective action not only in facilitating the adoption of many moting the adoption of CSA-related practices by agricultural technologies or natural resource management practices (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2002) but in facilitating risk ■■ Actively leading their members to embrace CSA princi- pooling (McCarthy et al. 2000, 2004) and enabling people ples and practices to build resilience by accumulating assets that help them ■■ Being strong information and service providers, and withstand shocks (Di Gregorio et al. 2008). Particularly for serving as “CSA platforms” women, participation in a group may be one mechanism ■■ Serving as policy advocacy groups to influence national for protecting or enhancing assets. Research consistently CSA-related decision making and policies, and ensuring shows that groups and community-based institutions rep- that the priorities of smallholders are adequately rep- resent a key strategy for adapting to climate change, primar- resented in research and agricultural extension agendas ily as a tool to facilitate asset development through group ■■ Taking a role as value-chain actors and developing part- purchases of large farm appliances (physical capital), group nerships with private companies or establishing specific loans (financial capital), or capacity development (human support mechanisms, often with external funding capital). These results also underscore the degree to which women’s and men’s adaptive approaches are intertwined as interdependent members of a household. Effective part-  See Ratner, Halpern, and Kosal (2011); German et al. (2012); and 37 nerships and collaboration with local groups and institu- Komarudin, Siagian, and Colfer (2012). tions, applying a participatory community-led development THEMATIC NOTE 5: The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 59 approach (Thematic Note 4), can therefore generate sub- producing information and technology that improves small- stantial synergy to accelerate men’s and women’s adoption holders’ livelihoods and practices (Swanson and Rajalahti of the promoted CSA practices.38 2010). When research and innovation in agriculture and FFSs are another approach for catalyzing farmer inno- natural resource management ignore gender relations, they vation and experimentation and boosting adoption, while have a limited impact and heighten the risk that poor rural ensuring input quality improvement and profitable output women and men and their families will experience worsen- marketing. By their very nature, FFSs are inclusive and par- ing poverty, workloads, and well-being. In contrast, when ticipatory. When done effectively, farmer led demonstrations institutions apply a gender lens to the development of tech- and field schools institutionalize the process of experiential nological innovations,40 they can design and scale out agri- learning in the community. cultural innovations that deliver equitable benefits to poor It is important to highlight that women’s livelihood women and men. strategies and adaptive capacity are related to the extent to It is necessary to generate solid, locally appropriate which they interact with and benefit from social support evidence that is connected to the body of international institutions, including those provided by NGOs. Formally climate science that can show how and why gender in registered organizations that work beyond the local context, climate change is a problem, requiring integration into rather than solely within the village, often provide support development and investment decisions. In practice, this primarily to men (Perez et al. 2014). Research also indicates process may follow a linear sequence of stages, starting that men and women commonly depend on different kinds with raising awareness, developing scientific capacity, gen- of social relations or networks: men tend to rely more on erating evidence, and conducting pilot studies to inform formal relationships, while women rely more on informal and engage decision makers in policy and investment relations, often forming stronger kinship and friendship planning. The process may also involve more back-and- relations than men (More 1990; Agarwal 2000; Riddell, Wil- forth exchanges, with practice identifying research gaps in son, and Baron 2001; Molyneux 2002). gender and CSA. The point is that research, practice, and CSOs offer the potential for smallholders to join together policy must be fully integrated so that knowledge attained to gain economies of scale and bargaining power, but they through “learning by doing” is consistently communi- often exclude certain actors through such mechanisms cated across the various communities of practice dealing as culturally rooted gender biases, unaffordable financial with CSA. requirements for participation (monetary or in-kind), and The role of the research community (global and national) differentials in power and social links (Mwangi, Markelova, is therefore to meet the information needs of the policy and Meinzen-Dick 2012). Collaborative work between NGOs community so that evidence from research can be trans- and CSOs has considerable potential to exercise influence by muted into policy. For example, by supplying empirical evi- using their collective political voice to express local climate dence on the socioeconomic costs and benefits of CSA, the concerns to higher authorities and demand the provision of research community may help policy makers to devise ways specific measures or services. For example, Swaziland’s Gen- of encouraging various stakeholders (including farmers) to der Consortium, operating since 1995 and managed by the take action in favor of CSA. Research on the socioeconomic Co-ordinating Assembly of Non-Governmental Organisa- costs and benefits of CSA implies the collection and analysis tions, involves several CSOs—the Gender and Family Unit of sex-disaggregated data on vulnerability to the multifac- linked with the UN Thematic Group—and has facilitated eted impacts of climate change, as well as on the gender- coordination at the project level and sharing of experiences differentiated impacts and share of benefits from employing and good practice across a number of actors.39 CSA approaches. Regional entities (for instance, the Food, Agriculture, and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network)41 work across Research Institutions countries with national research systems and other institu- National agricultural research and extension services, along tions. They can also succeed in creating links and fostering with universities and other research institutes, are critical for dialogue between researchers and policy makers through  See also Shames et al. (2012). 38  As discussed in Malhotra et al. (2009). 40  See https://cangoswaziland.wordpress.com/gender/. 39  See http://www.fanrpan.org. 41 60 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture annual policy dialogues as well as through a community of at affordable prices and in a timely manner, particularly for practice involving all stakeholders. collectives of female farmers. The agri-kiosks are account- Female scientists are an important element of the able to the collectives and allow farmers to make purchases research community and may require support. For example, on credit, to be repaid after the harvest. the AWARD program (http://www.awardfellowships.org/) Programs that support CSA interventions can develop equips top women agricultural scientists across sub-Saharan a wider enabling environment for CSA by supporting links Africa to accelerate agricultural gains by strengthening their with business leaders and taking into account the market sit- research and leadership skills, through fellowships designed uation within relevant areas and landscapes. Such programs to meet their specific needs and research goals. should focus on aligning the incentives for farmers and sup- porting linkages between consumers and producers at dif- ferent scales. Systems-level thinking needs to be applied, The Private Sector and the Role of Markets taking into account farm and landscape CSA, value chain Because much of the climate-related information and many assessments, and actions that enable climate-smart develop- services linked to CSA can be considered a public good and ment, more gender-equitable transactions, and markets that common pool resource, the private sector may not have an support these CSA efforts (Chesterman and Neely 2015). immediate interest in providing them. Even so, a growing number of private extension services are offering advice on Conclusions agricultural or livestock inputs and marketing, and these stakeholders are becoming increasingly important in facili- It is critical to assess the institutional and organizational tating options for CSA. context in which CSA interventions will operate,43 to include Private firms become involved in crop, livestock, and the entire range of stakeholders, and to strengthen their agroforestry production where private benefits can be cap- capacity. When relationships and linkages between people tured (for example, through sales of improved seed, machin- and organizations that form the institutional context are ery, or inputs). Because a certain amount of capital is often properly understood, opportunities for scaling up impacts needed to transition to new, climate-smart practices, pri- and lessons are more likely to arise. The “Intermediate Level vate institutions providing equitable access to microfinance Handbook” produced by FAO’s SEAGA Programme pro- for small-scale producers (including women) can also be a vides a strong framework and tools for socioeconomic and promising entry point for private participation in facilitat- gender analysis, with an emphasis on the institutional and ing CSA. organizational context (FAO 2001). Similarly, the CCAFS Markets can play a coordination function for CSA, rang- “Gender and Inclusion Toolbox” provides a wide range ing from local to global. For example, seed of new varieties of participatory strategies and tools to guide the planning can be privately distributed through markets, and carbon of CSA interventions and gender-responsive and socially markets and other mechanisms can provide payments for inclusive climate change programs.44 For transitioning to environmental services. The answer to the question of when CSA at all levels, an evidence-based approach may be useful, market institutions (rather than state or collective action in which scenarios are developed to make gender trade-offs institutions) are appropriate depends not so much on the explicit. scale of the market but on issues of transaction costs, as To align the various goals of CSA and mainstream gender- markets tend to favor large-scale producers over small-scale responsive CSA in overarching national plans, appropriate producers. Innovative extension models, like the network of agri- kiosks promoted by CARE International in India,42 are 43  See IFAD (2014) for guidance. 44  Jost, Ferdous, and Spicer (2014). The Toolbox builds on the Local designed to close the gap between agricultural input sup- Adaptive Capacity framework developed by the Africa Climate ply and demand in remote villages, and they also serve as Change Resilience Alliance (http://community.eldis.org/accra/), information hubs. The agri-kiosks, run by local entrepre- exploring how existing disaster risk reduction, social protection, neurs, seek to ensure access to inputs of acceptable quality and sustainable livelihood interventions affect adaptive capacity at the local (household and community) level, through five charac- teristics of adaptive capacity: the asset base; knowledge and infor- 42  See http://www.carepathwaystoempowerment.org/portfolio-view mation; institutions and entitlement; innovation; and flexible, /india/. forward-looking decision making. THEMATIC NOTE 5: The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 61 institutions with effective and transparent governance Kenya.” Discussion Paper 1412. International Food Policy structures are needed to coordinate the division of sectoral Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. responsibilities and collaborate with the national and local Adger, W. N., 2003. “Social Capital, Collective Action, and institutions described in this Thematic Note. Such efforts Adaptation to Climate Change.” Economic Geography 79: must go beyond gender sensitivity and practical gender 387–404. needs to include innovation and comprehensive legal and Agrawal, B. 2000. “Conceptualising Environmental Collec- policy reform to tackle such issues as women’s lack of tenure tive Action: Why Gender Matters.” Cambridge Journal of security, decision-making power, and control over resources. Economics 24: 283–310. To change behavior and provide incentives for the adoption Allen, H., and M. Staehle. 2008. Village Savings and Loan of gender-responsive CSA, national regulations must be tai- Associations: A Practical Guide. Rugby, UK: Practical lored to each country’s particular environmental conditions Action. http://practicalaction.org/villagesavings. and accompanied by other supporting incentives. Bernier, Q., R. Meinzen-Dick, P. Kristjanson, E. Haglund, C. Local institutions are central to the scaling up and sus- Kovarik, E. Bryan, C. Ringler, and S. 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THEMATIC NOTE 5: The Role of Institutions for Gender-Responsive CSA 65 I NN O V AT I V E A C T I V I TY PR O F I L E 1 Harnessing Information and Communication Technology for Gender-Responsive CSA I nformation and communication technology (ICT) can information about agricultural development opportunities support efforts to cope with an increasingly uncer- and facilitating women’s increased engagement in each of tain climate, including more frequent extreme weather the following areas: (i) decisions about agricultural pro- events and more variable rainfall patterns, and the result- duction; (ii) access to and decision-making power over ing effects on agriculture. Aside from providing historical productive resources; (iii) control over use of income; (iv) climate pattern information, ICT can deliver updated and leadership in the community; and (v) time use (Huyer timely information on weather and on recommended agri- 2012). These areas correspond to the five domains in the cultural practices and technologies through services such Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), as enhanced early warning systems, improved forecasting, which measures women’s empowerment and status in and wider options for adapting to weather changes (CCAFS agriculture and tracks changes in empowerment over time 2015; Coffey et al. 2015). (Alkire et al. 2013). Despite these opportunities, in general, access to, own- To reach women in agriculture, ICTs need to address ership of, and control and use of ICTs remain much lower gender constraints and priorities. For example, women’s for women than men in developing countries (Huyer information networks are often smaller than men’s, so they 2012). Reasons for this disparity include a lack of financial offer fewer opportunities for learning about new produc- resources to secure the use of ICTs, higher levels of techno- tive and commercial opportunities (Sebstad and Manfre logical and language illiteracy among women and girls, and 2011). Gender-specific climate services will need to take into norms that discourage women and girls from using tech- account women’s agricultural tasks. Climate information nology (World Bank 2011). Patterns of unequal access to and advisory services needed by women farmers in Senegal, climate information and agricultural advisory services exist for example, include forecasts of rainfall cessation (rather within communities, depending on who can or cannot use than onset) and dry periods. The communication channels services to manage climate risks and improve resilience to required to reach the most marginalized groups will differ the changing climate at the farm level. In South Asia, the depending on sociocultural differences. In Senegal the com- farmers with the greatest exposure to climate change stresses munications channels useful to women farmers were SMS are resource-poor, female, and lower caste, marginalized by messages in the local language, forecasting blackboards, community sociocultural norms, and invisible to many out- information broadcasting at public places where women siders (Tall et al. 2014a). gather (boreholes) or at the mosque where their husbands Historically most countries have relied on public meet every day, and through community radio and chatter- extension services to deliver agricultural information to boxes (Tall et al. 2014b). small-scale farmers, but often these services (especially in A study of the use of ICT by women and men farmers in Africa and Asia over the past two decades) have lacked the Kenya found clear gender differences in access to informa- human and financial resources to effectively support mil- tion. Women were more likely to have stronger relationships lions of farmers, and female farmers have been particu- with people who were accessible in places they frequented larly neglected (Manfre et al. 2013). Smallholder farmers the most: the farm, house, and local market. They consulted and agricultural development stakeholders increasingly with local extension officers, neighboring farmers, input rely on ICTs to disseminate and access information. ICT- dealers and buyers, and also their husbands. The extension based approaches offer great potential for disseminating agent was reached by phone. Radio and TV were convenient 66 because they could be listened to while doing household chores. Box 18.23 Principles for Successfully Delivering These findings, along with research in other regions, indi- Information to Farmers cate that mobile phones may not be the best way of reaching female farmers (GSMA mWomen Programme 2012). More Studies by CCAFSa suggest that for knowledge to lead men than women tend to own mobile phones, whereas to changes in farmers’ practices, such as the adoption women tend to “borrow” mobile phone access from friends of CSA, it should be as follows: and family. A range of community information strategies, such as radio and community organizations, may be more ■■ Salient. Tailoring content, scale, format, and lead effective in reaching women directly.45 time to farm-level decision making. In Kenya, men’s sources of information included and ■■ Legitimate. Giving an effective voice to both men went beyond women’s information sources, reflecting their and women farmers in the design and delivery of greater mobility and interaction with a wider range of agri- climate and agricultural services and through con- cultural actors. Men farmers attended seminars and field tinuous interactivity (being able to call in or text days and interacted with vendors at agricultural shows. They their questions). consulted literature such as magazines and brochures, while ■■ Equitable. Engagement, capacity, and communi- a few consulted the Internet. For men, lack of access to infor- cation strategies are needed to ensure that women and poor and socially marginalized groups of mation was not an issue. Instead, several hinted at a greater men and women, boys and girls, have access to challenge—sifting through the vast quantity of information and can use available climate and agricultural to find what is useful (Manfre and Nordehn 2013). services. ICTs can bring together private communication and ■■ Integrative. Agricultural and climate information agricultural technology companies, meteorological agen- should be delivered as part of a 
 larger package of cies/climate services, civil society, farmer organizations, agricultural support and development assistance, researchers, and nongovernment and government ser- enabling farmers to act on received information. vices. Impact—particularly in the context of a changing Source: Tall et al. 2014. climate—will occur when the information being dissemi- a  The CGIAR program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and nated responds to the rapidly evolving needs of all farm- Food Security. ers: young, old, female, male. Information on improved technologies and practices, weather forecasts, and a bet- ter understanding of long-run climate trends will be most valuable when it is easy to understand and promotes cli- risks and benefits. The greatest success is achieved when mate-smart technologies that are available and affordable a two-way flow of information is established, and farm- to local communities (see box 18.23). This presumes an ers can interact using different formats, asking questions information environment where one piece of information and progressively increasing their understanding through is embedded in a web of supporting information, includ- practice (McOmber et al. 2013). To be really successful it is ing, for example, how to access inputs and equipment. To essential that the specific needs of, and strategies to reach, form the basis of coping and adaptation strategies to cli- a large proportion of farmers—women—are adequately mate-induced change, new information must also fit into addressed. smallholders’ existing decision-making frameworks (in This Innovative Activity Profile summarizes the experi- other words, it must take advantage of men’s and women’s ence with several ICT-based and gender-responsive CSA knowledge and past experience, such as their familiarity investments.46 These initiatives can be considered for scaling with local rainfall patterns and soil types) (Agrawal 2002; up or replication, and interested task managers and techni- Lambrou and Nelson 2010). Farmers use these frameworks cal experts might want to further explore and adopt some of to evaluate information and incorporate it into their pro- the lessons learned in their own project designs. duction practices at levels appropriate to the perceived   46 See Huyer (2012) and Steinfeld and Wyche (2013) for other 45  See GSMA Development Fund (2010); Okello (2010); and Man- examples of gender-responsive ICT-based approaches to agricul- fre and Nordehn (2013). tural development across a range of countries. INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 1: Harnessing Information and Communication Technology 67 Shamba Shape-Up, I-Shamba, and Africa young people and strengthen their engagement in agricul- Knowledge Zone ture to stem the high flow of young people to cities where jobs are scarce. Since 2012, many partners47 have been working with Mediae, It is proving challenging to move toward a system in makers of the farm reality (“edu-tainment”) television pro- which both men and women farmers can ask questions and gram call Shamba Shape-Up (shamba is Swahili for “farm”) thus drive the content of the shows, including practices and to test the idea that information on improved and climate- technologies described in different environments for specific smart agricultural practices can be disseminated widely target groups, cultures, and agricultural systems. Mediae has using a popular ICT-based format. By 2014, Mediae had set up a call service for the show’s sponsors (private suppli- produced four series, each composed of thirteen 30-minute ers of agricultural inputs, or representatives of the national episodes (in English and Swahili). An increasing amount of agricultural research system) to respond to viewers’ requests content on climate-smart agricultural practices has been for information on particular technologies or management included, sourced directly from scientists in the CGIAR, in strategies. Interactive radio, backed up by ICT services, may collaboration with their partners in government and private be a good option (box 18.24). Another option is to empower research and extension. government agricultural extension officers with smart- As well as the weekly TV broadcasts in Kenya, Tanzania, phones to connect to a broad agricultural knowledge system and Uganda, each episode can be viewed (in English and from which they can share video clips and request leaflets Swahili) on the Shamba Shape-up website,48 and clips are for their client farmers. featured on Africa Knowledge Zone.49 Viewers can send an SMS for a leaflet that includes pictures and simple instruc- tions on the farming techniques highlighted. The show’s Gender-Responsive Agricultural Advisory Services Facebook site, where farmers share experiences with dif- Regardless of the specific combination of technologies used ferent practices, is the biggest and most rapidly growing to convey information on CSA, attention must be paid to farming social media site in East Africa, with thousands of gender issues to ensure that women participate fully at all followers. Of the 26 episodes in 2013, 16 (62 percent) fea- levels. A serious stumbling block is that so few women are tured climate-related content, reaching more than 3 million extension agents. Better incentives are still needed for gov- viewers per episode and generating over 30,000 requests for ernments to train and hire more female extension officers. more information by mail. The Community Knowledge Worker initiative in Uganda A recent impact evaluation of Shamba Shape-Up by the illustrates other barriers faced by women in agricultural University of Reading’s Statistical Services Unit found that advisory services. The project trained local people to act most viewers reported that the program has helped them as agricultural information mediaries (“infomediaries”) in improve the profitability of their enterprises, with a positive their communities and wanted to include women, but it effect on their families’ food situation. They found that over proved difficult to identify women who met the minimum 200,000 households were making changes in their maize educational, language, and literacy requirements to perform farming practices and over 65,000 in their dairy practices as that function. The project could have adjusted its require- a result of watching the program. They estimated the over- ments to enable women who already had knowledge and all net economic impact at $25 million, mostly from dairy communication skills to participate, but it would also have enterprises (in which women are actively involved). to overcome another barrier: the limits on women’s time. Each show features female farmers, their needs, and pri- Women’s higher labor demands in the field and household orities (each segment is available online as a short video clip left little time for training and infomediary activities (World as well). The program is timed to broadcast on Sundays, Bank 2011). More encouragingly, other farmer-to-farmer when women are typically home with their families. Female extension approaches have been both gender-responsive and “experts” are featured as often as male ones. The program’s more successful. They include “volunteer farmer trainers” in use of cellphones and social media is intended to reach Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania in agricultural development projects (such as the East African Dairy Development Pro- 47  Including CCAFS, the U.S. Agency for International Develop- ject) and approaches used by the African Forum for Agricul- ment (USAID), and IFAD. tural Advisory Services (Kiptot and Franzel 2013). Box 18.25 48  See http://www.shambashapeup.com/. describes how tablets are used to provide advice to women 49  See http://www.africaknowledgezone.org/. on plant health. 68 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Box 18.24 Interactive Radio for Delivering Climate Box 18.25 Using Tablets to Reach Women Services with Plant Health Advice In Tanzania and Malawi, Farm Radio International Plantwise, an initiative led by CABI, works with exten- and Farm Radio Trust, together with CCAFS,a inter- sion services in 34 countries around the world to give viewed over 1,280 male and female farmers and pas- smallholder farmers access to high-quality advice on toralists to assess the potential for interactive radio plant health issues. The program is piloting the use to deliver climate services. Farmers and pastoralists of tablets as an information resource for female and rated radio and mobile phones, commonly used in male extension workers wherever they are. The tab- both countries, as having great potential to be effec- lets enable extension workers to collect gender-dis- tive, trusted channels for climate information. They aggregated data in real time so that authorities can preferred radio programs, backed by ICT services, respond rapidly to emerging plant health problems. and the information they valued the most was infor- The tablets and data collected also make it possible to mation on rainfall patterns and temperature, as well monitor numbers of male and female plant doctors as forecasting services. Women and men had differ- trained, to understand the different needs of male and ent habits with respect to the amount of time spent female farmers in accessing plant health information, listening to radio and in mobile phone airtime pur- to evaluate the effectiveness of Plantwise in reaching chased—women were more interested in radio listen- different types of farmers, and to analyze gender dif- ing clubs than men. With some local exceptions, more ferences in access to plant health clinics, changes in men owned cellphones than women, while women farming practices, and livelihood impacts. borrowed cellphone time from friends and family. The geographic spread of plant pests and diseases The gender differences in preferences about informa- is altered by climate change, and farmers and exten- tion content, delivery channels, or expectations about sion services face plant health problems they have use and benefits were not as large as expected, how- never encountered. By providing extension workers ever. Farm Radio International and Farm Radio are with trustworthy information to advise farmers, the now developing interactive radio programming for Plantwise Knowledge Bank enables communities to climate services that will respond to farmers’ ongoing respond to new and unexpected threats and improve climate information needs. Engaging male and female their climate resilience. This information can be farmers and local radio stations in program design, especially important for female farmers, who gener- broadcast, monitoring, and evaluation is key. Short ally have less access to information than their male weekly radio programs will be broadcast, with the counterparts and, in many countries, are often more option of daily forecasts or interpretations, together vulnerable to climate change. The sex-disaggregated with ICT services via mobile phone. data collected by extension workers can strengthen adaptive capacity at a national level and permit the Source: Hampson et al. 2015. a  The CGIAR program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and monitoring of differences in plant health issues expe- Food Security. rienced by female or male farmers. These data feed into national surveillance systems and allow gov- ernments to monitor new and emerging threats and respond quickly when a new pest appears. Data are Using ICT-based approaches that address gender ine- also monitored to find out whether advice offered by quality in access to ICT is challenging. The following steps female and male extension officers differs. have been suggested for developing and implementing ICT Source: Plantwise (http://www.plantwise.org). tools useful for women:50 ■■ Define the target groups and subgroups. ■■ Identify the specific needs of men and women within ■■ Conduct a value-chain analysis and/or describe use case these different groups/subgroups. scenarios. ■■ Select or develop the ICT platform/tool.   50 Based on an approach discussed in the ICT in Agriculture ■■ Consult and involve the target group(s) in designing the e-Sourcebook (World Bank 2011). ICT platforms/tools. INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 1: Harnessing Information and Communication Technology 69 ■■ Develop a business model for developing, promoting, More than 300,000 rural women and men are estimated to and running the ICT platform. benefit directly from the clubs and the changes they bring to ■■ Develop a plan that ensures the continuity/sustainabil- their communities. ity of the tool/platform (World Bank 2015). Conclusions and Lessons for Wider Dimitra Clubs: A Gender-Equity Application Approach to Promote Resilience ICTs, like all technologies, must be adapted to ensure that to Climate Change different types of smallholders and other actors in the agri- FAO’s efforts to improve rural populations’ resilience to cultural sector fully participate in their development, use, climate change include support for Dimitra Clubs, a gen- and benefits. As highlighted in the examples, for ICT-based der-responsive, participatory communication approach. initiatives to help, public investments and policies need to Implemented in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of focus on electricity and mobile network coverage, regula- Congo, Ghana, Niger, and Senegal, this approach improves tory reforms (to keep cellphone calls cheap, for example), access to information and encourages individual and col- business environment reforms that encourage innovation lective action. Dimitra Clubs are mixed or separate groups by private firms, and education and capacity building to organized by women, men, boys, and girls to bring about enhance agricultural, technical, and financial literacy among changes in their communities. The clubs facilitate an smallholder farmers, particularly women (World Bank empowering process whereby rural populations, with a 2011). focus on women and young people, actively participate Women’s access to and use of ICTs is still seriously con- in community life. Aside from fostering social mobiliza- strained in most developing countries. A recent ICT feasibil- tion, the clubs raise women’s and men’s self-esteem, foster ity study of whether and how ICTs could be used to support behavioral changes, and spur collective action to address agro-enterprises run and managed by women in Zambia local challenges and improve local livelihoods and food and and Kenya shared the following gender-related lessons nutrition security. (World Bank 2015): Dimitra Clubs take what they term a gender equity approach that promotes leadership and voice among the ■■ Subsistence farmers—men and women who sell pro- most vulnerable people. The goal is to catalyze transforma- duce locally and occasionally, when they have a surplus tive change at the individual, organizational, and institu- or need cash for an emergency or household expenses tional levels in rural areas by enabling rural women, men, such as school fees—see little advantage to using ICTs boys, and girls to take ownership of their own development. (to market their produce, for example). Community radio stations provide access to knowledge and ■■ In general, to acquire, use, and take advantage of com- raise awareness about subjects requested by the clubs, such mercial ICTs, female and male farmers need some capi- as agricultural practices, climate change, food and nutri- tal, a regular income, or access to a project or program tion security, women’s unequal workload, and access to that funds or partially subsidizes the initial acquisition water, land, sanitation, and health. Club members interact and use of the tools and software (see box 18.26). Lack with each other or with other clubs through solar-powered, of capital can be a particular barrier for women, who wind-up radio sets and solar-charged cellular phones. tend to have less access to resources, including capital. Niger, for example, had established over 800 Dimitra ■■ Costs of using ICTs are often too high for female and Clubs by 2014, of which 240 (in Zinder, Tillabérry, and poor farmers and often unsustainable once project sup- Tahoua) specifically sought to improve resilience to risks port ends. The introduction and use of ICTs can poten- and respond to climate change while improving food and tially increase the gap between poorer (often female) nutrition security. Through these clubs, communities pur- farmers and those who are already better off. sue adaptation initiatives that include new village sanitation ■■ The type and approach of ICT interventions matter if systems and tree nurseries, collective construction of stone the goal is to reach the poorest. For example, market barriers and bunds to conserve and restore soil, and small, information services provided for a fee through a text community-managed cereal banks. The 1,200 active Dimi- messaging service to a personal smartphone may be well tra Clubs in sub-Saharan Africa have significantly improved beyond the reach of many female farmers and the poor- rural women’s access to decision making at the local level. est households. 70 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Strategies for taking advantage of opportunities highlighted Box 18.26 Agricultural Advice through M-Kilimo in the examples presented here include the following: in Kenya ■■ Undertake a gender analysis. Collect gender-disaggre- gated data to better understand the differing needs, M-Kilimo is an agricultural advisory resource being goals, resources, and risk management approaches and tested with support from the GSMA Development strategies of men and women. Fund and Rockefeller Foundation to learn about the potential for providing value-added agricultural ■■ Develop entertaining and educational shows (in local services via mobile phone. The service was made languages) that engage male and female farmers, and available to all Kenyan farmers with a mobile phone, local radio and TV stations, in program design, broad- irrespective of network affiliation. Farmers obtain cast, monitoring, and evaluation. information via voice or SMS, with SMS lending itself ■■ Work with the private sector and women’s producer to more concise messages such as agricultural tips, groups to develop technology and services that meet the crop calendar reminders, market prices, government needs and priorities of female farmers. Address resource alerts, and weather reports; the voice service is used constraints and poor incentives, and keep down the for questions and advice. Farmers can call the Farmer costs of using ICTs for female farmers.51 Helpline anytime between 7 a.m. and 11 p.m., seven ■■ Partially subsidize initial acquisition costs and use of any days a week. Service is offered in several local lan- tools and software (for example, through discounted air guages in addition to Swahili and English. Questions tended to relate to four main topics: agricultural tips time/text messaging). and efficient farming practices; questions on plant ■■ Work with women’s producer and other groups, and animal diseases and treatment; agriculture-­ as collective ownership and management are often specific weather forecasts; and market price informa- more sustainable options, but also invest in educat- tion. A study found that men own phones in Kenya ing men about the wide range of benefits associated at a much higher rate than women, which is reflected with ICT use. in the use of M-Kilimo services (women made up 31 percent of subscribers and 19 percent of regular users). The women who used the service regularly References and Key Sources of reported substantial benefits, including less tangible Additional Information benefits such as greater respect from neighbors and Agrawal, R. 2002. “Small Farms, Women, and Traditional pride in their farms. Knowledge: Experiences from Kumaon Hills.” Presented Source: GSMA Development Fund 2010. at 17th Symposium of the International Farming Systems Association, Lake Buena Vista, Florida. Alkire, S., R. Meinzen-Dick, A. Peterman, A. Quisumbing, G. Seymour, and A. 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Aggar- Pradesh, India.” Food and Agriculture Organization of wal, and R. Zougmoré. 2014a. “Scaling Up Climate Ser- the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. http://www.fao vices for Farmers: Mission Possible—Learning from Good .org/docrep/013/i1721e/i1721e.pdf. Practice in Africa and South Asia.” CCAFS Report 13. Manfre, C., and C. Nordehn. 2013. “Exploring the Promise CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agricul- of Information and Communication Technologies for ture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark. Women Farmers in Kenya.” MEAS Case Study 4. Mod- Tall, A., P. Kristjanson, M. Chaudhury, S. McKune, and R. ernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS) and Zougmoré. 2014b. “Who Gets the Information? Gen- U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), der, Power, and Equity Considerations in the Design of University of Illinois, Urbana. http://www.meas-exten Climate Services for Farmers.” CCAFS Working Paper sion.org/meas-offers/case-studies. 89. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, 72 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, ———. 2015. “Supporting Women’s Agro-Enterprises in Denmark. Africa with ICT: A Feasibility Study in Zambia and Kenya.” World Bank. 2011. “Equitable, ICT-enabled Agricultural Agriculture Global Practice Technical Paper. World Bank Development.” Module 4 in ICT in Agriculture: Connect- Group Report 93077-AFR. Washington, DC. http://doc ing Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions. uments.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/02/23989243 e-Sourcebook. Washington, DC. http://www.ictinagri /supporting-womens-agro-enterprises-africa-ict-feasi culture.org/sourcebook/module-equitable-ict-enabled- bility-study-zambia-kenya. agricultural-development#entry. INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 1: Harnessing Information and Communication Technology 73 I NN O V AT I V E A C T I V I TY PR O F I L E 2 Using Impact Investment to Promote Gender Equality and CSA T he private sector’s increasing involvement in sus- agroforestry, integrated pest management, and energy- tainable development presents opportunities for saving stoves), as well as business models committed to the investments that promote gender equality in CSA. mitigation of GHG emissions. Impact investments are made into companies and organiza- The environmental impact of products is increasingly tions to generate positive social and environmental impacts important to consumers. Compared to men, women tend alongside a financial return, and they may turn out to be one to favor more environmentally friendly products and invest- of the fastest-growing segments of the global impact invest- ments. According to the Morgan Stanley Institute for Sus- ment market. About 70 percent of impact investments have tainable Investing, female investors are more interested in been made in emerging markets. This innovative investing sustainable investing than male investors (76 percent ver- mechanism is not exclusive to the private sector. Pension sus 62 percent). Female investors are also more likely than funds, foundations, publicly owned companies, and NGOs, male investors to consider the impact of their investment in among others, are also including impact investments in their addition to the rate of return when making an investment actionable portfolio. decision. The majority of individual investors (65 percent) Investments within the context of “smallholder agri- expect sustainable investing to increase in the future. culture,” “sustainable agriculture,” or “CSA” face obstacles Enterprises addressing gender disparities as part of their such as high risk and low returns, insufficient capacity and core strategy offer enormous potential for financially sound resources among farmers and agribusinesses, inadequate and socially responsible investments. Using a gender lens physical infrastructure, and fragmented value chains. An to advance the CSA agenda can improve the financial and additional barrier to financing CSA is the time lag between social outcomes of the investments in different ways. Evi- investments and returns in terms of enhanced productivity dence shows that approaches promoting gender equality can and income. Innovative partnerships and financing models (i) support entrepreneurship by giving access to capital to that combine diverse sources of funds could therefore be both women investors and investees; (ii) promote greater effective in tackling these challenges. gender equality in the workplace by investing in private This profile describes the impact investment sector’s companies that include women in leadership positions, their potential for promoting gender and CSA. It introduces the corporate board, their workforce, and their value chains; basic features of impact investment and presents examples (iii) develop and offer products, services, and technologies of investments geared toward climate change and/or gender to level the playing field and provide equal opportunities for equality. Note that the focus is on the potential of impact all; and (iv) support social enterprises that are led and/or investment; the profile does not specifically discuss social majority owned by women. enterprises. Impact Investment Objectives, Context Characteristics, and Innovative Features Impact investment can intentionally target enterprises focused on CSA, including social enterprises directly related Similar to traditional types of investments, impact invest- to climate change adaptation (examples include weather ments can be made into both emerging and developed mar- forecasting, sustainable water and soil management, kets, with a wide range of financial return expectations and 74 asset classes. Their main innovative feature is the expressed of indicators that capture core aspects of the financial rela- intent to generate social and/or environmental impact. Addi- tionship between the financial institute and the social enter- tionally, the impact is required to be measured to justify the prise. Providing clear, effective, and balanced information existence of social investment. that takes into consideration risk and expected commit- Impact investments target social enterprises, bring- ments is also a useful approach for reaching out to possi- ing the private sector on board to contribute to local and ble investors, partners, and other programs. It is important global sustainable development. Socially conscious invest- to mention that these tools include indicators to track and ments appeal to both professional mainstream and citizen measure the investment’s contribution to gender equality, investors. The motivation for sustainable, responsible, and and although the indicator list is not exhaustive, it is a prom- impact-oriented investing varies according to institutional ising starting point to be included in portfolio analytics and and personal values and principles, client demands, and the due diligence parameters. constituents of a program. Investments in emerging mar- WOCAN55 has created a standard for development proj­ kets can also be attractive because of the size of the market ects, W+, to measure positive impacts to women’s social and the population’s increasing purchasing power. Impact and economic empowerment. Projects that obtain satis- investment also offer a new alternative to learn how emerg- factory results are issued a W+ certificate, which enables ing markets function, including business models and inno- project developers to sell “units” (at a price based on the vations that can lead to other investments in similar markets project’s impact on women’s lives) to corporations, inves- and serve to diversify a conventional investment portfolio. tors, or individual buyers, and make payments to women Investors’ legal status determines the action framework beneficiaries. of investments. As an emerging tool to connect private These types of investment often provide capacity devel- capital to social and environmental causes, impact invest- opment for targeted enterprises to compensate for the gen- ment is used by an increasing number of philanthropic eral lack of investment-readiness in low-income markets. institutions such as nonprofit organizations, which carry Enterprises need to develop not only financial skills but certain operational restrictions given their legal status. The a comprehensive understanding of funding options and legal considerations are related to the management of the investors’ requirements; they must be able to demonstrate expected financial returns as well as the investors’ national- their potential for scaling up and ability to achieve financial ity. Examples of innovative investment platforms offered by and social returns. Public-private partnerships as well as the nonprofit sector include the ones led by organizations philanthropic support are important for the development such as Kiva, Acumen Fund, Portafolia, and Global Green- of technical skills and market commercialization, and they grants Fund. can play an important role in providing the enabling envi- Impact investments are required to provide credible per- ronment that facilitates capacity building. Calvert Founda- formance data on the social and environmental impact. The tion, for example, has partnered with Global Alliance for Global Impact Investing Network52 has developed perfor- Cookstoves, a public-private partnership launched by the mance metrics for investors to measure social, environmen- United Nations, to provide capacity building to develop tal, and financial success. In addition to enabling effective specific technical needs of the investees and target audi- data analysis, impact measurement promotes accountability ences (box 18.27). and transparency in the impact-investing field. The Global Impact Investing Rating System53 offers rigorous, compre- Impact Investors with a Gender- hensive, and comparable ratings of a company or a fund’s SENSITIVE Approach social and environmental impact. The Finance Alliance for Sustainable Trade54 has developed a set of core indicators to Several impact investors adopt at least one gender-sensitive measure the social, environmental, and economic impact of approach. Ensuring gender diversity on their boards of investments in small-to-medium enterprises that are active directors and in leadership positions is an established prior- in sustainable agricultural value chains. It also includes a set ity for investment programs such as the Pax Ellevate Global Women’s Index Fund, the Morgan Stanley Parity Portfolio, 52  See http://www.thegiin.org/cgi-bin/iowa/home/index.html. 53  See http://b-analytics.net/giirs-ratings/. Women Organizing for Change in Agriculture and Natural   55 54  See https://www.fastinternational.org/en/node/59. Resource Management (http://www.wocan.org/). INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 2: Using Impact Investment to Promote Gender Equality and CSA 75 Box 18.27 The Calvert Foundation and Clean Energy Technologies for Women Calvert Foundation’s WIN-WIN invests in women in The foundation has also partnered with the Global developing countries by connecting them with clean Alliance for Clean Cookstoves to provide technical assis- energy technologies. These technologies, which benefit tance to social enterprises that develop and market these women’s health and the environment, are considered cli- technologies. The foundation also supports Global Alli- mate-smart. Since its establishment in March 2012, the ance’s awareness-building work, standards, testing pro- foundation has made more than $20 million in gender gram, and research platform, all of which contribute to lens investments in various sectors. It recently committed enabling the market and increasing demand for quality an additional $20 million to social enterprises and finan- clean cooking technologies and fuels. cial intermediaries that provide a range of clean energy Individuals in the United States or brokerages can opportunities for women. For example, the foundation invest in the initiative. Investments vary from $20 to more invested in Envirofit, a producer and distributor of clean than $1,000, with a financial return that goes from 0 to cookstoves and solar lighting products for impoverished 3 percent, at terms of 1–10 years. This capital is pooled communities in developing countries. Envirofit has reg- and then lent to social enterprises and financial inter- istered carbon programs in Africa, Latin America, and mediaries that focus on the intersection between access India to manage, monitor, and verify their programs to clean energy and women’s empowerment. The foun- and expand their cookstove programs in other parts of dation monitors social and environmental performance the world. Envirofit has been able to impact more than annually through a Social Performance Measurement 3.5 million livelihoods, create more than 1,000 jobs, and Report that incorporates industry-aligned metrics and save more than 11 million tons of CO2. At the household best practices. The Calvert Foundation also follows the level, the stoves have reduced fuel costs by more than $96 IRIS framework developed by the Global Impact Invest- million and saved 6.3 million working weeks in fuelwood ing Network to provide a common reporting language collection. for impact-related terms and metrics. Source: Calvert Foundation. and Barclays Women in Leadership Total Return Index. production practices among farmer members. In 2012, Root Investing in women-led companies and women entrepre- Capital launched the Women in Agriculture Initiative spe- neurs is the strategy of Texas Women’s Ventures, Golden cifically to understand and maximize impact on women, Seeds, and Veris Wealth Partners. An International Finance enhancing the capacity of agribusinesses to provide reliable Corporation (IFC) program, Banking on Women Bonds, economic opportunities for female producers, managers, provides finance to women entrepreneurs and advisory ser- and leaders. Through 2016, Root Capital will invest in 200 vices to enable commercial banks to reach out and serve gender-sensitive businesses, build the management capac- women clients. This particular bond program represents an ity of 100 gender-inclusive businesses, and reach 200,000 opportunity that could be geared toward gender-respon- female producers. sive CSA. In partnership with Goldman Sachs, IFC also The innovative approach of Village Capital includes launched the Women Entrepreneurs Opportunity Facility, intensive mentoring by experts and other entrepreneurs dedicated exclusively to women-owned small and medium when selecting social enterprises to be financed, which has enterprises. led to financing for many projects cofounded by women Root Capital, a nonprofit social investment fund, sup- (box 18.28). The Hivos-Triodos Fund offers investment ports rural agribusiness enterprises in Africa and Latin opportunities in renewable energy and sustainable agricul- America by lending capital, delivering financial training, ture with a special focus on women and innovative financial and strengthening market linkages. Through its core activi- institutions. Other examples of impact investments already ties, Root Capital works at the intersection of climate change targeting sustainable agriculture principles include Capri- and gender. Root Capital promotes good environmental corn Investment Group, Christian Super, DOEN Founda- stewardship by serving businesses that promote sustainable tion, and LGT Venture. 76 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture financing rounds. The evidence shows that investors who Box 18.28 Village Capital’s Impact Investment exit early usually receive diluted returns or have to accept Model write-downs. One challenge of investing in social enterprises is that they have high due diligence costs, because most of these businesses are young and cannot absorb large amounts Village Capital (VilCap) is a system to source, train, of capital. Although the due diligence costs are significant and invest in impactful enterprises that are at the seed-stage of development. The organization has and often of a fixed nature, in extreme cases, an investor supported 450 enterprises through 35 programs in might spend more money on due diligence than on the 9 countries, including Brazil, China, India, Kenya, actual investment. Transaction costs thus need to be kept at Mexico, and South Africa, as well as the Netherlands, a reasonable level compared to the total investment. VilCap’s United Kingdom, and United States. At the end of training program (box 18.28) is an innovative approach for each three-month program, the top ventures are dealing with this challenge. selected by program peers and given a precommitted Most impact investments emphasize the importance of capital investment from VilCap Investments (an affil- investing in capacity building for social enterprises. Tech- iated fund). Village Capital regard this selection pro- nical assistance helps men and women entrepreneurs to cess as forming the core of its strategy for achieving its develop the technical capacities needed by investors, allows mission to “democratize entrepreneurship.” for the creation of the appropriate financing structure, and Among other sector-expert partners, VilCap has serves as an instrument to plan and scale up entrepreneurs’ previously teamed up with Juhudi Kilimo, an orga- nization that provides asset-based loans to more business models. For this reason, impact investments should than 30,000 smallholder farmers and enterprises in also consider the skills needed to enhance the sustainability Kenya, to identify game-changing agriculture, energy, of the business models they support. Furthermore, impact and financial service innovations. The VilCap Juhudi investments directed exclusively to women can tap unno- Kilimo program featured $100,000 for precommitted ticed knowledge, talents, and capacities of women investees. investments to the top two selected enterprises. Juhudi Measuring impact and retaining flexibility are essen- Kilimo focuses on farmers, with specific attention to tial. Investment managers are highly advised to use moni- rural women and youth, and uses innovative plans to toring and impact measuring tools to quantify the financial, invest in solid assets rather than the traditional micro- social, and environmental outcomes of their portfolio. The finance approach of providing cash only. collected data should fit both the investor’s impact report- Village Capital’s work is supported by a wide ing requirements and the enterprise’s growth goals. Another array of partners, sponsors, and members that help important goal is for the institutional practices of the invest- build the infrastructure for entrepreneurs to identify authentic demands from customers, build critical ment administrator and of the enterprise to be flexible and sales channels, and find a team of mentors and experts capable of quickly reflecting changes in the environment upon which they can rely. Some of the agricultural and infrastructure. enterprises in which VilCap Investments has invested Build on available resources and tools. New and cur- include EFK Group in Kenya, Wanda Organic, and rent impact investments can benefit from research, success Ojay Greene. stories, and other resources offered by development part- Source: Village Capital. ners and institutions to identify institutions, markets, and gaps for future investments and ventures. Sharing lessons and success stories with partners and coinvestors has been shown to benefit all parties involved. The different actors along the value chain can benefit from focusing on what Conclusions and Issues they do best, and they can also learn from others’ expertise for Wider Application and know-how. The following lessons relate to the design, characteristics, Gender is not a separate sector, and it should be part of and implementation of impact investment. They include the entire value-chain analysis. Women should be part of investments that have been crafted with gender considera- the whole investment design and cycle (the design should tions in mind. be with women, not for them). The focus on gender-specific Impact investments are long-term commitments; as needs within sectors offers great potential for understand- such, they may require additional capital in subsequent ing gender needs among both investors and investees, while INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 2: Using Impact Investment to Promote Gender Equality and CSA 77 Note. 13. London, UK. http://www.bvca.co.uk/Portals/0 Box 18.29 Plan Vivo: Payment for Ecosystem /library/Files/News/2011/2011_0016_rn13_social_enter Services through a Voluntary Carbon prise.pdf. Sequestration Scheme in Uganda Carlile, L. M, L. Choi, P. Farrar-Rivas, and A. Pyott. 2013. “Women, Wealth, and Impact: Investing with a Gender Lens.” Veris Wealth Partners. http://www.veriswp.com Plan Vivo, a nonprofit organization, provides an /wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Women-Wealth-And- example of a carbon sequestration scheme based on Impact_CA_20131218.pdf. agroforestry in Bushenyi District, Uganda. Agricul- CCAFS and FAO (CGIAR Research Program on Climate tural production is combined with carbon sequestra- Change, Agriculture, and Food Security and Food and tion according to a “plan vivo,” which is designed at Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012. the farm level with a strong participatory approach “Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research that brings farmers together to decide on and draw in Agriculture and Food Security for Rural Develop- the interspersion of cultivated plots and planted trees. ment.” CCAFS and FAO, Rome, Italy. Women’s participation can be hampered by local perceptions about gender roles and rights, but focus Credit Suisse and Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepre- groups led by Plan Vivo aim to narrow this gender neurship. 2012. “Investing for Impact: How Social Entre- gap. The reduction of carbon emissions gained with preneurship is Redefining the Meaning of the Return.” this type of agricultural production is independently Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.weforum.org/pdf assessed and generates Plan Vivo Certificates, which /schwabfound/Investing_for_Impact.pdf. are sold as carbon offsets for the conservation of eco- Criterion Institute. “Gender Lens Investing.” http://criteri systems and poverty reduction of landholders. oninstitute.org/revaluegender/gender-lens-investing/. European Commission. 2011. “The Social Business Initia- Source: Adapted from Ottaviani 2013. tive: Promoting Social Investment Funds.” Staff working paper. Brussels, Belgium. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United creating more opportunities for women’s empowerment Nations). 2013. Payments for Ecosystem Services and Food Security, edited by Daniela Ottaviani and Nadia through CSA. Monitoring and impact measurement tools El-Hage Scialabba. FAO, Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org such as FAST and IRIS are a good starting point for incor- /docrep/014/i2100e/i2100e.PDF. porating gender dimensions into performance analysis. ———. 2014. “Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Future impact investment opportunities are likely to Agriculture: A Manual to Address Data Requirements for include climate change mitigation. Impact investment may Developing Countries.” FAO, Rome, Italy. soon venture into social enterprises that address climate FAST (Finance Alliance for Sustainable Trade). 2011. “FAST change mitigation through innovative agricultural practices SIAMT: Building a Common Framework for Impact such as those promoted as part of CSA. In the forestry sec- Assessment.” https://www.fastinternational.org/files/ tor, for example, the Reducing Emissions from Deforesta- FAST%20SIAMT%201.0%20Full%20Report%20_0 tion and Forest Degradation (REDD and REDD+) system .pdf. offers financial opportunities for services such as carbon Forum for Sustainable and Responsible Investment. “SRI stored in forests, forest conservation, sustainable forest Basics.” http://www.ussif.org/sribasics. management, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (for GIIN (Global Impact Investing Network). “About Impact an example, see box 18.29). In agriculture, much research, Investing.” http://www.thegiin.org/cgi-bin/iowa capacity development, and piloting continue to identify and /resources/about/index.html. collect reliable data and to quantify emissions and carbon IFC (International Finance Corporation). 2010. “Strategic sequestration from different practices. Community Investment: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets.” IFC, Washington, DC. References and Key Sources of ———. 2015. “Banking on Women Bonds.” IFC, Washing- Additional Information ton, DC. British Private Equity and Venture Capital Association Kaplan, S., and J. Vanderburg. 2014. “The Rise of Gen- (BVCA). 2011. “Social Enterprise.” BCVA Research der Capitalism.” Stanford Social Innovation Review, 78 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Fall. http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/the_rise_ Root Capital. “Appling a Gender Lens to Agriculture: Farm- of_gender_capitalism. ers, Leaders, and Hidden Influences in the Rural Econ- Kumbuli, N. 2015. “10 Do’s and Don’ts of Gender Lens omy.” Issue Brief 2. http://www.aspeninstitute.org/sites Investing.” Calvert Foundation blog. http://www.calvert /default/files/content/docs/resources/Root_Capital foundation.org/blog/536-gender-lens-investing-advice. _Gender_Lens_Issue_Brief.pdf. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and U.N. Global Compact and Rockefeller Foundation. 2012. Development). 1999. Social Enterprises. OECD, Paris, “A Framework for Action: Social Enterprise and Impact France. doi: 10.1787/9789264182332-en. Investing.” New York, NY. https://www.unglobalcompact Ottaviani, D. 2013. “The Role of PES in Agriculture,” Chap- .org/docs/issues_doc/development/Framework_Social ter 1 in Payments for Ecosystem Services and Food Security, _Enterprise_Impact_Investing.pdf. edited by Daniela Ottaviani and Nadia El-Hage Scial- Wilson, K. E. 2014. “New Investment Approaches for Address- abba, 9–44. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organi- ing Social and Economic Challenges.” OECD Science, zation of the United Nations (FAO). http://www.fao.org Technology, and Industry Policy Paper 15. Organisation for /docrep/014/i2100e/i2100e.PDF. Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris, France. INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 2: Using Impact Investment to Promote Gender Equality and CSA 79 I NN O V AT I V E A C T I V I TY PR O F I L E 3 CSA for Fisheries: The Fao-Thiaroye Fish Processing Technique Context landing, and storage and cooling facilities. Better processing E and preservation techniques will help maintain fish product ach year, approximately one-third of all the food quality and extend shelf-life, thus improving marketability. produced for direct human consumption is lost In most tropical developing countries, including in Africa, or wasted. This enormous waste of resources and smoking and drying are common fish processing and pres- investments also represents a threat to food security in the ervation techniques used in small- and medium-scale fish- face of population growth and resource scarcity. Further, the eries. Fish-processing efficiency is often low, partly because environmental impact of food loss and waste is significant, processors frequently must wait for the right weather condi- including the emissions of GHGs. FAO reports that the car- tions. Processing methods can also be detrimental to human bon footprint of food produced and not eaten is estimated and environmental health. Most drying and smoking tech- at 3.3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent, excluding GHG emis- niques are deficient in food safety, especially because of sions from land use change (FAO 2013b). The uneaten food contamination from the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that ends up rotting in landfills is another large producer of (PAHs) given off by burning wood (Martson et al. 2001), a potent GHG, methane. and they raise environmental concerns about deforestation Food loss refers to a decrease in edible food mass to and the high levels of GHG emissions from the primary fuel the loss of quality throughout the food supply chain, from sources used (wood and charcoal). production to postharvest handling, distribution, and con- A reduction of postharvest losses in fisheries would not sumption. In low-income countries, food is lost mostly dur- only make more food available but improve incomes by ing the early and middle stages of the chain. Climate change increasing the value rather than the volume of the catch— may exacerbate food loss because of its negative effects on an important contribution in a context of overfishing and the supply of raw materials, on processing and storage, and climate change, where overall catches and stock health are on transport due to extremely high or low temperatures. likely to decline. Not only does climate change affect cap- Because many smallholder farmers and fishers in developing ture and aquaculture fisheries productivity through changes countries live in food insecurity, a reduction in food losses in water temperature, ocean currents, and other conditions, could have an immediate and significant impact on their but changes in catch potential (type and volume) also have livelihoods. Reducing food loss and waste is also an impor- large implications for global food security. In tropical com- tant step toward developing a more climate-smart food sup- munities whose livelihoods depend on fisheries, a reduction ply chain. in the access to food is expected (Cheung et al. 2009). Spe- In the fisheries sector in low-income countries, losses cies distribution across oceans is also affected by climate arise from limitations in production, harvesting, and post- change and may require changes in technology for harvest- harvesting techniques, storage and cooling facilities, infra- ing, processing, and marketing fish. structure, and packaging and marketing systems. Addressing bottlenecks at critical loss points can reduce losses and waste. For example, losses during fishing can be reduced The Project: Development and through appropriate measures to curb incidental catches/ Introduction of FTT -Thiaroye by-catch, along with discard management. Improvements Improvements in fish processing technology can address are also needed in postharvest handling, transportation after these issues and address gender inequalities at the same 80 Figure 18.3 An Improved Smoking Kiln: The Thiaroye Fish consumption and optimizes the use of biomass (plant and Smoking Technology organic byproducts and cow dung) throughout the process. In most countries, agro-wastes are easily available. They are not only an affordable alternative fuel, but because they are available within a reasonable distance, their use reduces the labor expended by women in obtaining wood or charcoal for fuel. The technology was recently improved to incorporate a drying function. This improvement made it possible for operators to dry as well as smoke fish with the same equip- ment, thereby increasing the range of species that could be processed. This important advantage should reinforce pro- cessors’ adaptation to climate change and increase their resil- ience, given that the composition of species is projected to change with climate change. Another significant advantage time, given that fish processors are predominantly women. of the equipment is that fish can be dried or smoked regard- According to the latest statistics, in most fishing communi- less of the weather. Natural drying methods entail posthar- ties as many as 90 percent of workers in processing activities vest losses ranging from 10 percent to 50 percent (they are can be female (FAO 2014). Women, therefore, bear the brunt generally higher in the rainy season or humid weather). of the drudgery and health problems related to drying and The FTT also contributes to food safety. Between 2006 smoking fish. and 2011, the European Union banned imports of processed The Thiaroye fish smoking technology (also known as fish from Côte d’Ivoire because of unacceptable levels of FTT-Thiaroye) improves economic productivity and food polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (carcinogens security by reducing postharvest losses in the fish value given off by burning wood). The ban caused substantial chain. Postharvest losses (in quantity, quality, or marketabil- economic losses valued at around $1,700,000 per year. With ity) (Diei-Ouadi and Mgawe 2011) lead to a reduction in real the introduction of the FTT-Thiaroye and its adoption by incomes and food available for a family. The FTT-Thiaroye small-scale processors, Ivorian smoked products have now was developed by FAO together with the National Training met the stringent market requirements for PAH levels. The Centre for Fisheries and Aquaculture Technicians in Senegal increased awareness of the Ivorian authorities of this public (CNFTPA) in 2008. The equipment, costing $500–$800, can health and food safety issue has led them to support wider easily be built by metal workers using local materials. The dissemination of the FTT-Thiaroye. technology addresses the deficiencies in smoking techniques by adding new components to the existing or improved kilns.56 Women at the Center Stage The new smoking kiln (figure 18.3) reduces losses by of This New Technology consistently producing a larger quantity of safer products of By design, the FAO-Thiaroye system is a gender-sensitive superior and more uniform quality. Essentially, the FTT pre- technique that can be used and maintained easily by female vents fish quality losses that become apparent to value-chain fish processors. By reducing drying and smoking times, and actors at the commercialization stage but that actually occur producing a product that sells more readily and rapidly, earlier, as a result of inadequate processing technologies in the new technology increases the time available to women small-scale fisheries. for other pursuits, including caring for the household and Another advantage of the FTT-Thiaroye system is its children. A more marketable product also fetches premium improved energy efficiency and other potential environ- prices, meaning increased income for the woman who pro- mental protection features. The new kiln reduces charcoal duce smoked and dried fish. Even where consumers have low purchasing power, the stall with a better-quality product 56 These components are an indirect smoke generator system, a   is preferred to a poor-quality fish display. To some extent, hot-air distributor, an ember furnace, and a fat-collection tray; women have also been able to increase their share in value- for additional detail, see Ndiaye, Sodoke Komivi, and Diei-Ouadi addition from capture to final sale. The FTT system makes (2014). it easy to collect by-products of processing, especially fat, INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 3: CSA for Fisheries: The Fao-Thiaroye Fish Processing Technique 81 training to introduce the FTT technology to local fish pro- Box 18.30 The Success Story of Women Fish cessors. At the time of writing, other countries in Africa and Processors in Côte d’Ivoire Asia where fish smoking is common, and where women are highly involved in fish processing, have expressed interest in the technology. The majority of fish smokers in Côte d’Ivoire are Many national fisheries institutions, authorities, and female, and they earn their living through this trade international development organizations, such as the World (the products of small-scale fisheries are mainly exported to neighboring countries). In Abobodoumé, Bank in Togo and Côte d’Ivoire, are scaling up projects with instead of using the traditional smoking equipment the FTT. This work aims to help small-scale fishers and pro- consisting of mud ovens and cut-up barrels, Ivorian cessors reap additional benefits from their business in safer women fish processors adopted two prototypes of working conditions, while protecting the environment and the FTT-Thiaroye. By exposing the processors to less adapting to the impact of the climate change. In the FTT heat, fewer burns, and less smoke, the new technol- programs that have involved FAO, at least 80 percent of the ogy reduced the health, occupational, and safety haz- individuals trained to build, use, and maintain the FTT are ards they experienced, especially the risk to their eyes women fish processors. Experience has shown that these and respiratory systems. The income and livelihoods women are more likely than male trainees to inform their of the women also improved, and consequently their peers of the positive result of this efficient new technique capacity to enhance the food security of their family. for fish processing. Promotion of the FTT-Thiaroye tech- The women have seen the time-saving advantage of nology among fish processors throughout East and West the new technology as well. In African communities, this issue is particularly important, because women Africa would greatly benefit from such practical knowledge also engage in household chores while conducting sharing. their fish-processing activities. References and Key Sources of Additional Information Akande G., and Y. Diei-Ouadi. 2010. “Post-Harvest Losses in Small-Scale Fisheries: Case Studies in Five Sub-Saharan which can be sold for additional income or made into soap African Countries.” FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Tech- (which also generates additional income). Such auxiliary nical Paper 550. Food and Agriculture Organization of activities add no drudgery to processors’ work, because the the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. fat is easily collected in a container placed outside the FTT Cheung, W. W. L., V. W. Y. Lam, J. L. Sarmiento, K. Kear- furnace. In sum, the technical support by FAO for the FTT- ney, R. Watson, D. Zeller, and D. Pauly. 2009. “Large-Scale Thiaroye has achieved economic and social dividends, par- Redistribution of Maximum Fisheries Catch Potential in the Global Ocean under Climate Change.” Global Change ticularly for women, and has contributed to food security. Biology 16: 24–35. For an example from Côte d’Ivoire, see box 18.30. Diei-Ouadi, Y., and Y. I. Mgawe. 2011. “Post-harvest Fish Loss Assessment in Small-Scale Fisheries: A Guide for the Lessons Learned and Issues for Wider Extension Officer.” FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Tech- Applicability nical Paper 559. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. The FTT-Thiaroye is contributing to improving the value EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). 2008. “Polycyclic chain in the fisheries and aquaculture sector, increasing the Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Food: Scientific Opinion of competitiveness of the products from small-scale fish opera- the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain.” EFSA tors (especially but not exclusively women), contributing to Journal 724: 1–114. food security, and strengthening fishing communities’ resil- FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United ience to climate change. To date, the FTT-Thiaroye is used Nations). 2013b. “Food Wastage Footprint: Impact on in Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania, and Togo. Some Natural Resources.” Summary Report. FAO, Rome, Italy. prototypes have been replicated with the inclusion of solar ———. 2013a. Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. panels (for example, in Nigeria). Fisheries officers in other Rome, Italy: FAO. http://www.climatesmartagriculture African countries such as Kenya and Uganda have received .org/72611/en/. 82 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture ———. 2014. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Thematic Note 1:The Role of Innovative Technologies Opportunities and Challenges. Rome, Italy: FAO. for Gender-Responsive CSA Martson, C. P., C. Pareira, J. Ferguson, K. Fischer, H. Olaf, Leon Williams and Ilaria Firmian from IFAD authored this W. Dashwood, and W. M. Baird. 2001. “Effect of Com- plex Environmental Mixture from Coal Tar Containing note with coauthors Yufei Li and Larissa Setaro from IFAD Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) on Tumor Ini- and Sophia Huyer from CCAFS. It was reviewed by Todd tiation, PAH-DNA Binding, and Metabolic Activation of Crane from ILRI; Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa, and Christine Carcinogenic PAH in Mouse Epidermis.” Carcinogenesis Heumesser from the World Bank; Maria Nuutinen, Sibyl 22(7): 1077. Nelson, Ilaria Sisto, Flavia Grassi, and Kaisa Karttunen from Ndiaye, O., B. Sodoke Komivi, and Y. Diei-Ouadi. 2014. FAO; and Patti Kristjanson (consultant). Andreas Thulstrup “Guide for Developing and Using the FAO-Thiaroye Pro- from FAO wrote the box on cooking stoves. cessing Technique (FTT-Thiaroye).” Food and Agricul- ture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. Thematic Note 2: Gender-Responsive, Climate-Smart Sérot, T., R. Baron, M. Cardinal, C. Cataneo, C. Knockaert, B. Landscape Approaches Le Bizec, C. Prost, F. Monteau, and V. Varlet. 2008. “Assess- Patti Kristjanson (consultant) wrote this note with input ment of the Effects of the Smoke Generation Processes and from Sarah Scherr (EcoAgriculture) and Norbert Henninger of Smoking Parameters on the Organoleptic Perception, (WRI). It was reviewed by Diji Chandrasekharan Behr, David the Levels of the Most Odorant Compounds and PAH Treguer, Ademola Braimoh, Tobias Baedeker, and Christine Content of Smoked Salmon Fillets.” In Report and Papers Presented at the Second Workshop on Fish Technol- Heumesser from the World Bank; Ilaria Firmian from IFAD; ogy, Utilization, and Quality Assurance in Africa, Agadir, and Sibyl Nelson and Kaisa Karttunen from FAO. Morocco, 24–28 November 2008.” FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report 904. Food and Agriculture Organiza- tion of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. 1-3–14. Thematic Note 3: Monitoring and Evaluating Gender through the CSA Project Cycle SFP Info. 2010. “Strengthening Fishery Products (SFP) Health Conditions in ACP/OCT Countries.” SFP Info, Ingrid Mollard (consultant) wrote this note, with coau- October 14. thors Christine Heumesser from the World Bank; Solomon Simko, P. 2002. “Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Asfaw, Giuseppe Maggio, and Sibyl Nelson from FAO; and Hydrocarbons in Smoked Meat Products and Smoke Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa from the World Bank. Estibalitz Flavouring Food Additives.” Journal of Chromatography Morras Dimas from IFAD; Szilvia Lehel, Ilaria Sisto, Kaisa B 770: 3–18. Karttunen, and Maria Nuutinen from FAO; and Patti Krist- janson (consultant) reviewed the note. NOTES: AUTHORS AND REVIEWERS Thematic Note 4: Household and Community-Driven The entire module was reviewed by Lynn Brown and Vir- Development ginia Seiz (consultants). Leon Williams and Clare Bishop-Sambrook from IFAD wrote this note, which was reviewed by Natasha Hayward Overview from the World Bank; Ilaria Sisto and Kaisa Karttunen from The Overview was written by Patti Kristjanson (consultant) FAO; Lynn Brown (consultant); Patti Kristjanson (consult- and reviewed by Tobias Baedeker, David Treguer, Christine ant); and Anita Spring from University of Florida. Heumesser, Ademola Braimoh, and Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa from the World Bank; Szilvia Lehel, Leslie Lipper, Federica Thematic Note 5:The Role of Institutions for Gender- Matteoli, and Kaisa Karttunen from FAO; and Ilaria Fir- Responsive CSA mian from IFAD. Morgan C. Mutoko (consultant) and Janie Rioux from FAO wrote the box on Western Kenya. Monica This note, written by Szilvia Lehel (FAO), was reviewed by Peric and Corina Lefer from FAO wrote the box on gender- Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa from the World Bank; Maria Nuu- equitable, decent work; it was reviewed by Ileana Grandelis, tinen, Kaisa Karttunen, and Ilaria Sisto from FAO; Ilaria Ilaria Sisto, and Libor Stloukal from FAO. Firmian from IFAD; Leisa Perch from UNDP; Karl Deering, INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY PROFILE 3: CSA for Fisheries: The Fao-Thiaroye Fish Processing Technique 83 Emily Hillenbrand, and Joshi Bharati from CARE; Patti Innovative Activity Profile 2: Using Impact Investment Kristjanson from ICRAF; and Kanchan Lama from WOCAN. to Promote Gender Equality and CSA The box on the R4 Rural Resilience Initiative was written by Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa (World Bank) wrote this profile with Azzurra Massimino from WFP. The box on gender-sensitive coauthor Julia Navarro (World Bank). It was reviewed by Social Protection and CSA was written by Natalia Winder Eija Pehu and Marialena Vyzaki from the World Bank; Ilaria Rossi from FAO and reviewed by Salomon Asfaw, Szilvia Sisto, Szilvia Lehel, and Kaisa Karttunen from FAO; Ilaria Lehel, Libor Stloukal, and Ilaria Sisto from FAO and Patti Firmian from IFAD; Carmen Neithammer and Heather Mae Kristjanson (consultant). Kipnis from IFC; and Patti Kristjanson (consultant). Innovative Activity Profile 1: Harnessing Information and Communication Technology Innovative Activity Profile 3:The FAO-Thiaroye for Gender-Responsive CSA Fish Processing Technique Patti Kristjanson (consultant) wrote this profile with coau- This profile was written by Aina Randrianantoandro with thors Sophia Huyer (CCAFS), Andres Sanchez Enrico (FAO), coauthor Yvette Diei from FAO. It was reviewed by Mimako and Christiane Monsieur (FAO). Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa Kobayashi and Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa from the World Bank, from the World Bank; Ilaria Sisto and Kaisa Karttunen from with Jacqueline Alder, Alejandra Safa, Ilaria Sisto, and Kaisa FAO; and Ilaria Firmian from IFAD reviewed the profile. Karttunen from FAO; and Patti Kristjanson (consultant). 84 MODULE 18: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture A g r icu l tu r e g l o b a l p r actic e W ORL D B A N K GRO U P REPOR T N U M BER 9 9 5 0 5 -GLB This latest Module of the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook entitled Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture provides development agencies and practitioners, policy makers, civil society, research and academia, as well as the private sector with tested good practices and innovative approaches and technologies for gender mainstreaming in climate-smart agriculture. This module is a joint product of the World Bank Group, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 1818 H Street, NW Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/agriculture