70103 Analysis of v2 Disaster Risk Management in Colombia A Contribution to the Creation of Public Policies Coordinators and Editors Ana Campos G., Niels Holm-Nielsen, Carolina Díaz G., Diana M. Rubiano V., Carlos R. Costa P., Fernando Ramírez C. and Eric Dickson THE WORLD BANK COLOMBIA Analysis of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia A Contribution to the Creation of Public Policies Coordinators and Editors Ana Campos G., Niels Holm-Nielsen, Carolina Díaz G., Diana M. Rubiano V., Carlos R. Costa P., Fernando Ramírez C., and Eric Dickson THE WORLD BANK COLOMBIA THE WORLD BANK COLOMBIA Analysis of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia: A Contribution to the Creation of Public Policies Copyright © 2011 by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433, USA Internet: www.worldbank.org/co All Rights Reserved This book was originally published by The World Bank in Spanish as Análisis de la gestión del riesgo de desastres en Colombia: un aporte para la construcción de políticas públicas. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this book are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank or Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank and Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. The World Bank and Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) encourage dissemination of its work and normally will promptly grant permission to reproduce portions of the work. For permission to reprint individual articles or chapters, please fax a request with complete information to Fernanda Zavaleta, Communications Officer – The World Bank Colombia and Mexico, fax (55) 5480-4222. All other queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to the Communications Officer. The World Bank Design: Marcela Godoy Proofreading and editing: Zuzana Johansen, Carolina de Los Angeles Ferrer. Cover photo: Floods. Municipality of Chia (Cundinamarca, Colombia), 2011. Image credit: Regional Autonomous Corporation of Cundinamarca. Photos: Gabriel J. Arango Z., Nilson Correa B., Colombian Geological Survey, Colombian Ocean Commission. Analysis of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia: A Contribution to the Creation of Public Policies. -- Bogota, Colombia: The World Bank: GFDRR, 2012. 402 p. : il. 333.3109861/A56 1. Resettlement prevention – Natural disasters – Colombia – Public policies – 2. Natural disasters – Resettlement prevention – Colombia – Public policies. – 3. Colombia – Resettlement prevention – Natural disasters – Public policies PREFACE Like many countries in latin america, Colombia faces great challenges that seriously threaten its development. Factors such as population displacement from rural to urban areas, environmental degradation, and rapid changes in land use amplify these challenges. These socioeconomic conditions, together with the country’s tendency to be affected by natural phenomena such as earthquakes, floods, and landslides, among others, aggravated by human activity and varying climate conditions, confirm a continuous construction process and risk accumula- tion. The materialization of these risks on disasters affects the country’s develop- ment, obstructing and delaying the achievement of the social welfare goals set by the Government. As a result of the immense losses caused by the La Niña phenomenon in 2010-2011, and within the scope of the agenda on disaster risk management that the World Bank has maintained since 1999 with the Colombian Government, the National Planning Department requested the support of this institution to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the risk management policies and make short- and long-term strategic recommendations to help reduce the disaster’s impact on the population and the economy. This is the first time that a Disaster Risk Management Analysis is carried out in Latin America within the context of development policies in a country where traditionally the Bank has conducted these types of studies from an environmental perspective or from the different sectors. This report, which is not limited to analyzing the risk causes or measuring their growth, is the result of a joint effort with multiple public and private agents. It goes into depth in the institutional advances in risk management at different govern- ment levels, and explains how this issue has been incorporated in the territorial and sectoral public administration. Additionally, it indicates the immense opportunities to articulate disaster risk management in current planning, investment, monitoring and control instruments, and makes evident the need to define public and private responsibility as part of the strategy in reducing the State’s fiscal vulnerability. In summary, the study shows that if the country does not want stagnation in its economic growth due to more frequent losses and at a greater scale, a radical change is essential in development policies and in territorial and sectoral management prac- tices. Therefore, this document defines a set of recommendations so that disaster risk management becomes a State policy, emphasizing that improving land use and land occupation conditions is a priority in reducing the impact of disasters. v We wish to express our gratitude on behalf of the World Bank to the Gov- ernment of Colombia for the trust given to us in requesting that we carry out this study. Likewise, I am grateful to everyone who contributed in one way or another with their formulations and comments. Special thanks as well to the Global Facil- ity for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) for their financial support in making this study possible. I invite State authorities, responsible for policy and development processes, to incorporate the criteria for risk reduction in all their practices, to encourage the participation of those who have not traditionally been involved in this problem, and to to technically and financially join the local and regional governments in creating new intervention strategies in order to build a country based on safety criteria in facing disaster risks. GLORIA GRANDOLINI Director for Mexico and Colombia World Bank vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Analysis of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia: A Contribution to the Creation of Public Policies is the result of World Bank work started in March 2011 at the request of the Colombian government through the National Planning Department. Numerous entities and professionals interested in the subject participated and an important group of collaborators made possible the materialization of the current document. The team especially wishes to thank Gloria M. Grandolini (Country Director, Colombia and Mexico - World Bank), Ede Jorge Ijjasz-Vásquez (Sector Manager for the Sustainable Development Department for Latin America and the Caribbean Region - World Bank), Guang Zhe Chen (Sector Manager for Urban, Water and Sanitation, and Disaster Risk Management for Latin America and the Caribbean Region - World Bank), Geoffrey Bergen (Resident Representative in Colombia - World Bank) and Daniel Sellen (Sector Manager for the Sustainable Development Department for Colombia - World Bank) for their unconditional support. Project Coordinators The project was developed under the leadership of Niels Holm-Nielsen (Disaster Risk Management Coordinator for Latin America and the Caribbean Region - World Bank) and Eric Dickson (Project Manager for Colombia). Leading Authors and Editors The paper was prepared by a groups of World Bank specialists in disaster risk management led by Ana Campos García, Carolina Díaz Giraldo, Diana Marcela Rubiano Vargas, Carlos Rufino Costa Posada, and Fernando Ramírez Cortés - World Bank. Team The complete work team included: OSSO Corporation’s Andrés Velásquez, Fernando Ramírez Gómez, Cristina Rosales Climent, Nayibe Jiménez Pérez, Diana Mendoza González, William Burbano, Natalia Díaz Ayala, Jorge Eduardo Mendoza Cifuentes, Henry Adolfo Peralta Buriticá, and Mauricio Bautista Arteaga. Individual consultants in different disciplines: Víctor Manuel Moncayo Cruz, Carmenza Saldías Barreneche, María Isabel Toro Quijano, Amparo Velásquez Peñaloza, Juanita López Peláez, Jaime Iván Ordoñez Ordoñez, Jorge Alberto Serna Jaramillo, José Edier Ballesteros Herrera, Carlos Eduardo Vargas Manrique, Doris Suaza Español, Leonardo Morales Rojas, Elvira Milén Agámez Cárdenas, Ernesto Betancourt Morales, Ana María Torres Muñoz, and Alejandro Vega; and the following World Bank officials: María Clara Ucrós, Daniel Alberto Manjarrés, Karina M. Kashiwamoto, and Ana F. Daza. Reviewers The team received support and comments from Daniel Sellen (World Bank), Diego Arias Carballo (World Bank), Lars Christian Moller (World Bank), Mauricio Cuéllar Montoya (World Bank), Andrew Maskrey (UNISDR), Ricardo Mena (UNISDR), Allan Lavell (Senior Consultant in Disaster Risk Management), Omar Darío Cardona Arboleda (Senior Consultant in Disaster Risk Management), and Lizardo Narváez Marulanda (Consultant in Disaster Risk Management). National Government Collaborators The Colombian Government through the National Planning Department (DNP), National Unit for Disaster Risk Management (UNGRD), and the following Ministries: Environment and Sustainable Development (MADS); Housing, Cities, and Territory vii (MVCT); Agriculture and Rural Development (MADR); Transportation (MT); Mines and Energy (MME); Health and Social Protection (MSPS); Finance and Public Credit (MHCP); and National Education (MEN), helped the team to carry out the present study. In addition, entities such as the Colombian Geological Survey (SGC); the Colombian Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies (Ideam); the Colombian Ocean Commission (CCO); the National Statistics Department (DANE), and the Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute (IGAC), offered fundamental contributions in preparing the study and actively participated in its review. It is important to mention the contribution of some officials of these institutions and other entities: Hernando José Gómez Restrepo (DNP), Mauricio Santa María Salamanca (DNP), Juan Mauricio Ramírez Cortés (DNP), Carolina Urrutia Vásquez (DNP, from July 2011), Giampiero Renzoni Rojas (DNP, up to July 2011), Alexander Martínez Montero (DNP), Nilson Correa Bedoya (DNP), Claudia Patricia Satizabal Robayo (DNP), María Salomé Ruíz Alvarado (DNP), Jean Philippe Penning (DNP), Pedro Luis Jiménez (DNP), José Alejando Bayona (DNP), Augusto César Pinto (DNP), Nicolás Pérez Marulanda (DNP), Samuel Zambrano (DNP), Camilo Jaramillo (DNP), Katty De Oro (DNP), Julio César Jiménez (DNP), Carlos Iván Márquez Pérez (UNGRD), Richard Alberto Vargas Hernández (UNGRD), Perla Haydee Rueda (UNGRD), Jairo Enrique Bárcenas Sandoval (UNGRD), Marta Lucía Calvache Velasco (SGC), María Mónica Arcila Rivera (SGC), María Luisa Monsalve Bustamante (SGC), Iván Darío Gómez (IGAC), Camila Romero Chica (CCO), Ricardo Lozano (Ideam), Ernesto Rangel Mantilla (Ideam), Omar Franco (Ideam), Claudia Milena Álvarez Londoño (Ideam), Dorotea Cardona Hernández (Ideam), María Constanza García (MT), Gloria Sánchez (MT), Juan Camilo Granados (MT), Carla Viviescas (MT), Magda Constanza Buitrago Ríos (MT), Lyda Milena Esquivel Roa (Invías), Carlos Castaño (MADS), Luis Alfonso Sierra (MADS), Javier Pava (MADS), Luis Roberto Chiape (MADS), Claudia Lucía Ramírez (MVCT), Carlos Ariel Cortés (MVCT), Claudia Mora (ex-Water Viceminister), Augusto Ardila (MSPS), Luis Eduardo Arango (MHCP), Sandra Rodríguez (MHCP), Lina Marcela Tami (MADR), Samira Alkhatib (MADR), Elizabeth Arciniegas (MADR), Eudes de Jesús Velásquez (MADR), Juan Carlos Ortega (Agrarian Bank), Mara Bigitthe Bravo (MEN), Dinora Carolina Cortés (MEN), Juan Pablo Morales (MEN), and Andrés E. Taboada (MME). Likewise, the study included the participation of many other representatives from the entities mentioned above during the course of the interviews and the workshops. Collaborators Organizations such as the Colombian Federation of Municipalities (FCM), the Association of Regional and Autonomous Sustainability Corporations, the Colombian Agrarian Society (SAC), the Colombian Construction Chamber (Camacol), the Colombian Federation of Insurers (Fasecolda), and the Colombian Infrastructure Chamber (CCI), aided in the collection of data, offered important contributions in its preparation, and actively participated in the study. The team is especially grateful to Fernando Enciso Herrera (FCM), Ramón Leal Leal (Asocars), Maria I. Vanegas (Asocars), Rafael Mejía López (SAC), Luis Fernando Forero Gómez (SAC), Camilo Congote Hernández (Camacol), Carlos Varela (Fasecolda), Juan Martín Caicedo Ferrer (CCI), and Sandra Silva Serna (CCI). The team would also like to extend its appreciation to those who provided valuable input for the information they received from interviewing numerous public and private entities in case studies in the following cities: Bogota, Cali, Medellin, Barranquilla, Manizales, and Cucuta, and regions such as La Mojana and Canal del Dique, as well as the Sinu and Bogota River basins. Funding Finally, special thanks to the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) for funding the base studies of this report. viii CONTENTS PREFACE v acknowledgments vii introduction 1 1. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 11 1.1. Overall Aproximation to Risk Management in Colombia 13 1.2. Exposure and Vulnerability as Main Factors in the Growth of Geological Risks 21 1.2.1. Geological phenomena, infrequent events of great impact 21 1.2.2. Seismic and volcanic risks are increasing due to the growth of exposed infrastructure and the lack of strategies to diminish the existing vulnerability 23 1.2.3. Geographic distribution of the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and relative risk in facing earthquakes 25 1.2.4. Losses caused by volcanic phenomena, a risk not yet estimated 30 1.3. Gaps in Land Use Planning in Basins and Urban Zones, and Exposure Growth are the Main Factors in Hydrometeorological Risk 35 1.3.1. Landslides and floods accumulate the greatest percentage of loss of life and housing destroyed respectively 35 1.3.2. Factors such as climate variation and deficits in land use planning processes at the rural and urban level lead to an increase in susceptibility to floods and flash floods 36 1.3.3. Geographical distribution of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and relative risk in facing floods 42 1.3.4. Geographic distribution of hazards, exposure, vulnerability, and relative risk in facing landslides 47 1.3.5. Climate change and El Niño and La Niña phenomena 50 ix 1.4. The Impact of Historical Disasters in Colombia 53 1.4.1. Geographic distribution of registered historical events and loss of life by region 53 1.4.2. Historical losses by productive and service sectors 56 1.4.2.1. Housing sector 56 1.4.2.2. Transportation sector 59 1.4.2.3. Agriculture sector 61 1.5. Conclusions of Risk Performance in Colombia 63 1.6. Recommendations to Face the Risk in Colombia 69 2. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 73 2.1. Public Administration Elements Applied to Disaster Risk Management: Conceptual Framework 75 2.1.1. Disaster risk management as a fundamental strategy for development sustainability 75 2.1.2. Disaster risk management and adjustment to climate change as complementary approaches for sustainable development 76 2.1.3. The institutionalism of public administration in disaster risk 77 2.1.4. The absence of a national policy in risk management 77 2.1.5. Spheres of action in territorial and sectoral risk management 79 2.1.6. Planning as the principal instrument in territorial and sectoral risk management 81 2.1.7. The need to rely on a monitoring and control system in disaster risk management 82 2.1.8. The importance of results-based management 83 2.2. Disaster Risk Management Regulatory Support 85 2.2.1. The National System for Disaster Prevention and Response (SNPAD), its main regulatory body, and the Constitution of 1991 85 2.2.2. Structural norms for disaster risk management 90 2.3. Snpad Institutional Mechanisms, Structures, and Capacities 94 2.3.1. Local government responsible for territorial management, thereby, the main actor in disaster risk management 97 2.3.2. The regional/departmental level as a coordination and intermediation agency between the nation and the municipalities 107 2.3.3. The nation as a policy and strategic orientation promoter 111 x 2.4. RISK management planning 121 2.5. Financial Instruments and Investment in Risk Management 126 2.5.1. Instruments and financial resources 126 2.5.2. Analysis of investments at the different territorial levels 127 2.6. A Compulsory Step: the Evolution of the System Toward a Process Approach 132 2.6.1. Articulation among systems 132 2.6.2. Integral vision of the processes by type of risk 138 Regulated seismic risk, even though there is no policy 2.6.2.1. for its reduction 138 The risk of floods, without sufficient policies or 2.6.2.2. regulations to control them and without a clear role for those responsible for managing them 140 2.7. Recommendations and Great Challenges to Strengthen Risk Management Governance 143 3. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 159 3.1. Territories in Disaster Risk Management: Fundamental Concepts 161 3.2. Incorporation of Risk Management in Territorial Administration at the Local Level 165 3.2.1. Characteristics of urban territories 165 3.2.2. Causes and consequences of generation and accumulation of risk conditions 165 3.2.3. Social agents in the generation and reduction of risk conditions 170 3.2.4. Use and effectiveness of public administration and risk management instruments in local territorial administration 172 3.2.4.1. Use and effectiveness of policy and planning instruments 172 3.2.4.2. Use and effectiveness of financing instruments 174 3.2.4.3. Use and effectiveness of instruments for monitoring and control 177 3.2.4.4. Knowledge and information for risk management 178 3.2.4.5. Reduction of risk conditions 179 3.2.4.6. Disaster management 182 xi 3.3. Risk Management Incorporation in the Administration of Territory at the Regional Level 188 3.3.1. Characterization of the regional territories in function of their water systems 188 3.3.2. The causes that generate and accumulate risk conditions in the basins 193 3.3.3. Social agents in the generation and reduction of regional risk conditions 198 3.3.4. Use and effectiveness of risk management and public instruments in the administration of regional territories 201 3.3.4.1. Use and effectiveness of public administration instruments 201 3.3.4.2. Use and efficiency of risk management instruments 203 3.4. Recommendations to Strengthen Territorial Management 208 4. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 215 4.1. The Impact and Causes of Risk in Sectors and its Significance in the Economy and Society 217 4.1.1. The housing sector: loss of life and family patrimony 218 4.1.2. The agriculture sector: great potential in employment, foreign currency, and rural development at risk 221 4.1.3. The transportation sector: the largest direct losses to the State’s patrimony 226 4.1.4. Safe drinking water and basic sanitation sector: indirect impacts difficult to calculate 230 4.1.5. The education sector: long-term socioeconomic impacts 235 4.1.6. Health and social protection sector 236 4.2. Risk Management in Sectoral Public Administration 238 4.2.1. Risk management in regulation and sectoral policies 238 4.2.2. Sectoral institutions in risk management 244 4.2.3. Sources of risk management financing at the sectoral level 245 4.2.4. Information and knowledge of risk at the sectoral level 248 4.2.5. Risk reduction in sectors 249 4.2.6. The role of sectors in creating a culture of responsibility in facing risk 254 4.2.7. Sectoral administration in disaster response 255 xii 4.3. Financial Protection: The Responsibility of the Government Finance Sector 259 4.3.1. Advances and limitations in financial protection in Colombia 260 4.3.2. Examples of instruments used by the Colombian government to increase risk transfer to private sector 266 4.3.3. Funding needs for the State’s response to disasters 267 4.3.4. Progress and considerations in the creation of a fiscal management strategy for the State’s response to disasters 271 4.4. Recommendations for Strengthening Public Sectoral Management 275 5. Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 283 5.1. The Need to Establish Limits Between Public and Private Responsibility 285 5.1.1. The current gray area between public and private responsibility 286 5.1.1.1. Responsibility of the government 286 5.1.1.2. Responsibility of private agents as generators of public risk 288 5.1.1.3. Responsibility of citizens in managing their own risk 290 5.1.2. Government fiscal contingencies related to lack of clarity in policy frameworks 290 5.1.2.1. Contingencies in post-disaster assistance and recovery programs due to lack of clarity in policies 290 5.1.2.2. Fiscal contingencies in lawsuits against the government due to lack of clarity in regulations concerning public and private responsibility in risk management 292 5.2. Colombian Citizens and Risk Management 293 5.2.1. Citizens’ perception of risk 294 5.2.2. The perception of citizens and the Government’s responsibility 296 5.3. The Colombian Private Sector Facing Risk Management 302 5.3.1. The private sector as risk generator and the responsibility for risk management 302 5.3.2. Private sector and its own risk management 303 5.3.2.1. Institutional and regulatory development for occupational risks is effective for workers 303 5.3.2.2. An important part of the physical infrastructure of the production sector is at risk 303 5.3.2.3. The agriculture sector has a modest management of its risk, despite being one of the most vulnerable 304 xiii 5.4. Recommendations to Achieve a Balance Between Private and Public Responsibility for Risks and Disasters 307 6. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 311 Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 343 A.1. Investments in Disaster Risk Management 345 A.1.1. The State’s investment in disaster risk management 345 A.1.2. Regional investment in disaster risk management 351 A.1.3. Local investment in disaster risk management 356 A.2. Progress in Disaster Risk Management 361 A.2.1. Progress in risk management at the national level 361 A.2.2. Progress in risk management at regional level 369 A.2.3. Progress in risk management at local level 371 A.3. Perception of Progress at Each of the Territorial Levels 374 Bibliography 381 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 395 xiv FIGURES Chapter 1 Figure 1.1. UBN and GDP Distribution 17 Figure 1.2. Distribution of the hazard, population exposure, vulnerability, and relative risk facing seismic activity 28 Figure 1.3. Distribution of recent volcanism in Colombia 31 Figure 1.4. Exposure to volcanic risk. North segment: Cerro Bravo-Machin Volcanic Province 32 Figure 1.5. Exposure to volcanic risk. Medium segment: Coconucos-Doña Juana Volcanic Province 32 Figure 1.6. Exposure to volcanic risk. South segment: Cauca-Patia Inter-Andean Depression 33 Figure 1.7. Comparison of land use in 1970 and 2000 39 Figure 1.8. Social processes in creating risk as adopted from the PAR model 42 Figure 1.9. Zones susceptible to floods, exposed population, vulnerability, and relative risk 44 Figure 1.10. Landslide hazards, population exposure, vulnerability, and relative 48 Figure 1.11. Housing destroyed and affected per 100,000 inhabitants 2001-2010 55 Figure 1.12. Housing destroyed by hydrometeorological phenomena, according to UBN 65 Figure 1.13. Vulnerability, rurality indices, and Millennium Development Goals 66 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1. Conceptual outline of the articulation of public administration and risk management 80 Figure 2.2. Monitoring stages in public interventions 84 Figure 2.3. Structural norms for disaster risk management 91 Figure 2.4. National System for Disaster Prevention and Response (SNPAD) 95 Figure 2.5. Municipal organization 101 xv Figure 2.6. Overall average rating of risk management by territorial level 131 Figure 2.7. Outline of those responsible for risk management in public administration, horizontal articulation in Committees and vertical articulation in sectors or systems 137 Figure 2.8. Process for seismic risk management 139 Figure 2.9. Ten steps to design, create, and support a results-based monitoring and evaluation system 150 Chapter 3 Figure 3.1. Colombia’s hydrographic zoning 188 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1. Road sections with frequent emergency attention 229 Appendixes Figure A.1. Incorporation of risk management in land use planning 368 graphs Chapter 1 Graph 1.1. Area and population exposed to landslides, earthquakes and floods in Colombia 13 Graph 1.2. Urban population growth 15 Graph 1.3. Loss of life and housing per 100,000 inhabitants, 1970-2011 20 Graph 1.4. Losses (deaths and destroyed housing) per hydrometeorological and geological event, 1970-2011 22 Graph 1.5. Relation between destroyed housing and loss of life, 1970-2011 23 Graph 1.6. Comparison of the areas constructed in the country’s capital cities 24 Graph 1.7. Possible maximum losses caused by seismic activity in the whole country for different return periods 26 xvi Graph 1.8. Losses for Colombian cities resulting from seismic activity for a return period of 500 years for 27 Graph 1.9. Losses per type of event, 1970-2011 35 Graph 1.10. Housing destroyed and loss of life per 100,000 inhabitants, by municipal population, 2001-2010 36 Graph 1.11. Probable maximum losses in the agriculture sector caused by floods for a return period of 500 years, by department 46 Estimate of economic losses caused by floods 46 Graph 1.12. La Niña and El Niño phenomena vs annual histogram of losses registered by hydrometeorological phenomena 50 Graph 1.13. Distribution of losses by department according to number of registries, loss of life, destroyed and affected housing 54 Graph 1.14. Invías investments in emergencies 60 Chapter 2 Graph 2.1. Comparison of the total national, departmental, and municipal investment in risk management, 1998-2010 128 Graph 2.2. Investment in risk management for each priority area by governmental level 129 Chapter 3 Graph 3.1. Distribution of urban and rural population. Case studies, 2010 167 Graph 3.2. Unsatisfied Basic Needs. Case studies, 2010 167 Graph 3.3. Number of disaster events registered in cities under study, 1970-2011 169 Graph 3.4. Percentage of disaster events in cities under study, 1970-2011 169 Graph 3.5. Number of events registered in recent years in the cities under study 170 Graph 3.6. Investments in risk management by category. Case studies, 2002-2008 176 Graph 3.7. Quantitative and qualitative housing deficit. Case studies, 2010 180 Graph 3.8. Number of houses in nonmitigable high-risk areas. Case studies, 2010 180 xvii Graph 3.9. Urban-rural population distribution. Case study, 2010 193 Graph 3.10. Regional Unsatisfied Basic Needs. Case studies (UBN as of December 31, 2008) 193 Graph 3.11. Quantitative and qualitative regional housing deficit. Case Studies, 2010 195 Graph 3.12. Register of disaster events by number. Case studies, 1970-2011 197 Graph 3.13. Register of disaster events by percentage. Case studies, 1970-2011 198 Chapter 4 Graph 4.1. Percentage of destroyed housing vs. loss of life per 100,000 inhabitants 219 Graph 4.2. Housing started per year in the country 220 Graph 4.3. Agriculture sector contribution to the national GDP, 2001-2009 221 Graph 4.4. Agriculture sector participation in exports (tons), 2002-2009 221 Graph 4.5. Hydrometeorological emergencies in the agriculture sector, 1970-2011 223 Graph 4.6. Event distribution and departments with affected roads, 1970-2011 227 Graph 4.7. Disaster events impacting water and sewage systems, by decade 230 Graph 4.8. Water Use Index (IUA) in Colombia 233 Graph 4.9. Evolution of the installed capacity and the maximum demand for power, 1998-2009 240 Graph 4.10. Composition of power generation, 2008-2010 240 Graph 4.11. Cumulative losses, natural disaster annual average, and FNC resources (US$ million) 262 Graph 4.12. Estimation of the probable maximum losses due to earthquakes across the country for different return periods 269 Graph 4.13. Loss exceedance hybrid curve exclusively for Colombia’s fiscal portfolio 270 xviii Chapter 5 Graph 5.1. Perception of major hazards to which households are exposed 294 Graph 5.2. Perception of losses resulting from disasters (cities) 296 Graph 5.3. Perception of losses resulting from disasters (strata) 296 Graph 5.4. Relationships among taking measures, risk perception, and other variables 297 Graph 5.5. Taking measures to reduce disaster risk by socioeconomic stratum 298 Graph 5.6. Types of measures for earthquake risk reduction as reported by the citizens of Bogota and Pasto 299 Graph 5.7. Social agents responsible for taking prevention and/or assistance measures 300 Graph 5.8. Performance of insurance penetration for industry and trade from 2005 to 2009, expressed as the total value of insurance premium 305 Chapter 6 Graph 6.1. Ten steps to design, create, and support a results-based monitoring and evaluation system. 329 Appendixes Graph A.1. Public investment in risk management at the national level by priority area 346 Graph A.2. Public investment in governance by national entity 347 Graph A.3. Public investment in knowledge and information by national entity 347 Graph A.4. Public investment in education and communication by national entity 349 Graph A.5. Public investment in risk reduction by national entity 350 Graph A.6. Public investment in risk management by national entity 351 Graph A.7. Public investment in risk management at departmental level by action axes 352 Graph A.8. Departmental investment in risk management by funding source 352 Graph A.9. Per capita investment in risk management by department 354 xix Graph A.10. Departmental scale of risk management responsibility indicator and the number of disasters recorded 355 Graph A.11. Departmental scale of disaster response indicator and disaster occurrence 355 Graph A.12. Public investment in risk management at municipal level, by action axes 357 Graph A.13. Municipal investment in risk reduction 357 Graph A.14. Municipal investment in disaster management 359 Graph A.15. Municipal investment in risk management by funding source 359 Graph A.16. Risk management effectiveness by action axes and indicators for each territorial level 375 Graph A.17. Effectiveness of disaster risk management at national level 376 Graph A.18. National Progress Report on the Implementation of Hyogo Framework for Action, Colombia 377 Graph A.19. Effectiveness of disaster risk management at departmental and CAR levels 377 Graph A.20. Effectiveness of risk management at municipal level 378 TABLES Chapter 1 Table 1.1. of population in Colombia by municipality size 15 Table 1.2. Registers and losses by decade 19 Table 1.3. Populations of municipal centers exposed to volcanic hazards 33 Table 1.4. Ranges of deforested areas and average anual deforestation, 2000-2007 37 Table 1.5. Suitable land use and conflicts arising from land use 38 Table 1.6. Change of high and very high erosion, 1998-2004 40 Table 1.7. Economic assessment of losses in the housing sector in seven disasters, 1970-2010 57 xx Table 1.8. Estimation of economic losses in the housing sector in more than 7,000 intermediate and minor disasters, 1970-2010 58 Table 1.9. Total economic losses, 1970-2010 59 Table 1.10. Transportation infrastructure affected and damaged by La Niña phenomena 2010-2011 61 Table 1.11. Accumulated losses caused by minor events in the agriculture sector 61 Table 1.12. Risk index by destroyed housing in municipalities according to the UBN 64 Table 1.13. Diagnosis of risk conditions and institutional capacity 71 Chapter 2 Table 2.1. Responsibilities of territorial entities in disaster risk management processes pursuant to Decree Law 919 of 1989 100 Table 2.2. Municipalities by category, 2007-2008 102 Table 2.3. Departments by category and maximum participation of functioning expenditure in current incomes, 2011 109 Table 2.4. Human resources by institution 115 Table 2.5. Summary of the main reconstruction processes in Colombia, 1990-2011 117 Table 2.6. Comparative matrix between PNPAD and Conpes 3146 122 Table 2.7. Matrix of commitments and responsibilities for disaster risk management according to the regulations and planning spheres 123 Table 2.8. Main components of action lines or HFA subject areas 125 Table 2.9. Survey data sheet for self-evaluation of the risk management progress 130 Table 2.10. Risk management processes, people responsible and, coordination among systems 135 Table 2.11. Disaster risk management strategies for high-risk municipalities 155 Chapter 3 Table 3.1. Biophysical characteristics. Case studies 166 Table 3.2. Local socioeconomic characteristics. Case studies 166 xxi Table 3.3. Synthesis of the public administration instruments and disaster risk management at local level 185 Table 3.4. Characteristics of the hydrographic areas and zones in Colombia 189 Table 3.5. Physical characteristics and institutionalism 191 Table 3.6. Regional socioeconomic characteristics. Case studies 192 Table 3.7. Synthesis of public administration and disaster risk management instruments at regional level 205 Chapter 4 Table 4.1. Precarious settlement areas 220 Table 4.2. Agriculture sector exports (tons), 2002-2009 222 Table 4.3. Land use conflicts in the Sinu River basin 225 Table 4.4. Water rationing and/or water shortages caused by El Niño in 1997-1998 and 2009-2010 231 Table 4.5. Events that have produced problems in the rendering of public services 233 Table 4.6. Damage caused by the rainy season in the education sector, 2010-2011 236 Table 4.7. Types of interventions by effect on the health sector infrastructure, 2010-2011 237 Table 4.8. SICIED exposure of the education infrastructure by type of risk 250 Table 4.9. Allocation of subsidies by Fonvivienda. 2003-2011 252 Table 4.10. Coffee Growing region’s reconstruction financing, by source 264 Table 4.11. Financing sources facing the 2010-2014 La Niña phenomenon 265 Table 4.12. Additional sources and uses of the 2011 budget 265 Table 4.13. Scheme of fiscal management strategy for the State’s response to disasters 272 Chapter 5 Table 5.1. Insurance penetration, expressed as total value of insurance premium per capita and as percentage of GDP, by country 304 xxii Chapter 6 Table 6.1. Recommendations to strengthen public administration in disaster risk management in Colombia 322 Appendixes Table A.1. Per capita investment in risk management by municipal category in Col$(2010) 358 Table A.2. Municipalities with most investment in risk management in Col$(2010) during the period of 2002-2008 360 Table A.3. Data sheet of self-assessment surveys of risk management progress 374 xxiii Floods. Municipality of La Virginia (Risaralda - Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. I ntroduction Disasters happen all over the world, but their economic, social, and environmental repercussions have continuously increased and they have had greater overall impacts in developing countries. Disasters can overshadow years of investment in developing countries, but at the same time the risks caused may be rooted in errors and problems arising from the same processes that impede the countries development (World Bank, 2006) Colombia has been a pioneer in Latin America the population will continue to grow as they in developing a comprehensive vision in risk have done so far. and disaster management, which has resulted Cumulatively, over the past forty years, di- in a relative decrease in casualties. However, sasters in Colombia have caused losses amount- damage to property, infrastructure, and liveli- ing to US$7.1 billion1, that is, an average annual hoods continues to increase and makes it evi- loss of US$177 million. Between 1970 and 2011, dent that disasters are not natural events per the country has registered more than 28,000 se, but the result of applying inappropriate disaster events, of which about 60% were re- models of development that do not consider ported since the 1990s. Additionally, during the relationship between society and nature. 2010 and 2011, in just 15 months an equivalent In spite of the efforts to contribute to territo- figure amounted to one-quarter of the fatalities rial safety, social welfare and environmental registered in the previous decade. There has sustainability, the conclusions of this report been a noticeable increase in the occurrence show that these efforts have not been effec- of disaster events, increasing from 5,657 reg- tive enough due to an increase of vulnerabil- istered between 1970 and 1979 to 9,270 reg- ity conditions. Natural phenomenon hazards istered between 2000 and 2009. This increase are among a wide range of factors that should results not only from the availability and qual- be considered in order not to jeopardize the ity of the information sources, but mainly development, the global economic crises, cli- from the increase in population and property mate change, environmental degradation, so- exposed. At present, the exposure level distri- cial inequality and armed conflicts. bution in Colombia indicates that 36% of the Based on the above, it is important to territory is in a high seismic hazard situation, make changes in the approaches to incorporate 28% has high flooding potential and 8% as in into the land-use planning the restrictions and high landslide hazard. While geological events potentialities in accordance with the existing cause great losses concentrated in a region and hazards. These new approaches should incor- in a relatively short time, hydrometeorological porate a tightly controlled land use against the pressure from urban expansion, and the 1 Corresponds to economic losses in housing (millions of constant dollars use of technologies for ecosystem. Other- of 2010) due to geological and hydrometeorological events between wise, the economic losses and the effects on 1970 and 2010 (OSSO Corporation, 2011). Introduction 3 phenomena generate localized impacts of high been working in risk management-related is- frequency, which cumulatively over time mean sues in Colombia since the late 1990s, when even greater losses than those associated with the Comprehensive Reconstruction Pro- seismic events and volcanic eruptions. gram was carried out after the earthquake of The government of President Santos has the Coffee Growing region and since 2002 faced from the beginning of his term one of the through the Program for the State Fiscal Di- greatest disasters in the country’s history, in saster Vulnerability Reduction (DVRP, APL terms of both size and impact on population and 1), a subnational component for Bogota (APL economic damages, and has identified, among 2), and the Development Policy Loan with other things, the need a full review of the coun- a Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Option try’s risk management policies. Consequences of (CAT DDO). Currently, the second phase of La Niña 2010-2011 reflect in a striking way the the National Disaster Vulnerability Reduction complexity of the risk conditions in the coun- Program (DVRP) and a new CAT DDO are try and the gaps and weaknesses in disaster risk being planned, for which the outcome of this its management, which have caused economic work is considered as an input. losses estimated at Col$8.6 billion (IDB and The objective of the analysis is to evalu- ECLAC, February 2011). Likewise, the National ate the progress of risk management in Colom- Planning Department (DNP) makes visible the bia and to propose recommendations that will need for a short- and long-term strategy that enable the Government to set up public policies would substantially reduce disaster impacts on in this area on a short-and long-term basis. This the population and the economy. is a contribution that occurs in an important In this context, the Government decided political moment for the institutional, organi- to fully review its risk management policies, re- zational and regulatory reforms that are being questing through the DNP to the World Bank, developed. The document is a pioneering ef- an analysis of the evolution that the country has fort in Latin America and the Caribbean, con- had in this area. Based on the existent risk fac- stituting a complementary work to encourage tors that have not been reduced to admissible compliance with the National Development levels in Colombia, it is essential to consolidate Plan 2010-2014 and to advance in the recov- an effective policy on disaster risk manage- ery and reconstruction process associated ment, articulated to the development planning, with the La Niña 2010-2011 phenomenon. environmental sustainability and territorial The report shows four factors by which security. Therefore, in early 2011, the Govern- the risk is increasing, pointing out that this is ment requested the World Bank’s support for more a consequence of an improper territo- the preparation of an Analysis of Disaster Risk rial, sectoral, and private management than Management in Colombia. The Bank then man- of external factors such as climate change. aged a grant jointly with the Global Facility for It outlines six strategies to enhance gover- Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) in nance in disaster risk management, based on order to carry out this study. the consolidation of a State policy on disas- This collaboration was carried out as ter risk management. These strategies should part of the risk management agenda frame- consider strengthening of local capacity for work that the Colombian government has had land administration, specifying of the differ- with the World Bank since 1999. The Bank has ent agents responsible for watershed manage- 4 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies ment, defining of the responsibilities of the ment and Sustainable Development, Housing, different development sectors, and promot- City and Territory, Finance, and Health and ing the participation of all public and private Social Protection. Likewise, the following en- stakeholders, thereby contributing to reduc- tities participated: the Colombian Federation ing the State’s fiscal vulnerability to disasters. of Municipalities, the Association of Regional The report Analysis of Disaster Risk Man- Autonomous Corporations (Asocars), the agement in Colombia is the result of an interin- Agricultural Society of Colombia (SAC), the stitutional and intersectoral work coordinated Colombian Chamber of Construction (Cama- by the National Government, through the Na- col), the Colombian Federation of Insurers tional Planning Department and the National (Fasecolda), the Colombian Chamber of In- Unit for Disaster Risk Management (UNGRD) frastructure (CCI) and the National Roads in association with the GFDRR and the World Institute (Invias), as well as national entities- Bank. The technical team that prepared the including the National Statistics Administra- study was formed by a group of national and tion Department (DANE), the Colombian regional experts in disaster risk management. Geological Survey (SGC, previously Ingeomi- In addition, the project has received sup- nas), the Colombian Hydrology, Meteorology port and collaboration from the Ministries of and Environmental Studies Institute (Ideam), Mines and Energy, Education, Agriculture and and the Agustin Codazzi Geographical Insti- Rural Development, Transportation, Environ- tute (IGAC). Four factors that set trends both in risk growth and in the increase of the State’s fiscal responsibility in Colombia The conceptual advances on The gaps in the field of The absence of a clear policy the relationship between Risk is accumulating disaster risk management and the background in which risk management and permanently in cities and policies and sectoral plans the State generally assumes development have not been rural areas due to lack of threaten the sustainability the responsibility discourage raised to the level of State implementation and control of investments, in both citizens and the private policy nor have they been of the municipal land use productive and service sector from undertaking their incorporated as an integral part planning policies and sectors, thus contributing to role in risk reduction and of the public administration, instruments and inadequate an increased exposure and management, thus resulting thus contributing to the growth watershed management vulnerability in greater fiscal costs of risk conditions Introduction 5 Six strategies to improve governance in disaster risk management in Colombia Incorporate risk Increase the Reduce flood and management as a State effectiveness and Delimit public and Strengthen local landslide risk through policy and overcome efficiency of risk private responsibilities capacity in territorial planning, investment, Reduce risk generation existing imbalances management in risk management management in order monitoring and control, and disaster impact in the System through investment through and deepen the State’s to reduce the causes and articulation of through policies and the adjustment and strategic planning, fiscal vulnerability and accumulation of the different agents sectoral action plans harmonization of coordination among policies in facing disaster risks responsible for watershed a regulatory and territorial levels and disasters management institutional framework monitoring and control Multiple strategies were used to carry out Corporations (CAR), 17 national entities and risk this work in order to evaluate advances in risk perception surveys were collected from 1,150 peo- management, the perception of the State and civil ple from eight of the most important cities in the society related to the results achieved and the main country. This material was used in documenting challenges to be faced in the future. Previously and analyzing the evolution of risk management developed conceptual approaches and other in- concepts, policy and regulatory frameworks, insti- novative approaches that sought ways to describe tution and organization structures, investments, what should be the articulation between disaster advances and insights on the subject. risk management and governance, provided a Analysis of Disaster Risk Management in conceptual framework to guide the structure of Colombia is structured in two different formats. the report. Furthermore, various research instru- An Executive Summary, which presents a sum- ments were designed based on fields of applica- mary of key findings and recommendations, is tion at regional, territorial and community levels, targeted primarily at national, regional and local including the collection and evaluation of special- authorities and decision makers, national and in- ized documents, workshops, interviews and case ternational organizations, as well as civil society studies in eight sectors and ten territorial areas. and the private sector that support disaster risk Self-assessment surveys were conducted with management in Colombia. The present Report is representatives from 173 municipalities, 12 pro- a detailed and comprehensive publication struc- vincial governments, 23 Regional Autonomous tured into six chapters, which include a techni- 6 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies cal analysis intended for those responsible for From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk implementing disaster risk management policies, Management in Colombia which are a synthesis as well as professionals, researchers, and experts of the territorial levels, the progress in planning in the subject. Chapter 1, Performance of Disaster and investments, additionally analyzing the in- Risk Management in Colombia, presents a look at stitutional actors’ perceptions of the subject. the situation of risk approach, the growth factors While the scope of this study is quite broad, in disaster risk due to geological, and hydrome- the extension of the subject has not allowed a teorological phenomena, and the analysis of his- more comprehensive and detailed assessment torical impact of existing and future models at the of the different processes of risk management sectoral and territorial levels.– Chapter 2, Disaster (knowledge, risk reduction and disaster manage- Risk in Public Administration, provides an analy- ment), the various phenomena (geological and sis of the institutionalization of risk management hydrometeorological) and sectoral realities (mu- in the country, conceptual framework of public nicipalities and departments by category). In this administration, regulatory support, institutional context, the conclusions and recommendations mechanisms, structures and capacities of the SN- can only be seen as the highlights from the view- PAD, and an analysis of the System, as well as the point of the authors, interviewees and respon- management of phenomena such as earthquakes dents, from which one is to extract elements that and floods, from the process approach. Chapter 3, will help to strengthen risk management in the the Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster country. As the implementation of these con- Risk Management analyzes through case stud- clusions and recommendations advances, more ies land management and its relation to the risk specific studies will be required to suit each sec- concept at the local and regional levels. Chapter 4, tor or territory without losing the comprehen- Disaster Risk Management at the Sectoral Adminis- sive and holistic concept. The need to articulate tration, identifies the causes of disasters and their this implementation with priority areas such as economic and social implications. It also discuss- adaptation to climate change, environmental es the progress and limitations in risk manage- sustainability and development should be ex- ment at the sectoral level and financial protection plicitly recognized. as the responsibility of the government finances. It is hoped that this publication, as well as Chapter 5, Public and Private Responsibility in the Executive Summary version, will meet the ex- Disaster Risk Management, examines the bal- pectations of the Colombian government. Achiev- ance between the responsibility of the public ing an improvement and effective consolidation and private spheres under the Constitution and of risk management as public policy required current legislation, from the standpoint of judi- that the analysis be critical and in turn offering cial decisions, while it analyzes the perception of proposals. In this regard, comments on the gaps the public and private entities of the risk of di- and existing limitations should be understood in sasters. Finally, Chapter 6, Final Conclusions and the way they have been formulated, recognizing Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk them as an invitation and a suggestion for a per- Management, includes the conclusions and stra- manent improvement of disaster risk manage- tegic recommendations as a result of the analysis ment, where the World Bank is willing to provide carried out, both at the level of the chapters, as the support required by the country, giving con- well as from a comprehensive study perspective. tinuity to the efforts that have been developing in Also, the Report includes the Appendixes titled, the last 12 years. Introduction 7 Azufral Volcano. Municipalities of Túquerres - Santa Cruz (Nariño - Colombia), 2011. Photography: Volcanological Observatory of Pasto. Colombian Geological Survey. 1 Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia Ana Campos G., OSSO Corporation, Diana M. Rubiano V., Carolina Díaz G., and Carlos R. Costa P. 1.1. OVERALL APROXIMATION TO RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA Colombia is characterized by an extensive geolog- modal pattern in the regions of Amazonia, Ori- ical, geomorphologic, hydrological and climatic noquia, and the greater part of the Caribbean, diversity. This diversity is exhibited in the many and a bimodal distribution of the Andean re- phenomena that are a potential hazard to the so- gions with heavy and frequent rains. This condi- cial and economic development of the country. tion is powerfully altered by the presence of El Colombia is located in the northwest corner of Niño and La Niña phenomena, in which rain- South America, in an area of 1,141,748 km2, of falls cause hydrometeorological events such as which 35% is located in the Andes Mountain droughts, floods, flash floods and landslides, Chain. This has had in a long evolution during among other events. In Graph 1.1, there is a which large cortical blocks (lithospheric plates) summary of the exposure distribution level of collide into each other resulting in a complex the territory and the population to floods, earth- mountainous system that runs from south to quakes, and landslides. From this summary, it north and that is apparent in its intense seismic can be concluded that 86% of the population and volcanic activity. The country’s low humid is exposed to high and medium seismic activ- tropical location, under the influence of the In- ity, 28% is exposed to high flooding and 31% to tertropical Confluence Area, represents a single high and medium landslide hazards. Graph 1.1. Area and population exposed to landslides, earthquakes and floods in Colombia1 Flooding Flooding Landslides Landslides Earthquakes Earthquakes 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage Area (10 km ) Percentage Population (million) High Medium Low High Medium Low Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 1 Quantification of area and population exposed to floods, according to flood zone maps in Ideam (2010), Ingeominas and Ideam (2010b), and the national map of relative hazards caused by landslides and seismic hazard zones of the Seismic Resistant Regulation, (2010). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 13 Colombia has attained a predominant urban and regional land use planning processes, urban situation over a period of 100 years. The as well as lack of capacity to cover housing needs urban population in the last 60 years has in- (on the average, housing construction per year creased from 4.4 million to 34.7 million in- starts at about 140,000 in the formal market, habitants, which means that it has grown from an amount that only covers 60% of the demand 37% to 74% in relation to the total population [DNP, 2010a]). Consequently, this produces an of the country (Graph 1.2). Colombia is con- increase in settlements in unsuitable areas and sidered an exception among Latin American the growth of informal neighborhoods associ- countries that have undergone a phenomenon ated with a deficient infrastructure. According known as “urban primacy”. In other words, ur- to the OSSO Corporation and the Universidad ban concentration was not only centered in one Eafit (2011), between 1970 and 2010, the popu- city, but it was distributed in four departmen- lation exposed to high hazards by seismic activ- tal capitals: Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Bar- ity and landslides increased 1.7 times, whereas ranquilla (Table 1.1). Bogota is home to 21% exposure to medium hazards doubled. percent of the urban population of the country, These risk conditions are strongly linked to whereas Lima, Santiago de Chile and Buenos poverty conditions. The Unsatisfied Basic Needs Aires have 40%, 39%, and 34% of their coun- (UBN) is one of the indicators that has tradition- tries’ respective urban populations. ally been used to measure poverty in Colombia. Hazards deriving from geological factors The UBN makes evident the fragile conditions such as seismic activity and volcanic eruptions of the population in terms of the physical make- may be considered as invariable in time, where- up of housing and its resilience, and the ability as susceptibility to floods, landslides,2 and flash to recover in relation to the economic charac- floods3 in extensive areas of the country have teristics of the homes6. The municipalities with increased due to human intervention in the ter- a greater UBN percentage have basic sanitary ritory resulting in environmental deterioration. deficiencies, inferior schooling and health levels Economic development, in spite of the efforts and a deficient overall productive and service made to strengthen ecological planning and infrastructure (Figure 1.1). protection processes, has caused the interven- tion in the territory to be accompanied by the drying of wetlands and watersheds, and loss of 2 The term landslide refers to mass movements of earth or rock sliding down the slope of a hillside due to the action of gravity (rotational or forests and vegetation4 with the consequences translational). There are different ways of referring to these phenomena, that those factors have in erosion and increase such as mass movements or mass land removal. Throughout the docu- ment the term landslide has been used as a generic expression to de- of runoffs. It has also affected fresh water re- scribe the different mechanisms in slope faults. sources and land stability5, which makes these 3 Flash floods refer to a violent flow of water from a river basin, some- times reported as a crescent (a rapid rise) or as a torrent. A flash flood territories susceptible to landslides, floods, and transports along its route tree trunks and/or abundant fine sediment flash floods in areas that were not previously to boulders. Flash floods may be produced by rain, a rupture in a dam or abundant landslides over a watershed. at risk. 4 Annual average deforestation estimated for the period 2000-2007 is Population growth and property located in 336,581 ha/year (Ideam, 2009a). 5 According to the 2010-2014 National Development Plan “85% of the pro- areas exposed to hydrometeorological phenome- ductive systems in Colombia are located in areas vulnerable to desertifi- na are determining factors in risk growth. Knowl- cation and 48% of the country is prone to erosion. These factors degrade approximately 2,000 hectares a year in the Andean region” (NP, 2010a). edge deficiencies include incorporating envi- 6 Resilience is understood to be the ability to anticipate, absorb or recover ronmental restrictions and risk conditions in quickly and efficiently from the effects of a dangerous event. 14 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 1.2. Urban population growth 90 80 70 60 50 % URBAN 40 % RURAL 30 20 10 0 1918 1925 1938 1951 1964 1973 1975 1980 1985 1993 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Source: DANE, 2010. Table 1.1. Distribution of population in Colombia by municipality size Population 1951 1973 1985 1993 2005 2010 National total 11,548,172 22,915,229 30,062,198 37,664,711 42,890,642 45,508,205 Urban population 4,468,437 13,548,183 19,628,428 25,849,387 31,889,299 34,388,013 % Urban population 38.69% 59.12% 65.29% 68.63% 74.40% 75.60% # Municipalities >1,000,000 inhabitants 0 2 3 4 4 4 Municipality’s population > 1,000,000 inhabitants 0 4,025,781 7,145,898 10,080,022 12,320,927 13,138,110 Bogota 715,250 2,861,913 4,236,490 5,413,484 6,840,166 7,363,782 Medellin 499,757 1,163,868 1,480,382 1,793,491 2,214,494 2,343,049 Cali 292,694 991,549 1,429,026 1,798,465 2,119,908 2,244,639 Barranquilla 300,541 703,488 927,233 1,074,572 1,146,359 1,186,640 # Municipalities between 500,000 and 1 million inhabitants 1 2 2 1 3 5 Municipalities between 500,000 and 1 million inhabitants 715,250 1,695,037 1,491,181 725,057 1,998,733 3,148,636 # Municipalities between 100,000 and 500,000 inhabitants 5 19 26 37 49 51 Municipalities with population between 100,000 and 500,000 inhabitants 1,158,000 3,462,896 5,371,981 8,144,202 10,519,551 10,784,485 # Municipalities between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants 497 563 598 618 620 Municipalities with population between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants 10,902,206 13,511,119 14,881,408 15,484,843 15,904,652 # Municipalities < 10,000 inhabitants 483 434 403 424 422 Municipalities with population < 10,000 inhabitants 2,912,725 2,665,709 2,440,115 2,566,588 2,532,322 Source: Authors’ table from DANE, 2010 Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 15 The UNDP’s National Human Develop- al capacities, even though to a lesser degree of ment Report (INDH) of 2011 confirms the gaps development. These refer to the performance between what is urban and rural in relation to in managing the Development Plans (PD), the variables in the UBN and housing quality, public investment, financial sustainability, among other indicators, outlined for each Mil- compliance with the budget’s legal require- lennium Development Goal (MDG)7. According ments, the execution of General Participation to the three conglomerates established in the System’s resources (SGP), and administrative INDH (urban centers, intermediate centers, capacities. There is greater strength in munic- and highly rural municipalities), there is an ipalities with low poverty levels, which also inverse relationship between the rurality index have accessible risk management strategies. and MDG progress. Where there is more rural The departments where troubling pover- life, there is more underdevelopment. This is ty indicators and low institutional capacity are stated in higher UBN percentages and in the the common denominator are the Amazonas, number of households that have a qualitative Guaviare, Guainia, Vaupes, and Vichada, in ad- deficit. Municipalities with high rurality show dition to the majority of municipalities on the an average of 74.66% people living in poverty Pacific coast, in particular the department of by UBN standards, and 61.85% households Choco and some in Cauca and Nariño. Likewise, having qualitative deficit, especially due to se- most of the municipalities on the Caribbean rious restriction in housing materials and the coast have low levels of institutional capacity availability of public services (UNDP, 2011), and are equally related with elevated poverty whereas in urban centers poverty indicators indicators. This condition is more prevalent are 2.3 times lower. The poorest municipalities in the municipalities of the departments of La and those with the highest rurality are located Guajira, Magdalena, Sucre, and Cordoba, but in the Llanos Orientales, Amazonia and in the it is not present in their capitals since these south of the country, followed by the Pacific have better institutional performance, or in the and the Caribbean coasts. The departments District of Barranquilla, which is similar to the considered to have the lowest poverty indices other large cities in the country (DNP, 2010a). and the highest urban development are located Not all existing risks result in loses or in the center of the country. disasters. However, when they do occur, they There is a direct relationship between are assumed to be a performance risk indicator poverty levels and institutional capacities, fac- caused by frequent social-natural phenomena. tors that also affect the design and the imple- This is especially valid in the case of loses due to mentation of risk reduction and disaster recov- ery. According to an analysis presented by the National Development Fund 2010-2014, it is possible to identify Bogota, the departments 7 In 2000, at the United Nations Millennium Summit, 189 nations includ- ing Colombia committed themselves to eight Millennium Development of Cundinamarca, Valle del Cauca and the Goals (MDG): (1) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; (2) guarantee Coffee Growing region, parts of Antioquia, basic universal education; (3) promote gender equality and empower- ing of women; (4) reduce infant mortality; (5) improve maternal health; and southern Boyaca as areas that have the (6) combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; (7) guarantee sustain- largest institutional capacities. Likewise, Bar- ability in the environment; and (8) promote a global partnership for development. Colombia made the commitment through the Conpes ranquilla and Pasto’s area of influence in the Document 091 of 2005 that defined the goals and indicators related to Nariño Department exhibits high institution- the MDG, to be completed by 2015. 16 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies floods, landslides, or flash floods. For phenom- Systematic registers of losses and damages ena such as earthquakes and volcanic erup- are fundamental for measuring the real impact of tions, the risk remains latent during relatively disasters. The possibility of visualizing the im- long periods and generally it is manifested only pacts that recurrent and minor events are having occasionally. Changes in loss performance are on the public infrastructure, private patrimony a reflection of the transformation and accumu- and loss of life, is a fundamental instrument for lation of risks that underlying in the dynam- understanding the dimensions of the problem. It ics of a society. In this sense, the DesInventar8 also justifies the main political priority that the database has been analyzed, which has system- subject needs and it provides better elements for atically registered events that have resulted in the decision-making process and for the defini- losses since 1970. tion of economic and social priorities. Figure 1.1. UBN and GDP Distribution 8 Database on losses caused by disasters in Colombia (OSSO Corpo- to 2011 from the official registry from the Risk Management Office ration-EAFIT, 2011), may be found at www.online.desinventar.org. (DGR) of the Ministry of Interior and Justice predominates. In order The registers relate the losses caused by different types of social- to identify patterns and tendencies in loss performance, this data- natural phenomena such as seismic activity, floods, landslides, and base was analyzed in relation to the impact it had on human lives, fires, among others. The data is principally taken from journalistic housing and some sectors, compiled at the municipal level for the sources (articles from magazines or newspapers) up to 1992, and up 1970-2011 period (up to March 5). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 17 18 UBN RURAL/UBN URBAN GDP UBN 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 5 10 15 20 25 Choco 79.19 Boyaca Bogota D.C. 26.3 Vichada 66.95 3.5 3.4 Santander Antioquia 13.8 La Guajira 65.23 Valle 10.3 Bogota D.C. Guainia 6.8 3.0 3.0 Antioquia Santander Cordoba N. de Santander Cundinamarca Sucre Tolima Atlantico Vaupes Cauca Bolivar Magdalena Risaralda Meta Rural Urban Gap Cauca Nariño Boyaca Bolivar Figure 1.1. UBN and GDP Distribution (continued) La Guajira Tolima Percentage of People in UBN Cesar Huila Cesar Agriculture, hunting, forestry and shing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, gas and water supply Construction Trade, repair, restaurants and hotels Transportation, storage and communications and services to companies Financial institutions, insurance, real-estate activities Social, community and personal service activities Amazonas 0 Caldas Cordoba N. de Santander Nariño Casanare Vaupes Amazonas Caqueta 5 Meta Huila San Andres Cundinamarca Caldas Guaviare % GDP 2009 Vichada Casanare Boyaca 10 Arauca Risaralda Putumayo GDP Percentage Amazonas Nariño Arauca Cesar Magdalena Casanare 15 Valle del Cauca Cauca Huila Guaviare La Guajira N. de Santander Cordoba Arauca Tolima 20 Atlantico Quindio Meta Guainia Sucre Atlantico ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Caqueta Caqueta Antioquia 25 Putumayo Putumayo Santander Bolivar Choco Cundinamarca National Total National Total Magdalena San Andres Caldas Sucre Vichada Risaralda % GDP 2009 Quindio Guaviare Quindio 2.7 0.9 Choco Guainia Valle del Cauca 15.68 0.3 San Andres Vaupes 9.2 Bogota D.C. 27.78 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from DANE, 2010. Table 1.2. Registers and losses by decade Main source of Victims or Housing Housing Decade Registers Deaths information affected destroyed affected 1970 – 1979 5,657 4,025 1,710,541 23,060 25,584 Journalistic 1980 – 1989 5,123 28,316 4,727,790 29,317 15,873 1990 – 1999 6,465 3,957 9,204,412 88,956 191,828 Official (DGR since 2000 – 2009 9,270 2,180 9,284,073 41,689 470,987 1992) 2010 – 2011 2,187 519 2,823,885 7,403 358,378   Total 28,702 38,997 27,750,701 190,425 1,062,650 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. Between 1970 and 2011, more than 28 1990 to 2011 confirms that for the decade of the thousand events have been registered that have 1990s there are 6,465 reports, while 9,279 disaster caused losses of which nearly 60% were reported events were registered during the following de- since 1990 (Table 1.2). Data by decade show an cade, which is equivalent to an increase of 40%. evident increase, which is related to growth of Between 1970 and 2011, of the loss of life population and property exposed, apart from a tended to diminish, whereas there was an increase greater availability and quality of the principal in housing destroyed. As it can be seen in the information resources. following Graph, mortality rates were reduced During 2010 and 2011, in only 15 months, in comparison with the size of the population, one-fourth of the registers and deaths of the previ- whereas, in spite of the efforts to make progress ous decade (2000-2009) were reported, one-third in risk management, housing damages increased part of the victims/affected and more than a half much more than demographic growth. The peak of the housing damaged. These losses are related year, in which both the Coffee Growing region to the strong impacts caused by the La Niña phe- earthquake and a La Niña episode occurred, was nomenon. An analysis made of the period from 1999 (Graph 1.3). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 19 Graph 1.3. Loss of life and housing per 100,000 inhabitants, 1970-2011 4.0 3.0 Rate Value 2.0 1.0 .00 1989 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 1970 1971 1972 1973 1997 1999 Year Deaths/100,000 inhabitants Lineal (Deaths/100,000 inhabitants) 100 80 60 Rate Value 40 20 0 1989 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 1970 1971 1972 1973 1997 1999 Year Destroyed housing/100,000 inhabitants Lineal (Destroyed housing/100,000 inhabitants Note: Excludes loss of lives (close to 24,000) and housing as a result of the Nevado del Ruiz volcanic eruption in 1985. Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DANE, 2010. 20 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.2. EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY AS MAIN FACTORS IN THE GROWTH OF GEOLOGICAL RISKS 1.2.1. Geological phenomena, Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes re- infrequent events of sult in the highest index of losses per event, in great impact terms of housing destroyed and loss of lives. Loss of lives resulting from volcanic eruptions Phenomena such as strong earthquakes reached 24,456 fatalities for the period 1970- and severe volcanic eruptions, on the whole, 2011, whereas earthquakes during the same cause great losses concentrated in a territory period resulted in 2,219 fatalities. The next and last a relatively short time; that is why graph shows a relation between housing de- they are called intensive risks (UNISDR, 2011). stroyed and loss of lives, which confirms that These events may be infrequent but produce volcanic eruptions, followed by earthquakes, great impacts, such as those of the Popayan have the greatest indices per event. However, (March 31, 1983), the megadisaster caused by landslides, even though their effects are nor- the eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano mally local, cumulatively have produced a and the avalanche that destroyed Armero (No- larger number of fatalities than earthquakes vember 13, 1985), earthquakes in the Atrato (5,252). The Villa Tina landslide (1987) stands Medio (October 17 and 18, 1992), the Tierra- out as an individual event causing great im- dentro –known as the Paez earthquake– (June pact. Floods occur more often and have a larg- 6, 1994), and the Coffee Growing region earth- er number of registers, but individually and quake (January 25, 1999). As shown in the fol- cumulatively produced a smaller loss of lives lowing graph, these events caused severe loss of (1,499) for the period 1970-2011 (Graph 1.5). life and housing destruction (Graph 1.4). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 21 Graph 1.4. Losses (deaths and destroyed housing) per hydrometeorological and geological event, 1970-2011 1.000,000 10,000 Deaths 100 1 1989 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 1970 1971 1972 1973 1997 1999 Geological events Hydrometeorological events 100,000 10,000 1000 Destroyed houses 100 10 1 1989 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 1970 1971 1972 1973 1997 1999 Geological events Hydrometeorological events Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DANE, 2010. 22 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 1.5. Relation between destroyed housing and loss of life, 1970-2011 100,000 Armenia, 1999 10,000 Popayan, 1983 Calarca, 1999 Paez, 1994 Eruption Nevado del Ruiz, Giron, 2005 La Tebaida, 1999 Armero, 1985 1,000 Destroyed houses Flood Eruption Nevado del Ruiz, Volcanic activity 100 Chinchina, 1985 Earthquake Landslide 10 1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 Deaths Source: OSSO Corporation 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DANE, 2010. 1.2.2. Seismic and volcanic risks areas of the main cities, and these areas are not are increasing due to the growth in condition to be suitably developed. Cities of exposed infrastructure and the such as Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla lack of strategies to diminish the contain 28% of the population and almost 70% existing vulnerability of the area constructed in the capitals of the country (Graph 1.6).9 Given that geological activity which pro- Inadequate practices in urbanization and duces seismic activity and volcanic eruptions is development processes, added to the deficien- considered relatively stable, the increase of risk cies in construction techniques, increase the confronting these phenomena is a result of ex- vulnerability of the communities. The cities posure growth associated with population and have had rapid population growth along with infrastructure growth. In 1938, the country had accelerated urbanization processes without 8,701,816 inhabitants, of which 70% were local- due planning. Likewise, experiments in the ized in rural areas and 30% in urban areas. Cur- rural areas in implementing disarticulated pro- rently, there are 46 million inhabitants and the duction systems to the aptitudes of the territo- values of urban and rural localization have been ries generate conflicts in land use. Housing and inverted. This fact is attributable to the dynam- infrastructure constructed on hillsides and/ ics of modern social demographics combined or in landfill zones that do not offer optimum with forced displacement and armed conflict; stability conditions and that intensify seismic therefore, the level of exposure has been increas- ing. The displaced population is notably concen- 9 Unless otherwise specified, “capitals” should be understood to mean not trated informally in the outskirts and marginal only Bogota, but also the country’s 32 departmental capital cities. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 23 waves produced by earthquakes, construction ability. The aforementioned, along with low or processes prior to the implementation of the limited investment in corrective measures that Seismic Resistant Regulation, and the lack of would reduce the existing fragility, are among control in applying this regulation, result in the causes of other factors, the causes of the a powerful increase in construction’s vulner- vulnerability accumulation and growth. Graph 1.6. Comparison of the areas constructed in the country’s capital cities Million square meters built in each city (2003) Built area Built area City City Bogota [Km2] [Km2] Medellin Cali Bogota 195.0 Monteria 5.5 Puerto Carreño Mitu Medellin 60.9 Popayan 5.4 San Jose del Guaviare Puerto Inirida Cali 51.0 Tunja 4.0 Leticia San Andres Barranquilla 26.1 Sincelejo 3.6 Mocoa Yopal Cartagena 15.2 Florencia 2.5 Arauca Ibague Bucaramanga 13.4 Riohacha 2.1 Sincelejo Bucaramanga Cucuta 13.0 Quibdo 1.8 Pereira Armenia Pereira 11.5 San Andres 1.7 Cucuta Ibague 11.5 Yopal 1.7 Pasto Villavicencio Manizales 10.6 Arauca 1.3 Santa Marta Riohacha Valledupar 6.4 Leticia 0.5 Neiva Quibdo Villavicencio 7.7 San Jose del 0.5 Agua de Dios Monteria Guaviare Valledupar Santa Marta 7.3 Mocoa 0.3 Popayan Florencia Pasto 7.1 Puerto 0.3 Manizales Tunja Carreño Cartagena Barranquilla Armenia 7.0 Puerto Inirida 0.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Neiva 6.1 Mitu 0.1 Million square meters Source: Cardona, et ál., 2005, IDB and ECLAC, 2005. 24 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.2.3. Geographic distribution lation and possibility of losses caused by this of the hazard, exposure, phenomenon is Tumaco (Nariño). vulnerability, and relative risk in Among the events that can be most facing earthquakes critical for the country is the possibility of an earthquake. The estimated losses due to seis- Currently, 86% of the Colombian popula- mic activity with a return period of 500 years tion lives in high and medium seismic activity would be: for Bogota, US$12.7 billion, for Me- areas (Figure 1.2). Some 44% of the Colombian dellin US$7.5 billion, for Cali US$6.4 billion, territory is under exposure to high and medium for the Coffee Growing region US$2 billion seismic activity, namely in the Pacific and Ande- (Cardona, et ál., 2004 a and b), and for the na- an regions, which means that 960 municipalities tion in general US$44.9 billion (Ingeniar Ltda., are exposed and most of them have the largest 2011) (Graph 1.7). For this same scenario, populations in the country. At a municipal level, the number of persons injured in Bogota is Cali represents the largest population exposed around 48,000 and 20,000 fatalities. The eco- to high seismic activity, followed by other capi- nomic losses in millions of dollars for the dif- tals such as Cucuta, Bucaramanga, Pereira, Vil- ferent capital cities in Colombia are shown in lavicencio, Pasto, and Manizales. Graph 1.8, for a return period of 500 years. The municipalities having the highest con- The values for moderate events are presented, centration of relative risk, from an economical these having a return period of 100 years and point of view with respect to the GDP and expo- for extreme events a return period of 1000 sure to seismic hazard, include to Cali, Bogota, years. Seismic activity for which buildings are Villavicencio, Medellin, and Bucaramanga10. designed according to the seismic resistant On the following level, there are other munici- regulations in force, NSR-10, correspond to a palities that are notable: Santander, Norte de return period of 475 years. This event has a Santander, Choco, western Antioquia, Valle del 10% probability of exceeding the life span of Cauca, Coffee Growing region, parts of Cauca a building’s useful life, which is estimated to and Nariño and the municipalities in the East- ern Mountain Range (Figure 1.2). The municipalities with the largest UBN are located near the Pacific coast, in the Nariño, 10 The relative risk index was defined as the result of the GDP by munici- pality exposure to different hazard levels according to the following Cauca, Choco, Santander and Norte de Santand- equation: rRI =GDP X E(Z), where rRI is the relative Risk Index, GDP is the er departments. They have the greatest level indicator that shows the concentration of goods and capital and E(Z) is the exposure to the different levels of hazard. According to this indicator, of vulnerability relative to seismic harzards11. municipalities that have a high GDP and high exposure to hazard tend These municipalities have inadequate basic to have more probabilities of economic losses. Exposures to each level of hazard correspond to the municipal capital, but it is represented on sanitation infrastructure coverage, insuffi- the maps in the whole polygon of the municipality. In other words, since cient levels of schooling, health, and produc- the percentage of the Colombian urban population is around 80%, an acceptable margin of error for this analysis is 20%, which corresponds to tion infrastructure, and deficient services, low the rural population. incomes, weaknesses in institutional perfor- 10 The relative Vulnerability Indicator rVI is calculated from the UBN, as the vulnerability proxy and the exposure to different levels of hazards E(H). mance, and lastly, inferior capacity to recover rVI = UBN X E(H). According to the relative Vulnerability Indicator rVI, the economically and socially. Given a greater pos- most vulnerable municipalities are those that have the greatest percent- age of UBN population and are exposed to higher levels of hazards. In sibility of a tsunami on the Pacific coast, the principle, municipalities with low percentage of UBN population have a municipality having the largest exposed popu- greater capacity of overcoming a disaster. (more resilience). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 25 be 50 years. It is worth pointing out out that which was close to the stated scenario of US$2 the Coffee Growing region earthquake (1999) billion. The risk resulting from an aggregate was very close to the parameters established earthquake for the entire country, for a return by the Seismic Resistant Regulation and its period of 500 years, is US$44.9 billion (Inge- registered losses amounted to US$1.5 billion, niar Ltda, 2011). Graph 1.7. Possible maximum losses caused by seismic activity in the whole country for different return periods $ 70,000 Result $ 60,000 Exposed value US$ million 632,772 US$ million 2,367 $ 50,000 Expected annual loss Probable maximum losses % 3.7% (US$ million) $ 40,000 PML $ 30,000 Return period Loss Years US$ million % $ 20,000 100 23,933 3.8% $ 10,000 250 35,615 5.6% 0 500 44,952 7.1% 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 1,000 52,677 8.3% Return period (years) 1,500 59,433 9.4% Source: Ingeniar Ltda., 2011. Landslides. Municipality of Pereira (Risaralda - Colombia), 2011. Photography: Javier Garcia Jaramillo. 26 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 1.8. Losses for Colombian cities resulting from seismic activity for a return period of 500 years for Comparative box of losses due to earthquake, a return period of 500 years 12,700 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 Bogota Medellin Cali Cucuta Pasto Popayan Ibague Monteria Quibdo Santa Marta San Andres Villavicencio Neiva Bucaramanga Florencia Yopal Barranquilla Cartagena Mocoa Riohacha Arauca Leticia Puerto Carreño Mitu Puerto Inirida San Jose del Guaviare Manizales + Pereira + Armenia Sincelejo Valledupar Economic losses due to earthquakes for the main cities in Colombia PML (US$ million) PML [%] Exposed value for different return periods for different return periods City (US$ million) 100 500 1,000 100 500 1,000 Bogota 85,442 3,501 12,668 23,294 4 15 27 Medellin 26,473 1,728 7,566 10,86 2 9 13 Cali 21,704 1,089 6,427 9,474 1 8 11 Pereira + Armenia + Manizales 9,700 241 2,049 3,106 0 2 4 Cucuta 4,184 107 1,339 2,33 0 2 3 Pasto 2,398 186 851 1,306 0 1 2 Villavicencio 2,695 107 804 1,464 0 1 2 Neiva 1,923 85 787 1,322 0 1 2 Popayan 1,841 163 651 949 0 1 1 Ibague 3,529 50 446 760 0 1 1 Bucaramanga 5,109 68 417 736 0 0 1 Tunja 1,360 33 280 405 0 0 0 Montería 1,634 29 228 436 0 0 1 Quibdo 406 68 199 254 0 0 0 Santa Marta 2,836 12 176 493 0 0 1 Florencia 596 8 115 206 0 0 0 Yopal 399 5 95 150 0 0 0 San Andres 499 6 76 126 0 0 0 Barranquilla 11,591 21 69 122 0 0 0 Cartagena 5,089 13 49 85 0 0 0 Mocoa 77 5 38 53 0 0 0 Riohacha 528 2 32 90 0 0 0 Arauca 374 2 28 73 0 0 0 Leticia 139 2 26 42 0 0 0 Puerto Carreño 73 1 17 28 0 0 0 Sincelejo 915 2 15 41 0 0 0 Valledupar 1,964 3 13 25 0 0 0 Mitu 46 0 4 7 0 0 0 Puerto Inírida 60 0 4 7 0 0 0 Source: Cardona, et ál., 2004 a and b. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 27 Figure 1.2. Distribution of the hazard, population exposure, vulnerability, and relative risk facing seismic activity12 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from AIS, 2010 and DANE, 2010. 28 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 1.1. Seismic activity Colombia is situated at the convergence of three lithospheric plates: the Nazca, the Caribbean, and South America plate, as a result, it is affected by a variety of seismic sources associated with the Pacific subduction zone as well as superficial faults related to the accumulation of efforts in the continent (OSSO Corporation, 1998). The seismic hazard is expressed through direct movements of seismic vibrations, that act on the surface and affect the infrastructure. These vibrations depend on the characteristics of the terrain, such as magnitude and depth as well as the soil and subsoil characteristics. The vibrations may produce secondary effects such as landslides and liquefaction of soil. The Pacific region of the country is exposed to high seismic hazards associated with the subduction zone of the Pacific ocean, which has the greatest capacity to free the largest amounts of seismic energy in Colombia. The earthquakes of 1906 and 1979 occurred from this source. These stand out, because they also caused a tsunami that mainly affected the population of Tumaco, a municipality located on the Nariñense Pacific coast. In the Andean region, high seismic hazard zones are associated with superficial fault activity such as Romeral, Cauca, Palestina and the front of the Eastern Mountain Range, which has the characteristic of producing superficial seismic activity of great destructive power, such as the quakes of the Suaza (1827), Huila (1967), Popayan (1983), Paez (1994), Tauramena (1995), and the Coffee Growing region (1999), among others. Some of this seismic activity has stood out due to the generation of significant mass movements, which are explained by the topographic and geological characteristics of the region. In the north of the Valle del Cauca, southern Choco and the Coffee Growing region, there is an intermediate depth seismicity (between 66 and 300 km), with events of the magnitude of around 6.0 to 6.5. These have produced severe damages in Cali (in 1925), as well as in Manizales and Pereira, and in other populations between southern Antioquia and the north of the Valle del Cauca (in 1938, 1961, 1962, 1973, 1979 and 1995). Some 95% of the land area of the departments of Huila, Choco, Valle del Cauca, Nariño, Risaralda, Cauca, and Quindio is exposed to high seismic hazards. All of these departments have a history of undergoing at least one severe seismic event has caused very serious losses. These events have been documented since 1566, the year when the first seismic activity was reported in the country’s history. Tsunamis, unchained by immense earthquakes, may occur both on the Pacific as well as on the Caribbean coast. However, the greatest disasters resulting from this phenomenon have occurred on the Pacific coast, since the main source of this hazard to Colombia is located in said region. Since tsunamis are normally the result of seismic activity with magnitudes greater or equal to 7.5, their recurrence is compared to earthquakes having these characteristics that may originate close to the Colombian coasts or be distant in origin, produced along the Pacific Fire Belt. The departments most exposed, to tsunamis are Cauca, Nariño, Choco and Valle del Cauca in the Pacific and La Guajira, Bolivar, Atlantico, Magdalena, Sucre, Cordoba, Antioquia and Choco in the Caribbean. Apart from the insular areas in both oceans, the population living in the coastal municipalities is close to 7 million inhabitants (6 million in the Caribbean and 1 million in the Pacific), which represents 6% of the total population of the country. Given that there is a greater possibility of tsunami occurrence in the Pacific, the municipality with most population exposed and the greatest possibility of losses resulting from this phenomenon is Tumaco (Nariño). 12 Level of seismic hazard Level of relative risk High. Defined for those regions where very intense earthquakes are ex- Very high. Municipalities exposed to high hazards with a GDP greater pected to reach effective peak acceleration values greater than 0.20g. than Col$4 billion. Medium. Defined for those regions where there is the probability of High. Municipalities with a population exposed to high hazard with a reaching effective peak acceleration values greater than 0.10g or less GDP less than Col$4 billion or with a population exposed to moderate than or equal to 0.20g. hazards with a GDP greater than 9 billion. Low. Defined for those regions where the seismic activity does not ex- Moderate. Municipalities with a population exposed to low hazard with a ceed effective peak acceleration of 0.10g. GDP of Col$9 billion or municipalities exposed to moderate hazard with a GDP of between Col$4 and 9 billion. Level of relative vulnerability Low. Municipalities with an exposed population to low hazard with a Very high. Municipalities having a UBN population greater than 76% ex- GDP below Col$9 billion or with a population exposed to moderate haz- posed to high seismic activity. ards with GDP less than Col$4 billion. High. Municipalities with a UBN population between 57% and 76% ex- posed to high seismic activity. In order to calculate the level of relative risk the GDP was used at Moderate. Municipalities with a UBN population between 28% and 56% 2009 constant prices (based on 2005) at departmental level. The exposed to high seismic activity or a population exposed to moderate GDP value was distributed in each municipality adjusted to the size seismic hazard with an UBN population greater than 40%. of the population. The resulting values were reclassified in order to Low. Municipalities with a population exposed to low seismic activity operate them based on exposure values related to defined hazards. or with population exposed to any level of hazard with an index of UBN GDP distribution = (Municipal population * departmental GDP)/to- less than 27%. tal municipal population. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 29 1.2.4. Losses caused by volcanic displaced from the Nasa village, which was lo- phenomena, a risk not yet cated in the surroundings of the volcano. Fur- estimated thermore, there are other volcanoes that have registered historic eruptions and thus priority This type of geological hazard is produced must be given to evaluating their threats and by a series of active or potentially active volca- risk intervention: Nevado del Tolima, Purace, noes distributed along three mountain ranges Doña Juana, and Cumbal (Monsalve, 2011). and inter-Andean valleys. There are more than The exposure of cities and populations to 20 potentially active volcanoes in the country,13 phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, lahars, of which 12 are monitored by the Volcanological and avalanches have not been estimated for all Observatories under the supervision of the Co- of the volcanoes in terms of possible human and lombian Geological Survey in Manizales (Neva- economic impacts. However, partial data on the do del Ruiz, Nevado del Tolima, Nevado de Santa volcanoes that have hazard maps indicate that Isabel, Cerro Machin, and Cerro Bravo), Popayan there are at least 1.9 million persons in their zone (Nevado del Huila, Purace and Coconucos, and of influence and approximately 240,000 living Sotara), and Pasto (Galeras, Doña Juana, Cum- in high-risk zones15 (Table 1.3). Presently, there bal, Azufral, and Chiles) (Figure 1.3). are hazard maps for 11 volcanoes in the coun- The most disastrous volcanic effects in Co- try. However, the only accurate information is lombia have been the result of lahars or volcanic related to the infrastructure and the population mud flow,14 concentrated in the zones of influence exposed, as well as detailed vulnerability stud- of the Ruiz, Galeras, and Huila volcanoes. Some ies16 for the Ruiz, Huila, and Galeras volcanoes. of the volcanoes in Colombia are above 4,600 Taking into account the recent volcanic distri- m, a factor that determines for many of them bution in Colombia in the three main segments the presence of permanent glaciers or seasonal (north, central, and south), a first estimate of snows, and they therefore have the potential of the exposed population was carried out for this producing lahars. In the last few years, active volcanoes that have generated eruptive episodes started with the Nevado del Ruiz factor, when 13 A volcano is potentially active if it has registered eruptive geological ac- tivity in the last 10,000 years, historical activity, the presence of thermal on November 13, 1985, the volcano erupted, manifestations (fumaroles, thermal sources), or if there is the presence of causing around 23,000 fatalities (Monsalve, well conserved landforms (Monsalve, 2011). Active and potentially active volcanoes identified in Colombia are: Chiles, Cerro Negro, Cumbal, Azufral, 2011). The Galeras volcano started its current Galeras, Doña Juana, Animas, Sucubun, Sotara, Purace, the eruptive hills activity in 1989 with small explosions, ash emis- that make up the Volcanic Chain of the Coconucos, Nevado del Huila, Cerro Machin, Nevado del Tolima, Quindio, Cerros de Alsacia, Cerro Bravo, Nevado sions, block emissions (ballistic projectiles), and de Santa Isabel, Nevado del Ruiz, and possibly el Paramillo de Santa Rosa fires (Monsalve, 2011). It was followed by activ- and Mar de San Diego (Colombian Geographical Survey 2011). 14 Lahars are avalanches formed by ice and snow caused by eruptive processes ity in Nevado del Huila, which is the highest and (effusive and explosive) or by sudden liberation of water masses accumu- largest volcanic edifice in Colombia and con- lated on the volcano or close to it. Mudslides may be formed due to the abundant fall of pyroclastic material after explosive eruptions. tains the largest glacier volume. Its basins drain 15 Corresponds to the calculated population under exposure to the volca- toward the Magdalena (OSSO Corporation, noes Galeras, Huila, Machin, Ruiz, Cumbal Cerro Negro, Chiles, Purace, Santa Isabel, and Tolima (OSSO Corporation, 2011; Colombian Geograph- 2009a), and its reactivation since 2007 has been ical Survey, 2011). characterized by the presence of sludge flow and 16 For this study herein, estimation was done calculating the exposed pop- ulation in the regional municipality, andt its effects/impacts, depending dome extrusion. As a result of this volcano’s ac- on the exact location and topography. Therefore, these values may vary tivity, more than 10,000 indigenous people were once detailed studies are made. 30 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Figure 1.3. Distribution of recent volcanism in Colombia Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from the Colombian Geological Survey, 2011. document. In the Central Mountain Range, the ure 1.5). Finally, the south segment has 10,000 north segment (Figure 1.4.), comprising the inhabitants17 under high risk in the immediate population around the Cerro Machin, there are area of the Galeras volcano (Figure 1.6) (OSSO close to 31,000 inhabitants exposed to high risk; Corporation, 2011; Monsalve, 2011; Colombian at the Nevado del Ruiz, 26,000; at Santa Isabel Geological Survey, 2011). 9,000; and at Tolima, more than 127,000. In the medium segment of the Central Mountain Range, the population associated with the Ne- 17 According to the Pasto Volcanological Observatory, the population ex- vado del Huila volcano, includes approximately posed to the Galeras volcano is located, in the municipalities of Pasto, 33,000 inhabitants exposed to high hazards (Fig- Nariño, La Florida, Sandona, Yacuanquer and Tangua. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 31 Figure 1.4. Exposure to volcanic risk. North segment: Cerro Bravo-Machin Volcanic Province Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by the Colombian Geological Survey, 2011. Figure 1.5. Exposure to volcanic risk. Medium segment: Coconucos-Doña Juana Volcanic Province Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by the Colombian Geological Survey, 2011. 32 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Figure 1.6. Exposure to volcanic risk. South segment: Cauca-Patia Inter-Andean Depression Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by the Colombian Geological Survey 2011. Table 1.3. Populations of municipal centers exposed to volcanic hazards * Exposed Population 2010 Total Segment % High Hazard Medium Hazard Low Hazard 2010 North Cerro Machin Volcano 31,236 - 690,328 721,564 38.0% Nevado del Ruiz Volcano 26,010 33,154 66,033 125,197 7.0% Nevado Santa Isabel Volcano 9,314 - - 9,314 0.5% Nevado Tolima Volcano ** 127,000 - - 127,000 7.0% Center Nevado del Huila Volcano 33,214 - - 33,214 2.0% South Galeras Volcano 10,295 4,518 491,994 506,807 27.0% Cumbal Volcano - 34,186 - 34,186 2.0% Purace Volcano - 15,163 313,784 328,947 16.5% Total 237,069 87,021 1,562,139 1,886,229 * Estimation calculating the population exposed in municipal centers. The values may vary once more detailed studies are carried out. ** Estimation calculating the projection of the population exposed according to Ingeominas, 1988. Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by the Colombian Geological Survey, 2011. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 33 The Colombian Geological Survey (before the Magdalena River, corresponds to more than Ingeominas), different Autonomous Regional 1,000 km2, principally located along the Coello Corporations, and universities have warned that River and the plains on the left bank of the Mag- one of the most critical scenarios from a volcanic dalena River between Saldaña and Nariño. To- point of view may be related to a Cerro Machin ward the western part of the Central Mountain explosion. The volcano is is located in the To- Range, there are other hundreds of square ki- lima department and there are approximately lometers threatened by these types of phenom- 700,000 people exposed in its zone of influence. ena, but thus far these have not been accurately In addition, it is of geo-strategic importance to identified. Another threatened zone is related to the country. According to the Manizales Vol- falling pyroclast and it covers an area of around canalogical and Seismological Observatory18 2,000 km2 located to the west of the volcano. the effects associated with different phenomena Temporarily, in the trajectory of an avalanche and activity processes of Cerro Machin include: produced by landslides in the basin of the Com- 240 km2 of area potentially affected by pyroclas- beima River, melting of glaciers from the Neva- tic flows that include the head municipalities of do del Tolima volcano or due to its eruption may Cajamarca and Coello, the township of Anaime, affect the city of Ibague, which is located at the and the villages of Toche and Tapias in Tolima. mouth of an alluvial fan in which the Combeima The zone threatened by lahars, at the basin of river converges. 18 Manizales Volcanological and Seismological Observatory at: http://www.ingeominas.gov.co/Manizales/Volcanes/Volcan-Cerro- Machin/Mapa-de-amenazas.aspx. 34 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.3. GAPS in land use planning in basins and urban zones, and exposure growth are the main factors in hydrometeorological risk 1.3.1. Landslides and floods of event, hydrometeorological phenomena gen- accumulate the greatest erate more localized impacts, but have higher percentage of loss of life and frequency, which accumulatively over time de- housing destroyed respectively note even greater losses than those caused by geological events. The DesInventar database The great losses associated with the Ne- (OSSO Corporation-EAFIT, 2011) concludes vado del Ruiz volcanic eruption in 1985 are ex- that floods have caused 43% of housing de- cluded, the greatest percentage accumulated for stroyed and 10% of loss of life, whereas land- loss of life and housing destroyed for the period slides have caused 10% of housing destroyed 1970-2011 corresponds to landslides and floods and 36% of deaths during the period studied. respectively (Graph 1.9). Analyzing by the type Graph 1.9. Losses per type of event, 1970-2011 Deaths Destroyed Houses 1% 1% 4% 5% 2% 4% 36% 6% 43% 4% 10% 6% 10% 28% 10% 15% Landslide Fire Rain Flood Fire Wildfire Earthquake Structural collapse Epidemic Earthquake Tsunami Volcanic activity Flood Accident Storm Landslide Tidal wave Other Flash flood Poisoning Thunderstorm Gale Storm Hurricane Explosion Tsunami Flash flood Rain Avalanche Note: Excludes loss of life (close to 24,000) and destroyed housing caused by the Nevado del Ruiz volcanic eruption in 1985. Source: OSSO Corporation 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 35 Graph 1.10. Housing destroyed and loss of life per 100,000 inhabitants, by municipal population, 2001-2010 Destroyed housing /100,000 inhabitants 10,000 1,000 Deaths/100,000 inhabitants 1,000 100 100 10 10 1 1 0.1 0.1 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 Population size Population size Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. The data for losses incurred during the that contribute to generating flood and landslide last decade, normalized according to the size hazards. According to the Ideam study (2009b) of the municipal population, indicate that both on precipitation tendencies historically registered housing destroyed as well as loss of life are con- in the period between 1970 and 2000, it can be centrated in smaller territorial entities that concluded that in some zones, climate variabil- have between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants. ity has significant effects on the risk conditions (Graph 1.10). Furthermore, the distribution of in the country. This does not indicate that over- impacts on housing and population, accord- all increases are being produced in the intensity ing to the socioeconomic characteristics of of precipitations and their recurrence. In order the municipalities affected, indicate that the to have better information and control of these majority of their inhabitants are located in ru- variations, it is necessary to strengthen monitor- ral zones and more than 50% of the popula- ing and to continue with the analysis models that tion is in UBN conditions. are currently being developed in Colombia. It is calculated that between 2000 and 2007, more than 2,000 forest hectares were lost in the 1.3.2. Factors such as climate country. The average deforestation is more than variation and deficits in land 330,000 ha per year, which is an important soil use planning processes at the degradation factor and makes soil susceptible to rural and urban level lead to floods and landslides. In spite of the regulations an increase in susceptibility to related to the forest subject, which are very ex- floods and flash floods tensive at the national level and some of which have been in force for more than 50 years, the The tendency of hydrometeorological regis- control mechanisms have not been sufficient ters confirms an increase of precipitation in some and the extraction levels exceed the legally of the country’s zones, which is interpreted as an granted licenses. The greatest loss of forested important change in one of the triggering factors land is evident in the Amazon region with an 36 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 1.4. Ranges of deforested areas and average anual deforestation, 2000-2007 Region Deforestation for period 2000 – 2007 (ha) Deforestation annual average (ha/year) Low Medium High Low Medium High Andean 462,902 578,627 694,353 66,129 82,661 99,193 Pacific 376,718 470,897 565,076 53,774 67,217 80,660 Orinoquia 204,394 255,493 306,592 29,199 36,499 43,799 Amazonia 585,088 731,360 877,632 83,584 104,480 125,376 Caribbean 256,054 320,068 384,082 36,579 45,724 54,869 Total 1,885,156 2,356,445 2,827,734 269,265 336,581 403,897 Note: Figures subject to validity from high-resolution remote sensors or field data. Source: Ideam, 2009b. average of 570,000 hectares, followed by the nation, and overexploitation of natural resources. Andean region with more than 570,000 hect- Human settlements near rivers, mines, and ag- ares (Table 1.4). However, in relative terms, the riculture and livestock zones are the principal Caribbean region was the most affected one be- man-induced interventions having influence in tween 2000 and 2007, given that 12% of its for- this transformation. According to Table 1.5, 17% est coverage disappeared in that period (Ideam, of the country’s territory undergoes overexploita- 2009b). Deforestation constitutes an important tion. In other words, land use exceeds its capacity, factor in soil degradation and this impact is while 15.9% is underutilized, 47.2% is for con- not compensated by reforestation projects, servation, and 19.9% does not have any type of since the cultivated areas are smaller and the conflict. As an example, it can be pointed out that processes are mainly concentrated on protect- the surface dedicated to agriculture and agrisil- ing the basins that supply safe drinking water, viculture (simultaneous husbandry of forest tree and not on controlling erosion. However, it is crops and food crops) is close to 4.9 million hect- indirectly acknowledged that reforestation in ares, though it is estimated that 21.5 million may basins may have minimum positive impacts on be used for this purpose. In other words, only the territory20. 22.7% of the surface land area that is suitable for Efforts to progress in land use planning this purpose is used for cultivation. However, the through Law 388 of 1989 have been very important, but they have not yet been sufficient or achieved the impacts desired in urban or rural areas. Con- flicts between land use and land vocation have 19 Actions to protect Colombian forests began with the issuance of De- cree 1454 of 1942, in which regulations were established to protect transformed the territories’ natural conditions. forest zones and for the first time definitions were set for forests The great wealth of country’s ecosystem has been in the public interest and for public forests. Furthermore, provisions were made related to forest harvesting and forest development diminished due to the inadequate land use and (Ideam, 2009b). occupation, which has generated, among other 20 Reforestation projects have been focused on the protection of basins and not in controlling erosion. Caldas, Antioquia, and Cundinamarca things, changes in the hydraulic dynamic of the are among the regions that have invested in erosion control during rivers, deforestation, drying wetlands, contami- many decades. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 37 opposite occurs in livestock activity, which uses ally in line with changes in land use. For ex- 39,200 hectares to maintain the herds, whereas ample in the foothills of the Eastern Mountain only 21 million of the land used is suitable for this Range, in the Middle Magdalena, in the Low activity (UNDP, 2011). Magdalena, in the Low San Jorge and Cauca, Changes in land use and the correspond- in the Sinu basin, and in the Pacific region are ing loss of vegetation coverage in practically the areas where intensive agriculture has grown entire country may be observed by comparing by approximately 23%, resulting in decrease of land use maps from 1970 and 2000 (Figure 1.7). forest areas. During the period of 1990-2005, In zones such as the Pacific, the Caribbean, and Colombia increased the number of heads of the Orinoquia, losses have extended territori- cattle by 1,315,895. Table 1.5. Suitable land use and conflicts arising from land use Area Type of conflict Description Hectares % None Current use is compatible with its usability 22,669,659 19.9 Underutilization (total) 17,790,116 15.7 • Light Current use is close to its usability 5,192,171 4.6 • Moderate Current use is below its usability 7,829,533 6.9 • Severe Current use is considerably below its usability 4,767,866 4.2 Overutilization (total) 19,652,641 17.2 • Light Current use is close to its usability 6,303,463 5.5 • Moderate Current use is above its usability, with unsustainable production processes 5,635,580 4.9 • Severe Current use is considerably above its usability, causing an accelerated land degradation 7,713,598 6,8 Land under Natural forests, wasteland vegetation , mangroves 65,538,892 47.2 conservation National total 125,651,308 100 Source: World Bank (2006b) from information provided by the IGAC, Ministry of Agriculture and Corpoica (2002) 38 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Figure 1.7. Comparison of land use in 1970 and 2000 Sources: CIA, 1970; Eva, et ál., 2003. Soil without ground vegetation is exposed Orinoquia region, Casanare and Meta, with to being dragged by water, and if we add the loss of more than 50% of the land having high levels infiltration due to human activity, the result may of erosion (World Bank, 2006b). Table 1.6 indi- be an increase of the temporary flow of waters, cates how high and very high levels of erosion which may produce floods or avalanches. The lev- increased by 16 million hectares between 1988 els of erosion have increased in all of the regions and 2000, which represents 14% of the total of the country, but especially in the Caribbean surface of the country, and demonstrates that region, where it is estimated that the number of land degradation policies have been inefficient21 hectares affected by erosion is 35.9%, followed by the Orinoquia and the Pacific regions. Out of 21 The analysis made by the World Bank in the document Environmental pri- the 32 departments in Colombia, 12 (one-third orities to reduce poverty (2006b) indicate that only four Regional Autono- mous Corporations (CAR) greatly invest in land conservation, although or more of the total land area) undergo a high these are below the needs required: The Regional Autonomous Corpora- degree of erosion, principally in the Caribbean tion for the Defense of the Bucaramaga Plateau (CDMB), Corantioquia, Corpoboyaca, and the Valle del Cauca Regional Autonomous Corpora- region, in the departments of Atlántico, Cesar, tion (CVC). It also demonstrates that 54% of the CAR invest insufficient Cordoba, La Guajira, and Sucre, and two in the amounts in relation to the size of this problem. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 39 Table 1.6. Change of high and very high erosion, 1998-2004 High and Very High Erosion Hectares Percentage Region Total Area (ha) 1998 2004 1998 2004 Change Change (IGAC) (Ideam) (IGAC) (Ideam) Amazonia 18,977,000 0 157,590 157,590 0.0 0.8 0.8 Andean 21,927,700 3,410,125 4,369,974 959,849 15.6 19.9 4.4 Caribbean 13,194,400 1,469,900 6,205,975 4,736,075 11.1 47.0 35.9 Orinoquia 46,954,000 4,825,125 13,982,990 9,157,865 10.3 29.8 19.5 Pacific 12,931,300 0 1,292,308 1,292,308 0.0 10.0 10.0 Total 113,984,800 9,705,150 26,008,837 16,303,687 8.5 22.8 14.3 Source: World Bank, 2006b from IGAC, 1988 and Ideam 2004. thus far. The estimated land loss is 145,132,500 nonmitigable high-risk zones is, among other tons/year. As a result, these sediments are most- factors, causing accumulations and growth of ly deposited in riverbeds, in natural buffer areas, exposure and vulnerability, thus of the risk of or lastly they may end up in the sea (ECLAC and floods and landslides in Colombia. GTZ 2008). Inadequate coordination among entities Additionally to the degradation factors and poor coherence between planning and pub- of the basins that generate changes in suscepti- lic administration instruments influence the in- bility or the probability of flood or landslide oc- crease of institutional and policy vulnerability, currences (increase of the hazard), demograph- consequently putting the Colombian population ic growth, urban concentration, and greater at risk. The ambiguity of regional competencies levels of exposure without any significant de- in planning and land use planning, the disar- crease in vulnerability factors also contribute ticulation of the POT with the departmental to the equation of greater risk growth. The cur- and municipal PD, and the lack of risk man- rent weaknesses in the land management pro- agement in public administration show that cesses, the lack of knowledge of the phenom- the current structure is inappropriate for a real ena22, the disarticulation in the Watershed reduction of disaster risk in the country. Management Plans (POMCA) and the Land Use Plans (POT), technical specifications in infrastructure design and construction, and urban control mechanisms result in new hu- 22 On a regional scale, there are few studies related to specific hazards. These include, in the case of the Sinu flood hazard or the Combeima man settlements being set up in inappropri- landslides and the geological hazard study in Cundinamarca. Overall, ate and unsafe zones from the point of view of municipalities have carried out hazard studies in order to comply with the POT regulation that requires its inclusion, but these studies have risk. On the other hand, low investment to ap- been developed without adequate reference terms and do not provide ply corrective measures such as constructing an effective input for the planning processes. Cities such as Bogota and Manizales have executed more rigorous technical risk studies which mitigation works, integral improvement of have been helpful in decision making as far as disaster risk manage- neighborhoods, and resettlement processes in ment at the local level is concerned.. 40 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The ideology and political and economic currence (increase of hazards) and exposure to structure that serve as a base for the develop- the same (a house located in a safe place may in ment model generate institutional weaknesses the long run be affected by landslides or floods, or strengths and determine the performance due only to deforestation processes or improper of growth dynamics, which may result in envi- water management in its surroundings). The ronmental degradation, accelerated population lack of institutional capacities also contributes growth, and urbanization, otherwise known as to the increase of the three risk factors, since macro forces that affect risk performance. If it is inadequate controls and the absence of creating assumed that the concept of risk is a product of a community awareness strategy allow not only hazard (probability of an occurrence of a phe- an increase in the hazard and its exposure, but nomenon), exposure (localization in zones where also an increase in vulnerability, which is related hazard or danger may generate effects), and vul- to physical aspects (bad quality in the construc- nerability (weakness or susceptibility for being tion, for example) and social, political, and eco- affected by hazards), it is possible to understand nomic aspects (bad capacity to access income, risk performance resulting from the variation of chronic illnesses in the population, etc.). In the these three factors. Hazards are invariable for Pressure and Release model, proposed by Blai- phenomena such as seismic activity and volca- kie et al. in 1996, underlying causes are identified nic eruptions, since people cannot intervene in as the source of vulnerability in society. Dynamic their dynamics. But phenomena such as defor- pressures are those processes that “translate” the estation, soil loss, and bad practices in land use effects of the underlying causes into unsafe condi- planning, named by some authors as dynamic tions. Finally, unsafe conditions are the concrete pressures, have influence in increasing suscep- forms in which hazard, exposure, and vulner- tibility or the probability of a phenomenon oc- ability are expressed (figure 1.8).23 23 The Pressure and Release model is introduced in this chapter as a rela- tively simple tool that indicates how the disaster arises when natural hazards affect vulnerable persons. Their vulnerability is ingrained in social processes and root causes that eventually may be completely un- related to the event that triggers the disaster. It is a means to understand and explain the causes of risk and thereby of disasters. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 41 Figure 1.8. Social processes in creating risk as adopted from the PAR model 1 2 3  Underlying causes Dynamic pressure Unsafe conditions Limited access to : Lack of local and regional VULNERABILITY: * Power institutional capacity: Physical conditions: * Structures * Training * Unprotected buildings and infrastructure RISK * Resources * Appropriate abilities Fragile local economy: R=H*E*V * Ideology * Insu cient investment * Livelihoods at risk * Political systems * Monitoring and control * Low income * Economic system * Ethical standards in public life Vulnerable society:   * Special groups DISASTER Macro forces: * Lack of preparedness * Rapid population growth * Endemic disease * Rapid urbanization * Deforestation EXPOSURE: GEOLOGICAL RISK * Land loss Hazardous location Rg= H *E *V INVARIABLE HAZARDS: Volcanic eruptions VARIABLE HAZARDS: Floods, Landslides HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL RISK AFFECTED BY CLIMATE CHANGE: Droughts, Hurricanes/ Rhm= H *E *V Cyclones /High winds R: Risk H: Hazard E: Exposure V: Vulnerability Source: Adopted from the Disaster Pressure and Release, Blaikie, et ál., 1996. 1.3.3. Geographical distribution of addition, increasingly there are more frequent hazard, exposure, vulnerability and urban floods related to a deficient maintenance relative risk in facing floods of the sewage system or the absence of rain or sanitary drainage. In Colombia, the presence of low plains Some 12% of the national territory is and alluvial valleys, combined with precipita- located in areas that are susceptible to floods. tion conditions, makes possible the occurrence These areas are mainly located (i) in the east of floods. Some of them are produced slowly, of the country, in the low plains of the basins affecting large areas of territory and others are of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers; (ii) in the produced more rapidly and associated with in- alluvial valleys of the Caribbean and Pacific tense rain in the high parts of the basins char- regions, associated to the Magdalena river, the acterized by steep slopes. A flood hazard is un- Momposina depression, the valleys of the Sinu derstood to be the probability of an overflow- and Alto San Jorge rivers, the lowlands close to ing of rivers as a result of heavy or continuous the Atrato river, in Choco, and the deltas of the rainfall that increases the water level to a point San Juan, Telembi, Patia, and Mira rivers; and where the river overruns its natural course in (iii) in the inter-Andean valleys, mainly on the a determined period causing negative impacts Cauca and Magdalena rivers, as well as on the in a population, in the agriculture sector, and Sabana de Bogota (Figure 1.9). the infrastructure (Campos A. et ál, 2009). In 42 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The populations located in zones having erage, which creates more susceptibility to the the greatest potential of floods are distributed occurrence of flood phenomena due to inad- in 79 municipalities, which represent 28% of equate land use and occupation. the total national population. The departments There are not many models to estimate most exposed to floods are Valle del Cauca, probable losses caused by floods. However, Atlantico, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Antio- some of the existing models confirm that the quia, Cordoba, Cesar, Cauca, and Meta. At greatest losses, as far as departments, may the municipal level, Bogota, Cali, and Barran- happen in the Caribbean region and the Lla- quilla are the municipalities with the highest nos Orientales (Eastern Planes). The existing populations and are located in zones that have models have estimated the losses in the ag- the highest possibility of being flooded, fol- riculture sector based on number of hectares lowed by Apartado (Antioquia), Chia (Cun- under cultivation by department and the as- dinamarca), and Jamundi (Valle del Cauca). sessment of the area for each type of crop that Vulnerability related to floods, with re- could be affected (Graph 1.11). The spatial dis- spect to the UBN indicator per municipality in- tribution of the damages is coherent with what dicates that 48% of the population is classified was observed during the last La Niña 2010- at a high level of vulnerability (Figure 1.9). The 2011 phenomenon, but the estimated values regions having the greatest potential for floods are considerably lower than what is presented are the Pacific and the Caribbean, the tributar- in reality due to the information limitations ies of the Magdalena River, and the municipali- on land registries, among other factors. It is ties of the Orinoquia and the Amazon regions, necessary to improve the precision of these which also have the highest indices in poverty, types of models in order to have a better defi- qualitative housing deficits, lowest coverage of nition and implementation of risk manage- water supply and sewage, and highest back- ment policies. However, even with the flood wardness and rurality indices. Additionally, and climate precipitation models, there will due to the absence of institutional and eco- always be considerable levels of uncertainty. nomic capacity, their potential for recupera- Therefore, it is necessary to consider control tion in case of a disaster is deficient. and management measures that are robust The relative risk or economic loss indices and ample to cover different scenarios. caused by floods, with respect to the GDP, high- lights some cities such as Cali, Bogota, Medellin, Barranquilla, Monteria, Cartagena, and Villavi- cencio (Figure 1.9). A very high relative risk in- dex is identified related to flood zones with the greatest economic concentration in the largest cities and metropolitan areas. Formal housing construction covers only 60% of demand (DNP, 2010a), and the displaced population coming from rural areas has been accumulated in the largest cities, on the outskirts or in marginal zones of these cities that are not conditioned to have appropriate development and lack sew- Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 43 Figure 1.9. Zones susceptible to floods, exposed population, vulnerability, and relative risk24 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from Ideam, 2010. 44 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Floods. Municipality of La Virginia (Risaralda - Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. 24 Range of susceptibility to floods Low. Municipalities having a UBM population less than 56% exposed to Greater potential. Those areas, whose topographic conditions in the large potentially major floods. valleys of Colombia make them more prone to being flooded. Level of relative risk Minor potential. Those areas where there are probabilities of floods, but Very high. Municipalities with a population exposed to potentially major these are not caused by topographic conditions, but may be caused by floods with a GDP greater than or with a population exposed to poten- human interactions. tially minor floods with a GDP greater than Col$9 billion. Level of relative vulnerability High. Municipalities with a population exposed to potentially minor Very high. Municipalities having a UBM population greater than 56% floods with a GDP between Col$4 and 9 billion. exposed to potentially major floods. Moderate. Municipalities with a population exposed to potentially minor High. Municipalities with a UBM population between 27% and 56% and floods with a GDP between Col$1 million and 4 billion. exposed to potentially major floods. Low. Municipalities with a population exposed to potentially minor Moderate. Municipalities having a UBM population less than 27% ex- floods with a GDP less than Col$4 billion or with a population exposed posed to potentially major floods. to greater floods with a GDP of less than Col$100 million. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 45 Graph 1.11. Probable maximum losses in the agriculture sector caused by floods for a return period of 500 years, by department PML caused by oods for return period of 500 years, as percentage of exposed value 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Casanare Arauca Cesar Sucre Magdalena Cordoba Santander Atlantico Valle del Cauca Bolivar Meta Nariño Caqueta Antioquia Cundinamarca Huila Rest of the departments Tolima Norte de Santander Cauca La Guajira Boyaca Quindio Caldas RisaraIda Estimate of economic losses caused by floods PML (%) PML Value (US$ million) Exposure Return Period Return Period Department (US$ million) 50 100 500 50 100 500 Antioquia 1,295 2.28 4.10 9.12 30 53 118 Atlantico 84 4.28 7.71 17.14 4 7 14 Arauca 448 16.47 29.65 65.89 74 133 295 Bolivar 510 10.07 18.12 40.27 52 93 208 Boyaca 564 0.47 0.84 1.87 3 5 11 Caldas 294 0.0 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 Caqueta 1,091 2.74 4.94 10.97 30 54 120 Cauca 545 1.49 2.68 5.96 8 15 33 Cesar 641 13.86 24.95 55.45 89 160 356 Cordoba 607 7.42 13.36 29.69 45 81 180 Cundinamarca 677 1.74 3.13 6.96 12 21 47 Huila 521 2.20 3.95 8.79 11 21 46 La Guajira 529 0.68 1.22 2.71 4 6 14 Magdalena 571 8.50 15.30 33.99 49 87 194 Meta 1,484 3.74 6.73 14.97 56 100 222 Nariño 364 3.73 6.71 14.92 14 24 54 Norte de Santander 413 1.76 3.16 7.02 7 13 29 Quindio 104 0.01 0.02 0.05 0 0 0 Risaralda 147 0.01 0.01 0.02 0 0 0 Santander 733 4.69 8.45 18.77 34 62 138 Sucre 282 9.17 16.50 36.67 26 47 103 Tolima 749 1.85 3.32 7.39 14 25 55 Valle del Cauca 612 3.91 7.04 15.64 24 43 96 Casanare 1,038 20.81 37.45 83.22 216 389 864 Rest of the departments 2,710 2.10 3.78 8.41 57 103 228 Source: Cardona, et ál., 2005. 46 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.3.4. Geographic distribution regard was in 2010, when SGC and Ideam up- of hazards, exposure, dated the national hazard map relative to land- vulnerability, and relative risk slides at a scale of 1:500,000. in facing landslides Some 18% of the national territory is lo- cated in very high-and high-hazard landslide In Colombia, the topographic conditions zones, mainly in the departments located in make up an appropriate scenario for landslides, the Andean region, which have a great percent- a situation that is accentuated by anthropic age of their area exposed to this phenomenon, processes that take place in the mountainous such as Boyaca (74%), Cundinamarca (65%), zones. Landslide occurrence is controlled by Risaralda (61%), and Caldas (59%) (Figure the concurrence of geological, geomorpho- 1.10). A very high level of hazard is mainly logic, structural, and climatic and geotechnical concentrated in the brooks of the Cauca and factors interacting in the territory. The change Patia rivers, the northern part of the Eastern from stable conditions to unstable conditions Mountain Range, and the Western Mountain may be triggered by natural variables such as Range. In the Eastern Mountain Range, insta- earthquake vibrations caused by seismic activ- bility is obvious in the zone, due to fracturing ity, by the natural properties of the land, by wa- of material due along. The high level of haz- ter that can act as a lubricant in zones where ard is especially concentrated in some sectors it filters, or by the dragging of particles. Like- of the Central Mountain Range, Santa Marta’s wise, landslides may be influenced by anthro- Sierra Nevada, in the Quetame and Santander pogenic interventions that generate erosion massifs, and in the foothills of the Eastern processes, such as those previously mentioned, Mountain Range. The low hazard, which af- and by other factors, such as cuts for construct- fects 50% of the national territory, is located ing roads, inadequate management of hillsides primarily in the Orinoquia and the Amazonia for urbanization, installation of network in- regions. The Caribbean and Pacific regions frastructure, water infiltration by leaks in the overall have low levels of exposure hazards. water and sewage system, absence or deficient The medium hazard rate (10% of the national systems in rainwater collection systems, defor- territory) is mainly located in valleys among estation, and mining. the three mountain ranges. Various institutions in the country, such As far as landslides, the greatest exposure is as Ideam, SGC (before Ingeominas), and some identified in 353 municipalities that are located in universities, have carried out studies on hazard high-and very high-risk zones, where 8% of the na- zoning due to landslides. The first inventory of tional population resides. As far as moderate expo- landslides was done by the Colombian Nation- sure, there are 346 municipalities that correspond al University in 1989. Since 1997, the SGC has to 23% of the population. The departments that been cataloging landslides, which served as a are prominent as having the largest populations base for zoning that was published in 2003, in exposed to high and very high risk are Antioquia, relation to the regional classification of relative Cundinamarca, Cauca, Santander, Boyaca, Cal- hazards of landslides in Colombia. From this das, and Tolima, followed by Norte de Santander, inventory, five categories are established ac- Nariño, Huila, Risaralda, and Bolivar. At the mu- cording to density, frequency, and recurrence. nicipal level, the largest populations exposed to The latest inventory that was developed in this high and very high landslide risks are located in Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 47 Figure 1.10. Landslide hazards, population exposure, vulnerability, and relative risk25 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by Ingeominas and Ideam and DANE, 2010. 48 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies the municipalities of Villamaria (Caldas); Bolivar, Antioquia, the Coffee Growing region, Santander, La Vega, Piendamo, and Cajibio (Cauca); Yarum- and North Santander, and on the eastern slopes al and Urrao (Antioquia); Libano (Tolima); Santa of the Eastern Mountain Range and in the Huila Rosa del Sur (Bolivar); and San Vicente de Chu- and Cauca municipalities. curi (Santander) (Figure 1.10). No probabilistic models were identified Vulnerability relative to unsatisfied ba- that estimate economic losses and loss of life sic needs and the exposure to hazards caused by in the event that landslides occur nationally or landslides are prevalent in the Andean region. In regionally. However, there have been signifi- particular, this occurs on the Cauca River slopes, cant advances in some municipalities at a local in western Antioquia, on the western slopes of level. Since the infrastructure that is most af- the Eastern Mountain Range (Magdalena slope), fected by these types of phenomena is mainly on the Eastern slopes of the Eastern Mountain transportation and housing, it is necessary to Range, and in some Andean municipalities in the develop future models, at least as a first stage departments of Huila, Cauca, and Nariño. at the national scale, and promote greater im- The relative risk index with respect to GDP plementation of the models in housing at the and the hazard due to landslides is the greatest in municipal scale. 25 Landslide hazard levels than 56% or with a population exposed to a high risk with a UBN lower Very high. Zones with very unstable hillsides and steep slopes and inten- than 56%. sive human intervention, where massive landslides and erosion are very Moderate. Municipalities exposed to medium risk with a UBN factor be- frequent and numerous. tween 27% and 56%. High. Zones with unstable slopes where there is an accumulation of ero- Low. Municipalities exposed to low risk with a UBN factor lower than 76% sion due to intensive anthropic intervention, in which landslides are less or a population exposed to any hazard level with a UBN lower than 27%. frequent and less numerous. Level of relative risk Medium. Zones where there is no evidence of existing instability and Very high. Municipalities exposed to medium risk exposed to high and slope areas with low instability generated by insignificant erosion pro- very high risk with a GDP greater than Col$100 million. cesses predominated by soil creep processes. High. Municipalities with a population exposed to medium hazards with Low. Flat areas or areas with generally stable low steep slopes and a GDP of between Col$100 and 4,000 or exposed to high hazards with a vegetation and not very populated areas where there exists low in- GDP below Col$100 million. stability in the land. Moderate. Municipalities with a population exposed to low hazards with Level of relative vulnerability a GDP below Col$4 billion or exposed to medium hazards with a GDP Very high. Municipalities exposed to high risk with a UBN factor higher below Col$100 million. than 56% or municipalities with very high risk greater than 41%. Low. Municipalities with a population exposed to very low hazards with High. Municipalities exposed to medium risk with a UBN factor higher a GDP below Col$4 billion. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 49 1.3.5. Climate change and El in this case is called La Niña, rainfall increases Niño and La Niña phenomena and consequently there are more floods. There is more slope instability due to the landslides af- Hazard phenomena such as floods, land- fecting human life, roads and the agrarian sec- slides, flash floods, windstorms, droughts, among tor, among others. others, are connected to an inter-annual variation There has been reliable information relat- in weather, dry and rainy periods depending on ed to the occurrence of El Niño and La Niña phe- each region of the country that have increased nomena since 1950, and so it can be confirmed considerably with the incidence of the El Niño that this phenomenon will continue to take place and La Niña phenomena. When there are warm in the future. Likewise, it may be concluded episodes in the ENSO phenomenon (El Niño/ that if no pertinent actions are taken, losses and La Niña-Southern Oscillation), El Niño, there is those affected will continue to increase. Both a shortage of precipitations in Colombia, which El Niño and La Niña are frequent phenomena results in droughts, lack of safe drinking wa- given that they take place between every two ter and a notable increase in forest fires. When and seven years. Between 1950 and 2011 there there is an occurrence of cold episodes, which have been 15 El Niño episodes and 13 La Niña Graph 1.12. La Niña and El Niño phenomena vs annual histogram of losses registered by hydrometeorological phenomena 500 450 400 350 300 Number of losses registered 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year La Niña Phenomena El Niño Phenomena Not declared La Niña Number of losses registered Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from NOAA, 2011 y OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. 50 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies (Graph 1.12). Even though the rainy season as- the three Colombian mountain ranges may un- sociated to La Niña 2010-2011 produced what dergo very intense and intense impacts in more may be considered as one the greatest losses in- than 70% of the total area, foremost in the de- curred upon the country, other episodes such as partments of Boyaca, Tolima, Nariño, Cauca La Niña at the end of 2008 and the beginning and Cundinamarca. This is especially important of 200926 had very similar effects to the last one when taking into consideration population con- registered as far as number of municipalities centration and production systems that depend affected and type of principal losses (agrarian, on these ecosystems. The vulnerability scenarios housing, land routes). show that the natural or almost non-intervened Even though there is no empirical evidence ecosystems are less sensible to climate change that can correlate the effects of climate change to than those spaces transformed in the rural en- the frequency of disasters in the country, there vironment (MAVDT, Ideam, UNDP and GEF, is concluding evidence from phenomena such as 2010). Ideam confirms that according to its glacier loss. It is expected that for the 2011-2040 investigations, there are tendencies to climate period, the ecosystems of the elevated parts of variation in the country. (Box 1.2). Box 1.2. Historical climatic registers tendency conclusions for the 1971-2000 period The analysis of the tendencies on a long term basis in the historical climate registers taken from different regions of the country indicate the following evidence in climate change: 1. The average temperature increased at a rate of 0.13 °C per decade during the 1971-2000 period. The departments that have the largest increases are: Cordoba, Valle del Cauca, Sucre, Antioquia, La Guajira, Bolivar, Choco, Santander, Norte de Santander, Cauca, San Andres, Tolima and Caqueta. This somehow indicates that these are areas that have primarily felt global warming in the national territory. 2. The tendencies for the 1971-2000 total annual precipitation period indicate an increase in some sectors and a decrease in others. In particular, the most significant decreases in total annual rainfall have been registered in Atlantico, Arauca, Guaviare, Boyaca and Cundinamarca, whereas the rates of increase registered at the regional level are in Quindio, San Andres, Cesar, Cauca, Vaupes, Guainia, Antioquia, Choco and Caldas. 3. Relative humidity has not shown any significant changes in this period of study. In other words their numbers remain stable. 4. The glaciers have been losing annually between 3 and 5% of their glacier area and there is a retreat of the glacier front of between 20 to 25 m per year. For the years 2002-2003, the total glacier area was 55.4 km2, whereas from the years 2006-2007 the surface decreased to 47.1 km2. 5. The average sea level has had a tendency to increase. It may vary between 2.3 and 3.5 ml per year in the Colombian Caribbean sea and 2.2 per year on the Pacific coast. Source: MAVDT, Ideam, PNUD y GEF, 2010. 26 The ENSO episode is declared La Niña when the ONI (its acronym in Eng- lish) (El Niño Oscillation Index) accumulates five or more consecutive quarters with temperatures in the surface of the Pacific Ocean equal or are below the normal temperatures of 0.5 °C. Between October of 2008 and April of 2009 this condition continued during four quarters, which in practice, due to the affects in the increase of rainfall in Colombia, may be interpreted as condition close to a Niña. The previous quarter to this period temperatures were lower by 0.3 °C under normal. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 51 Subsistence farming is and will continue in which it is evident not only that the annual to be more vulnerable and at the same time will precipitation has increased by approximately be more affected by climate variation. This situa- 72%, but that the number of rainstorms or tion is especially prevalent in the departments of heavy rainfalls has almost doubled annually. Nariño, Boyaca, Cesar, and Cauca. The depart- Disaster risk is increasing due more to ment of Bolivar has the largest bodies of natural an inadequate territorial, sectoral and private water that simultaneously are the most vulner- management than to external factors such as able and likely to have greater impacts, and un- climate change. While in the last few years der intense pressure caused by the advance of there has been a tendency to register varia- the agricultural boundary. tions in the weather, it cannot be concluded The frequency of heavy rainfall has in- that these weather changes have increased the creased in the land zones, in line with warm- risk in the country. On the other hand, factors ing and an increase of atmospheric water va- that do increase risk include exposure and por (IPCC, 2007). According to the Second vulnerability resulting from an inadequate Colombian Communication before the Unit- use of territorial planning and development ed Nations Macro Convention on Climate instruments, land degradation, sectoral activ- Change (MAVDT, Ideam, UNDP, and GEF, ity disarticulation with the actions required 2010), in the high plateaus, heavy rainfalls in order to reduce and control risk, and the (associated with rainstorms) have been more absence of shared responsibility from the pri- moderate, contrary to the evidence in ther- vate sector. If a public policy in risk manage- mal grounds, without taking into account ment is not implemented and appropriately whether the annual precipitation decreases or articulated in the development processes, it increases in the majority of stations: warm (0 is assumed that disaster events may generate to 1,000 m.s.l.), mild (1,001 to 2,000 m), and more critical scenarios in terms of financial cold (2,001 to 3,000 m), there is a tendency impacts and loss of life. This possibility could toward an increase in heavy rainfalls (Bena- occur in the event of an earthquake near the vides, Mayorga and Hurtado, 2007). This largest cities with losses estimated for Bogota confirms that there is an increase in extreme at US$12.7 billion, for Medellin US$7.5 bil- events caused by rainfall, as has been reported lion, for Cali US$6.4 billion and for the Coffee in the Fourth IPCC Report. To illustrate this Growing region US$2 billion (Cardona, et ál. situation, hydrometeorological registers were 2004 a and b). The following chapters of this taken at the Ernesto Cortissoz International document complement the analysis related to Airport station in the municipality of Sole- the risk increase factors in Colombia and the dad, in the metropolitan area of Barranquilla, recommendations to reduce them. 52 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.4. The IMPACT of historical disasters in COLOMBIA 1.4.1. Geographic distribution of (1,712) and from floods (200), while in Quin- registered historical events and dio there is the highest number of victims re- loss of life by region sulting from seismic activity (1,350), followed by Cauca (1,116), Nariño, Valle del Cauca, Given that floods are the most frequent Norte de Santander, Risaralda, Cundinamarca, events in Colombia the largest number of his- and Bogota. Each accumulated in the period of torical registries for losses in almost all of the 1970-2011 more than 300 fatalities. Sucre, Ce- Colombian departments is associated with this sar, Atlantico, and Choco, have more than 240 phenomenon (Graph 1.13). According to the fatalities mainly caused by landslides. DesInventar database (OSSO Corporation In the last 40 years more than one million and EAFIT, 2011), the historical registries of dwellings have been affected by the occurrence losses in most of the national territory that of different phenomena: 73% due to floods, 7% have predominated are caused by floods. The due to seismic activity, 5% due to landslides, exception to these historical registries are the and 15% caused by other phenomena. As much departments in the Andean region including as 48% of the housing affected on the Carib- Antioquia, Tolima, Caldas, Nariño, Boyaca, bean coast is in the departments of Bolivar, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Risaralda, and Quin- Magdalena, Cordoba, Atlantico, Cesar, Sucre, dio, where the greatest number of events are and La Guajira, followed by Antioquia and the landslides, although a large number of floods departments located on the western slopes of have also been reported. The areas that have the Western Mountain Range including Choco, the largest number of volcanoes are Nariño, Valle del Cauca, Nariño, and Cauca, all of these Cauca, Huila, Tolima, and Caldas, whereas the having more than 20,000 dwellings which have largest registered number of seismic activities been affected. Tolima, Santander, Risaralda, that have produced any type of losses between Norte de Santander, Boyaca, Cundinamarca, 1970 and 2011 have been in Valle del Cauca, and Bogota have had between 9,000 and 20,000 Antioquia, Boyaca, Cauca, Choco, Nariño, Ri- dwellings damaged by floods. Cauca and Nari- saralda, Caldas, Quindio, Santander, Tolima, ño are the departments that have the largest and Norte de Santander. housing damage caused by landslides, register- The departments with the greatest loss of ing more than 10,000 units. life accumulated in the last 40 years are Tolima Of the 190,000 dwellings destroyed during and Caldas (Graph 1.13). Due to the Armero av- the period of 1970-2010, the majority (33,372) alanche and a large number of landslides, apart occurred in Quindio, followed by Cauca (17,270) from the effects of seismic activity and floods, and Tolima (13,770). The damage to this housing Tolima and Caldas have the highest indicator was mainly caused by seismic activity and vol- of loss of life. Antioquia reports the greatest canic eruptions, whereas in Nariño, Santander, number of loss of life resulting from landslides and Antioquia, there were approximately 10,000 Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 53 units destroyed in each one of these departments and Bucaramanga. In the Pacific region and in the caused by hydrometeorological phenomena. If north of the country, on the other hand, housing the loss of housing is analyzed in absolute terms, destroyed is located in small and medium-size it can be concluded that the capitals of the de- municipalities, such as those located in the river partments and the largest cities are concentrated basins of the Sinu and Magdalena Rivers and the in the Andean region: Bogota, Cali, Medellin, Mira and Telembi Rivers respectively. Graph 1.13. Distribution of losses by department according to number of registries, loss of life, destroyed and affected housing Number of Registries Deaths (logarithmic scale) Valle del Cauca Antioquia Antioquia Valle del Cauca Bolivar Nariño Santander Choco Cordoba Cesar Magdalena Santander Tolima Meta Atlantico Bolivar Cesar Atlantico Meta Cauca Choco Tolima Cundinamarca Putumayo Sucre Norte de Santander Cauca Magdalena Nariño Risaralda Boyaca Huila Huila Cundinamarca Norte de Santander Caldas Casanare Cordoba Risaralda La Guajira Bogota D.C. Bogota D.C La Guajira Casanare Arauca Boyaca Caldas Caqueta Putumayo Quindio Quindio Sucre Caqueta Arauca Amazonas Guaviare Vichada Vaupes Guaviare San Andres Guainia Guainia San Andres Vichada Vaupes Amazonas 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 Flood Landslide Earthquake Volcanic Activity Flood Landslide Earthquake Volcanic Activity Destroyed Housing (logarithmic scale) A ected Housing (logarithmic scale) Santander Bolivar Magdalena Magdalena Cordoba Choco Antioquia Atlantico Antioquia Meta Cesar Valle del Cauca Tolima Sucre Nariño Huila Cauca La Guajira Cesar Tolima Bogota D.C La Guajira Santander Risaralda Sucre Norte de Santander Boyaca Boyaca Cundinamarca Amazonas Arauca Caqueta Meta Amazonas Putumayo Casanare Putumayo Huila Caldas Quindio Arauca Quindio Vichada Guaviare Vichada San Andres San Andres Guainia Guainia Vaupes 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1’000,000 Volcanic Activity Earthquake Landslide Flood Flood Landslide Earthquake Volcanic Activity Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. 54 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The housing damages and losses during the municipalities of the Andean region, but the last decade, updated according to the size also in the municipalities of the Pacific region. of the municipal population, are concentrated Rates of housing partially affected are mainly in municipalities with less than 100,000 inhab- concentrated in the Caribbean and Pacific de- itants and high UBN percentages. Even though partments where the majority of municipali- the losses are distributed all over the country, ties are located. Additionally, these have the the majority of housing destroyed for each largest percentage of UBN population and are 100,000 inhabitants is not only identified in the most susceptible to floods (Figure 1.11). Figure 1.11. Housing destroyed and affected per 100,000 inhabitants 2001-2010 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DANE, 2010. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 55 1.4.2. Historical losses by tion and recovery processes. Additionally, productive and service sectors through the Andean Development Corpora- tion (CAF), the governments of the member The lack of methodologies and respon- countries of the Andean Community request- sibilities previously established to evaluate ed an assessment of the losses associated with sectoral damages as well as articulation mecha- the El Niño 1997-1998 phenomenon. There- nisms between municipal and departmental fore, there are economic estimations for these Secretariats and Local and Regional Com- three disasters, along with another three disas- mittees for Disaster Prevention and Response ters that have had a significant impact. These results in losses in the sectors not being reg- estimations have been made by the Natural istered systematically, not being completely Risk Evaluation Consortium (ERN) Colombia reliable, and thus being undervalued. The af- in the framework agreement entered into by fected sectors, data is very limited and there the World Bank, the Colombian International are no systematic evaluations available in this Cooperation Agency, and the National Plan- sense. The housing reports are consistent and ning Department (Cardona et ál, 2004b). divided between destroyed and affected hous- ing. However, they make no reference to the 1.4.2.1. Housing sector level of damage or the areas or socioeconomic stratification, since this information is nor- On average, 4,650 houses are lost and mally collected by the Disaster Prevention another 25,911 are damaged due to disasters, and Response Offices, which are responsible which indicates that housing is one of the sec- to the Government Secretariats. The munici- tors that register the largest number of impacts pal and departmental Secretariats that repre- due both to natural phenomena and man-in- sent different sectors overall do not rely on duced events. Between 1970 and 2011, 190,000 previously established methodologies or co- dwellings were destroyed. Floods cumulative- ordination with the respective Ministries, and ly caused the greatest losses with more than do not actively participate in the CLOPAD. 79,000 units (42%) destroyed, whereas seis- Even though the information available is very mic activity destroyed a total of 51,000 (27%), limited, an analysis reporting losses is made landslides nearly 18,000 (9%), volcanic erup- here from information found in the DesIn- tions 5,400 (3%), and other events such as gale ventar database and other reports. storms and fires, 35,000 (19%) (Graph 1.13). Only economic assessment of losses for The number of houses affected was 1,062,361, disasters causing great impact is available. The of which more than a third were associated National Government has twice requested with floods and gale storms. support from the Economic Commission for Between 1970 and 2010, there were seven Latin America and the Caribbean (for the enormous disasters for which there is an eco- Coffee Growing region 1999 earthquake and nomic assessment of housing losses. Four of for the 2010-2011 La Niña phenomena) in these disasters took place in the same decade, order to assess the socioeconomic losses with 1990s, in which three earthquakes and the El the aim of having information that would ori- Niño phenomenon of 1997-1998 were regis- ent decision making when facing reconstruc- tered (Table 1.7). 56 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The Coffee Growing region earthquake in ry of disasters under the following assumptions: 1999 and the La Niña episode 2010-2011 are the the loss of a dwelling is equivalent to the cost of events that report the greatest losses in the sector, the construction of social interest housing (VIS) with amounts in the same order of magnitude of (excluding the cost of the plot and urbanization approximately US$900 million adjusted to 2010 costs), and the effect of the damage to a house is currency valuation (Table 1.7). However, the equivalent to one-fourth the cost of construct- amount of economic losses associated to the La ing a VIS27. This estimate was made for 7,000 Niña phenomenon 2010-2011 is partial, since the registers corresponding to intermediate and mi- reported values go only until March 2011. In oth- nor disasters related to both hydrometeorologi- er words, housing losses resulting from this event cal and geological phenomena (Table 1.8). may have been even higher than those caused by Losses in the housing sector associated the Coffee Growing region earthquake. with intermediate and minor disasters corre- spond to 96% of hydrometeorological phenom- ena surpassing the annual losses of US$223 mil- lion during the 1990s, and US$315 million annu- Table 1.7. Economic assessment of losses in the housing ally between 2001 and 2010. During the 1990s and sector in seven disasters, 1970-2010 2000s, the housing losses due to minor and in- Disaster Housing losses termediate disasters associated with hydrometeo- (US$[2010] million) rological events grew by 330%; cumulatively it is Popayan earthquake, 1983 51.09 (1) estimated that approximately US$4.9 billion has Nevado del Ruiz volcanic eruption, 31.72 (1) 1985 been lost over the last 40 years (Table 1.8). Ex- Atrato Medio earthquakes, 1992 15.42 (1) ceptions to these annual averages were recorded Paez earthquake, 1994 76.88 (1) during the last two decades in 1992 and 1998, El Niño phenomenon 1997-1998 40.67 (2) when there was a reduction in rainfall caused by Coffee Growing region earthquake, 943.31 (3) El Niño episodes, and in 2008 and 2010, when 1999 the presence of La Niña phenomena caused La Niña phenomenon 2010-2011 886.02 (4) losses to surpass US$540 million.. Total 2,045.11 Between 1970 and 2010, accumulated loss- Sources: OSSO Corporation, 2011from es in this sector associated with all types of disas- available assessments: ters (large, intermediate, and minor) amounted (1) Cardona, et ál., 2004a; (2) CAF, 1998; (3) CEPAL, 1999; (4) CEPAL, 2011. to US$7.1 billion and average annual losses were US$177 million. The large disasters (OSSO Cor- poration, 2011) have resulted in losses of approxi- It is important to estimate the losses in the mately US$2 billion (Table 1.7). Intermediate and housing sector related to intermediate and mi- minor disasters have caused housing losses of ap- nor disasters, since collectively these are greater proximately US$5 billion (Table 1.8). than the losses associated with large events. Since there is no economic assessment for these types of events, an overall assessment was made that 27 The estimations are considered to be conservative since not all of the would allow having a minimum approximation, destroyed houses are VIS. Many have larger areas and higher values and using registered data from the national invento- secondly the housing affected may have greater affect percentages. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 57 Table 1.8. Estimation of economic losses in the housing sector in more than 7,000 intermediate and minor disasters, 1970-2010 Millions of dollars in the year 2010. Excluded are the seven great disasters shown in Table 1.7 Hydrometeorological Phenomena Geological Phenomena Period Hm and G (Hm) (G) No. of Housing Losses No. of Housing Losses No. of Housing Total Losses Destroyed– D (US$[2010] Destroyed– D (US$[2010] Destroyed– D (US$[2010] Affected – A million) Affected – A million) Affected – A million) 1970-1979 19,352 –D 217.78 2,892-D 27.65 22,244 –D 245.43 22,723 –A 2,420-A 25,143 - A 1980-1989 17,035 –D 164.71 69-D 1.12 17,104 – D 165.83 14,136 –A 145-A 14,281 – A 1990-1999 42,325 – D 1,038.,34 1,793-D 70.94 44,118 – D 1,109.19 114,972 – A 9,255-A 124,227 - A 2000-2009 34,542 – D 3,430.72 2,039-D 63.48 36 ,581 – D 3,494.21 461,975 – A 7,322-A 469,297 -A 2010 60 – D 42.98 0-D 0.11 60 – D 43. 09 5,807 - A 15-A 5,822 -A TOTAL 113,314 – D 4,894.54 6,793 – D 163.32 120,107 – D 5,057.77 619,613 - A 19,157 - A 638,770 - A Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from Cardona, et ál., 2004a The numbers confirm that the effects of ing and agriculture sectors, caused by low-in- damages and losses caused by minor and inter- tensity events over a period of 30 years (1970- mediate events in housing are greater (250%) 2000), represented 2.3% of the national GDP than those produced by large disasters, which for 2000. This is a significant number, taking represent 1.75% of the national GDP for the into account that losses caused by the Coffee year 2010. These calculations, even though Growing region earthquake represented be- conservative, demonstrate that the impact tween 1.5% and 1.8% of the national GDP for caused by accumulation of events considered 1999. Thus, it is confirmed that in Colombia. minor or moderate, generally produced by en- losses caused by minor events, when added, vironmental degradation and the inappropri- are similar to those caused by a disaster of ate use and occupation of land, mainly by the great magnitude, with the difference that most fragile socioeconomic strata, requires these events are not visible in the mass media a strong policy to reduce the vulnerability or politically relevant, and therefore they do of the population in the housing sector. This not result in government efforts to reduce risk affirmation coincides with the result of the (Table 1.9). study done by Cardona et ál, (2004b) where the total amount of losses relative to the hous- 58 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.4.2.2. Transportation sector The reconstruction of one kilometer of road Niña episodes, this amount may be higher than may cost up to five times the cost of executing COP$120 billion (Ministry of Transportation adequate preventive maintenance (DNP, 2010b), 2011). These resources go mainly to emergency and the indirect costs of suspending traffic may response, so there is little left for risk prevention amount up to COP$2 billion daily28. Therefore, it is and mitigation (Graph 1.14). Of the annual in- fundamental to fortify prevention strategies in the vestments, 91% is allocated to response and re- transportation sector. Annually Invias, from the habilitation and only 9% to prevention (Invias, resources of the “Emergency construction work 2009), which means that if there is no change in for the national road network” account invests the strategy to improve preventive and corrective an average of COP$50 billion, even though in La maintenance, losses will continue to increase. Table 1.9. Total economic losses, 1970-2010 Economic assessment of moderate Estimated losses of seven large-scale disasters and minor disasters with their economic assessment (US$[2010] Total Period (US$[2010] million) million) (US$[2010] million) (Table 1.8) (Table 1.7) Hydrometeorological Geological Hydrometeorological Geological 1970-1979 217.78 27.65 245.43 1980-1989 164.71 1.12 82.82 248.65 1990-1999 1,038.34 70.94 40.67 1,035.60 2,185.55 2000-2009 3,430 .72 63.48 3,494.2 2010 42 .98 0.11 886.0 929.09 Total 4,894 .53 163.3 926.67 1,118.42 7,102.92 Source: Authors’ table from information registered in Tables 1.7 and 1.8 28 Strategic roads such as the Buenaventura and La Llano highways have obtained these values (Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, 2004). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 59 Graph 1.14. Invías investments in emergencies Col$(2010) billion 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Ministry of Transportation, 2011. According to the DesInventar database in the Andean region, would result in reducing (OSSO Corporation-EAFIT, 2011), the depart- the greatest part of the problems that have affect- ments that report the largest numbers of road ed the roads in the country. damage registries are Antioquia, Valle del Cauca, The La Niña phenomenon 2010-2011 af- Tolima, Boyaca, Santander, Cundinamarca and fected more than 1,600 kilometers of road infra- Cauca, which together have over 50% of the total structure, equivalent to 9.7% of the primary net- of events. One-quarter of the registries (6,975) in work, 24.7% of the tertiary network, and 0.9% DesInventar presents different types of effects on of the network granted in concession. Likewise, the roads at the national, departmental, and mu- 90 bridges of the national network were affected nicipal levels. The effects on the road network are and response was required for approximately mainly associated with phenomena such as land- 500 emergencies and rehabilitation for more slides (54%), floods (30%), and flash floods. Al- than 53 national road sections. The emergen- though the data is very limited and it is necessary cy response required intervention in works to broaden the information with more detailed for flood control in La Mojana and Canal del studies, the aforementioned suggests that strate- Dique regions. These actions have been esti- gies to control and manage landslides, especially mated at eleven times the annual investment 60 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies budget for emergencies, since it increased up 1.4.2.3. Agriculture sector to Col$628 billion (Ministry of Transporta- tion, 2011). Estimated indirect losses in freight Some 15% of the registries taken by DesIn- transportation resulting from the La Niña epi- ventar indicate losses in crops, grasslands, and for- sode increased to Col$344 billion, represented ests, and half of these impacts are due to flooding. in lost profits, cash benefits, and wages (Table In the period between 1970 and 2011, there were 1.10). Additionally, 30% of industries related to 4,898 registries of damages and losses in the ag- the sector, such as lodging, auto repair shops, riculture sector. The number of hectares affected tire change services, and gas stations, were af- was approximately 3,250,000, for an average of fected (Asocarga, 2011). 79,500 ha/year. When comparing this informa- tion with reports from only one event, such as La Niña 2010-2011 or the effects caused by the rainy season in 2008, it may be confirmed that there Table 1.10. Transportation infrastructure affected and is a systematic data subregistry of hectares lost. damaged by La Niña phenomena 2010-2011 Therefore, it is possible to estimate that the real (Millions of constant pesos, 2011) number of hectares affected may be at least four Item Losses (Col$[2011] million) or five times the number indicated. Roads 3,236,619 Losses in GDP in the agriculture sector are Railways 68,133 increasing as a result of hydrometeorological phe- Air Transport 60,410 nomena (Table 1.11). This growing tendency of the River Transport 23,119 losses is explained by environmental degradation Ports 2,873 factors already mentioned, the growth of planted Total 3,391,154 areas, and the minor measures to reduce risk in Source: Ministry of Transportation, based on IDB- the sector adopted by public and private actors, as ECLAC, 2011. indicated in Chapter 4 of this document (Box 1.3). Table 1.11. Accumulated losses caused by minor events in the agriculture sector Period Hectares of crops Current value of crop losses GDP in the agriculture sector for the Loss of the affected (constant) last current period (constant) sectoral GDP 1971-1980 327,497 98.25 (172.64) 6,466 (11,352) 1.52% 1981-1990 738,743 295.50 (689.50) 6,539 (15,257) 4.52% 1991-2000 964,450 578.67 (758.38) 10,330 (13,358) 5.6% Note: Values listed for millions of dollars and average GDP. Source: Cardona, et ál., 2004b Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 61 Box 1.3. Historic losses in the agriculture sector caused by El Niño 1997-1998 and La Niña 2010-2011 episodes El Niño 1997-1998 manifested itself in having a generalized precipitation deficiency in the main producing regions of the country, thus generating plant health problems and a reduction in the output of the sector, with estimated damages of US$101 million, adjusted to 2000 currency (CAF, 2000). Additionally, it is estimated that indirect losses produced by the negative effects in the balance of payments and the nonexistence of exports had an approximate value of US$124 million. A huge part of the damage was concentrated in the departments of Tolima, Huila, Sucre, Bolivar, Cesar, Santander and Norte de Santander. La Niña 2007-2008 affected the output and production of coffee and flowers, two of the main driving forces in exports in the country. Coffee production underwent losses of 28% or US$340.5 million in lost exports. Some 848 municipalities were affected with losses in transitory crops worth Col$86.9 billion. Losses inflicted on permanent crops were Col$49.5 billion and losses in livestock were Col$8.7 billion. Overdue loans to small producers were refinanced for the amount of Col$2 billion and a Rural Capitalization Incentive (ICR) was applied (Col$2.7 billion). Furthermore, direct support was given for the amount of Col$150,000 per hectare to identified producers with the aid of the Technical Agrarian Aid Municipal Units (UMATA). For this concept, the Agrarian Fund disbursed a total of Col$569 million. In recovery activities, the principal interest was to promote employment and this represented an investment of US$ 1.5 million (MADR, 2011). La Niña 2010-2011 produced the greatest impact in the agriculture sector related to hydrometeorological phenomena. In total, 1,324,000 hectares were affected. The National Federation of Coffee Growers reported that 190,580 hectares were affected resulting in crop damage to 221,567 coffee producers. Furthermore, it is estimated that 1 million sacks of coffee were not produced in 2010, which is equivalent to Col$500 billion. Plagues and illnesses such as coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix), root wilt disease (PC) in the coconut palms, moniliasis in cacao, and other diseases spread more quickly. As many as 98 key roads were affected impeding transport of food from the provinces to consumer centers. Livestock affected at the national level was estimated at 130,000 dead cattle and 1.5 million mobilized from 60,500 farms. An additional 1.5 million cattle that were not moved resulted in having nutrition deficiency with different impacts in the Caribbean and the Cundiboyacense plateau. The aquaculture lost their young fish. Some 13 million square meters of agrarian infrastructure were affected including greenhouses, sheds for rearing or fattening cattle, barns, stables, corrals and, crochet and wood stockyards, pigsties, and other buildings for different agrarian production systems. The La Niña phenomenon culminated in May 2011 having affected the Cundiboyacense plateau, the Atlantic coast, the Eastern Plains, and the departments of Santander and Santander North and influenced the Cauca River in the south of the country (MADR, 2011). 62 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.5. CONCLUSIONS OF Risk performance in COLOMBIA The information available for the last 40 years ing. They live in informal settlements, in areas related to risk materialization, as well as to prone to different phenomena such as floods growth of population exposed to the phenom- and landslides. The fulfilled risk index with ena studied suggests that there are existing fac- respect to housing destroyed in the last 11 tors that could have modified the current risk years was obtained by dividing the percent- conditions in the country or generated new age of destroyed housing by the percentage of risks primarily those associated with floods, the population in the municipalities accord- landslides, and flash floods. These factors in- ing to each UBN range (Table 1.12). On the clude (a) susceptibility to floods, landslides other hand, losses generated by disasters in and, flash floods in extensive areas of the the municipalities with highest UBN ranges country mainly due to human intervention in affect education and health and deepen pov- the territory and consequently causing envi- erty factors due to the low recovery capacity ronmental deterioration; (b) the increase of of smaller local governments and the popula- the exposure of goods and people to different tion affected. hazards without any significant decrease in Municipalities with critical conditions of vulnerability; and (c) institutional factors that relative vulnerability due to greater UBN indi- have not permitted an adequate and integral ces are found mostly in the Pacific and Carib- intervention in risk management. bean regions in the departments of Nariño and Inequalities in social and economic pro- Cauca in the south, and Santander and Norte cesses lead to the creation of new vulnerability de Santander in the northeast of the country. conditions and the increase of the existing risk Susceptibility to floods, landslides, and flash conditions. In order to establish differences floods in these areas of Colombia has grown between impacts observed in municipalities due to the processes of deforestation, soil ero- with fewer resources and weaker development sion, and inadequate processes of occupation. dynamics and those with greater income and Vulnerability factors (physical, political, eco- more development, a risk index was prepared nomic, etc.) are also increasing in more ru- using the information related to destroyed ral areas where the implementation of disar- housing and the total of the population us- ticulated productive systems in relation to the ing different ranges from the Unsatisfied Ba- capacities of the land often lead to land use sic Needs Index. This index shows that as the conflicts. This can be proved in municipalities percentage of UBN population increases, the that have high percentage of UBN population, municipality becomes more vulnerable. Pov- underdevelopment, and large rural popula- erty measured by the UBN represents a vul- tion, where high indices of environmental nerability indicator, since persons with scarce degradation are evident. resources cannot purchase good quality hous- Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 63 Table 1.12. Risk index by destroyed housing in municipalities according to the UBN UBN range Number of % events % destroyed % population Irv* municipalities registered housing UBN <= 27 247 34.02 39.22 63.22 0.62 Between> 27 and <= 41 262 19.43 11.35 11.82 0.96 Between > 41 and <= 56 253 20.00 27.85 11.98 2.32 Between >56 and <= 76 201 19.18 12.70 9.26 1.37 > = 76 57 5.86 7.07 2.90 2.44 No information 23 1.50 1.80 0.82 2.19 Total 1,043 100 .00 100 .00 100 .00 Average 1.65 Note: * Irv: Risk index by housing destroyed. Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 and DANE, 2010. Housing destroyed by landslides. Municipality of Gramalote (Norte de Santander – Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. 64 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Figure 1.12. Housing destroyed by hydrometeorological phenomena, according to UBN Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DANE, 2010 Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 65 Figure 1.13. Vulnerability, rurality indices, and Millennium Development Goals Environmental Vulnerability 54.9 37.9 60.0 50.0 40.0 Economic capacity 51.5 53.7 Vulnerability by Vulnerability 50.8 30.0 49.3 demographic features 20.0 10.0 0.0 Institutional capacity 50.1 51.8 Vulnerability by Vulnerability 44.5 51.8 human capital 51.3 48.9 Vulnerability by presence of violence Vulnerability in more rural municipalities: 52.2 Vulnerability in less rural municipalities: 46.4 Rurality Index vs. Development indices in Departmental MDG 80.29 Atlantico Quindio Risaralda Valle Caldas 75.29 Bogota Santander 70.29 Antioquia Tolima Bolivar Meta Huila 65.29 Nariño Cundinamarca Sucre Boyaca Cesar MDG Index 60.29 Magdalena Norte de Santander Cauca Casanare Caqueta 55.29 Cordoba Arauca Putumayo Guaviare 50.29 San Andres La Guajira Amazonas 45.29 Choco Vichada 40.29 Vaupes 35.29 6.13 16.13 26.13 36.13 46.13 56.13 66.13 76.13 Source: UNDP, 2011 The greatest vulnerability in the most ru- ral municipalities is confirmed in the National Human Development Report 201129. The report 29 The Report has initiated a proposal to estimate vulnerability levels in points out the inequality that exists between the municipalities in function of six dimensions: (a) violence (homicides, most rural municipalities and the most urban murders, political, massacres); (b) economic capacity (municipal income and concentration of property); (c) institutionality (fiscal performance areas by using indicators that point out environ- and administrative capacity); (d) human capital (illiteracy, working age mental vulnerability in more rural municipali- population, economically active population); (e) environmental (UNDP environmental vulnerability index Colombia); and (f) demography (fe- ties to be 54.9 in contrast to the less rural mu- male-headed households with children less than 5 years old and adults nicipalities, where it is 37.9. older than 65 years old). 66 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Relative risk indices in relation to GDP registries and on information available in stud- identify zones (municipalities and departments) ies done up to now are a destructive earthquake, where the largest potential losses in relation to a volcanic eruption, and the presence of the La infrastructure and economic production expo- Niña episode. Earthquakes, even though they sure are concentrated, in particular in the larg- are not frequent events, have the greatest po- est cities in the country (Bogota, Medellin, Cali, tential impact on the country. However, an and Barranquilla), located in high or medium eruption of great magnitude, even though it seismic, landslide, and flood hazards. Addition- may have recurrence periods of more than 500 ally, the largest percentage of the population is years, would represent a crisis scenario of na- located in the Andean region, which has result- tional proportions. The largest effect in terms ed in a significant increase in vulnerability fac- of the number of municipalities with signifi- tors that add to the presence of various types of cant impacts over all sectors, but especially in convergent hazards, resulting in great losses30. the agriculture sector, may be generated by Demographic growth, urban concentra- accumulated intense rainfall caused by the tion, and higher levels of exposure without any La Niña phenomenon, which can cause great significant reduction in vulnerability are the flooding and widespread landslides in a signifi- main causes of risk increases resulting from cant percentage of the national territory, caus- seismic activity and volcanic eruptions. On the ing serious damage to crops of owners of large one hand, cities have had rapid population extensions of land and the livelihoods of small growth along with accelerated urbanization farmers, as well as to housing, transportation, without any adequate planning. On the other and other sectors. hand, in the rural areas, disorganized produc- In conclusion, losses and damages gener- tive systems have been developed in relation ated by climatic events do not only depend on in- to the capacities of the land, leading to land tensity of the events but also on the exposure and use conflicts. Additionally, there is hous- vulnerability. The severity of the damages and ing and infrastructure constructed in slopes, losses associated with extreme climatic events hillsides, and/or in landfill zones that do not is influenced by natural weather variations offer optimum stability conditions and that amplify seismic waves caused by earthquakes. There are also construction processes that 30 During the 1970s and under the premises of a development model, im- precede the implementation of the Seismic portant dynamics were presented in terms of society-nature relations as- Resistant Regulation, and the lack of applica- sociated to urbanization, industrialization, service infrastructure devel- opment, agrarian activities and the exportation sector (Marquez, 2001). tion of this regulation has resulted a strong These dynamics stressed regional imbalances that were continuously increase of the construction’s vulnerability. arising in the resettlement processes in some areas of the country (Cal- das, Tolima, Boyaca, Cundinamarca, and Chocoo). Other areas, mainly in The aforementioned, together with minimal urban centers were consolidated as development hubs and thus attrac- investment in corrective measures that would tive to population immigration: [before 1973] in areas such as Bogota, Valle, Atlantico, Antioquia, and Risaralda. These were departments that reduce the current fragility, are among other based on preexisting infrastructure, their geographic locations, and factors that result in vulnerability accumula- other adequate conditions for development in agrarian or industrial activities, could have directly taken advantage of economic and social tion and growth. improvement stages experienced in the country by the end of the 1950s. Events that can generate the most critical The capital of the country and the capitals of the departments—Cali, Barranquilla, Medellin, and Pereira respectively—had attained signifi- scenarios from the point of view of their finan- cance as main cities in the country in terms of population and economic cial and loss-of-life impact, based on historical activity” (Martínez 2001). Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 67 (ENSO phenomenon, among others) and an- the country, since the annual precipitation rate thropic events, such as an increase of exposure in Colombia is 3,000 mm with an average an- and vulnerability that mostly depend on the nual runoff of 1,830 mm (Ideam, 2010b). Some assumed socioeconomic development models. 61% of this amount is converted into surface In this sense, disaster risk management in hy- runoff, generating an average flow of 67,000 drometeorological phenomena and the adap- m3/sec, equivalent to an annual volume of 2,084 tion to climate change have common scopes km3, that runs off to five large hydrological re- and challenges, since they must concentrate on gions that characterize the continental territory: reducing exposure and vulnerability and in- 11% in the Magdalena–Cauca regions, 5% in the creasing the capacity for resilience (recupera- Caribbean regions, 18% in the Pacific regions, tion) on facing impacts from extreme climatic 34% in the Amazonian regions, and 32% in the phenomena. Additionally, hydrometeorologi- Orinoquia regions (MAVDT, Ideam, UNDP, cal phenomenon must always be a priority for and GEF, 2010). 68 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 1.6. RECOMMENDATIONS TO FACE THE RISK IN COLOMBIA PRIORITY RECOMMENDATION RESPONSIBLE High (H), Medium(M) Strengthen local capacity for territorial management in order to reduce disaster risk generation and accumulation Adopt a national strategy to strengthen municipal risk management that responds to different existing capacities. Structurally review the capacity limitation to risk evaluation, in order to give effective UNGRD, DNP, MVCT, MADS, DANE, response to the knowledge demand for the POT and Development Plans. H CAR, Colciencias Ideam, SGC, IGAC, • Improve probabilistic risk models. Departmental governments • Increase the systematic registration of efficiency and effectiveness of losses and damages, since they are fundamental in evaluating the real impact of disasters. Reduce flood and landslide risk by planning, investment, monitoring and control, and articulation of different agents responsible for watershed management Adopt a regulation to control and manage floods and landslides that includes the definition MADS and the Permanent of the highest acceptable risk, technical standards for risk evaluation and mitigation, and a Committee for the hydraulic H strategy for their implementation, monitoring, and control. management of rivers and water bodies Articulate specific policies/strategies by incorporating variables related to climate change in Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with decision making at the sectoral and territorial level. the support of the National H Committee for Disaster Prevention and Response/GRD Strengthen local capacity for territorial man- an effective knowledge response to the POT and agement in order to reduce disaster risk gen- the Development Plans. Whereas there is ap- eration and accumulation propriate development in seismic activity haz- ards that is presently a part of the Colombian Adopt a national strategy to strengthen mu- Seismic Resistant Regulation, this requires nicipal risk management that responds to different detailed studies related to seismic microzon- existing capacities (Table 1.13). It is necessary to ing in municipalities for decision making. The define and implement complementary and sub- same does not occur in relation to knowledge sidiary strategies and criteria between the nation- about landslides and floods. Ingeominas –cur- al, regional, and local actors in order to strength- rently Colombian Geological Survey– and the en those municipalities that have high poverty Ideam have carried out investigations in order indicators and low institutional capacity levels, to obtain national hazard maps. However, few aiming to improve performance in risk evalua- of these maps have been taken into account as tion, the POT management, the Development inputs to identify specific projects at other de- Plans, public investment, and administrative and tailed regional levels or to plan infrastructure technical resources available in risk management. projects. Likewise, national regulations have Structurally review capacity limitations not been incorporated as a base to guide high- for risk evaluation with the aim of providing er-scope development studies. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 69 Improve probabilistic risk models. If corroboration mechanisms; and (5) strengthen there has been a significant effort to carry out the technical capacities of territorial and sec- hazard and risk studies in the country, there is toral entities, so that they may be implemented. a lack of results at the different territorial levels that would permit adequate decision making in Reduce flood and landslide risks by planning, risk reduction. Risk assessment must follow a investment, monitoring and control, and articu- prospective approach in considering the possi- lation of different agents responsible for water- bility that a highly destructive event may occur shed management. in the future. Therefore, risk assessment orien- tation must be focused toward the application Adopt a regulation to control and manage of probabilistic models, for which there is in- floods and landslides that include the definition sufficient available information to predict pos- of highest acceptable risk, technical standards sible catastrophic scenarios, and where there is for risk evaluation and mitigation, and a strate- a major uncertainty involved in the analysis31. gy for its implementation, monitoring, and con- Increasing the systematic registration trol. It is necessary to overcome existing imbal- in the efficiency and effectiveness of losses and ances from the environmental perspective that damages is fundamental in evaluating the real generate susceptibility to floods and landslides, impact of disasters. The possibility of visualiz- which requires adjusting and articulating the ing recurrent and small impacts that are affect- policy, regulation, and institutional framework ing the public infrastructure, private patrimony, in environmental management and risk man- and loss of life, would be a fundamental instru- agement, strengthening aspects such as issue ment in order to understand the dimensions of management and control. This would include the problem, justify the most important policy deforestation, soil degradation, strengthen- priority that the subject needs, and have better ing the technical and financial capacity of the elements in decision making and the definition CAR and the participation of the private sector of economic and social preferences. If there has in environmental management activities that been some progress, there are significant gaps would contribute to risk reduction. Likewise, in information, inconsistencies, and insuffi- it is necessary to articulate policies and strat- cient time series that limit the development of egies by incorporating variables related to cli- systematic indicators. Therefore, to strengthen mate change in decision making at the sectoral the capacity to generate these databases (ap- and territorial level. Additionally, it is also es- plying standardized methodologies), the fol- sential to strengthen sectoral institutions, poli- lowing steps are necessary: (1) evaluate the cies, and plans, so that their infrastructure and existing damage report instruments including production are more risk-resilient and simulta- the CLOPAD, CREPAD, Damage and Needs neously so that their development mechanisms Evaluation (EDAN), the existing sectoral contribute to safety and sustainability. mechanisms, and review international experi- ences; (2) progressively design and implement methodologies and instruments to evaluate sectoral damages; (3) implement information systems that would allow online registries to be incorporated; (4) define those responsible and 31 CAPRA-Wiki, At http://www.ecapra.org. 70 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 1.13. Diagnosis of risk conditions and institutional capacity HIGH RISK INSTITUTIONAL / RISK CAPACITY LOW RISK (By economic concentration and/or relative vulnerability ) Municipalities in high seismic risk: Municipalities in low seismic risk: • Special Category: Bogota, Medellin and, Bucaramanga. • Special category: Barranquilla Municipalities in high high volcanic risk: Municipalities prone to high volcanic risk and economic concentration: • Category 1: Manizales, Pereira • Special Category: Bogota, Medellin, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Cucuta. HIGH CAPACITY Municipalities in high flood risk: • Special Category: zones of Bogota, Medellin and Barranquilla. Municipalities in high landslide risk: • Special Category: Medellin zones, Bucaramanga, Barranquilla • Category 1: Manizales zones Municipalities in high seismic risk: Municipality in low seismic risk: • Special Category: Cali and Cucuta • Category 1: Cartagena • Category 1: Villavicencio, Pereira, and Armenia. Municipalities in low volcanic risk: • Category 2: Santa Marta, Tunja, Coffee Growing region’s municipalities and, some municipalities in • Special Category: Cali Valle and Antioquia. • Category 1: Cartagena Municipalities in high volcanic risk: Municipalities in low flood risk: • Category 2: Pasto, Popayan, and Ibague. • Category 2: Coffee Growing region’s municipalities MEDIUM CAPACITY Municipalities in high flood risk: Municipality in low landslide risk: • Special Category: Cali zones • Category 2: Tunja • Category 1: Villavicencio zones, Monteria, Cartagena. • Category 2: Santa Marta zones, some municipalities in Antioquia and Valle. Municipalities in high landslide risk: • Special Category: Cucuta, Cali • Category 1: Pereira • Category 2: Armenia, Coffee Growing region’s municipalities and, some municipalities in Antioquia and Valle Municipalities in high seismic risk: Municipalities in low seismic risk: • Category 2: Quibdo, Riohacha. • Category 3-6: Departments such as Orinoquia, Amazonas and, Vichada. • Category 3-6: Municipalities of the Pacific cost, Nariño, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Choco, Santanderes Municipalities in low volcanic risk: and some municipalities in Antioquia and the Piedemont Plains. • Category 3-6: Departments such as Orinoquia, Amazonas, Vichada, Cesar, Municipality in high volcanic risk: Valledupar, Cordoba and Santanderes, among others. LOW CAPACITY • Category 3-6: Municipalities of Cauca, Nariño, Tolima, Huila and Caldas. Municipalities in low flood risk: Municipalities in high flood risk: • Category 3-6: Vaupes, Guaviare, Guainia, and some municipalities in Caquetá. • Category 3-6: Departments of the Pacific coast region, Caribbean coast, Orinoquia, and Amazonas. Municipalities in low landslide risk: Municipalities in high landslide risk: • Category 3-6: Vaupes, Guaviare, Guainia, Amazonas and Orinoquia. Performance of Disaster Risk Management in Colombia • Category 3-6: Municipalities in Santanderes, Piedemont Plains, Huila, Cauca, and Nariño. 71 Gaitan settlement. Municipality of Manizales (Caldas - Colombia), 2011. Photography: Nilson Correa Bedoya. 2 Disaster Risk in Public Administration Ana Campos G., Carolina Díaz G., Diana M. Rubiano V., Víctor Manuel Moncayo 2.1. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ELEMENTS APPLIED TO DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Conceptual progress in the relationship between out for the construction of sustainable develop- risk management and development has not been ment1. There is increasingly more awareness completely carried out in practice, nor has it been that disasters are not events of nature per se, entirely understood as an integral part of pub- but the result of applying inappropriate devel- lic administration. The conceptual framework opment models or styles that do not take into presented below has provided guidance in the account the interrelation between society and preparation of this report. This report attempts nature and that manifest themselves in increas- to assemble the most modern approaches in both ing vulnerability conditions. In these terms, the risk management and public management and relationship between disaster risk and develop- explain, from the point of view of the team that ment is proposed as twofold. On the one hand, wrote this report, how the articulation of both el- risk causes are rooted in errors and problems ements was conceived. Therefore, a conventional in addressing the models, where some factors analysis of risk management that shows progress are not taken into account, such as those re- and challenges is not made in subjects such as lated to the restrictions and potentialities of governance, knowledge and information, educa- the territory, the economic and social context tion and communication, risk reduction, or di- in planning, the definition of land use and the saster management. On the contrary, priority has implementation of projects, the pressure for been given to public administration as an element urban expansion, inappropriate technical and that provides structure and the risk management technological interventions in the dynamics processes as cross-cutting aspects. This section of the ecosystems. On the other hand, insofar describes a theoretical-conceptual perspective, as the problems created by and inappropriate which is considered the approach toward which development processes are not corrected, the modern public administration should involve, risks will materialize in disasters. This not only and in which risk management is incorporated as ends up affecting the population, production, an instrument for its sustainability. and infrastructure, but it delays the welfare of the country, which then has to redirect re- sources that were allocated to new investments 2.1.1. Disaster risk management to activities related to reconstruction and recov- as a fundamental strategy for ery. Hence, it is fundamental to incorporate development sustainability Understanding the problems of risk and 1 According to Law 99/93, sustainable development is understood as “that disasters as a development subject, related to its which leads to economic growth, an increase in quality of lifestyle and social welfare, without exhausting the renewable natural resources that use, occupation, and transformation of the terri- it depends on, or deteriorating the environment or the right of future tory, determines the success of the efforts carried generations to use it for satisfying their own needs”. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 75 risk management in development processes functionality of the ecosystems. In order to starting from the institutional platform that is achieve this, it is essential that interventions available to the State to comply with said end. and projects to be executed rely on specific criteria in technical feasibility in harmony with disaster risk management principles, 2.1.2. Disaster risk management whether they are financed by international and adjustment to climate cooperation, with resources from bilateral or change as complementary multilateral agreements, fresh resources, or approaches for sustainable through the Adaptation Fund. development The shortage of information for mak- ing decisions, uncertainty, and institutional Disaster risk management and adjustment disarticulation indicate the lack of an integral to climate change offer many multiple comple- approach to climate change and disaster risk. mentary approaches that on a long-and short- One of the main concerns, both in the field term basis contribute to being a major challenge of adaption to climate change and in disaster to sustainable development. Both of the Co- risk management, is the need to identify prob- lombia’s First and Second National Communi- able impacts associated with the alteration of cations before the United Nations Framework the intensity and frequency of damaging or Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) disastrous hydroclimatic events. With this made evident that the country is highly vulner- approach, measures can be designed and im- able to the effects of weather variations and cli- plemented to reduce risk conditions, prevent mate change. If the levels of uncertainty when factors that generate vulnerability, and mini- facing impacts of said processes is high, a risk mize the potential effects of disaster (Lavell, management policy demands comprehensive 2010). In this sense, disaster risk manage- actions in climate change phenomena and its ment and adaption to climate change have a adaption strategies connected to the sectoral common purpose, and thus policies that are and territorial sphere. In this context, risk constructed around both issues should im- management also requires articulation in plan- plicitly acknowledge this correlation with the ning and developing coordinated actions in the aim of orienting planning actions, setting up field of climate change. coordinated organizational structures, and The challenge to disaster risk manage- maximizing the use of assigned resources for ment and the mitigation and adaptation to these work areas. The effectiveness of their ar- climate change suggests that decision making ticulation demands acknowledging the causes should be based in not only facing the existing of vulnerability and generating intervention climate risks, but also in future ones avoid- actions in the country’s political, social, eco- ing high-risk investment that may result in nomic, and environmental spheres. catastrophic losses (Cardona, 2009). This vi- Colombia lacks an institutional structure sion generates different benefits derived from in which the sectors and territories evaluate a multicriterion and long-term approach, their vulnerability and capacity to face impacts, contributing to the project investments, the thus reducing the effectiveness of the actions welfare and safety of the population, and the developed. Risk management and environ- 76 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies mental management do not appropriately in- achieve its end, the risk management criteria tegrate to formulate adaption and mitigation are incorporated more effectively in the differ- strategies of facing climate change, and even ent territorial and sectoral spheres of public though programs and initiatives have been administration. All of the public and private developed in the country, there still exists actors can be risk generating agents, by ac- the challenge of cross-cutting climate change tion or omission, and at the same time be po- and risk management with the purpose of not tentially affected by the disasters, making it a losing a program orientation of the country cross-cutting subject and of joint responsibil- that responds to the multidimensionality of ity. For this reason, the institutional response, these phenomena (Cardona, 2009). Among both in Colombia and in many other countries, the main advances in this subject, Conpes has been the creation of platforms or systems 3700 was established with the purpose of inte- that include, to a greater or lesser degree, all of grating the problems of economic and social the State entities and the society in general to development caused by climate change in the address this subject. The National System for sectors’ and territories’ planning and invest- Disaster Prevention and Response and its orga- ment processes. In the National Development nization is analyzed in detail further ahead, in Plan 2010-2014, priority is given to strategies section 2.3 of this chapter. addressing the subject of climate change2, that likewise demands an institutionalism to co- ordinate existing initiatives, resulting in the 2.1.4. The absence of a national formation of the National Climate Change policy in risk management System (SNCC). The State organizes the fulfillment of its mission by regulating, fomenting, and con- 2.1.3. The institutionalism trolling the institutional framework of public of public administration in policies and instruments through public ad- disaster risk ministration. This may be defined as a joint action between the State and the commu- The concept of institutionalism of risk nity to achieve the development objectives management refers both to the functional or- by means of a dynamic, integral, systematic, ganization of all government agencies and the and participative process. It articulates plan- legal regime applicable in this field. The institu- tional concept comprises the regulatory system which is applicable to risk management, the 2 Some of these strategies are: National Plan for Adapting to Climate system or a functional set of institutions and Change, Colombian Strategy for Low-Carbon Development; Financial processes, and to the organization of entities Disaster Protection; National Strategy for Emission Reduction due to De- forestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries; and Conser- that comply with determined functions. Un- vation Function, Sustainable Forest Management, and Increase of Forest derstanding the logical and strategic order on Reserves of Carbon in the Developing Countries. 3 The State, from a systemic viewpoint is defined as a kind of organization- how the State3 is organized in terms of its mis- al form with social, economical, environmental, and institutional dimen- sion (should be), of its functions (should do), sions, which adequately orients, disposes, relates to, and is empowered by public policies and their instruments, which contribute to the com- of its organizational format (who does it), and mon goal of nation development, this last conformed by the population, of the instruments (what does it) required to the territory, and the State (Vega Mora, 2004). Disaster Risk in Public Administration 77 ning, execution, monitoring, evaluation, and sectoral level, nor the responsibilities that the control of economic, social, cultural, techno- State acquires in facing risks generated, be it by logical, environmental, and political strategies individuals or by itself. (DNP and ESAP, 2007). Since the Constitution A modern risk management policy of 1991, public administration has evolved should be formulated so that it integrates risk toward a more decentralized, participative, knowledge and information, risk reduction and democratic arrangement and a results- and disaster management, as well as the strat- oriented organization. In its cycle, public egies to assure governance on the subject and administration requires a combination or its contribution to territorial safety, welfare, mobilization of resources, building consensus quality of life, and sustainable development. spaces and clear coordination mechanisms. From a methodical point of view of risk man- Public policies constitute fundamental agement as public policy, three large compo- declarations or principles from which the State nents are identified: (i) risk knowledge and decides to undertake, on a long-term basis, a sub- information, (ii) risk reduction, and (iii) di- ject of general interest, consider major objectives, saster management. These components are and the means to attain them. Public policy for- also sub-divided as follows: risk knowledge mulation and the design of instruments imply and information integrate (a) identifying di- a rational process in decision making related saster risk factors (hazard, exposure, and vul- to orientation, formulation, design, regulation, nerability), which include underlying factors, rules, and programming, by which the what their origins, causes, and transformation; (b) (policies) and the how (mission strategies, func- disaster risk analysis and estimation as well tional, jurisdictional, and instrumental solu- as monitoring and control of its different fac- tions) of public administration (DNP and ESAP, tors; and (c) communicating risk with the 2007 are designed). purpose of informing and, providing percep- In absence of a disaster risk management tion and awareness to the public. Risk reduc- policy that establishes the impacts that are to be tion comprises (a) prescriptive and corrective achieved in this field, documents such as the Na- risk intervention through early mitigation ac- tional Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response tions that modify the existing conditions; (b) (PNPAD) or Conpes 3146 serve as guiding in- restrictive and prospective risk intervention struments, although they leave significant gaps. through anticipated preventive actions that Currently, there is no national disaster risk avoid the generation of new risks in facing management policy. Therefore, the actions of present or future hazards such as those that the State in this issue have only been directed can be produced by climate change; and (c) by planning instruments such as the PNPAD disaster risk retention and transference, or the and some Conpes Documents, as will be seen in expected definition and the use of financial detail in section 2.2. However, said instruments, protection instruments to cover immediate even though they emphasize the definition of assistance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction programs and activities, do not have the suffi- (e.g: reserve funds, contingency credit insur- cient hierarchy to adopt substantive decisions ance, catastrophe bonuses, etc.). Disaster man- on the results that are desired in risk manage- agement includes (a) preparation, understood ment. Neither do they define the scope of public as exante related to early warning systems and and private responsibility at the territorial and generating response and recuperation capaci- 78 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies ties; (b) the response defined as expost actions ritorial entities: municipalities, departments, carried out to aid the affected population by and/or regions of the country. Risks always ma- an imminent disaster or the occurrence of terialize in the territory, but their causes may one; and (c) the rehabilitation and reconstruc- be local as well regional, national, or even in- tion of the socioeconomic, environmental, ternational. In the cases where the risk origi- and physical conditions, taking into account nates locally, as for example in certain specific safety criteria with the explicit purpose of not landslides, risk management can (and must) reconstructing the preexisting risk (Ingeniar be assumed by the municipal administration. Ltda., 2011). But there also exist other types of associated risks. For example, phenomena such as floods or volcanic eruptions, can transcend a politi- 2.1.5. Spheres of action in cal-administrative division, making it neces- territorial and sectoral risk sary to set up projects that comprise several management municipalities, departments, watersheds, and social agents. This implies the construction of Under the perspective of public admin- regional concentration spaces and cooperation istration, risk management should adapt both mechanisms among municipalities, governor- to the territorial and to the sectoral sphere. ships, Regional Autonomous Corporations (Figure 2.1). Risk management is linked to (CAR), regional entities, if they exist, and the development requirements so that it contrib- national government. Land use planning as a utes to assuring survival and reducing struc- guiding instrument in appropriately managing tural factors that create and sustain poverty. land and water is the most valuable instrument This means that political instruments and to orient development aimed at complying strategies have to be incorporated in order with sustainability and safety objectives, since to stimulate territorial and sectoral develop- it permits establishing a physical-spatial refer- ment, control aspects of risk management, as ence that sustains coordinated economic, so- well as formulate and execute specific projects cial, and political development actions among to reduce risk. The implementation of pro- the different actors in the country, a region, or cesses should begin by evaluating and know- a location. Given the strategic importance of ing the risk, from the project’s prefeasibility territorial management, this component is ad- phase, promoting with this a prospective vi- dressed in detail in chapter 3 of this document. sion and avoiding the generation of new risks. Additionally, in maintenance and in differ- ent operational initiatives, there is a need to incorporate a corrective vision to reduce ex- isting risks. Finally, it is important to comple- ment with financial protection strategies, to formulate plans, and to generate capacities to manage disasters in case they occur. Risk management in the territorial sphere refers to mid-term and long-term specific pro- cesses, strategies, and projects executed by ter- Disaster Risk in Public Administration 79 Figure 2.1. Conceptual outline of the articulation of public administration and risk management Disaster Management Knowledge and Information The preparedness understood as ex ante Plann actions related to early warning systems cy ing Identi cation of disaster risk and capacity generation for response and Poli factors (hazard, exposure, recovery; vulnerability), their origins, causes and transformation The response understood as ex post actions taken to assist the population a ected by The analysis and estimation of Fina disaster imminence or occurrence, and; disaster risk and its monitoring and Local Territorial Management Disaster Risk ncing following up. Sectoral Management Knowledge Control Management Articulation Rehabilitation and reconstruction of the and socioeconomic, environmental and physical Guidance Information Risk communication for the purpose conditions with security criteria to reduce the Penalties of providing public information, current risk. Incentives perception and awareness. Disaster Risk Reduction Exe g cut orin ion nit Mo Regional Territorial Management Operation Risk Reduction Early corrective and anticipated intervention of vulnerability or current hazards, when this is feasible, Prospective intervention to prevent new risk generation. Financial retention and transfer of disaster risk. Source: Authors’ figure, 2011. Sectoral risk management refers to pro- toral perspective, precedence should be given to spective, corrective, or reactive type policies and promoting localization, construction, and the projects in the different economic and social sec- safe operation of the infrastructure and of the tors. Each sector should be responsible for the projects, fostering a culture of responsibility in safety of its infrastructure, for minimizing loss facing risk and promoting the strengthening of of life, its economic impacts, and for its means capacities in order to respond to emergencies of production when facing present and future generated by each one of the specific sectors or disasters. Likewise, it should also continue to be in which one of them could be involved. Such responsible for the rendering of its services. In processes require agreements among multiple order to comply, it is necessary to rely on instru- productive and service spheres, which include ments that regulate technologies, design criteria public and private actors at different territorial and the construction and operation of sectoral levels. It is essential to formulate clear policies investments, while equally respecting the ter- that lead to efficient and effective risk manage- ritorial occupation processes as set forth by the ment with the participation of all social agents, law and the POT. In other words, from a sec- and to define coordination mechanisms such 80 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies as sectoral committees and other types of in- in consequence they have a greater probabil- ter-ministry agencies and agendas in order to ity of being executed, since these have to rely analyze risks and specific processes in each on quantifiable indicators and goals related to sector. Since the subject of sectors denotes a knowledge, risk reduction, and disaster man- large gap and a broad complexity and impor- agement with the aim of monitoring, control- tance to the country, it is evaluated in depth in ling, and evaluating its progress (DNP and chapter 4 of this report. ESAP, 2007). The successful execution of a territorial or sectoral PD depends on the projects’ aim in 2.1.6. Planning as the principal complying with their objectives and goals. The instrument in territorial and Bank projects are support instruments in plan- sectoral risk management ning, in which all the interest aspects are reg- istered and follow the projects’ cycle phases: National, territorial, or sectoral public (i) preinvestment that covers programming, policies are implemented by means of diverse identification, and the formulation of the planning instruments. Planning becomes the project; (ii) investment that addresses financ- first step in disaster risk management, given ing and execution; and (iii) postinvestment that through it, a set of selected participative and operation, which includes evaluation and and concerted strategies to accomplish certain monitoring (Von Hesse and De la Torre 2009). goals are identified, ordered, and harmonized, Additionally, for the risk management proj- depending on the problems and opportunities. ects-monitoring and phenomena warning, Risk management, being a fundamental ele- preparing risk evaluation studies and execut- ment in sustainable development, should be ing mitigation works, etc. the incorporation of incorporated by all responsible public admin- specific criteria (safe localization, construc- istration actors in their planning instruments, tion, and functioning) is required. The con- regardless of the territorial and/or sectoral vention in analyzing public investment is to jurisdiction, while simultaneously assuring consider the environmental variable as a po- an adequate and congruent coordination. In- tential field for impacts generated by the proj- cluded in the principal planning instruments ect. This is the reason why its contents include are land use plans (at the watershed and mu- an environmental impact evaluation, but not nicipal level), which in their regulatory com- explicitly the possibility that the projects gen- ponent define restrictions and conditions to erate risk situations. Thus, the inverse relation appropriately manage risk, and in their prag- should be considered, namely the evaluation matic component, they offer a great opportu- of the impact that the environment can have on nity to incorporate a set of projects aimed at the project (Campos and Narváez, 2011), such consolidating strategic objectives related to as the opportunity to harmonize risk manage- building and infrastructure localization and ment and sustainability concepts when setting construction, as well as safe territorial activi- up a potential disaster scenario. ties (Ramírez and Rubiano, 2009a). On the Public investment projects make up the last other hand, the PD are instruments linked to sequential stage of the planning process, since they a programmatic vote by which the territorial are a phase of the operation of public policies. It is ap- authorities define investment priorities and propriate to detail risk management in different Disaster Risk in Public Administration 81 investment instruments, so that its incorpora- 2.1.7. The need to rely on a tion is effective. Following the political/plans/ monitoring and control system projects sequence, public investment through in disaster risk management projects should theoretically articulate land use planning as an orienting and regulating The monitoring and evaluation of poli- framework ensuring a safe location, subse- cies and management are instruments that con- quently followed by the PD as a policy guide tribute to a continuous improvement in public for a specific period, the strategic sectoral administration. Monitoring provides infor- plans, and the investment plans. Furthermore, mation of the progress of a policy, program or in order to confirm the effectiveness of risk entity in order to compare progress in facing management articulation, instruments such proposed goals-coherence between what is as laws and regulations should be accessible to formulated and what is executed–. The evalua- determine minimum content studies in prein- tion examines the causality between the State’s vestment, general and specific methodologies investments, and its effects (positive, negative, to analyze and evaluate the projects, train- expected or unexpected) in order to deter- ing processes, registration forms, and system mine their relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, tools of the investment projects’ banks. Like- impact, and sustainability (Conpes Docu- wise, the norms regulating technologies and ment 3294 of 2004, Public Administration design criteria, the construction and moni- Renovation: Results-Oriented Management toring of public investment implementation, and National Evaluation System Reform.) It is and territory occupation are the instruments important to define the baselines that provide to be used to integrate risk reduction criteria a perspective for existing risk levels and the in the investment and postinvestment stages, state of progress in sectoral and territorial risk both in the public and private sector (Cam- management. The monitoring and evaluation pos and Narváez, 2011). The General Adjust- reports of the entities’ activities at different ed Methodology, which relies on the Public territorial levels have to be consolidated so as Investment Projects’ Bank in Colombia has to comply with the proposed goals and give made some initial progress in incorporating feedback to the risk management process, giv- the risk issue in its Module 2: Preparation, in en the cross-cutting nature of the subject and which there is a section called “Disaster stud- the necessary participation of the multiple ac- ies and risk analysis”. The objective of these tors from local, regional, and national govern- studies and analysis is to identify and ana- ments. Even though chapter 1 of this report lyze risks that may affect the project’s design points out that there is indisputable evidence and development, and/or the risks that it may that risk is increasing, no baseline exists in generate in its surroundings and its operation each municipality that enumerates the num- by applying the Risk Analysis Format PE-10. ber of persons or the number of houses that However, this analysis is not coordinated with are exposed, nor the risk levels to the State’s the other preparation modules of the projects infrastructure, which makes it difficult to es- (Von Hesse and De la Torre, 2009). tablish clear control methods and the identi- fication of investment priorities. Therefore, it 82 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies is impossible to carry out an adequate evalua- to clearly identify the roles of each one of the tion of risk management performance and the entities, including control and verification of success of public investments, as shown in the the public entities’ responsibility, so that they appendixes of this document herein. comply with their assignments in this area. There are different types of controls: in- ternal, disciplinary, fiscal, and social. In order to help the entities comply with their goals and 2.1.8. The importance of to develop their institutional management, Law results-based management 87 of 1993 regulated the creation of an Internal Control System, giving responsibility to every One of the principles of administrative civil servant headed by the legal representative functions, within the framework of the Con- of each entity. This System, taken from Decree stitution and the law, establishes that every 1599 of 2005, received the name of Internal management process should be converted into Standard Control Model (MECI) and should concrete results. This is essential in the subject be implemented by every entity. Fiscal control of disaster risk, not only in incorporating the is a set of legal, technical, and administrative Management System and the Government Goal mechanisms used by the State and overseen Monitoring (Sigob) at entity levels, but addi- by General Comptroller’s Office of the Repub- tionally to ensure coordination and consisten- lic and the territorial Comptrollers’ Offices to cy among the territorial and sectoral agencies. watch over the State’s resources. Control and Effectiveness in risk management implies co- social vigilance is a citizen’s right and duty, and ordinating and harmonizing public adminis- as its name indicates it is exercised by citizens tration at all levels, always bonded to public over the public administration or similarly by policies and regulations having a superior individuals who carry out public functions character, thus assuring a subsidiary rigor. In (DNP and ESAP, 2007). order to achieve these results, it is essential to The role of the authorities in some as- create an organization with a systematic char- pects of risk management is exercised by dif- acter that complies with every function and ferent entities, but a comprehensive evaluation administrative principle in the framework of that identifies gaps in authority and control the provisions of the Constitution and the has not been made. Entities such as Munici- law. This systematic character requires that pal Planning Offices and the Curators are in the different entities and groups with different charge of supervising some aspects related to competencies, responsibilities, and functions behavior of private and public entities in the interact in order to attain the results sought. subject of risk management, specifically in The concept of results-based manage- urban development, but supervising subjects ment introduces a change in the way of im- such as risk generation resulting from formal plementing plans and budgets, and offers an and informal activities that transform the en- opportunity to establish clear roles and re- vironment is very weak (see local and regional sponsibilities in generating products and re- case studies in chapter 3 of this publication). sults by those involved in risk management in It is necessary to review the different activi- State institutions and programs. Strategic bud- ties that cause risk generation as well as the get programming overcomes the limitations management processes of these activities, and of weak territorial, sectoral, and institutional Disaster Risk in Public Administration 83 coordination. It helps prevail over the com- provides the opportunity to determine appro- plexity of managing disarticulated regulation, priate performance indicators, which should the underdevelopment of performance indica- offer answers to questions such as In which tors, and the need to consolidate a system that population will the required change take is able to contribute to the population’s and place?, What is the magnitude of the change?, territorial safety objectives, and in general to What does the change consist of?, and others reducing risk, as is required by the Colombian (World Bank, 2000) (Figure 2.2). State. Results-based planning and budgeting Figure 2.2. Monitoring stages in public interventions IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS INPUTS MANAGEMENT PRODUCT RESULT IMPACT Physical, human, Actions to Produced or Immediate Long-and medium-term and nancial transform inputs provided goods or short-term e ects (direct and resources into products and services e ects indirect) Source: Adapted from World Bank, 2000. 84 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 2.2. DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT regulatory support 2.2.1. The National System The organization of the SNPAD regula- for Disaster Prevention and tory system has not been strategically modified Response (SNPAD), its main since 1989. Events such as the Popayan earth- regulatory body, and the quake in 1983 and the destruction of Armero Constitution of 1991 in 1985 initiated the creation of the SNPAD and resulted in the consolidation of the prin- The first regulatory advances in disaster cipal body of the current regulations. Law 46 risk management in Colombia were related to of 1988, which created SNPAD, extended the the creation of relief agencies, the existence of sphere of intervention in disasters in “their public sanitation management problems, and different phases”: prevention, management, functions established by the Police Code. In rehabilitation, reconstruction, and develop- 1948, Law 49 created the National Red Cross, ment (Law 46 of 1988, Article 1; Decree 919 making it responsible for aiding victims in of 1989, Article 1), and it established a system emergency situations. In 1965, the National focused on disasters. Decree Law 919 of 1989 Civil Defense Bureau was created (Decree defined the functions and the members of the 3398). At the end of the 1970s, the National SNPAD, articulating public and private efforts Sanitation Code was approved (Law 9 of 1979) and incorporating the subject as part of the de- to protect the environment and human health velopment planning process (Box 2.1). However, and the first National Committee and Local lack of clarity in the prevention concept has cre- and Regional Emergency Committees were in- ated ambiguities in its interpretation: sometimes stituted and attached to the Ministry of Pub- it is understood as preparedness to the response, lic Health. In 1970, the National Police Code and at other times it is identified as anticipated (Article 216 of the Code, Decree 1355 of 1970) measures to reduce damages caused by a disaster. granted mayors and governors, as Police chiefs, This is one of the reasons why some of the actors significant functions, including those related do not integrally take for granted the responsi- to aiding those affected by a disaster or calam- bility in disaster risk management. According to ity. In 1984, the National Disaster Relief Fund a survey done for this study, many municipali- was created (Decree 1547), which formally in- ties believe that they have a policy document or corporated the SNPAD in Article 70 of Decree a risk management strategy, because they have Law 919 of 1989. In this context, it may be said formulated the municipal Emergency and Con- that all of these regulations are fundamentally tingency Plan (PLEC), thus being prepared focused on what is today known as “response when a dangerous event occurs; however, they preparation in disaster relief ”, acknowledging do not necessarily know how to prevent di- some preventive elements, even though these sasters or how to incorporate safety criteria in may be limited (OSSO Corporation, 2009b). their development models. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 85 Box 2.1. Scope of Decree Law 919 of 1989 a. It defines SNPAD functions and members. b. In the planning area, • It orders the issuance of a National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response, involving public and private entities and organizations in its preparation and execution. • It provides the inclusion of a disaster prevention and response component in regional, departmental, and municipal plans. • It contemplates the preparation of contingency plans. • It regulates the planning of operations in case of disaster situations. • It arranges the organization of an information system and equipment, an early warning and communication system and a first aid system. • It contemplates the possibility of requiring a vulnerability analysis and protection measures. c. It defines a disaster situation regime that includes: • A classification of situations that distinguish, according to the seriousness and its effects, between a disaster situation and a public calamity, whose declaration, in its order, is made by the President of the Republic, and the National Unit for Disaster Risk Management, formerly the National Disaster Assistance Office. It includes the formalities in its declarations and their effects. Both types of situation may have a different territorial scope (national, departmental, municipal and district). • Its own regulatory system that can operate during a disaster situation and that covers to specific subjects such as contracting, occupation, and demolition of real estate, imposition of easements, conflict resolution, acquiring and expropriating, moratoria or debt refinancing, fiscal control, and donations. d. As far as the organization, the administrative structure is composed of: • A National Office for Disaster Prevention and Response, previously attached to the Presidency of the Republic, thereafter known as Directorate for Risk Management (DGR) under dependency of the Ministry of the Interior and Justice and currently the National Unit for Disaster Risk Management (UNGRD), assigned to the Administration Department of the Presidency of the Republic. • A National Committee and two additional National Committees, one operational and one technical. • Regional and Local Committees for Disaster Prevention and Response. • A National Calamity Fund and the possibility of funds in central administration entities and organizations, and in decentralized entities. • An administrative scheme that defines the specific functions as far as dependencies and organizations in the central administration and the decentralized entities at the national level. • Functions concerning territorial entities. • National networks in specific areas (communications, seismic, volcanological and hydrometeorological alerts, reserve centers, and other relevant information). • Reorganized Civil Defense and the National Red Cross Relief. • Professionals that are considered paramedic personnel. e. As far as territorial entities: It explicitly authorizes the competent organs to adopt their own system in their respective jurisdictions when facing disaster or calamity situations. In the Political Constitution of 1991, apart and the very principle of solidarity (Article 95 from a state of emergency due to a serious pub- CP). Education stands out in providing training lic calamity (Article 215 CP), there are numerous in aspects related to environmental protection provisions that support the State’s responsibility (Article 67 CP). Likewise, specific instruments in disaster risk management (Box 2.2). The mis- are provided to protect the rights that may be sion of the State establishes the protection of the affected or threatened, and it insists on the plan- individual’s life, honor, and property; it guaran- ning management and exploiting the natural tees a spectrum of individual, social, and collec- resources in order to guarantee sustainable de- tive liberties as well as the principle of solidarity velopment and the prevention and control of including the right to decent housing (Article factors that cause environmental deterioration 51 CP), a healthy environment (Article 79 CP) (Articles 80 and 88 CP). 86 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The conceptual evolution undergone by the reduction and disaster prevention, (ii) an effective SNPAD, from the point of view of policies, consti- response in case of disaster, and (iii) the rapid re- tutes the approval of the PNPAD, ten years after the covery of the affected areas. For the first time, it es- creation of the SNPAD, passing from the concept tablished as a basis for government action in “risk centered on disaster, as stated in Decree 919 of 1989, reduction and sustainable development of vulner- to the notion of risk as it exists in Decree 93 of 1998. able communities” (Decree 93 of 1998, Article 1), The PNPAD is based on three objectives: (i) risk and defined decentralization as one of its guiding Box 2.2. Main provisions related to risk management established in the Political Constitution of 1991 a. The mission of the State to protect the population. It is proclaimed in the preamble (“to assure its members life, coexistence, work, justice, equality, knowledge, liberty, and peace”) and materialized in the objective (“to protect all persons residing in Colombia, in life, honor, property, beliefs, and other rights and liberties in order to assure the compliance of the social duties of the State and individuals.” ) Without a doubt this supports all institutions in disaster risk management intended to protect the citizens and their property from the consequences of risk situations. b. Social state of law. The Colombian State establishes and guarantees an ample spectrum of individual, social, and collective rights as well as the principle of solidarity. As far as rights, it encompasses substantial or fundamental rights, those considered as second generation related to minimal socioeconomic conditions and those of the third generation that assure community living as far as conditions of subsistence, environment, protection of natural resources, and preserving public space. All of these are within the concept of “general welfare” and “improvement in the quality of life of the population”. With respect to solidarity, it is the duty of all the members “to act according to the principle of social solidarity, responding with humanitarian actions in situations that put in danger the life or health of any individual.” c. Protection means. The Constitution establishes specific instruments to protect rights that may be affected or threatened, that, as it is obvious, make up part of the set of regulations related to disaster risk management. They are as follows: • Protective action, established to protect fundamental rights (or those related to jurisprudential development) violated or threatened by a State action or omission, or by individuals responsible for rendering public services, or whose conduct seriously and directly affects the collective interest. • The action of fulfillment oriented to achieve by court order the compliance of the law or an administrative act by public authorities or individuals complying with public functions. • Popular actions for the protection of the collective rights and interests related to patrimony, space, safety, and public health, administrative ethics, the environment, free economic competition, and others of similar nature. Its objective is to “avoid contingent damage, put an end to danger, threats, vulnerability or grievances over the collective rights, and interests or to reestablish things to their prior state whenever possible” (Article 2 of Law 472 of 1998), that is feasible for the public authorities as well as for individuals and whose relevance in situations of risk is very significant. • Group actions conceived to claim compensation for damages inflicted on many people. d. The responsibility of the State. Pursuant to Article 90 of the CP “The State will respond economically to unlawful damages for which it is liable, resulting from an action or omission of the public authorities.” Moreover, it is established that “no State authority may carry out functions different from those assigned by the Constitution and the Law” (Article 121), that public servants are liable for infringing the Constitution and the Law and “for omission or overstepping in the exercise of their functions” (Article 6), and that “the Law shall determine the responsibility of the public servants and the method to carry out these responsibilities effectively” (Article 124). Additionally, the Constitution authorizes the Law to define cases of objective responsibility for damages caused to collective rights and interests (Article 88). Further comments are made on this subject in Chapter 5 of this study, where public and private responsibilities are covered. e. The functions of the different State agencies. The Congress of the Republic, aside from the general legislative competence, has the authority to regulate by statutory Law “the fundamental rights and duties of the people and the procedures and resources for their protection”, as well as states of emergency as provided in Article 215 CP. Both subjects are of particular relevance in risk management, as will be indicated further in this chapter and in chapter 5. • The President of the Republic is vested with the power to declare a state of emergency resulting from a public calamity, as provided for in Article 215 CP, as well as to exercise regulatory power or act as a legislator in exercising extraordinary powers. • Collegiate bodies are territorial entities that outside of their general competence are empowered in functions such as police, control of land use and construction or preservation and defense of the ecological and cultural patrimony. • Governors and mayors have relevant competencies as executive and police authorities in their respective territories. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 87 principles. From this more integral notion of fac- on preventing and mitigating potential impacts, ar- ing risk, the principal characteristics of the Plan ticulating actions for different Government entities, may be summarized as follows: planning as an es- and setting financing sources and mechanisms. The sential instrument; emphasis on local power and lack of a clear institutional and financial strategy in authority, since they are close to the population disaster management reflects on the need to for- and the physical elements that contribute to risk; mulate policy guidelines and funding mechanisms and the expression, in the majority of cases, of the when catastrophic events have occurred (phenom- norms that regulate land use and urban activity. ena such as El Niño in 1971 and La Niña in 1997- The PNPAD is constructed more around the no- 1998; earthquakes in Tumaco in 1979, Popayan in tion of risk than on the idea of disaster or calamity. 1983, Uraba in 1992, the Coffee Growing Region Conpes Document 3146, adopted in Decem- in 1999; and volcanic activities in Galeras in 2007 ber 2001, formulated a strategy to consolidate the the Nevado del Huila volcano in 2010). On the implementation of PNPAD in the short and medium other hand, we have comprehensive Conpes docu- term. This document seeks to improve the develop- ments highlighting the importance of prevention ment of the four strategies or programmatic lines (Strengthening the Implementation of PNPAD referred to in PNPAD4 in the absence of elements and Guidelines for the Overall Improvement of associated with temporality and territoriality con- Neighborhoods) and those related to the State’s tributing to the definition of those responsible and fiscal vulnerability reduction program on natural establishing an implementation period of three disasters5 at the national level and in Bogota. Like- years (2002 -2004). Thus, the Conpes Document wise, as well as the recent Conpes, the National Cli- 3146 exposes the following aspects: an overall mate Change System was created and there is also framework of risk in the country, the progress of a proposal for the creation of a National Plan for PNPAD to date, and the financial aspects of SN- this subject. One initiative of interinstitutional ar- PAD. Unfortunately, these exercises have not been ticulation that should be developed for the various made on a recurring basis, nor have monitoring processes of risk management is The Strengthen- and evaluation mechanisms been designed at dif- ing Strategy of Science, Technology, and Educa- ferent territorial levels, where they can articulate tion for Risk Reduction and Disaster Response. It actions, guide priorities, and make adjustments allows the rapprochement between those entities according to needs and progress. This document belonging to SNPAD, the National Environmental was subjected to a quick assessment that provided System (SINA), and the National Education Sys- information on the efficiency and effectiveness in tem that was encouraged by Conpes 3146 of 2002. its implementation, and UNGRD is currently con- ducting an assessment of the PNPAD’s thirteen years. In this context, the authors of this document considered it appropriate to conduct an analysis of developments in risk management and invest- 4 The four strategies are: (i) knowledge of the originated natural and anthro- pogenic risks, (ii) risk prevention and mitigation in planning, (iii) institu- ments in the field, whose main results are shown tional strengthening of SNPAD, and (iv) socializing the risk and disaster in the appendixes. prevention and mitigation. 5 Structured in five basic components: (i) identifying and monitoring risk, (ii) At least 24 Conpes documents dealing direct- risk reduction, (iii) policy development and institutional strengthening, (iv) ly or indirectly with disaster risk management have information and awareness in risk management, and (v) financial transfer- ence of residual risk. These components are related to the four main strate- been issued between 1971 and 2011 (Box 2.3). The gies of the PNPAD and the strategy for financial risk management in the majority are triggered by specific events, counseling PND 2002-2006, “Moving toward a Community State.” 88 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 2.3. CONPES documents related to risk management Conpes Document Title 759 May 1971 Flooding effects on Colombian territory: Actions taken by the national government * 1737 December 1980 Concept of a foreign loan operation to be entered into between Colombia and the IDB (Pacific Coast disaster)* Negotiation of two foreign loans by Colombia with the IDB to partially finance an emergency program for the 2017 August 1983 reconstruction of La Universidad del Cauca* Foreign loan that is planned between the national government and the IBRD to partially finance the reconstruction 2045 October 1983 project of Popayan and Cauca * 2399 October 1988 Program for the liquidation of the “Resurgence” Reconstruction Fund National government authorization of foreign debt with the German government for 50 million DM 2559 October 1991 (Note: among others funded were Reserve Centers and Valle de Aburra Emergency Network) Authorization to apply for a German loan of up to 13.5 million DM for the Comprehensive Improvement Program of 2609 August 1992 Marginal Neighborhoods in Medellin (Primed) 2948 August 1997 Guidelines for preventing and mitigating the potential effects of El Niño 1997-1998 2985 February 1998 Monitoring progressive actions to mitigate the effects of the Pacific phenomenon (El Niño), Conpes 2948 of 1997 Authorization to the nation to grant a guarantee for a foreign loan for the municipality of Medellin of up to US$5.2 3038 May 1999 million or its equivalent in other currencies, to partially finance the Comprehensive Improvement Program of Marginal Neighborhoods in Medellin (Primed) 3131 September 2001 Financing plan for the Coffee Growing region’s reconstruction and FOREC ‘s closure Strategy to strengthen the implementation of the National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response (PNPAD) in the 3146 December 2001 short and medium term Program for the reconstruction and sustainable development of Uraba in Antioquia and Choco, and lower and middle 3180 July 2002 Atrato. Enlargement of Conpes 3169 “Policy for the Afro-Colombian population” 3305 August 2004 Guidelines for optimizing urban development policy Authorization to the nation to apply for foreign loans from multilateral banks for up to Col$260 million to finance part of the 3318 November 2004 Program for Reducing the Fiscal Vulnerability of the State in confronting natural disasters Nation’s guarantee to Bogota, D. C. to contract a foreign loan from multilateral banks for up to US$80 million, or its 3398 November 2005 equivalent in other currencies, to partially finance the Program to Reduce Fiscal and Physical Vulnerability of the Capital District in confronting Natural Disasters Policy guidelines to implement a process of comprehensive risk management in the high-risk volcanic area of the 3501 December 2007 Galeras volcano 3570 February 2009 Strategy of risk mitigation in the Combeima River basin to guarantee water supply in the city of Ibague 3604 August 2009 Guidelines for consolidating the policy of comprehensive improvement of neighborhoods 3667 June 2010 Policy guidelines to reduce risk against hazard of mudflow (avalanche) in the Nevado del Huila volcano Distribution of the general system of participations (education, drinking water, general purpose, and special allocations): 137 January 2011 Fiscal year 2011 3700 July 2011 Institutional strategy for the articulation of policies and actions in the field of climate change in Colombia * Documents are not available in digital version. Source: DNP, available at www.dnp.gov.co. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 89 Overall, it may be concluded that risk man- agement; and (ix) Decree 1469 of 20107 (urban agement has not really become state policy and permits), Decree 2015 of 2001 (permits in case of therefore, there is a possibility to continue fluctu- disasters) and the recently adopted Land Use Plan- ating between what is important (risk reduction) ning Law that gives alternatives to strengthen mu- and urgent (response and reconstruction) in the nicipal function in risk management. These norms mandates of different governments. A more holis- are closely linked to disaster regulation, establish- tic view on risk management in PNPAD, Conpes ing a set of functions and responsibilities to territo- document 3146, in the last four National Develop- rial entities that are not explicitly formulated in the ment Plans (see appendixes), and in a set of instru- main regulatory body and require unification as ments and “guidelines” for local risk management well as harmonization and updating, both concep- was done by including this subject in the plan- tually and politically8. There are other regulatory or ning, strategies, and investments for governance sectoral norms that are directly or indirectly linked strengthening, risk knowledge, and risk reduction to risk management or some of its components. by the SNPAD actors. However, the strategies are Figure 2.3 shows the structural norms for disaster still irregular, fluctuating, and limited as can be risk management, relating to risk knowledge, risk seen in more depth in the appendixes, where the reduction, and disaster management. effectiveness of progress in disaster risk manage- In addition to structural norms for risk ment is analyzed in terms of investments. management, the current situation needs to visu- alize the policy framework and implementation of interventions related to climate change adaptation, 6 2.2.2. Structural norms for to the extent that so far these have not been seen as disaster risk management complementary, nor have these been coordinated in terms of scope and responsibility. The country has Twenty-two years after the Decree Law 919 a lot of initiatives on climate change that have not was issued, it has gone from a single regulatory necessarily been formulated as complementary to body, encoding every subject, to a large number of the subject of disaster risk management, and are rules that in one way or another make reference to carried out by a variety of entities and actors. To the subjects of risks and disasters. The main norms achieve reconciliation and improve outcomes of including aspects related to risks and disasters are: these and other initiatives, and taking into account (i) Law 9 of 1989 (urban reform) and Law 02 of the complexity of the problem, it is necessary to 1991 amending Law 9 (among other things, the inventory of settlements in risk areas); (ii) Law 3 of 1991 (social housing system) and Decree 0004 of 6 In this document, “structural norms” is the name given to those struc- 1993 (regulatory of Law 3 of 1991); (iii) Law 99 of tures created for general purposes in public planning and development management, which through the inclusion of the elements of risk 1993 (establishing the SINA); (iv) Law 152 of 1994 knowledge, risk reduction, and disaster management assure achieving Development Law or Plan (regulating the National the goals and adapted strategies in safety and sustainable development. 7 It replaced Decrees 1052 of 1998, 1600 of 2005, 564 of 2006, 097 of 2006, Planning System); (v) Law 136 of 1994 (municipal 4397 of 2006, 4462 of 2006, 990 of 2007, 3600 of 2007, 1100 of 2008, modernization); (vi) Law 388 of 1997 (regulating 1272 of 2009, and 2810 of 2009, by which relative provisions were regu- lated for urban permissions, building’s assessment, public functions that the issue of land use and amending Law 9 of 1989); city curators perform, legalizing of human settlements constituted for (vii) Law 400 of 1997 and its Decree regulations social housing, and other factors. 8 Parallel to the preparation of this report, a process of discussing a Draft Law on seismic-resistant buildings; (viii) Decree 1729 was being debated in Congress that is coherent with the SNPA, the 1991 Con- of 2002 on land use planning and watershed man- stitution, and the new vision of risk management (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011). 90 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies form an articulation platform that prevents the du- new Conpes 3700 on climate change provides an plication of efforts, investments, and provides sup- opportunity for interinstitutional action in order port to high-level decision making and planning to guide decision making under an integrated ap- in the country with criteria of both adaptation to proach that links three managing steps: risk, cli- and mitigation of climate change. In this sense, the mate change, and environment (Box 2.4). Figure 2.3. Structural norms for disaster risk management RISK KNOWLEDGE RISK REDUCTION DISASTER MANAGEMENT Decree 1355 of 1970, National Police Code Decree 1547 of 1984, National Calamity Fund Law 46 of 1988 , National System for Disaster Prevention and Response Law 9 of 1989, Urban Reform– Law 2 of 1991 Amending Urban Reform Law Decree Law 919 of 1989, National System for Disaster Prevention and Response Law 99 of 1993, National Environmental System Law 115 of 1994, Education Law152 of 1994, Development Plans Decree 1743 of 1994, Environmental Education Decree 969 of 1995, Network of Reserve Centers Decree 2190 of 1995, Orders PNC for Oil Spills Law 322 of 1996, National Fire Department System Law 388 of 1997, Territorial Development Decree 2211 of 1997, National Fire Department System Law 400 of 1997 Seismic-Resistant Standards Decree 2340 of 1997 Wild res Decree 93 of 1998, National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response Decree 879 of 1998, POT Regulation Decree1521 of 1998, Gas Station Fuel Management Law 472 of 1998, Regulates Popular and Group Actions Decree 321 of 1999, Adopt PNC for Oil Spills Decree 2015 of 2001, Post-disaster Licences CONPES Document 3146 of 2001, Consolidation Strategy of the National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response Law 715 of 2001, General Participation System Decree 1609 of 2002 Hazardous Goods Transportation CONPES Document 3318 of 2004, Financing the Program for Reducing the State’s Fiscal Vulnerability in Facing Natural Disasters Decree 4002 of 2004, POT´s Review for Disaster or Risk Decree 3696 of 2009, Amends Networks of Reserve Centers Decree 926 of 2010, Seismic-Resistant Construction Requirements NSR-10 Decree 4550 of 2009, Building Reconstruction Decree 4147 of 2011, National Unit for Disaster Risk Management Source: Adapted from SNPAD and World Bank, 2010. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 91 Box 2.4. Policy response and initiatives for climate change in the national context UNFCCC Finding ways to address climate change issues. In other to ratify this instrument, the country Approval in Colombia had to meet its commitments acquired according to the principle of common but differentiated (Law 164 of 1994) responsibilities, and in consideration of its specific national development priorities. Developed countries were imposed the goal of reducing their greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 5% between 2008 and 2012 in relation to 1990 levels. The continuity of this commitment is currently being negotiated and involves agreeing to new goals for the reduction of GHG Approval by Colombia of the Kyoto Protocol emissions, the means to achieve this and the mechanisms for its measurement, reporting, (Law 629 of 2000) and verification. Currently, some developed and developing countries have expressed their intention to assume voluntary commitments on this subject in order to contribute to the stabilization of GHG in the atmosphere. An Ideam publication analyzed and exposed the national GHG inventory for 1990 and 1994. More susceptible ecosystems to climate change were identified and adaptation measures for the country were raised. The Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Development First National Climate Change Communication (MAVDT) published a study to define the National Strategy for the Implementation of the Clean at UNFCCC of 2001 Development Mechanisms (CDM), which aimed to evaluate the potential of Colombia in the new markets, the identification of potential restrictions for these markets, and the development of strategies to overcome them, as well as the promotion of potential benefits for the country. The MAVDT and the DNP prepared these guidelines, where the main strategies were outlined Climate Change Policy Guidelines of 2002 for the mitigation of climate change in the framework of the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol, and the First National Communication on this subject. This Office was the national authority on this issue and was under the auspices of the MAVDT. It was the appointed entity to promote and evaluate all Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Creation of the Colombian Climate Change projects in the country, favoring the consolidation of competitive and efficient economic projects Mitigation Office in 2001 traded on the world market in reducing CO2 emissions. In 2005, under the resolution 340 of 2005 of MAVDT, this Office was eliminated to make way for the Climate Change Mitigation Group (GMCC), which is housed within the Vice Ministry of Environment of the MAVDT. National Strategy for the Sale of Environmental Services of Climate Change Mitigation Conpes 3242 of 2003 complemented the work already advanced and generated essential guidelines to introduce CDM projects within mitigation measures for climate change in the national context. In 2003 the MAVDT issued resolutions 0453 and 0454, aimed at the adoption of principles, requirements, and criteria, and the establishment of procedures for the approval of national projects to reduce GHG emissions that opt for the CDM. In addition, those resolutions provide the functioning regulation of the Intersectoral Technical Committee of Climate Change Mitigation that created the Resolutions 0453 and 0454 of 2003 and National Environment Council to assess CDM projects. Thus, with Resolution 0283 of 2006 issued by Resolution 0283 of 2006 MAVDT, the Global Change Working Group was created at Ideam and attached to the Environmental Studies Department, with the purpose of carrying out studies and research relating to environmental, economic, and social impacts caused by climate change, and to establish adaptation measures and mitigation options. National Board for Education, Training, and This board was created with the aim of designing, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating Raising Awareness of the General Public on a Strategy in Education, Training, and Raising Awareness of the General Public on Climate Climate Change in 2008 Change and promoting the participation of different institutional and social actors. Resolutions 0453 and 0454 of 2003 were repealed to introduce improvements in the national approval procedure. Later, in 2010, the MAVDT issued Resolutions 2733 and 2734, which MAVDT Resolutions 2733 and 2734 of 2010 repealed the resolutions of the previous year (551 and 552 of 2009), with the aim of reducing response times, streamlining the internal evaluation process and regulating the procedure for national approval of Activity Programs under CDM. The purpose of this board is to contribute to strategies, policies, plans, and timely actions Board for Reducing Emissions from development at REDD, in line with local communities’ rights, sustainable forest management, Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) in 2008 and generation and distribution of benefits. 92 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 2.4. Policy response and initiatives for climate change in the national context (continued) Created to facilitate interinstitutional collaboration on scientific information, Interagency Network on Climate Change and identification of training requirements, and to promote actions to ease access to said Food Safety (Ricclisa) in 2009 information in terms of decision making in confronting climate change. It was created as an instrument to ensure the availability of food. It presented the GEI national inventory of sources and drain pipes for the years 2000 and 2004. It carried out an analysis of physical-biotic and socioeconomic characteristics to determine Colombia's Second National Communication to Colombia’s vulnerability in facing the adverse effects of climate change based on the main the UNFCCC of 2010 hydrometeorological changes related to the phenomenon. It also presented actions that have been carried out on the subject of adaptation and targets, and strategic lines were outlined to diminish climate change impacts and to determine action priorities. It seeks to influence territorial and sectoral environmental planning processes so that the decision-making process is based on accurate information that takes into account National Plan of Adaptation to Climate Change key factors and weather forecasts. Thus, it aims to effectively reduce vulnerability to this (PNACC) of 2010 phenomenon in both the population, and the ecosystems, as well as in productive sectors, and likewise, increase social, economic and ecosystem capacity in responding to events and climatic disasters. Comprises National Pilot Program in Adaption to High Mountain Ecosystems, Colombian Program in Climate Change Adaptation of 2008 Caribbean Islands, and Human Health (INAP) and Joint Program of Ecosystems’ Integration and Climate Change in the Colombian Massif. Regional Comprehensive Plan on Climate Created to implement the link between territorial management and the need to confront Change (PRICC) Region’s Capital in 2011 climate variability challenges for the Region’s Capital development. Long-term planning initiative allowing the country to identify the potential for GHG mitigation Colombian Strategy for Low-Carbon and measures, and appropriate projects which should be executed in productive sectors, Development (ECDBC) of 2010 without affecting the long-term growth of the economy. National Strategy for Reducing Emissions Set of five actions to reduce GHG emissions caused by deforestation of natural forests from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in developing countries, as follows: (i) reduction in deforestation, (ii) reduction of the in Developing Countries, and the Role of degradation of natural forests, (iii) conservation of forest carbon reserves, (iv) increase in Conservation, Sustainable Management of Forests, forest carbon reserves, and (v) sustainable management of forests. All this under the financial and the Increase of Forest Carbon Reserves in support of industrialized countries. Developing Countries (ENREDD +) of 2011 This decree created the Adaptation Fund, whose objective is the recovery, construction, and Decree 4819 of 2010 reconstruction of the areas affected by La Niña. This Fund has legal status, budget and financial autonomy, and is ascribed to the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit. Institutional strategy to articulate policies and actions in the field of climate change in Conpes 3700 of July 2011 Colombia. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 93 2.3. SNPAD INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS, STRUCTURES, AND CAPAcitIES Disaster risk management requires the par- Although in recent years significant ef- ticipation of various social, public, and inter- forts have been made to review the SNPAD, it institutional entities. At the international9 is outdated and inconsistent with new realities level, interinstitutional articulation mecha- within the national context. Economic and so- nisms, called platforms or systems, have been cial impacts, damages and losses, and the need promoted, in which it is important to define to mobilize resources to advance recovery pro- the roles that the different agents should un- cesses associated with the occurrence of disaster dertake and their interrelationship, in order to events led to the creation of SNPAD in 1988. In comply with the objectives and proposed out- principle, it operated with a notable welfare ap- comes. Each member of the system retains its proach, although the incorporation of its role autonomy and specific rationale, but shares a of prevention is recognized. Subsequently, with common purpose related to the management the formulation of the National Plan for Disas- of safe development. Therefore, local, regional, ter Prevention and Response (PNPAD) in 1998, and national governments, civil society, and progress was made toward a broader conceptual generally all public and private entities should approach, or transition, although comprehen- accept their own role and responsibility so that sive interventions remain limited. Other factors their actions are effective. such as the need for congruence with the Con- Since 1988, Colombia has established a stitution of 1991, its articulation with the SINA National System for Disaster Prevention and Re- and other systems, land use planning frame- sponse that has been considered a model in Latin works, strategies for adaptation to climate vari- America. The SNPAD is constituted by all public ability, and conceptual evolution of the subject and private entities that carry out plans, pro- promote the need of updating the SNPAD. grams, projects, and specific actions for disaster The SNPAD structure is articulated from prevention and response, and has the following the top down, through a series of committees objectives (Decree Law 919 of 1989, Article 1): for the different territorial levels (Figure 2.4). (i) define the responsibilities and functions of all The SNPAD (Law 46 of 1998 and Decree Law agencies and public entities, private entities, and communities, at the stages of prevention, man- agement, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and de- 9 In 1999, the Economic and Social System of the United Nations, in its velopment in disaster or calamity situations; (ii) resolution 1999/63, “makes an appeal to all governments to maintain and strengthen national and multisectoral platforms already established integrate public and private efforts for adequate for disaster reduction of natural origin, with the aim of achieving goals disaster or calamity prevention and response; and objectives of sustainable development, using all the technical and scientific mechanisms. It is of interest for each government to decide and (iii) ensure timely and efficient management on the form and structure of the multisectoral platform in its own ter- of all human, technical, administrative, and eco- ritory. Due to the great success of the national committees and focal points during the decade in a great number of countries, the Secretary nomic resources that are essential to disaster or General firmly exhorts the governments to apply the measures necessary calamity prevention and response. to implement this petition.” 94 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 919 of 1989) is organized vertically and hier- structure of the national component, the Na- archically, where the maximum level of coor- tional Committee, Technical and Operational dination belongs to the National Committee, Committees, and the Directorate for Risk followed by the Regional Committees and the Management (Office of Disaster Prevention Local Committees for Disaster Prevention and and Response), which currently is ascribed to Response. These committees are chaired by the the Ministry of Interior and Justice (at the lo- chief executive of each level (President of the cal level, offices or civil servants are appointed Republic, Minister of the Interior and Justice, for this purpose, and in most cases, depend Governor and Mayor, respectively). Territorial on the Government Secretaries of the Depart- levels have assimilated the composition and mental and Municipal administrations). Figure 2.4. National System for Disaster Prevention and Response (SNPAD) National Commitee President, Ministries of Interior and Justice, Finance, Defense, Social Protection, Communications, Transportation, MAVDT. Directors: DNP, Civil Defense, Red Cross Representatives of the President: Camacol, Colombian Building Colombian Society and DGR Directors. Guests National Calamity Fund RISK MANAGEMENT DIRECTORATE (DGR-MU) Technical Commitee Operational Commitee • DGR Director (President) • Civil Defense Director (President) • Designated officials from: • DGR Director Ministries: National Defense, Social • Ministry of Social Protection Protection,Transportation, Agriculture, MAVDT, Regional Commitees • National Red Cross Mintic, DNR National Police, Civil Defense, Sena, of 32 Departments • Firebrigade National Board IGAC, Ideam, Ingeominas, Colombian Red Cross, • Delegates of invited public entities Invernar Firebrigade National Board Delegate. • Secretary: Civil Defense Official • Secretary: DGR officials Technical Educational Operational • Guests Commission Commission Commission • Guests National Consulting Commissions National Consulting Commissions • Education Local Committees • Search and Rescue • Wildfire prevention and mitigation 1,102 Municipalities • Communications • Seismic and volcanic risk • Against oil, derivatives and harmful s • Oil, derivatives and harmful substance spills ubstances spill • Massive events Technical Educational Operational • Surveillance of public health Commission Commission Commission • Safety in football stadiums • Tsunami alert National Services • Communications • National Network of Reserve Centers • Permanent committee for seismic resistant construction • National Network of Food Distribution standards • CISPROQUIM: Chemical Products Information • Industrial and technological risk Center • Intersectoral committee for prevention and mitigation of pandemic impact Community • Information System: National Geographic 44,050,548 total inhabitants Information System Network (PNC) • Prohibition of development, production, storage, and use of nuclear, biological, chemical, and radioactive weapons • Water, sanitation and hygiene • Search and rescue Sources: Law 46 of 1998 and Decree Law 919 of 1989. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 95 Although the main body of the aforemen- of their present and future decisions and that tioned norms described establishes a decen- they can assume their own attitudes, policies, tralized system, it has not been fully adapted to and norms in compliance to their competen- principles, structure, and functioning as provid- cies. Local and regional levels sometimes per- ed in the Constitution of 1991. Since the SNPAD ceive that the SNPAD corresponds solely to the was created before the Constitution, the decen- national entities, situation expressed by its low tralization subject has a partial scope and it is a sense of belonging (OSSO Corporation, 2009b). problem not yet completely resolved in the Sys- On the other hand, citizen participation, in cur- tem. On the one hand, in the vertical structure, rent regulations, evidences an administrative the municipal levels depend functionally and relationship (with a unilateral, paternalistic, and structurally on the regional and national levels; authoritarian vision), and therefore, making it while the Local and Regional Committee struc- necessary to make changes that will allow people tures are part of the SNPAD, their duties and re- to have adequate participation in committees or sponsibilities are assigned in parallel, as if they in the SNPAD organizational structure, and to were different organizations than the territorial be able to make decisions about their respective entities headed by mayors and governors, gener- situations and interests. ating confusion and duplication (Ingeniar Ltda., Since the creation of the SNPAD more than 2011). The fact that there are Local and Regional twenty years ago, the only changes in its institu- Committees, or that the role of the governor or tional organization have been related to the entity mayor is recognized as “The President” to such in charge of coordinating it. Its transference from committees, does not constitute the applica- the Presidency of the Republic to the current Min- tion of the decentralization principle. Evidence istry of Interior and Justice in 1991 has prevented of this is the SNPAD scheme, where territorial the entity from exercising its leadership capacity, entities are relegated to support planning and and has focused its role on emergency response. information duties that are assigned to the Na- The transfer of the Office/Directorate in charge tional Committee and the National Directorate, of the SNPAD coordination from the Presidency and to response activities in health, education, of the Republic, where it was initially ascribed transport, and infrastructure matters (Decree during its first years, to the Ministry of Interior Law 919 of 1989, Article 62). and Justice, has meant the decline of its conven- The autonomy, coordination, concur- ing and coordinating capacity. The few regulation rence, subsidiarity, and participation principles changes in the institution have been at the hier- as provided in the Constitution of 1991 are criti- cal factors, which have not been fully incorporat- ed to SNPAD and thus limit its operation. Such principles10 do not exist in all their extension in 10 According to what is established in the Constitution, competencies that Law 46 of 1988, but they do in Decree Law 919 have been attributed to each territorial entity should be performed ac- cording to coordination, concurrence, and subsidiary principles. Coordi- of 1989, making it necessary to adapt to the new nation refers to the existence of consistency and coherence of activities way of exercising politics, planning, and pub- performed locally and their relation with the other territorial levels for the proper fulfillment of the goals of the Nation. Concurrence is given lic administration within the framework of the when two or more levels should develop joint activities in pursuit of a Social Rule of Law. With regard to municipal common purpose, better efficiency and mutual respect in grounds for jurisdiction. Finally, subsidiarity appears when the authorities of a higher autonomy, it implies the need that an entity, a level transiently support others on a lower, at their request, in carrying population, and a territory have effective control out their own activities at this level. 96 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies archical level of the current Directorate for Risk are responsible for guiding and implementing Management (National Office of the Presidency, development processes in the territory, which National Directorate, Special Administrative are effective and sustainable to the extent that Unit, or just the Directorate of the Ministry of In- risk management is considered an essential terior), as well as in some of its responsibilities.11 factor to their development. Municipalities In addition, in November 2011, the DGR was are the basic entity in the political-adminis- modified again, creating the National Unit for trative division of the country, being political- Risk Management ascribed to the Administrative ly, fiscally, and administratively autonomous, Department of the Presidency of the Republic, within the limits provided by the Constitution with the aim of improving and updating the SN- and the Law, and their objectives are the gen- PAD management performance and coordina- eral welfare and the improvement in the qual- tion (Decree 4147 of 2011). There is also a draft ity of life of the population in their territory bill filed in Congress to restructure the SNPAD12, (CAF and DNP-DDTS, 2005). Thus, munici- which includes a more comprehensive vision of pal administrations in their function of guid- risk management, a definition of new structures ing, protecting, and executing development and functions of the different territorial levels should regulate the use of soil, surveillance under the management approach by processes, and control activities related to construction, and more explicitly recognizes the need to be in as well as defending and controlling the mu- coherence with the Constitution of 1991 and ori- nicipality’s ecological and cultural patrimony. ented toward sustainable development. This implies incorporating risk management as a leading principle of their planning and safe management, through guidance and per- 2.3.1. Local government formance interventions to prevent future risk, responsible for territorial reduce existing risk, and manage disasters in management, thereby, the case these occur. main actor in disaster risk management Despite the centralist vision emphasiz- ing in emergency response, which defines the 11 Decree 1680 of 1991 reorganized the Administrative Department of the Presidency of the Republic and transferred the National Office of SNPAD, great responsibility is assigned to mu- Prevention and Response to the Ministry of Interior. Pursuant to De- nicipalities to respond to risk management cree 2035 of 1991, the Ministry of Interior was restructured and the name of the National Office was changed to the National Directory of challenges. Decree Law 919 of 1989 assigns Disaster Prevention and Response, under the auspices of the office of broad responsibilities in risk management the Vice Minister. In 1996, during the reform of the Ministry of Interior, the Special General Directorate Administrative Unit for Disaster Pre- to the municipalities, especially in the emer- vention and Response was created. Its present name is National Unit gency management component, as well as in for Disaster Risk Management. 12 Senate Draft Law No. 158 of 2011, 050 House of Representatives “By other management processes. Table 2.1 shows which the National Disaster Risk Management Policy is adopted and the that municipalities are responsible for activi- National Disaster Risk Management System is created and other provi- sions are introduced”. ties related to risk knowledge, risk reduction, 13 The main norms that regulate organization and functioning of the mu- and disaster management. nicipalities are prescribed in the Constitution of 1991 in Articles 311 to 321, in the Municipal Code Regime (Decree 1333 of 1986), of which a According to the Constitution of 1991 great part has been modified in subsequent regulations, chiefly in Laws and the legal system in force, 13 municipalities 136 of 1994, 617 of 2000 and 715 of 2001. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 97 Under the decentralization model estab- included key elements of urban planning, lished by the Constitution, local governments which were taken into account later in Law should have greater autonomy, responsibility, 388 of 1997. Law 9 was the first initiative, and decision-making power in facing the future that obligated the municipalities to prepare of their territory. Therefore, the responsibility an inventory of human settlements in high- of performing risk management actions should risk areas and transfer them to appropriate clearly fall on the local level. A more decen- areas. Furthermore, it urged the municipali- tralized organization, that respects the mu- ties to take the necessary measures and pre- nicipalities’ autonomy should be promoted, cautions so that evacuated risk zones were not understanding that the ultimate management newly used for housing. This obligation has level is the local one, pursuant to provisions been commissioned to Mayor’s Offices, but it in Article 311 CP, which characterizes the has been narrowly implemented. Therefore, municipality “as a fundamental entity of the the National Development Plan 2010-2014 political-administrative division” (emphasis establishes that the MVCT should generate added). Therefore, in compliance with these a methodology to prepare risk zone invento- principles, the legal framework should be ad- ries. On the other hand, the POT, according justed and this responsibility should be clearly to Law 388, has a long-term scope and aims assigned to the municipal government. In this to improve the quality of life and complement manner, the existent dichotomy between Lo- the economic and social planning within the cal Committees and municipal administration territorial dimension. Its objectives are to ra- can be resolved making it possible that the tionalize the interventions and guide develop- same Municipal Government Council be con- ment and sustainable exploitation through the stituted as the Local Committee, as it is stated formulation of land management restrictions in the draft law in Congress (Senate Draft Law and conditions, which includes the prepara- 158 of 2011, House of Representatives 050), in tion of studies and inventories of high-risk which other public and private actors related zones, the definition of zones subject to risks to risk management are invited to participate. which admit some kind of intervention (risks Therefore, the regional level would only in- able to be mitigated),14 and those which do not tervene when risk management processes or allow any kind of intervention (nonmitigable disasters affect more than one municipality or risks) (SNPAD and World Bank, 2010). In the when the local capacity is exceeded, and when planning framework, municipalities are re- both local and regional capacity is surpassed, sponsible for incorporating in their POT and then the national level would be called on to PD the specific provisions and recommenda- perform operational or executive functions in tions for risk reduction and comprehensive the exercise of the concurrence and subsidiar- risk management, as well as their necessary al- ity principles (Constitution, Article 288). locations in the annual budgets. Nevertheless, Urban land use planning, the main strat- egy to reduce risk in the municipal sphere, has been proposed since 1989, but unfortunately 14 Mitigation can be understood to be a condition in which it is feasible to in the majority of cases it has not been taken intervene technically, economically, socially, and politically in a territory to reduce risk so that the population, infrastructure and economic ac- advantage of and it has not been appropriately tivities can continue functioning within reasonable and socially accepted implemented. Law 9 of 1989 (Urban reform) margins of safety (Ramírez and Rubiano, 2009a). 98 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies assessments performed by MAVDT in over The Departmental Comptrollers’ Offices more than 50% of the country have found that are responsible for fiscal control duties, except municipalities do not have the necessary stud- when the law determines the creation of a Munici- ies, nor have they regulated territorial usage, pal Comptroller’s Office. Organizations such as including the risk subject and the definition the Comptrollers’ Offices and the Ombudsman of an assistance and accompaniment program Offices also have an important role in monitoring for this purpose. and assessing risk management processes. Law According to Law 136 of 1994, municipali- 617 of 2000, Article 156 provides that only mu- ties should solve the unsatisfied needs in health, nicipalities and districts classified in Special and education, environmental sanitation, drinking first category, and those of the second category, water, home public utilities, housing, recreation which have more than 100,000 inhabitants, may and sports, directly applying the principles of con- create and organize their own Comptrollers’ Of- currence, complementarity, and coordination with fices. In municipalities where there is no Munic- other territorial and national entities in the terms ipal Comptroller’s Office, the Ombudsman will defined by law. In this sense, the projects to be car- act as a public treasury controller, ensuring the ried out, regardless of the financing source, shall compliance with the administrative contracting be executed taking into account the restrictions principles, will evaluate public works execution, and conditionings arising from current risk situ- and will request reports to the officers respon- ations regulated in the POT and other effective sible for the municipality’s funds or goods (CAF technical regulations, ensuring the projects’ safe and DNP-DDTS, 2005). location, construction, and operation. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 99 100 Table 2.1. Responsibilities of territorial entities in disaster risk management processes pursuant to Decree Law 919 of 1989 Policies and regulations Planning Execution Monitoring and control • Contributing to the organization and maintenance of the Comprehensive Information System • Carrying out historical studies and research on disaster events Include a component of disaster prevention in territorial entities’ Development Plans, especially in urban land use • Implementing studies on hazards, analysis of vulnerability planning, risk zones and human settlements, as well as conditions and risk assessment allocations needed in their annual budgets. • Coordinating and administrating early warning systems RISK These functions are subject to KNOWLEDGE national policies Prepare and elaborate the Development Plans through the • Ensuring compliance of systems and equipment regulations for Planning Offices, in coherence with regulations and plans the purpose of the Comprehensive Information System on disaster prevention and response, and coordinate the • Promoting and coordinating training and public information institutions in programs and budgetary matters related programs to disasters. • Organizing information and documentation centers • Preparing the community, through the Education Secretariats, on prevention, response, and recovery in disaster situations • Requiring public or private entities, which perform large works RISK These functions are subject to Seek the incorporation of risk prevention in the in the territory of their jurisdiction to review previous on possible REDUCTION national policies Development Plans. effects which a disaster may originate or cause, and on how to prevent these effects • Directing, coordinating, and controlling all administrative and operative activities essential for responding to regional or local disaster situations, through the respective Mayor’s Office or the ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Issue special regulations in order to person in charge Controlling, through the head of the allow repairing and reconstruction • Developing activities related to transport service, infrastructure The CLOPAD will prepare contingency plans based on respective City Hall, all administrative DISASTER activities on buildings affected by works, damage assessment, demolition, and cleaning tasks, vulnerability analysis to facilitate prevention or to and operational activities essential MANAGEMENT disaster. Establish posterior tax through the Public Works Secretariats adequately and timely respond to possible disasters. for responding to regional or local control over expenses aimed at the • Evaluating the health aspects, coordination of medical actions, disaster situations. execution of activities. victims’ transportation, classification the injured, provision of medical supplies, basic sanitation, medical care shelters, nutritional surveillance, as well as epidemiologic surveillance and control, through the Health Secretariats Source: Authors’ Chart, 2011 Municipalities’ Organization and Capacities Mayor and a Cabinet, a Treasurer, an Om- budsman, a City Comptroller, and the Local Municipalities have a basic administra- Administrative Board. The Constitution and tive structure to comply with their functions the law grant them administrative autonomy and competencies, which vary depending on and freedom to determine their administra- categories, as provided by Law 617 of 2000, which tive structure, provided that it is within the express their functioning capacity (Figure 2.5). established legal framework. In this sense, en- All municipalities of the special, first, and sec- tities expand their structure as the needs for ond categories with more than 100,000 in- the provision of services grow and in function habitants are composed of a City Council, a of their population growth. Figure 2.5. Municipal organization EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE JUDICIAL POWER ELECTORAL (at national level) CONTROL (depends on the POWER CORPORATION national level) MUNICIPAL PEOPLES' MUNICIPAL MUNICIPAL MUNICIPAL REPRESENTATIVE MUNICIPAL TOWN HALL COUNCIL COURT (Public Ministry) REGISTRY Civil Criminal MUNICIPAL Planning COMPTROLER Office (Fiscal Control) General Jurisdiction Legal Local Adminstration Office Board (township) Utility Company General Secretariat Government Financial and Public Work Education Health Secretariat Public Credit Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Inspection of Police Source: CAF and DNP-DDTS, 2005. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 101 The capacity of municipalities to assume system of subnational governments according to commitments provided by law depends on im- their population and current income in terms of plications imposed by the fiscal framework to minimum salaries. regular and exceptional activities in the system, The law imposes on departments and so that their actions are consistent with the over- municipalities the maximum amounts of their all objectives of fiscal sustainability, led by the operating expenses in proportion to the cur- national government. The set of regulations rent income of free destination. The share of and fiscal norms governing the actions of mu- operating expenses is on average about 70% nicipalities and departments cannot be ignored; of current revenues. Although some changes for example, Law 358 of 1997, through which in the classification of the municipalities have the national government establishes the traffic been adopted when Law 617 of 2000 came lights system, consists of quantitative measures into force, it can be concluded that the major- that restrict the territorial debt to their payment ity of noncapital cities (84%) fall in category capacity. Law 617 of 2000 incorporates quantita- 6. In this sense, it is expected that there are tive criteria to control functioning expenditure still more important restrictions in reassign- growth. This law is complemented by Law 488 of ing operating resources to investments in di- 1998, which strengthens the income of the ter- saster risk management (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011) ritorial entities. It also provides a classification (Table 2.2). Table 2.2. Municipalities by category, 2007-2008 Maximum % Category Population between Income between Municipalities by category No. functioning Bogota, Medellin, Cali, Barranquilla, Special > 500,001 > 400,000 6 50% Bucaramanga, Cucuta Cartagena, Pereira, Manizales, Villavicencio, Ibague, Dosquebradas, Yumbo, and 7 1 500,000 100,001 100,000 400,000 14 65% municipalities in the metropolitan area of Valle de Aburra. 2 100,000 50,001 50,000 100,000 - 14 70% 3 50,000 30,001 30,000 50,000 - 19 70% 4 30,000 20,001 25,000 30,000 - 22 80% 5 20,000 10,001 15,000 25,000 - 25 80% 6 < 10,000 < 15,000 - 931 80% Source: Authors’ chart from information provided by the DNP at: www.dnp.gov.co. 102 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Municipalities with less than 50,000 in- have resulted in the establishment of their own habitants depend almost completely on the Gen- structures, coordination, and implementation, eral System of Transfers (SGP). National transfers which in the majority of cases has led to impor- represent over 80% of current income. In case of tant results involving different municipal agen- municipalities with more than 500,000 inhabit- cies, private actors, academia representatives, ants, transfers represent 40% of their income, guilds, and other organizations related to di- which is increased to 55% in the category of saster risk management (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011). municipalities from 100,001 to 500,000 inhab- Manizales, as a separate example, has chosen to itants, and to 68% in the category of 50,001 to give risk management a cross-cutting charac- 100,000 inhabitants. The SGP is regulated by ter in the local public administration. It has not Law 715 of 2001, which according to the Con- created a municipal system, but the municipal- stitution, divides transfers into three large parts ity itself acts to reduce risks and the municipal as follows: (a) participation for education, which cabinet is in charge of coordinating and con- represents 58.5% of resources; (b) participation vening the different actors. Such a situation can for health, which corresponds to 24.5%; and (c) be more feasible and desirable for most of the participation for general purposes, representing medium and small municipalities in the coun- 17%. These three are among the 17 general pur- try. It is essential to recognize and capitalize on pose budgetary items in which disaster preven- such experiences learned, so those lessons can tion and response are included (ECLAC 2005). be adapted to other territorial areas (see Chap- Although Decree Law 919 of 1989 em- ter 3 for further details on this subject). powered municipalities to organize their own The obvious inequality in the develop- disaster prevention and response systems, only ment of different Local Committees is due, some cities have used this power. According to among other things, to limited access and avail- Decree-Law 919 of 1989, Article 51, municipali- ability of financial, technical, and human re- ties can organize their own disaster prevention sources. While in most of the municipalities and response systems, but most municipalities CLOPAD exists formally, they are convened have simply created the CLOPAD, which have and function only when there is an emergency only one official appointed as coordinator. In or disaster. There are few technical, financial the smallest municipalities the situation is more and human resources for pertinent actions, and critical, since the CLOPAD coordinator is at the these have minor infrastructure capacity. Addi- same time Secretary of Government, Planning, tionally, there is no clear political postulation or Public Works (World Bank, 2011a). on this subject (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011). On the Some municipalities, especially those other hand, a minimal or no of participation by which are stronger in technical, financial, and the community and its different representatives human resources, (for instance, Bogota or Me- from civil society limits the sustainability of ac- dellin), have been equipped with their own tions taken by the institutions. “district or municipal systems” for disaster pre- The interrelationship of CLOPAD coor- vention and response, which go far beyond the dinators with different municipal agencies or existence of a district or local committee and a Secretariats is limited. The public servants or person in charge of subject in the administra- small offices responsible for coordinating Local tion. The conditions of complexity of current Committees are attached, in most municipali- risks and the political decision to face them ties, to the Government’s Municipal Secretariat, Disaster Risk in Public Administration 103 following the model developed so far by the and research centers, the presence of adequate National Unit for Risk Management, although technical profiles, and the training of person- there are some exceptions, where they depend nel working in governmental departments, the on the Planning Secretariat or directly on the CAR, and municipalities. Mayor. Coordinators mainly interact with re- According to Decree Law 919 of 1989 lief agencies, public order entities, and health and Law 99 of 1993, the CAR will advise and organizations, but with the rest of the munici- cooperate with the territorial entities in in- pal administration, the relationship is limited corporating the risk subject into planning. In and they do not have the necessary support the Decree Law 919 of 1989, Article 64, the from the Mayor and the Cabinet to make deci- CAR have to provide support in incorporat- sions (OSSO Corporation, 2009b). The above ing disaster prevention components in the PD reduces the effective incorporation of policies of territorial entities, especially in land use and strategy instruments related to the subject planning, risk zones, and human settlements, (PD, POT, budgetary and investment defini- through the preparation of an inventory, anal- tions). In practice, many Local Committees ysis of high-risk zones, and designing solution comply more with an intermediary role to get mechanisms. Subsequently, this provision was resources, to the extent that the census of the ratified by Law 99 of 1993, which in Article affected population and initial impact assess- 31 establishes the CAR responsibilities as ments should be certified by them to obtain “Performing analysis activities, monitoring, such resources. This situation has led to the prevention, and control of disasters in coor- current proposal to transform the SNPAD so dination with other competent authorities, that CLOPAD would be the same Government and assisting them in environmental matters Council and therefore, the highest authority in to prevent and respond to emergencies and the disaster risk management process would be disasters and to carry out jointly with mu- the Mayor (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011). nicipal or district administrations adequacy Local entities with minor technical capac- programs for urban areas in high-risk zones, ity claim greater support from national entities such as erosion control stream course man- (World Bank, 2011a). The majority of munici- agement, and reforestation”. palities lack adequate technical staff and they do The CAR support to disaster risk man- not have the necessary elements to undertake agement has been heterogeneous, both due to studies demanded by current norms, which are restriction of resources and to differences in the fundamental input for land use planning. interpreting regulations. In Chapter 3 of this Unlike other countries, such as the United States document, it is evident how this function has and most European countries, Colombia does been unevenly fulfilled. Although some CAR not have geological and hydrometeorological offer timely support to the territorial entities equipment at a regional or local level that would in matters of information, technical support, support risk monitoring and assessment activi- and cofinancing, a great number of them pro- ties. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the vide limited support. In general, it is agreed strengthening of capacities at this level, under that CAR should contribute information and a strategy combining more presence of national technical support in matters of risks associ- entities in the territory through decentraliza- ated to environmental variables, as well as in tion processes, the articulation with universities making investments in prevention and miti- 104 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies gation, provided they are in environmental success of the POT. The law also states that restoration. On the other hand, some CAR the Departmental Planning Offices can request believe that it is not within their competence technical support from the Ministry of Interi- to invest in infrastructure works. Addition- or, the Vice Ministry of Housing, Urban De- ally, there are no methodological standards velopment and Drinking Water, Inurbe, IGAC, for monitoring, analysis, and constructing for Ideam, SGC, and metropolitan areas which are risk cartography, which is why the support of- part of their municipalities. Likewise, they are fered by CAR to territorial entities is hetero- able to make the corresponding agreements geneous and many times incompatible. The with the CAR or the environmental authori- new Ministry of Environment and Sustainable ties having jurisdiction in those municipali- Development15 (former Ministry of Environ- ties on matters of their competence. ment, Housing, and Territorial Development) The municipal institutional capacities in its restructuring and regulation of the CAR have a strong interrelationship with poverty functions has the opportunity to clarify re- levels. Therefore, the implementation of risk sponsibilities, and also to explain the existent reduction and recovery projects facing a di- confusions and generate clear guidelines on saster at this level are limited. According to the articulation in environmental manage- assessments carried out by the DNP and sub- ment and risk management within the frame- mitted in the PND 2010-2014, the best insti- work of public administration, in such a way tutional capacities at municipal level related that SINA and the new National Unit for Risk to performance when managing PD, public Management are able to work closely in sup- investments, financial sustainability, and ful- porting disaster risk reduction. fillment of legal budgetary requirements and On the other hand, Decree 507 of 1999 performance of SGP resources are concentrat- recognizes the low technical capacity of mu- ed in the center of the country, especially in nicipalities with less than 50,000 inhabitants to Bogota, in the department of Cundinamarca, address their land use planning. This Decree, parts of Antioquia, the south zone of Boyaca, which modifies Law 388 of 1997, in recogni- in the departments that compose the Coffee tion of delays and difficulties of some munici- Growing region, and in the Valle del Cauca. palities in implementing their POT, states that Likewise, the district of Barranquilla and the the National Government should implement zone of influence of the municipality of Pasto a technical assistance plan through interin- in the department of Nariño have some insti- stitutional coordination of the correspond- tutional advances in this field (DNP, 2010a). ing Ministries and governmental entities, the The main technical reason for decentral- Departmental Planning Offices, and the CAR, ization is productivity and effectiveness improve- to train and give technical assistance in the ment in providing services under the hypothesis formulation and articulation processes of the that such objectives are achieved by identifying POT, especially to those municipalities that the users’ needs. However, in the subject of risk have the greatest difficulties in the process. management, these have not been abided by. The governmental entities involved in this process would make available to the munici- palities and districts the necessary informa- tion and technical assistance resources for the 15 According to Decree 3570 of September 27, 2011. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 105 Only to the extent where territorial entities have or the adequate technical knowledge, and even technical, administrative, and financial capaci- the lack of awareness of the impact that these ties will they be able to perform quality and ef- measures can have (Bohorquez, 2011). ficient risk management activities. Samples of Taking into account important problems the above can be seen in Chapter 1, where it is related to resource transfers from the nation indicated that municipalities with populations through the SGP and the capacities of the terri- between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants have the torial entities, municipal certification processes highest loss of life and housing index for every have been taking place in other sectors to render 100,000 inhabitants, which coincides with their services related to education and health. Invest- weaker technical and financial capacities. There- ments, historically done in risk management by fore, it is necessary to review the support given the State, have been addressed mainly to man- to different municipalities and departments, age emergencies, humanitarian aspects, and and define methodologies and different strate- reconstruction processes after a declaration of gies according to complexity of risk scenarios national disaster, as can be seen in the appen- and existing capacities. The support from the dixes. A change is required in the priority given departments and the nation to strengthen the to risk reduction. It is necessary to accompany it incorporation of disaster risk management in with more resources, in which case it would be planning and development processes in munici- convenient to consider the possibility of defin- palities has been based on technical assistance ing a “municipal certification” process to man- strategies and not on strengthening capacities or age risks, acknowledging that this certification more permanent accompaniments. Recent as- is a sectoral recognition of the municipality’s ca- sessments show that the intervention effective- pacity to exercise its autonomy as a basic unit of ness has been limited, since recommendations society (Box No. 2.5). are not implemented due to the lack of resources 106 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 2.5. Municipal certification Under the territorial decentralization process, the same competencies have been assigned almost always to all municipalities and departments in Colombia, without establishing differences based on their characteristics or capacities and without demanding the compliance of specific requirements to receive transfers. Nevertheless, from the process called certification of capacities of the territorial entities there has been progress in identifying capacities of territorial entities in the fulfillment of their competencies, and the establishment of procedures to improve their governance in relation to the administration of transferred resources. The first reference to a certification process is found in Law 10 of 1990 (Reorganization of the National Health System), distributing competencies among government levels and ruling that the sector’s resources administered by the nation shall be transferred to departments, districts, and municipalities. To that end, municipalities should meet requirements as provided in Article 37 of said Law where the existence of some indispensable institutional conditions is guaranteed to provide adequate rendering of services. This approach was retaken by Law 60 of 1993, which regulates the distribution of competencies and resources of fiscal transference for education and health among government levels, defining two stages in the accreditation processes. First, accreditation of departments and districts, as provided in Articles 14 and 15 of said Law, consisted in demonstrating the existence of resources or processes for an appropriate administration of the following services: information systems, planning methodologies and the preparation of sectoral plans, plans to assume the provision of services, rules and procedures approved by the Departmental Assembly to distribute resources within the department, and organizing the administrative structure and the staff. The Law provided for a term of four years for the accreditation of departments and districts. Second, the accreditation was set up of departments performing this exercise in their municipalities, abiding by the provisions in Article 16 having similar elements to those mentioned above. In case of breach by the municipalities, the departments could, with the authorization of the Ministry of Health and Education, subordinate the exercise of duties to the fulfillment of performance plans. In 2001, the existent transfer system was modified (Legislative Law No 1), allowing the participation of municipalities in the nation’s current income and in the fiscal appropriation to finance education and health in the country’s departments and districts, so the General System of Participations was created to establish a participation in education, another for health and a third one for general purposes. These new Constitutional mandates were remodeled by Law 715 of 2001 and the distribution of competencies and resources among government levels was reorganized. In Article 20 of said Law, departments and districts were certified by the mandate of the regulation. Likewise, it stated that the State would certify municipalities, with more than 100,000 inhabitants before the end of 2002. Municipalities with less than 100,000 inhabitants would be able to be certified should they so desire and should they meet the requirements indicated by the government. The departments would responsible for granting the certification, for which they would have six months from the time the municipality submits the request. Regarding the educational sphere, requirements to be met by municipalities with less than 100,000 inhabitants to obtain the certification, as provided in the Decree 2700 of 2004, issued by the National Ministry of Education, are the following: (i) municipal Development Plan coherent with national policies, (ii) educational establishments organized to offer the complete basic education cycle, (iii) staff that meet national parameters, and (iv) Institutional capacity to assume processes and the information system of the education sector. Departments have to provide support to municipalities to perform their certification process. Source: ECLAC, 2005. 2.3.2. The regional/departmental nation and complementarity of municipal ac- level as a coordination and tions, intermediation between the nation and intermediation agency between municipalities, and the provision of services. the nation and the municipalities Decree 1188 of 2003, which defines proce- dures to coordinate administrative functions Departments are natural coordination between national and territorial levels, pro- units of the municipalities that make up their vides the following: (i) The Governor of each territory, and they have the concurrence and department should coordinate and articulate subsidiarity jurisdiction competencies within the development of national sectoral policies the scope of such territories, including those among different entities at the national level related to disaster risk management. Pursuant to provisions in the Constitution (Article 298) and laws16, departments impart administra- 16 The main norms that regulate organization and competencies of the de- partments are found in the Political Constitution (Articles 297 to 310), tion in sectoral matters, economic and social the Departmental Regime Code (Decree-Law 1222 of 1986), and Laws development planning and promotion, coordi- 617 of 2000 and 715 of 2001. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 107 in its territory, using planning and interinsti- Organization of the Departments and tutional coordination instruments (Article 1); their capacities and, (ii) Governors, in coordination with the corresponding Mayors will promote to the na- Like the municipalities, departments tion the management of projects initiated by have a basic administrative structure, which municipal initiative or interest, which have an varies in accordance with the categories pro- articulated regional or subregional impact on vided in Law 617 of 2000 (Table 2.3). The de- national sectoral policies within their territo- partmental administration is constituted by a ry, adjusted to the corresponding PD, without collegiate and deliberative body, which is the prejudice to the respective autonomy assigned Departmental Assembly, and by an execut- to each entity (Article 5). ing body, which is the Departmental Govern- Although the Law 715 of 2001 does not ment. Likewise, the Constitution foresees the specifically establish direct competencies in existence of a Departmental Comptroller’s the matter of disaster risk management for Office in charge of exercising tax surveillance departments, it does generally provide their in the management of both departmental competencies in thereof in other sectors. In and municipal goods and incomes for those this sense, they should be responsible for the departments with less than 100,000 inhabit- integration and articulation in the develop- ants. In addition, there are other offices such ment planning processes and the prospective, as Secretariats, public establishments, State corrective, and reactive interventions in fac- industrial and commercial companies, and ing risk disaster. They should also project and semipublic companies, in accordance to the reflect in the sphere of their territorial com- organizational structure as determined by the petence each one of the policies related to risk respective Assembly. As in the case of mu- management, and taking into account knowl- nicipalities, there is a defined classification by edge and information processes, risk reduc- the resident population in their jurisdiction tion, and disaster management. and by current incomes of free destination, Pursuant to Article 302 of the Constitu- which at the same time establishes limits for tion, the law may establish for one or several the functioning expenditure in departmental departments various capacities and competen- administration. Most of the country’s depart- cies for administrative and tax management ments (78%) correspond to categories 2, 3, different from those provided for them in and 4, which have functioning expenditure the Constitution, in order to comply with the caps of 60% and 70% of their current incomes. need to improve management or public ser- vice rendering, according to their population, economical and natural resources, and their social, cultural, and ecological circumstances. In developing the above, the law will be able to delegate to one or several departments at- tributions pertaining to national public orga- nizations or entities. 108 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 2.3. Departments by category and maximum participation of functioning expenditure in current incomes, 2011 Maximum % Departments Minimum salary Population of functioning Examples of some departments by category incomes (Col$) expenditure Special > 2,000,000 More than 600,000 50% Antioquia Between 700,001 and 1 Between 170,001 and 600,000 55% Atlántico, Boyaca 2,000,000 Between 390,001 and 2 Between 122,001 and 170,000 60% Cordoba, Norte de Santander 700,000 Between 100,001 and Cesar, Cauca, Huila, Tolima, San Andres 3 Between 60,001 and 122,000 70% 390,000 Archipelago, Casanare, Quindío, Choco Guaviare, Amazonas, Putumayo, Arauca, 4 = or <100,000 = or < 60,000 70% Caqueta Source: Authors’ Table from the information provided by DNP at: www.dnp.gov.co. Functions and responsibilities of Re- The capacity of action and coherence at the de- gional Committees for Disaster Prevention and partmental level in risk prevention, and reduction, Response (CREPAD) are defined from a very as well as in disaster management is conditioned centralist point of view. The functions of the by critical factors similar to those identified in the Departmental Governments and the CREPAD, municipal scenario (financial, judicial, adminis- according to Decree-Law 919 of 1989, are deter- trative and technical areas). The Regional Com- mined in function of the PNPAD, of the Com- mittees’ performances are specially focused on prehensive Information System, as a part of the response and reconstruction (with some excep- PNPAD in relation to disaster situations, and tions), and their relationships with other offices in the Specific Action Plans, formulated after a from departmental administrations are limited. disaster occurrence. It is necessary to improve Similar to the restrictions found at the legislation in this sense, so that a clear vision of municipal level, an imbalanced development in regional responsibilities is offered according to the CREPAD is also identified. In the planning risk situations in their territories and the mu- instruments framework, the principal gaps nicipalities’ needs. Additionally, there is also the identified in the regions are the low capacity need to apply complementarity, concurrence, of preparation and execution of Departmen- and subsidiarity principles, and to comply with tal Plans in Disaster Risk Management. Ad- the role that departmental governments have in ditionally, articulation is evaluated critically planning and promoting sustainable develop- in the higher and lower vertical levels (nation ment as indicated in the Constitution. and municipalities) and horizontal levels, that In general, departments have not been able is, in the same territorial sphere. In particu- to develop a policy and an organization for disas- lar, there is negligible cohesion with the CAR, ter risk management and show important restric- which is manifested in the lack of consistency tions in technical, human, and financial resources. between regional environmental management Disaster Risk in Public Administration 109 and development management, thus the sub- the office secretaries and depend directly on ject of disaster risk is also affected17. the governors in order to guarantee the artic- In spite of weaknesses in planning and ulation and coordination among the different organizing, there are departments that have responsible persons in the government’s agen- made interesting advances in instrument and cies, and to be able to convene agents who do strategy development that have contributed not belong to the departmental administra- to governance in risk management. The de- tion, for the purpose of working with them. partments, which have taken on their role Also, the Regional Committees should have with greater responsibility, have formulated technical support units or disaster risk man- Departmental Plans on Risk Management or agement offices, and these offices should have Disaster Prevention and Response. Similar to the resources and necessary capacity to pro- a navigational chart, said plans identify prior- vide indispensable technical supplies so that ity activities and those responsible for these the authorities (Governor and Government activities. Likewise, they have created execu- Council) may make the appropriate decisions. tive offices in charge of this subject and have Risk management then can be reconciled with actively integrated the CAR and other public the planning processes and territorial man- and private social agents. Departments such agement and assure the functioning of in- as Nariño, Caldas, Antioquia, Valle del Cauca struments such as departmental information and, Cundinamarca are some of those that systems, in such a way that knowledge, risk demonstrate greater strengths and capacities reduction, and disaster management work in these areas. comprehensively and transversely. The training of people in charge of this The recently approved Organic Law subject should be improved, and the Disas- of Land Use Planning offers alternatives to ter Prevention Offices should be recognized strengthen the territorial entities’ function in within the hierarchy in the departmental ad- risk management, especially in departments ministration, in order to get a more active par- where the common denominator is disturbing ticipation in Government Councils that depend poverty indicators and low levels of institution- directly on the Governor. An available budget al capacity. This situation is more prevalent in composed of a fixed percentage of the total in- the Amazonas, Guaviare, Guainia, Vaupes, and vestment is also necessary, which will permit Vichada, most of the municipalities in the Pa- long-term planning. For disaster risk man- cific Coast (Choco, Cauca, and Nariño), and agement to be articulated in the development most of the municipalities in the Caribbean re- processes, as it is outlined in draft law (Draft gion (La Guajira, Magdalena, Sucre, Cordoba, Law 158 of 2011 Senate, 050 House of Rep- with the exception of the departmental capi- resentatives), the Regional Committee will be the same Government Council where all the cabinet members participate, and may include decentralized entities, academia, aid agencies, and other social agents in accordance with the 17 It is worth highlighting the fact that the CAR are the only ones that are outlined priorities and necessities. Those in outside of the three levels of government established for public man- agement (nation, department, and municipalities). In many cases the charge of coordinating the subject inside the covered territory does not coincide with administrative limits and thus it administration should be at the same level of makes it difficult to have any consistency. 110 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies tals). The Land Use Planning Law (Law 1454 velopment; and the increase of productivity of 2011) had been proposed since the adoption and the modernization of municipal ad- of the Constitution of 1991. The Constitution ministration (Article 20). likewise recognizes as territorial entities de- • The regulation requires certain principles partments, districts, municipalities, and indig- for the nation and territorial entities to enous territories, and provides for the creation exercise their competencies, such as coor- of regions and provinces as territorial entities dination, concurrence, subsidiarity, and and the conformation of associative figures for complementarity (Article 26). development promotion. A preliminary analy- • A highly detailed identification of func- sis of the recent Law content indicates as posi- tions of the nation and territorial entities in tive for risk management the following: land use planning (Article 27) as well as a complete system for resolving jurisdiction- • Associative processes are authorized and al conflicts that may arise (Article 28 and promoted among territorial entities (Article those following). 9), which may refer to “policies and modes of regional and subregional management.” Such processes can connect the administra- 2.3.3. The nation as a policy and tive and planning regions, departmental as- strategic orientation promoter sociations, and metropolitan areas, special district associations, administrative and The existing institutionalism for risk planning provinces, and municipal associa- management at the national level, in spite of its tions (Article 10). It is important that the extensive background, implies a protectionist objectives of these associations encompass makeup, duplicating assigned functions and low the compliance of planning functions, as articulation levels with other territorial agen- well as endeavor a comprehensive develop- cies. The hierarchical and vertical approach, ment of their territories (Article 11). which has characterized the SNPAD, causes • This law promotes a larger transfer of func- the UNGRD and other entities at the national tions and competencies from the national level to be assumed as core components of the to the territorial level, thus eliminating System, leading to confusion between UNGRD duplication among the central and decen- and SNPAD, which reflects the poor recogni- tralized administration and territorial enti- tion of the strategic importance of the local and ties. Moreover, the law also promotes the regional levels. On the other hand, the national strengthening of the following: adminis- government is not acting as an articulating axis tration and planning; the departments as of the System, as there are limited processes an intermediate level of government; the of dialogue, coordination, and coherence be- municipalities as a fundamental entity of tween the national and territorial agencies (In- the political-administrative division of the geniar Ltda., 2011) in the development of risk State; the joint and articulated action of the knowledge, risk management and reduction, different government levels through alli- with the only exception being the management ances, associations, and delegation agree- of large disasters. ments; the design of the regional modalities The National Committee for Disaster Pre- of administration for special projects’ de- vention and Response, as the highest agency of Disaster Risk in Public Administration 111 the SNPAD, has only met when disaster situ- cane Surveillance, and equipment and experts for ations occur. This Committee is designed to controlling hydrocarbon and harmful substance comply with an orienting function (providing dumping. This makes the National Services rely directives and guidelines), a consultant role on better capacities and instruments so that they (providing advice on disaster declaration to the can comply with their functions. Executive Branch, its classification according The National Operative Committee is one to the national, departmental, or local level, and of the most active committees. However, the the return to normality), and the competence in emergency generated by the La Niña phenom- decision making (approving and recommend- enon in 2010-2011 made it evident that there ing the PNPAD adoption by decree, among oth- are no clear instruments or a role definition for ers). Nevertheless, it does not have the presence the different tasks related to national emergency of some strategic Ministries, such as Education, management. The National Operative Commit- Environment and Sustainable Development, tee consists of the Civil Defense Director, a Red and Housing, City and Territory nor has it fre- Cross Representative, a representative from the quently met, and in the few exceptions when Ministry of Social Welfare, and the Risk Man- it has, it has met for different subjects to those agement Director18. Unfortunately, the law does related with emergency management. not provide this Committee with the responsi- The National Technical Committee pro- bility of formulating plans, tasks, and role defi- vides consultancy and coordination, without nition, or the standardization of procedures or having specific functions established by law. The fundamental activities for effective emergency National Technical Committee can comply, by coordination. Among the National Commission expressed assignment, with some functions of Consultants of the National Operative Commit- the National Committee (except those referred tee are: (a) Search and Rescue, (b) Communica- to in the standards and guidelines for the for- tions, and (c) Hydrocarbons, its Derivatives, and mulation of the Plan and its approval, and the Harmful Substances. This last one has been the corresponding attributions of the National most active and has generated the only existing Committee in disaster situations). The institu- National Plan of Contingencies, through Decree tions, which comprise this Committee (or at 321 of 1999. Other Contingency Plans should least most of them), have functions specifically be formulated for different kinds of risks, under established in the Decree 919 of 1989, Articles unified and coordinated criteria. 63 and 64. Nonetheless, there is no explicit rela- The Consulting Commissions of Commit- tion between these tasks and the activity of the tees have worked erratically and they have even same Committee. ceased to function during long periods of time. The National Services have been the most The Consulting Commissions, initially con- active and empowered agencies in the last years. In stituted as work groups for specific and de- the latest Development Plans, there have always pendent issues, according to each case, of the been programs and projects aimed at fortifying National Technical Committee or the National monitoring and risk knowledge networks, such Operative Committee, have ceased to func- as the National Seismological Network, Volca- nological Observatories, Hydrometeorological 18 This also includes delegates from other national entities “with voice Warning Systems, Tsunami or Seismic Wave De- but without vote”, who are invited by DGR on account of the nature of tection Networks, Satellite Networks for Hurri- the disaster. 112 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies tion, weakening articulation among the differ- ration of a disaster situation”, a function also ent national entities. Commissions, such as the assigned to the National Operative Commit- Seismic and Volcanic Risk Commission, have tee, which generates dualities and disputes. met around 60 times since 1993, SGC being Ensuring the coherence of public poli- the entity that coordinates and is secretary of cies, planning, and articulation between risk the Commission. However, convening these management organizations requires an entity committees became intermittent and cyclical. with sufficient political authority and techni- Meetings were reported for 2003, 2004, 2008, cal capacity to influence strategic decisions and 2009, which had the specific aim of pro- related to national, territorial, and sectoral posing scenarios to update seismic hazard planning and investment. The emergency maps. Subsequent to this process, they have not management can no longer be a priority of the convened. On the other hand, the Commission UNGRD, because this weakens the SNPAD’s for Seismic-Resistant Construction has been functioning. Issues such as policy regulation, one of the most active and permanent commis- updating and monitoring the implementa- sions, while some other commissions were re- tion of the PNPAD, the programs and actions activated about three years ago in seeking their at sectoral, national, regional, and local level institutionalization, which they have accom- have not been consolidated, either. Neither plished in specific situations. Such is the case has the SNPAD organized or kept a Compre- of the Forest Fires Commission and the Water hensive Information System, which would and Education Commission, and the assump- provide knowledge and geographically locate tion on the part of some entities of national or- the existing risks in the country, as well as der of the coordination functions of the same. the corresponding vulnerability analysis. The The National Unit for Disaster Risk Man- UNGRD should be consolidated as the tech- agement is an entity with multiple functions nical agency of articulation, leadership, and and great responsibilities. According to De- control. Its direct responsibility should be ori- cree-Law 919 of 1989, its functions are closely enting and promoting interinstitutional work, linked to four instruments which invigorate and ensuring that different government enti- the SNPAD: the National Plan, the Compre- ties and agencies comply with their functions hensive Information System, the Disaster Sit- and responsibilities assigned in the current uation Declaration, and Specific Action Plans. legislation for such effect as stated by Decree In addition, it manages the National Technical 4147 of 2011, which created the UNGRD. The Committee and has other duties if a disaster is function of this new Unit, inside the Presi- declared. On the whole, its general duties are dency of the Republic, should be focused on preparing plans and policies that are submit- orientation, coordination, and surveillance, ted to other agencies, promoting and encour- so that departmental governments through aging the application of policies in certain their regional agencies take charge of effective fields, orienting and coordinating the activi- intermediation between municipalities, and ties of other entities at the national level, and the nation, and on the strengthening of their supporting the activities of territorial entities. capacities so that local governments can take In the case of a national disaster declaration, over in incorporating planning and perfor- the Unit has “to lead the coordination of all mance of actions aimed at risk management. the necessary activities in response to a decla- Disaster Risk in Public Administration 113 Under the comprehensive approach to risk No. 158 of 2011 Senate, 050 House of Represen- management, all entities have responsibilities and tatives. However, only entities such as the Min- powers in the various components of manage- istry of Social Protection and Invías have offices ment, although this is not reflected in the current responsible for this subject, although their role is regulations. As shown in the conceptual frame- more focused on emergency management. Many work, each entity has to be liable for the for- important entities, the DNP among them, do not mulation and adoption of policies and sectoral have within their structure adequate units or of- guidelines, norm design, and development. They ficials to take responsibility for this subject (Table have to ensure their implementation and perfor- 2.4). Due to the aforementioned, reviewing the mance, monitor and control their mission pro- State’s contracting processes and the regularization cesses with sustainability criteria, and guarantee of positions currently outlined by the Ministry of security in the infrastructure under their respon- Labor offer an opportunity for the functions being sibility. In current regulations, not all Ministries performed by contractors and responsibilities to and Administrative Departments are explicitly be clearly established within the different entities. mentioned, nor have they defined their compe- On the other hand, responsibilities pro- tencies and duties. A special emphasis is made on vided by Decree-Law 919 of 1989 to the differ- the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of National ent Ministries and decentralized organisms are Defense, the Ministry of Social Protection, the very limited. The Decree emphasizes activities in Ministry of Public Works and Transport (current emergency management, but it does not mention Ministry of Transport), the Ministry of National or incorporate institutions that have a compre- Education, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural hensive vision as required by risk management. Development, the Ministry of Communications The Decree highlights the responsibilities of (current Ministry of Technologies and Commu- the Armed Forces, the National Police, and the nication), and the National Department of Plan- Ministry of Social Protection, the Ministry of ning. There are many ministries whose duties are Public Works and Transportation, the Ministry not mentioned or specified.19 of Education, the Ministry of Communications, Ministries and decentralized organisms the DNP, the Regional Planning Councils, and mostly do not have a dependency or officials that decentralized entities such as the SGC, Ideam, have the duty of coordinating or articulating risk Civil Defense, IGAC, Inderena (functions as- management activities, thereby disregarding pro- sumed by the MADS), Telecom, and Invias. As visions in law and Development Plans. According it may be concluded, many of the have been re- to Decree 919 of 1989, Article 4, “Each Ministry, structured, liquidated, or merged, which makes Administrative Department, territorial and de- evident the need to update them beyond the centralized entities, or legal entities mentioned management of emergencies toward the wider in this regulation should appoint the depen- scope needed by risk management in its re- dency and/or person who is specifically given lationship to sustainable development with a these responsibilities in carrying out indispens- commitment by all entities and under the cur- able activities in order to ensure their prepara- rent vision of the Constitution. tion and execution in the Plan” (understood to mean PNPAD). The above has been reiterated in the Conpes Document 3146 and in the PND 19 Bill no.158 of 2011, 050 House of Representatives under discussion is 2006-2010, and is currently retaken in Draft Law seeking to correct these SNPAD difficulties. 114 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 2.4. Human resources by institution Institution Human resources DPAD 36 officials and 62 contractors DNP 1 official and 4 professional contractors Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 1 professional in the Rural Development Directorate Ministry of Social Protection Office for emergency management. No information on the number of persons working there Ministry of Environment, Housing, and Territorial 8 professional contractors in the Territorial Development Directorate Development Ministry of National Education 1 professional under the coordination of the Environmental Education Program Ministry of Communications No information Ministry of Finance and Public Credit Contingent Liabilities Division, Risks Subdirectorate Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1 official in the International Cooperation Directorate Ministry of Transport No staff for this purpose Invias Office for the management of emergencies. No information on the number of persons working there Dimar No information Ideam 112 professionals and 216 technicians Ingeominas 38 professionals from the Geological Hazards Subdirectorate and Surrounding Environment IGAC No information Colciencias 1 professional Coordinator for the National Program of Environment and Habitat Sciences Colombian Civil Defense No information Colombian Red Cross 93 persons including coordinators, instructors, and facilitators National Fire Department System No information Sena No assigned staff Telecom No information Social Action Subdirectorate of Official Aid to Development Source: Adapted from Vásquez, 2006. The Ministry of Environment and Sus- ard warnings. As far as risk reduction, Law 99 tainable Development (MADS) is one of the few of 1993 provides that Ministry of the Environ- entities that have specific duties in risk manage- ment has to “Promote, in coordination with the ment, and because it is the entity with the great- Ministry of Interior, environmental programs est connection to this subject, it would have even and projects in disaster prevention so that these greater intervention in risk reduction. The Law are in coherence with the activities of the En- 99 of 1993, Article 5 assigns the former Ministry vironmental National System and those of the of Environment the function of carrying out, in National System in Disaster Prevention and Re- coordination with other authorities, monitor- sponse” (Article 5, numeral 41). The develop- ing and controlling risk factors. In complying ment of this function, on the contrary, has been with these functions, the Ministry is in charge quite limited, so there is an opportunity for a of prevention and preparedness actions in wild- true articulation between both systems. fire management in cooperation with Ideam. It One of SNPAD’s main weaknesses is that monitors and issues hydrometeorological haz- the Executive Branch has the ability to put aside Disaster Risk in Public Administration 115 the SNPAD’s structure, responsibilities, and pos- which should be reserved for extreme situations, sibilities, and to rely on a mechanism of emer- in which the society’s stability, its institutions, gency declaration due to severe public calamity, or national independence and sovereignty are as provided by Article 215 of the Constitution. endangered; (iii) it opens the door to “tailored” Such possibility, performed in several ad hoc so- solutions, which only serve to solve the current lutions, implies the following: (i) it undermines disaster and prevent the consolidation of a stable the authority of the SNPAD in the population, system for risk management and a response to in Public Administration and its different com- an abnormal situation as described in Table 2.5. ponents; (ii) it employs exceptional measures, Municipality of Medellin (Antioquia, Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. 116 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 2.5. Summary of the main reconstruction processes in Colombia, 1990-2011 Criterion Description Event: Tierradentro earthquake/avalanche (June 1994)1 The creation of a new public organization to handle governmental and social solutions facing a disaster - Nasa Kiwe corporation – under the declaration of “ecological emergency”. One of the State’s response main features of the process was the minor participation of the private sector and not using international funding in the reconstruction process (although a development program was later started in the area with funds from the EU and Colombian counterparts). A new tax stimulus law was issued. The Nasa Kiwe corporation, was in charge of the reconstruction of destroyed houses and roads, as well as new settlements in the relocation areas, education and health areas, promotion of Scope productive projects and environmental recovery. The corporation enabled the affected communities to have one interlocutor in the government. Its organizational structure was based on a Board of Directors, made up of representatives from Organization the Presidency of the Republic, governors from Cauca, Huila, representatives from the Cauca’s Regional Indigenous Council (CRIC), representatives of the surrounding community areas like Tierradentro, representatives from nonindigenous communities and personalities from the area (religious and business sectors, NGOs, academia and social process managers). The following entities participated on the reconstruction process: Nasa Kiwe Corporation, Invías, Caminos Vecinales, Rural Development Fund (DRI), Inurbe, Caja Agraria, Antioquia Presente, Entities Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Health, Findeter, Colombian Development Foundation Services (FIS), National Rehabilitation Plan (PNR), Telecom, Cabildos Indigenas, municipalities, NGOs, Belalcazar Hospital , Plante, Incora, Cristian Children, Secretary of Agriculture, Spanish Embassy, Cauca Government, Fonade, EPSA Community, Cxhab Wal Program. Damage costs US$ 150,152,358 (0.184% GDP, 1994 ) (US$1.00 = Col$827) There are no specific count values earmarked for disaster prevention but, according to DGPAD data for 1994, the Calamity Fund provided Col$5.4 billion to respond to emergencies that occurred in this year. Most of the resources were applied to disaster relief while the corporation was taking shape. About Col$2 billion were invested in construction of temporary accommodations to Emergency and rehabilitation costs help those affected and those who were constantly provided with food and household goods. In addition, there is no data as to the real costs of the hundreds of helicopter flights executed, which were not calculated. Reconstruction/replacement US$ 129,621,444 (0.159% of GDP, 1994) (US$1.00 = Col$827) Triggering event: 15 seconds /Aftershocks: 4 days Damage evaluation: 4 days/ Research: 10 months Time Founding of the organization: 17 days Response: 14 days Reconstruction: 11 years Social recovery program in education Main activities Environmental recovery program Economic recovery program: productive projects, institutional standardization, and strengthening Physical reconstruction: road infrastructure, vital lines, housing, equipment, and public works (health and sanitation) Disaster Risk in Public Administration 117 118 Table 2.5. Summary of the main reconstruction processes in Colombia, 1990-2011 (continued) Criterion Description Event: Coffee Growing region earthquake (January 1999)2 The government created the Fund for Reconstruction and Social Development for the Coffee Growing Region (FOREC), a special public entity encompassing legal capacity and budgetary State’s response autonomy to finance and carry out economic, social, environmental, reconstruction and, rehabilitation activities in the affected area. The fund was partially financed with resources from Loan Contracts granted by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). The FOREC was responsible for helping the community with demolitions and the removal of debris, providing temporary shelter, repairing educational establishments, supporting land use and Scope reconstruction plans, as well as repairing, reconstructing, and relocating houses, and buildings, doing research, designing and reconstruction of physical infrastructure and public services, and the beginning of economical, ecological and social recovery in the Coffee Growing Region. An administrative structure in FOREC was not created, but it was authorized to contract all the reconstruction works with nongovernmental organizations and to provide response to the affected communities. Its model is Neoliberal with the purpose of reducing the State’s size and distributing its functions to the private sector. FOREC divided the region in zones based into the damage level, their extension and location. In order to progress in reconstruction plans in each zone, the most representative NGOs in the country were convened, through the National Confederation of Nongovernmental organizations. Some 31 management zones were established. Each NGO had under its responsibility the preparation and subsequent implementation of a plan of action (PAZ). Those plans included the physical infrastructure and the social and economic reconstruction of the zone. The reconstruction process actions were divided in four stages: (i) emergency response; (ii) Organization consolidation and planning; (iii) reconstruction; and (iv) dismantling and liquidation. FOREC contracted a University Network composed by the CIDER, the University of the Andes, the University of Quindío, and the Technological University of Pereira to carry out a permanent monitoring of the reconstruction process. The Board of Directors was composed by a governor appointed by the president, who would represent all the governors from the five affected departments (Risaralda’s governor) , a mayor who would represent all the mayors from 28 affected municipalities (Armenia’s mayor), representatives of the national government and, personalities from the sector. The President of the National Industry Association (ANDI) was appointed as the president of the institution. Neither the representatives from the social organizations of the region, nor those from the affected communities participated on the Board. According to the management zones, the main entities that participated in the reconstruction process were: Cajamarca (Fedevivienda); Roncesvalles (Tolima Architects Society); Chinchina (Caldas Development Association); Pereira (Life and Future); Dosquebradas (Dosquebradas Chamber of Commerce); Santa Rosa (Santa Rosa Chamber of Commerce, Santa Rosa Bolivarian Society); Marsella (Coffee Farmers Cooperative, Risaralda Development Foundation, Famiempresa ); Armenia ( Restrepo Barco Foundation, Universidad de Antioquia, Conconcreto, Codesarrollo, ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Entities ACODAL, Comfama, FES, Cenaprov, Armenia Chamber of Commerce, Carvajal Foundation, Solidary for Colombia, Minuto de Dios Foundation , National University, Fedevivienda, Fundecomercio); Valle municipalities (Valle Solidarity Foundation); Salen and Circacia (Fundaempresa); Finlandia and Quinbaya (Junior Chamber); Pijao (Manizales Chamber of Commerce); Cordoba, Buenavista, and Genova (Cetec, AVP); Calarca (Fenavip); Barcelona (Coffee Farmers Cooperative); La Tebaida (Antioquia Present); Montenegro (Compartir, Governor of Cundinamarca); coffee and noncoffee rural area (Colombian Coffee Growers Federation). Damage costs US$1.5 billion (1.837% of 1999 GDP) (US$1.00 = Col$1,757) Emergency and rehabilitation costs US$45 million (0.0053% of 1999 GDP) (US$1.00 = Col$1,757) Reconstruction/ replacement US$ 1 Billion (1.215% of 1999 GDP) (US$1.00 = Col$1,757) Triggering event: 20 seconds /Aftershocks: 30 days Damage evaluation: 2 years Time Beginning of the organization: 5 days Response: No information Reconstruction: 3 years Table 2.5. Summary of the main reconstruction processes in Colombia, 1990-2011 (continued) Criterion Description Event: Coffee Growing region earthquake (January 1999) 2 Housing support. Recovery, reconstruction and, housing relocation Repair and reconstruction of social infrastructure. Health, education, community child care centers, nursing homes, recreation, culture and sport sectors. Repair and reconstruction of public infrastructure. Infrastructure works of government’s buildings, urban equipment, public utilities, air and road transport. Strengthening of institutional prevention and disaster management capacity. Classifying information, vulnerability analysis research, equipment and land use planning (POT) research. Reconstruction of the social order. Social Assistance and intervention in the population’s emotional recovery. Main activities Economic reactivation and job creation. It financed innovation projects and productive chains. Environment. Environmental plan for the Coffee Growing region’s reconstruction (sustainable use of reconstruction materials and environmental feasibility for sectoral projects) Rural area reconstruction Temporary response to the affected population Reconstruction project management. Event: Rainy Emergency. La Niña phenomenon 2010-2011 3 The National Government guided “Humanitarian Colombia” to administer response and rehabilitation stages associated to La Niña phenomenon 2010-2011 as a subaccount of the National Calamity Fund. Additionally, the Adjustment Fund is created to leverage financial and technical resources to construct and reconstruct affected zones, and mitigate and prevent risk at State’s response national, departmental and municipal level (“economic, social and ,environmental hazards”) coming from phenomena similar to La Niña, and the economic recovery of farming, livestock and, fisheries sectors. The purpose of the Adjustment Fund is to identify structuring and project management, the execution of contracts, the allocation and transfer of resources with the aim of recuperating, constructing, and reconstructing the infrastructure in transportation, telecommunications, environment, agriculture, public utilities, housing, education, health, water systems and sewage, Scope wetlands, strategic flood areas, building and reconstruction. Moreover, said Fund deals with the economic rehabilitation of the agricultural, livestock, and fisheries sectors affected by the rainy season, and any action resulting from the La Niña phenomenon as well as preventing the permanence of its effects, mitigating and preventing risks and protecting the population from the economic, social, and environmental threats. The Fund is under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit. It has legal, financial and budgetary autonomy. This fund has the following organizational structure: (i) The Board of Directors responsible for its administration and management. It is composed of representatives from the Presidency of the Republic, the Ministry of the Interior and Justice, the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit, from the project’s consideration area, the Administrative Department of the President of the Republic, the National Planning Department (DNP), and five members from the private sector. (ii) The Fund Management exercises its legal representation and is in charge of executing and monitoring plans and projects approved by the Board of Directors, entering of the contracts and, monitoring the appropriate execution of resources. Organization (iii) The sectoral committees in charge of providing consultancy in specific topics where more knowledge is required (private sector, civil society, NGO or multilateral agencies). The fund will obtain resources from items allocated by the national budget, credits managed internally or externally, donations, national or international cooperation, the National Calamity Fund, as well as from resources made available by the transfer of 10% of Ecopetrol’s shares that are provided by the National Government (pending approval by Congress). The resources coming from the State should be allocated through the national budget and the corresponding implications should be undertaken. The fund shall transfer resources to public entities at the national and territorial level and to private entities, so that resources can be managed and invested in the recovery, construction, and reconstruction stages of the areas affected by “the La Niña Niña” phenomenon. The National Government may use the Fund’s resources to conclude agreements with foreign governments, whose main purpose is related to recovery, construction and reconstruction activities required for the definitive surmounting of La Niña phenomenon. Territorial cooperation schemes are allowed; for example, territorial entities can contribute resources through cofunding schemes for the project’s development that are identified, structured, and administered by the Fund. Disaster Risk Management Unit, Humanitarian Colombia, Ministry of Housing, City and Territory, Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, Departmental Water Plan, Findeter, Invías, Entities Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Social Protection, BanColdex, ICBF. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 119 120 Table 2.5. Summary of the main reconstruction processes in Colombia, 1990-2011 (continued) Criterion Description Event: Rainy Season Emergency. La Niña Phenomenon 2010-2011 3 (continued) Damage costs Assistance and rehabilitation costs: US$ 3.2 billion (US$1.00 = Col$1,936.29) Emergency and rehabilitation costs Resources intended for assistance and rehabilitation: US$ 3,491,735.53 (US$1.00 = Col$1,936.29) Reconstruction costs : US$ 5 billion (US$1.00 = Col$1,936.29) Reconstruction/replacement Resources intended for reconstruction and adaptation: US$39,938,016.50 (US$1.00 = Col$1,936.29) Emergency: 4 months after the event Time Rehabilitation: 2 years Reconstruction and adaptation: from 4 to 6 years The general guidelines for disaster’s situation management, comprise ten lines of action: (1) humanitarian assistance to the affected families such as feeding and bedroom items, cleaning and kitchen items for the duration of the emergency and an additional time necessary for the recovery process; (2) administration and management of shelters and/or temporary lease arrangements for the evacuated families; (3) drinking water and basic sanitation; (4) comprehensive health, control, and epidemiological surveillance; (5) repossession of houses (broken and destroyed); (6) incentives for the agricultural sector; (7) economic and social reactivation of the area according to the guidelines established by the PND; (8) land use regulation; (9) early warnings; (10) emergency Main activities works (embankment reinforcement, control works) and mitigation and prevention works. The risks to be covered are those produced by the La Niña phenomenon. The types of activities or projects related to the Fund are: infrastructure construction and reconstruction in the following areas: transportation, telecommunications, environment, agriculture, ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies utilities, housing, education, health, aqueducts and sewerage, and strategic flood areas; the economic rehabilitation of the farming, livestock and fisheries sectors affected by the rainy season. insurance contracting. Sources: (1) Cardona, et ál., 2005. (2) Cardona, et ál., 2005; FOREC. Operative Regulation, 1999. (3) Adaptation Fund, 2011. Developing key strategy, structure and processes; Comprehensive and specific action plan for emergency management produced by The La Niña Phenomenon 2010–2011; Decree 4819 of 2010. 2.4. RISK management planning Since the adoption of Law 46 of 1988 and De- In spite of the existence of normative and cree 919 of 1989, which created and organized planning instruments, it has not been possible the SNPAD, the National Government has been to consolidate a real disaster risk management adopting measures to guarantee appropriate policy comprehensively implemented and articu- and efficient risk management. Nevertheless, lated with the public administration. Several en- many of these measures have not been inte- tities thought that the Conpes document 3146 grated or articulated, resulting in their dif- would generate an additional resource alloca- ficult implementation at different territorial tion in the national budget and bigger efforts levels and in the possible minor impact they in risk management commitment compliance. may have in the reduction of risk. Ten years Nevertheless, according to an evaluation made after the creation of the SNPAD, the PNPAD by the DNP (2009)20, the implementation effi- was formulated, a document constituted as a ciency is around 77% where results have been SNPAD policy instrument which establishes achieved above the execution parameters and as an objective the elimination and reduction the SNPAD strengthening strategy only attains of casualties and the effects that can result as 8% efficiency. So Conpes achieved only 29% effi- a consequence of existing risks and disasters. ciency, SNPAD strengthening strategies and the The Plan strategies are based on risk knowl- socialization of risk prevention and mitigation edge, prevention and mitigation planning, being the two most inefficient areas (4% and institutional strengthening of the SNPAD, 5% respectively). Therefore, it has been a policy and the socialization of risk prevention and framework applied incompletely, assorted and mitigation, which are developed by defining disarticulated with other planning and invest- programs, lines of action, and appointing re- ment instruments. sponsible agents. In order to strengthen the Plan’s impact and promote its implementation, Conpes docu- ment 3146 was formulated as a PNPAD comple- mentary instrument. This document defines and gives priority to some activities and establishes 20 An evaluation was made of the results for the strategies raised in terms and resources. This document provides Conpes document 3146, which evaluates the progress made between 2002 and 2009, when indicators were developed to compare the ini- a better hierarchy and relationship among the tial situation with the final situation: Indicator of effectiveness (E). It programs (action lines) with defined strategies, evaluates policy during the period 2002-2009, comparing the planned activities of Conpes 3146 with carried out activities. If E=100%, execu- as shown in the following table, making a clear tion of the strategy was efficient; if E>50%, implementing the strat- differentiation between the competencies at the egy was highly efficient, if E<50%, implementation was not efficient. Indicator of efficiency (IE). It evaluates the efficiency during the period national and territorial level and the responsibil- 2002-2004, comparing activities programmed by Conpes 3146 with ities of different sector competencies. Addition- activities carried out at the scheduled time. If IE=100%, implementa- tion of the strategy was efficient; if E>50%, implementation of the ally, it defines time and cost estimations of some strategy was highly efficient; if E<29%, the strategy implementation priority projects. was not efficient. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 121 Table 2.6. Comparative matrix between PNPAD and Conpes 3146 PNPAD programs Strategies Conpes 3146 action lines • Consolidating networks, procedures, and detection and alert • Progress in knowledge Knowledge of nature- or systems for surveillance and early warning to the population • Development of an integrated information system man-induced risks • Risk assessment • Consolidation of monitoring and alert networks • Risk management inclusion in territorial planning processes: • Incorporation of preventive and safety criteria in technical support and orientation in formulation and development plans Prevention and mitigation development of the POT, PD, and PLEC • Managing and providing help to human settlements and of risk in the planning • Risk management inclusion in sectoral planning processes: infrastructure located in risk areas process support and monitoring in all health sectors, safe drinking • Organization of environmental policy and disaster water and basic sanitation, environment, agrarian prevention development, industrial safety, and dangerous products • Strengthening National SNPAD institutions • Improvement of regional and local committees in disaster prevention and response • Optimization of operational entities; protective and contingency • Interinstitutional coordination and articulation Strengthening National measures in infrastructure works; development and updating of • Institutional and SNPAD improvement at national, regional, SNPAD institutions Emergency and Contingency Plans and local levels • Efficient mechanism design and preferential treatment of reconstruction projects • Integrated information systems • Public information for opportune community prevention and appropriate reaction in a disaster situation • Incorporating disaster prevention and environmental protection Socialization of risk and • Preparation and training of civil servants and communities concepts in the formal education system disaster prevention and • Communicating information for decision making • Developing a national training system for civil servants and mitigation • Citizen awareness community trainers • Implementing activities with civil society organizations Source: DNP, 2009. It is known that the explicit incorporation description of the activities and the challenges of disaster risk management in the most recent is very clear and coherent with the needs, the National Development Plans is an important ar- definition of goals and the established indica- gument that provides political support and rele- tors for each one of these fields does not reflect vancy to this subject. However, the main goals are the proposals and it allows a partial coverage of still weak and they do not reflect the established the exposed proposals in the descriptive compo- objectives in the descriptive documents. Since nent of the document. For example, in the last the formulation of the PNPAD, the subject has Development Plan, although the proposed goals been incorporated in the last four government are very broad, the only objectives incorporated terms in development plans, emphasizing risk in the Plan and in the Sigob are the number of knowledge, the strengthening of SNPAD, reduc- municipalities supported in incorporating risk tion of fiscal vulnerability, and risk transfer. For management in the POT and the percentage of each of these fields, there is a description about victims that have received support from the Na- the commitments acquired during the last four tional Calamity Fund (Table 2.7). terms of government. However, although the 122 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 2.7. Matrix of commitments and responsibilities for disaster risk management according to the regulations and planning spheres PND PND PND PND PNPAD “CHANGE TO CONSTRUCT PEACE “ “TOWARD A COMMUNITY STATE” “COMMUNITY STATE: DEVELOPMENT FOR ALL” “PROSPERITY FOR ALL” DECREE 93/98 1998-2002 2002-2006 2006-2010 2010-2014 Progress in risk knowledge, hazard and vulnerability analysis, risk evaluation and monitoring extending and updating monitoring and warning systems (seismic, volcanic and Consolidation of phenomenon Improvement in risk investigation Strengthening risk assessment hydrometeorological) monitoring networks Updating the Comprehensive Information System Design and implementation of the Preparation of three national maps indicating scenarios of Communication systems for CLOPAD Implementing the National Education and Training Plan comprehensive information system susceptibility to hazards (flooding, landslides and fires), on and CREPAD in the GRD, and its incorporating in formal and informal Risk Expansion and updating of monitoring and a scale of 1:500,000; updating national seismic hazard maps Formal and non-formal education and creating a new map indicating volcanic hazards education to a civil servant training system knowledge warning systems programs Extending monitoring and warning systems and updating Integration of territorial entities to the Comprehensive Information campaigns Information System local and regional maps Invias progress in the comprehensive risk management Designing and implementing methodology instruments system of the Colombian transportation network for zoning and evaluating hazards, vulnerability, and risks Incorporation of the GRD in education Strengthening of basic research according to territorial needs Sectoral planning of disaster risk Planning and land use, promotion Promotion of territorial and sectoral GRD construction of capacities and plan formulation and of hazard identification and risk planning Advancing in prevention and mitigation measures: municipal emergency plans evaluation Risk reduction of tsunamis, flooding, and incorporation of the GRD in the POT, Environmental GRD incorporation in the POT, Environmental Control over occupation in high-risk seismic activity Management Plans and the POMCA; formulation of Management Plans, and the POMCA zones precarious settlement management policies for high-risk Population resettlement in risk zones: Designing criteria to incorporate the GRD in formulating Risk zones; formulation of risk management measures in the Formulation of resettlement policies relocation subsidies and structural public investment projects municipalities; proposal to incorporate risk management reduction Economic incentives to promote reinforcement; reinforcement of of vital Adoption and implementation of the National Risk in the PD. This will be strengthened by the SNPAD regional buildings that abide by Colombian structures such as hospitals, according to Management Plan for Tsunami and the Action Plan for the institutions in defining responsibilities, competencies, and seismic-resistant and construction Law 400 of 1997 and Law 715 of 2001 Cerro Machin Volcano possible identification of resources to guarantee the needed standards Preventing occupation and use of technical formation that facilitates the incorporation of risk Implementation of risk management policies for the Galeras Improvement of precarious unplanned areas knowledge in planning and land use and Nevado del Huila volcanoes settlements and resettlement areas Promoting a long-term solution to confront the effects of the La Niña phenomenon Disaster Risk in Public Administration 123 124 Table 2.7. Matrix of commitments and responsibilities for disaster risk management according to the regulations and planning spheres (continued) PND PND PND PND PNPAD “CHANGE TO CONSTRUCT PEACE “ “TOWARD A COMMUNITY STATE” “COMMUNITY STATE: DEVELOPMENT FOR ALL” “PROSPERITY FOR ALL” DECREE 93/98 1998-2002 2002-2006 2006-2010 2010-2014 Strengthening of SNPAD governance: the SNPAD and DPAD will be institutionally and legally stronger so that they can carry out their functions independently, promptly and, efficiently; priority in assigning projects aimed at preventing flooding in the Low Strengthening of policies: GRD National policy, minor and Institutional strengthening of the Magdalena and in La Mojana region medium-intensity disaster management, high-risk zone Institutional development CLOPAD, the CREPAD and emergency management policies, reconstruction mechanisms Endorse national entities to institutionalize the subject in their organizations organizations and allocate the resources that guarantee their sustainability and the fulfillment of the mission SNPAD integration with other systems such as SINA, SNC&T, the educational systems and, the DNP Socializing the community Improvement of providing information and its disclosure; Education programs in risk risk prevention, training risk institutionalization of public information strategies on prevention oriented at communities awareness confronting hazards Note: Financial protection Increase financial capacity when disasters occur as well as in was not included in the Risk financial strategies Formulation of financial protection policies financing their prevention PNPAD Source: Authors’ table, 2011. ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The actions proposed in the different de- Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction, pro- velopment plans are coherent with the interna- poses as a first strategic objective “a more tional policies and the commitments assumed effective integration of disaster risk consider- by Colombia in the United Nations. The Hyo- ations in policies, plans, and sustainable en- go Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: vironmental programs at all levels” especially Building the Resilience of Nations and Commu- emphasizing disaster prevention, mitigation, nities to Disasters, signed by 168 states includ- preparedness, and vulnerability reduction. ing Colombia, as a global reference document Presented below are the relationships between to be implemented by the countries, regions, the main components of action lines in func- the organizations of the United Nations, and tion of the HFA and the PNPAD (Table 2.8). civil society, and accepted at the Worldwide Table 2.8. Main components of action lines or HFA subject areas HFA lines of action Main components PNPAD • Policies and plans • Legal and regulatory frameworks Strengthening institutional capacities at all levels • Sources and capacities so that achieving disaster risk reduction becomes a national and Andean subregional priority • Integration or articulation with the development processes • Institutional development • Institutional mechanisms, capacities, and structures • Political commitment • Accountability and management indicators • Hazard and risk data analysis • Vulnerability and possible impact information and Promoting research, and awareness in order to indicators identify, monitor and evaluate disaster risk in • Risk knowledge • Early warning systems order to improve early warning systems • Scientific and technical innovation • Information and disclosure management Promoting education, communication, and • Education and training • Inform the community about the participation to construct a culture of safety and • Public awareness conditions related to risk prevention, resilience at all levels • Learning and investigation risk training, and risk awareness • Planning processes and territorial land use • Structural and technical measures • Natural and environmental resource management, adaption to climate change Reduction of underlying risk factors • Risk reduction • Sustainable production • Social protection • Financing instruments • Instruments financiers • Emergency organization and coordination Strengthening joint preparation, response, and • Plan emergency preparations and their management • Institutional development relief mechanisms at all levels in case of a disaster • Emergency respond mechanisms • Participation and volunteering Source: Translated and adapted by Benson and Twigg, 2007. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 125 2.5. FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS AND INVESTMENT in RISK MANAGEMENT 2.5.1. Instruments and financial entities should include in their budget special resources allocations for disaster prevention and relief. In addition to the resources in each national The National Calamity Fund (FNC), being entity, as established in the National Budget, a principal SNPAD financial tool, has focused according to Article 66 of Law Decree 919 of mainly on providing resources for disaster 1989, funds could be placed in a trusteeship management activities and it lacks strategies in the National Calamity Fund for disaster for promoting projects in risk reduction and prevention and relief and for rehabilitation, strengthening capacities. For many years, this reconstruction, or development with prior Fund was the nation’s special account, endowed, authorization from the DGR. with patrimonial, administrative, countable The territorial entities have basically and statistical independence. Its main goal was three types of income: ordinary, capital re- to provide social assistance. It was created with sources, and transfers, where there are resourc- the objective of providing economic support es that could be used for risk management. for disaster prevention and relief and to pro- Ordinary incomes are the resources on which vide environmental sanitation in the affected municipal and government bodies depend community as well as to finance the installation for daily administration and investment op- of information systems and equipment. Subse- erations. These can be taxed or untaxed. In quently, it became an account assigned to the the untaxed resources, there are the shares in Ministry of Interior and Justice, which changed royalties and the compensations for the ex- part of its characteristics. This transformation ploitation of nonrenewable resources, which was made to cover DGR operating costs, since according to the new royalty law, signed on its budget in the Ministry is very unstable. Ad- July 18, 2011, should be used by mayors and ditionally, it has covered mostly humanitarian governors to implement projects that benefit aid expenses and emergency relief with 69%, their communities. The capital resources are and only 31% of its resources have been al- composed of internal, external, or suppliers’ located to prevention and mitigation (OSSO credits, for the sale of assets, capital shares, Corporation, 2009b). The FNC does not count and a positive balance result. The debts can- on standardized procedures for the presenta- not exceed the payment capacity of the ter- tion, assessment, and monitoring of projects ritorial entities, as it is established in the and its financial strategy is not a part of a fi- Constitution and the Territorial Indebtedness nancial transfer and risk withholding tactic. Law (Law 358 of 1997). As far as transfers, Law Decree 919 of 1989 establishes that these are the resources that the municipali- all central administration organizations and ties receive from the national budget as fiscal dependencies and all national decentralized appropriation, the participation of the nation’s 126 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies current revenue, the national joint financing 2.5.2. Analysis of investments at system, etc. The subject of disaster prevention the different territorial levels and relief is covered in the general purpose resources that make up 11.1% of the General In order to study national, regional, and Participation System (Conpes 137 of 2001). local investments in risk management, the Its objective is to create adequate urban and analysis begins with the five HFA priority ar- rural areas in high-risk areas, resettlement of eas: governance, knowledge and information, populations, and disaster prevention and re- education and communication, risk reduction lief. The National Cofinancing System man- and, disaster management. From the informa- ages additional complementary resources. It is tion on investments, provided by the DNP conditioned to the formulation of projects and Subdirectorate of Sustainable Environmental the availability of compensatory money by the Development, which was reclassified accord- territorial entities, and backed up with non- ing to HFA priority areas for this publication, refundable resources for local and regional it is evident that upon comparing national, construction projects that are in line with na- departmental, and municipal investment in tional development policies. The main funds risk management there is a predominance are: Cofinancing Fund for Urban Infrastruc- of the national expense in disasters of great ture, Territorial Development Finance Agency magnitude, such as the ones that occurred (Findeter), and National Environmental Fund in 1999 and 2010, and an expenditure de- (FONAM) (Ghul, et ál., 1998). crease in the absence of disaster events. For The competent organizations of the ter- the period 2002-2008, the years where there ritorial entities can establish fiduciary admin- is information on municipal expenses in risk istration systems for the management of their management, the municipalities’ accumulated resources or their decentralized entities intended investment is greater than that at the nation- for disaster. and calamity prevention and relief. al and departmental level. Even though the The municipal and government bodies have analysis period is short, apparently when the not used this option due to the scarce avail- nation’s expense rises due to great disasters, ability of resources in small municipalities. municipal-level expenditure is discouraged There are just a few exceptions in the use of (Graph 2.1). this alternative. The most prominent example is the Bogota Fund for Emergency Response (FOPAE), which assigns the “five per thousand” of the current income of the District for risk management activities. This subject matter has not been regulated in other regions. Alterna- tives should be proposed to formulate fiscal re- strictions compatible with the compliance with the obligations established in the law and open 21 For 2011, according to Decree 017 of 2001, the distribution was as fol- possibilities to use sources such as the Royalty lows: education 58.5%, health 25%, drinking water and basic sanitation Fund to generate new perspectives. 5.4%, and general purpose 11.1%. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 127 GRAPH 2.1. Comparison of the total national, departmental, and municipal investment in risk management, 1998-2010 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 2010 COP$ million 1,000,000 National DRM expenditure Departmental DRM expenditure 800,000 Municipal DRM expenditure 600,000 400,000 200,000 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Authors’ graph from information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. Observing the resources allocated for each HFA priority area by government levels, it can be “Conceptual progress on said that there exist basic differences in invest- ment in risk management as executed by the na- the relation between risk tion and the municipalities. While the nation has management and development concentrated its resources on disaster manage- has not been able to be ment and risk knowledge, being the principal financial entity in these activities, the munici- incorporated in State policies, palities have done so in risk reduction. Whereas nor have they been integrated at the national level, investments in governance and education have relatively low values, it is the as an essential part of public municipalities that make the greater effort in administration, thus contributing this area. In any case, departments show consid- erably lower investments (Graph 2.2). to an increase in risk” 128 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 2.2. Investment in risk management for each priority area by governmental level Governance Knowledge and information 12,000 30,000 10,000 25,000 8,000 20,000 Col$(2010) million Col$(2010) million 6,000 15,000 4,000 10,000 2,000 5,000 0 0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Municipal governance Municipal knowledge/information National governance Departmental knowledge/information Departmental governance National knowledge/information Education Risk reduction 12,000 700,000 10,000 600,000 500,000 8,000 Col$(2010) million Col$(2010) million 400,000 6,000 300,000 4,000 200,000 2,000 100,000 0 0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Municipal education Municipal risk reduction Departmental education National risk reduction National education Departmental risk reduction Disaster management 1,400,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 Col$(2010) million 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Municipal disaster management Departmental disaster management National disaster management Source: Authors’ graph from information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 129 The difference in risk management budgets among the government levels is in part explained Table 2.9. Survey data sheet for self-evaluation of the risk by the availability of resources that the territo- management progress rial entities have in comparison to the nation. Total surveys 225 surveys In general, municipalities present a relatively National entities: 17 surveys high expense in risk management, whereas it is CAR: 23 surveys much lower in the departments. This is mainly Departments: 12 surveys Surveys according to because risk management responsibility is fo- population objective Municipalities in special category and category 1: 14 surveys cused locally, where the municipalities in the Municipalities from categories 2 to 6: special category and in category 1 execute im- 159 surveys portant amounts, so that in cumulative terms 5 sections Instrument design these represent large investments in compari- 15 indicators son to the departments. Moreover, both for the Collection method Virtual (through Survey Monkey*) departments, and for the municipalities, oper- From April 30, 2011, to June Date 20, 2011 ating expenses are relatively high compared to *Survey Monkey is an online software tool that allows users to create total expenditures, which leaves few resources surveys and questionnaires. for disaster risk management22. In the appen- dixes, an analysis is presented in detail of the investments and progress made by national en- It can be concluded that there is a certain tities under the Nation’s General Budget (period correspondence between investment expen- 1998-2010), and data is given of the investments ditures made in risk management at different annually made and reported by territorial enti- government levels and their perception of the ties, at departmental (period 2004-2008) and actions implemented in disaster risk reduc- municipal level (period 2002-2008). tion. The results obtained from the investment A reflection on the perception of actions ex- analysis coincide and verify certain tendencies ecuted taking as a reference the priority lines from that are extracted from the observations of of- the Hyogo Framework for Action is also shown in ficials from different government entities and detail in the appendixes. To accomplish this, self- evaluations were conducted through a total of 225 surveys from the following entities: national institutions pertaining to SNPAD, Regional Au- tonomous Corporations, and Regional Com- 22 For the departments, risk management is located between 70% and 80%, while for the municipalities it is between 60% and 70% (Inge- mittees for Disaster Prevention and Response niar Ltda., 2011) and it is higher for territorial entities of lower cat- belonging to departmental capitals and other egory because these, owing to their lower income, can spend a larger portion for their functioning. municipalities. The surveys comprise five areas or 23 The “HFA Monitor” is an online instrument that provides information re- subjects, similar to the instrument “HFA Monitor” lated to achieved progress when executing the HFA, generated through a multisectoral review process. The main purpose of this instrument is (UNSIDR 2009)23 from the Hyogo Framework for to assist countries in monitoring and reviewing their progress, the chal- Action and a total of 15 indicators, accompanied lenges of implementing risk reduction, and recovery actions undertaken in the national area in accordance with the priorities of HFA. With this, by qualitative scales to measure risk management national consultations are undertaken to obtain pertinent information progress levels (level 1= low / level 2=incipient / related to the actions of risk management; the official report for Co- lombia for 2009-2011 is available at http://www.preventionweb.net/ level 3=acceptable / level 4=outstanding / level english/hyogo/progress/reports/index.php?p=pol_year&o2=DESC&ps 5=optimum) (Table 2.9). =50&hid=2010&cid=37&x=8&y=10. 130 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies the CAR. In particular, the nation has the ten- has become one of the strongest areas and they dency to concentrate its resources on disaster grade it as outstanding (4), while in the depart- management, whereas the municipalities and ments and municipalities it is graded and seen the departments place them in reduction of as acceptable (3). The efforts in risk reduction existing risk. Likewise, national entities that coincide with the resources allocated to this were surveyed consider that risk management sphere (Figure 2.6). Figure 2.6. Overall average rating of risk management by territorial level Governance 5 4 3 2 Disaster management Knowledge and information 1 Nation 0 Departments Municipalities (Special and category 1) Municipalities (categories 2 to 6) Autonomous Corporations Risk reduction Education Source: World Bank, 2011a. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 131 2.6. a compulsory step: the evolution of the system TOWARD a PROCESS approach The process approach in risk management com- 2.6.1. Articulation among systems bines the orientation by results, the appropria- tion of strengthened policies, and the association Different systems of great importance have and articulation among social agents, so that been created for risk management in the country, the achievements obtained are comprehensive after the formulation of the SNPAD, and they have and sustainable over time. Modern entities are to be articulated. These systems include the Na- going through a transition from a traditional tional Environmental System (SINA), created by format of management by functions to other by Law 99 of 1993; the National Planning System, processes24. Many advantages have been identi- created by Law 152 of 1994; the National Science fied in this orientation, such as achieving great- and Technology System, created by Law 29 of er efficiency, integration, and understanding of 1990, which is specifically related to the promo- the institutional mission and the clear identi- tion of scientific research and technological de- fication of the suppliers and beneficiaries. The velopment; the National Education System, and aim of working from a process approach in risk the National Climate Change System, recently management is due to the need to optimize the proposed by the Conpes 3700. Said systems spheres of knowledge in risk, risk reduction, need the construction of mechanisms and agen- and disaster management linked to the public das among the coordinating entities to achieve administration cycle. better articulation in their missions and objec- When all the functions and responsibili- tives and with different actors and activities. ties of all the social agents are well defined and In theory, there are common elements aligned in relation to the different processes, in the systems that facilitate their articulation. their joint action provides the most effective However, in practice they reflect an incoherent measure to address the challenges in disaster work and are somewhat uncoordinated. Plan- risk management. Local, regional, and national ning systems, risk management, environmental governments, civil society and overall, all pub- management, and education use the country’s lic and private actors should acknowledge their decentralization model and present interven- respective roles and responsibilities. “Only tion spheres in the three territorial levels where when everyone starts working together, listen- the local/municipal is the principal space for ing to different perspectives, creating alliances, the implementation of actions. However, the involving each one of the actors, engaging ev- eryone, (…) will changes be achieved. No in- dividual or group can independently make the 24 Process is understood as the sum of activities undertaken in a sequence or a somewhat logical order to achieve a product or result and through change happen” (Tewfwe, 2011). which some inputs are transformed (material or information), and to which they in turn are adding value in each activity until achieving a desired product or result (Narvaez, Lavell and Pérez,2009). 132 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies systems as well as the entities that make them greater part of risk situations are due to people up are not articulated in the way they work and creating imbalances in their relationship with the do not achieve adequate assimilation in disas- ecosystems. However, there is a need to unify cri- ter risk management (Box 2.6). teria and to take on a more generalized practice. Following the process approach, it is pos- Law 99 of 1993 created the SINA and the Min- sible to identify the most important profiles and istry of Environment as a “governing body for entities responsible in the spheres of governance, environmental management and renewable awareness and information, risk reduction, and natural resources, in charge of promoting a disaster management, additionally taking into relationship of respect and harmony between account articulation among the other systems men and nature. It also has to define, in the mentioned. On Table 2.10, a synthesis is made terms of the current Law, the policies and regu- of functions and the levels of articulation in the lations that will govern the recuperation, con- process framework for risk management. Figure servation, protection, arranging, managing, 2.7 presents, as an example, what the vision of using, and taking advantage of the country’s the system could be and where those responsible renewable natural resources and environment for risk management in Public Administration in order to assure sustainable development” participate in each one of the government’s lev- (Article 2). Furthermore, it established the els. Furthermore, aspects already mentioned are CAR as public corporate entities entrusted by identified on how the entities that create knowl- the Law to manage, within their jurisdiction, edge disappear regionally and locally and how the environment and the renewable natural re- the SINA has another structure that does not sources, and to make possible their sustainable depend on departmental government or mu- development, pursuant to the legal provisions nicipalities, which means a challenge for the ar- and policies of the Ministry. Likewise, pursu- ticulation objective. ant to Article 5 of this Law, its function is to From the legal perspective, the system that “Promote, in coordination with the Ministry has the closest relationship to the SNPAD is the of Interior, the execution of environmental environmental system, which is logical, since the management programs and projects for disas- Box 2.6. Limitations in articulation among planning, risk management, environmental management, and education systems • There is no solid consistency among the block of environmental regulations and those regulations relative to risk and disasters. There are some specific contacts that do not involve real joint action. • There are insufficient knowledge levels in specific risk management subjects among civil servants in the educational sector in different territorial levels. • The Comptroller’s Office and the Attorney General’s Office have sufficient power to carry out efficient control of the public entities at different levels, especially in environmental and risk issues that are not duly utilized. • The subject of risk management in education is hardly taken into consideration. • There are very few comprehensive training programs in risk management. • There is an absence of a culture that incorporates risk management. The mass media are vaguely used in raising awareness. • Intellectual production, as far as research, continues to be incomplete, so it is necessary to seek mechanisms to support and sustain already existing groups and to create new groups in this area. Source: Ingeniar Ldta., 2011. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 133 ter prevention and to coordinate such activi- toration programs in high-risk urban areas ties with the National Environmental System such as erosion control, and watershed and and the National System for Disaster Preven- reforestation management. Equally, it should tion and Response (created by Law 46 of 1988 provide counseling to the territorial entities and regulated by Decree Law 919 of 1989”) in the preparation of environmental projects Additionally, Article 31 of the same Law as- that have to be developed with resources pro- signs the CAR, among other functions, those vided by the National Royalty Fund or with of “Carrying out analysis, monitoring, disas- others of similar allocation. The development ter prevention, and control in coordination of these functions has provided a first level with other competent authorities, and aiding articulation between both systems and some them in their environmental aspects in disas- CAR. However, this articulation should be ter and emergency prevention and response. standardized and delved into deeper, generat- It also, in coordination with municipal or ing more explicit guidelines that will not per- district administration, should carry out res- mit heterogeneous interpretations. Municipality of Medellin (Antioquia, Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. 134 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 2.10. Risk management processes, people responsible and, coordination among systems RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESSES PROFILES AND RESPONSIBLE ENTITIES COORDINATION AMONG SYSTEMS GOVERNANCE • Formulate policies and plans for disaster risk management • Coordinating entities, SNPAD disaster risk management promoters: UNGRD, Departmental Governments, City Halls, • Develop legal and regulatory frameworks for risk management National, Regional and, Local Committees for Disaster Prevention and Response • Define institutional and structural mechanisms to provide support • Planning entities, strategic orientation for development: DNP, Departmental Planning Offices, Municipal and to disaster risk management processes • National Risk Management System Sectoral Planning Offices • Provide resources and generate capacities for disaster risk • National Planning System • Control entities over public spending and achieving development goals: Comptroller’s Office, Prosecutor, management Ombudsman, etc • National Control System • Integrate or articulate disaster risk management in development • National entities in charge of finance management, providing and managing resources: MHCP, Departmental and • National Public Investment System processes Municipal Finance Secretaries • Assure commitment and priority for disaster risk management in • Congress, Department Assemblies, Councils the political agenda • Monitor, evaluate and, control risk management • Define a strategy for financing disaster risk management • Coordinating, addressing and, articulating the National Information System: UNGRD, CREPAD, CLOPAD • Technical-scientific entities that raise awareness: Ideam, SGC, IGAC, DANE, Dimar RISK KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION • Academic organizations, research institutes, social monitoring networks and organizations, dangerous physical • Identify disaster risk factors (hazard, vulnerability and exposure), phenomenon observatories and entities dedicated to social and environmental problems: Colciencias, CAR, which also include underlying factors, their origin, causes and, • National Risk Management System universities and, research centers transformation • National Environmental System • Entities in charge of environmental administration at different territorial levels: MADS, CAR, departmental • Analyze and estimate disaster risk as well as its monitoring and governments and municipalities, NGOs • Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure supervision • National Education System • Educational entities: MEN, Departmental and Municipal Education Secretaries, teachers’ networks (social • Communicate risk perception and awareness in public communicators) information services • Sectoral entities, Ministries in the sphere of their competencies • Support organizations in educational, communication and, public information processes Disaster Risk in Public Administration 135 136 Table 2.10. Risk management processes, people responsible and, coordination among systems (continued) RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESSES PROFILES AND RESPONSIBLE ENTITIES COORDINATION AMONG SYSTEMS RISK REDUCTION • When it is feasible, take corrective and advanced actions on facing • Municipal and departmental governments, headed by their mayors and governors: the CLOPAD and the CREPAD • National Risk Management System vulnarability or existing hazards • Planning and territorial and sectoral development organisms (land use) • National Environmental System • Intervene in new risks prospectively (or risks that may be • Sectors: Ministries and the corresponding departmental and municipal actors in the sphere of their competencies • National System for Public Investment created), by the prevention processes generated by exposure and Programs and Projects • Finance organisms in charge of financial protection strategies vulnerability facing current or future threats, such as the ones that • Entities in charge of environmental administration at different territorial levels: MADS, CAR, departmental • National Housing System can be generated by climate change governments and municipalities, NGOs • Budgetary System (Finance and Public • Retain and transfer disaster risk Define and use financial • Nonprofit social organizations and support and cooperation entities that promote specific risk reduction in exposed Credit, National Planning, Calamity Fund) protection instruments to cover immediate relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction (for example, reserve funds, contingent credits, zones • Different sectors and their systems insurance, CAT bonds, etc) • Municipal and departmental governments headed by their mayors and governments: the CLOPAD and the CREPAD DISASTER MANAGEMENT • President of the Republic, National Committees, UNGRD (only for emergencies that surpass local/regional levels) • National Risk Management System • Preparation, understood to be exante actions related to early • Search and rescue entities responsible for the primary response: Red Cross, Civil Defense and, Fire Departments • National Fire Department System warning systems and capacity generation for response and • Health service provider entities • National Civil Defense System recovery • National Red Cross System • Entities in charge of security: National Police and Armed Forces • Response, defined as expost actions executed with the aim of • National Health System assisting the population affected by the proximity or occurrence of • Entities providing public services (energy, water, sanitation, telecommunications, gas, etc) disasters • Organizations in charge of protecting the population and its livelihood • Armed Forces • Rehabilitation and, reconstruction of the socioeconomic, • Sectoral entities in the sphere of their competencies, responsible for responding to disaster situations • National Environmental System ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies environmental and physical conditions using safety criteria with (transportation, environment, social) • National Housing System the explicit aim of not reconstructing the preexisting risk • Monitoring and alert technical-scientific entities: SGC, Ideam, Dimar, Corporation OSSO, etc. • Different sectors • Nonprofit social organizations and support and cooperation organizations (United Nations System, NGOs, private • United Nations System sector) in response activities and humanitarian aid in case of disaster Source: Authors, 2011. Figure 2.7. Outline of those responsible for risk management in public administration, horizontal articulation in Committees and vertical articulation in sectors or systems President of the Republic National Unit for Disaster Risk Management National National Planning Ministry of Ministry of National National Health Ministry of Public Ministry and Ministry of SNCYT Ministry of Mining Ministry of Environmental System System Finance and Housing, City and Education System System Defense / General Comptroller Agriculture POLICIES, COLCIENCIAS and Energy Transportation (MADS) (DNP) Public Credict territory (MVCT) (MEN) (MSPS) Ministry of of the Republic and Rural PLANNING, (MHCP) Interior Development IMPLEMENTATION, OPERATION General Attorney’s Office IDEAM BPIN DIMAR SGC CONTROL AND General Comptroller of SIGOB SUPERVISION the Republic Governor Finance and Education Health and Agriculture and POLICIES, Environment Planning Regional Government Mines and Energy Infrastructure Public Credit and Culture Social Protection Rural Development PLANNING, Secretariat Secretariat SNCYT Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat IMPLEMENTATION, Regional and OPERATION CAR Provincial Attorney’s BPIN Office Departmental CONTROL AND SIGOB Comptroller SUPERVISION Mayor Finance and Education Health and Economic Agriculture and Environment Planning Local Government Infrastructure POLICIES, Public Credit and Culture Social Protection Development Rural Development Secretariat Secretariat SNCYT Secretariat Secretariat PLANNING, Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat Secretariat IMPLEMENTATION, Disctrict OPERATION BPIN Attorney Internal Control Urban Local CONTROL AND Office Conservatorship Comptroller SUPERVISION Source: Authors, 2011. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 137 2.6.2. Integral vision of the courses, directing research on the causes of processes by type of risk structural failures, and directing and providing consulting in carrying out microzoning of cit- The mission processes in risk management, ies. (Figure 2.8). knowledge and information, risk reduction, and Law 400 of 1997 also regulates other es- disaster management require managerial pro- sential aspects so that the country progresses cesses such as policy, regulatory, and planning in reducing its physical vulnerability to seismic formulation that orient their implementation events. The seismic-resistant norms establish and assure governance, as well as support pro- minimum criteria and requirements for the cesses that guarantee human, technical, and fi- technical design, construction, and supervi- nance resources needed for their execution. With sion of new buildings, as well for evaluating the purpose of looking into the current state of those constructions that are indispensable for risk management policies on phenomena such the community’s recuperation after the occur- as seismic activity and floods, a preliminary rence of an earthquake, so that they will be able analysis is done for each one of the processes to withstand seismic activity or others imposed based on the existing policies and regulations. by nature; increase its resistance to the effects that these produce, reduce to a minimum the 2.6.2.1. Regulated seismic risk, even though loss of human life and the State’s and the citi- there is no policy for its reduction zens’ patrimony. The regulations additionally establish aspects such as (a) responsibilities Seismic risk management is one of the and penalties incurred by professional design- best structured processes and it relies on the ers, constructors, official civil servants, and city most judicial and institutional instruments. In halls for breaching the Law; (b) the obligation analyzing the seismic issue, from the point of to analyze seismic vulnerability, renovate in- view of the public administration processes, it dispensable buildings that provide service to is possible to observe that it relies on seismic the community and meet compliance dead- resistance regulations that define the mini- lines (Seismic-Resistant Regulation–NSR 10, mum requirements that to some extent guar- Titles IX y X, Articles 50 to 56); (c) the defini- antee and comply with the primary objective of tion of the scope of the seismic microzoning safeguarding human life in the event of a severe studies; (d) determining the need to review earthquake. And since it is a subproduct, it at- designs and studies to obtain the planning per- tains to property protection. Law 400 of 1997 mission, which should be executed by the Cu- (Colombian Seismic-Resistant Construction rators and Planning Offices; and (e) the need to Regulations) created a Permanent Consulting rely on technical supervision processes during Commission for the Seismic Resistance Con- the construction. struction Regime25, ascribed to the MVCT. The Commission was assigned functions such as answering official and individual inquiries, pro- 25 Integrated by representatives of the following institutions: Presidency of the Nation, the MADS, MVCT, SGC, Ministry of Transport, Colombian As- viding direction and supervision for investiga- sociation of Seismic Engineering (AIS), Colombian Society of Engineers, tions executed within the Regulation, sending Colombian Society of Architects, Colombian Association of Structural Engineering (ACIES), organizational unions related to the construction study commissions to where earthquakes have industry (Camacol), and a delegate from the National Consulting Com- occurred, organizing seminars and refresher mittee, according to Law 361 of 1997. 138 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Figure 2.8. Process for seismic risk management GOVERNANCE KNOWLEDGE OF THE RISK LAND USE PLAN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION DISASTER MANAGEMENT 1. LEGAL SUPPORT 1. LEGAL SUPPORT 1. LEGAL SUPPORT 1. LEGAL SUPPORT 1. LEGAL SUPPORT a) EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT a) EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT • Law 388: Land use plan a) EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS: • Law: POMCH - Order and CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS: • Decree 919 of1989 b) LAND USE PLAN Obligation to perform seismic Management of Basins Speci cation for dweling c) CONSTRUCTION LICENSE vulnerability analysis and • Law 152: Development plans design and construction or update of essential buildings, other types of responsibilities 2. PROJECT IMPLEMENTA- • BPIN TION RESPONSIBLE: scope microzoning studies. and sanctions for professional 2. POLICY FORMULATION designers , constructors and AND REGULATION 2. PLAN FORMULATION town hall officials . • EMERGENCY AND RISK PLANS: RESPONSIBLE: RESPONSIBLE: Municipality building damages • MVCT 2. KNOWLEDGE OF SEISMIC • POMCH: CAR evaluation methodology • SUPPORT: AIS RISK RESPONSIBLE: developed by AIS, as an • Seismic monitoring , seismic • POT: municipal administration. 2. PROJECT FORMULATION instrument of the Plan, some hazard studies elaboration • DEVELOPMENT PLANS: DNP, RESPONSIBLE: cities, unions, and universities 3. REVIEW AND APPROVAL NATIONAL: INGEOMINAS, municipal and departamental • Government Secretariats. are already trained and RESPONSIBLE: southwest seismological administration. • Individuals. participate in support • Permanent Commission of the observatory, AIS. (architects, engineers, Standard (MAVDT, AIS, • Seismic microzoning studies: CAMACOL, AIS) Presidency of the Rep., Min. of Municipalities, 3. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION Transportation, Ingeominas, SCI • EMERGENCY RESPONSE: All SCA, ACIES and Camacol) • SUPPORT: INGEOMINAS, RESPONSIBLE: public and private agents. 3.REVIEW AND APPROVAL • DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Universities • RECONSTRUCTION: project RESPONSIBLE: (new project and 4. PENDING ISSUES: • VULNERABILITY STUDIES AND implementation from the • POMCH REVIEW AND reinforcement ): RISK SCENE: Responsible for design to the control of the • Technical Standars for APPROVAL: Board of Directors Public entities and private the di erent types of project construction. infrastructure other than CAR owners infrastructure buildings • POT REVIEW: CAR, Territorial • SUPPORT: Consulting rms, • SUPPORT: Universities, Council of Planning Universities and construction consultants • POT APPROVAL: Municipal rms, unions (architects, Council engineers, CAMACOL) • DEVELOPMENT PLAN 3. REVIEW AND APPROVAL APPROVAL: Congress, RESPONSIBLE: Municipal Council, and 4. REVIEW AND APPROVAL • MICROZONING STUDY: Departmental Assembly RESPONSIBLE: Permanent Commission of the • CONSTRUCTION LICENCE (new Standard (MAVDT, AIS, projects and reinforcement): Presidency of the Rep., Urban Conservatorship and Min.Transportation planning offices of the Ingeominas, SCI, SCA, ACIES, municipalities and Camacol) • PROJECT CONSTRUCTION CONTROL: (new projects and reinforcement). • Urban control offices. Source: Authors, 2011. The planning permissions provide an in order to proceed with the urbanization work, opportunity to verify the design compliance zoning, or subdivisions of the lots. In addition, according to the seismic-resistant regulation, it also establishes norms related to construction location, and abidance according to the POT work, expansion, adequacy, structural reinforce- regulations. The Planning Permissions Decree ment, modification, building demolition, and the 1469 of 2010 regulates the provisions relative to intervention and occupation of public space in planning permissions, understood as prior au- complying with urban and building regulations thorization, issued by the urban curator or by adopted in the POT. These are the instruments the competent municipal or district authority that develop and complement it and the laws Disaster Risk in Public Administration 139 and other provisions issued by the National types or levels of flooding risks and establish- Government. As far as the issuance of plan- ing environmental protection zones in those ning and building permissions for those real high-risk areas or on the rivers’ borders. There estate projects intended to be executed after a are also physical and structural measures to public disaster or calamity declaration, these reduce risk, including: erosion control and re- are governed by Decree 2015 of 2001. Final- forestation; the implementation of mitigation ly, Decree 0019 of 2012 in Articles 191 and works such as retaining walls, drainage sys- 192 regulates the requirements to apply for a tems, dikes, spillways, or reservoirs; the defi- planning permission and the special regime in nition of wetlands and swamp areas as flood planning permissions. buffering zones; likewise, joint development projects with communities, awareness cam- 2.6.2.2. The risk of floods, without sufficient paigns to appropriately manage solid waste, policies or regulations to control them and drainage clearing, or implementing early without a clear role for those responsible for warning systems. Some actions such as dike managing them construction have relocated the problem to other zones (neighborhoods or municipali- The historical lack of long-term policies ties) due to a failure of a comprehensive vision and regulations that define technical guidelines of the watersheds. Thus, it is necessary that on hazards and flood risk concepts have resulted design and construction criteria are regulated in a generalized problem for a large percentage and that the competent authorities supervise of the population and the infrastructure. The watershed hydraulic activities in order to con- regulations for defending watersheds and the trol the impact of different individual proj- restrictions defined to protect water springs, ects. There are other types of interventions to pursuant to Decree 2811 of 197426, have not reduce vulnerability to exposed elements; for been adequate, nor do they constitute a com- example, design and construction of buildings prehensive policy for flood management. It that are resistant, resilient, and prevent flood- is necessary to regulate the return periods so ing; waterproofing strategies; placing struc- that different projects should be designed and tures above the level the water is estimated constructed and minimum criteria defined for to reach; and construction of small retaining works in flood protection and control, as has or relief structures that obstruct water from been established in other countries such as the directly going into the building. Even though United States and the Netherlands and the Eu- all of these are easy to implement, they have ropean Union Directive relative to flood risk evaluation and management.27 Comprehensive management of floods 26 A forest protector is only allowed in a radius of up to 100 m, and forced requires the combination of land use planning removal of natural waterways of water currents at a distance of up to 30 m, measured from the highest maximum water flow level within the and management to regulate and control land minimum recurring period of 15 years. use, in addition to structural and community 27 The Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/CE of the Euro- pean Parliament and the Council of October 23 of 2000) was comple- measures. Land use planning and manage- mented with Directive 2007/60/CE, on the evaluation and flood risk ment is the most effective measure in flood management entered into force in November 2007. This Directive introduces a new approach which changes the focus of attention of management. This strategy consists in de- policy, putting aside the defensive works against floods to focus on fining compatible activities with the existing comprehensive risk management. 140 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies been insufficiently used, even in some regions ability, and environmental risk conditions, where the indigenous or native populations which may affect the watershed planning. Plan- had these practices and where they have since ning conceived as such constitutes the frame- been lost due to the processes of colonization. work to plan the sustainable use of watersheds Watershed Use Planning and Manage- and the execution of specific programs and ment (POMCA), as a superior hierarchical projects addressed to conserve, preserve, pro- regulation determining for the POT, is an es- tect, and prevent deterioration and/or restore sential instrument in watershed degradation the watersheds. According to the PND 2010- prevention and risk management due to flood- 2014, to date, 83 POMCA have been approved, ing and other hazards (Law 388 of 1997, Article none of which have adequately incorporated 10). It is an instrument which definitely has the risk component. not been taken advantage of. The regulations Urban licenses require the presentation on management and utilization of renewable of mitigation studies, but these are not regu- natural resources, as established in a water- lated at a national level. Decree 1469 of 2010 shed management plan, have precedence over in its Article 22 determines that when a plot the general provisions established in other ad- of land is located in a risk zone and in a high- ministrative plans in regulating river currents or medium-risk zone of geotechnical or hy- or those established in permissions, conces- drological origin, permit applications for new sions, licenses, and other environmental au- housing developments should attach detailed thorizations granted prior to the respective hazard and risk studies of landslide and flood POMCA going into force. According to Law phenomena that allow to determine the fea- 1729 of 2002, the watershed28 management sibility of future development, provided that plans’ main objective is planning the use and hazard and/or risk mitigation is guaranteed. sustainable management of renewable natural These studies should include mitigation de- resources so as to be able to maintain or re- sign measures and these will be prepared and establish an appropriate balance between tak- signed by skilled professionals in this area, ing advantage of the economic resources and who jointly with the developer will be respon- conserving the physical-biotic structure of the sible for the correct execution of the mitiga- watershed, in particular its water resources. tion works. In all cases, mitigation works These are the principles and guidelines, among should be executed by a responsible developer others: (a) the special protection nature of the and by default by the holder during the term high plateau, subplateaus, headwaters, and of the license. recharging aquifers, since these are consid- ered areas of considerable ecological impor- tance for the conservation, preservation, and recuperation of renewable natural resources; (b) the use of water resources, where human consumption will have priority over any other use and should be taken into account in the 28 Known as hydrographic basin, a watershed is the area of superficial or respective watershed planning; (c) the preven- underground waters that flow into a natural network with one or several natural channels, in continuous or intermittent volume, which flow into tion and control of the watershed’s degradation; a larger course and which in turn can end in a main river, in a natural and (d) the consideration of hazards, vulner- water deposit, in a swamp, or directly in the sea. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 141 Multiple actors, uncoordinated actions, majority of watersheds in the country. Hence, and lack of clarity in responsibilities are factors POMCA is required to orient the required co- that result in improper interventions in water- ordinated actions, which congregate the bud- sheds, thus increasing the existing risk. Among get participation of the actors involved. Box 2.7 other entities, the different CAR, municipalities, presents a case study in the medium and high and departments intervene in managing the watershed management of the Bogota River. Box 2.7. Role of the different social actors involved in the medium and high watershed management of the Bogota River The entities that have the responsibility of controlling and managing floods in the medium, and high watersheds of the Bogota River are part of the District Capital entities: the Bogota Water Company (EAB), the DAMA, the Bogota Power Company (EEB) and the Fund for Emergency Prevention and Relief (FOPAE), and at the national level there is the Autonomous Cundinamarca Corporation (CAR). Only two of them, CAR and EAB, comply with water regulation functions. Since 2004, the Cundinamarca Administrative Court ruled that the CAR is responsible for the hydraulic suitability of the River, which includes the dredging of the riverbed, its extension, the construction of dikes on both sides and the adequacy of the numerous bridges that cross the river. In turn, EAB has the responsibility of the environmental sanitation of the river, including the construction and operation of the wastewater interceptor systems and the open canal systems as well as the operation of the Wastewater Treatment Plant (PTAR) El Salitre, as specific operating elements of the city’s drainage system. The river’s water and the reservoirs are used as supply aqueducts to cities such as Zipaquirá and Bogota. The water is also used, for irrigation in the CAR La Ramada irrigation district and in numerous farms and private companies for agrarian, industrial, and recreational use. In addition the river is the final emissary of all the storm and sanitary sewer systems of all the populations of La Sabana. It is contaminated to the highest degree all along the length of its course from the town of Villapinzón (Cundinamarca), where leather crafts industries contaminate with tannins and dangerous chemicals. The CAR exercises flood control functions by means of pumping the Bogota River to the Tomine reservoir. The other two existing reservoirs, El Neusa and the Sisga, have much less capacity and control very small parts of the watershed, even though to a lesser extent they also obviously contribute to controlling floods. Cleaning up the river was finally started with a competent megaproject led by CAR in the second semester of 2011. EEB is a very important user owing to a hydroelectric generation chain initiating from the Salto del Tequendama. Furthermore, the Tomine reservoir operates with the same purpose that, however, is responsible to the CAR in flood control, by pumping up to 16 m3 per second from the Bogota River. With so many actors involved, EEB has thought about selling the Tominé reservoir to another user (CAR or EMGESA), since recently this company does not own all of the storage space, though it is accountable for all the infrastructure maintenance. Until very recently, there were very evident conflicts among District Capital entities and the CAR. The latter entity, having regional scope in all the watersheds, is the one that has the greater administrative capacity to regulate river waters, since it has the environmental authority to control water resources. Furthermore, it has the necessary budget to carry out works. The CAR relies on a Hydrological Committee related to water resource planning with the District’s entities, but it does not make decisions on behalf of the CAR, thus being very limited in its efficiency. The FOPAE in 2006 created the Emergency Hydrological Committee that only operates in case there is a significant increase in the water level. In summary, in the case of the Bogota River basin, social, economic, and political pressures are identified which have contributed to an inadequate planning process for the city and the region, being fundamental to implementing regulatory and monitoring actions and control to reduce conflicts of use and territorial expansion disarticulated to the reality of the territory. 142 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 2.7. RECOMMENDAtIONS and great challenges to sTRENGTHEN RISK MANAGEMENT GOVERNAnCE PRIORITY RECOMMENDATION RESPONSIBLE High(H), Medium (M) Convert risk management into a State policy and overcome existing imbalances in the System by adjusting and providing uniformity to the regulation and institutional framework Adopt a national policy in disaster risk management that is comprehensively articulated in the public administration and that provides support to the territorial entities and promotes the creation of policies and specific sectoral action plans. • Disaster risk management should solve social problems and be politically visible, so that it can be anchored in the public agendas at the different territorial levels, and so it can lead to collective learning and coexistence with the Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with natural environment through development planning instruments. the support of the National H Committee for Disaster • Formulate and implement specific policies/strategies so that it acts as a general regulation policy for each one of the Prevention and Relief /GRD geological and hydrometeorological phenomena, hence giving priority to the most recurrent ones. • Articulate specific policies/strategies by incorporating variables related to climate change in making decisions at a sectoral and territorial level. UNGRD with the support of Create a risk management statute that is consistent with the current regulation and deals with the identified gaps as far the National Committee for H as defining public and private responsibilities. Disaster Prevention and Relief /GRD Reorganize the System by technically and financially strengthening the managing capacity at the different territorial levels and the participation of the private sector. • Declare the local level as the base of the System and its principal space of intervention. • Strengthen the departmental level in its articulatory role between national and local governments and among the Presidency, DNP, UNGRD with municipalities under its jurisdiction. H the support of the National • Strengthen the national level in its strategic role of formulating and implementing policies based on the needs Committee - PAD/GRD and capacities of the territorial entities seeking to balance the knowledge process, risk reduction, and disaster management. • Strengthen the institutional order and the individual capacities of the different entities to implement the knowledge processes, risk reduction, and disaster management. Give priority to strategic orientation, technical leadership, authority, and control among the functions that the National H Presidency Unit for Disaster Risk Management has as head of the System. Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of investments in risk management through strategic planning, coordination, monitoring, and control among territorial levels Promote the adoption of Territorial Risk Management Plans (PTGR) as long-term instruments to orient the POMCA, POT, and PD, and to articulate the investments made by public and private actors. • Strengthen the knowledge process and information disclosure in the sectors and at all territorial levels in order to accomplish responsible risk intervention. • Implement permanent technical assistance strategies in small municipalities in order to advance in knowledge of hazards and risks at an adequate scale to make decisions. H DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS • Articulate the spheres of risk management, science and technology, education, and environment systems to provide continuity and sustainability to proposed actions. • Implement professional training skill strategies to effectively progress in disaster risk reduction. • Advance toward an approach that transcends emergency response in disaster management. Constitute a national cofinancing (fund) mechanism to encourage disaster risk management investment and capacity H UNGRD, MHCP, DNP creation programs at territorial and sectoral levels. Adopt risk reduction objectives in policies and plans and assure their fulfillment by implementing progressive strategic H UNGRD, DNP planning based on results. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 143 PRIORITY RECOMMENDATION RESPONSIBLE High (H), Medium (M) Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of investments in risk management through strategic planning, coordination, monitoring, and control among territorial levels (continued) Strengthen the mandatory incorporation of disaster risk management criteria when formulating public investment H DNP projects (BPIN). Adopt a strategy to monitor risk management responsibilities and investments at the different territorial levels. H Presidency, UNGRD, DNP Strengthen local management’s territorial capacity with the aim of reducing disaster risk generation and accumulation Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Adopt a national strategy to strengthen municipal risk management that responds to the existing differences in the support of the National H municipal capacity. Committee - PAD/GRD, Governorships Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Strengthen the capacity of departmental governments as natural coordinating agencies of the municipalities the support of the National by clarifying their competencies in disaster risk management according to concurrence and subsidiary criteria as H Committee - PAD/GRD, established in the Constitution and the possibilities offered by the Territorial Land Use Planning Organic Law. Governorships Reduce flooding and landslide risk by planning, investment , monitoring and control, and the articulation of different agents responsible for watershed management Assign responsibility for the rivers and water bodies management to a State entity and establish roles and coordination H Presidency, DNP, MADS, MT mechanisms of the different agencies involved.  MADS and the Permanent Adopt a regulation to control and manage flooding and landslides, including the definition of the highest Committee for hydraulic acceptable risk, technical standards for risk evaluation and mitigation, and a strategy for its implementation, H management of rivers and monitoring, and control. water bodies Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Understand the depth of the risk management role and its link to environmental management, development the support of the National management, and adaption to climate change so as to be able to incorporate it in the decision-making process at H Committee for Disaster municipal and territorial levels. Prevention and Relief /GRD MVCT, MADS, Ideam, Permanent Committee for Regulate the addition of a master control plan for floods and landslides as an integral part of the POMCA. H hydraulic management of rivers and water bodies Reduce risk generation and disaster impact through policies and sectoral plans Adopt risk management policies and plans in every Ministry. H All of the Ministries Incorporate risk management as a State sive part of public administration, should be policy and overcome existing imbalances articulated in planning, execution, monitor- in the System through the adjustment ing, evaluation, and control of the economic, and coordination of a regulatory and social, cultural, technological, environmental, institutional framework and political strategies. It should be more de- centralized, participatory, democratic, and re- Adopt a national policy in disaster risk sults-oriented. This policy should consider risk management that is comprehensively articulated knowledge and information, risk reduction, in the public administration, provides support to and disaster management as well as its con- the territorial entities, and promotes the creation tribution to homeland security, social welfare, of policies and specific sectoral action plans. quality of life, and sustainable development, The risk management policy, as a comprehen- starting from creating regional consensus spac- 144 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies es and cooperation mechanisms among mu- phenomena should include definitions for all nicipalities, governments, the CAR, regional the processes of risk management and public bodies, if any, sectors, and other National Gov- management for each kind of risk, identifying ernment agencies. Likewise, the policy would and defining the goals and expected results. be in charge of promoting policy creation and These policies and strategies should identify sectoral action plans so that each sphere defines the needs related to knowledge and informa- its responsibility in the security of its infrastruc- tion, the articulation with planning and land ture, minimizes loss of life and the impacts on the use planning, implementing risk reduction means of production facing disaster risks, and en- projects, disaster management, and monitor- sures the ongoing rendering of service. Last, but ing and control mechanisms. The formula- not least, it should support the strengthening of tion of these policies/strategies demands the capacity and the promoting of complementary establishment of processes and subprocesses and subsidized strategies that endorse munici- including their activities and responsibilities, palities in territorial risk management policy. clearly defining roles and legal, technical, and financial instruments in order to ensure ad- • Disaster risk management should solve social equate implementation of these activities. problems and be politically visible, so that it • Articulate specific policies/strategies by incor- can be anchored in the public agendas of the porating variables related to climate change in different territorial levels, and so it can lead making decisions at a sectoral and territorial to collective learning and coexistence with level. Promoting the articulation between di- the natural environment through develop- saster risk management and adaptation and ment planning instruments. This means that mitigation of climate change demands clari- it should be realized that the local capacity fying new institutional agreements, develop- for risk management is limited (in the avail- ing and making available information with ability of economical, technical, and human an effective resolution for decision making, resources). Priority should be to encourage defining criteria in order to incorporate it in focusing on a complementary and subsidiary the planning instruments, and developing approach by using the process of gradual de- monitoring and control mechanisms. centralization for determined management actions. In the same manner, by establish- Create a risk management statute that ing control actions on departmental levels, it is consistent with the current regulation and would allow said territorial agencies to give deals with the identified gaps in the definition substantial support to risk management. of public and private responsibilities. A legal This should be done through articulation reorganization of all regulation related to risk processes between levels and instruments, management is required, through a statute and clearly stating the terms of the functions, which will also allow complementing other responsibilities, and scopes. aspects that are not yet regulated. For each of • Formulate and implement specific policies/ the different phenomena, processes involved strategies as an overall policy regulation for in knowledge, risk reduction, and disaster each one of the geological and hydrometeoro- management should be defined. This should logical phenomena, giving priority to the most include the actors who will be called to par- recurrent ones. Specific policies/strategies for ticipate at the different territorial levels, their Disaster Risk in Public Administration 145 specific functions and responsibilities, and Mechanisms that will guarantee coordinated how they can articulate efforts, according to efforts should also be established, so that all their capacities and resources, assuring the the actors clearly understand where the Sys- fulfillment of the principles of concurrence, tem is going and what their contribution will subsidiarity, and complementarity as estab- be to achieve the proposed goals. lished in the Constitution. As far as the mate- rialization of risk situations, it is indispensable • Declare the local level as the SNPAD base to regulate clearly the different types of situa- and as its principal space of intervention. tions (emergencies, disasters, calamities). The The development of autonomous and par- serious calamity concept that is dealt with ticipative principles established in the Con- in Article 215 of the Constitution should be stitution of 1991 should propose flexible made compatible with the hypothesis of the structures that are adjustable to territorial occurrence of relevant events defined in the conditions and that can establish not only existing regulation, on which the President of vertical relations (toward higher territo- the Republic can base his disaster declaration rial levels), but especially horizontal ones decision as is established in Decree Law 919 (toward other units of the same territorial of 1989, and the responsibilities and mecha- level). It should specify what are the regular nisms in the process of recovery have to be channels and the participative functions of regulated (rehabilitation and reconstruction). the citizens on this issue. Creating adminis- Contact points between sectoral legislation trative branches specialized in risk manage- and the disaster risk issue should be strength- ment seems to be an important condition ened, as will be seen in Chapter 4. Participa- toward success in this management. The tion and intervention of private persons in formal structure of the Committees should risk management require specific regulations, be replaced by the normal structure of lo- as will be explained in detail in Chapter 5. cal and regional administration, through Reorganize the System by technically which management and decision making and financially strengthening the managing are oriented by planning. The Mayor should capacity at the different territorial levels and include in the Development Plan, which is the participation of the private sector. A nor- based on government planning, the invest- mative as well as structural transformation ment components of the POT with regard of the System is needed in relation to its mis- to risk management. sion, vision, and the goals of the State’s and • Strengthen the departmental level in its role society’s actions regarding risk and disasters. as articulator between national and local Within the framework of politics and regula- governments and among municipalities un- tion elements, it is necessary for the System to der its jurisdiction. The departments have be coherent with the Constitution, by taking to coordinate the action of two or more into account the need to adapt the principles municipalities with common risks, bridg- and orientations included therein. Moreover, ing the local levels with the national level it is indispensable to introduce concepts for a clearer vision of risk management and sub- stitute the present idea of disaster29, by reduc- 29 Per the proposed Draft Law filed in Congress of the Republic in July 2011 ing duplication of functions and inefficiency. (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011). 146 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies of government. Applying concurrence and nicipalities), or without referring to concrete subsidiary principles is the closest level to problems that are intended to be solved or the municipalities and therefore their first modified in each location or region. resource to produce action. • Strengthen the national level in its strategic Give priority to strategic orientation, role of formulating and implementing policies technical leadership, authority and control, based on the needs and capacities of territorial and other functions that the UNGRD has as the entities seeking to balance the knowledge pro- manager of the System. The UNGRD should as- cess, risk reduction, and disaster management. sume transparent strategic leadership, maintain The issue has not received enough impor- its main coordinating role in risk management tance and has not been taken by different sec- policy at the national level, and assume related tors, or actors at different territorial levels. In functions with authority and control. Like- spite of the constant manifestations of differ- wise, it should have human resources that pos- ent kinds of events, effective policy directives sess advanced technical skills and strengthen have not been proposed for recurrent issues its internal operating procedures. Leadership like flooding. Addressing the topic reveals in risk management policy not only implies lack of information, analytical deficiency, coordinating activities performed by national and lack of goals and adequate instruments. entities, but also being the interlocutor agency It is necessary to promote the actions of dif- between all government levels, fulfilling the ferent national organs and through these the principles of coordination, concurrence, and different territorial levels. Technical and fi- subsidiarity. The complexity of risk manage- nancial support should be given to regional ment demands advanced technical ability and and local levels of the system by evaluating requires formulation of integrated policies development and applying a clear national through sectoral limitations. Administration policy. This would guarantee the existence based on inputs should be replaced by ac- and functioning of a Comprehensive Infor- countability based on production and results. mation System that would facilitate efficient Furthermore, it should work on making vis- decision making. ible the accomplished projects carried out by • Strengthen the institutional order and the in- the Unit and the different entities at national dividual capacities of the different entities to and territorial levels. The Information System implement the knowledge processes, risk re- has to be strengthened so it becomes a sup- duction, and disaster management. Strength- port instrument in all the processes. Success ening mechanisms should be generated for of management depends on the skills and the improving capacities, technical assistance, coordinating and convening mechanisms they cofinancing, and incentives to promote a generate. Its functions and activities should better and more efficient risk management be concentrated on leadership and strategic by territorial authorities. It cannot contin- guidance, transferring the operational re- ue formulating institutional strengthening sponsibilities and the emergency management policies without detailed information on the efforts to other actors. Its responsibility is also situation of its local capacity and without to generate incentive systems for the different active participation of its executors and the entities of SNPAD, which are linked to strate- direct beneficiaries (departments and mu- gies and priorities established and agreed to in Disaster Risk in Public Administration 147 the National Plan for Risk Management. It is • Strengthen the knowledge process and in- essential to focus on management strategies, formation disclosure in the sectors and at all financial resources, and organization in criti- territorial levels in order to accomplish re- cal success factors. sponsible risk intervention. It is fundamental to delve deeply into studies of hazard risk Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of and analysis by prioritizing the hydrome- investments in risk management through strategic teorological phenomena with the objective of planning, coordination among territorial levels, clarifying their scope on making effective de- and monitoring and control cisions (about land use planning, regulating mitigation projects, and Risk Management Promote the adoption of Territorial Plans) by government agencies. The require- Risk Management Plans as long-term instru- ments for updated information with the ap- ments to orient the POMCA, POT, and PD, and propriate details, and the criteria and standard to articulate the public and private actors’ in- methodologies to prepare studies are some vestments. For a Risk Management System, of the recommendations that should be fol- planning instruments are essential for several lowed immediately by local agencies. processes. This implies formalizing, by means • Implement a permanent technical assistance of a regulation, the planning process at a nec- strategy in small municipalities in order to essary stage in all fields of institutional action, advance in knowledge of hazards and risk including formulating the National, Depart- at an adequate scale for decision making. mental, and Municipality Risk Management Taking into account that detailed studies Plans, and the way they are linked to the na- are required to understand and take needed tional and territorial Development Plans. In measures for reducing risk, managing land this manner, they assure the incorporation of use planning, and identifying projects for programs and projects in the respective insti- risk management, it is necessary to promote tutional investment plan, and also comple- the understanding of risk conditions by im- ment the different financial sources so that plementing a strategy where regional and investment can be more effective. Said Plans national entities support the municipalities should be dynamic instruments and should in the knowledge of their surroundings. be frequently updated, and incorporate not • Articulate the spheres of risk management, sci- only the related activities with the mission ence and technology, education, and environ- processes of risk management (knowledge, mental systems in order to provide continuity risk reduction, and disaster management), but and sustainability to proposed actions. The Na- also the strengthening of the SNPAD and its tional Science and Technological System dem- support system capacities, such as financing onstrated in 2002 a significant advance made and the use of relevant information for risk by formulating the Strategy to Strengthen management. This should be complemented Science, Technology, and Education for Risk by a systematic monitoring of the Plans as a Reduction and Disaster Response in coordi- control element for the implementation of ac- nation with the National System for Disaster tions developed by the National Risk Manage- Prevention and Response and the National ment System. Environmental System. All these were meant to identify strategies for risk reduction. The 148 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies reordering of the strategic components and constitute risk. For this reason it is necessary strengthening of the coordination and moni- to consolidate a more integrated approach of toring mechanisms are the inputs for sustain- risk management with the due articulation of ability of risk management in the country. On planning spheres, land use, development, and the other hand, prevention culture should be adaptation to climate change, as mentioned in promoted, in which governments have to ac- this chapter. Specifically in the disaster man- tively support the right to information, and agement field, it is necessary to advance in likewise in assisting the population in know- constructing instruments such as the National ing their rights and responsibilities related to Emergency Plan (this refers to its interinstitu- this information. This will transcend the abil- tional structure, functions, and responsibility ity of decision making. definition, coordination, and communication • Implement professional skill formation strate- mechanisms, and implementing, activating, gies to effectively advance in disaster risk re- and control actions). Additionally, clarity is duction. Designing and adopting training needed for the actors responsible for the acting strategies on risk management will improve the protocols, delving into the EDAN exercises to feasibility to effectively implement risk reduc- articulate them in the recovering and rebuild- tion actions. This should be totally managed ing activities, and also to integrate them with with the university sector and it has to identify the rest of the instruments designed for disas- the training and knowledge needs of the target ter risk management. population (personnel linked to the subject in the territorial and sectoral agencies), context, Constitute a national confinancing (fund) and risk conditions. mechanism to encourage disaster risk manage- • Advance toward an approach that transcends ment investments and capacity creation programs emergency response in disaster management. at territorial and sectoral levels. The National Ca- According to SNPAD decentralization, re- lamity Fund, as the main financing instrument sponse begins at the local level. Small mu- of SNPAD, should move toward being a Fund nicipalities should have an organization, for Risk Management and be articulated in such coordination, protocols, and the required en- manner that activities prioritized by the Commit- dowments for correct response. This informa- tees or Commissions of the different processes of tion is included in the Municipal Emergency risk management can be cofinanced. The priority Plans. Even if some cities and towns have said is to strengthen projects in territorial and sectoral Plans, they still lack adequate implementation. capacity in order to be able to change paradigms The same occurs at the departmental and at and practices in this sense, and encourage through the national level. Strategies and organization cofinancing projects that strategically contribute for disaster management are very weak in co- to risk reduction and with the support of other ordination, logistics, communication, and ca- sectoral funds help reduce financial gaps that exist pacities. It is imperative to start from the risk in territorial entities. It is necessary to standard- scenarios, planning, defining responsibilities, ize procedure for the presentation and approval instruments and mechanisms for disaster of projects related to knowledge and information, management as well as for the rebuilding pro- risk reduction, and disaster management. This cesses. Emergency action responses in them- fund should be part of a financial strategy which selves are not able to reduce the factors that allows risk transference and retention. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 149 Adopt risk reduction objectives in policies management to be incorporated effectively in the and plans and assure their fulfillment by the imple- planning and execution processes of public invest- mentation of progressive strategic planning based ment, it is important to be explicit when formulat- on results. Modern risk management is being chal- ing projects filed at the Public Investment Project’s lenged to move toward strategies that allow more Bank (BPIN). Even though there are some initial transparency and effectiveness in investments. The advances to incorporate the subject, the General viewpoint of monitoring and evaluation, based Adjusted Methodology should be reviewed, as on results, makes it possible and can be applied this determines the minimum contents of prein- at the level of projects, programs, and policies. vestment studies, examines the analytical compo- This methodology requires role and responsibility nents, project evaluation, and registration cards. definition when generating products and results This method should identify and evaluate the kind by those involved. It allows the establishment of of damage and probable loss that could affect the a clear, controllable relation between the achieve- investment. It takes into consideration different al- ments expected and the means assigned to this ternatives presented and potential hazards in land, end. It strengthens articulation of investments and material, construction techniques, etc. Its purpose territorial, sectoral, and institutional coordination. is to ensure choosing the safest and most cost-ef- It requires definition of baselines and appropriate fective alternatives. It should evaluate the impact performance indicators making easy the use of the project could have in creating new risks and incentives in terms of performance recognition. It the results of these analyses should be included in has to be admitted that this is not an easy task; it the different preparation modules of the project. needs commitment, time, and effort, but interna- This process is to be accompanied by training and tional experiences show it is worth the while for its technical assistance at sectoral and territorial level proven successful performance. with the aim of reinforcing the most important Strengthen the mandatory incorporation concepts of risk management, thus assuring its ad- of disaster risk management criteria when formu- equate implementation. This initiative is currently lating public investment projects (BPIN). For risk proposed as a goal of PND 2010-2014. Figure 2.9. Ten steps to design, create, and support a results-based monitoring and evaluation system Conducting a Selecting key Planning for preliminary indicators to monitor improvement selecting The role of INSUMOS evaluation GESTIÓN outcomes results targets PRODUCTO RESULTADO evaluation IMPACTO Using ndings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agreeing on outcomes Baseline data on Monitoring for Reporting Sustaining the to monitor and indicators-Where are results ndings M&E system evaluate we today? within the organization Source: Translated from Zall and Rist, 2006. 150 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Adopt a strategy for monitoring risk man- of 2001 did not take into consideration; (ii) re- agement responsibilities and investments at the flect on the possibility of applying certification different territorial levels. Strengthening of policies mechanisms in the municipalities through risk and plans, clarification of roles and those respon- management procedures, giving priority to is- sible, and definition of baselines and performance sues such as risk knowledge, planning, and land indicators should accompany the strengthening use planning; (iii) expand the responsibilities of monitoring and control processes. Its impor- and competencies of the departments and the tance lies in the fact that authorities and civil soci- CAR to provide support to risk management at ety should perform these monitoring and control the municipal level; (iv) provide more coordina- tasks during the whole process of public manage- tion between the different levels of government ment, and not only in the final result, where the by completely developing the principles of con- relevancy of a joint effort is required to guarantee currence, complementarity, and subsidiarity; articulation and continuity of action for territo- (v) identify and analyze successful association rial planning and risk management. experiences in rendering risk management ser- vice in order to adapt them in horizontal coop- Strengthening local capacity for land use eration processes among territorial entities; (vi) management, in order to reduce the creation study information and risk knowledge strength- and accumulation of disaster risks ening mechanisms through decentralization of technical-scientific organisms, such as SGC, Adopt a national strategy to strengthen Ideam, and the articulation of universities and municipal risk management that responds to the research centers through the National Science existing differences in municipal capacity. There and Technological System. Additionally, clearly is a need to revise and discuss the convenience define the responsibilities of the CAR, depart- of assigning equal functions in all municipali- mental governments, and other national and ties dealing with risk management, considering municipal entities, and strengthen the capacities the possibilities of executing activities in mu- of the municipalities to cover information needs nicipalities with less that 50,000 inhabitants and that are required for risk management as part of category 3 and 4 departments. This is due to the management and territorial planning. limited capacity to function and act by these or- Some strategies have been listed in Table 2.11 ganizations, also due to restrictions of their pro- differentiated according to municipal capacity, by fessional personnel, their technical training, and identifying key aspects to strengthen risk manage- restricted access to available technology (Ghul, ment governance. To identify differentiated strat- et al., 1998). As a result, it is imperative to ana- egies, it was necessary to carry out a diagnosis of lyze the possibility of upgrading management risk conditions and institutional capacities accord- ability in the framework of concurrence, com- ing to the information presented in Chapter 1. plementarity, and subsidiarity as described in Strengthen the capacity of departmental the Constitution through the following actions: governments as natural coordinating agencies (i) redefine assigned responsibilities according of the municipalities by clarifying their compe- to the potentials and requirements found in dif- tencies in disaster risk management according ferent typologies of the municipalities and de- to the concurrence and subsidiary criteria as partments, in a sphere (if a transversal issue like established in the Constitution and the pos- risk management may be so called) that Law 715 sibilities offered by the Territorial Land Use Disaster Risk in Public Administration 151 Planning Organic Law. Recent approval of this signed entity may perform functions in policy law offers alternatives to strengthen the func- and regulation formulation, define responsi- tion of territorial entities in risk management. bilities and roles, and coordinate through the This applies especially to the departments Permanent National Consulting Committee for where the common denominator of almost the Hydraulic Management of the Rivers30. This all the municipalities is extreme poverty and Committee will be in charge of providing techni- very inadequate institutional capacity. Some cal advice to the competent authority, responding of these departments are Amazonas, Guaviare, to queries both official and private, complying Guainia, Vaupes, and Vichada, the majority with the functions assigned by the authority of municipalities in the Pacific Coast depart- in administering and monitoring of investiga- ments (Choco, Cauca, and Nariño), and also a tions carried out, sending study groups to af- large part of the Caribbean municipalities (La fected areas, organizing seminars and refresher Guajira, Magdalena, Sucre, and Cordoba, with courses and orienting and providing advice in the exception of the capitals of these depart- carrying out flood studies. ments). This law also promotes more delega- Adopt a regulation to control and manage tion of functions and competencies at national floods and landslides including the definition of level in territorial order, elimination of dupli- the highest acceptable risk31 and technical stan- cation in the central administration, and de- dards for risk evaluation and mitigation, and a centralizing territorial entities, strengthening strategy for its implementation, monitoring, regional administrations and planning, the and control. It is necessary to unite parameters department as an intermediate level of gov- for acceptable risk with the purpose of estab- ernment, the municipality as the fundamental lishing technical standards to produce zoning entity of the political-administrative division maps and evaluate susceptible places or flood of the State, joint and articulated action of the and landslide threats (return periods, safety different government levels through alliances, factors, etc.) in order to define territorial land associations, and delegation agreements, and use, review criteria that establish urban and the design of regional administration models rural protected zones, define the minimum to develop special projects, increase produc- tivity, and modernize the administration of the municipalities. 30 The Permanent Consulting Committee for Hydraulic Management of the Reduce flooding and landslide risks by Rivers, just like the Permanent Committee for Seismic Resistance, could be formed by the Presidency of the Republic, Ministry of Housing, City planning, investment, monitoring, control, and and Territory, Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development the articulation of different agents responsible (in the past these Ministries were MAVDT), Ministry of Transport, Ideam, IGAC, Colombian Society of Engineers, Colombian Association of Hydrau- for watershed management lic Engineers, Asocars, a representative of the departmental government, and another one from the academia. 31 Accepted risk is that which the community is willing to undertake in Assign responsibility for river and water exchange for a determined rate or level of benefits. In the design of bodies management to a State entity and es- engineering works, it has been a common practice to use this concept implicitly in order to achieve a level of protection and safety that justifies tablish roles and coordination mechanisms of the investment, taking into account as reference the useful lifespan of the different agencies involved. It is necessary the works. For this effect safety factors are used that in probable terms “reasonably” cover the uncertainty of the potential magnitude of exter- to define a responsible authority for the hy- nal actions, the imprecision of the analytical model, and the approxima- draulic management of rivers, so that said as- tion of a simplified hypothesis (Cardona, 1990). 152 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies needed guidelines for design and making of controlling degradation of the basin and tak- structural control measures, lessen the impact ing into account hazardous, conditions, vulner- of less vulnerable buildings, depending on the ability and environmental risks that could effect kind of flood, the recurrence period, the esti- the basin’s land use planning, makes it neces- mated height of water level, its extension, and sary to regulate and issue technical guides to when appropriate the current’s velocity or the formulate master control plans for floods and flow of water, among other factors. It should landslides as mandatory elements for the for- also establish those responsible and the imple- mulation and implementation of the POMCA. mentation methods, and monitoring and con- Regulation of these plans should establish (i) re- trol of said regulation, depending on the kind duction and risk management as an integrated of structures or projects. part of the objectives and goals to guarantee the Understand the depth of the risk manage- safety and sustainability of the basin; (ii) defi- ment role and its link to environmental manage- nition of the scope and orientation of the most ment, development management, and adaption to recent and accurate methods for zone delimi- climate change to be able to incorporate it in the tations, using as a starting point hazard threat decision-making process at municipal and terri- evaluations, in case the of minor, medium-, or torial levels. Institutional mechanisms and ex- high-probability phenomena, and risk maps isting problems between risk issues and climate that show the possible effects of floods, and change should be incorporated in the planning determining the amount of inhabitants and processes of public development and invest- the type of economical activities in that area ment. This requires a definition of guidelines that could be affected,32 (iii) regulation of re- and action spheres to clarify responsibilities strictions and conditions for land use for each and their scope in each area, avoiding over- hazard/risk zone; (iv) formulation of sanctions lapping roles that are incompatible in terms of for noncompliance; (v) mentioning programs the ecosystem, watersheds, or government en- and projects for risk reduction and control, and tities. In addition, efforts to strengthen disaster the protection of human lives, economic activi- risk management should go hand in hand with ties, ecosystems, and cultural heritage, as well as actions to fight poverty, in such a manner that strategies for implementation and monitoring. there will be real intervention that will reduce vulnerable conditions. Reduce risk generation and disaster impact Regulate the inclusion of a master control through policies and sectoral action plans plan for floods and landslides as a comprehensive part of the POMCA. Land use through the defi- Adopt policies and sectoral risk manage- nition of protected zones and the strict regula- ment plans in each Ministry, assigning respon- tion for their use is the main and most effective sible units for their execution and monitoring. tool to reduce or control the impact of floods, The review done of the sector participation, as landslides, and other phenomena. That is why the POMCA are of vital importance as instru- ments of the highest hierarchy and most deter- minant in territorial land use planning (Decree 32 Examples of European countries, United States, and Japan can be con- sulted at http;//ec.europa.eu/environment/water/flood_risk/flood_at- 1729 of 2002, Article 17). In the framework of las/index.htm, Handbook of Good Practices in Flood Mapping (Good the POMCA guidelines, where preventing and Practice manual for preparing flooding maps). Disaster Risk in Public Administration 153 presented in Chapter 4, shows that there are connection between national strategies and very few specifically formulated policies at the the autonomy of the departments and munic- level of Ministries, UNGRD, and DNP. Funda- ipalities, including monitoring and aligning mental institutions for the SNPAD do not have performance goals. For more administrative personnel to work in risk management, such as efficiency and effective management, it is de- the DNP, the MADS, the MVCT, and the ma- sirable that these units or offices regulated jority of the Ministries. It is necessary to create by different Ministries and dependencies ar- units or offices with personnel who are skilled ticulate their environmental issues, risk man- in the subject, and who should directly co- agement, and climate change adaptation, and ordinate with the planning department and adopt and execute sectoral policies and pro- orient different divisions or entities linked grams. Strategies for zones and municipalities to the sector. They should also function as a located in high risk areas. (Table 2.11) 154 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 2.11 Disaster risk management strategies for high-risk municipalities Institutional capacity of Institutional strengthening Technical strengthening Financial strengthening municipalities /cities Continue advancing in the knowledge of phenomena, fortifying High capacity is seen in municipalities of Special category the implementation of early warning systems and consolidating and some municipalities in category 1. The majority of information and educational processes, especially by involving the them have more than 500,000 inhabitants and in very community and the private sector in favor of reducing existing risk and exceptional cases more than 100,000 inhabitants. avoiding creation of new risks. The strategy used in these municipalities is continual Review and improve some risk mitigation processes especially, when institutional strengthening using policies and strategies facing integrated neighborhood improvement programs, relocation Strategically review the resources the municipality has in for their implementation in the processes of planning, of nonmitigable high-risk families and controlling mitigation works order to optimize the investments in risk management High capacity execution and, control of all the municipal investments. (containment, reinforcement, etc.) to be able to perform actions to actions. Work should be carried out institutionally and in correct current processes. Cofinance through multilateral organizations. coordination with local Committees in Disaster Prevention Prepare and periodically update Risk Management Plans and and Response, formulating Risk Management Plans and Municipality Emergency Plans accompanied by technical and Emergency Contingency Plans. operational entities in the municipality. Establish a baseline with measurable indicators in order to Promote spaces that will allow municipalities to share instruments of have constant monitoring in municipal risk management departmental capital cities, or other instruments used successfully in progress. risk reduction. Medium competence is reflected in Special category Advance in knowledge and phenomenon hazards and risks understanding municipalities and in some municipalities in categories 1 in order to concretely define actions that tend to reduce risk and manage and 2. Some cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants emergencies. The POMCA play an important role in generating knowledge have not been able to consolidate risk management plans of hydrometeorological phenomena threats and risks. This will allow the but have the necessary funds to accomplish them, while municipalities to incorporate programs and projects that will include risk Seek to optimize existing resources between departmental a few other towns with populations between 100,000 management in the POT. Special strategic alliances are required with the capitals and the annexed municipalities in categories 1 and 500,000 that have fewer resources, have achieved a SGC, especially in geological phenomenon knowledge. and 2 (which sometimes make up the metropolitan areas) medium institutional competence to cover this issue. to solve problems of risk reduction that are common in the Implement or strengthen early warning systems that are shared with territorial area they belong to. Medium capacity Departmental capital cities should assume the several neighboring municipalities, optimizing resources for acquiring responsibility they have by incorporating risk management equipment and for network operation. Execute agreements with neighboring municipalities and in the processes of municipal planning and finances. departmental governments. Periodically prepare and update Risk Management Plans, Municipal Establish a strategy to work closely with the national Emergency Plans, accompanied by technical and operative entities of Cofinance projects through agreements with the National technical entities and the CAR in the appropriate the municipality. Government. preparation of reference terms in knowledge, risk reduction, and emergency management. On the other Promote spaces that will allow municipalities to share instruments or hand, form strategic alliances with universities and tools used successfully in risk reduction with neighboring municipalities research centers in order to execute the projects. or metropolitan areas. Disaster Risk in Public Administration 155 156 Table 2.11. Disaster risk management strategies for high-risk municipalities (continued) Institutional capacity of Institutional strengthening Technical strengthening Financial strengthening municipalities /cities In meetings where there is participation of metropolitan municipalities or municipalities territorially in proximity to metropolitan areas, identify existing resources and needs in order to form “Horizontal Corporation” type alliances. Work institutionally and in coordination through the Medium capacity CLOPAP, to formulate Risk Management Plans and Emergency Contingency Plans. Establish a baseline with measurable indicators to have constant monitoring of the advancement of district risk management. Low competence is found in categories 3 to 6. Municipalities with less than 50,000 inhabitants constitute 95% of the municipalities in the country. Due to the lack of information and resources, they have not been Understanding the existing phenomena is a priority to enable effective able to include risk management in public municipal incorporation of territorial and municipal planning instruments. The management. POMCA play a fundamental role in creating knowledge of hazards and risks that will enable the municipalities to include programs and Even if territorial administration and inclusion of risk projects for the inclusion of risk management in the POT. Moreover, Cofinance projects through agreements with the National Low capacity and financial management is the responsibility of the they need to form strategic alliances with national entities such as SGC, Government. municipality, it requires an interinstitutional strategy in ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies especially to obtain information on geological phenomena that provide order to support the progress in knowledge of hazards and inputs for territorial planning. risks as fundamental inputs for the POT and PD. Periodically prepare and update CLOPAD, Risk Management Plans, and It is imperative to form a stronger and convincing alliance Municipal Emergency Plans. with departmental and local governments, so that these municipalities may compose instruments that will allow the strengthening of public and territorial management. Floods. Municipality of La Virginia (Risaralda - Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. The Role of 3 Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management Diana M. Rubiano V., Carolina Díaz G., Fernando Ramírez C., Carmenza Saldías B., Jaime Iván Ordoñez O., María Isabel Toro Q., Amparo Velásquez P ., Juanita López P. 3.1. Territories in disaster risk management: FUNDAMENTAL concepts Knowing and administrating territories1 re- trade with remote locations; and 3) creation of quires a multidisciplinary interest and focus. a more dependable and continuous food sur- Territorial spatiality is the capacity of human plus, which clearly should be handled at the actors to change or modify their social reality regional level. Furthermore, there is a grow- and environment or contextual structuring. ing need to reduce demographic vulnerability As a result, each space should be seen as the and pressure created both by the increase in result of collective human action and intent, population and environmental degradation, which is therefore subject to modification and which is typical of urban conglomerates. As a transformation. Developing knowledge about result, municipal and regional authorities are the causes and consequences of risk associat- structurally empowered to provide conditions ed with natural and socio-natural phenomena of physical safety, environmental sustainability, contributes to elevating awareness in society of and food provision. These authorities should its responsibilities to control different agents in work together under the principle of coherent the generation and accumulation of risk, and cooperation among cities in a regional context. adequately bringing together the efforts to face This chapter discusses the use and effectiveness general and specific risk issues, both preven- of urban and regional territorial administra- tively and correctively. tion instruments for risk management. In order to approach the manner in To facilitate analysis, it was necessary to which risk is managed at the territorial level, start by selecting local and regional case stud- it is necessary to have an integrated focus that ies that accurately represented the current takes into account local- and regional-level risk conditions of the country. Based on their management. Urbanization is understood to relevance in terms of concentration of popula- be a process by which cities are structured in tion, goods, and services, their importance from situ, but at the same time, it is clear that this an economic standpoint, and their positive and urbanization has a regional or interurban di- negative record in risk disaster management, the mension, by which city systems are structured. decision was made to analyze the experiences of Urban territories, seen as a regional network of the cities of Barranquilla, Bogota, Cali, Cucuta, settlements, have a hierarchical structure and Manizales, and Medellin. On the other hand, are made up of settlements of different sizes based on their importance as an ecosystem and and degrees of interdependence, within which the importance of their economic activities, a se- there is a dominating urban center. On the other lection was made of regions that have been af- hand, the causal influences, which underlie the origin of cities (Soja, 2008), include: 1) admin- istrative requirements of large-scale irrigation 1 In the context of the present document, “territory” is understood as a defined area (including lands and water) where there is a relationship and technology for flood control; 2) economic between society and the environment. Space is the medium through opportunities arising out of commerce and which social relations are materialized and developed. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 161 fected frequently by flooding-namely, the basins territory is made possible by general urban and of the Bogota and Sinu Rivers, the La Mojana re- urbanization policies; (ii) taxation based on gion, and the Dique Canal. The aforementioned ownership and use; and (iii) the different types analysis allows for trends, specialties, and dif- of public actions for investment. Therefore, the ferences to be identified at a local and regional scope of action that local and regional authori- level but, more importantly, it allows for recom- ties have over the land is of the utmost impor- mendations to be made to the government of tance, because the land is a source of revenue Colombia, which can inform and guide actions for them and is also the source of a critical part taken to reinforce the inclusion of disaster risk of their responsibilities, in particular, a rational management in territorial administration. and functional land use plan (Saldías, 2007). If The municipality is the basic unit of risk is managed adequately through planning at territorial management and, therefore, of the local level, the availability of resources will risk management. In Colombia, decentral- be optimized and investments can be made in a ization and autonomous territorial entities timely and appropriate way. are significant components of the government Risk management is not limited to the organization. In particular, municipalities are geographic area where emergencies occur and considered the basic unit of the political and does not end at the political and administrative administrative division of the country and boundaries of the municipality. In order to per- their functions include regulating develop- form effective risk management, it is necessary ment. To that end, they should regulate the that both urban centers and regional urban spac- use of land and, within the limits established es operate in a systemic fashion. Therefore, coor- by law, supervise and control activities related dination among the authorities of municipalities, to construction and transfer of property to be metropolitan areas, basins, and departments is used as housing, as well as issue regulations for required, covering aspects such as awareness controlling, preserving, and defending the eco- and understanding of existing hazards and risks, logical and cultural heritage of the municipali- coordinated planning processes, joint interven- ties. It is clear that emergencies occur at a local tions, and interconnected emergency plans. level insofar as local physical and social charac- Ambiguity in the jurisdiction of regional teristics determine the existence of hazards and authorities for land use planning increases risk. vulnerabilities, i.e., risks. Therefore, municipal- Considering that no single regional planning au- ities are called upon to act as the main agents thority exists and that there is no harmonious in a risk management system, which means system for integrating instruments of different including the concept of a risk management types and levels, there is an increase in munici- system as a guiding principle for municipal pal risk, both in urban and rural areas, as a result and district planning and financial policy. of decisions and interventions related to the un- Financial policy depends on the struc- coordinated use and occupation of the territory ture of the territory in which the different by various actors. Regional planning functions uses and the ownership of land determine tax are shared between a department and a Regional burdens and establish guidelines for govern- ment intervention. The land use plan for the 2 Land functions and uses include all the different levels: urban (housing, territory is specified by (i) assigning land func- commercial, industrial, public space), rural (housing, environment, pro- tions and uses2 in which intervention of the tection), and expansion. 162 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Autonomous Corporation (CAR). The depart- at a certain time may wish to support emer- ment is in charge of guiding local planning in gency management in a specific territorial unit. a supra-municipal context and coordinating Monitoring, assessment, control, and the formulation and execution of Development feedback are essential for performing timely Plans (PD) and Departmental Water Plans and effective risk management. The Office of (PDA). A CAR is in charge of (i) formulating the General Comptroller and the Office of the development and management instruments Attorney General have sufficient powers to per- for basins, which do not always coincide with form an effective control of public entities at departmental limits; (ii) regulating the use of different levels and specifically regarding envi- rural land by way of permits for use and dis- ronmental and risk issues. In most cases, control posal of water, which interferes with the con- has been based on circumstances and widely stitutional duties of municipalities to regulate discussed by the media. On the other hand, ur- the use of land; and (iii) approving the environ- ban inspection is very deficient and municipal mental plan of the municipal Land Use Plan authorities usually do not have the resources to (POT), which is handled occasionally by the carry it out. In consequence, it is limited to po- CAR when issuing permits. Planning, organi- lice intervention in extreme cases. zation, and use of rural land are poorly stipu- Planning in Colombia has not ad- lated in the POT and these factors are subject vanced from the formulation of instruments to the decisions of a CAR or national sectoral to a harmonious and integrated implemen- entities. The responsibility for regional territo- tation system. Planning is not always a guar- rial management is diluted among various ac- antee for execution according to plan. The tors, not just national and regional actors, but priorities established by these instruments are also private entities that intervene in the cor- usually relegated by those of other interests, ur- responding geographical space. gent needs, and requirements, and investment Handling emergencies is a systemic re- resources may end up being assigned to ob- sponsibility. Faced with the undeniable prob- jectives that are clearly at odds with planning. ability of occurrence of emergencies, because There are no effective mechanisms or instru- risk will never be zero, a Risk Management ments for monitoring, controlling, evaluating, System should involve various types of ac- and providing feedback for planning such ac- tors, processes, and instruments, and integrate tivities, which are usually performed ex post them into the Emergency Plan, so that they and not in a systemic fashion. can respond in a coordinated manner during In essence, the goal is to acknowledge all phases of emergency management (prepara- that in Colombia risk is accumulating per- tion, alert, response, and recovery). This Plan manently in cities and rural areas, due to binds all personnel of municipal, district, de- lack of application and control of policies partmental, and national authorities, as well and instruments of public administration, as volunteer organizations attached to a Local lack of municipal land use planning, and in- Committee for Disaster Planning and Preven- adequate hydrographic basin management. tion (CLOPAD). The Plan should also be a ref- Therefore, focused analyses were performed erence for individuals and entities from other on local and regional spaces, seeking to show municipalities and departments, even the na- the interaction of territorial entities (de- tional government and the general public, who partments and municipalities) with regional The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 163 environmental authorities, considering that in controlling the processes established there. the aforementioned territories there are numer- These processes should, in principle, guaran- ous social, environmental, geographic, and cul- tee optimum exploitation of natural resources tural relations which rely on organization for and of land use and occupation processes. planning, managing, executing, assessing, and 164 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 3.2. InCorporation of risk MANAGEMENT IN TERRITORIAL ADMINISTRATION at the lOCAL LEVEL 3.2.1. Characteristics of urban The case studies are similar with re- territories spect to risk and disaster issues, but they exhibit differences and peculiarities, which According to organizations of the should be considered independently when United Nations system and other interna- formulating recommendations in agreement tional entities, there is an evident increase with the reality of the territory. With the pur- in the conditions of vulnerability to diverse pose of providing suggestions and guidelines physical events. This situation is a result of that contribute to reinforcing the inclusion of urbanization and industrialization processes, disaster risk management in local-level admin- expansion of cities, population growth, socio- istration, below are the results of the compara- economic exclusion, land use conflicts, con- tive analysis of the case studies, which shows struction of infrastructure, environmental similarities, differences, and peculiarities. degradation, the effects of climate variabil- ity, and other factors (UNISDR 2007). In this context, it is possible to state that there is a 3.2.2. Causes and consequences two-way relationship between the creation of of generation and accumulation risk conditions and development processes, of risk conditions insofar as no corrective measures are taken and the restrictions, determining factors, and The 1950s was a decade of urbanization potential of each territorial unit are unknown. and industrialization processes. It was a historic Incorporating disaster risk manage- milestone in which population growth, the flow ment in territorial administration is a key of migration, and violence contributed to an component of safety and sustainability at the increase in density of Colombian cities and the local level. With the purpose of offering rec- unplanned occupation of peripheral areas. The ommendations to the government of Colom- trend in self-construction of housing was consid- bia in connection to territorial administration ered to be temporary by local governments, which at the local level, six department capitals were had significant consequences in terms of the con- selected. Although they may have similar risk struction of inadequate housing and the consoli- conditions, there are differences in the way dation of risk zones, which have been impossible they have incorporated hazards and risks in to correct. Starting in 1950, population growth their public administration and planning in- and the social needs of the population generated struments. The selected cities were Bogota, a demand on, and a transformation of, the natural Medellin, Cali, Barranquilla, and Cucuta, environment that supported it (availability of land which are in a Special category, plus Maniza- for housing, public areas, hydrological resources, les, which is in category 1 (see Box 3.1). food, etc.), although processes of illegal appropria- tion, fraud, and subnormality were not so evident The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 165 Box 3.1. Case studies at a glance Big cities in Colombia have consolidated themselves as territories due to a set of factors that have increasingly allowed and enabled the generation of risk and disaster issues. The biophysical context of Colombia includes numerous factors determined by its intertropical geographical location, as well as geological, organic, climatic, and ecosystem processes, which give rise to great complexity and offer environmental potential, but also favor the existence of hazards that can be exacerbated or intensified by anthropic action. Table 3.1. Biophysical characteristics. Case studies Altitude(1) Precipitation(1) City Geomorphology(2) Ecosystem(3) Climate(3) (mamsl) (mm/year) Cundinamarca-Boyaca plateau, in Lower mountain dry Bogota 2,630 lacustrin materials, Eastern Branch of Cold dry land 972 forest the Andes Aburra Valley, Central Branch of the Premountain moist Medellin 1,490 Mild moist land 1,698 Andes forest Intermountain valley, alluvial plain of Cali 900 Tropical dry forest Warm dry land 850 the Cauca River Alluvial plain, left slope of the Tropical very dry Barranquilla 14 Warm very dry land 835 Magdalena River forest Alluvial valley of the Cucuta River, Tropical very dry Cucuta 250 Warm very dry land 874 Eastern Branch of the Andes forest Mountainous, fluvio-erosional Premountain very Manizales 2,062 topography, western slope, Central Cold very moist land 2,000 moist forest Branch of the Andes Sources: (1) MAVDT and Ideam (2005). (2) Cortés (1982). (3) Cuatrecasas (1989). Table 3.2. Local socioeconomic characteristics. Case studies Unemployment(2) Poverty (1) City Size (km2) Population (1) Households (1) % UBN (%) Bogota 1,636 7,363,782 1,762,685 9.9 9.2 Medellin 381 2,343,049 596,528 11.9 12.4 Cali 562 2,207,994 513,842 15.4 11.1 Barranquilla 198 1,186,640 232,798 7.8 17.7 Cucuta 1,176 618,310 139,358 16.2 23.2 Manizales 508 388,525 103,978 14.5 10.0 Sources: (1) DANE, 2005a. (2) DANE, 2010. 166 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 3.1. Case studies at a glance (continued) Graph 3.1. Distribution of urban and rural Graph 3.2. Unsatisfied Basic Needs. population. Case studies, 2010 Case studies, 2010 Manizales 10.3 9.0 23.6 Manizales 93% 7% Cucuta 97% 3% Cucuta 23.2 22.4 48.0 Barranquilla 99% 1% Barranquilla 17.7 17.7 21.7 Cali 98% 2% Cali 11.0 10.9 18.9 Medellin 99% 1% Medellin 12.4 12.3 18.3 Bogota 99% 1% Bogota 9.2 9.2 27.8 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Urban Rural Total UBN Urban UBN Rural UBN Source: DANE, 2005a. Source: DANE, 2010. at the time. However, the following factors of eco- processes; absence of control policies; land specu- nomic and social disparity contributed to the dis- lation; monopoly over construction materials and location between growing population groups and supplies; and peculiarities in the administration of their environment and, therefore, to the creation local territories, which were given jurisdiction over of risk conditions in a context of accelerated and land use only after the Constitution of 1991. The chaotic urbanization: (i) population groups were needs to occupy territories under an unplanned forced to occupy portions of territory that had se- city model force natural habitability limits to be rious biophysical limiting conditions; (ii) low avail- exceeded and, as a result, more interventions are ability of economic and technical resources led to required in order to ensure the stability of the ter- inadequate forms of occupation (houses on slopes ritories. The absence of urban-regional land poli- and floodplains, anthropic landfills with inade- cies and the presence of late regulatory and control quate compaction, poor construction techniques, interventions generate an expansion process that etc.); and (iii) exclusion from planned sectors of a is not coordinated with the reality of the territory city had an impact on the access to utilities, public and its biophysical, social, and economic condi- areas, and transportation. This situation was aggra- tions. As a result, there are spontaneous interven- vated insofar as the city was not able to meet other tions, on a lot-to-lot basis, which are evidence of basic needs of the population (health, employment, the difficulty in responding with effective housing education, recreation) (Díaz, 2007) (see Box 3.2). solutions and providing more and better public in- There are factors related to policies, ter- frastructure. Exploitation of natural construction ritorial planning, and control mechanisms that materials in the absence of appropriate planning, influence how risk has been configured and how control, and recovery have contributed significant- emergency and disaster situations have occurred ly to the physical instability of hillsides and to en- throughout the history of Colombian cities. vironmental degradation, especially in peripheral Some of these factors are weaknesses in planning areas of cities. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 167 Box 3.2. Territorial occupation process and risk conditions Bogota Medellin Occupation of the fluvio-lacustrine plain of the Bogota River with Occupation of the territory along the valley of the Medellin River, gentle inclines and a mountainous area east of the city, with steep along a deep and elongated valley. Expansion of settlements to the inclines, extending continuously until filling all the space between hillside areas, especially in the center and northeast, and the center the mountains and the right-hand bank of the Bogota River. Risk and northwest portions of the city. Intermediate seismic hazard conditions due to earthquakes, landslides, floods, and other events. levels, but high risk conditions due especially to floods, flash floods, and landslides. Cali Barranquilla Occupation of the territory on the flood plain of the alluvial valleys Occupation of two slopes on which the city is located: the eastern slope, of the Cali and Cauca Rivers, which determines high levels of risk which includes the oldest part of the city and a low floodplain, which due to flooding. Higher levels of exposure toward the eastern part runs along the Magdalena River; and the western slope, which has of the city. On the other hand, Cali is located in an area of high narrow courses and drains into the Leon creek. This slope is one of the seismic hazard, and it is the only municipality in the country with a city’s growth areas. Risk conditions are represented by landslides in population of more than one million that has this risk condition. hillside areas and the so-called arroyos (tributaries of a river or streams that run through the streets due to intense rainfall) in the city, which have been consolidated due to the lack of storm drainage infrastructure. Cucuta Manizales Occupation of the valleys of the Pamplonita and Zulia Rivers, Initial location of the city on a plateau in the interfluvial area expanding toward the slopes of these rivers. Risk conditions due to between the Chinchina River and the Olivares stream. Subsequently, landslides and floods. Area of high seismic hazard. slopes with steep inclines were occupied, especially in the western part of the city. Configuration of high risk due to landslides and floods, as well as high seismic hazard. In some cities, accumulation of risk There is evidence of a cause-effect relation has also been observed in formal construc- between economic and social exclusion and the tion areas, as well as in upper-class areas. existence of subnormal and highly vulnerable Environmental problems generated by land human settlements. A high exposure to diverse speculation and conflicting land use within and potentially dangerous phenomena has been suburbanization processes have been re- identified in Colombian cities. In these cities, there vealed.3 In Medellin, Cali, and the Bogota has been a gradual increase in the occupation of Savannah, there have been emergencies in areas that are unsuitable for ensuring sustainable formal construction areas, which is evidence development. As a result, the population is under that risk is created not only in illegal settle- elevated hazard levels. However, in addition to ments built without appropriate construction spatial exclusion factors, economic and social ex- techniques, but also in developments that clusion factors are also observed, which are found have not undergone any type of local or re- to correlate with an accumulation of risk condi- gional planning. Additionally, the desire for tions. Municipal territorial entities are expected economic gain by landowners has taken pre- cedence over the planning and investment re- quired for preparing and installing the service 3 Known as the growth process of the cities, by which suburban areas are infrastructure and equipment needed for con- created. From the spatial point of view, these areas are adjacent to con- tinuous construction in strictly urban spaces and are usually transition struction in suburban areas. spaces between the cities and the rural zones, where the functions of both areas compete. 168 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies to respond to variations in quality of life, both in urban and rural areas. However, many of these Graph 3.3. Number of disaster events registered in cities entities are not prepared to meet the basic needs under study, 1970-2011 of their inhabitants with regard to housing, em- Disasters in numbers ployment, availability of utilities, education, health Manizales services, and transportation. Indicators such as the Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) Index and the Cucuta Poverty Line Index, or overcrowding levels, sup- Barranquilla port the aforementioned statements. Furthermore, Cali the quantitative and qualitative housing deficit is Medellin concentrated on the poorest classes4, which gives Bogota rise to a vicious cycle regarding access to housing 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 for the most vulnerable population groups. Other man-made Technologies Fires Colombian municipalities exhibit a grow- Volcanic eruptions Floods and meteorology Landslides Earthquakes ing trend in occurrence of disasters, although in some cases significant progress has been made Source: Authors’ graph based on information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. in reducing their impact and frequency. Numer- ous vulnerabilities with disastrous consequences throughout the history of Colombian cities have been generated by (i) biophysical and geographical Graph 3.4. Percentage of disaster events in cities under factors in municipalities that determine vulnerabil- study, 1970-2011 ity to certain types of hazards; (ii) inadequate pro- Disasters by percentage cedures for territorial intervention; (iii) marginal human settlements; and (iv) social and economic Manizales segregation. The cases of Cali, Medellin, Cucuta, Cucuta or Barranquilla show that risk conditions are ac- Barranquilla cumulating in cities and materializing in a greater Cali number of events and a greater concentration of Medellin damages. In the cases of Manizales and Bogota, Bogota the impact of disasters has been reduced thanks 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% to preventive and corrective risk management in- Other man-made Technologies Fire terventions, and the application of various policies Volcanic eruptions Flood and meteorology Landslides Earthquakes and instruments has produced positive results; however, there are risk levels that have not been re- Source: Authors’ graph based on information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. duced to acceptable levels and full deaccumulation of risk conditions is not guaranteed yet. The graphs below show all the events in the case studies, ac- 4 “Socioeconomic stratification in Colombia is a real estate classification used cording to type of phenomenon by number and as an instrument for geographical targeting for differential charging of hou- sehold utilities, in a cross-subsidy scheme. Historically, six strata have been percentage (Graphs 3.3 and 3.4). The events regis- established that are identified according to the characteristics of dwellings tered by the Geographical Information System for and their surroundings, as an indirect indicator of the economic capacity of its inhabitants” (http://www.dnp.gov.co/Portals/0/archivos/documentos/ Disaster Prevention and Management (SIGPAD) DEPP/Evaluacion_Politicas_Publicas/Serie_EPP10_Estratificacion_So- from 2000 to 2010 are also shown (Graph 3.5). cioeconomica.pdf). Stratus 1 has the lowest value and 6 the highest. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 169 Graph 3.5. Number of events registered in recent years in the cities under study 90 80 70 60 Number of events 50 40 30 20 10 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Bogota Medellin Cali Barranquilla Cucuta Manizales Source: Authors’ graph based on information provided by SIGPAD for 2000-2010. The factors in disaster risk generation entities, as well as to take a critical look at past have multiple causes, not just those linked to errors, in order to achieve a real improvement in the occurrence of hazardous events, but also disaster risk management. those related to various components of eco- nomic and social dynamics, which have allowed the configuration and concentration of risk. 3.2.3. Social agents in the The losses from disaster events are increasing generation and reduction of due to the rapidly growing exposure of vulnera- risk conditions ble elements (population, infrastructure, goods, services, etc.). This situation is more apparent It has been pointed out that there are in big cities. Although some efforts are made in actors who have a bearing on the generation Colombia to improve the social and economic of disaster risk issues at the territorial level. conditions of these cities, it seems they are not Social agents who participate directly and in- able to compensate for the rapid increase in ex- directly in the generation and accumulation posure and vulnerability of the population to of risk conditions have been identified, but no various potentially harmful phenomena. Given account has been taken of the effects that these the current state of affairs, there is a requirement agents may have on society, either in the form to identify different approaches and instruments of disasters (agents who generate risk), or re- that have been applied successfully in territorial duction or prevention in development of risk 170 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies scenarios (agents who regulate risk) (Herzer lated to the territory; however, organization, and Gurevich, 1996), taking into account that planning, and control are highly specialized both categories exist and overlap in a territory. functions that correspond to agencies like the Agents who generate risk include political, in- Planning Secretariat or the Government Secre- stitutional, private, and community agents who tariat and the offices that execute public works. have acted permissively, and have made specific In the municipalities under the Special and and uncoordinated, even intentional, interven- type 1 categories that were included in the tions, regarding the occupation of areas unsuit- case studies (Bogota, Medellin, Cali, Barran- able for development (promoters of informal quilla, Cucuta, and Manizales), there are of- settlements, illegal developers and construc- fices and/or agencies attached to the Mayor’s tors). Furthermore, compliance or noncompli- Office in charge of coordinating emergency ance with local-level planning, regulatory, and reduction and management actions as well as control functions may be a factor affecting the the activities of the CLOPAD. However, this configuration of risk conditions (actors with a is not common in the rest of the country. It is relevant role are city Planning Secretariats, Ur- assumed that operative and protective actions ban Curatorships and Municipal Councils, the are concentrated on local entities, and coor- CAR, and the people themselves through differ- dination between social entities at the same ent public participation mechanisms). On the territorial level and superior levels is low. In other hand, although the reasons vary widely, category 2 to 6 municipalities, CLOPAD have there is evidence that community pressure by low participation or no participation at all way of Housing Committees and Community in other planning processes, which need to Action Committees creates a relationship with be coordinated with risk management (POT, different institutional and political actors that PD, Environmental Agendas, etc.). The lack of seeks to vindicate the right of the community technical, economic, and financial resources to housing, utilities, and urban infrastructure, aggravates the situation. which may in turn affect risk conditions if there The cases of Bogota, Medellin, and is no awareness of the forms of occupying and Manizales show that risk management is the intervening in territories. Furthermore, con- result of joint action by different social agents flicts of governance when managing informal at the local and regional levels. Technical and settlements are one of the main aggravating fac- scientific entities, the academic community, and tors in the development of risk, especially in the other social actors have worked together on risk case of Medellin, which reports the most criti- prevention and disaster management, and have cal conditions because of the critical roles that completed numerous research initiatives and armed groups play, which explains most of the works regarding the environment and risk man- governance problems in the hillsides of the city. agement. They have also supported processes for At the local level, there are differences hazard monitoring and warning systems and, in in the relationship with social agents who in- general, have contributed detailed knowledge for tervene in the prevention and regulation of decision making (studies in seismic microzoning, risk conditions or, more accurately, agents floods, and landslides in the big cities in Colom- who regulate risk. At the territorial level, all bia, and progress in studies in physical vulnera- municipal administrative agencies are in charge bility and damage scenarios in cities like Bogota, of handling, in one way or another, matters re- Manizales, Cali, and Medellin). The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 171 3.2.4. Use and effectiveness of highly complex because the interventions are public administration and risk interinstitutional in nature and the programs management instruments in are highly efficient in improving quality of life, local territorial administration reducing public contingencies, and controlling informal and illegal development7. However, the 3.2.4.1. Use and effectiveness of policy and response of the municipalities surrounding Bo- planning instruments gota to the conditions and restrictions of their territories has been weak. In the case of Man- The POT is an essential public admin- izales, the decisions, which guide the POT, are istration instrument that guides the munici- related to the availability of technical studies pality in the use and occupation of territories; (studies of hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks due for this reason, it is important that it be co- to landslides, floods, fires, and earthquakes). The ordinated with risk management. The POT POT also contains a careful inventory of homes contains definitions of policies and strategic ob- in high-risk zones8; it presents decisions regard- jectives, a regulatory component for the use and ing restrictions and determinants for building in occupation of land (restrictions and precondi- zones with medium or low landslide risk and in tions), a program component that establishes flood zones; it establishes regulations concern- investment programs and projects over different ing construction, utilities networks, and par- planning horizons in order to correct existing tial plans; finally, it offers recommendations for risks and prevent new risks, and a set of man- awareness, reduction, and management of risk.9 agement instruments to enable implementation The land use planning process is not re- of the POT. Within this framework, criteria for cent in the country. However, the progress of developing safe activities according to the reality municipalities in this regard is very uneven. of each territorial unit are established. Obstacles such as a low level of awareness of risk In this regard, the efforts of cities like scenarios and their management needs; a lack of Bogota and Manizales have allowed risk man- agement to be incorporated into the POT. In the case of Bogota5, the starting point was a 5 Territorial Land Use Planning of Bogota, reviewed 2003 (Decree 469 of detailed analysis of hazards and vulnerabilities, 2003). 6 Mitigation is a condition in which it is feasible to make technical, eco- which led to an assessment of risks, accom- nomical, social, and political interventions in a territory to reduce risk in panied by updated cartographic information order for the population, its infrastructure, and its economic activities to remain within the reasonable and socially safe acceptable margins (Ra- about the regional and urban hydrodynamics, mirez and Rubiano, 2009a). landslides, seismic microzoning studies, forest 7 In Bogota, between 1997 and 2008, 1,386 neighborhoods were legali- zed, of which 611 (160,368 properties) received the following DPAE te- fires, and technological events. Based on this chnical concepts: 1,277 conditioned use properties due to high hazards information, restrictions and determinants were and 2,918 conditioned use properties due to high mitigation risk; 3,654 restricted use properties due to high hazards and 6,128 restricted use defined for each area of the city and for certain properties due to nonmitigable high risk, and 146,391 properties with productive activities. Special note should be giv- feasibility for urban use. 8 In Manizales 8.4% of the population (28 neighborhoods and 32,745 en to investments for reinforcing the structure persons) are in high-risk zones due to potential landslides. Some 2,243 of utilities and equipment infrastructure, and properties should be relocated and comprehensive improvement should be made on 5,304 more. the resettlement of families from nonmitigable 9 Land Use Planning of Manizales. Municipal Agreement 508 of October high-risk zones in the city6. These programs are 12, 2001, adjusted by Municipal Agreement 573 of December 24, 2005. 172 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies knowledge of hazards and vulnerabilities; a lack management requires the agreement of various of coordination with investment instruments; social agents. The starting point for the planning and weak mechanisms for monitoring and con- process is having a coherent and updated diag- trolling the implementation of the POT reduce nosis (which includes the institutional, organi- the effective incorporation of risk management zational, regulatory, and financial framework for into land use planning. In the case of Barranquil- risk management, as well as information about la10, the POT has determined that creating a flood specific risk conditions). From this point on, hazard map is a priority that should be included preventive, corrective, and reactive risk manage- in the POT, but no progress has been made in this ment actions should be incorporated into all the regard so far. The terms of reference defined by other dimensions of development, by formulat- the POT for development and construction in ing policies, strategies and, most importantly, areas of low and medium risk of landslides and prioritized programs within annual investment floods have not been adopted either, and the Of- plans, and ensuring that objectives and indica- fice of Disaster Prevention and Management, tors for facilitating follow-up and monitoring which is in charge of preparing these, is waiting are established. The experiences of Bogota and for the Colombian Geological Survey (formerly Manizales show an extensive record of incorpo- Ingeominas) to update the hazard map for mass rating risk management in development instru- removal hazards. Regarding Medellin11, al- ments. Even the 2008-2011 PD for Barranquilla though planning policies and instruments have has new developments: a significant change in been adopted since the 1980s, risk conditions political will and financial resource availability have continued to accumulate due, in large part, for including projects related to the CLOPAD; to the difficulty in integrating land uses with the creation of the Emergency, Calamity, and methodologies for assessing risk (seismic and Disaster Prevention and Management Fund; the flooding); other reasons include: the lack of priority given to risk reduction studies and ac- coordination with investment instruments (re- tions; and finally, the interest in formulating a garding formulation of supplementary projects Disaster Prevention and Management Master in zones that are restricted due to high risk); Plan; all these developments will help the mu- the lack of intervention and control criteria in nicipality make up for lost time in this regard. formal construction zones in the city, where Although there are specific programs that as- occupation has not been subject to conditions sign resources to risk management (for example, or restrictions; and a recent increase in the oc- “Cali Sismo Segura y Asegurada” [“Seismic-Safe currence of disasters (especially in the hillsides in and Seismic-Insured Cali”]), no comprehensive the southwestern part of the city). Considering that this is the situation evident in big cities, the outlook for category 5 and 6 municipalities is 10 Land Use Planning of Barranquilla. Decree 154 of 2000, Municipal Agree- much more critical12. ment 003 of 2007, and Decree 0404 of 2008. Municipal development plans are in- 11 Land Use Planning of Medellin. Municipal Agreement 46 of 2006. 12 Therefore, efforts have been made through the Fiscal Vulnerability struments for advancing from disaster man- Reduction Program for Natural Disasters, through which the National agement policy to practice by providing Government, between 2006 and 2011, gave technical assistance to 792 municipalities (equivalent to 72% of the total of municipalities in the guidance for territorial planning and, simul- country), for the inclusion of risk analysis in the POT and in the Municipal taneously, executing necessary actions. PD are Development Plans, and of which 379 already have action plans. Mo- reover, 36 municipalities also have hazard/risk zoning studies. political in nature; therefore, incorporating risk The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 173 disaster awareness or management actions have the situation of limited resources for investment, been identified. On the other hand, risk reduc- there are alternatives for improvement and prog- tion has received a low efficiency rating in terms ress in the territorial entity: making the issue of of achievement of objectives (between 21% and risk and disasters visible in the working agendas 40%), according to reports by the Planning De- of all entities and agencies of each municipal ad- partment for 201113. ministration, establishing coherent goals, and Considering that municipalities have monitoring the achievement of goals by each restrictions for risk management invest- agency. Furthermore, in cases such as Bogota, ments, it is indispensable to ensure that their there are reports of effective use of other instru- actions are prioritized according to the re- ments such as the District Plan for Emergency ality of each territory, orchestrated among Prevention and Management, the Action Plans different social agents, and developed in a for Risk Prevention and Mitigation, the Regional coordinated fashion so that they are not di- Risk Management Agenda, Risk Management in luted and can be monitored and controlled Integral Handling of Bodies of Water, the Fam- easily. Some cities limit themselves to incorpo- ily Resettlement Program for families located in rating risk management in conventional plan- nonmitigable high-risk areas, etc. ning instruments, such as the POT and the PD (Barranquilla, Cali, Medellin, and Cucuta), or 3.2.4.2. Use and effectiveness of financing formulating instruments that lack a time ho- instruments rizon and contain actions of a general nature, which are hardly useful for decision making, Instruments for financing and invest- and are not supported by investments or social ment are not used very much in risk manage- agents in charge of their execution. Such weak- ment. The first source of financial resources nesses have been identified in the following in- is the current revenue of the municipalities struments: the Land Use and Management Plan (37%), followed by transfers from the General for the Aburrá River basin; the 2020 Strategic Participation System (SGP) (21.1%), although Housing Plan for Medellin, which is included some successful cases have been identified in in the POT, but does not indicate how the in- Bogota. An analysis of the case studies reveals vestment will be made; the Hydrographic Basin that risk management is a strategic criterion in Management Operating Plan (POMCA); the medium-term financial instruments in Bogota, 2005 Municipal Environmental Management which is sufficient evidence of the commitment Plan for Cali, which lacks any real coordina- of the city administration to the concept of risk tion with the land use and development instru- management and the responsibility they should ments of the city; the Management and Land assume for achieving its goals. Risk manage- Use Plans for the Julia and Pamplonita River ment is relevant to the financial monitoring and Basins for Cucuta, which are deficient in as- evaluation to which the city is subject due to sessing risk and defining scopes, timelines, and the participation of the city in the world finan- budgets; and the 2002 Environmental Manage- cial system-the Bogota Emergency Prevention ment Agenda for the Municipality of Maniza- les, which is an instrument that acknowledges the issue of risk management, but is irrelevant 13 Plan and Program Efficiency Indicators, Administrative Planning De- to the agents who bear responsibility. Given partment, March 2011. 174 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies and Management Fund, which is attached to Various experiences regarding financing the Government Secretariat, receives resources instruments for risk management have been from the Bogota District’s own sources; namely, identified in Manizales. Examples include: the from taxes. Regarding economic processes, loans Municipal Agreement of December 3, 2009, which from multilateral banks, as well as a percent- established a 0.02% environmental surcharge for age of the resources the District receives from municipal environmental management during its share of the current revenue of the country the fiscal years 2010-2019; a protection program (0.5% of the current tax revenues of the city) for essential, historical, and vital public buildings have been secured. It is important to point out and even for private buildings, which is based on that, in order to avoid irregular and discretion- incentives in case of seismic events; and finally, a ary assignment of resources for different types collective insurance program; all these programs of risk management expenditures, it is required are evidence of political will, judicious technical that a percentage of the current revenue of the studies, and a shared commitment between the District be turned over to the FOPAE, which has government and the private sector, which makes led to a constant growth of this item since 1995, Manizales a successful municipality whose experi- as a result of the city’s financial strategy. ences can be replicated (see Box 3.3). Box 3.3. Financial strategies for disaster risk management in Bogota and Manizales In Bogota, significant progress has been made in fiscal “Manizales: A Safe Place” is evidence of political will, judicious planning and management, which guarantees that risk technical studies, and a shared commitment between the management is consolidated and emphasized as a policy government and the private sector, and it is an experience that of the District of Bogota’s government. With the support of can be replicated. Manizales has a voluntary group insurance policy the World Bank, the city developed a “Strategy for transferring, for protecting the lowest-income population groups. The municipal retaining, and mitigating seismic risk in buildings that are administration facilitates charging and collecting a disaster damage indispensable and serve the community of the District of Bogota”, premium according to the assessed value of the property. Payment, which represents a significant advance in actions for managing which is voluntary, has been made through the unified real estate tax seismic risk. In order to complete the aforementioned program, invoice, which is prepared either bimonthly or yearly in Manizales. The the Finance Secretariat and the DPAE, the two entities in charge social appeal and benefit of this group insurance stemmed from the of the program, carried out a process of mutual coordination, fact that after 30% of insurable lots in the municipal area had paid their education, and learning process, which allowed the Finance premium, the insurance protection would be extended to those lots that Secretariat to incorporate natural and anthropic emergency were exempt of the property tax due to their value or socioeconomic risk into the financial risk program handled by its Office for category, with the understanding that, actuarially, the corresponding cost Risk Analysis and Control as part of the asset and liability would be included in the premium for the lots that did pay the insurance. management project: Unfortunately, during the five-year existence (1999-2004) of this mechanism, the percentage required for exonerating lots was not reached Decree 109 of 2006, issued by the District of Bogota, which (due to poor campaigns, restrictions for payment in installments, and partially modifies the organizational structure of the Finance problems with calculations). Adjustments were made under a new group Secretariat, assigned new functions to the Office for Risk insurance program called “Manizales: Safe Place”, which has been in place Analysis and Control, including: to propose a financial since 2006. The benefit of this instrument is that all properties exempt of strategy that provides coverage for the District of Bogota the real estate tax will be insured when 20% of the “insurable value” of the when natural disasters occur. This provision formalizes past set of lots that are required to pay the unified real property tax participate legal, planning, and management actions which incorporate in the program by paying their respective insurance premium. However, in the subject of risk management in the financial and planning case the 20% threshold is not reached, the insurance company will provide structure of the city (IRG, 2007, p. 257). partial coverage for the exonerated properties. Source: IRG, 2007. Source: Cardona, 2007. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 175 The municipalities with the highest in- of the share of total municipal investments that vestments in risk management from 2002 to are assigned to risk management, a downward 2008 were Bogota, Medellin, and Manizales, trend has been observed in Cali: the city went with approximately 43% of the total investments from investing 5% of the municipal budget’s re- at the municipal level14. The per capita investment sources in 2002 to 3.2% in 2008. In Barranquilla, in risk management was Col$21,238 in Bogota and on the other hand, investments have varied, from Col$16,981 in Manizales. In turn, during this pe- very low levels between 2002 and 2004 (Col$3.7 riod, Medellin invested Col$14,712 per capita and billion), rising in 2005 and 2006 to Col$24.6 bil- Cali, Col$10,713, in contrast to a city like Bar- lion for constructing canals and cleaning arroyos; ranquilla where the per capita investment was between 2007 and 2008, an investment of Col$6.2 Col$5,278. In particular, it has been established billion was assigned exclusively to disaster man- that risk management investments did not have agement; and finally, between 2009 and 2010, a significant impact in Cali and Barranquilla, there was a significant investment of Col$53.0 because they were not only less in comparison billion, which was equivalent to 1.8% of the total to other urban centers in the same category, but budget for investment. Below are the risk manage- they were made in an uncoordinated and piece- ment investments in the case studies (Graph 3.6). meal fashion. For example, from the perspective Graph 3.6. Investments in risk management by category. Case studies, 2002-2008 $1,200,000 $1,000,000 $800,000 Col$(2010) million $600,000 $400,000 $200,000 $0 Bogota Medellin Cali Barranquilla Manizales Risk detection $19,675.54 $3,372.94 $783.92 $0.00 $1,676.10 Risk reduction $753,214.95 $156,697.82 $90,540.94 $23,694.94 $25,979.80 Disaster management $119,002.57 $28,141.73 $39,949.32 $10,699.04 $8,268.90 Not identi ed $114,559.64 $398.32 $8,159.93 $398.32 $1,514.67 Total account $1,006,452.69 $188,610.80 $139,434.11 $34,792.30 $37,439.47 Note: The information available for Cucuta does not allow categorization of risk management investments. Source: Graph by the authors based on information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. 14 Information for the investment analysis in disaster risk management for this publication is supported by the database provided by the DNP with its Direc- torate for Sustainable Territorial Development (DDTS), which includes data on investments made at municipal levels (period 2002-2008). 176 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies In general, protection and insurance lished by Law 388, are important for improv- mechanisms for buildings and private prop- ing management, monitoring, and evaluation erty are not used in municipalities, which functions in land use planning. According to increases public pressure and risk (fiscal vul- the results of perception surveys15, the perfor- nerability). According to information from mance of monitoring and control functions Fasecolda [Federation of Colombian Insurers] is evaluated as incipient. These functions are (2011), only 7% of the victims of the 2010-2011 seen as more critical in category 2 to 6 mu- La Niña phenomenon had insurance. In Bogota, nicipalities than in municipalities that belong 4.5% of all horizontal property has insurance, to the Special category or category 1. and the percentages may be lower in the rest of Urban control is a responsibility of mu- the cities that were studied. In the 1999 earth- nicipal curators, comptrollers, attorneys, and quake in the Coffee Growing region, only 10% inspectors. It is a mechanism with a correc- of direct losses were covered by insurance. tive approach. The aforementioned entities have technical, staffing, and financial defi- 3.2.4.3. Use and effectiveness of instruments ciencies in risk management. With the excep- for monitoring and control tion of Bogota, where a high level of control of illegal and informal settlements has been The agencies of municipal adminis- achieved, the other case studies report gaps trations are the first link for monitoring and and limitations with respect to the functions control, which enables the construction of and effectiveness of urban control. In this re- safe territories. In order to evaluate the risk gard, in order to have effective control at the management performance of territorial enti- local level, it is essential to have precise, clear, ties, different instruments are available and and timely rules and regulations, which are should be useful for monitoring the effective- based on rigorous determinants, respected at ness of government actions. The annual mon- all levels of government, and have adequate itoring of the programs (indicators and goals) resources and instruments. It is also necessary and the investment plans (resources) of each to evaluate the relevance, economic sound- Development Plan is a function of the Plan- ness, effectiveness, and efficiency of each Local ning Secretariat. However, when analyzing Mayor’s Office as far as urban control, and to risk management performance, this approach review the attributes of the corresponding Po- is inadequate because it is limited to verify- lice Department. An example of this deficiency ing that product and financial indicators are has been observed in Barranquilla, where the met, without delving into the impact of the actions that were carried out. In other words, a rendering of accounts does not allow for a 15 In 2011, the World Bank organized 225 self-evaluation surveys of the systemic evaluation of risk management as a following entities: institutions at national level belonging to the SNPAD, the Autonomous Regional Corporations, the Regional Committees for government policy. On the other hand, the Disaster Prevention and Response, and the Local Committees for Disaster lack of human, technological, and financial Prevention of the department capitals and of other municipalities (Table A.3). The surveys consisted of five areas or thematic axes similar to the resources of planning agencies at the munici- “HFA Monitor” instrument (UNISDR 2009) of the Hyogo Framework for pal level does not allow the actions established Action and a total of 15 indicators, with their qualitative scales to mea- sure risk management progress level (level 1=low / level 2=emerging / in the POT to be evaluated with the same level level 3=acceptable / level 4=notable / level 5=optimum) (see informa- of detail. Therefore, the Urban Files, estab- tion presented in the appendixes). The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 177 District Secretariat for Urban Control and Pub- ties, and risks is an awareness of their causal lic Spaces is in charge of, among other functions, factors, dynamics, and evolution, which contrib- supervising and controlling constructions and utes to creating a technical-quality framework works, which are carried out in the District, in of characteristics of existing scenarios. Using accordance with Law 388 of 1997 and the Con- the framework, it is possible to prioritize and struction Code. It also performs the function establish intervention measures for prevention of supervising and controlling compliance with or reduction of risk conditions, from territorial urban standards on the part of urban curators, planning to land use planning to environmental even though this Secretariat has no strategies management. The situation is more critical in for timely control, especially with respect to il- category 2 to 6 municipalities, due to limitations legal occupation and construction that does for accessing and generating updated informa- meet technical standards. Similar situations tion with the required details, gaps in method- have been observed in Cucuta, Cali, Medellin, ologies for evaluating hazards and risks, and and Manizales. On the other hand, Municipal technical, staffing, and financial deficiencies. Comptrollers are in charge of supervising the However, this issue also exists in big cities. Bar- fiscal performance of territorial entities and ranquilla, for instance, lacks hydrometeorologi- presenting an annual report to municipal coun- cal networks and, therefore, it has no input for cils about the state of natural resources and the modeling phenomena. Partial studies have been environment, which includes the topic of disas- carried out and they have not offered any solu- ter prevention and management. Even though tion to the problem of urban arroyos, leading to these entities exist, the results of their reports interventions that have probably increased risk are mixed and do not reflect the use of a detailed conditions. Cucuta, on the other hand, has no methodology that facilitates a real evaluation of seismic microzoning, and flood analysis has risk management. A clear reflection of the gaps not helped to create instruments that regulate in monitoring and control mechanisms can be the occupation of land. It is worth noting that found in the area of citizen participation which, Bogota and Manizales are leaders in acquiring with some exceptions in big cities, is only a re- knowledge through seismic microzoning, which sponse to the demands of the community and allows them to calculate possible loss scenarios, does not constitute preventive actions when risk use the seismic instrumentation laboratory in conditions exist. Manizales, monitoring of hazardous and risky polygons that may be subject to illegal occupa- 3.2.4.4. Knowledge and information for risk tion in Bogota , and varied research into land- management slides, floods, forest fires, and technological hazards. This knowledge has been included in Progress has been made regarding stud- planning instruments (the POT with updated ies and research into restrictions and deter- regulations, standards, blueprints, programs, minants of risks in municipalities. However, and projects, and the programmatic and invest- depending on the subject and territory, there ment components of the PD). are differences in the availability and scope of During the last decade, major efforts the studies and research, which lead to gaps have been made to systematically monitor in the decision-making process. The basis for phenomena and consolidate historical infor- identifying and evaluating hazards, vulnerabili- mation about disasters that have occurred. 178 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies There are experiences in implementing and op- depend on the territorial entities’ own initiatives erating meteorological stations for disaster pre- and are not comparable among each other. vention, with the coordination of municipal administrations and the support of technical or 3.2.4.5. Reduction of risk conditions academic entities16. Medellin has an Early Warn- ing System (SIATA), which was created in 2007 Municipal administrations set trends in to integrate the administration of three networks: the reduction of risk conditions. Bogota and Me- the Medellin Accelerograph Network (RAM), dellin are leaders in this regard, both in terms of the hydrometeorological network with 46 plu- programs and executed investments. In the case of viometers, and the air monitoring network (Red Bogota, there is a program for resettling families Aire), which until then had been administered located in nonmitigable high-risk areas. The pro- by different entities; currently, a weather forecast gram focuses on moving persons from strata 1 and radar is being installed. The goal is to guide deci- 2 exposed to landslides and floods. The DPAE is in sions about the territory, establish priorities, and charge of evaluating the lots, the District of Bogota link them to the early warning systems. There are purchases the lots and arranges for the construc- meteorological stations in Bogota and Maniza- tion of housing, and the FOPAE and the office of les with the purpose of evaluating, among other the mayor of the locality are jointly responsible for things, the hydric hazard associated to severe pre- the rehabilitation and change in use of the zones cipitation and its effect on slopes. Accelerograph that have been vacated and are undergoing re- networks have been installed at strategic loca- settlement. Approximately 9,043 families are in- tions in order to monitor and characterize zones cluded in this program, 43% of which have been with a similar seismic response and establish spe- resettled and the rest are finalizing resettlement. cific regulations for designing and constructing Bogota also has a program for integral improve- seismic-resistant buildings. ment of neighborhoods, which performs actions Information systems are essential in- for supplementing, reorganizing, or adapting il- puts for risk management. Bogota, Medellin, legal settlements, with the purpose of achieving and Manizales have information systems that acceptable levels of safety and security. Medel- consolidate data on studies, concepts, and emer- lin, on the other hand, has pioneered the integral gencies related to disaster risk. Barranquilla re- improvement of neighborhoods with a focus on cently began using a Geographic Information risk reduction. PRIMED, an integral program for System (GIS) with basic information layers and improving subnormal neighborhoods, was imple- up-to-date topics, in order to support the admin- mented from 1992 to 1998. Recently, the city con- istration in decision making and real estate and ducted a pilot program for housing consolidation property registry organization. However, it is not and environmental recovery of the Juan Bobo set up as an instrument for consolidating reports gorge focused on intervention in microbasins and on emergencies and their impacts. For the Inven- reduction of hydrological risk, under the Integral tory of Historical and Everyday Disasters, there are important initiatives by the OSSO Corpora- 16 The topic of knowledge and information has been strengthened thanks tion, DPAD, the Red Cross, and the Civil Defense. to the participation of the university academic sector and the technical- Nevertheless, although the tools exist, they have scientific sector, through institutional research (own funds), interinstitu- tional agreements with municipal and department authorities, as well not been standardized and therefore, databases as management of resources for national and international cooperation at the municipal level are heterogeneous. They to develop research (unofficial cooperation). The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 179 Urban Project (PUI) for the northeastern part of continued growing. According to a report by the the city. In spite of the efforts of Medellin, a long- Planning Department, the urban area went from term policy is not in place that produces significant 25,399 homes in nonmitigable high-risk areas in changes in the dynamics of risk zones, which have 2006 to 26,199 in 2010 (Graphs 3.7 and 3.8). Graph 3.7. Quantitative and qualitative housing deficit. Case studies, 2010 Manizales Cucuta Barranquilla Cali Medellin Bogota 0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 Number of households Households in quantitative de cit Households in qualitative de cit Source: DANE, 2005b. Graph 3.8. Number of houses in nonmitigable high-risk areas. Case studies, 2010 Manizales 5,024 Cucuta 10,000 Barranquilla 6,250 Cali 7,600 2,400 Medellin 26,199 Bogota 10,000 4,475 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 Number of Houses Floods and ash oods Landslides Sources: Bogota: Bogota Mayor’s Office, District Secretariat for the Habitat (SDHT), 2008 and 2007. Medellin: Planning Department, 2010. Cali: Municipal Planning Department, 2010. Barranquilla: Barranquilla Comptroller’s Office, 2009. Cucuta: Local Technical Commission of Disaster Prevention and Management Committee, 2011. Manizales: Local Disaster Prevention and Management Committee, 2008. 180 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Illustrative experiences in mitigation ations and the FOPAE provides the technical works, structural reinforcement, and build- coordination. Carrying out these types of suc- ing protection that go beyond safe con- cessful experiences requires detailed studies, struction and the execution of engineering political resolve, and financial resources for projects have been observed in Manizales their execution. and Bogota. These actions are visible in the Education and communication, which execution of the Manizales Program for the are part of the actions for reducing risks, Protection of Hillsides, which receives ap- have not been a priority at the municipal proximately 65% of the resources invested in level, even though there have been some in- risk management, and it is a response to the terventions that have advanced the culture of serious instability problems of the territory. prevention. In order to reduce risk, interinsti- However, the landslides that occurred in Oc- tutional and social coordination is essential for tober and November 2011, which had a ma- developing various strategies that promote in- jor impact on the city, revealed that although cluding the subject of risk in educational and measures have been taken to improve the sta- community environments. In this regard, in- bility of hillsides, there are still some aspects teresting experiences have been identified; for left to consider. Mitigation works in unstable example, campaigns like “Bogota with Its Feet zones require analysis through detailed mod- on the Ground,”17 “A Culture of Prevention els, and the insertion of higher security fac- and Early Warning ‘Catedra Galeras’” in Pas- tors than those currently used is probably to, “Advancing toward Citizens’ Awareness in necessary in order to take into account not Environmental Education” in Quindio, “Good only the uncertainty associated with the pa- Citizenship Is Our Common Commitment” rameters that were used, such as the intense in Sandona (Nariño), the Hillside Guardians precipitation caused by the La Niña phenom- Program, or the Risk Management Platform enon. On the other hand, the Program for in Manizales18, which contains information on Protection of Public Assets, which was exe- public policies and main developments regard- cuted in 2004, began with a complete analysis ing risk management in the city. On the other of the potential of losses in all of Manizales hand, the perception survey of the “How are we government’s public buildings and took out a doing in Medellin 2009”19 project is one of the single insurance policy for all its public prop- few recent studies on the perception of risk by erties. In Bogota, mitigation works, especially society. It provides information about exposure in the eastern mountains, have been carried levels, capacity for action, and recognition of out as a result of detailed risk analysis, which the performance of entities who are responsi- determines mitigation conditions. Further- ble for risk management. more, structural reinforcement interventions (in buildings that are indispensable and serve the community) have been carried out since 1995 with the purpose of reducing the socio- economic impact of a large-scale event. In this regard, the Finance Secretariat of the District 17 More information on this campaign is available at http://www.sire.gov.co. 18 For more information on this platform go to http://www.manizales. of Bogota has spearheaded a project for re- unal.edu.co/gestion_riesgos/introduccion.php. ducing the fiscal vulnerability in disaster situ- 19 For more information, see Ipsos Public Affairs, 2009. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 181 3.2.4.6. Disaster management suring and evaluating risks, and executing pro- grams and projects dealing with prevention The amount of resources invested in and mitigation, as well as the improvement of disaster management has been increasing its organizational structure. This represents permanently due not only to the increase an unprecedented milestone for the country, in the number of events and the care of the signaling that the protection of a city is high- affected population groups, but also to the ly feasible. It is a requirement that a sum not progress of the entities that are responsible less than 0.5% of the current tax revenues of for disaster management. Bogota and Medel- the central government be included in the an- lin are the cities that have assigned the most nual budget of the District of Bogota. In Man- resources to this sphere. Advances in disaster izales, on the other hand, the Municipal Office management are evident in the programs that for Disaster Prevention and Management has are included in the PD: in Bogota, for example, access to exclusive resources amounting to 1% there has been an improvement in technical of the current revenues of the municipality and and social capabilities for effectively handling decentralized entities. In Medellin, the pro- emergency situations, the Fire Department gram for disaster prevention and management has been modernized, and the 123 Sole Secu- (created by Agreement 14 of 1994) focuses rity and Emergency Hotline (NUSE) has been exclusively on disaster management. There is established. In Medellin, the most important a contrast with the situation in Barranquilla, efforts have been directed toward training the where, even though the Fund for the Preven- members and updating the infrastructure of tion and Management of Emergencies, Calami- the Fire Department, as well as developing re- ties, and Disasters was created in 2008 (Decree lated documents and handbooks. In Manizales, 0419 of 2008) with the purpose of serving the agreements for handling emergencies have been public interest and providing social assistance, made with humanitarian and emergency orga- to date there have been limited resources avail- nizations (Red Cross, Volunteer Firefighters able strictly for emergency management. In Corps, and Civil Defense). There are significant Cali, the situation is even more critical because territorial differences between big cities and even though the Revolving Fund for Safety, the rest of the municipalities in the country, Emergencies, and Disasters was established which, according to surveys, tend to perceive by Agreement 0203 of 2001, it is not yet in op- that their disaster management actions are less eration. In consequence, the humanitarian and effective because they have problems guaran- assistance organizations that used to have the teeing a sustained emergency response capacity. permanent support of the local government An Emergency Prevention and Man- through the Municipal Surveillance and Safety agement Fund is an essential instrument Fund (Visecali), which disappeared in 1996, for developing and consolidating over time are facing financial difficulties in guaranteeing the work that is needed for providing real a sustained capacity for emergency response. protection to municipalities faced with cat- A Local Emergency and Contingency astrophic events. In 1987, the Emergency Pre- Plan (PLEC) is an essential instrument for ef- vention and Management Fund was created fective disaster management. In some cases, in Bogota. Its resources are directed solely at even central government entities have pro- funding processes that protect the city by mea- vided guidance for the preparation and imple- 182 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies mentation of PLEC in order to ensure technical adopted by Decree 411.0.20.0744 of 2010 and quality, which depends, on the one hand, on in- serves as a procedural guide for coordinat- formation that is available at the municipal lev- ing municipal government and institutional el regarding disaster scenarios and definitions actions in order to prepare and organize for of functions, tasks, and resources when faced two possible risk scenarios: flooding due to with such scenarios, and, on the other hand, on breaching of the Cauca River levels and earth- coordination with early warning systems and quakes. Recently, Cucuta completed its 2010 coherence with other planning instruments. PLEC, which demands the commitment and However, not all territorial entities, especially actions for improvement of institutional ac- Category 5 and 6 municipalities, are capable of tors in the face of changes and the elevated preparing high-quality documents. Interesting degree of intervention and destruction of experiences have been identified, such as the natural resources. Barranquilla does not have Manizales Emergency Plan, which was devel- the necessary instruments for coordinating oped in 2003 and includes a Basic Plan (with responses to emergencies and has a low reac- a purpose, objectives, an operating concept, tion capacity. Currently, the city is working on an organizational structure, a resource inven- a PLEC, but a progress report indicates that, tory, and mechanisms for updating the docu- as of 2010, it was only 30% complete. ment), appendixes, and attachments specifying In conclusion, and according to the functions. Since the Plan was adopted, several research done for the case studies, there is drills have been carried out, and the Plan has evidence of major differences in disaster risk been activated during events held in the city. management by municipal and district ad- The Bogota Emergency Plan, which was pre- ministrations. Large cities like Bogota and pared in 2007 and updated in 2008, establishes Medellin have incorporated integral risk man- policies, organizational systems, and general agement into their development in different procedures for facing calamity, disaster, or ways. Although the risk reduction in several emergency situations in the city in a timely, fields is evident in Bogota, more work is re- efficient, and effective fashion. A structured quired in Medellin in order to better harmonize system of matrices, plans, and protocols con- risk management with municipal instruments. tains provisions for classifying emergencies, On the other hand, it has not been possible to functions, and activities, responsible parties, permeate the municipal administration in Cali procedures, organization, coordination, and and Barranquilla so that they include policies, resources that are applicable to emergency programs, and projects for mitigating existing management. Furthermore, there are sustain- risk, preventing potential risk, and managing able post-event rehabilitation, reconstruction, emergencies. However, the elevated exposure to and development plans that provide guidance seismic hazard in the case of Cali, and urban ar- for joint, coordinated, and orchestrated inter- royos in the case of Barranquilla, is well known vention by SPDAE entities, according to their and has been well studied. With respect to Cu- competencies, for the recovery of a geographic cuta, risk management seems to be focused on area that has suffered a serious public calamity, preparation for emergencies, and it has not been a disaster, a public calamity, or an emergency. effectively included in municipal instruments Cali was one of the first cities to have a PLEC. for prevention and mitigation. Manizales, on A new version is recently available, which was the other hand, is characterized by its exposure The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 183 to mass removal phenomena, earthquakes, and of incorporating risk management into their volcanic eruptions. The city has managed to planning, finance, and operations; category 1 congregate entities like Corpocaldas and uni- municipalities have a medium capability, al- versities in the region to actively participate in though, in most cases, they have the resources programs and projects focused on integral di- to duly incorporate risk management into the saster risk management that include advances in territorial administration. In category 2 to 6 knowledge, education, information, risk reduc- municipalities, they have a very low capability tion, and disaster management. to adequately incorporate risk management. Although case studies have concentrat- Therefore, it is necessary to implement differ- ed on big cities in the country, which are in ential strategies in order to provide institution- the Special category or in category 1, it can al and technical support in land use planning be inferred that if they have deficiencies in and public administration to municipalities including risk management in planning and with fewer capacities. Undeniably, an essential public administration instruments, the prob- element for progress is a detailed knowledge lems are even greater in category 2 to 6 mu- of hazards and risks, which is a basic input for nicipalities and aggravated by their lack of formulating risk reduction actions and incor- capacities. As discussed in Chapter 2 of this re- porating them into municipal planning instru- port, it can be inferred that, in general, Special ments (Table 3.3). category municipalities have a high capability 184 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 3.3. Synthesis of the public administration instruments and disaster risk management at local level Case studies Instruments for public administration Instruments for risk management Policies and planning. The subject of risk management has been gradually incorporated into Organization. The CLOPAD has been in place since 2009. The office for coordinating risk management is city policies. The 2007 POT stipulated requirements for reducing risk and identifying necessary and attached to the Office of the Mayor; however, it has not been possible to permeate all the municipal entities priority actions. However, the tools established by the POT for determinants and/or restrictions with their roles and responsibilities in risk management. in flood or landslide hazard areas have not been adopted yet. Furthermore, although there is no Knowledge and information. Studies regarding hazards and risks due to landslides and floods are Master Plan for Risk and Disaster Management, Prevention, and Reduction that assigns actions and underway. These studies will provide input for decision making in the POT. The hydrometeorological network resources to risk management, the current PD includes activities related to risk management. of the city is deficient (only two stations). As a result, no real-life data is available for accurate modeling. Investment and financing. Investments have varied over time, although significant resources have Barranquilla has a very good Geographic Information System, which is the base for generating coverage Barranquilla been available in the last two years. Even though the Emergency, Calamity, and Disaster Prevention related to risk management and city development. and Management Fund was created with clearly established objectives, it lacks the funds needed to Reduction of risk. Some bodies of water have been channeled in order to reduce the risk caused by arroyos. Few meet them. works of mitigation for controlling instability have been carried out. There is no resettlement program for families Monitoring and control. The urban control that is exercised in the city is basically limited to in nonmitigable high-risk areas, although, as of today, the solution has been paying the rent of families who the demands of the community and does not include preventive control. The Office of the Mayor have vacated their homes due to landslides. monitors the PD with respect to objectives that are met, not to the impact of risk management Disaster management. Barranquilla does not have a PLEC that defines procedures, protocols, investments. interinstitutional coordination, or other aspects. Policies and planning. Bogota has had emergency prevention and management policies since Organization. Bogota has a District System for Emergency Prevention and Management (SDPAE), which was 1987 when the FOPAE was created. The POT establishes restrictions and determinants based on established by decree in 1999. All the responsibilities of district entities were defined and revised by Decree the knowledge of hazards and risks to the city as well as the roles of entities and the requirements 332 of 2004. The FOPAE has in-house staff and contractors and is currently attached to the Government for regulating land use planning in the city. With the purpose of providing action and intervention Secretariat of the city. guidance for the District of Bogota, a city decree has established a District Plan for Disaster Knowledge and information. Hazard and threat information is available and is used as input for decision making. Prevention and Management (PDPAE), which is currently being implemented. Furthermore, there is a hydrometeorological network for monitoring the Bogota and Tunjuelito Rivers. The city also Investment and financing. The amount of 0.5% of the current tax revenues of the city is available has an accelerograph network, which helps to calibrate the information on zones included in seismic microzoning. Bogota for disaster risk management. Investments in risk management have been made since the creation The Bogota Emergency and Risk Management Information System (SIRE) is an essential instrument for all the entities of the Emergency Prevention and Management Fund in 1987. Resources for supporting risk in the SDPAE. management are assigned according to the mission and functions of each entity. Reduction of risk. Mitigation works for landslides and floods, antiseismic reinforcement for essential infrastructure, Monitoring and control. The Planning and Finance Secretariats monitor risk management actions resettlement of families from nonmitigable high-risk areas, and the integral improvement of neighborhoods are through the FOPAE, the entity that coordinates the SDPAE. The Office of the Comptroller exercises control some of the actions that have reduced risk in Bogota. after the investments have been made and accompanies the investment process in specific cases. Disaster management. In Bogota, the PLEC is an essential tool for organizing the entities of the District of Bogota in order to respond to events that are classified by impact, coverage, requirements, and other variables. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 185 186 TABLE 3.3. Synthesis of the public administration instruments and disaster risk management at local level (continued) Case studies Instruments for public administration Instruments for risk management Policies and planning. Risk management is very deficient in the policies of this city. Although the Organization. The CLOPAD was created in 1980 as the Emergency Operating Committee (COE). It was POT establishes some protection zones, there are no mechanisms to help enforce the POT regarding initially coordinated by the Cali Surveillance and Safety Fund and then by the Government Secretariat since the occupation of these zones. The hazard information available in Cali has not been used correctly 1997. The CLOPAD played an important role until a few years ago, when changes in the organizational or systematically when making decisions related to land use planning. The PD weakly incorporates structure of the municipal administration debilitated its functions. actions related to risk management. Knowledge and information. Information related to hazards and risks to the municipality have been poorly Investment and financing. Investments are inconsistent with risk management requirements. The incorporated in decision making. There are research groups and universities who have promoted studies, for Revolving Fund for Safety, Emergencies and Disasters, created in 2001 for leveraging financing and several years. The “Digital City” project is underway and will provide a spatial data infrastructure which is an Cali investments, has not begun to operate. essential input for risk management. Monitoring and control. The Office of the Mayor monitors the PD for compliance with goals, but Reduction of risk. Although actions for the rehabilitation of the Cauca River are underway, they are not it does not consider the impact of risk management investments. The Office of the Comptroller carried out in a coordinated fashion; as a result, the interventions have had little impact. Mitigation works and exercises control after the investments have been made. resettlement programs are isolated and do not allow for measurement and evidence of risk reduction in the city. Disaster management. The PLEC was adopted at the end of 2010. Nevertheless, since there is no support from the municipality in the form of resources for disaster response, institutions and volunteer organizations are weak. Policies and planning. Risk management is deficient in municipal policies. The POT includes Organization. There is a CLOPAD in the city; however, it has not been possible to permeate all the municipal hazards and vulnerabilities due to floods and landslides and restricts construction on riverbanks. entities with their roles and responsibilities in risk management. Investment and financing. Investments are inconsistent with risk management requirements. Knowledge and information. Information regarding hazards and vulnerabilities due to floods and Monitoring and control. The Office of the Mayor carries out a study of achievement of goals and landslides is available, but a detailed analysis is required in some areas of the city. Even though Cucuta is a percentage of investment, without measuring the impact of the actions that were executed. city with one of the highest seismic hazards in the country, a seismic microzoning study has not yet been Cucuta carried out. ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Reduction of risk. The determinants and/or restrictions stipulated by the POT in regard to riverbanks are not observed. Uncoordinated interventions are performed and, as a result, their impact on risk reduction cannot be measured. Disaster management. There has been a PLEC since 2010. In addition to showing the high exposure and vulnerability of the city to existing phenomena, it explains risk management needs. TABLE 3.3. Synthesis of the public administration instruments and disaster risk management at local level (continued) Case studies Instruments for public administration Instruments for risk management Policies and planning. Risk management has been incorporated into the city policies and Organization. The OMPAD, coordinated by the Government Secretariat, has technical and financial administration. The POT has established conditions and restrictions based on the information about capabilities and the authority to summon institutions. hazards, vulnerabilities and risks to the city. The PD includes activities and resources that take into Knowledge and information. Information about hazards and risks is available for decision making. account the Integral Risk Management Plan for Manizales. There is very good municipal and regional There are hydrometeorological and accelerograph networks that allow for the improvement of modeling coordination (Corpocaldas). parameters when establishing hazard maps. Investment and financing. Manizales established a 0.2% environmental surcharge for municipal Reduction of risk. Even though risk factors have not been reduced to acceptable levels, the following actions environmental management during the fiscal years 2010 to 2019. The Municipal Disaster Prevention have been carried out in Manizales: mitigation works for landslides and floods, resettlement of families Manizales and Management Office (OMPAD) receives at least 1% of the current revenues of decentralized from nonmitigable high-risk areas, and integral improvement of neighborhoods. A protection program for entities; each Secretariat has resources for risk management, which amount to 2% or more of essential, historic, and vital public buildings, and even for private buildings, is based on incentives in case of municipal revenues. seismic events. It is the only city in the country that has implemented group insurance. Monitoring and control. The Office of the Mayor monitors the execution of the PD. The Office of the Disaster management. Manizales has had a PLEC since 2003 that contains the areas and functions Comptroller exercises control after the investments have been made and accompanies the investment for disaster response as well as the procedures and protocols required for coordinated action among all process in specific cases. On the other hand, Manizales has implemented a Risk Management Index municipal entities. in order to monitor progress in risk management and establish the next steps in order to improve its effectiveness and efficiency. Policies and planning. The subject of risk management has been incorporated into city policies for Organization. The Emergency Operating Committee (COME) was created in 1996 for coordinating almost two decades. The methods for evaluating landslide and flood hazards have been improved emergency response. It was later restructured as an executive, regulatory and, coordinating body for the and seismic microzoning studies are available. The new results of the aforementioned studies have policies and actions of the Municipal Disaster Management and Prevention System (SIMPAD). It is currently not been incorporated in the POT yet because the best way to include them is still being analyzed. attached to the Environment Secretariat. Investment and financing. Including a specific “Disaster prevention and management” item in Knowledge and information. Information is available about hazards and risks due to landslides, floods the municipal accounts has permitted the continuous assignment since 1995 of resources for risk and, earthquakes. However, the studies have been carried out without calibrating and optimizing the management in different PD. Investments have been focused mainly on disaster management and proposed evaluation methods. In consequence, the manner in which the studies should be incorporated represent a low share of total investments (on average, specific allocations through the “Disaster into the POT is under review. Furthermore, there is a hydrometeorological network and an accelerograph Medellin prevention and management” item have been approximately 1.6%); however, many actions directed network. at risk management are included in PD. Currently, a Risk Management Fund that seeks to increase Reduction of risk. Two trends in risk reduction have been implemented in the city: resettlement and the resources for various processes is under development. integral neighborhood improvement. However, a long-term policy has yet to be established in order to Monitoring and control. The Office of the Mayor monitors the execution of the PD. Some of the effectively reduce the population at risk. main causes for the increase of risk in Medellin are a lack of enforcement of the provisions of the Disaster management. The SIMPAD has stood out with its programs for improving the Disaster Prevention land use plan and the technical codes, as well as governance problems on the hillsides. The city has and Management Community Network which was created with the SIMPAD in 1994, and has had an implemented a Risk Management Index of its own initiative in order to monitor risk management Emergency Plan since 2005. activities. It is currently restructuring its institutions for risk management. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 187 3.3. RISK MANAGEMENT INCORPORATION IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF TERRITORY AT THE REGIONAL LEVEL 3.3.1. Characterization of the Colombia is listed as one of the richest regional territories in function of countries in water resources (see Box 3.4) and their water systems has many policies aimed at the protection and conservation of different ecosystems. National Throughout history, human settlements Policy for Interior Wetlands in Colombia (2002) have developed around water systems, due to identifies 20 million hectares of wetlands, but all the search for a safe and permanent supply regions have gone through dynamic hydraulic of drinking water, as well as access to means changes in the ecosystems, so as to change the of transport for mobilization or exchange of use and/or occupation of the land. The lack of products. Most global populations, not just comprehensive actions in environmental pro- large cities, but small urban centers, are located tection, the use of inappropriate techniques in near rivers, lakes, or ports. The way in which activities in agriculture, fishing, and livestock they grow and the safety standards that are ap- handling, the lack of control in the use of soils plied or not applied, are largely dependent on and disarticulation of the actors involved have the decisions made and the use and occupation generated deterioration processes, in which the of the territory, environmental management, ecological and hydrological systems of the coun- and ecosystem protection strategies. try have been altered. Box 3.4. Hydrographic areas in Colombia Colombia’s watershed zoning has three levels. The first is FIGURE 3.1. Colombia’s hydrographic zoning composed of five hydrographic areas, the second has 41 hydrographic zones, and the third level has 309 hydrographic subzones (Ideam, 2010). The five hydrographic areas are: Amazon, the Caribbean, Magdalena-Cauca, Orinoco, and the Pacific. Each hydrographic area comprises large drainage systems that flow into the Pacific, the Caribbean Sea, and the Magdalena, Orinoco, and Amazon Rivers. These zones, characterized by drainage systems, are larger than 10,000 km2 in area, and the subzones have areas larger than 5,000 km2. Of the five hydrographic areas, the Caribbean is of great importance, since it has 71% of permanent and semipermanent wetlands, standing in order of importance as follows: the Momposina Depression complex, the Middle Magdalena, and the Atrato River (according to the National Policy for Interior Wetlands in Colombia). The largest number of the municipal capitals Amazon is concentrated in the Magdalena-Cauca hydrographic area, with 708 Caribbean municipalities, followed by the Orinoquia and the Caribbean areas, with 130 Magdalena-Cauca and 121 municipalities respectively (Figure 3.1). Orinoco Paci c The characteristics of each hydrographic area are seen in the following tables: Source: Idema, 2010 188 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 3.4. Hydrographic areas in Colombia (continued) Table 3.4. Characteristics of the hydrographic areas and zones in Colombia Porcentaje con respecto al total Hydrographic area Hydrographic zone Area (km2) 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% High Magdalena 34,596 Paci c 107 Saldaña 9,963 Mid Magdalena 59,689 Orinoco 107 Sogamoso 23,249 Magdalena- 708 Cauca Low Magdalena/Cauca/ 25,921 Magdalena-Cauca San Jorge Caribbean 121 Cauca 40,986 Nechi 14,613 Amazonas 53 Cesar 22,931 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Low Magdalena 27,243 Number of municipal seats by hydrographic area Magdalena-Cauca total 269,129 Number of municipal seats % of municipal seats % of initial water supply Hydrographic area Hydrographic zone Area (km2) Hydrographic area Hydrographic zone Area (km2) Mira 5,870 Atrato Darien 37,810 Patia 23,995 Caribbean/Uraba 8,601 Amarales/Dagua/ 20,795 Sinu 18,478 Pacific Direct Caribbean/Coast 1,992 Caribeen San Juan 16,412 Caribbean/La Guajira 21,419 Baudo/Direct/Pacific 5,964 Caribean Islas (San 49 Pacifico/Direct 4,252 Andres, Prov., Sta Cat.) Pacific islands Catatumbo 16,472 Pacific total 77,289 Caribbean total 104,821 Hydrographic area Hydrographic zone Area (km2) Hydrographic area Hydrographic zone Area (km2) Inirida 53,95 Guania 31,284 Guaviare 84,570 Vaupes 37,694 Vichada 26,212 Apoporis 53,509 Tomo 20,301 Caqueta 99,969 Orinoco Meta 82,720 Amazonas Yari 37,127 Casanare 24,013 Caguan 20,757 Arauca 11,619 Putumayo 57,930 Orinoco Direct 43,713 Amazonas Direct 3,269 Apure 264 Napo 456 Orinoco total 3,477,208 Amazonas total 341,994 Source: Ideam, 2010 The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 189 The country’s great hydrological and The incorporation of disaster risk man- ecosystem wealth is diminished with the in- agement in the regional public administration appropriate use and occupation of the land, of the territory, and in particular, the planning which has generated the alteration of the and comprehensive intervention of watersheds, hydraulic capacity of rivers, deforestation, was analyzed by means of four pilot study cases. drying of wetlands, pollution and overexploi- Some regions or basins were selected, taking into tation of natural resources. Conflicts between account their relevance in terms of the ability of the use and vocation of the soil have trans- buffering rising tides, the use and occupation of formed natural conditions in the territory; hu- the territory and emergency events, especially al- man settlements in the rivers’ surrounding areas lowing for frequent floods that would affect part and activities such as agriculture and livestock of their territories, among other factors. There- make up some of the major anthropic interven- fore, the analysis focused on the following case tions that affect this transformation. studies: the region of La Mojana, the ecoregion La Niña phenomenon in 2010-2011 of the Canal del Dique, the Sinu River basin and caused flooding of large areas of land. In the Bogota River basin, and above all in the area May 2011, flooding area in the country corre- of the Bogota Savanna. sponded to 2,091,819 hectares, linked to 1,488 Although case studies show some simi- independent events. Starting from the matrix larities in terms of disaster risk conditions and of La Niña phenomenon 2010-2011, Damage intervention and occupation processes, they Evaluation of the General Risk Directorate of also reflect differences and particularities so the Ministry of Interior and Justice, floods and that recommendations can be offered accord- landslides, as major events, affected approxi- ing to territorial reality (see Box 3.5). A reading mately 3,310,000 people, and caused 447 deaths, of selected regional case studies makes it possible 524 injured, and 72 missing. Damages to hous- to identify the characteristics of each territory, ing at a national level are approximately 8,000 and from there, establish recommendations that destroyed and 354,000 damaged homes. favor the articulation between territorial admin- istration and disaster risk management. Floods. Municipality of Monteria (Cordoba, Colombia), 2011. Photography: María Isabel Toro Quijano. 190 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 3.5. Regional case studies. Summary Case studies include the La Mojana region, the Canal del Dique, the Sinu River, and the Bogota River basin. Each of them have specific features and they are subject to different phenomena, especially those of hydrometeorological origin (Table 3.5). Table 3.5. Physical characteristics and institutionalism Departments Municipalities Case CAR in charge Main physical characteristics involved involved La Mojana Antioquia, 11 municipalities: Nechi, San Corpomojana, From the municipality of Nechi, the Cauca River forms a cone or internal delta region Cordoba, Sucre, Jacinto del Cauca, Ayapel, Corantioquia, CSB of approximately 100 km in length to its mouth in the Magdalena, forming and Bolívar Guaranda, Majagual, San (Southern Bolivar Regional a large flooded plain, which in its middle reaches 75 km in width and is Benito Abad, San Marcos, Achi, Autonomous Corporation), traversed by numerous streams, where there are more than one hundred Caimito, Sucre and Magangue. CVS (Valles del Sinu wetlands. The topography is almost flat (South at 36 mamsl and to the North and San Jorge Regional at 16 mamsl) favoring the retention of water. Only 10.38%, which is, 52,031 Autonomous Corporation), hectares of the whole area, represents free flood zones. and Cormagdalena Canal del Atlantic, Bolivar, 26 municipalities: insular CRA (Atlantic Regional The region of Canal del Dique goes from the western portion of the Dique and Sucre area, Arjona, Arroyohondo, Corporation), Carsucre, Magdalena River delta to its mouth in the Caribbean Sea. The area ecoregion Calamar, Campo de la Cruz, Cardique, and contains water bodies of salt marshes and brackish marshes, over 21,300 Carmen de Bolivar, Cartagena Cormagdalena hectares are mirrors and swamps of great ecological importance, and (Pasacaballos), Luruaco, other 87,000 hectares are flooded low-lying areas, whose floors are Mahates, Manati, Maria La Baja, renewed annually with the overflow of solid materials from the Canal. Piojo, Repelon, Sabanalarga, This delta zone has been abandoned by the Magdalena River, but remains San Cristobal, San Estanislao a floodable area, with a tendency of sea water to penetrate inland de Kotska, San Jacinto, San and sporadic invasions of fresh water from the river during periods of Juan Nepomuceno, San Onofre, flooding(1). Santa Lucia, Soplaviento, Suan, Turbaco, Turbana, Usiacuri and Villanueva. Sinu River Cordoba, 16 municipalities: San Carlos, CVS The Sinu River basin has an area of approximately 1,395,244 hectares, of basin Antioquia, and Chima, Momil, Purisima, which 93 percent cent corresponds to Cordoba Department; the total length Sucre Cotorra, Monteria, Cerete, of the main riverbed is 437.97 km from its source, in the Nudo de Paramillo Cienaga de Oro, San Pelayo, to 3,500 mamsl, to its mouth in the Tinajones delta. The highest part of Lorica, Planeta Rica, Sahagun, the basin is typical of a mountain environment, rapidly changing to an Chinu, San Antero, Sincelejo, alluvial valley, which begins approximately near Angostura de Urra, with an and Sampues. average width of 26 km to the city of Monteria. The flanks of the Valley are determined by a series of hills belonging to the mountain ranges of Abibe and San Jeronimo. In the area, the river is rambling, meandering, with some straight sections partially structurally controlled, and shows a large amount of riverbeds and abandoned meanders. From Monteria, the Valley has an average width of 40 km, the river changes its pattern of high sinuosity and it becomes straighter, continuing with the same pattern until it arrives in the municipality of Lorica. There the width of the Valley is significantly reduced and it changes its course to the West, as well as the main channel, to the mouth of the river in the current delta. In the upper part of the basin, the Sinu River flow serves to produce electrical energy in the Urra I dam. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 191 Box 3.5. Regional case studies. Summary (continued) Table 3.5. Physical characteristics and institutionalism (continued) Departments Municipalities Case CAR in charge Main physical characteristics involved involved Bogota Cundinamarca 41 municipalities, (not including Car (Cundinamarca The Bogota River is in the Guacheneque moorland, near Villapinzon, River basin Bogota), Villapinzon, Choconta, Regional Autonomous about 3,300 mamsl, and its waters flow southeast until ending in the Suesca, Sesquile, Gachancipa, Corporation) Magdalena, in Girardot, at 280 mamsl. Its length is 375 km. The basin Tocancipa, Zipaquira, Cajica splits into three main parts, according to its topographic and climatic Sopo, Chia, Cota, Nemocon, characteristics: high basin between its origin and its flow into the urban La Calera, Cogua, Guatavita, perimeter of Bogota; the middle basin is from the beginning of the urban Guasca, Tabio, Tenjo, Funza, perimeter up to the floodgates of the municipality of Alicachin, near the Mosquera, Soacha, Sibate, Salto del Tequendama; and the low basin, from Alicachin up to its mouth Subachoque, El Rosal, Madrid, in the Magdalena River, for a total area of 1,691 km2. The first two basins Facatativa, Bojaca, San Antonio cover an area of 4,305 km2. The case study focused on the problems of the del Tequendama, Tena, La Mesa, Bogota Savannah. El Colegio, Anapoima, Apulo, Tocaima, Agua de Dios, Ricaurte, Girardot, Zipacon, Cachipay, Anolaima, and Viota. (1) The Canal del Dique, opened in 1650, initially connected the river with the old Bahía de Matuna (and this with Cartagena through the so-called Caño del Estero), until 1934, when the needs of navigation and the availability of equipment for the cutting of hard materials connected the Canal directly with the Cartagena Bay due to the cut of the Paricuica near the town of El Recreo. Three rectifications and dredging of the Canal have been done to improve the waterway from 1934 to date. The last intervention was carried out in 1984, which resulted in a 116 km long channel of approximately 80 to 90 meters wide and with variable depths of between 3 and 10 meters and with an average flow 540 m3/s greater than 540 m3/s than it previously had. Both in rural and urban areas, the relationship between disaster risk and poverty grows as environment degradation increases. Natural ecosystems (wetlands, forests, mangroves, and river basins) play a key role in the regulation of the frequency and the intensity of hazards such as flooding and landslides. Frequently, they are also an important source of additional income for the poor. The degradation of ecosystems diminishes their capacity to provide these services and thus increases hazards and vulnerability. Communities in developing countries are often disproportionately dependent on contributions from their ecosystems (UNISDR 2009, p. 10). Table 3.6. Regional socioeconomic characteristics. Case studies Size Poverty (1) Study area Population (1) Housing (1) (ha) (UBN) La Mojana region 500,963 463,372 76,362 70.9 Canal del Dique ecoregion 500,000 677,159 122,118 59.5 Sinus River basin 1,395,244 1,068,204 244,327 62.3 Bogota River basin 600,000 1,201,345 (2) 400,830 24.5 (1) DANE, 2005a. (2) This data does not include Bogota. According to the 2005 census, Bogota has a total population of 7,363,782 habitants. “In low-income rural areas, poverty leads to disaster risk due to the vulnerability of rural livelihoods. Limited access to productive land, technology, loans, and other productive assets means that poor rural households largely depend on agriculture for their livelihood and subsistence. Difficulties in accessing the markets, unfavorable trade policies, and the lack of investment in infrastructures amplify the vulnerability” (UNISDR 2009, p. 10). In 2003, poverty was a characteristic of the La Mojana region. However, the sectorization coincides with the natural characteristics of flooding. The same year, the UBN indicator corresponded to 85.1% (Aguilera, 2004). Poverty was mainly linked with the problem of access to land and common property, as well as the decline in farming and fisheries production. When analyzing two typical areas of La Mojana, it is noticed that the north area, or flooded area, is poorer and more vulnerable than the southern area, or terrestrial area. In the northern area, more than 70% of the families are poor, have limited access to land, and its population depends on hunting and fishing activities, making evident a major interdependency of subsistence and the state of the ecosystems. 192 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 3.5. Regional case studies. Summary (continued) The graph below shows urban and rural population percentages for each case study. It is important to state that although the average rural population in La Mojana accounts for 52.2% of the total population of 11 municipalities of the ecoregion, due to Magangue’s figures that make a difference in the average value, this value is much higher in most of the municipalities. For example, Achi’s rural population is 83%, in San Jacinto del Cauca’s is 76.29%, and San Benito Abad’s is 75.86%. Graph 3.9. Urban-rural population distribution. Graph 3.10. Regional Unsatisfied Basic Needs. Case studies Case study, 2010 (UBN as of December 31, 2008) Bogota Bogota River basin 75% 25% River basin 24.5 20.6 28.4 Sinu 52% 48% Sinu 62.3 50.9 71.1 River basin River basin Canal del Canal Dique 68% 32% del Dique 59.5 61.1 56.1 ecoregion ecoregion La Mojana 48% 52% La Mojana 70.9 58.6 77.7 region region 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150 200 250 Urban Rural Total UBN Urban UBN Rural UBN Source: DANE, 2005a. Source: DANE, 2010. Poverty conditions, in which the large majority of the population lives in the Sinu River basin and in La Mojana and Canal del Dique regions, make it impossible to have economic growth, social equality, and environmental sustainability of the basins. While people do not have access to decent employment, social and public services, adequate nutrition, and decent housing, the stagnation of human and regional capital as well as social conflicts will continue to increase. It is necessary to emphasize the strong link between difficult environmental conditions in the basins and the precarious living condition that a great number of the population undergoes, considering that the high demand of natural resources for subsistence and poor basic sanitation manifested in high levels of pollution, landfills, and invasion of water bodies and environmentally important areas, among other aspects, that produce environmental degradation of the basins, and likewise this environmental deterioration acts as a detriment to the quality of life of the population. 3.3.2. The causes that generate km2 in 1981. Within the subbasin, the most se- and accumulate risk conditions rious case is the Rendona, Martinica, Garzal, in the basins Juncal, and Pozo Bonito system of marshes, which were reduced from 18.7 km2 in 1961 to Use and occupation of the territory in 1.8 km2 in 1984, equivalent to a 90.6% reduc- areas near alluvial plains result in the reduc- tion, despite having been declared a Wildlife tion of natural buffer zones in rivers. This Reserve of the State in 1974. In March (dry loss in the storage capacity in the river flow season), during the period from 1973 to 1991, is one of the principal causes of floods in La Mojana basins20 went from 391 hectares to Colombia. Each of the wetland system com- 279 hectares, involving a loss of 111 thousand ponents is subject to major anthropogenic hectares of the buffer area in that period, that pressures that tend to modify both its structure is 38% of the basin areas, behavior similar to and operation, making it vulnerable and frag- ile. In the past 40 years, the left bank wetlands of the Sinu River, located in La Caimanera sub- 20 Flood basins, also called flooded depressions or basins (Martinez, 1992 basin, went from an area of 26.46 km2 to 6.61 Villota, 1991), are receiving depressions of surplus water overflow and fine sediments. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 193 that of the spouts (Diaz-Granados, 2003). Only nados, 2003). However, at least 260,000 heads the number of sandy banks in Majagual (Sucre) of bovine cattle that need dry land remain increased significantly, having changed from in La Mojana throughout the year, and these 52,000 hectares in 1987 to 80,000 hectares in cover an area equivalent to 213,000 hectares 2001. It was mainly due to land adaption and (Aguilera, 2004). basin drying resulting from agricultural activi- Informal connections between marsh- ties. On the other hand, in the Bogota River es, water bodies, canals, and river bypasses basin in 1972, when studies were carried out that transport or simply store the water, con- for Bogota’s Sewage Master Plan, more than tribute to ponding. In the Canal del Dique, 50% of the area at risk was purely agricultural, La Mojana region, and the wetland complex of whereas today more than 75% of the area is ur- the Sinu River basin, most of the marshes and ban or suburban. water bodies in the surrounding areas are con- In recent decades in Colombia, as in nected. Only recently have these connections most countries in Latin America and the Ca- been studied and these are largely controlled by ribbean, there has been a direct relationship the owners of nearby farms, who completely or between the expansion of livestock and de- partially close them so that they can use the ba- forestation. Colombia increased the number sins in agriculture or livestock activities. Nev- of livestock to 1,315,895 during 1990-2005, and ertheless, the Canal del Dique fishermen try to its forest coverage decreased 711,000 hectares keep these connections open and as a conse- in the same period. The estimated loss of soil, quence, there are frequent violent conflicts be- caused in part by deforestation, is 145,132,500 tween farmers and fishermen. tons per year, resulting in sediments mostly de- Poverty conditions and lack of infra- posited in river basins, in natural buffer areas, or structure services, in which the majority of ending up in the sea (ECLAC and GTZ, 2008). the population of the Sinu River basin and There is a clear and obvious difference the regions of La Mojana and Canal del Dique between the current use and soil suitability live, have not allowed an adequate economic in the Sinu River basin, as well as in the La growth, and affect the environmental sus- Mojana region. Extensive livestock farm- tainability of the watersheds. It is necessary ing in the Sinu River basin ranges between to emphasize the strong link between the harsh 51.75% and 62.6% of the total area depend- environmental conditions of the basins and the ing on the climate regime, while soils suit- precarious living standards that the majority able for livestock in the basin increase up to of their residents are subject to. Furthermore, 7.1%. Agriculture takes place in an area that it should be taken into account that there is can range from 75,000 hectares up to 130,000 a high demand for natural resources for the hectares, but soils with agricultural potential population to subsist on, deficient basic sanita- are around 378,000 hectares (due to the prof- tion, which is confirmed by high levels of pol- itability of this economic activity) (CVS and lution, the filling and invasion of water bodies Fonade 2004, CVS and National University and environmentally important areas, among of Colombia-Bogota 2005). In the La Mojana other aspects, which generates environmental region, it is reported that only 10.38%, that is degradation and which in turn decreases the 52,000 hectares, is flood-free areas (Diaz-Gra- population’s quality of life. 194 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 3.6. Territorial occupation processes and risk conditions Sinu River basin La Mojana region The Sinu River, in its floodplain, includes large areas historically La Mojana is a large floodplain resulting from the buffering of liquid prone to flooding. In the past, the river poured its excess flow into and solid basins from the Magdalena, Cauca, and San Jorge Rivers, the floodplain, where the excess of water was stored in large swampy arranged in a flood delta. The most important feature is an area so areas, which were interconnected with surplus natural canals. These small that it occupies flood-free zones, corresponding to only 10% canals slowly led the water toward buffer systems. Conditions today of the total area of this region. La Mojana has changed drastically, are radically opposite; natural buffer systems and principal canal leading to a decrease in flood zones and an increase in the plains. This banks are characterized by intense human intervention and ranching. area is characterized by agrarian activities. The 11 municipalities that Among the municipalities most affected by flood events in the Sinu make up the region are constantly affected by periodic floods. River basin are Lorica and Monteria (Cordoba). Canal del Dique ecoregion Bogota River basin The Canal del Dique is a delta area at the mouth of the Magdalena The river runs along 46 municipalities in the department of River and although not covered by the river, it still retains the Cundinamarca. Wetlands and buffer zones have been reduced character of a low flood zone, with the tendency to let seawater through human intervention. For activities related to agriculture, and some sporadic invasions of fresh water penetrate from the river livestock, floriculture, and housing, school, and infrastructure during flood periods. From 1934 to date, there have been three construction, the Bogota River constantly impacts the region rectifications and dragging into the canal in order to improve the because of the floods caused by its overflow during the rainy waterway. Agriculture and fishing have been especially developed season. The repercussions are particularly concentrated in the in this region. There have been flood and erosion events in 19 municipalities bordering the Bogota River in the Ubate Valley and municipalities that make up the region. Lake Fuquene. The lack of planning and inadequate works designed to provide adequate safety on implementation of land use planning instru- facing recurrent periods of disaster events, but ments has resulted in growth of human set- also the urgent implementation of policy plan- tlements near the rivers. The effects of forced ning and control to prevent construction of new displacement and migration in Colombia as well developments (Graph 3.11.) as other factors that generate social, economic, and political pressure, added to inadequate planning and territorial control, have resulted Graph 3.11. Quantitative and qualitative regional housing in the increase of population in informal settle- deficit. Case Studies, 2010 ments located close to rivers, contributing to an increase of the population at risk. In the case of 160,000 the Bogota River basin, large urban centers have 140,000 120,000 expanded to the wetlands and river rounds, es- Number of houses 100,000 pecially in the upper and medium basins, where 80,000 there has been much construction of farms, 60,000 40,000 country clubs, golf courses, and schools in un- 20,000 suitable areas. The result has been the modifi- - La Mojana Canal del Sinu Bogota region Dique River basin River basin cation of land conditions making it difficult to ecoregion provide maintenance to the drainage infrastruc- Houses in quantitative de cit Houses in qualitative de cit ture, such as dredging and eradicating vegetation (hyacinth). These development circumstances Source: DANE, 2005b. do not generate only the need to construct civil The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 195 Human intervention in the upper and extended to 17 other municipalities, for a to- middle parts of the Cauca and Magdalena tal of 28 in the same four departments. Sepa- River basins generate variations in the hy- rately, in the ecoregion of the Canal del Dique, drological behavior of the area, thus increas- the following authorities have participated: ing the chances of flood threats in the La the Ministry of Transport, through Corma- Mojana region. It must be remembered that La gdalena; environmental authorities such as Mojana hydrology reflects the behavior of the Cardique, the Atlantic Regional Autonomous upper and middle basins of Cauca and Magda- Corporation (CRA), and Carsucre, in addi- lena Rivers. Upstream human activities such as tion to Sucre, Atlantico, and Bolivar govern- deforestation, which increase surface erosion ments, and the city halls of 19 municipalities. rates and increase the relation of runoff-infil- Decisions that do not seek to fully tration and uncontrolled mining dramatically solve problems and that do not have a con- influence solid flows, potentially increasing sensus among public and private interests floods in La Mojana. On the other hand, an in- are contributing to increasing risk. Although crease in the occupation of the area affects the studies conclude that the main problems in regulatory features and natural buffers in the the Canal del Dique are not sediments, dif- region, thus these become a threat to its popu- ferent interest groups insist on dredging, put- lation and its productive activities. ting aside work required to control floods. Some actions generated by different Moreover, it was evident that during the last entities lead to making isolated decisions, episode of La Niña in 2010-2011, the risk which do not solve the need to integrally situation was not limited to the population develop a specific area. It is very common of the lower socioeconomic strata residing in in Colombia that for the same hydrographic the middle basin of the Bogota River, both in basin, different authorities, such as the CAR, Bogota and in Chía. This situation made ob- territorial authorities, and national organiza- vious the conflicts of interest between public tions converge with the aim of planning and and private sectors and the lack of adequate executing works and environmental or devel- criteria in territorial planning, especially in opment projects. This congregation of entities suburban and rural areas. results in disorganization, inadequate man- The most frequent events in case stud- agement, and ineffective control. Corantio- ies of the Caribbean coast are floods and quia, Southern Bolivar Corporation (CSB), windstorms, and in the Andean region and El Valle del Sinu and San Jorge Corporation in the Bogota River basin, the most frequent (CVS), and Corpomojana have jurisdiction events are floods, forest fires, and land- in the La Mojana region. Cormagdalena has slides. The following graphs show the number authority in navigation issues and other as- of registers of disaster events in numbers and pects. In addition, there are the departmental percentages (Graphs 3.12 and 3.13). governments of Antioquia, Cordoba, Sucre, and Bolivar, and city halls from more than 11 municipalities. However, when viewed as an ecoregion and considering the immediate area of influence of regional strategic ecosystems (DNP-DPAD and UNDP, 2008), La Mojana is 196 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 3.12. Register of disaster events by number. Case studies, 1970-2011 Bogota River basin Sinu River basin Canal del Dique ecoregion La Mojana region 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Other Wild re Flash ood Landslide Heavy rain Gale Flood Source: Author’s graph from the information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation and DesInventar, 2011. According to the 2010 General Comp- ment of wetlands. Despite the efforts made by troller Office report, there is no reliable in- different political and administrative actors, formation on areas with suitable irrigation there are many problems to be solved in this works done by the private sector in Colombia. ecoregion, among others: deterioration and The audit, prepared for Incoder in 2009, reports mismanagement of wetlands, lack of hydrolog- that there are 310,000 hectares with land adap- ical and mapping information, concentration tion infrastructure for agricultural purposes in of land ownership and property title problems, Colombia, of which 181,000 hectares are irri- which restricts their use by the local popula- gated, and that these correspond to 27 medium tion, extreme poverty, agrarian production still and large scale districts, and 40,000 hectares that carried out with conventional technologies and have small-scale irrigation. The paper asserts that not appropriate to the environment, inefficient there is no reliable information related to areas administrative capacity to plan and manage de- adopted with irrigation works and done by the velopment; and finally, but not less important- private sector. Incoder estimates that there are be- ly, weakness in public and private institutions, tween 900,000 and 1,135,300 total hectares with and a fragile social organization. In addition land adaption works in the country (irrigation, to these factors, there are those related to haz- drainage, and/or flood control), indicating weak ards and risks, environmental planning, infe- control of the appropriation or modification of rior development of regional weather warning the natural buffer systems. systems, the disordered dredging and cleaning La Mojana sustainable Development of the spouts, rehabilitation of rural roads, and Program (PDSM) classifies, among the struc- poor monitoring and evaluation of the current tural problems of the region, the mismanage- processes (see Box 3.7). The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 197 Graph 3.13. Register of disaster events by percentage. Case studies, 1970-2011 Bogota river basin Sinu basin Canal del Dique ecoregion La Mojana Region 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Other Forest Fires Flash oods Landslide Heavy rain Gale Flood Source: Author’s graph from information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011. Box 3.7. The importance of the La Mojana ecosystem It is important and necessary for the country to recognize La Mojana as a National Patrimony Water Regulating Region. La Mojana is defined in numerous documents as a strategic ecosystem that influences the natural balance of the country. This area complies with very important ecological and environmental functions, which include flow regulation, buffering of river water tides, and accumulation of sediments from the three major rivers of Colombia: Magdalena, Cauca, and San Jorge, which makes it a region with rich biodiversity and numerous wetlands(1). Human activities in this region influence and are inversely influenced simultaneously by the dynamics of the La Mojana system of which some may be negative, thus resulting in the progressive decline of the system. This deterioration should be mitigated by actions that seek recovery, and preservation of ecosystems and sustainable development in socioeconomic production activities, taking into account the nature of the wetland region, which implies a proper management of the ecosystem (Diaz-Granados, 2003, p. 323). (1) The total annual volume of sediment that reaches the Composing Depression is estimated to be 165,000,000 tons, of which 14% is deposited in the swamp system (Cormagdalena and Ideam, 2001). 3.3.3. Social agents in the tors that manage and control water systems generation and reduction of in the country. The case of the Bogota River ba- regional risk conditions sin, where the Bogota Power Company (EEB), the Bogota Aqueduct and Sewerage Company Entities responsible for providing and (EAAB), the Electric Power Generation Com- supplying clean drinking water for human pany S.A. (EMGESA), and the Cundinamarca consumption and waste water management, Regional Autonomous Corporation (CAR) and power generation companies, and Regional other public and private companies operate, is Autonomous Corporations are the main ac- one of the best examples of concurrence of dif- 198 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies ferent actors and interests in the same territo- lation of policies, regulation, and control are ry. CAR and the EAAB meet flood control and exercised by the National Government, while water regulation functions. Some reservoirs municipalities are responsible for providing ef- belonging to the basin are operated by different ficient services. Departments are responsible for entities: CAR (Neusa and Sisga reservoirs), EEB designing and implementing Departmental Wa- (Tomine reservoir), and the EAAB (Tunjuelo ter Plans (PDA), as set forth in planning strate- River system, Los Tunjos, Chisaca, La Regadera, gies and interinstitutional coordination, with the and Cantarrana reservoirs). Proper manage- aim of achieving full harmonization of resources ment of flows and river levels requires that all and implementation of sustainable and efficient entities related with the basin work jointly, not schemes in the provision of home-based public only for the optimization of water resources, but services of drinking water and basic sanitation. to control growth levels and prevent flooding in All of this implies proper coordination between the area in the rainy season. local authorities with the CAR in the optimiza- The CAR, as entities responsible for the tion of water resources. preparation of the Watershed Management Large landowners have put pressure Plans, play a key role in planning and man- on land use, especially in the development agement. They promote and perform works of livestock and agriculture. Studies carried in irrigation, drainage, flood control, regu- out by the National University of Colombia late the flows, water streams, and land recov- (CVS and National University of Colombia in ery needed for the defense, protection, and Medellin, 2006) indicate that historically the proper management of watersheds in the ter- structure of land ownership in the territory, ritory under their jurisdiction. However, ac- including the “Marshy Complex” watershed tions required for environmental control and of the Lower Sinu, has been a model for large risk reduction are weakened by lack of coor- states, and in which in the majority of cases dination among the various entities involved. their principal activity was extensive livestock In fact, entities such as Cardique, CRA, and farming. This type of farming continues to ab- Carsucre are involved in the Canal del Dique sorb small land holdings and introduces land management. Moreover, the CRA has some re- belonging to the marshy complex area through sponsibility for the Mallorquín swamp, the Ca- land adaption processes by means of construct- ribbean Sea, and the Magdalena River. While ing drainage channels, pumping systems, and joint committees have been created for regu- dikes. In addition to impacting the ecosystem, lation and watershed management, there is no this situation creates a social problem in that it doubt that it needs comprehensive coordina- breaks the cultural pattern of relationship be- tion with the necessary resources to advance in tween fishermen and farmers in the dynamics actions and investments identified in various of the natural ecosystem from which they earn planning instruments. their livelihood. Lack of public administration Departments and municipalities have and lack of application of existing regulation direct responsibilities in guaranteeing the for land use planning, as well as the perception provision of drinking water. Law 142 of 1994 of the population, who consider the swamp as a served as a guide for the adoption of a safe drink- vacant lot, a territory not belonging to anyone ing water and basic sanitation policy. The sector and not valued as a public good, increase the is based on separation of functions, so formu- problems caused by land tenure. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 199 Some social agents such as farmers, fish- According to the functions established ermen, and farm workers trying to earn their by National Law (Act 13 of 1990, Act 41 of livelihood, develop activities that produce con- 1993, Act 160 of 1994, and Decree 3759 of tinuous draining of swamps and mangrove 2009), Incoder has the primary objective of degradation in the territories. In the last two implementing agrarian policy and rural devel- decades, there has been an important shrimp in- opment, facilitating access to production fac- dustry in the Canal del Dique, which has had lit- tors, strengthening local authorities and their tle respect for environmental regulations and has communities, and promoting coordination of greatly affected the wealth of the mangrove area, the institutional activities in rural areas. These which supposedly had to be protected by interna- actions should be executed under the principles tional treaties signed by Colombia. On the other of competitiveness, equality, sustainability, mul- hand, the process of adapting illegal land use to tifunctionality, and decentralization in order to increase the agricultural frontier is a detriment help improve the quality of life of the rural popu- to the marshes and the wetlands, which are areas lation and the country’s socioeconomic develop- assigned for public use. The practice of adopting ment. Among Incoder’s responsibilities, the one illegal land blocks the outlets to the Canal and the that most stands out is the promotion of eco- connecting streams. nomic and social consolidation in rural devel- Universities have accompanied the pro- opment areas in having a common purpose and cesses related to knowledge of hydrological joint objectives in agriculture, forestry, and fish- and hydraulic characteristics of the basins. The ery production programs. Furthermore, these National University of Colombia, La Universidad should address the specific realities of the rural del Norte, and Los Andes University, among oth- and ethnic communities. Secondly, the Institute ers, have participated by implementing advanced has also the function of clarifying, delimiting, instruments and technologies in watershed mod- and restoring sandy banks, “madre-viejas”, dried eling and providing counseling and support to river areas, lakes, and wetlands as property of regional and local governments in decision mak- the nation; regulating the use and management ing. Joint work between academia and local and of the sandy banks and communal savannahs; environmental authorities should continue in and protecting the river basin protection areas. implementing cooperation strategies and inter- Technical coherence in the compliance of these agency agreements. two main functions should ensure the proper In the La Mojana region, the institu- use and occupation of natural buffer areas with- tional actors are uncoordinated and there are out creating conflict with the development of major environmentally sensitive conditions agrarian activities in the country. with enormous socioeconomic transforma- Currently, leadership for the work im- tion processes, thus it is necessary to know the plementation for the Bogota River basin is relationship between these two components. defined by a court ruling, issued by the Cun- Despite national efforts to promote the region, dinamarca Administrative Tribunal in 2004, there is very little administrative capacity to plan ordering the CAR to manage hydraulic adap- and manage development in La Mojana. The area tion throughout the area, including the Capi- needs rural development policies that address ap- tal District. This gave rise to the Investment propriate technologies for the environment. Fund for the Hydraulic Adequacy of the Bogota 200 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies River (FIAB), in 2004, and District Agreement and rules in watershed management, appro- 17 of 2007 between the District entities and the priate zoning in land use, and protection of CAR. The FIAB since then relies on compen- natural resources that support the basins. sation resources and loans to meet project de- They also include institutional, administra- velopment, providing effective protection for tive, financial, and economic strategies to events with a recurrence period of up to 100 carry out the plan, as well as monitoring and years. The mentioned court ruling and District controlling instrumental plans. Regional En- agreement between the entities determine that vironmental Management Plans (PGAR) are the EAAB should perform most of the River’s typical environmental planning instruments Environmental Sanitation Program. It has to of the CAR. Their strategic and long-term21 construct sewer interceptors and the Canoas character provides guidelines to strengthen treatment plant, whereas the CAR executes the environmental management, and provides adaption of the river and the optimization of guidance to various regional actors in order the El Salitre plant and those of other munici- to protect and sustainably exploit the use of palities in the Bogota Savannah. According to natural resources. The Regional Environmen- CAR, these river project activities, including tal Management Plans (PGAR), regulated by the El Salitre plant, should be finished in 2013, Decree 1865 of 1994, cover at least four main and the Canoas Residual Treatment Plant and components: environmental diagnosis, re- the other 22 municipal Waste Water Treatment gional environmental vision development, Plants (PTAR) should be finished in 2015. strategic lines, and monitoring and evalua- tion instruments. The PGAR contain the CAR strategic guidelines and they constitute its 3.3.4. Use and effectiveness navigation map to intervene in the regions. of risk management and Therefore, regional environmental planning public instruments in the is built around the guidelines arising from administration of regional POMCA preparation as a decisive instrument territories for land use planning and the PGAR. Action Plans were created through Decree 1200 of 3.3.4.1. Use and effectiveness of public 2004, together with the Income and Expendi- administration instruments ture Budget in the CAR. These plans materi- alized the PGAR strategic visions, and those Colombia has different structural in- are the instruments that define and guide en- struments at a regional level for environmental vironmental investments, which will be devel- and land use planning. In 2002, delineations oped by the CAR in their jurisdictions. were defined and regulated for the use of wa- The POMCA are decisive for the prepa- tersheds through Decree 1729, which ordered ration of the municipalities’ POT, and should the preparation of Plans for Management of provide guidelines to orient land use planning Watersheds (POMCA) by the environmen- processes, as being a normative hierarchy of tal authorities. Currently, a good part of the other legal provisions available to the entities. POMCA initiatives are long-term plans that include analysis of the watersheds, planning scenarios, sustainability criteria in patterns 21 Ten-year validity. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 201 However, on many occasions, the POMCA interests of the individual actors. General men- take the opportune hazard information pro- tion of natural phenomenon hazards only ap- vided by the municipal POT, but do not pro- pears in general framework components, in the vide a comprehensive watershed analysis. PGAR diagnosis, in Actions Planning, and the In most POMCA, only the current phenomenon POMCA, as well as in the regional vision and in the basins is mentioned, but they do not ex- the environmental synthesis of the instruments. pose a spatial analysis of the hazard and much This particular way of dealing with the subject less of the risk. Many of them, instead of con- is the result of the absence of a comprehensive tributing to the POT, gather information related perspective that would group and articulate to these, to the point that some of them men- other complementary approaches, favoring an tion that, while the municipal POT does not environmental management sectoral vision, have any hazard information, neither do they rather than a more comprehensive and holistic include that information in the watershed man- vision, associated with risk control and man- agement plans. The 2007 POMCA, developed by agement of natural phenomena. Although the the CAR, associated with the ecoregion of the PGAR are more integrated to the Action Plans, Canal del Dique, includes the same concepts since the latter put in place strategies and ac- related to hazards existing in the region’s POT. tion lines of the former, there is not a clear link It does not have a comprehensive vision of the with the POMCA. In other words, the PGAR flooding hazards, which are more relevant and and Action Plans are not articulated with the require greater attention in the watersheds. The POMCA. Although the POMCA nature exceeds same can be said about the Bogota River Basin the CAR jurisdictions, the PGAR and the Ac- POMCA, where excepting the Capital District, tion Plans become complementary instruments no other municipal POT has duly incorporated in allocating resources and improving water- the problem of flooding. Fragile inclusion of el- shed planning and management. The absence of ements for risk management in regional plan- articulation between instruments prevents the ning instruments, which should be guiding and strategies developed by these three instruments determining for the POT preparation, weakens from articulating efforts and providing greater integration between the two instruments, and impact in the regions. in turn integration with the municipal and de- The lack of integration of the CAR plan- partmental PD. However, cases such as the Sinu ning instruments with the POT and PD at River basin and La Mojana POMCA stand out, municipal and departmental levels reduces where hazard analysis was properly developed, the possibility of having strategies and actions but the information was not taken into account for local and regional disaster risk reduction, in the municipal POT or in the PGAR. and makes ineffective incorporation of risk In addition to the weakness in the in- management into development planning and corporation of a risk management approach processes of land use planning and land occu- in planning instruments, there is likewise the pation. As a result, local and regional develop- absence of real articulation of environmen- ment projects, interventions of public policies in tal instruments. Environmental planning in- the regions, and the actions of public and private struments have only included some elements actors are not articulated, nor are they able to in- of risk management due to fragmented infor- corporate risk management criteria to promote mation and to being highly dependent on the coordinated actions that reduce disaster risks. 202 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies It is clear that in the analyzed regions, The heterogeneous manner in which the risk continues accumulating due to lack of CAR exercise their role as an environmental policy implementation and monitoring, and authority contributes in some regions to deep- land use planning and watershed manage- ening the causes that trigger disasters. An ex- ment instruments. Although there are impor- ample that illustrates this problem is watershed tant technical documents to advance in flood deforestation that is a result of scarcely sustain- risk management, the weakness of environ- able productive and extractive activities. These mental authorities and territorial entities in activities contribute to the erosion processes incorporating them in the baseline, in the wa- and destabilization, which in turn increases the tershed planning, and management in the POT, probability of floods and landslides, the reduc- favors the gradual deterioration of the original tion of the quantity and quality in water produc- characteristics of natural buffer systems, and tion, sediment accumulation, and other serious at the same time increases the risk of floods. imbalances in the ecosystems. The CAR do not This shows it is necessary to implement a land possess the appropriate infrastructure or logis- use plan that defines conditions and/or restric- tics to carry out strict control operations and tions imposed by territory’s characteristics. penalize those responsible for activities that These may include actions related to popula- adversely affect the ecosystems. Inadequate tion resettlement from high-risk areas, imple- surveillance definitely motivates productive mentation of appropriate works to correct the activities that harm strategic environmental re- existing risk, and promoting techniques that sources, which obviously contributes to factors develop economic activities with a rural devel- that create disaster risk. opment policy and which do not involve ter- ritorial modification. 3.3.4.2. Use and efficiency of risk management Although the CAR have achieved sig- instruments nificant progress in the exercise of environ- mental authority, the inadequate growth of The articulation of authorities is impor- economic and productive activities in the eco- tant to achieve not only inclusion of risk man- systems has made it evident that the majority agement in planning, but also in the execution of of the CAR do not have the capacities to pe- measures that guarantee adequate development, nalize and deter legal and illegal activities that without increasing vulnerability or weakening threaten the protection of strategic ecosys- the natural systems. There is a clear disarticula- tems, the care of watersheds, and biodiversity tion among the State’s entities causing the measures resources. Regarding punitive interventions, implemented in La Mojana and in the Sinu River there is no appropriate institutional coverage basin to increase vulnerability in some communi- in the department or region that guides puni- ties. According to the priority regional action plan tive measures. Furthermore, a weakness persists for sustainable development of La Mojana, the in- in police instruments and a frequent lack of frastructures cannot produce development by sustainability in the actions exercised by envi- themselves. They will have greater multiplication ronmental authorities22. This situation does not allow a proper protection of environmental re- sources; on the contrary, it contributes to shelter 22 It should be pointed out that many of the strategic regions are inhabited factors that generate disaster risk. by actors outside the law. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 203 effects if they are designed and complemented as vention and mitigation. The municipal planning basic components of territorial development sys- instruments of La Mojana have a partial view tems, which articulate the structural elements for of the territory, but in no case with the basin the organization and improvement of the ecore- or ecoregion criteria. Thus, the implemented gion (Diaz-Granados, 2003). In the specific case of measures, which in the majority of cases are the Bogota River, it is observed that delay in deci- risk corrective, lack technical support, as well as sion making is caused in part by a lack of unifor- the required articulation among entities. In the mity in criteria of the different entities involved in Canal del Dique ecoregion, studies are focused the basin. This same problem is surely evidenced on resolving the sediment issue and navigabil- in many other regions of the country, in which ad- ity of the Magdalena River, but not on analyzing equate risk management is obstructed, since the and proposing solutions to control floods. In the entities are not liable for not executing the plans Sinu River basin, the CVS is almost exclusively into effective action in order to mitigate risk at ac- in charge of risk management actions. However, ceptable levels for the community. resources are primarily addressed to structural There are multiple studies to under- measures. Between 2007 and 2009, works were stand and comprehend the basin. However, executed at a cost of close to Col$85.3 billion, there are few technical documents that make which was invested in optimizing works of the a comprehensive analysis of hydrological be- hydraulic sections of canals, construction of ca- havior of the rivers and the flood hazards. nals, and bank protection works in the entire As there is no adequate development and territo- Cordoba department. The economic loss figures rial planning, there is no definition of structural associated with subsequent floods show the ef- and nonstructural measures needed for risk pre- ficiency of the invested resources. 204 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 3.7. Synthesis of public administration and disaster risk management instruments at regional level Case studies - cities Public administration instruments Risk management instruments Policies and planning. The POMCA was adopted in 2004. In the PGAR (2002-2012) and the Organization. The monitoring of POMCA is performed by a joint Committee made up of the CVS, the Special Triennial Plan (2007-2009), the CVS proposed the territory land use planning program (with Administrative Unit of the National Natural Parks System (UAESPNN) and Carsucre. projects aimed at the rational use of the natural resources, support for land-use planning, and Knowledge and information. There are more than 90 studies related to flood problems in the basins. They the preparation of wetlands and environmental sustainability management plans) and the have information on hazards and flood controls, a Comprehensive Master Plan and Occupancy Plan and, environmental planning program (with projects to control floods and erosion). Even though the CVS planning of works, among others. CVS has a Geographic Information System. rely on the POMCA and have carried out activities to strengthen the CLOPAD in the hazard evaluation Risk reduction. Timely works of risk reduction have been carried out, but they have not been executed Sinu River basin to be incorporated in the POT, articulation has not been possible between the planning instruments comprehensively for hydrological management and basin protection. of the basin and the municipality. Disaster management. The CVS is part of CREPAD and supports different CLOPAD. Investment and financing. Resources are allocated to projects proposed by CVS. Sucre’s PD proposes actions and investments for 11 critical points on the San Jorge and Sinu Rivers. Monitoring and control. According to some auditing that has been done, monitoring and control activities are not carried out by the municipalities and departmental governments in relation to the drying up of the swamps and controlling the occupation of vacant lots. Policies and planning. Different documents of the Nation show the definition of policies to provide Organization. Due to the different actors related to the region, coordination is one of the institutional solutions to the problems of La Mojana. There are numerous technical studies. Nevertheless, the weaknesses for adequate decision making in La Mojana. information has not been incorporated in the municipal POT. Knowledge and information. There are more than 100 studies for the region of La Mojana. However, the Investment and financing. Different government entities such as Invias and the CAR involved in majority does not include a systemic evaluation of the region. the region have made investments in the region. Risk reduction. The efforts in La Mojana have mainly been concentrated on periodic flood control through La Mojana region Monitoring and control. Control is diluted in various entities. There is no knowledge of any successive designs of a dam marginal to the Cauca River, which has been analyzed since 1960. There are existing monitoring process. different studies and designs that have resulted in works but the problem of the zone has not yet been solved. There is no definition of structural and nonstructural measures for risk reduction. Disaster management. Once a problem has occurred, it is addressed locally by the proprietors of the entites affected. The population is vulnerable for some time until the Emergency Committees and institutions begin to act. Then their situation is precarious and prolonged. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 205 206 TABLE 3.7. Synthesis of public administration and disaster risk management instruments at regional level (continued) Case studies - cities Public administration instruments Risk management instruments Policies and planning. The POMCA, published in 2007 by the CAR involved, assembled the same Organization. Considering the diverse public and private institutions and territorial entities involved, inter- concepts on existing threats in the municipal POT and these do not really contain the result of a institutional coordination is one of the existing weaknesses for adequate intervention in the Canal del Dique. comprehensive analysis of the region. Knowledge and information. Several studies have been developed in order to orient solutions to control Investment and financing. Different government entities such as the Ministry of Transport and the sediment. On the designing level, there is not enough information to make decisions on flood management Canal del Dique CAR involved in the region have made investments in the region. and control. ecoregion Monitoring and control. Due to the lack of adequate coordination, environmental control is diluted Risk reduction. The interventions in the Canal have been focused on sediment control rather than on among various entities. reducing flood risks. Disaster management. The interventions are local and timely, and the proprietor entities are generally in charge of the affected goods/services. The affected inhabitants receive assistance from the Emergency Committees. Nevertheless, precarious conditions continue to persist. Policy and planning. The POMCA includes information on hazards and vulnerabilities in a very Organization. There are several public institutions that are associated with the Bogota River: CAR, EEB, general way making it difficult for the municipalities to include them in decision making in land EAAB, and the District of Bogota and the neighboring municipalities of the river. Whereas some clearly use planning. know their competence in facing risk prevention and mitigation, others work independently, resulting in Investment and financing. Resources to finance aspects of risk management are found in the disarticulated actions. CAR, the EAAB, and the District entities. Municipalities can have small budgetary items allocated Knowledge and information. The majority of the required studies to quantify flood problems, and even for risk reduction. studies made for decision making and construction works principally exist for the region between the Monitoring and control. There are no clear responsibilities or functions regarding monitoring Puente del Común and Alicachin. Bogota River basin and control of the actions. Moreover, there is minimum coordination among entities. Risk reduction. There are works for flooding control, such as planned capacity and the use of alternate flow passages. Reservoir systems are located in the zone that can be used to control the Bogota River floods. Nevertheless, some mitigation works, and urban adoption and construction rules are still pending in the ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies hazard and flood risk zones, especially in the municipalities of the Bogota Savannah. Disaster management. There is a protocol in cases of emergency to manage the rising water of the river. However, experience from the last twelve months indicates that the protocol is not effective in risk mitigation. Efforts made by the country to under- the responsibilities of the Corporations, more stand the natural reality of the watersheds, than just directly intervening in emergencies, through important technical studies, dif- should be to participate in the Local and Re- fer from the measures that have been imple- gional Committees for Disaster Prevention mented. In all the documents created for La and Response, supporting knowledge actions Mojana, they affirm, from different technical and risk reduction of the local and regional perspectives, the importance of conserving and actors. Due to recent situations of imminent di- regulating water flows and establishing a com- saster resulting from the La Niña phenomenon prehensive development and planning of the that affected the country, the National Govern- zone to enhance the economic, social, and cul- ment has asked the CAR to develop a more ac- tural development of the region, thus being able tive role in risk management. In November of to connect with the rest of the country. All of this 2010, the CAR of the Bogota River created a risk is aimed at guaranteeing the normal functioning management office. This office’s first goal, for of the water system. However, the present reality now, has been monitoring planning programs reveals the isolation of the buffer system, almost in all the basins under its jurisdiction, broad- total lack of control of the territory, and its sys- ening the knowledge of their hydrological and tematic modification. In the case of the Bogota hydraulic conditions, and adequately evaluating River, it may be asserted that the majority of the the conditions of actual risks in populated areas. required studies are currently available to quan- In the future, recommendations will be made to tify flood problems and even to make decisions the municipalities, since they, in the present sys- to carry out risk reduction activities. Neverthe- tem, are responsible for facing risk conditions. less, the weakness of institutional articulation Upon analyzing the available informa- has meant that neither the respective decisions tion in the zones of study, it must be pointed nor the needed works have progressed. As far as out that the problem has not increased due to the Sinu River basin, it is evident that the qual- climate change factors, but because of the lack ity and quantity of the information does not of implementation of adequate risk manage- represent a guarantee for risk management. The ment instruments. The information is scattered information currently available would allow ad- and in the best of cases, some regional and local equate management, even though the lack of in- POT only have hazard maps, but prepared with terinstitutional articulation makes it difficult to different technical criteria, not under a unified develop investments for risk reduction. and integrated vision. Moreover, none of the ter- Very few CAR have adequate prepara- ritorial entities have studies and vulnerability and tion to respond to disaster. The majority of risk maps to confront floods. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 207 3.4. RECOMMENDATIONS TO STRENGTHEN TERRITORIAL MANAGEMENT PRIORITY RECOMMENDATION RESPONSIBLE High (H), Medium (M) Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the investments in risk management through strategic planning and coordination, monitoring, and control among territorial levels Create a national cofinancing (fund) mechanism to encourage investments in risk management and the creation of H UNGRD, MHCP, DNP capacities for the territorial and sectoral levels. Presidency, UNGRD, DNP, Adopt a monitoring strategy of the responsibilities and investments for risk management at different territorial levels. H Comptroller, Attorney General Strengthen the local capacity for territorial management in order to reduce disaster risk generation and accumulation Adopt a national strategy to strengthen municipal risk management, which responds to the differences that exist in DNP, Municipalities, H capacities. Departmental Governments DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS, Structurally review the capacity limitations for disaster risk evaluation in order to provide an effective response to the Ideam, SGC, IGAC, DANE, H demand of knowledge for the POT and the PD. CAR, Colciencias, and Departmental Governments Design and implement the PTGR as instruments of strategic and prospective character that orient and give priority of interventions and investments at municipal and departmental level. • Enhance hazard, vulnerability, and risk knowledge to improve the actions of the territorial entities and society in risk management. City Halls and Departmental • Promote the implementation of early warning systems whose its design, implementation, and operation are H Governments shared among different municipalities and departmental governments. • Focus on policies to diminish risk generation and accumulation and to reduce existing risk. • Prepare Local Emergency and Contingency Plans (PLEC) putting emphasis on preparation, provision of equipment, education, and training exercises. Formulate and implement a national policy for intervention of settlements at risk that establishes guidelines for H DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS territorial zoning, definition of mitigation criteria, and strategies for action. Reduce the number of housing in high-risk zones by the implementation of programs for comprehensive neighborhood H DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS improvement and resettlement of families from nonmitigable high-risk zones. Promote and continue to make efforts in the cities (case studies) for the inclusion of disaster risk management in DNP, Municipalities, H planning, municipal actions, and investments as a fundamental strategy for territorial development. Departmental Governments Reduce flood and landslide risks through planning, investment, monitoring, control, and the articulation of the different agencies responsible for watershed management Regulate the inclusion of a Flood and Landslide Master Control Plan as an integrated part of the POMCA. • Comprehensively analyze the basins to identify existing hazards and flood and landslide risks, and define MVCT, MADS, Ideam with interventions that should be articulated for risk management. the Permanent Committee H created for hydraulic • Define responsible entities and financial mechanisms for program and project implementation as defined in the management of rivers and Master Plan. water bodies • Establish channels for coordination, monitoring, and control for the execution of the Master Plan. Accelerate the formulation and implementation of the POMCA and their incorporation as a relevant instrument of H MADS, CAR the municipal POT. DNP, Municipalities, Implement a strategy that strengthens the livelihoods of the population and simultaneously seeks to reduce poverty. H Departmental Governments 208 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of mechanisms are used with the actors who have the investments in risk management through responsibilities assigned by law. However, the strategic planning, coordination between complexity of the urban problem or nonfulfill- territorial levels, and monitoring and control ment of the functions reduces in large measure the coordination of interventions, making even Create a national cofinancing (fund) greater the disarticulation among those enti- mechanism to encourage investments in risk ties in charge of control and monitoring. On management and the creation of capacities for the one hand, there is a proposal that the city territorial and sectoral levels. Creation of a Fund halls create interinstitutional committees and for Disaster Risk Management requires the es- continue in the implementation of agreements tablishment of strategies and different financing to empower the participation of the agents as mechanisms, according to the existing risk condi- far as their functions and competencies. On tions and the municipalities’ capacities. By accom- the other hand, as a result of the competencies plishing this, it will be possible to guarantee the in each entity and the agreements endorsed, execution of preventive and corrective actions and their incorporation in the PD has to progress, risk reduction and control planning, as well as the including those of the control entities. Their formation of an effective fund of available resourc- importance lies in the fact that authorities es to moderate the effects of an emergency, with- and civil society should perform monitoring out implying the abandonment of competencies and control tasks of the whole process of pub- and the legal routine obligations of the municipal lic management and not only the final result, governments, and especially those competencies where the relevance of joint efforts guarantees defined in land use planning. The promotion of the articulation and continuity of the actions risk management alternatives is fundamental, so that are required for territorial planning and that there is a shared responsibility between ter- risk management. ritorial levels, where municipalities evaluate the effectiveness of including a representative percent- Strengthen local capacity for territorial age (between 0.1% and 0.5% of current revenue) in management in order to reduce the generation their annual budgets, allocating it for risk manage- and accumulation of disaster risk ment through their own resources or money re- ceived from the current revenues from the nation, Adopt a strengthening national strategy and including fomenting the management of do- in municipal risk management, which would nations and credits with multilateral banking and respond to the differences that exist in the ca- international organizations to leverage resources pacities. Risk management and regulation, and that serve as compensation to what is available in control of land use planning at the local level are the National Risk Management Fund. closely related to the capacity of the municipal Adopt a monitoring strategy of the administration. To guarantee sufficient hazard, responsibilities and investments for risk vulnerability, and risk control conditions, on management at different territorial levels. a medium-term basis, institutional, technical, Ensuring the effectiveness in the budgeted des- and municipal financing strengthening are nec- tinations and a major social impact requires the essary, as is simultaneously adopting a proactive articulation of different administrative, judi- and strategic focus, taking into consideration the cial, and control agencies. To do so, convening principles of complementarity and subsidiarity as The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 209 provided for in the Constitution of 1991. These and social agencies that are involved in their municipal capacities are clearly differentiated design and implementation should be involved according to the categorization made by the in their decision making. In this context, the DNP and DANE, which propose recommenda- PTGR is formulated by technical teams from tions to the municipalities with high, medium, the responsible agencies in each territorial unit or low capacity (capacities defined in Chapter 2 and agreed to at the political and institutional of this document). level in order to generate a greater appropria- Structurally review the capacity limita- tion and establish priority criteria according tions for disaster risk evaluation in order to to the needs (project banks). Likewise, agen- provide an effective response to the POT and das or actions plans should be arranged and the PD demand for knowledge. Implement- articulated between the responsible entities ing a technical support strategy, coordinated by to develop internal procedures, define tasks, national and departmental entities is essential channel and optimize the use of available to update the municipalities’ POT, and the for- resources (municipal entities, public enter- mulation of PD in municipalities with less than prises, private sectors, departmental govern- 50,000 inhabitants. According to Law 507 of ments, CAR, etc.), since the PTGR should 1999, the National Government has implement- make it possible to adjust the required budget ed local technical assistance, especially through for risk management in each of the participat- the MVCT, the UNGRD, and some CAR. How- ing entities, pursuant to their functions. It cor- ever, government entities, such as the IGAC, responds to the planning and finance agencies the DANE, and Ideam, the Colombian Geologi- to improve resource allocation mechanisms to cal Survey, and universities or research centers, different objectives, policies, and types of ex- need to unite efforts in order to optimize acquir- penditure in order to consent, from their ori- ing information required by the municipalities gin, risk reduction at a municipal and district for land use planning and management, and by level. Below is a list of some specific recom- taking into account appropriate coverage and mendations to be considered in the PTGR: scale. Likewise, it is necessary for the depart- ments to lead and support more vigorously the • Deepen hazard, vulnerability, and risk formulation of the POT, and the incorporation knowledge to improve the actions of the of risk management in the municipal PD. territorial entities and the society in risk Design and implement the Risk Man- management. Planning should be accom- agement Territorial Plans (PTGR) as instru- panied with a major investment in knowl- ments of strategic and prospective nature edge and evaluation of hazards and risks, that orient and give priority to interventions in which decisions are guided and based on and investments at municipal and depart- adjusted work scales and a dynamic vision mental levels. The PTGR’s aim is to contribute of risk and hazard integration in land use. knowledge in risk scenarios, in the application Planning should also emphasize detailed of comprehensive interventions for risk re- technical characteristics and classification duction and control, and the strengthening of of the problems, as well as defining the es- disaster management actions. Taking into ac- sential causes and effects of the same, and count that these instruments make significant increasing the technical abilities of the contributions, the grouping of institutional professionals in charge so that they may 210 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies execute hazard evaluations and update in- campaigns, mitigation works, resettlement formation of populations and infrastruc- of families from nonmitigable high-risk ture exposed to risks. These are some of zones, and reinforcing vital infrastructure, the required elements to guarantee infor- among other actions. mation support for risk management and • Local Emergency and Contingency Plans territorial planning. (PLEC), in which emphasis is made on • Encourage the development of early warn- preparation, provision of equipment, in- ing systems, in which the design, imple- struction, and training exercises. When mentation, and operation are shared among a society faces risk conditions, its citizens different municipalities and departmental should be prepared and know in advance governments. Design, implement, strength- what are the tasks to be executed in emer- en, and operate early monitoring and warn- gency and disaster situations, be acquainted ing systems, achieving greater understanding with those responsible and the coordination of potential natural phenomena behavior. mechanisms in these situations, and with The system should start with prioritizing the what resources they can count on, etc. At phenomenon in each basin and municipal- the municipal level, the PLEC are impor- ity (areas susceptible to floods, mudflows, tant instruments in establishing functions avalanches, landslides, among other phenom- or response and rehabilitation tasks in ena). It should also include the definition of case of an emergency or disaster, organiza- critical thresholds and topographic, geotech- tional models, administrative and logistic nical, and hydrological monitoring according elements, and the systems for control and to the current phenomenon. It requires the ex- monitoring, which permit an effective op- pansion or acquisition, installation, and start- eration in emergency or disaster situations. up equipment and monitoring stations, data Since emergency operations management reception and warning emissions stations. requires coordinated teamwork, appropri- In addition to the aforementioned, training ate planning equally depends on joint effort. is needed on how to manage the equipment For this reason, plans should be made with and on interpretation of data generated from the participation of public and private in- the early warning systems, at an institutional stitutions, nongovernmental organizations, and community level, as well as establishing and the communities. Furthermore, their protocols in case of having to alert the popu- formulation, training, and simulation allow lation. In this sense, early warning systems faster, more effective, and more coordinated require a strong investment component, tech- actions when facing emergencies or disasters nical training, and population awareness. that result in favor of safeguarding life and • Focus on policies to diminish risk genera- reducing negative effects on property, the tion and accumulation and to reduce ex- economy, and the environment. isting risks. In addition to its importance, • Formulate and implement the national pol- in terms of policies and standards, it is a icy for intervention of settlements at risk, priority to carry out comprehensive actions which establishes guidelines for defining consistent with the territory: planning, territorial zoning, definition of mitigation adoption of specific and technical regula- criteria, and action strategies. The municipal tions, education and citizens’ awareness POT should clearly establish high-risk zone The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 211 management according to national policy trol are required for land use and occupation at definitions. Mitigation can be understood as the municipal level with the participation not a condition in which there exists the possibil- only of the responsible entities, but also of the ity of technical, economic, social, and politi- communities involved. cal intervention in a territory to reduce risk in • Promote and continue to make efforts in order that the population, the infrastructure, the cities (case studies) for the inclusion of and the economic activities remain within rea- disaster risk management in planning, mu- sonable and socially accepted safety margins nicipal activities, and investments as an es- (Ramirez and Rubiano, 2009a). This means sential strategy for territorial development. there is a need to prepare a comprehensive The present study reveals that cities like Bo- analysis to define if a high-risk territory can gota and Manizales have been confirming the be mitigated or not. Depending on the iden- existing policy and institutional commitment tified condition, specific intervention actions to integral risk management for many years. should be established, in which among others, This cannot be said of cities such as Cali, mitigation works are taken into consideration where precisely due to the lack of political (when these risks can be mitigated) or the re- will and adequate strategies, there has been an settlement of families (when they cannot be increase in risk because of the shortcomings mitigated). In some cities with greater man- in the implementation of policies, programs, agement capacity, progress has been made in and strategies to prevent future and correct establishing the criteria on this issue, and in the existing risks. Meanwhile, Barranquilla intervention policies. However, adopting a has begun to show responsibility by promot- national policy will offer municipalities the ing acquired commitments in the POT and instruments to appropriately implement ac- in the PD, even though there is still much to tions aimed at managing high-risk zones. be done. As a consequence of frequent emer- • Reduce the number of housing in high-risk gencies, Cucuta has implemented procedures zones by implementing comprehensive neigh- and protocols for emergency response, but borhood improvement programs and the re- needs to strengthen its investments in pre- settlement of families from nonmitigable vention and mitigation. Therefore, this rec- high-risk zones. Focused actions oriented at ommendation is made to call the attention reducing exposure and vulnerability is an ef- to the cities that have been studied to execute fective option to lessen risk conditions. This more decisively and/or to continue using the means incorporating specific projects and strategies that allow incorporation of disaster investments in the POT and the PD for the risk management in their municipal or dis- implementation of those programs as a funda- trict planning, actions, and investments. Fi- mental axis in reducing existing risk. This leads nally, especially for the city of Cali, the need to participation of different municipal entities, should be highlighted to create strategies for so their intervention can be carried out com- seismic risk management considering its high pletely and comprehensively, and sectors relat- risk level, vulnerability, and exposure. Even ed to housing, education, health, social welfare, though Cali’s administration has made timely and public services, among others, should actions, these have neither been constant over work jointly. On the other hand, in order to time nor comprehensive in their implementa- protect resettled zones, surveillance and con- tion, resulting in generating risk and its grad- 212 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies ual increase. The city needs to face its most vironmental authorities who are members of urgent problems by designing a Risk Man- the Joint Committee, and in the other cases, agement Plan that relies on required financ- of the respective competent environmental ing. This Plan should not include only actions authority.” Therefore, the proposal is to create aimed to lessen the problem of seismic risk, a Technical Committee to support the respec- but also those of floods caused by the Cauca tive Joint Committee or the corresponding River and the instability of its slopes. CAR in the coordination, monitoring, and control of the execution of the Master Plan as Reduce flood and landslide risks through an integral part of the POMCA. planning, investment, monitoring, and control, • Accelerate the formulation and imple- and the articulation of the different agents mentation of the POMCA and their in- responsible for watershed management corporation, as a determining instrument of the POT. Considering that the POMCA • Define the people responsible and finan- are instruments that include comprehensive cial mechanisms for the implementation knowledge of each basin and define actions of programs and projects defined in the and interventions for its adequate manage- Master Plan. It is necessary that the Plan ment, it is urgently required to hasten their identify the agencies and territorial entities formulation, in order to create the required responsible for executing the agreed actions guidelines for updating and implementing and among which the following should par- the local POT. The aforementioned will al- ticipate: the departmental governments, the low coherent planning between the regional municipalities, the CAR, public and private vision of the basin, the measures to control sectors, etc. This will permit joining of ef- floods, and the restrictions and constrictions forts to finance the programs and projects for the use and occupation of land, which are with the assistance of local, regional, and in line with its municipal jurisdiction. private funds, as well as the identification of • Implement a strategy that allows strength- additional investments to develop the Plan. ening the livelihoods of the population and • Establish channels for coordination, moni- simultaneously reduces poverty. Changes in toring, and control of the execution of the the vulnerability of the populations and their Master Plan. According to Law 99 of 1993, possessions are highly dependent on the de- Joint Committees have been formed in cases velopmental approach and the population’s so- in which two or more CAR have jurisdiction cioeconomic characteristics. The link between over a common watershed, and their function poverty and disaster vulnerability is increas- is to coordinate, harmonize, and transmit ingly recognized, and thus the country needs policies to the corresponding environmental to progress in implementing effective strate- management. Equally, Decree 1729 of 2002, gies to reduce poverty in the following aspects: in its Article 19 states that “it will be the re- implementing a rural development strategy, sponsibility of the respective competent envi- investing in natural resource management, ronmental authority or the Joint Committee constructing infrastructure, and creating liveli- to prepare the watershed management plan. hood and social protection mechanisms to re- Coordination and preparation of the manage- duce vulnerability and maximize the resilience ment plan will be the responsibility of the en- of the livelihood of the population. The Role of Territorial Administration in Disaster Risk Management 213 Landslide in the Cerro de Oro sector. Municipality of Manizales (Caldas, Colombia), 2011. Photography: Nilson Correa Bedoya. Disaster Risk 4 Management in Sectoral Administration Carlos R. Costa P., Ana Campos G., Carolina Díaz G., Jorge Alberto Serna J., José Edier Ballesteros H., Carlos E. Vargas M., Leonardo Morales R., Elvira Milén Agámez C., Ana María Torres M. 4.1. THE impAct and CAUSES OF RISK in sectors and its significance in the economy and society Sustainability in both productive and service sible resource shortage, including in the years sectors requires responsible risk management. were there may be severe droughts caused by Therefore, it is important that the Ministries, the El Niño phenomenon. Moreover, sectors in their role as guides, promoters, and regula- like agriculture show hardly any progress in tors of sectoral development include this issue climatic risk management, event though the in all of their management spheres. As can be impacts caused by these types of events are observed in the whole chapter, sectoral activi- very recurrent. Additionally, inadequate and ties are very closely related to risk, either be- unsustainable practices such as the draining cause they directly or indirectly contribute to of swamps and deforestation increase risk not its generation or accumulation, or due to the only in agriculture, but in the entire country. fact that the occurrence of dangerous events Other spheres have also progressed such as impacts their performance and infrastructure. housing, which complies with seismic-resistant The presence or absence of this issue in spe- regulations, and land use planning, which has cific action policies and plans largely deter- partially contributed, although not yet to maxi- mines the degree of responsibility with which mum potential, to risk reduction in new build- public and private actors manage risk, and ings. However, it faces a serious situation, since therefore the vulnerability levels in each sec- approximately 50% of housing was constructed tor in events that may cause disasters. Thus, prior to the existence of the seismic-resistant reducing risk conditions should be a funda- regulations1. This was the product of an intense mental element in sustainability in each sec- activity in consolidating informal settlements, tor and in the country as a whole. which produced an increase in risk, since there In Colombia, some sectors have demon- was no control over construction standards strated significant progress in including risk and many buildings are located in zones ex- management in public policies, while in oth- posed to some type of hazard. ers, where there has been less progress, the need to face the issue with greater commitment has been identified, partly due to the El Niño and La Niña phenomena in the last decade. The energy environment, for example, after undergoing a crisis in 1998, is outmoded and diversified in power generation resources as a result of long-term policies. Furthermore, 1 The Coffee Growing region earthquake destroyed the majority of the it uses economic and regulatory instruments houses that were built before the adoption of the first earthquake-resis- by which risk is controlled in case of a pos- tant construction regulation (1984). Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 217 4.1.1. The housing sector: loss of Destruction and damages to housing life and family patrimony caused by disasters in Colombia are due princi- pally to the noncompliance of design and con- The main impact caused by disasters to struction standards or location in hazard zones. Colombians’ family patrimony is the destruc- According to OSSO Corporation (2011), of the tion or damage to housing. According to Chap- 190,000 residential units destroyed by disas- ter 1 of this report and to the data established ters in the country between 1970 and 2011, in OSSO Corporation (2011), 190,000 dwell- floods caused the greatest losses in more ings have been destroyed in the last 40 years than 79,000 dwellings, whereas seismic activ- and more than 1 million have been affected. In ity produced 51,000, losses, landslides almost other words, an average of 30,000 families per 18,000, volcanic eruption 5,400 and other year have undergone damage or total destruc- events such as windstorms, fires, and 35,000. It may then be concluded that 51% of the hous- tion of their patrimonies caused by dangerous ing destroyed in this period (houses affected phenomena. Housing stands out among the by floods, landslides, and volcanic eruptions) sectors with the greatest losses due to disasters, was the result of location in areas not apt for since it directly affects the family patrimony, urbanization, while 26% of destroyed houses concentrated primarily in the building and the (by seismic activity) may be associated with family’s household goods. Even though great construction deficiencies. disasters are the most remembered, minor and Although the land use planning and con- intermediate events are responsible for the struction standards have contributed to reducing greater part of the impacts on dwelling units. some risk factors in new housing, it is estimated In fact, between 1970 and 2011, detriment to that half of the housing in the country would be housing in the country resulting from great affected by the seismic hazard. If it is taken into events2 has been approximately US$2 billion account that in 1985, there were 5.8 million (US$51 million per year), whereas intermedi- dwellings, and in the 2005 Census, there were ate and minor disasters have produced damage 10.3 million dwellings, this indicates that cur- of US$5 billion (US$126 million annually). rently, approximately half of the country may Housing is also principally responsible be considered vulnerable to seismic activity, for loss of life in a disaster, be it caused by its since it was constructed prior to the first Seis- damages (collapse or partial destruction) direct- mic-Resistant Regulation in 1984. Good prac- ly affecting its occupants, or by indirect impacts tices in design and construction that provided generated to the population located in its vicinity. flexibility and resistance against an earthquake Taking into account the historical database were voluntary and very punctual in the years (OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011), there is a prior to the regulations (Graph 4.2). The Coffee clear relation between the number of destroyed Growing region earthquake (1999) confirmed housing and the loss of life in a disaster (Graph 4.1). Moreover, the destruction of structures tends to cause the death of their occupants, 2 Housing sector losses for seven disasters: earthquake in Popayan in 1983; whereas their location in risk zones exposes eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano in 1985; earthquake in the mid Atra- to in 1992; Paez earthquake in 1994; El Niño 1997-1998 phenomenon; population groups from the surrounding areas Coffee Growing region earthquake in 1999; La Niña 2010-2011 phenom- (bottom of the slope or basin). enon (Cardona, et. al 2004b; SNPAD and DGR 2011). 218 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 4.1. Percentage of destroyed housing vs. loss of life per 100,000 inhabitants 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 Damage rate 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Deaths per 100,000 inhabitants Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011, from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 the following: in Pereira, 72% of the units af- households are established each year, whereas fected corresponded to this older category.3 the number of dwellings started per year, for According to the type of structure, the build- 2007, only reached a maximum of 170,000 ings most affected were built using simple (un- (Graph 4.2). Rural population migration to reinforced, unconfined) masonry, incurring urban zones in search of better opportuni- 35% of the total damages, followed by porch ties, plus forced displacement due to armed and adobe incurring 25% and 20% of the dam- conflict, result in having families with few re- ages respectively. The same was reflected in 27 sources settling in precarious and illegal loca- other municipalities that underwent damages tions and generally outside the perimeter of associated with this seismic activity. It may be services, turning these sites into shanty towns that this is representative of the situation that that later are legalized by the municipalities, may occur in other major and medium hazard incurring high costs in infrastructure and zones in the country. Vulnerability in housing is growing, prin- cipally due to informal settlements, as can be 3 According to the Study of Seismic Vulnerability in Pereira, con- observed by the increase in the rate of residen- ducted by the Autonomous Corporation of Risaralda (CARDER) tial units annually destroyed per each 100,000 between 1995 and 1999, 40% of existing buildings in this city in the earthquake year were brick buildings without reinforcement or inhabitants. There is a historical quantitative concrete containment. Today this typology is not permitted by the deficit of more than 1 million dwellings com- earthquake-resistant construction regulation for a high seismic hazard zone such as Pereira, due to its high fragility. Probably that pared to the creation of new households in infrastructure was developed before the first Earthquake-Resistant Colombia, which is greater than construction Building Code of Colombia, issued in 1984. We also identified 4% of building constructed of adobe. Their resilience in earthquakes de- in the formal sector (with license and prop- pends on good maintenance done to the wooden structure to avoid erty title). In the country, more than 250,000 infrastructure deterioration. Maintenance is not done in most cases. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 219 facilities. As a result of this situation, close to phenomena occurring. Then, the number of 1,370,000 families live in informal conditions residential units at risk continues to increase, on more than 30,000 hectares in precarious a trend that can be confirmed by the amount settlements (DNP, 2010) (Table 4.1), presum- of housing that is annually destroyed or af- ably in unsafe infrastructures due to deficient fected, which is around 15 per each 100,000 specifications in construction or being lo- inhabitants (See Graph 1.5 in Chapter 1). cated were there is a probability of dangerous Graph 4.2. Housing started per year in the country 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 Total Units 80,000 Social Interest Housing (VIS) 60,000 40,000 Priority Interest Housing (VIP) 20,000 - 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Year Source: DNP, 2010a. Table 4.1. Precarious settlement areas City Area of precarious settlements (ha) % of total residential area Bogota 1,875 15% Medellin 1,323 21% Cali 406 9% Barranquilla 715 28% Bucaramanga 124 7% Five largest cities 4,442 16% Cities > 300,000 inhabitants 1,690 19% Cities 100,000 - 300,000 inhabitants 1,031 24% Cities < 100,000 inhabitants 22,982 26% Country total 30,145 24% Source: DNP, 2007. 220 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The housing sector is fundamental for the 4.1.2. The agriculture sector: economy of the country, both for its participation great potential in employment, in the national GDP and for the employment it foreign currency, and rural creates, but it is equally important for the aware- development at risk ness of safe and responsible construction. Con- struction of housing in 2010 represented 3.6% The agriculture sector is fundamental for of the national GDP (Camacol, 2011), and it is the social and economic development of Co- expected that its participation will continue to lombia. It represents 8.5% of the national GDP increase, taking into account the existing deficit (Graph 4.3) and though its percentage input has and growth of demand associated to population diminished due to large growth in other sectors, growth and the establishment of new households. such as mining and energy, its production and That is the reason why the national Government participation in exports is increasing (Graph 4.4). has considered it to be one of the “locomotives” In 2008, the agriculture sector represented 7% in the National Development Plan. It has the of exports and even though it has a tendency objective of constructing 1 million units for the to grow, in 2009 it showed a decrease due prin- period from 2010 to 2014, of which 250,000 will cipally to impacts on production generated by be Priority Interest Housing (VIP). The Nation- hydroclimatic factors (Table 4.2). The intended al Government will provide resources directly area for agricultural activities in 2009 reached through family subsidies. Under this context, the 5 million hectares, which is a little bit more than investment to be made in the sector, calculated at 4% of the land surface of the country. In fact, Col$95 billion, represents a great effort by public there is a potential for growth, considering that and private entities. Therefore, it is a priority to there are 28.2 million hectares apt for agricul- articulate disaster risk management in the hous- ture and forest development that today are used ing sector because of its implications for security, for livestock in spite of the fact that this land is population patrimony, and in terms of the State’s not apt for this activity (MADR, 2011b). responsibility to protect the life of its citizens. Graph 4.3. Agriculture sector contribution to the national Graph 4.4. Agriculture sector participation in exports GDP, 2001-2009 (tons), 2002-2009 9.7% 9.6% 9.5% 7% 9.3% 6% 6% 6% 6% 9.0% 5% 4% 8.8% 4% 8.5% 8.5% 8.5% 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Source: MADR, 2009. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 221 Table 4.2. Agriculture sector exports (tons), 2002-2009 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Total coffee exports 772,202 809,331 949,464 1,470,660 1,461,235 1,171,343 1,883,221 1,542,697 Agriculture sector exports 2,122,818 2,191,214 2,598,236 3,101,779 3,423,588 4,081,976 4,752,473 4,400,409 not including coffee Total agriculture sector 2,895,020 3,000,545 3,547,700 4,572,439 4,884,823 5,796,319 6,635,694 5,943,107 exports Total national exports 61,714,816 78,356,321 89,116,306 82,311,193 88,091,513 96,930,302 94,750,222 103,446,928 Source: MADR, 2009 Close to 20% of employment in Colombia and landslides (Graph 4.5). The great hydro- is generated by the agriculture sector, making it meteorological disasters have caused seri- an important sector in the country’s economy ous damages to the country; for example, El and in rural development in general. In 2009, Niño 1997-1998 caused phyto-sanitary (plant it was the third generator of employment in protection) problems and a reduction in ag- the national economy (18.6%), followed by ricultural and livestock production, resulting commerce (25.9%) and community services in losses estimated at US$101 million in 2000 (19.6%). The majority of this employment is in (CAF, 2000). La Niña 2007-2008 practically the countryside, where 27% of the Colombian affected all agricultural subsectors, in which population reside, which makes the agricul- coffee underwent a 28% reduction in produc- ture sector the main activity and instrument tion, equivalent to US$340.5 million in ex- to promote economic and social factors in ports. Likewise, La Niña 2010-2011 resulted rural zones, where there are the highest levels in the most important historic impact in the of poverty and inequality. Rural poverty, mea- agriculture sector caused by a hydrometeoro- sured in income, went from 69.2% to 64.3% be- logical event. It caused damages up to a total tween 2002 and 2009, whereas the urban-rural of 1,324,000 hectares, losses in coffee produc- gap increased from 1.43% to 1.62% in the same tion equivalent to US$285.7 million, and the period (DNP, 2010a). loss of more than 130,000 cattle, among other Agrarian activity is systematically af- negative consequences. Minor and medium fected by disasters and during extreme climat- disasters are also important; however, their ic events, it is the one that registers the most effects are difficult to quantify due to the ab- economic losses, resulting in a great impact sence of information. on the economic and social development of Damages caused by extreme weather the rural areas. According to OSSO Corpo- events in the agriculture sector are due to its vul- ration (2011), between 1970 and 2011, 4,898 nerability, lack of strategies, and clear respon- events were registered in damages and loss- sibilities in risk reduction, as it was addressed es in the agriculture sector, of which floods by the 2010-2014 National Development Plan. represented 50%, followed by forest fires Currently, measures taken by the State in 222 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies there are no strategies from the agrarian guild Graph 4.5. Hydrometeorological emergencies in the that include in their objectives either risk re- agriculture sector, 1970-2011 duction or disaster responses, and therefore, very few members in the SAC design or ex- ecute individual actions. As a response to this 460 circumstance, the NDP 2010-2014 identified 2,323 the need to adopt an Action Plan in Risk Man- 128 agement and Climate Change intended to de- fine priority and activity strategies in order to provide a response to this issue. 155 Additionally, some social agents from the 157 agriculture and livestock sector contribute un- 241 necessarily to their own risk in exposing them- selves to hazards without taking account the 293 dangers. This is the case in productive activities 355 585 that are carried out in flood zones. For exam- ple, in 2003, La Mojana had 213,000 hectares in Flood Drought livestock and 34,000 hectares in dryland rice, Wild re Flash ood in spite of the fact that it is estimated that the Landslide surface without danger of floods is in a zone Rain Plague of only 50,000 hectares (Aguilera, 2004). Fur- Windstorm Other thermore, if El Niño and La Niña phenomenon forecasts are not taken into account, it is not surprising that during the La Niña 2010-2011 Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 episode, 130,000 heads of cattle died in the country (MADR, 2011a). Moreover, risk fac- tors are being created when drought or extreme precipitation forecasts are ignored and when managing disaster impacts have been more similar decisions are made based on normal a response to their effects than to risk factor weather conditions, subsequently facing disas- prevention and mitigation. The strategies are ter situations, in spite of the alert information principally oriented to grant direct compen- available several months before the occurrence sation or financial relief to producers after the of the event (Box 4.1). phenomenon occurrence. The only available measure that may be considered as preventive (since it reduces economic losses, even though it does not intervene or diminish causes) is the subsidy to agrarian insurance. In spite of the efforts made by the Government in this sense, its response has been very minimal, as will be seen further on. Additionally, according to the Agricultural Society of Colombia (SAC), Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 223 Box 4.1. Risk Management Strategies (GRD) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) in the agriculture sector for the Andean subregion Action strategy Area or sector Guideline Adjust policies and regulations to appropriately articulate the Legislation and regulations GRD and CCA sector. Strengthen institutions (financial, technical, and human Institutions and sectors Develop governance and political priority resources). in the agriculture sector GRD and ACC. Intra- and intersectoral Promote interinstitutional and intersectoral actors from the coordination GRD, the CCA, and the sector. Generate monitoring and evaluation mechanisms or systems Strategy monitoring for each one of the country’s and subregion’s strategies. Observation and monitoring Strengthen and update climate phenomenon observation and networks motoring systems. Strengthen information in risk Reinforce risk awareness, climate scenarios, and adaption awareness and climate management. Investigation measures. Information systematization Design and sustain an integrated information system. Improve education and communication Design and implement education and communication to construct a safe and resilient culture Knowledge sharing strategies in the GRD and CCA sector. in facing climate risks. Strengthening of territorial Articulate GRD and CCA with land use planning and planning processes and rural development planning processes. infrastructure Improve rural infrastructure. Conserve and restore strategic ecosystems. Establish compensation programs for environmental services. Improvement of environmental conditions Integrate local communities in planning and decision-making processes. Reduce underlying risk factors. Promote the rational use of hydric resources. Give priority to more efficient production systems. Improvement of productive Stimulate sustainable management in production systems. systems. Promote local production systems. Increase availability and access to credits in sustainable Reduction of financial agriculture. vulnerability Promote agrarian insurance. Strengthen preparation, response, Response to emergencies, and joint assistance systems and Improve preparation and response mechanisms to climate disasters. assistance, and humanitarian aid preparedness in case of disasters. Source: Campos, et.ál, 2009. 224 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Another factor by which the agriculture there are more than 50,000 wetland hectares sector is responsible for creating its own risk is that are used for agriculture or livestock, thus through its inappropriate intervention in the increasing the exposure and the probability of environment. Deforestation produces sediment floods, in which only 41% of the area of the ba- in the rivers that, when added to draining of sin is not in land use conflict. Unfortunately, wetlands and marshes for agricultural uses, the situation is replicated in almost all the wet- gradually reduces the ability to control natu- land zones of the country. ral floods. This historical process, consciously Even though the development in disas- or unconsciously, or inclusively with the sup- ter risk management in the agriculture sec- port of the State and illegally in many cases, tor has been minor, some examples of flower, to a large degree increases hydrological risk, cane, and coffee growers indicate that there affecting not only agrarian activities, but also has been progress and cost-effective measures other social and economic sectors. An example to reduce risk. According to self-evaluation of this may be found in the Sinu River basin, surveys made by SAC, DNP, and the World caused by land use conflicts (Table 4.3), since Bank4, it can be confirmed that these three Table 4.3. Land use conflicts in the Sinu River basin Conflict Potential use Current use Area (ha) Area (%) Ecosystem Very high Conservation Miscellaneous 92,981.9 6.7 Paramillo Very high Conservation Selective forest harvesting 12,320.3 0.9 Paramillo Very high Conservation Extensive livestock 5,163.8 0.4 Paramillo Very high Conservation Extensive livestock and agriculture 225.6 0.02 Mangrove swamps Very high Forest production protection Extensive livestock 205,393.8 14.7 Very high Protection Extensive livestock 10,277.9 14.7 Wetlands Very high Recuperation Extensive livestock 32,365.9 2.3 Wetlands Very high Recuperation Industrialized commercial agriculture 11,288.8 0.8 Wetlands Subtotal 370,018.0 26.5 High Agriculture Extensive livestock 306,831.9 22.0 Subtotal 306,831.9 22.0 Medium Forest production protection Traditional commercial agriculture 134,708.8 9.7 Subtotal 134,708.8 9.7 Low Conservation Fishing and subsistence farming 2,093.8 0.2 Subtotal 2,093.8 0.2 Very low Agriculture Selective forest harvesting 2,755.0 0.2 Subtotal 2,755.0 0.2 No conflict Current use Potential use 578,836.5 41.5 Subtotal 578,836.5 41.5 Total area of the river basin 1,395,244.0 100 Source: CVS and Fonade, 2004. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 225 organizations use weather information to maintenance activities. On the contrary, the na- make important decisions related to planting tional road network, as stated in Chapter 1 of crops, harvesting, fumigation, and fertilizing. this report, recurrently undergoes the impact of Forecasts are also used in making decisions disaster events and does not count on adequate about planting or not planting crops in case of formulation and ex-ante reviewing actions. extreme events such as El Niño and La Niña According to the DesInventar database phenomena. Flower growers use the Ideam (OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011), in the last Frost Early Warning System in order to take 40 years, approximately 75,000 road kilometers corrective measures (light torches and air have been affected. This number is considered moistening in greenhouses). Moreover, cane conservative, since Local and Regional Commit- growers have relationship with the CLOPAD tees do not report frequent damages and these and the CREPAD in order to face fire haz- are not entered into the system. A quarter part ards. These are some examples of the preven- of the registers (7,748) present diverse types tive measure portfolio that is applied to the of road damages related to landslides (54%), agriculture sector and that includes the use floods (30%), and rain, gale storms, and flash of weather forecasts to adopt future measures floods (13%), where the majority of emergen- (products to cultivate, planting dates, mobili- cies are concentrated in the Andean region zation, and livestock sales), early warning sys- (Graph 4.6). During the La Niña 2010-2011, tems, and irrigation infrastructure in drought 92 bridges and more than 1,690 kilometers of risk zones, among others. Government and the primary road were impacted, equivalent to the guilds can contribute to public awareness 9.7% of this network, 2,453 kilometers of the campaigns, training, and incentives to en- secondary road network (7%), and 27,492 ki- courage adoption. lometers of the tertiary road network (20.3%), requiring response to more than 600 road emergencies in more than 290 stretches of the 4.1.3. The transportation sector: national road system (Ministry of Transporta- the largest direct losses to the tion, 2011). In the fluvial sector, even though State’s patrimony there is less systematic information available, the La Niña 2010-2011 rainy season required Infrastructure and services megaprojects, intervention in works to control floods in La such as ports, airports, and dams have been de- Mojana region, the Canal del Dique, and some signed applying the strictest risk control stan- other areas along the Magdalena River, where dards and count on contingency plans, while the dredging was also required in the areas of ac- road subsector is frequently affected by damages cess to maritime and river ports. caused by disaster events. In general, the large port and dam infrastructure in the country has withstood without any problem dangerous physical phenomena in the last decades due to the design quality that in the last few years has been appraised as part of licensing both in 4 The Colombian government, through the DNP and the DGR, with support from the World Bank and the Agricultural Society of Colombia (SAC), con- construction and environmental processes, in- ducted self-assessment surveys between April and June 2001, addressed cluding when necessary, design evaluation and to the main actors and entities of the agriculture sector in the country. 226 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 4.6. Event distribution and departments with affected roads, 1970-2011 Earthquake 14% Drought 2% Other Flash ood 1% 2% 5% 12% Rain/Storm 8% 10% 8% 6% Flood Landslide 30% 52% 4% 2% 0% Antioquia Valle Tolima Boyaca Santander C/marca Nariño Caldas Meta Huila N. Santander Atlantico Magdalena Quindio Fire 0% Source: OSSO Corporation, 2011 from OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 Taking into account the magnitude of ect design, construction, and maintenance, as road damage and the fact that this type of in- well as contractual management to reduce risk. frastructure is mainly the property of the State, Moreover, as noted in Chapter 1, Invías, with it may be concluded that transportation is the resources from the “Emergency construction sector that causes the most direct losses to the works for the national road network” account, nation’s patrimony as a result of dangerous nat- annually invests an average of Col$50 billion. ural events. The approximate length of the Co- Nevertheless, in periods when there is greater lombia road network is 166,233 kilometers, of intensity in precipitation, investment increas- which 74,746 kilometers belong to the tertiary es considerably, as for example occurred in network under the control of the municipali- 2009 when investment surpassed Col$120 bil- ties, Invías, and private sector (World Bank, lion (Ministry of Transportation, 2011). As far 2004); 66,082 kilometers of the secondary net- as the National Infrastructure Agency, it does work are under the control of the departments, not have the budget resources to cover emer- and 16,786 kilometers of the primary network gencies that take place in road concessions of are under the responsibility of Invías and the first and second generation and the railroad National Infrastructure Agency. Of the prima- network, in which the National Government is ry network, 5,500 kilometers are operated by liable for the risks. private agents under the concept of a conces- Apart from the direct impacts to the na- sion, many of these being constructed by the tional patrimony, the effects on the road system concessionaire. In this context, it is convenient produce indirect damages associated with the that both the State and the private concession- suspension of service, aggravating the qual- aires take into account lessons learned in proj- ity limitations of road transportation service, Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 227 and thus decelerating the economic and devel- Other indirect effects include the poor ser- opment growth of the country. According to vice provided to passengers and the impossibility the World Bank (2011b), Colombia occupies, of placing perishable agrarian products on the among 139 countries, the 101st place in road market on time, although these effects are nei- quality infrastructure5, below countries like ther measured nor quantifiable. Consequently, Chile, Uruguay, Mexico, and Argentina. In the current National Development Plan (2010- spite of an improvement of 4,700 kilometers 2014 “Prosperity for All”) defines the program in the national road network between 2006 “Routes to Prosperity”, which has as its goal for and 2010 and an increase of almost 700 kilo- 2014 to intervene in 50,000 kilometers of tertia- meters in two-lane roads (Colombian Cham- ry roads in order to improve access conditions ber of Infrastructure 2009), in 2010, 50% to municipalities where the transportation of (83,000 kilometers) were in poor conditions their agricultural products is the mainstay of its and only 5% (25,000 kilometers) of this total economy. Likewise, it is important to consoli- were paved (DNP, 2010; Colombian Chamber date execution plans in order to foment employ- of Infrastructure, 2009). This already complex ment in these regions. situation is constantly aggravated by disaster The climatic conditions in the country, its impacts on these roads. In the case of La Niña difficult topography, and the young geology of the 2010-2011, landslides caused the closure of the Andes are very demanding, but the real cause of di- stretches between Honda-Villeta, Bucaraman- saster impacts on the road infrastructure are defi- ga-Barrancabermeja and Manizales-Mariquita, ciencies in design, prevention, and maintenance. creating inconveniences in freight transport The climatic, topographic, and geological con- between production centers in the interior of ditions of the country are known, although the the country and its ports. The vulnerability evaluations carried out in the transportation economic Study of the Bogota-Villavicencio sector conclude that vulnerability in the exist- highway (Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, ing infrastructure can be reduced, mainly by 2004) concluded that during the 2000-2004 pe- using better layouts, designs, and maintenance riod, the highway was interrupted on an aver- measures. Furthermore, it is possible to control age of 7.01 days per year, causing total losses future risk by taking into account the lessons of Col$16 billion in 2004. In addition, accord- learned to date. Figure 4.1 shows the road sec- ing to the Freight Transportation Association tions that have the most frequent emergency (ATC), blockages caused by landslides in the sites, confirming the susceptibility of the Ande- Cisneros-Buenaventura road in March 2011 an zone, whose deficiencies have to be analyzed produced damages estimated at Col$16 billion, in detail in order to take corrective measures equivalent to Col$2 billion daily. The freight and to formulate conclusions that will assist in transport sector estimates that the economic implementing technical regulations and recom- impact caused by La Niña 2010-2011 ascends mendations in new infrastructure projects. to Col$344 billion, represented in lost profits, benefits, and salaries, as well as in related in- dustries (lodging, vehicle repair and tire repair 5 The quality indicators include kilometers of paved network per million garages, and gas stations), 30% of which were inhabitants and kilometers of two-lane roads per million inhabitants affected due to these impacts (ATC, 2011). (2010-2011). 228 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The budget limitations make it challeng- Figure 4.1. Road sections with frequent emergency attention ing to cover 100% maintenance of the national Critical points network and to execute preventive works. En- Santa Marta vironmental degradation and improper prac- Barranquilla tices in land use planning are identified as the Cartagena main causes of natural phenomenon impacts in 18 the transportation sector. Roads under the re- Monteria 17 sponsibility of the State, which are the major- 16 San Alberto Caucasia Cucuta ity, not only do not rely on a systematic budget 3 15 Sfe. de Antioquia 2 Bucaramanga 14 for their maintenance, which is reflected in the Los Llanos 4 13 Saravena poor state they are in, but are also affected by Medellin 1 Barbosa Bolombolo Tame their vulnerability in dangerous physical events. 5 Pto. Chiquinquira Fresno 7 6 Salgar Tunja According to the Master Transportation Plan Manizales Honda Paez Yopal 11 12 Aguazul 2010-2032, the reconstruction of one kilometer Bogota Cali of road may cost in current value more than five Villavicencio Buenaventura Guadulejo times the cost of carrying out proper preventive 68 Popayan La Plata 10 maintenance. In fact, according to the Ministry Florencia 9 Mocoa of Transportation and the Chamber of Infra- Pasto Works due to eventual damages structure, during La Niña 2010-2011, the per- formance of the roads granted in concessions, 1 MEDELLIN - PUERTO BERRIO (Landslide, embankment loss) ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Medellin - Pto. Triunfo - Pto Araujo y Pto. Berrio compared with those administered by the State, 2 MEDELLIN - CAUCASIA (Landslide) ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Medellin - Pto Triunfo - Bosconia -Plato - Sincelejo - Caucasia was superior and there were fewer service inter- DABEIBA - SANTAFE DE ANTIOQUIA (Landslide) ruptions thanks to adequate maintenance. 3 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Turbo - Pto. Rey - Caucasia - Medellin BOLOMBOLO - SANTAFÉ DE ANTIOQUIA. (Landslide) Taking into account the antiquity of the 4 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Bolombolo - Medelliin - Santafe de Antioquia LA MANSA PRIMAVERA (Landslide) road network and the high recurrence of dam- 5 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Quibdo - Pereira - Medellin ages caused by floods and landslides, it can be MANIZALES -FRESNO (Landslide) 6 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Manizales-Pereira-Armenia -Ibaguee - Mariquita concluded that damages are caused by deficient CAUYA - LA PINTADA (Landslide) 7 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Cauya - Manizales Aguadas - La Pintada (departmental road) standards in design and protection facing risks, POPAYAN -GUADUALEJO (Landslide) 8 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Popayan - La Plata - Guadualejo and/or deficient control during the construc- 9 MOCOA-PITALITO (Landslide) ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Pasto - Popayan - Armenia - Neiva - Ibague tion. The knowledge of geological factors and 10 ORRAPIUASI - FLORENCIA (Landslide) the development of construction techniques ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Altamira - Gabinete - Florencia HONDA-VILLETA (Landslide) and design have progressed significantly with 11 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Bogotaa - Girardot - lbaguee - Honda CRUCERO -AGUAZUL (Instability due to geological conditions) regard to the period in which the greater part 12 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Bogota - Villavicencio - Aguazul of the country’s road network was constructed. CUROS-MALAGA (Landslide) 13 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Bucaramanga - Pamplona - Malaga Deficiencies in standards, along with mainte- LA LEJIA - SARAVENA (Landslide) 14 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: La Lejiia - Presidente - Duitama - Socha - La Cabuya - Tame - Saravena nance problems, are factors that contribute to BUCARAMANGA - CUCUTA 15 (Landslide, embankment loss) the weakness of the oldest infrastructure. It is 16 OCAÑA - CUCUTA (Landslide) ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: Ocaña - Aguaclara - Bucaramanga - Cucuta. necessary to carry out studies of the existing 17 BANCO - TAMALAMEQUE - EL BURRO (Flood) vulnerability to undertake interventions that ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: EI Burro - Cuatrovientos - El Banco PLATO - PALERMO (Flood) will increase the resistance parameters of the 18 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: El Carmen - Carretero - Barranquilla network to different hazards to which it is ex- Source: Ministry of Transportation, 2011 posed, as well as to consider strategies in the Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 229 outlines that would provide a greater redun- are becoming more important due to popula- dancy and flexibility to its performance. tion growth which requires greater demand for Invias is the only entity in the sector that water and consequently causing vulnerability has an emergency prevention and attention of- in the systems. fice and a budget to cover its costs. However, only an average of 9% is allocated to preven- tion, the remainder going to annual disaster Graph 4.7. Disaster events impacting water and sewage management and emergency costs. The bud- systems, by decade get needed to recuperate roads traditionally does not leave many resources to implement 60 mitigation actions so, the same sections are affected again (See Graph 1.14 in Chapter 50 1) (Colombian Chamber of Infrastructure, 40 2008). In many cases, slope stabilization works are required, which should be com- Number 30 bined with maintenance, as indispensable and highly cost-effective measures. 20 10 4.1.4. Safe drinking water and 0 basic sanitation sector: indirect 1950-1960 1960-1970 1970-1980 1980-1990 1990-2000 2000-2010 impacts difficult to calculate Drought Earthquake Flood Landslide The reports on annual damages caused Source: OSSO, 2011 Corporation from information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 by natural phenomena in the water and sewage systems indicate a growing tendency. Accord- ing to DesInventar (OSSO-EAFIT Corpora- tion, 2011) information, since 1950 there has been a permanent increase of disaster impacts El Niño 2009-2010 initiated the rationing on water and sewage services in the country. In of water or water shortages in at least 130 mu- the 1980s, an annual average of 20 incidences nicipalities in the country. In spite of it being caused by disasters was reported, a figure that considered a moderate event, 130 Colombian was doubled in the 1990s. In the last ten years, municipalities were affected by the decrease although it may be due to better access to infor- in their water supply sources causing impacts mation, there has been an annual average in- in the water service. Compared to El Niño crease of 4.5 incidences, associated with a larger 1997-1998 (Table 4.4), identified as one of the exposed infrastructure, but in particular with most intense in the history of the country, it the El Niño 2009-2010 and La Niña 2010-2011 is evidenced that the risk conditions due to phenomena (Graph 4.7). Floods and landslides water shortages caused by drought improved are the events that are the most recurrent in on the Atlantic coast with the exception of the this sector and have the greatest number of reg- department of Bolivar. On the other hand, 40 istries, followed by seismic activity. Droughts municipalities in the department of Boyaca 230 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies and 30 in Cundinamarca were affected. Water rationing or suspending of water service had Table 4.4. Water rationing and/or water shortages caused diverse impacts in these departments, such by El Niño in 1997-1998 and 2009-2010 as temporarily closing schools and restricting 1997 – 1998 2009 - 2010 rendering of services in hospitals. Moreover, Department # Municipalities # Municipalities the hotel industry was affected and a decline Antioquia 10 - was seen in the number of tourists visiting Atlantico 11 6 municipalities such as Barichara in Santander. Bolivar 11 21 In spite of the fact that the exact impact Boyaca 39 40 on the water and sanitation systems caused by Caqueta - 3 the 2010-2011 rainy season is not known in Cauca - 1 detail, it is assumed that like in other sectors, Cesar 24 - losses could be the largest in history. Accord- Choco - 2 ing to the Vice Minister of Water and Sani- Cundinamarca 14 30 tation, pertaining to MVCT, the Water and Huila 7 3 Sanitation Department Plans had allocated La Guajira 14 3 more than Col$61 billion in rehabilitation ex- Magdalena 13 - penses to normalize the rendering of services. Nariño - 1 As far as losses and reconstruction costs, the Norte de Santander 1 8 Vice Minister consolidated a database pre- Quindio 4 - pared by the managers of these plans, using Risaralda - 2 685 reports, which indicates that 371 munici- palities in the country were affected in their Santander 7 5 water and sanitation services. Furthermore, Sucre 15 3 preliminary analyses indicate that resources Valle del Cauca 4 2 are needed for reconstruction, clearly associ- Total 190 130 ated with the emergency, for close to Col$500 Source: MVCT –Vice-Ministry of Water and billion. However, the total of the request made Sanitation, 2011. by the municipalities is more than Col$1.6 billion, but even though these requests are not directly related to the rainy season, they age of safe drinking water produced serious respond to the weaknesses of the infrastruc- effects on the health of the population, mainly ture, which have to be attended to in order to gastrointestinal illnesses due to the consump- reduce vulnerability in the territorial entities. tion of unsafe water and difficulties in ren- There are no estimates of the indirect dering services in other activities, such as impacts caused by the suspension of water and education and the operation of health centers. sanitation services, but according to interna- As far as the economy, the suspension of the tional experiences, it may be assured that they system generated impacts not only on the wa- far exceed the direct costs in the sector’s infra- ter and sanitation companies, but also on all structure. The suspension of the service has of the productive and commercial sectors. social and economic consequences among the One of the principal causes of vulner- local entities. In the social aspect, the short- ability in water shortage in Colombia is that Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 231 95% of the water supply systems are supplied by Index (IAU) measures the pressure of demand superficial currents originating from small wa- of superficial water with respect to the supply. tersheds. It may be added that there is a lack of In other words, a high index implies strong redundancy in the collecting systems and supply pressure on the supply available (Graph 4.8). sources, thereby exposing the rendering of this According to the IAU, in a year where the av- service to the fluctuation of hydroclimatic be- erage climate behavior is medium, there are havior. According to the Ideam (2010), the pro- 4,078,895 people in 24 regional municipalities vision of water for human consumption mainly with a very high index, whereas in a dry year, a comes from superficial sources, especially from very high IAU has affected 6,248,750 people in mountains, with small water flows, which are 55 centers. Additionally, demographic increase distributed by the force of gravity. These con- and the pressure on water resources for other ditions, added to population growth, water uses permanently increase the probability of demand, and absence of redundancy systems, water shortage in zones that are under low wa- expose the rendering of the service to weather ter stress. It is probable that the greatest con- fluctuations, creating the possibility of sus- centration of risk due to these conditions is in pending the water supply in drought seasons, the city of Cucuta, which takes its water mainly damages to the water collecting systems, and from the Pamplonita River, a stream that is adduction during the intense rainy seasons due now being used to the limit (Costa, 2005). to crescents in the supply sources. Seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, land- The Colombian population is concen- slides, and other hazards, including climate, also trated in regions where there is less water. There generate risks in the water and sanitation infra- are more than seven million people located near structure. The system is exposed to multiple watersheds with high or very high Water Use In- hazards, both natural (seismic activity, volca- dices, even as demographic pressure and water nic activity, and landslide phenomena), and demand continue to increase. Some 66% of the anthropic activities (altering water quality by population in the country lives between 1,000 dumping toxic and dangerous substances and and 3,000 meters above sea level, where 34% terrorist attack substances). On the other hand, of the water is to be found (Ideam, 2010). Ad- failure in providing clean drinking water servic- ditionally, 708 of the 1,119 municipal centers es and basic sanitation services are factors that are located in the Magdalena-Cauca watershed, generate health and other emergencies. Some whose supply of water service does not reach of the emergencies that occurred between 2006 the 15% of the national total. The Water Use and 2010 are indicated in Table 4.5. 232 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 4.8. Water Use Index (IUA) in Colombia WATER USE INDEX (IUA) MEAN YEAR POPULATION PERCENTAGE Municipal Capital 0.6% Water Use Index -IUA Mean Year Population Insigni cant Characteristic Municipalities (million) Color 11.2% Low Insigni cant 504 14,709,412 10.2% Low 436 8,930,621 40.4% Mid Mid 76 4,757,180 13.1% High High 57 3,716,395 Very high Very high 24 4,078,895 24.5% No information 47 208,830 No information WATER USE INDEX (IUA) DRY YEAR POPULATION PERCENTAGE Municipal Capital 0.8% Water Use Index -IUA DryYear Population Insigni cant Characteristic Municipalities (million) Color 17.2% Low Insigni cant 405 13,902,944 Low 422 6,416,741 9.2% 38.2% Mid Mid 98 6,198,205 High High 93 3,358,453 17.0% Very high Very high 55 6,248,750 17.6% No information 47 276,240 No information Source: Ideam, 2010 Table 4.5. Events that have produced problems in the rendering of public services Municipality Triggering event Effect Tumaco (Nariño) Mira river avalanche Urban and rural water overflow Paez – Belalcazar (Cauca) Volcanic eruption in the Nevado del Huila Water shortage and damage to the sewage system infrastructure Manizales (Caldas) Landslides Water shortage over 11 days Villavicencio (Meta) Terrorist attack Water shortage over 7 days Cali (Valle del Cauca) and Neiva (Huila) Increase in solids due to torrential rains Water collection closed Bocas de Satinga (Nariño) Lateral undermining Collapse of the water intake Quetame (Cundinamarca) Seismic activity Water shortage and damage to the sewage system infrastructure Clemencia (Bolivar) Floods Damage to the power system, water shortage for more than a month Suarez (Tolima) Critical diminishing of watersheds at the supply source Water shortage in the rural zone Barichara (Santander) Critical diminishing of storage at the dam Water shortage Cali (Valle del Cauca) Critical diminishing of watersheds at the supply source Rationing Source: MVCT - Vice-Ministry of Water and Sanitation, 2011. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 233 Box 4.2. Water supply watersheds affected by the La Niña 2010–2011 phenomenon in the city of Cucuta The excessive generation of water flows in the two watersheds in the Cucuta water supply system (Norte de Santander), combined with the processes of deforestation, produced such murkiness in the water that it made it impossible to purify the water with any water treatment system. As a result, the water company, Aguas Kpital Cucuta S.A. E.S.P., was compelled to stop production in the Pamplonita River and the Zulia River, a situation that went out of control and overwhelmed the technical and operational capacity of the company. This resulted in water rationing in some zones and in others the rendering of providing water service could not be guaranteed. The climatic history of Cucuta and the geomorphological characterization of the Zulia and Pamplonita watersheds totally changed from the 2010-2011 rainy season on. The degree of deforestation in these watersheds is evidenced in the increase of the levels of murkiness with values over 26,000 UNT (murkiness nephelometric units) in Pamplonita and 16,000 UNT in Zulia. In April 2011, water treatment plants operated at minimum levels and were suspended over 12 days. Hours suspended at the Pórtico plant Start End Total Murkiness Day (day/month/year hour) (day/month/year hour) (hours) Max (UNT) 16 16/04/2011 18:15 17/04/2011 00:00 05:45 22,670 17 17/04/2011 00:00 17/04/2011 16:00 16:00 25,680 18 18/04/2011 00:00 19/04/2011 00:00 24:00 28,750 19 19/04/2011 00:00 19/04/2011 11:00 11:00 13,400 20 20/04/2011 04:30 20/04/2011 11:00 06:30 14,260 21 21/04/2011 18:00 22/04/2011 00:00 06:00 17,400 22 22/04/2011 00:00 23/04/2011 00:00 24:00 27,300 23 23/04/2011 00:00 24/04/2011 00:00 24:00 25,700 24 24/04/2011 00:00 24/04/2011 13:30 13:30 12,000 25 25/04/2011 02:00 26/04/2011 00:00 22:00 22,240 26 26/04/2011 00:00 26/04/2011 04:00 04:00 10,240 Total hours suspended 156:45 Source: Aguas Kpital Cucuta S.A. E.S.P., 2011. Among the main risk causes in the drink- resistance joints and materials, and poor de- ing water and basic sanitation sector is the in- formation capacity, high loss indices, etc.) are frastructure weakness, which conditions the characterized by their weaknesses, creating ex- system vulnerability. The linear character of treme structural and functional vulnerability, the network, generally several kilometers particularly in mountainous and rural zones. long, the multiplicity of construction mate- Some examples of this are (i) the sewage system rial used, as well as the age of the different el- in Bahia Solano (Choco), which has not had ements increases its vulnerability, which can maintenance in the last ten years, has 12 ob- trigger damages that generate water shortages structed stretches, which cause overflows, and for human consumption or the interruption of has more than 22 of the 37 inspection wells in sewage services. The components in the water very bad conditions that result in leakage; (ii) and sanitation systems (water intakes, pipe- the raw water pipeline system in the Dosque- lines and fragile distribution, inferior quality bradas municipality (Risaralda), which has 234 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies permanent failures because it was constructed it can be repaired, result in a serious social con- with asbestos (cement) three decades ago and sequence of having almost 800,000 students it crosses through an area of active landslides without classes or of difficulties in receiving in a zone called “Boqueron”; and (iii) the raw educational services (Table 4.6). water pipeline system in the city of Villavicen- In some cases, the disasters’ indirect im- cio (Meta), 16.5 kilometers of which is located pacts may have a greater transcendence than the in an area of concentrated geological instability direct ones, as it is exemplified in the education that puts the system at permanent risk in the sector. During the recent 2010-2011 emergen- service rendering6. cy, rehabilitation and reconstruction costs in The lack of institutional capacity in ren- the sector were estimated to be in the amount dering services and the insufficient preparation of approximately Col$258 billion, correspond- to face emergencies are critical factors in this ing to 4% of the total resources invested in the sector. In Colombia, there are more than 10,000 integral action plan specifically to manage an service providers under different schemes emergency. While this process included the (public sector, private sector, community sec- need to allocate part of the budget to technical tor). In 460 municipalities, these services are studies, maintenance, mitigation works, and offered directly by the municipality, through relocation and reconstruction projects that in offices assigned to different secretariats. Most the future will strengthen the incorporation of of these agents are not specialized and do not prevention in the educational infrastructure, have technical, administrative or financial ca- there are other indirect impacts related to the pacity to provide quality services, coverage, suspension of services: delay in the academic and continuity to the population. These defi- curriculum, interruption of school cafeterias, ciencies are most critical during emergency and activities in precarious locations while the situations (Box 4.2). normal infrastructure is used for temporary shelter and thus affecting the rights of the stu- dents’ communities. 4.1.5. The education sector: long- One of the National Ministry of Education term socioeconomic impacts guidelines is to guarantee continuity in the edu- cational service rendering in the communities af- The education sector is affected by the fected by disaster. In relation to the emergency occurrence of disaster events causing damage management in the case of La Niña 2010-2011 to the infrastructure and incurring reconstruc- disaster, different strategies have been pro- tion costs including the use of its installations in posed to reestablish educational service opera- providing temporary lodging. During La Niña tions and school cafeterias as well as developing 2010-2011, 3,083 educational institutions and and implementing pedagogic projects in risk 13,225 classes in 19 departments in the country management, education in emergencies, and were affected, of which the most impacted were Bolivar, Magdalena, Atlantico, and Choco. Additionally, 14 educational centers and 119 classrooms were used as temporary shelters. 6 For more information see the Single System for Public Services Informa- Consequently, damages to the infrastructure, if tion, see at: http://www.sui.gov.co/SUIWeb/logon.jsp. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 235 sexual education. Moreover, the regions are al- 4.1.6. Health and social lowed to use these establishments as temporary protection sector shelters in cases of emergencies, which is con- tradictory in relation to the right of education The economic and social impacts produced continuity. Cities such as Bogota, for example, in the health sector due to hazardous natural phe- have as a policy guideline that schools cannot nomena are the consequence of not assuming be used as shelters by people affected by disas- integral strategies in risk management. During ters. They may use community halls, sporting La Niña 2010-2011, 441 health facilities were venues, and other types of installation in case affected, including local hospitals, health cen- these are required (Table 4.6). ters, and health posts in 199 municipalities and Table 4.6. Damage caused by the rainy season in the education sector, 2010-2011 Department Total of sites Sites affected Classrooms affected Students affected Amazonas 137 3 11 451 Antioquia 6,397 210 679 55,353 Atlantico 1,656 86 433 49,137 Bolivar 2,131 590 2,995 172,064 Boyaca 2,647 39 284 13,804 Caldas 1,581 25 92 1,973 Caqueta 1639 42 81 6,090 Cauca 2,897 216 700 44,815 Cesar 1,741 112 403 20,689 Choco 1,296 188 868 23,300 Córdoba 1,669 124 656 40,199 Cundinamarca 3,892 256 1,038 45,074 Capital District 3,292 4 17 4,444 Huila 2,082 111 341 23,844 La Guajira 531 29 77 9,454 Magdalena 2,304 124 758 37,836 Nariño 3,051 78 295 23615 Norte de Santander 2,649 368 1,662 83,017 Quindio 445 16 139 21,272 Risaralda 1,090 96 349 21,155 Santander 3,558 110 309 23,209 Sucre 1,191 94 362 12,873 Tolima 2,723 37 200 14,556 Valle del Cauca 4,665 125 476 29,607 Total 55,264 3,083 13,225 777,831 Source: SNPAD and DGR, 2011. 236 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 19 departments in the country, where the most ties that were partially damaged and 1,484 that critical damage occurred in Bolivar, Nariño, were completely destroyed. This caused close to Magdalena, and Norte de Santander. The esti- 68,012 girls and boys to be affected by the in- mated rehabilitation and reconstruction costs, terruption of social attendance services; the de- according to reports from the Public Health Pro- partments that had the greatest problems were viding Institutions and Health Territorial Agen- Atlantico, Magdalena, and Bolivar (SNPAD and cies increased to Col$156 billion. These resources DGR, 2011). were invested in replenishing 146 health posts, 28 The long-term effects of the social and health centers, and 23 hospitals (Table 4.7). health infrastructure losses transcend medical Other essential establishments that provide attention and become a development problem. social welfare services have also been seriously af- Despite the difficulty of estimating the costs fected by dangerous natural phenomena, and for of damages caused to the welfare of the popu- this reason an impact on child and family support lation due to the suspension of these services is recognized. As a consequence of the emergency caused by a disaster, it is acknowledged that caused by the La Niña 2010-2011 phenomenon, there are also multiple indirect impacts related a total of 23,343 ICBF facilities (central zones, to the increase of illness risks, environmental community gardens, children’s homes, commu- fragmentation, post-traumatic stress, and sus- nity homes, school cafeterias, and dining rooms pension of vaccine programs and logistic deliv- for elderly people, breakfast for children, foster ery of supplies and medicine. These problems homes, and welfare institutions, among other increase the fragility of the population in shap- centers), were affected by some type of damages. ing and increasing the complexity of the vul- Some 4,858 facilities in 16 departments, or 21% nerability and risk factors and their recovery of the ICBF infrastructure, included 3,374 facili- capacity in emergency situations. Table 4.7. Types of interventions by effect on the health sector infrastructure, 2010-2011 Type of intervention Health posts Health centers Local hospitals Total m2 Cost (Col$) Reposition 146 28 23 197 61,947 112,861,343,517 Major adaptability 57 22 20 99 29,354 29,446,881,514 Minor adaptability 52 45 48 145 36,735 14,172,718,898 Totals 441 128,036 156,480,943,929 Source: SNPAD and DGR, 2011. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 237 4.2. Risk management in sectoral public administration 4.2.1. Risk management in and likewise emphasized the aforementioned regulation and sectoral policies in three fundamental elements: (i) the risk over the rendering of Residential Public Services From the regulation and policy perspec- (SPD), (ii) the risks caused by rendering SPD tive, important progress has been made in incor- services to society, and (iii) risks generated in porating risk management, as it is in the case of society due to deficiencies in the rendering of safe drinking water and basic sanitation, while services in case of emergencies and disasters. in environmental, power, education, and hous- They also define the strategic lines of action ing sectors only partial developments have been that address incorporation of risk management observed. The levels of risk management incor- in planning and investment7 instruments and poration in sectoral policies are heterogeneous in regulations8, strengthening service provid- in the country. In this sense, the proposal set ers and municipalities in this subject, devel- forth in the guideline document for safe drink- opment in hazard and risk information, and ing water and basic sanitation sector stand out, preparedness to guarantee appropriate service as established by the Water and Sanitation Vice in emergency situations. Ministry, as well as the risk control policy in the Risk management is gradually being in- power sector. Likewise, there has been progress cluded in several regulation instruments in the in regulations in the environment, education, area of drinking water and sanitation. Law 142 and housing sectors, and an integral risk con- of 1994 of Public Utility Services establishes struction strategy in the agriculture sector has that the service providers should collaborate been started. Additionally, the transportation with the authorities in emergency situations sector has been modifying its traditional focus or public calamities in order to avoid serious toward a more integral vision of risk manage- injury to the users. Subsequently, the Techni- ment as evidenced in the current Master Trans- cal Regulation for the Drinking Water and Ba- portation Plan 2010-2032, prepared by the sic Sanitation Sector (RAS), adopted in 2000, Ministry of Transportation and the DNP. sets the requirements for the designs, works, Since 2007, the drinking water and sani- and procedures in the sector and its comple- tation sector has had strategic proposal docu- mentary activities, including risk management ments called Policy Guidelines, initiated by the as part of its environmental component. Like- Vice Ministry of Water and Sanitation, which wise, Decree 1575 of 2007, on water quality for incorporate risk management in public services rendering water supply, sewage systems, and sanitation. Even though these have not been 7 Sanitation and Dumping Management Plans, Water Supply and Sewer- officially approved, the documents adopted a age Master Plans, Solid Waste Management and Work Plans, and Invest- ment Service Providers. conceptual framework to include risk manage- 8 Technical Regulation for the Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation Sec- ment based on its hazards and vulnerability tor (RAS). 238 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies human consumption, requires that the service lishes, as one of its purposes, the State’s inter- providers formulate a contingency plan in case vention in “the continuous and uninterrupted of emergency and give guidelines for its activa- rendering” of public utility services, which was tion. Currently, the Vice Ministry of Water and ratified by Law 143 of the same year. In compli- Sanitation is preparing a specific risk manage- ance with this principle and as a consequence ment document for the next RAS version, in of the subsequent power rationing produced which the previously mentioned policy guide- by El Niño 1991-1992 (which was due to the lines will be incorporated. country’s strong dependency in hydroelectric Risk management was also incorporated energy), a medium- and long-term strategy has in the Water and Sanitation Departmental Plans been adopted to reduce vulnerability, improve (PDA), subsequently changed to the Water Pro- regulatory and financial instruments that en- gram for Prosperity, which as an institutional and courage competition, diversify the power financial strategy was meant to extend the qual- sector, and install a greater capacity that will ity and coverage of public services and advance outweigh the demand. Currently, Colombia toward the Millennium Development Goals. has an installed capacity of 50% greater than The PDA were regulated by Decree 3200 of the demand (Graph 4.9). It has a diversified 2008 with the purpose of allocating invest- power park and regulations, which, by order ments at the territorial level through a sole of the government, protected water reserves regional plan that seeks articulation, econo- during El Niño 2008-2009, hence reducing mies of scale, cost-effectiveness, and sustain- the production of hydroelectric energy and ability. In 2009, a specific risk management increasing the production of thermal energy annex was included in all the PDA in order that went from supplying 14% of the demand to evaluate vulnerabilities, give priority to in- in the country to 50% (Graph 4.10). Due to vestments in reducing these vulnerabilities, the redundancy of sources and excess capac- and guide resources to respond to emergency ity, it has been possible not to ration water in situations. However, presently, the effective- times of water scarcity. ness of the compliance of this guideline has not The energy sector has also been success- been evaluated, and neither has the manner in ful in guaranteeing the continuity of services in which it has influenced the allocation of money spite of damages to the sector caused by terrorist for this subject, or the development of specific attacks, making evident its response capacity in actions. The PDA were modified at the end of anthropic disasters. The redundancy concept of 2011 when they became the Water Program for the elements and the system’s flexibility to func- Prosperity, which should include the progress tion in case of a component’s failure are funda- made in risk management by the PDA. mental factors for public service operation and The energy sector has the strengthen- continuity. The Operations Room of the Nation- ing policy of “continuity of the service” in fac- al Dispatch Center, employing highly qualified ing a water shortage hazard in case of extreme personnel and having access to the national elec- drought. This was achieved by mandate of the trical interconnection network, has been a key Public Utility Services Law (Law 142 of 1994) element in facing any crisis. Likewise, the coun- and the Power Law (Law 143 of 1994), and by the try counts on the Support Control Center in case knowledge acquired in the “blackout” caused the Operations Room fails to respond. Addi- by El Niño 1991-1992. Law 142 of 1994 estab- tionally, their own technological developments Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 239 Graph 4.9. Evolution of the installed capacity and the maximum demand for power, 1998-2009 15,000 14,000 13,000 12,000 11,000 Power (MW) 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Maximun Power (MW) Installed Capacity (MW) Source: UPME, 2010. Graph 4.10. Composition of power generation, 2008-2010 Year 2008 Year 2009 Year 2010 Minor and cogeneration Minor and cogeneration Minor and cogeneration 6% 5% 4% Thermal 14% Thermal 26% Hydraulic Thermal Hydraulic Hydraulic 69% 46% 80% 50% Source: Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2010. 240 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies have maximized the use of the systems, although stitutions are required to set up School Di- there are failures in some sections. Moreover, saster Prevention and Response Committees the advantages of the regulation framework and the Secretariats of Education are to use promote open competition and private in- the counseling provided by the CREPAD, the vestment while concurrently facilitating swift Departmental Board of Education, and the intervention in a crisis situation. For more National Office for Disaster Prevention and than two decades and especially in times when Response. Subsequently, Ministerial Directive armed conflict was more intense, there have No. 12 of July 2009 comprehensively address- been no significant energy service suspensions es the subject of risk management in the sec- in the country, a capacity which is also useful tor. Even though its title refers to “Continuity in disasters caused by natural phenomena that in rendering education services in emergency would affect the power infrastructure. situations”, its content also deals with preven- The agriculture sector, even though it has tion and mitigation requiring that the Secre- been affected by recurrent disasters, has had tariats prepare risk maps, relocate educational an incipient advance in regulations and poli- installations under risk, and adopt contingen- cies for risk management. However, the cur- cy plans. Additionally, it provides instruction rent National Development Plan (NDP) seeks on how to coordinate with other State entities the adoption of a new strategy that includes during a crisis situation and how to proceed adaption to climate change and market risks. in managing resources in the reconstruction Agrarian activities are systematically impacted phase. On the other hand, the contents of the by disasters, which affect economic and social curricula are contained in the 2002 National development in the rural areas and register the Environmental Education Policy. All of this in- highest economic losses caused by extreme dicates that the education sector has the avail- climatic events (Graph 4.5). However, the sec- ability of policy instruments and important tor’s policy has been focused on granting direct regulations to progress in risk management. compensation or financial relief to the affected Since 1989, priority has been given to producers, and risk prevention and mitigation the housing sector to relocate populations in interventions have been minor. Acknowledg- high-risk zones and restrict construction in ing the need to have a more integral approach, nonmitigable conditions. However, there has the current NDP adopted a strategic line to been insignificant progress in this respect. “Promote risk management schemes and im- Law 9 of 1989, related to urban reform, for prove investment conditions in the country- the first time required that the municipalities side” as one of the seven priority lines for the identify and relocate settlements in high-risk agriculture sector and rural development. This zones. Moreover, Law 3 of 1991, which cre- strategy is incorporated in strengthening pre- ated the National System of Social Interest ventive culture, adoption of climate change Housing, established a family housing sub- mechanisms, and promoting safety. sidy and regulated relocation processes. Sub- The education sector has important reg- sequently, Law 388 of 1997, related to land ulations in disaster risk management. Resolu- use planning, requires local entities to adopt tion 7550 of 1994 regulates the activities of in a peremptory time its POT, and identify, the National Education System in Emergency among other elements, nonmitigable areas and and Disaster Prevention and Response. In- areas apt for housing construction. Moreover, Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 241 these are fundamental to reduce existing risk, The Integral Neighborhood Improvement since they require population relocation, de- strategy, adopted in 2004, in addition to provid- fine conditions and restrictions in land use in ing better quality in housing and its surroundings, order to control factors that increase hazards aims to reduce risk conditions. However, with the and vulnerability, and avoid the generation of exception of land titling, there have not been any risk scenarios. Where the municipalities in the significant advances. In Colombia’s housing, there country have adopted their POT, it is evident are more than 1.3 million underdeveloped dwell- that the definition of a peremptory deadline, ings, which have structural failures due to the without counting on resources and/or techni- fact that they were constructed under poor and cally defined methodologies, has had negative informal processes. The Second Colombian Cen- effects in the quality of administrating risk tennial: 2019 (DNP, 2007) proposes optimizing management. Although it is acknowledged conditions in more than 800,000 units. The gov- that Colombia has progressed in regulations in ernment has allocated Col$30 billion (adjusted to institutionalizing land use planning, there are 2007 Col$) in order to offer a national guaran- great challenges that must be assumed in the tee to credits to improve housing. However, this process of updating these planning instruments. financial method was not well received. Subse- The last three PND have given priority to quently, through the Conpes Document 3604 of the need to support municipalities in risk reduc- 2009, the Integral Neighborhood Improvement tion in the housing sector by the POT formulation Policy and a proposal to give housing titles to and implementation. The PND 2002-2006 had as 350,000 dwellings and 11 pilot projects to im- a goal to support 100 municipalities in including prove neighborhoods was implemented. To date, risk management in the POT, which resulted in more than 240,000 property titles and 25,000 the Conpes Document 3305, reiterating the subsidies have been granted. However, those that assignment of this responsibility to the Min- have been used for reinforcing housing structure istry of the Environment, Housing, and Ter- have been minor. Pilot projects like those in Bar- ritorial Development. The issue was retaken rancabermeja (Santander) have produced excel- during the PND 2006-2010, and as a result the lent results that merit being copied. Ministry provided aid to more than 600 mu- Another important measure is the adap- nicipalities in this process (57% of the coun- tion of seismic-resistant construction codes. The try’s municipalities). However, an evaluation first Seismic-Resistant Code was adopted when concluded that there are multiple weaknesses Law Decree 1400 of 1984 came into force, and in the conceptualization and adaption of risk it was updated by Law 400 of 1997 and its NSR- management in land use planning. Faced with 98 and NSR-10 regulations. These regulations this situation and minimally applying Article set design and construction standards in order 56 of Law 9 of 1989, related to relocation of to minimize damages produced by earthquakes population at high risk, the PND 2010-2014 with the purpose of diminishing fatalities and orders the current Ministry of Housing to de- reasonably protecting the owner’s patrimony. fine and assign resources in order to formu- The measures adopted in the housing sec- late a methodology to prepare inventories of tor have had positive impacts in risk control, but settlements at risk and to provide support to the sector lacks an integral policy that would in- municipalities in implementing and consoli- corporate the reduction of existing vulnerability dating the information. in formal and informal settlements. Measures 242 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies taken in land use planning and construction of this, instruction has not been fully addressed regulations are fundamental in minimizing haz- and contractual gaps have been produced in ards to new and formal housing, although there Inco, which in 2010 paid more than Col$85 bil- are challenges in their implementation and lion in arbitral awards, judgments and settle- their progress is incipient. Furthermore, there is ments (Inco, 2010). lack of clarity in influencing informal housing, Progress has been made in the health sec- which represents close to 30% of the units annu- tor in formulating and implementing the Region- ally constructed, this being one of the primary al Policy on Safe Hospitals, in compliance with a causes for the increase of risk in Colombia. In worldwide strategy to reduce vulnerability in hos- this sense, it is necessary to implement design pital facilities. The Ministry of Social Protection measures that strengthen urban control in ap- has been developing a safe hospital plan within plying seismic-resistant regulations, land use the campaign framework promoted by the Unit- planning, and overall the application of criteria ed Nations through the International Strategy for approved in construction planning permits. Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) and the World Apart from the responsibility in participat- Health Organization (WHO), with the purpose ing in the National System of Disaster Prevention of having national policies and regulations to face and Attention, the Ministry of Transportation disasters, protect life, investment, and the func- does not have any clear functions in the area of tion of new establishments and those identified risk management. However, progress can be seen as priorities in the health service network, as in entities like the Invias Disaster Prevention well as monitoring those interventions. With and Attention Office and its inclusion of the risk this, the country seeks to have health establish- management concept in the concession contracts, ments that provide permanent and accessible even though these have some deficiencies. Decree services in function of their maximum capacity 087 of 2011 modifies the Ministry of Transpor- and within their own infrastructure immediate- tation’s structure by redefining its functions and ly after the disaster occurs. It also contemplates dependencies. It is assigned with the task of improving emergency training by preparing participating in a responsible risk management and updating national, local, and hospital plans, system and even though the Decree does not training health personnel and other related sec- explicitly mention the subject, there have been tors, as well as assuring essential resources in advances such as the creation, in 2003, of the case of a disaster event. Invias Disaster Prevention and Attention Office. Another important contribution is attributed to Conpes 3107 of 20019, regarding the State’s Contracting Risk Management Policy in Private 9 Conpes Document 3107 of 2001 establishes the guidelines for assigning Infrastructure Participation Processes, which risk to force majeure as follows: “(i) force majeure risks are defined as events include Inco and the recently approved Conpes that are beyond the control of the parties, and their occurrence entitles requests the suspension of obligations under the contract; (ii) temporary 371410. This document establishes the need to events of force majeure, causing delays, can often be solved by allocating give the private investor responsibility over the the costs between the parties. Major events of force majeure may lead to disruption of the project; and (iii) the risk of insurable force majeure refers execution and/or the operation of the project, to the adverse impact on the project implementation and/or operation that which should encourage the use of safety stan- natural disasters can cause. These include earthquakes, floods, fires, and droughts, among others. Normally, these type, of force majeure risks are dards in infrastructure design given in conces- insurable, so this risk will be borne by the private investor.” sion, and free the State of these risks. In spite 10 Document 3714 on predicable risk in public contracting. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 243 4.2.2. Sectoral institutions in strategies and more efficient environmental risk management management. However, at the moment there is a large deficit in sectoral institutional ca- Institutionalism and specific sectoral pacity and therefore, there are many short- capacity in risk management is very limited. comings in defining policies, strategies, and There are not many dependencies whose func- instruments for reducing and controlling risk. tion is to adopt and implement policies in dif- The drinking water and basic sanitation ferent Ministries and even though some entities sector has a Risk Management Group, which execute tasks in this respect, generally they has been fundamental in formulating and im- are carried out by contractors having multiple plementing policy guidelines on this subject. functions and a high turnover rate, which re- In 2006, and as part of the credit execution strat- stricts their performance. As it is indicated in egy with the World Bank “Program for Reducing Chapter 2 of this study, and in spite of norms the State’s Fiscal Vulnerability in Facing Natural such as Decree 919 of 1989 and Conpes 3146, Disasters”, the Risk Management Group was cre- which requested the creation of dependen- ated for the drinking water and basic sanitation cies that would have specific functions in risk sector and is part of the Vice Ministry for Water management in the different Ministries, the and Basic Sanitation. Since its creation, the An- only national sectoral entities that have disas- nual Plans have included objectives in this area, ter prevention and attention offices are Invías, which were originally associated with the devel- the Vice Ministry of Water and Sanitation, and opment of the operation with the World Bank, the Ministry of Social Protection. The office and subsequently, included actions such as created by Invias may not adopt policies in all providing aid and support to service providers areas of transportation and in the absence of a and municipalities, developing methodological sectoral policy and the needs associated with instruments, and adopting a Risk Management everyday emergencies and disasters, more pri- Chapter in the RAS. ority is given to response than to prevention. In October 2011, the Ministry of Social Currently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Protection (MPS) had in the Vice Ministry of Rural Development is seeking alternatives to Health and Welfare an Emergency and Disaster create an Agrarian Risk Management Office11, Attention Office, and within the General Direc- and the recently created Ministry of Environ- torate of Quality Services, it also had a Physical ment and Sustainable Development has also and Technology Infrastructure Office. The MPS considered the possibility of creating an Of- has among its functions identifying and imple- fice in this subject matter. The law project in menting strategies in reduction, mitigation conciliation process in Congress, which pro- and overcoming risks that may originate from poses to replace Law 46 of 1998 and Decree natural and environmental sources as well as 919 of 1989 with the purpose of moderniz- social and economic factors related to the labor ing the SNPAD, reiterates the commitment of creating dependencies in the Ministries with clear policy, execution, monitoring, and 11 The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development tried unsuccessfully to risk management functions, which should be create an Agrarian Risk Directorate in January 2011, aided by emergency closely linked to adaption to climate change decrees issued in response to the La Niña phenomenon of that year. 244 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies force, vital cycle, and health within the frame- ties. In addition, the support provided by the work of its assigned competencies (Decree 205 National Government has not been sufficient of 2003). The existence of a specific work group or constant, which only exacerbates the insti- in risk management in the interior of the MPS tutional vulnerability that is in itself one of makes evident the capacity installed and its the primary causes for the increase of risk in interest, thus allowing the adoption of policy Colombia. and regulation guidelines and their subsequent implementation and monotoring12. The role of the municipalities and de- 4.2.3. Sources of risk partments in the implementation of sectoral management financing at the policies is fundamental, given that the Consti- sectoral level tution of 1991 and the legislation make them responsible for the administration of their The General Participation System and territories and directly accountable in provid- the Water for Prosperity Program can finance ing public services and managing risk. How- activities related to risk management in the ever, the majority have restrictions in their drinking water and basic sanitation sector. resources and institutional capacity to under- Without any exception, the activities to be take these tasks adequately. The lack of poli- financed must be adjusted to the provisions cies and instruments in different sectors, as of Articles 10 and 11 of Law 1176 of 200713. well as strategies for accompaniment, comple- However, there are some considerations that mentarity, and capacity transfer to territorial have to be taken into account in relation to entities, may be considered as one of the prin- interventions in an emergency situation re- cipal factors in risk generation, as previously lated to (i) works for collapsed infrastructure stated in Chapter 2. For example, according recovery or for damages that affect its opera- to Law 136 of 1994, the municipalities are tion; (ii) works to stabilize slopes that directly responsible for land regulation, control, and impact the water or sewage systems where if surveillance in construction and the sale of the intervention is not done immediately, it residential property. However, only 35 cities may cause interruption in the service14; and in the country have Urban Curators and close (iii) implementation of temporary alternative to 90% of the local entities (categories 5 and measures in collection, transportation, and 6) do not have skilled civil servants or suffi- proper disposal of waste so that the emergen- cient resources to appropriately comply with cy situation is mitigated and sanitation prob- their tasks. In transportation, the municipali- lems are avoided (MAVDT, 2008). As far as an ties are responsible for the tertiary road net- work, but generally they have very deficient standards and the greatest vulnerabilities. The 12 The Ministry of Social Protection was restructured by Decree 4107 dated local governments also have the obligation to November 2, 2011. provide public services with quality and con- 13 “By which the Articles 356 and 357 of the Political Constitution are implemented and other provisions are issued”. tinuity standards. Moreover, they must carry 14 The infrastructure to which subparagraphs a) and b) of Act 1176 of 2007 re- out censuses and relocation of populations at fer include water supply systems (collection, adduction, conduction of raw water, treatment systems, tanks, or major networks) and sewage systems risk. These activities require capacities and (collectors and interceptors, treatment systems, pumping stations, and resources that are absent in many municipali- sewage network systems). Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 245 early recuperation of the affected infrastruc- there should be specific criteria to facilitate ture at a municipal level, those projects that the incorporation of other channels of re- do not require design were once considered sources, even though these do not have to be directly viable by the Directorate Committees directly related to emergency situations, such of the Departmental Water Plans15. However, as financing through public-private or private subsequently, it was observed that the works sources, tariffs and rates, etc. did not logically correspond to the hydro- In order to provide energy service, there graphic watersheds. This aspect should be re- are different funds which may be resorted to in evaluated and taken into account in the new case resources are needed for risk management. Water for Prosperity Program. On the other Under the outsourcing model, the private sec- hand, the projects that are presented to the tor is in charge of generating, commercializ- Vice Ministry of Drinking Water under the ing, and distributing the electricity service. mechanism of Sole Window are evaluated and Therefore, it would be the responsibility of considered viable to access resources, such as the companies to reestablish power in case of the National Royalties Fund (FNR). Addition- a disaster and supply the service in affected ally, the Vice Ministry is part of the National zones. These activities are currently under the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Consulting supervision of the Superintendence of Public Commission (CASH), which is a member of Services. However, territorial entities can ad- the Pan-American Health Organization, the minister projects with the support of compa- International Plan, Unicef, Oxfam, etc. The nies that provide these services and operate Commission channels technical assistance in the same jurisdiction using the following through this organization with the purpose of financial sources: (i) Financial Support Fund providing solutions to the affected zones. to provide Energy for Interconnected Rural The transportation sector responds prin- Zones (FAER) (Article 105 of Law 788 of 2002 cipally to requests from municipalities and de- and Regulation Decree 1122 of 2008), for the partments. However, these requests may also execution of plans, programs, and expansion be made to the National Calamity Fund (FNC), projects in the power sector in order to satisfy Invias, and the National Royalty Fund (FNR) demand in interconnected rural areas; (ii) Fi- without a formal articulation mechanism among nancial Support Fund to provide Energy for these sources or a priority procedure to opti- unconnected Rural Zones (FAZNI) (Articles mize the use of resources. There is not a solid 81 to 83 of Law 633 of 2000 and Regulation planning system that facilitates an adequate Decree 1124 of 2008), which provides support structuring and prioritization in investment in power infrastructure to extend its cover- projects, in some cases leading to the execu- age in zones that are not connected, as well as tion of poorly organized contracts that encour- investing in construction and installation of age renegotiation processes. This situation is new elements and replacement or rehabilita- due to the lack of technical personnel or high tion of existing ones; (iii) Social Power Fund turnover, inadequate organization, and weak institutional coordination in administrating projects. Moreover, it is recommended that 15 This prioritization is carried out taking into account information that includes apart from traditional financing sources for the municipality affected, through the CLOPAD, at the request of an emer- risk management in the transportation sector, gency declaration in the department, and the latter in the DGR. 246 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies (FOES) (Laws 812 of 2003 and 1151 of 2007, devices, natural catastrophes, or other events and Decree 4978 of 2007), to cover a percent- expressly approved by the National Social Secu- age of the value of electrical energy intended rity Health Council19. Additionally to the money for the consumption of users located in dif- provided by the SGP and the timely support of ficult administration zones16, less developed the MPS, both municipalities and departments rural zones17 and subnormal urban sectors18, may have access to royalties (direct and indirect) as defined by the national government (un- through the presentation of Regional Invest- regulated users will not benefit from this ment Projects under the terms outlined by the Fund); and (iv) Solidarity Fund for Subsidies FNR. In this case, the viability is the direct re- and Income Redistribution (FSSRI) (Laws sponsibility of the Ministry. The MPS also sup- 142 of 1994 and 286 of 1996), by which re- ports the functioning of the hospital network in sources are administered and allocated by the the country, the updating and implementation National Budget and/or the same Fund in or- of Hospital Plans in Disasters, and the revision der to cover subsidies in electrical energy and and adjustment of the Emergency Medical At- combustible gas distributed by the physical tention Guides. Likewise, with the purpose of network to minor income users. FSSRI may contributing to vulnerability reduction in insti- be focused on subsidies for families affected tutional hospitals at the national level, the MPS by disasters that are not able to pay for the has a program to reinforce structures, unfortu- service. Another possible source is the Na- nately limited in budget in relation to the exist- tional Royalty Fund (FNR), even if it does not ing demand, which has not adequately complied mention states of emergency in rehabilitation with the established deadlines in the Law in projects or recovery of impacted infrastructure order to minimize the vulnerability in essen- caused by disasters; several of its funding lines tial buildings. may nevertheless be applied to urban or rural centers whose service has been interrupted due to these conditions. 16 Decree 4978 of 2007: “A group of users located in the same area connected The health sector relies on multiple fi- to the INS, which has in the past year on an ongoing basis the following nancial resources for infrastructure and ren- characteristics: (i) overdue loans over 90 days by 50% or more of users be- longing to that community, or (ii) level of power losses exceeding 40% over dering services within the framework of risk the input power to the system that serves only this community”. management through funds including the Gen- 17 Rural sector areas of interconnected zones with the following characteris- tics: (i) average index of lower quality of life up to 46.6%, according to the eral Participation System. The Ministry of So- Socio-demographic Indicators System of DNP, and (ii) connected to the SIN. cial Protection (currently the Ministry of Health 18 Settlements located in regional municipality connected to the SIN, which meet the following characteristics: (i) they do not have energy service or and Social Protection) relies on the Solidar- they get it through networks not approved by the Network Operator, and ity and Guarantee Fund (Fosyga) (Articles 167 (ii) are not areas where the service is prohibited as provided in Article 99 of Law 812 of 2003. It is up to the mayor or the competent authority to and 218 of Law 100 of 1993 and Decree 1283 of issue the certification. 1993), using a subaccount to respond to Cata- 19 For this purpose, the Law specifies: Natural disasters are those changes in the physical environment, identifiable in time and space, producing strophic Events and Traffic Accidents (ECAT). massive and indiscriminate damage on people and collectively affect- The Fund is managed from the MPS as a trust, ing a community, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, and avalanches. Other events are those expressly without having legal autonomy or its own of- approved by CNSSS or other authorities substituting it from a natural fices, and its resources are allocated to attending origin, or those that are accidental or voluntarily man-made, whose magnitude exceeds the adaptive capacity of the community in which to persons injured in traffic accidents, terrorist they occur and affecting them massively and indiscriminately, creating activities caused by bombs or other explosive the need for outside help. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 247 4.2.4. Information and and crafting strategies for risk reduction. It can knowledge of risk at the also be useful for developing models for estimat- sectoral level ing potential future impact, implementing rapid damage evaluations immediately after a disaster Significant progress has been made re- occurs, and preparing a government response in garding availability of information in the areas a more timely fashion. of energy and education. However, in other ar- With respect to actions in the transport eas, there is limited knowledge of risk as a key sector, there are various information sources that component in the creation of sectoral strategies. could be linked together in order to consolidate In the energy sector, real-time information is a risk management information system. Detailed available about hydroelectric reservoir levels inventories of the main road infrastructure and weather forecasts, which has allowed time- were recently performed and are available. The Invias and the ANI also have disaster impact ly decision making in order to avoid power databases, but the information is still not stan- shortages. In the education sector, an inventory dardized or automated; therefore, it is not pos- of education infrastructure is being prepared, sible to carry out a historical analysis. There are which includes mechanisms for evaluating also some studies carried out by the University post-emergency damages. These mechanisms of Los Andes on the vulnerability of the road were implemented when the census of damages network, which are well worth considering and caused by La Niña 2010-2011 was conducted updating for different modes of transport. In and proved to be very valuable tools for timely contrast, information about the weakness of the management of education infrastructure needs main infrastructure elements (such as bridges), during this event. In other sectors, the avail- risk analysis of critical locations, or data on indi- ability of automated historical information rect impact due to damages to roads has serious with the level of detail required for decision limitations. The aforementioned information is making is still limited. essential for advancing cost-benefit calculations Few cities have prepared an at-risk hous- for risk reduction. ing census, even though the law holds territori- Regarding drinking water and basic sani- al entities responsible for doing so. Identifying tation, numerous information sources were iden- and evaluating at-risk settlements provides tified which, if linked together, could contribute information essential for understanding the to improving decision making for risk manage- magnitude of the problem, estimating the ment and identifying existing gaps. The Public costs, and preparing a strategic plan for re- Utility Sole Information System, from the Su- ducing hazard and vulnerability factors in perintendence of Public Utilities, contains data the sector. To that end, it is convenient to use on service providers and their infrastructure, standards and have the support of the Minis- including vulnerability studies of aqueduct and try of Housing, which has increasingly taken sewer systems. However, data is still being fed on more importance in the current PND. into the System, its procedures are very complex The livestock and agriculture sector has re- for municipalities with less than 10,000 inhabit- quested that a registry of producers be drawn up ants, data queries are not very user-friendly, and in the current National Development Plan. This the consistency and structure of the informa- information is essential for identifying exposure tion needs improvement. The Vice Ministry of 248 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Water and Basic Sanitation has a Sole Window deficiencies in understanding and sizing risk at information system for all sector projects, which the sectoral level. The 2010-2014 PND empha- includes their characteristics and status. It is an sizes the importance of building information essential tool for monitoring risk reduction. systems covering the population, exposed as- The Hydrological and Meteorological Informa- sets, and their vulnerability, as well as the ur- tion System from the Ideam is also available for gent need to promote a culture of, and adequate monitoring and forecasting the weather and the access to, knowledge for making decisions that water supply, facilitating the issuance of early minimize risk and strengthen the effectiveness alerts, and analyzing hazards and vulnerabilities of early alerts. In accordance with Decree 919 related to hydrometeorological phenomena. On of 1989, the UNGRD is responsible for promot- the other hand, no progress has been made in ing a system that coordinates data from sectors the detailed evaluation of the indirect impact of and from the actors of the SNPAD. Therefore, the suspension of public utilities, whose assess- it is essential that this initiative be a part of the ment is assumed to be greater than that of direct ICDE (Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure), damages to infrastructure. ensuring greater interoperability by implement- There is an awareness of the need to gen- ing international standards, and strengthening erate knowledge about seismic hazards for the disaster risk estimation and management. health services infrastructure, even though there is a requirement to evaluate information gaps in other types of phenomena. In compliance with 4.2.5. Risk reduction seismic resistance regulations and in order to in sectors deal with the vulnerability of hospitals in cata- strophic events such as earthquakes, the Min- The energy sector is the best example of istry of Social Protection has been developing how a combination of regulatory, economic, and planning and coordination activities that pro- planning instruments can be effective mecha- tect the lives and property of the people and the nisms for reducing risk. After the rationing assets of the government and ensure the perma- caused by the El Niño 1991-1992 phenomenon, nent provision of health services, through the a strategy for reducing vulnerability, which in- implementation of the Program for Reducing cluded restructuring the sector and fostering a Structural Seismic Vulnerability. From 2003 to culture of mid-term and long-term planning, 2005, this program invested resources amount- was implemented. Based on the experience of ing to Col$2.95 billion20 to support the prepara- the deficient operation of the system and the tion of 171 seismic vulnerability studies. shortage of water caused by El Niño (reservoirs Sectoral knowledge and information sys- with levels 40% below their capacity), financial, tems containing historical records of the losses commercial, and administrative modernization and damages caused by disasters, inventories/ and reform processes were conducted in order registries of infrastructure and its vulnerability, to make companies viable, improve control pro- and risk analysis are essential for determining the cedures and, above all, open up to competition real magnitude of the problem, identifying needs, and developing specific risk management plans based on cost-benefit studies. Some areas show 20 Ministry of Social Protection, Office of Physical Infrastructure and Tech- progress in the matter but, in general, there are nology, October 2011. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 249 and contributions by new operators. The elec- The risk reduction strategy of the Min- tric expansion plan sought to overcome the high istry of Education is focused on an inventory of dependency on hydrological resources by build- its entities, so that the magnitude of the problem ing and commissioning thermal energy plants, may be quantified and the use of the resources of which led to an increase in installed generation the Ministry and of each Secretariat may be pri- capacity from 8,356 MW to 11,587 MW. Cur- oritized. The SICIED (Education Infrastructure rently, the aforementioned 2010-2024 expan- Interactive Consulting System), which began sion, generation, and transmission plan is the operating at the end of 2008, seeks to consoli- instrument par excellence for ensuring the con- date the National Inventory of the Educational tinuity and stability of service. Institution Infrastructure by including the char- The “reliability surcharge” is an instru- acteristics of buildings and the hazard levels ment that allows provision of energy in times they are exposed to. As of 2011, the System con- of drought. In a predominantly hydroelectric tained data from 55 Certified Territorial Entities system such as the one in Colombia, the chal- and the analysis is expected to be complete by lenge of ensuring service continuity in the face the first quarter of 201222. The partial informa- of weather phenomena can produce significant tion covers 13,482 lots (Table 4.8). The program disruptions that hinder reaching real equilibri- shows the current state of facilities: the depart- um between demand and supply (Villareal and ment, municipality, age, materials, risk type and Cordoba, 2007). The reliability surcharge, which level (high, medium, low), number of students, has been in operation since December 2006, has and other variables; it will be the basis for the proven benefits such as encouraging the private development of risk reduction plans by every sector to invest in backup technology (mainly Education Secretariat and the prioritization of thermal) and, simultaneously, allowing free investments by the Ministry. market competition to ensure the lowest cost for users. This is possible through OEF (Firm Energy Obligations) that reflect commitments Table 4.8. SICIED exposure of the education infrastructure by generators, which are backed by an infra- by type of risk* structure capable of producing energy, mainly thermal, in critical supply conditions. The OEF Risk type Lots % required to cover the demand of the system Flood 1,314 9.75% are auctioned. The winner receives a known Landslide 1,205 8.94% and stable remuneration during a specific pe- Landslide receptors 415 3.08% Marshy area 725 5.38% riod and has the obligation to deliver a certain Sanitary landfill 132 0.98% amount of energy when the market price, the None 10.133 75.16% so-called scarcity price, exceeds a threshold Total 13,924 103.28% previously established by the CREG (Energy * The report covers the 55 Certified Territorial Entities that are and Gas Regulatory Commission). The afore- registered in the SICIED. mentioned is calculated and collected by the Source: MEN, 2011. ASIC (Administrator of the Commercial Ex- change System)21 and is paid by the users of the 21 ASIC is responsible for contract registration settlement and invoicing of SIN (National Interconnected System) through all transactions carried out on the market. the fees charged by the retailers. 22 SICIED, Ministry of Education, June 2011 250 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Some cities, especially Bogota, have ad- high-risk zones. From 2003 to 2011, the Fonvivi- vanced considerably in the reduction of risk in the enda (National Housing Fund) has allocated only education sector through measures such as structur- 6.1% of its subsidy budget to disaster prevention al reinforcement of schools and financial insurance. (Table 4.9). Other programs such as the pilot pro- In 2000, Bogota performed a qualitative analysis of gram for Integral Improvement of Neighborhoods the seismic vulnerability of 100% of its infrastruc- have offered interesting lessons, which need to be ture, in compliance with the 1998 National Seis- duplicated in order to generate relevant risk reduc- mic Resistance Regulation. Of the 2,507 schools tion results in the sector. that were evaluated, 430 required a detailed study Although measures such as incentives for ir- for their subsequent reinforcement. The Education rigation and agriculture in general may contribute Secretariat of the District took actions for improv- to reducing disaster risk, the main measure that ing its facilities through structural reinforcement, has been adopted is the subsidy for livestock and expansion, and replacement. Toward the begin- agricultural insurance (recently declared manda- ning of 2003, financial support was offered by the tory for future borrowers of Finagro), though it only IDB and the World Bank through “The Project for covers 1% of the productive areas in the country. Reducing the Physical and Fiscal Vulnerability of Law 69 of 1993 created the National Livestock and the District on Confronting Disasters”, as an en- Agricultural Risk Fund and established insurance dorsement of the aforementioned initiative on vi- as well as the possibility of subsidizing up to 60% tal buildings, including private schools. During the of the value of the premium paid by producers; period of 2004 - 2010, 185 schools were reinforced, however, less than 1% of the cultivated area in the 69 were expanded, and 40 new schools were ren- country is currently protected under that scheme. ovated (Office of the Mayor of Bogota - FOPAE, In 2011, the National Livestock and Agricultural 2010). The process that was carried out allowed Credit Commission ruled that, starting in January not only the improvement of education facilities, 2013, loans or subsidies provided by Finagro must but also the legalization of informality, an increase be accompanied by risk insurance against natural in class sizes and coverage, adequate schools for or biological phenomena. For some loans, this has boys, girls, and teenagers, and appropriate spaces been mandatory since January 1, 2012. Up to 60% for their education (Ramirez and Rubiano, 2009a). of the value of the insurance is subsidized by the Reduction of risk in housing shows scant current administration (30% of the individual pol- progress because investments are focused on new icy and 60% of the group policy) and covers excess construction, and even though pertinent regulations or shortage of rainfall, floods, hailstorms, strong exist, issues such as resettlement and reinforcement winds, frost, landslides, avalanches, and biological of high-risk housing are relegated. Although the and phytosanitary risks. This measure is expected MVCT cofinances vulnerability reduction proj- to encourage massive adoption of insurance, pro- ects through of housing subsidies, responsibility mote competition among insurance companies, is assigned by law to the municipalities. However, and reduce costs considering that, currently, only previously existing risk, fiscal limitations of territo- one entity provides the service in the country. Oth- rial entities, and the focus of central government er instruments, such as incentives for irrigation and subsidies contribute to minimum progress in this rural capitalization systems, have had a positive ef- field. This is a critical issue, considering that 50% of fect on risk reduction, but they are not considered the homes that exist in Colombia were built before in the project evaluation process. Doing so would the Seismic Resistance Regulation or are located in increase the impact and use of such instruments. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 251 Table 4.9. Allocation of subsidies by Fonvivienda. 2003-2011 Type Subsidies Current Constant Constant Fund Subsidies of action (%) allotments (Col$) allotments (Col$) (%) Rents Terrorist attacks fund 3 0.0 $14,371,250 $18,299,779 0.0 Displaced population fund 20,650 6.6 $106.253’017.543 $127,598’190.310 4.7 Total Rent 20,653 6.6 $106,267,388,793 $127,616,490,090 4.7 Disaster response Reconstruction 71 0.0 $618,903,600 $712,494,144 0.0 Repairs 1,402 0.4 $6,955,515,700 $7,802,410,312 0.3 Resettlement 24,510 7.8 $193,129,258,541 $232,657,917,257 8.6 Total Disaster response 25,983 8.3 $200,703,677,841 $241,172,821,713 8.9 Terrorist attacks Terrorist attacks fund 7,332 2.3 $63,176,395,904 $74,281,220,683 2.8 Legalization Enabling titles 44,739 14.3 $7,486,230,637 $9,205,094,834 0.3 Nonpreventive Health fund 19,090 6.1 $70,032,229,925 $73,784,000,821 2.7 improvement Disaster prevention Construction at own site 13,280 4.3 $111,637,880,412 $134,623,766,213 5.0 Improvement 5,026 1.6 $25,369,793,570 $28,590,266,708 1.1 Total Disaster prevention 18,306 5.9 $137,007,673,981 $163,214,032,921 6.1 New housing Total New housing 176,283 56.4 $1,748,469,560,287 $2,007,309,486,903 74.4 TOTAL 312,386 100.0 $2,333,143,157,368 $2,696,583,147,965 100.0 Source: MVCT and Fonvivienda. 2011. There is a consensus that livestock and are subject to maintenance programs by the op- agricultural insurance is not the only measure erators. The Invias is responsible for maintenance for reducing risk; therefore, some associations of main roads not under concession and has have implemented other preventive measures. technical manuals which include risk manage- Furthermore, the Ideam provides an early ment. In the case of the secondary road network, warning system that is being used by producers. for which departments are responsible, and the Various sectors use forecast and weather in- tertiary road network, for which municipalities formation in making important decisions to are responsible, the situation is difficult because, reduce the risk of being affected by extreme with few exceptions, technical capabilities as well weather events. Nevertheless, the MADR as resources are limited. needs to design strategies and reduction mea- According to the Vice Ministry of Water sures that are much more comprehensive and and Sanitation, more than US$110 million were consider rural land use planning, improve- invested from 2006 to 2011 in sectoral risk re- ment of the production infrastructure, and duction projects. The central government, with strengthening of plant species. funds from the National Royalties Fund, its Regarding the road sector, the main action own resources, public hearings, and cofinanc- for reducing vulnerability is maintenance; however, ing from the royalties of local entities and from there is great limitation of resources for this area. the General Participation System, has enabled Main roads that are operated under concession the execution of risk reduction projects such as 252 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies dredging clogged gutters and basins, infrastruc- example is the water shortage in the municipal- ture for capture and storage of raw water as a ity of Manizales due to a lack of redundancy backup element, systems for improving drinking in the system, because a needed repair was not water, structural reinforcement, slope stabiliza- performed swiftly on the Niza Plant, which was tion works, flash flood control works, and works inoperative since October 201024, and the subse- to recover degraded protective zones in supply quent collapse of the 28- and 30-inch water con- basins. These projects are evaluated and made duction pipeline and the distribution tank of the viable in the Sole Window of the Vice Ministry Luis Prieto Gomez Plant in October 2011. These of Water and Sanitation and the information is events paralyzed the system completely and had stored in the databases23. multiple economic, social, and environmental Public utility companies in urban areas of effects on the 370,000 inhabitants who for more capital cities have made great progress in includ- than 10 days had no water. ing risk management in their mission-related The Water for Prosperity Program may be- tasks. Aqueduct and sewer companies in Colom- come the main instrument for reducing sectoral bia have made important developments in risk risk in Colombia. However, priority should be knowledge and reduction by assigning profes- given to its support in the 550 municipalities that sional personnel to specific duties, formulating have less than 10,000 inhabitants, because that and permanently updating their sectoral Emer- is where there are the most deficiencies. Once gency and Contingency Plan, and transferring the transition from the PDA to the Water for risk through different kinds of insurance poli- Prosperity Program is complete, it is expected cies. Some noteworthy examples follow (i) The that most of the investment in this sector will Aqueduct and Sewerage Company of Bogota is originate in the Program, thus enabling the co- conducting a seismic risk reduction campaign, ordination of municipal, regional, and national which includes the structural reinforcement of resources. In other words, the funds provided its facilities; (ii) the Public Service Company of by local entities will always receive significant Medellin articulated risk analysis and reduc- matching contributions in return for adhering tion as one of the main axes of its quality assur- to the rules of the program. The program also ance system; (iii) Aguas de Manizales increased includes strengthening domiciliary water and redundancy in its supply sources in order to sanitation service providers in order to achieve mitigate the probability of damages to water greater efficiency, concerted planning and ex- collection due to flash floods; and (iv) Cucuta, ecution of sectoral investments, the expansion which is the capital city with the highest risk of and replacement of all infrastructure, based water supply shortages, is currently undertak- ing the replacement of its networks, which will reduce water losses. The city is also conducting campaigns for using water efficiently and is car- 23 C3 Database of projects considered viable in Sole Window and C2 Da- tabase of projects considered viable. Every sector project is in these in- rying out studies and seeking funds for finding struments (all projects of municipalities and departments that claim to an alternate source of water. However, the strat- receive national cofinancing from any source should be studied by the Single Window of the Vice Ministry of Water and Sanitation). egies must be continuous and integral in terms 24 The Niza Plant is one of the two drinking water supply sources Manizales of vulnerability reduction and rapid response has. Its operation was shut down on October 28, 2010, due to landslides that occurred in the Cerro de Oro area of ​​Manizales, whose slope was because any change or failure to react in a timely destabilized and affected 80 meters of raw water piping intake from the fashion may have significant consequences. An Olivares Ravine (General Comptroller of Manizales, 2011). Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 253 on technical criteria supported by detailed de- ing to Col$44.114 billion were cofinanced for signs in compliance with the sectoral Technical 14 Level 2 and Level 3 hospitals (MSPS, 2011). Standard (RAS) and the Colombian Seismic Re- Subsequently, the government of Colombia has sistance Regulation. All of them are essential ac- been monitoring the resources amounting to tions for sectoral risk reduction in the country. Col$24.6 billion that were assigned in 2008 and Although the Vice Ministry of Water and 2009 to structural reinforcement works in hos- Sanitation prepared a set of risk management pitals (MSPS, 2011). Furthermore, the MSPS is- methodology tools for municipalities and service sued Resolution 976 of 2009 in order to respond providers and provided technical support for more to the “Disaster-Safe Hospital” global initiative, than 350 local-level entities, progress is still limited. a nationwide program for risk reduction in the The guidelines that were prepared facilitate com- health sector. However, there has been limited pliance with regulatory standards when formu- progress due to existing budgetary constraints. lating an Emergency and Contingency Plan and Ecopetrol is another entity that stands out sectoral infrastructure vulnerability analysis25. for reducing seismic risk to its infrastructure. From 2006 to 2010, support in the form of work- Just like the MSPS, it has conducted vulnerabil- shops was given to municipalities and service ity studies of its vital and community service providers, in coordination with the DGR, the buildings since 2009. The blueprints of 94% of Ideam, Ingeominas, and some CAR, for the for- its facilities, or 251 buildings, were reviewed. mulation of action plans for water shortages and Ecopetrol executed reinforcement works on interruptions to sewer and garbage removal ser- 55.8% of them because, according to the results vices. However, most of the plans have not been of the studies, 66 buildings did not require any fully implemented, which may be due to insti- kind of intervention. tutional weakness, budget limitations of service providers, permanent changes to their staff, and what seems to be an opportunity to request re- 4.2.6. The role of sectors sources from the central government when a na- in creating a culture of tional disaster is declared. responsibility in facing risk In order to contribute to reducing the vulnerability of hospital institutions across Although the strategy of building a cul- the country, the MSPS has a structural rein- ture of responsibility in the face of risk is limited, forcement program. In compliance with the it has been relatively successful in some sectors. provisions of the National Seismic Resistance Risk management has been included as an essen- Regulation and Law 715 of 2001, the MSPS im- tial component of the Environmental Education plemented a nationwide technical assistance and Policy (2002), which has the joint participation cofinancing strategy for evaluating the seismic of the Education and Environmental Ministries, vulnerability of the health service infrastruc- even though the policy focuses mainly on formal ture. As a result, after performing 161 studies, investments amounting to Col$3.986 billion (in 2010 Colombian pesos) were made from 2003 25 Guide to Emergency and Contingency Plans for companies (Law 142 of 1994 to 2005 for structural reinforcement of Level and Resolution 1096 of 2000), Guide for risks associated with flooding phe- nomena, Guide for landslide phenomena, Guide for drought, Guide for water 1, Level 2, and Level 3 hospitals. From 2006 to quality risks (for companies, health, and environmental authorities, Decree 2009, structural reinforcement works amount- 1575 of 2007), and Guide for risks associated with human activity. 254 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies school education and not on private sector actors. resources. However, a lack of clear policies regard- Administrations in main cities have conducted ing the responsibility of the government and each mass campaigns to promote awareness about the agent, a lack of progress in identifying possible loss hazards they are exposed to. According to a sur- scenarios, establishing tasks to undertake when vey by the World Bank for this report (2011a), managing emergencies and/or disasters, and coor- 46% of the population in large cities is familiar dination mechanisms and resources of a National with this type of campaigns and 34% indicated Emergency Plan lead to the adoption of different that they have taken measures to reduce risk in actions for each event, ignoring lessons learned their homes. On the other hand, during the El and successful experiences, and even generating Niño 2009-2010 episode, the drinking water and delays in identifying, designing, and implement- energy sectors conducted saving exercises and ing recovery tasks. the former MAVDT declared it had achieved a In the livestock and agriculture sector, the 13% reduction in water consumption. Finally, response to major events has usually been fo- in response to El Niño 1997-1998, booklets were cused on implementing financial relief programs. produced and distributed in the livestock sector. This includes debt write-offs for small produc- However, the various efforts to generate aware- ers, refinancing and amnesty on interest for me- ness have not been part of integral and continu- dium and large producers, and soft credits and ous communication strategy and there are very guarantees for restoring production capacities. few evaluations of their effectiveness. In most cases, the programs and their funding are established by Conpes Documents, but there are also measures like the Livestock and Agri- 4.2.7. Sectoral administration in cultural Solidarity Fund (1996) for purchasing disaster response debt portfolios in disaster situations. Although the instruments are similar, the magnitude of Sectoral emergency response and manage- the benefits and the procedures for accessing ment in terms of programs and resources vary ac- them vary by event according to the availabil- cording to disaster type and usually lack planning. ity of funds and the type of damages. Although As discussed in Chapter 1, diverse and dangerous these measures provide relief to the victims, in natural events can occur in Colombia and can trig- general they do not have an effect on reducing ger disasters. According to the type and severity of sectoral vulnerability; on the contrary, they gen- phenomena, the magnitude of damages also var- erate increasing financial pressure. ies depending on the physical, social, economic, The transport sector has different enti- and cultural vulnerability of the affected actors ties responsible for disaster management ac- and regions. Furthermore, government response cording to the category and level of the road is subject to the fiscal context that exists when network that is affected. For roads that are op- the events occur. This conditions the response to erated under concession, the responsibility for different types of events, which depends on the emergency management falls on the operator, phenomenon that triggers the events and the se- in accordance with the Road Operating Manu- verity of the phenomenon, as well as the unique al26. The operator must also submit a report to and specific characteristics of the events. This leads to a requirement for management and reconstruc- tion strategies that include specific programs and 26 This manual is a document annexed to the State Concession. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 255 Invias on the emergencies that occur, in order ing to MEN Directive No. 12 of 2009, the funds for Invias to record the events and the care that for rehabilitation and reconstruction of build- was provided. Regarding infrastructure not un- ings in the sector must be requested exclusively der concession, the functions of Invias include by Education Secretariats in certified territorial designing, updating, and executing preventive entities. There are preestablished procedures for and corrective Contingency Plans. Invias has 26 accessing these funds, which are handled by territorial branch offices that report damages to the Ministry regardless of their source budget the central office after an adverse event occurs, (Ministry, Royalties Fund, or Calamity Fund). so that the central office may authorize inter- The MEN verifies the requests and streamlines vening and clearing the road as soon as possible. the identification of needs with the support of These interventions are financed by an exhaust- the National Education Infrastructure Inventory ible amount of resources allocated to each terri- of the SICIED Program. During La Niña 2010- torial branch office. If dealing with a large-scale 2011, this allowed an efficient response in terms emergency, an interdisciplinary group travels to of a well-organized recovery, with minimal in- the affected area and establishes a procedure for terruption to education services, as well as a handling the event under a declaration of Mani- quantification of priorities and the management fest Urgency, in compliance with the provisions of resources. of Law 80 of 1993. Departments and municipali- In the housing sector, preestablished pro- ties are responsible for secondary and tertiary cedures are available, which make resource al- road networks, respectively, and are expected to location transparent. As a result, reconstruction respond with preventive, corrective, and recov- problems are usually of a budgetary or technical ery actions for the infrastructure. nature. Resources for resettlement, repair, or re- The education sector has preestablished construction of housing are requested from the procedures for accessing resources, which increase subsidy pools of the Ministry of Housing. This is their effectiveness regardless of the amount avail- done exclusively by municipal administrations able and its sources. Education Secretariats, on that are required to submit structured projects, behalf of territorial entities, participate in the which are evaluated with standard procedures. identification of damages to education facilities. The departmental governments and the CAR The information that is collected is included contribute by formulating projects and pro- in the census of damages that the municipal- viding vital matching resources, in accordance ity submits to the department and the UNGRD with the regulations for granting subsidies. The (formerly, the DGR), when requesting a declara- biggest problems during reconstruction are the tion of emergency or public calamity. Recovery identification of affected buildings and assessing and rehabilitation projects should be appraised, damages, availability of lots with public utili- formulated, and submitted by the Secretariats to ties, and areas of mitigable risk for resettling the the Vice Ministry of Education in order to ensure victims. In cases of large-scale events, such as their feasibility and have access to the support the Coffee Growing region earthquake, special resources that are available from the central gov- institutional arrangements have been made in ernment27. The Ministry supports the recovery and post-disaster reconstruction of affected mu- nicipal and/or departmental facilities28. To that 27 Investment projects with resources of MEN or others such as DGR, for end, it has funds available in its budget. Accord- disaster prevention and response (FNC or FNR). 256 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies the form of specific policies and intervention to activate the rendering of services and rees- mechanisms. In the case of the Coffee Grow- tablish the operation of networks by means of ing region, the FOREC was directly responsible repairs, quick works, and tasks such as clean- for housing projects. In general, the subsidy ing pipelines. For the 2010-2011 rainy season, amount and the type of support provided by most PDA allocated resources for more than the government, as well as the beneficiaries, the Col$61 billion to deal with the emergency, methodology for assessing damages, the parties which were provided both by the PDA and responsible, and the control and monitoring the Humanitarian Colombia Calamity Fund. mechanisms, are not clearly established. Proof is The PDA were in charge of screening the re- offered by the fact that, six months after the end quests from municipalities, determining their of La Niña 2010-2011, there was still no estimate relevance, and distributing available funds. of the damages to homes, the funds allocated by Furthermore, the Vice Ministry of Water and the government, and the mechanisms to be used Sanitation built a consolidated database of re- (see Table 2.5 of Chapter 2). construction needs based on periodic reports Regarding the drinking water and sani- submitted by PDA administrators in order to tation sector, service providers do not partici- design a plan for full reconstruction. pate in the CLOPAD, with the exception of those When an emergency arises in the health who work in capital cities. This complicates sector, local entities are responsible for caring for the actions of operational entities in cases of the affected population because the system is de- emergency, not only in terms of water and centralized. The actions of the MPS are intended sanitation needs of the affected communities, to strengthen territorial networks that provide but also in terms of identifying the distribu- services, by cofinancing the purchase of commu- tion of damages, estimating the impact on nications equipment29, improving the national drinking water, sewer, and garbage removal reserve center30 and evacuating in case of emer- infrastructure, and establishing the measures gency31. The MPS also supports health develop- authorities need to take in order to reestablish ment programs for persons in high-risk zones services. Humanitarian aid and immediate who live in cities with a population of more than care include temporary solutions for resource 50,000, and vulnerable persons in towns with a distribution, which may be taken on by the population of less than 50,000. The MPS has a entities in charge of aqueduct and sewer net- National Rural Health Plan and also contributes works or by humanitarian assistance organi- to the operation of the hospital network, the up- zations, according to what is decided, because date and implementation of Hospital Disaster currently there is no National Emergency Plan Plans, and the review and adjustments to the with established protocols and roles. For ex- Emergency Medical Care Guides. ample, during La Niña 2010-2011, the Minis- try of the Interior and Justice coordinated the temporary provision of drinking water with the respective CREPAD and CLOPAD, using 28 For this within the MEN, there is the Coverage and Decentralization area attached to the Vice Ministry of Education. resources from the National Calamity Fund. 29 Crisis response room and emergency plan of the MPS. More than Col$61 billion were assigned 30 Supply of medications, medical-surgery supplies, antidotes, basic sanita- tion items, etc. by the PDA for the rehabilitation of aqueduct 31 Mobilization of personnel, elements, emergency medicines and sup- and sewer infrastructure. Rehabilitation seeks plies, among others. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 257 The National Contingency Plan for Hydro- or activity that caused it. Although the Plan was carbon Spills is a successful case of organizing for structured to deal with the risk of operating acci- emergency situations. Although it was established dents or terrorism, it can be very useful in cases of by decree, it could be duplicated voluntarily by other disasters associated with natural phenomena and sectors. The “National contingency plan for spills it should be adopted either voluntarily or manda- of hydrocarbons, byproducts, and harmful sub- torily by other sectors, such as in mining and haz- stances in marine, fluvial, and lacustrine waters” ardous materials industries. was established by Decree 321 of 1995 as a instru- In general, financing sources for emergen- ment for cross-institutional coordination between cy response operate on demand. They do not have the disaster management and prevention entities standard procedures for evaluating damages and of the Colombian government and environmental they are not articulated. In consequence, there and industrial sector authorities, with the purpose are resource allocation imbalances due to the of managing this kind of emergencies under com- administrative deficiencies of the territorial en- mon criteria. The goal is to combine government tities. The diverse institutional capacities of the and private efforts for having equipment, knowl- municipalities lead to variations in the quality edge, and expertise available to face emergencies and timeliness of resource requests for response across the country, rather than having each com- and reconstruction after a catastrophic event, pany facing the situation separately, even though and they often do not coincide with the real the responsibility for coordinating the control of damages observed in the field. As a result, local the spill and its consequences is still in the hands entities with less capacity tend to receive fewer of the facility, operation, or owner of the substance funds due to their administrative deficiencies. 258 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 4.3. FINANCIAL PROTECTION: THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE GOVERNMENT FINANCE SECTOR There is a high probability that Colombia may face capability of the government to respond to re- a major disaster, which would place government curring disasters and important events because finance in jeopardy. In spite of having suffered both types of occurrences imply structural re- significant disasters such as the Coffee Growing sponse measures. region earthquake and the La Niña 2010-2011 The responsibility for disaster response phenomenon, there is a high probability that Co- is shared between the central government and lombia may face a major event for which it needs the territorial entities. However, the rules for co- to be prepared (see Chapter 1). Financing the responsibility are not clearly established, which reconstruction of the Coffee Growing region re- leads the central government to assume most of quired significant borrowing by the government the fiscal burden. Only some large capitals have and measures such as the financial transaction risk management funds for financial response tax, which started at 0.2% (“2 per thousand”), was to disasters. Since a significant number of the later increased to 0.4% (“4 per thousand”), and is municipalities in the country are category 5 or still in force. In order to respond to the 2010-2011 category 6 and do not have flexible budgets, the rainy season, the government has resorted to var- central government has had to assume most of ious measures such as selling some of the nation’s the public burden of disasters. assets. The occurrence of a major disaster could A financial protection strategy implies cause serious problems for the country, especially adopting an optimal combination of instruments if the nation’s economic situation is critical, as for retaining and transferring risk, which ensures was the case in 1999 when the Coffee Growing the lowest opportunity cost and allows a compre- region earthquake struck. hensive reply in terms of emergency response, Even though it is certain that disasters that rehabilitation, and post-disaster reconstruction. impact the local economy, the population, and The Colombian government currently sustains the government occur every year, government virtually all the risk because, when a disaster oc- provisions for financing the response have always curs, it has to respond with its own resources, been insufficient. There is no question that the even for repairing buildings and public infra- government needs to have a financial protection structure, that have insurance, as required by strategy that will allow it to pay for losses effec- law, but lack adequate coverage. If there was a tively. As will be explained later, the budget that will to increase the transfer of risk, the coverage is assigned to the FNC at the start of every year and quality of infrastructure insurance could needs to be increased as the year progresses. be increased, ensuring that it is equivalent to This situation is clearly observed in the housing, the replacement value of the infrastructure, and livestock, and agriculture sectors, which must generating coverage, that would give the central periodically seek resources for relocating settle- government access to funds for protecting the ments or compensating farmers who have been private assets of the strata 1 and 2 (for which affected. A protection strategy should ensure the the government is sometimes responsible) and Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 259 have reinsurance, catastrophe bonds, and other new risk scenarios. However, considering that it measures. The FNC is the instrument par excel- is impossible to eliminate risk entirely and that lence, which should be activated for handling it takes time to reduce risk to an acceptable level, retained risk, especially in the face of the most it is critical to be prepared to face a disaster. To recurrent events. When its capacity is exceeded, that end, there is a requirement for a strategy due to damages caused by major phenomena, it to reduce the loss of lives in parallel with a fi- may resort to budget reallocations, loans, and nancial protection strategy, because if actions other fiscal sources such as taxes or the sale of for reducing physical risk are not implemented assets. In essence, the purpose of a financial appropriately, the design and application of fi- protection strategy is to combine various exist- nancial instruments available on the market ing instruments and mechanisms in order to could be unsustainable. A clear example of how ensure that resources are available so that the financial protection cannot be independent of government can respond adequately by adopt- other risk reduction instruments is the case of ing a balanced portfolio of measures for retain- hospitals, because it would be useless to ensure ing and transferring risk, which also ensures its the availability of resources to replace a hospital macroeconomic stability. after an earthquake if the hospital is not provid- The aforementioned strategy may include ing services when they are most needed. mandatory or voluntary instruments so that pri- vate actors can transfer their risk and the govern- ment does not have to support them in case of 4.3.1. Advances and limitations a disaster. Although there are no clear regula- in financial protection in tions or policies in this regard, the government Colombia is required to respond for part of the damages caused by a disaster event to private assets, es- Depending on the magnitude and the type pecially those of the poorest population groups, of disaster, the Colombian government for humanitarian reasons (see Chapter 5). On has different instruments and sources for several occasions, the government has also sup- financing its response ported the productive sector in order to reac- tivate the economy. Thus, in case of a disaster, • Insuring government property, which has the fiscal responsibility is not limited to public been mandatory since 1993, allows part of infrastructure, and mandatory measures or in- the risk to be transferred to insurance com- struments for promoting insurance among pri- panies which, in case of a disaster, will pro- vate actors would effectively reduce the fiscal vide the government with the resources for risk to the country. paying for repair and reconstruction costs. The financial protection strategy must be • Budgetary reallocations. designed as a complementarity element, not an • The FNC is the main source of funds for re- alternative to the reduction of physical risk. The sponding to the multiple low-intensity disas- ultimate goal of risk management by the gov- ters that occur every year. ernment is to reduce the probability of loss of • The FNR has been used since 2007 to provide lives and property, both public and private, to additional resources for disaster response acceptable levels. Therefore, it is essential to re- and reconstruction in regions and munici- duce existing risk and control the creation of palities, where it is permitted by the law. 260 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies • Some ministries have subsidy accounts tage of risk diversification and economies of scale or pools, which may be employed as addi- associated with the number of government assets. tional sources of funds in case of a disaster Law 42 of 1993 stipulates that financial protection although, as discussed previously, their fi- of government assets is mandatory. However, only nancing is scarce. recently have studies been made to determine • Contingent loans (such as the Development compliance with this law and whether the in- Policy Loan with a Catastrophe Deferred sured amount corresponds to the book, assessed, Drawdown Option, CAT DDO, from the or commercial value. It is highly probable that in World Bank), give the government immedi- all cases, the insured value is not equivalent to the ate and timely access to liquidity in case of a replacement value, which is usually higher than national disaster. the commercial value, due to demolition costs, • Some big cities have their own disaster pre- new construction regulations, and the standards vention and management funds. of services provided by the building that will be • Fiscal sources such as international loans, cre- rebuilt. Furthermore, each infrastructure element ation of new taxes, and sale of government as- has individual insurance, which is inefficient be- sets, are to be used in case of extreme events. cause it does not allow the government to take advantage of the benefits of diversification related Insurance, a tool par excellence for to grouping the risks of all buildings in a single transferring disaster risk portfolio, thus reducing the cost of coverage. If all properties, both public and private, The FNC, which is the financial instrument that are exposed to the occurrence of disasters were for recurring disasters, has major resource insured, the fiscal vulnerability of the government limitations and requires matching would be minimal. However, in Colombia, insured contributions from territorial entities losses have never exceeded 10% of the damages. According to Fasecolda (2011), 10% of the direct The FNC, which was created in 1984, is the losses caused by the Coffee Growing region earth- instrument with the longest tradition of providing quake had some type of insurance, and only 4.5% government response to disasters. It is in charge of of the total losses caused by the 2010-2011 La Niña responding to highly recurrent small-scale events phenomenon were insured. Insuring public and in the country, but it lacks sufficient resources. private assets reduces the government’s fiscal risk The Fund was created by Decree 1547 of 1984 and by reducing the losses to its own equity and mini- modified by Law Decree 919 of 1989. Initially, it mizing the impact on the private sector, consid- had its own equity, administration, and account- ering that when the private sector suffers serious ing, but it later became an account attached to damages, the government is also responsible for the Ministry of the Interior and Justice. For this it. This chapter describes the advances in insur- reason its budget is assigned annually and can- ing government assets and Chapter 5 discusses the not be accumulated for use in years of hardship, same topic for private assets. as initially planned. The FNC is administered by By law, all government assets should have the Fiduciaria La Previsora, controlled by the financial protection, even though their quality and Consulting Board (Law Decree 919 of 1989), characteristics are unknown. Likewise, individual- and financed with annual allocations from the ly insuring properties does not allow taking advan- PGN, which are usually augmented during the Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 261 Graph 4.11. Cumulative losses, natural disaster annual average, and FNC resources (US$ million)32 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 1986-1990 1990-1994 1994-1998 1998-2002 2002-2006 2006-2010 Calamity fund resources Disaster losses Disaster losses annual average Source: Ingeniar Ltd., 2011. year as resource requirements exceed the initial have a fund equivalent to the FNC. On the allocation. Graph 4.11 shows how the alloca- other hand, in Mexico, for example, the Fon- tion of resources to the FNC has always been den (Natural Disaster Fund) requires matching significantly less than the losses caused by di- funds from territorial entities to support in- sasters. Thus, the FNC is only able to provide a vestments in disaster response and prevention. limited initial response to an emergency and it Local and regional administrations in Colom- does have enough funds to support public and bia currently have no incentives to assign in- private recovery and reconstruction processes. ternal resources for emergency situations and, Furthermore, it makes practically no invest- since they are not required to match funds to ment in risk reduction measures. Although the the FNC, there is a perception that the central gross contribution of the nation to the FNC has government is fully responsible for response an upward trend, the amounts as a percentage and reconstruction. Therefore, it is practically of government revenue are decreasing. Accord- impossible for category 5 and category 6 mu- ing to the IDB and ECLAC (2005), the highest nicipalities which have strong budget limita- participation was in 1995, when the nation con- tions, to invest in risk management. However, tributed 0.11% of its revenue; during the period municipalities with high per capita income 2000-2009, participation never exceeded 0.5%, can partially assume their obligations. A dif- according to a report by Ingeniar Ltda. (2011). ferential cofinancing strategy, in accordance In contrast to similar funds in other coun- tries, the FNC contributes all the funding for its investments without requesting matching funds 32 This Graph shows the impact of damage caused by the earthquake in the Coffee Growing region, but fails to register the impact of La Niña from territorial entities. As will be discussed 2010-2011 which will make greater the difference between damages below, only large capital cities in the country and resources assigned to the FNC. 262 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies with territorial capabilities, would increase in- struction. However, this source of financing is vestments in risk management in general and unreliable because allocations depend on the disaster response in particular. On the other type of projects submitted by the territorial en- hand, incentives for strengthening capacities, tities who will be the beneficiaries. The growth central government financing for risk reduc- over those two years was a result of a political tion actions, and access to low-interest loans, decision by the central government. Neverthe- would promote more responsibility for the less, since the regulations for the new National aforementioned processes at the local level. Compensation Fund are currently being estab- lished, risk management priorities may change. Budget reallocations and the FNR are the Furthermore, this source of financing cannot resources that are available, but limited, for handle all the requirements of the country be- rehabilitation and reconstruction cause it has thematic and geographical restric- tions for the destination of resources, which Budget reallocations, which were initially depend on their origin. conceived for financing government investment Sectors also have some mechanisms for programs, are one of the sources of immediate supporting rehabilitation and reconstruction, liquidity that allow the government to respond but they usually need to be refinanced by the to disasters. The availability of resources for central government when a disaster occurs. In- emergency response depends on the perfor- struments such as the housing subsidy window mance of entities and is usually not very flex- for disasters, the Invias emergency account, ible due to constitutional and legal regulations, and other sources mentioned in Section 4.2.3 which allocate expenses beforehand and estab- are available for financing rehabilitation and lish specific destinations for funds. According reconstruction, but resources are limited and to the Technical Interinstitutional Commit- every year they are subject to budget increases tee (Banco de la República, MHCP, and DNP, provided by the FNC or the PGN. 2010), 86% of the items in the 2010 PGN could not be reallocated when facing the impact of Contingent credit is an instrument for timely La Niña 2010-2011. The items with the high- injection of liquidity when responding to est inflexibility in the national budget that year major national disasters were servicing the debt (27%), transfers to ter- ritories through the SGP (16%), and pension The use of the CAT DDO33 from the World payments (15%). Bank during the 2010-2011 La Niña phenom- The FNR (National Royalties Fund), which enon showed the advantages of contingent cred- is currently the National Compensation Fund, its as sources of immediate liquidity when other has gradually increased its contributions for sources were restricted. In anticipation of the prevention and reconstruction, but it is incapa- need to have access to immediate liquidity, the ble of making equitable contributions due to the government of Colombia in 2008 subscribed to restrictions on the destination of its resources. a DPL with a CAT DDO with the World Bank, Graphs A.5 and A.6 (in the appendixes) show how the participation of the FNR in risk man- agement increased significantly during 2009 33 Development Policy Loan with a Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Option and 2010, even in terms of resources for recon- (DPL with a CAT DDO). Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 263 Table 4.10. Coffee Growing region’s reconstruction financing, by source (Col$ million) Source 1999 2000 2001 Total Part. % National Budget 199,997 619,583 150,497 970,076 60.71 Functioning 997 1,117 977 3,091 0.19 Investment 199,000 616,690 128,269 943,959 59.08 Audit fee 1,775 1,251 3,026 0.19 Debt (1) 20,000 20,000 1.25 External Loans 596,966 14,431 611,397 38.27 IDB 155,268 13,300 168,568 10.55 IBRD 441,698 441,698 27.64 KFW 1,131 1,131 0.07 International Cooperation 16,318 16,318 1.02 Donations 15,184 15,184 0.95 Donation interests 1,134 1,134 0.07 Total per year* 813,280 619,538 164,928 1,597,791 100.00 (1) Ministry of Finance and Public Credit. * In constant currency of 2001, the budget is Col$1.7 trillion. Source: Cardona, et. al., 2004a. in the amount of US$150 million34. This instru- time when the country was in recession. There- ment is a prenegotiated credit line, which may fore, the central government resorted to secur- be activated immediately in case a national ing international loans and creating the financial disaster occurs, and at the exact moment that transaction tax of 0.2% (“2 per thousand”), which the President declares a National Disaster. was maintained and later increased to 0.4% (“4 The Government used this instrument and per thousand”). requested its full disbursement by the Bank In the case of La Niña 2010-2011, the DNP in December 2010 due to the effects of the La estimated that the total cost of response, reha- Niña 2010-2011phenomenon35. bilitation, and reconstruction was nearly Col$30 billion, and to finance this amount the national Extraordinary fiscal sources used in case of government is resorting to budget reallocations, large-scale disasters new taxes, the sale of the State’s assets. By June 2011, the Government had allocated Col$6.87 The FOREC, which was created for rehabili- billion to address the emergency response and tation and reconstruction purposes after the Coffee rehabilitation, Col$4.75 billion executed through Growing region earthquake, executed from 1999 to FNC, mainly from the Humanitarian Colombia 2001 more than Col$1.7 trillion, which originated subaccount, and another Col$2.12 billion from mainly from budget reallocations, international loans, and a new tax (Table 4.10). The impact of 34 CAT DDO has a maximum limit per country of 0.25% of GDP or the equiv- alent of US$500 million, whichever is lower. the Coffee Growing region earthquake rapidly 35 DPLs with a CAT DDO are assigned by the MHCP; they should not neces- exceeded the resources of the government at a sarily be granted to the FNC. 264 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Table 4.11. Financing sources facing the 2010-2014 La Niña phenomenon Winter emergency 2010–2014 Calamity Fund Adaptation Fund (Col$6.3 billion) (Col$10 billion-Col$16 billion) Sales of Ecopetrol National Budget 2010 Patrimony tax Financial Transaction Tax (GMF) assets (Col$1 billion) (Col$3.3 billion) (Col$2 billion) (Col$10 billion-Col$16 billion) Source: Confis, 2011a. different national entities36. Recovery, construc- tion, and reconstruction activities were estimated Table 4.12. Additional sources and uses of the 2011 budget by the DNP at Col$22 billion, an amount that ex- (Col$ billion) ceeds the cost of damages (Col$8.6 billion), since Sources Uses in most cases infrastructure replacement should Patrimony tax 830 have higher standards than those previously exist- FOREC 944 National 3,500 Calamity Fund ing (such as water and sewage systems, schools, Credit operations 1,726 and health posts). It is also common that after a Sale of assets 1,500 Adaptation Fund 1,500 disaster the investment in preexisting public facili- National Royalties Fund- FNR 434 Regions - FNR 434 ties becomes more necessary and evident, so that 260 Ministry of 88 reconstruction necessarily will exceed the simple National Education Others – Law 20 replacement of the budget incurred in the damag- Subsidies for 152 and es budget. However, considering that FOREC took housing and others 108 three years to spend Col$1.7 billion in 2001, the Source: MHCP, 2011a; Confis, 2011a. country will require a long period to run the cur- rently available budget, if it is fully executed. This will be conducted by the Adaptation Fund (created In absence of a funding strategy, fiscal by Decree 5819 of 2010), whose funding sources sources have faced recent major disasters. How- are described in Table 4.11. The first Col$5.7 bil- ever, fiscal demands grow exponentially, hence lion for reconstruction have already been allocated it is more convenient to have a predefined finan- through an addendum to the 2011 budget, ap- cial strategy. According to the Superior Coun- proved by Congress (Table 4.12). cil for Fiscal Policy (Confis) (2011b, 2010), the In the future, the Government may use re- country’s economic situation insecurely faced sources from the Stabilization Fund, created in the La Niña 2010-2011 phenomenon, without 2011, for disasters. This Fund aims in the long term evidencing any important37 fiscal deterioration. to generate savings in PGN to be used in case of a deficit that exceeds the provisions of the Fiscal Rule. However, in a disaster or economic crisis, the 36 Figures taken from the daily report of June 29, 2010, from the La Niña Phenomenon, www.dgr.com. government may temporarily divert Fiscal Rule 37 The total projected effect on the winter emergency in 2011 is an ad- limit and use the Stabilization Fund or borrowed ditional deficit that corresponds to 0.4% of GDP over 2009, although it should be noted that in estimating this figure, the surcharge of the resources to finance a higher deficit. patrimony tax was included reducing the overall effect. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 265 Nevertheless, it is important to highlight that in considered essential for economic recovery. The the last decade there have occurred two major Colombian government has taken some steps in national disasters: the Coffee Growing region’s this regard, both at a national level, making insur- earthquake and the La Niña 2010-2011 phe- ance mandatory for some private property, and nomenon, where losses of the latter were three at municipal level, adopting schemes to insure times higher and the reconstruction costs were lower strata housing and promote other financial ten times higher than in the 1999 earthquake. strategies in general. This is an example of the multiplicity of phe- To protect savers, Colombian law re- nomena and the possible impacts to which Co- quires financial institutions to insure their own lombia is exposed, and confirms the need for property against fire and earthquake, and it re- policies to reduce fiscal vulnerability in facing quires mortgaged real state property that guar- events of great magnitude. antees the current or future credits (Organic Statute of the Financial System Decree Law 663 Municipal funds for disaster prevention of 1993), which reduces the State’s fiscal risk. and response To protect citizens in case of disaster damages caused to the financial institutions’ property or Bogota and Medellin have risk management mortgaged property as collateral of loans, the State funds, but departments and most municipalities, intends for the savers’ patrimony not to be affect- despite law requirements, have very limited re- ed. This measure will reduce the State’s fiscal risk, sources to address the problem. Chapter 3 shows since financial institutions are protected against di- the differences in municipal risk management saster damages. The regulation states that the real investment in the cities analyzed as case studies estate property must be insured “at its destructible for this publication. Only a few of them invested part” and for “its market value”. Unfortunately, to- significant resources in risk reduction and have day there is not yet a definition of the “destructible financial provisions to deal with disasters, even part” concept, and there is no unified procedure though municipalities are primarily responsible on how to update property market value when it and are required by Decree 919 of 1989 to estab- comes to renewing insurance policies. lish risk management funds. Under the Horizontal Real Estate Property Regime in Colombia, it is compulsory to insure pri- 4.3.2. Examples of instruments vate property that also covers the common areas of used by the Colombian buildings, condominiums, residential, and other government to increase risk forms of horizontal property38. In theory, this reg- transfer to private sector ulation protects against fire and earthquake Co- lombians who own property in joint ownership; To the extent that private property has been however, according to Fasecolda, the level of this insured, there is a decrease in the State’s fiscal risk. insurance coverage is very low, and it is necessary Promoting or making compulsory that private to improve awareness and verification strategies to property be insured reduces the likelihood that compel compliance with the law as well as extend- the State has to act as a guarantor of last resource, ing insurance to other risk coverage. that is, to respond partially or fully to losses of private actors, either because they are in “evident 38 Article 15 of Law 675 of 2001, by means of which the Horizontal Property vulnerability” after a disaster, or because they are Regime was issued. 266 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Currently in Colombia, the insurance mar- other strata. The investment of the municipal- ket penetration is very low and it is relatively ity is purely administrative, since the policies limited to the mandatory insurance of property, are paid entirely by the middle- and upper-class as in the case of dwellings, so it is necessary to homeowners, thereby reducing the State’s risk to generate awareness among the population to vol- a minimal investment, as the policy functions as untarily increase insurance, and thus reduce the a cross-subsidy. In the case of Sabaneta, the col- State’s fiscal risk. According to Fasecolda (see lective housing insurance program emerged as a Chapter 5), in Colombia, only 13% of houses are tax incentive to encourage payment of property insured, of which 8% correspond to mandatory tax as well as updating the assessed valuation insurance for mortgaged property and only 5% of each property. Since 1999, the municipal ad- of the total correspond to voluntary insurance. ministration of Sabaneta contracted insurance In addition, many of them are insured for less on the assessed appraisal of residential proper- than the market value, since not all financial in- ties, which covers all real estate in good standing stitutions update the price of the property, pre- for this property tax. serving the original value when establishing the mortgage. The high vulnerability of the build- ings has caused the State, after disasters like the 4.3.3. Funding needs for the Coffee Growing region earthquake, to assume State’s response to disasters responsibility for granting subsidies to repair and replace all affected units, resulting in greater Estimation of the State’s funding needs for fiscal spending. The government needs to cre- future disaster responses is complex due to lack of ate, in collaboration with the insurance sector appropriate information and clarity about what expertise, an innovative strategy for financial is its true responsibility. The three phases of the protection that encourages participation of local State’s response to disaster (response, rehabilita- entities and promotes an insurance culture, so tion, and reconstruction) have different costs per that it not only covers losses that arise, but also hectare, per person, or per square meter, depend- stimulates citizens’ responsibility. ing on the type of disaster. The flood unitary value As a strategy to reduce the State risk, the in a rural area is very different from an earth- insurance models adopted by Manizales (Caldas) quake unitary value in an urban area, and there is and Sabaneta (Antioquia) include collective hous- no systematic and reliable historical information ing insurance to enhance the private protection on these amounts, among other things, because and in some cases to provide a cross-subsidy that the State’s response is not always the same and it covers the lower strata population. Manizales has varies according to availability of resources. The a voluntary housing insurance scheme against State’s response facing small events, for example, earthquakes that was implemented through a has been very different from facing national di- collective policy which automatically and addi- sasters, like the Coffee Growing region earth- tionally protects strata 1 and 2. The higher strata quake in 1999. At that time, the FOREC granted have the option of voluntarily joining the col- housing subsidies to all affected families from lective policy by paying the insurance premium strata 1 to 6, including those that were renting, through the property tax bill payment. The de- while there is no record of how many units im- gree of protection for strata 1 and 2 depends on pacted by minor events have been repaid. There the level of voluntary insurance adopted by the is no regulation or policy that clearly defines Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 267 the State’s responsibility with respect to the vic- million annually. Although they are not exactly tims. Response should be given immediately to the same indicator, the sum of these three values​​ all people affected, without distinction, and pri- is a good estimation of average annual losses in the ority should be given to restore public utilities sectors, US$438 million, a figure that also has been service and all damaged public infrastructure as significantly increasing (see Chapter 1). soon as possible. Regarding the affected popula- The losses of low-frequency/high-cost events tion, there is a perception that the State should be also show a high upward trend, and the models indi- responsible for the most vulnerable parts of the cate that Colombia should be prepared for an event population, such as strata 1 and 2, but that level of greater impact than those that have occurred to of responsibility is not yet defined. To the extent date, probably incurring losses of around US$45 the Government’s commitment is stated, the es- billion, seven times more than the losses caused by timation of its disaster contingent liability can be La Niña 2010-2011. Ten years after the earthquake accurately established (see Chapter 5). in the Coffee Growing region, which left losses ​​ of For purposes of financial strategy design, it US$1.5 billion, the country experienced La Niña is necessary to differentiate the resources needed to 2010-2011 with losses of US$4.7 billion. Estimates address high-frequency/low-cost and low-frequen- from IDB and ECLAC (2005), and Ingeniar Ltd. cy/high-cost events (World Bank 2008). In the case (2011) warn that these losses can be expected from of disasters of high-frequency/low-cost, e.g., small an event with a return period of 500 years. In other disasters that occur every year, it makes sense to words, in the next 50 years, it has a 10% possibil- have an immediate liquidity strategy, such as the ity of occurring again and it could be seven times FNC, to timely respond to events that are likely to greater than La Niña 2010-2011 (see Chapter 1). take place. For a low-frequency/high-cost disaster, Assuming that the State is primarily re- it is not convenient to have a permanent liquidity sponsible for damages caused by high-frequency/ strategy, but reliable funding sources coming from low-cost events in the strata 1 and 2 population40, an optimal instrument combination for risk reten- it can be that most of the losses would be the tion and transfer would prove very useful, espe- State’s responsibility, as these events usually affect cially those that provide equanimity that the event the physical infrastructure and the poorest people. will be handled properly without impacting the Ingeniar Ltda. (2011) prepared a review of the as- fiscal stability of the nation. set portfolio that is the responsibility of the State Average losses caused by events of high fre- (public assets, fiscal property, national infrastruc- quency/low cost in Colombia are about US$450 ture, and buildings for low-income population in million annually and show a significant increasing the private sector) and estimated its vulnerability trend. Only the average annual losses in the hous- to calculate its approximation of the exceedance ing sector for small and intermediate disasters for loss curve exclusively for the assets that are the the period 2000-2009 amounted to US$350 mil- responsibility of the State (Figure 4.12 shows the lion. Meanwhile, Invias investment, during the case of a seismic event). When comparing total period 1999-2008, in which there were no major losses (see Chapter 1) with only fiscal losses, the disasters affecting the transportation sector39, was ratio is approximately 8:1. about an annual average of US$30 million, while damage in the agricultural field for minor events 39 The year 2009 is not included because it was a year in which the La Niña phe- during the period 1991-2000 (the most recently nomenon made a hard impact precisely in the transport sector. published information available) was about US$58 40 As it was in the Coffee Growing region earthquake and other large events. 268 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 4.12. Estimation of the probable maximum losses due to earthquakes across the country for different return periods Results 1,E+02 0 Exposed (US$ million) 173,226 1,E+01 0 Probable annual losses (US$ million) 316 1,E+00 1 Surplus rate of losses (1/year) % 1.8 Return period (years) 1,E-01 10 Probable Maximum Losses 1,E-02 100 Return period Losses 1,E-03 1,000 Years (US$ million) % 1,E-04 10,000 100 2,976 1.7 Fiscal 1,E-05 100,000 250 4,417 2.5 1,E-01 1,E+01 1,E+03 1,E+05 1,E+00 1,E+02 1,E+04 1,E+06 500 5,655 3.3 1,000 7,126 4.1 Losses (US$ million) 1,500 7,125 4.4 Source: Ingeniar Ltd., 2011 The hybrid curve is an approximation to ever, it is not enough to estimate the financial the loss exceedance curve of the State’s responsi- needs for the State’s response, since response, bility (Graph 4.13). In this curve, the fiscal losses rehabilitation, and reconstruction costs need to caused by high-frequency/low-cost events are be added, and these can be several times high- estimated from historical losses, assuming that er. As mentioned in this chapter, in the case of total losses are public. Losses caused by low-fre- La Niña 2010-2011, estimated losses totaled quency/high-cost events are estimated through Col$8.6 billion (IDB, ECLAC, and DNP, 2011), modeling these disaster impacts in the asset and only response and rehabilitation as of July portfolio that is the State’s responsibility, as was 2011 required an investment of Col$6.87 billion done for the seismic case in Graph 4.12. In fact, (SNPAD and DGR, 2011). In addition, DNP es- comparing the two graphs shows that seismic timated reconstruction costs at approximately risk largely controls the behavior of the hybrid Col$22 billion (this budget aims to leverage the curve on the right side. Fiscal losses caused by infrastructure of public utilities and flood con- events of high recurrence periods estimated in trol with much higher technical specifications the hybrid curve are very similar to the losses than the old destroyed infrastructure, which was generated exclusively by the seismic risk, ac- in poor condition). In other words, responding cording to Graph 4.13. Therefore, it can be as- to a flood with that figure of losses, the Colom- sumed that the ratio between total and fiscal bian government considers that close to US$29 losses in low-frequency/high-cost events is then billion is necessary, which is 3.4 times of the maintained in the order of 8:1. loss amount, although the budget included in- The hybrid curve is the best approach to vestment needs identified prior to disaster but, estimate fiscal losses caused by disasters; how- as often happens after a disaster, investment Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 269 becomes a matter of urgency. The care and re- In order to respond to La Niña 2010-2011, habilitation costs vary depending on the type of the State requires 3.4 times the value of the losses event. In the case of the rainy season, care and caused by this emergency to respond to minor di- rehabilitation of public services for a highly sasters every year. It only allocates between 1% dispersed population in many towns and infra- and 7% of the lost values. Figure 4.11 shows how structure services in poor condition, are quite the resources allocated to FNC between 1986 and demanding in terms of resources, as shown in 2010 on average have not exceeded more than 7% the numbers. Regarding the Coffee Growing re- of disaster losses, indicating that the responsibility gion earthquake, the high costs of response and level assumed by the State varies depending on the rehabilitation were due to cleaning and handling event scale. To determine the funding needs of the a high volume of debris, and especially due to the State’s response to disasters, it is necessary to first temporary lodging and meals for homeless fami- define which are the levels of their responsibilities lies. Moreover, the reconstruction is usually more in damages resulting in lower-strata populations. expensive than the value of the losses (not only in The resources required by the State to ad- terms of structural strength, but service standards dress disasters depend on the event magnitude to be rendered). This is the case of the physical and frequency. If the State decides to take re- infrastructure needs of hospitals that evolves in sponsibility for damage caused to strata 1 and 2 medical technology development, not to mention populations, there is not enough information to the additional cost of replacing equipment. determine the financing needs of low-frequency/ Graph 4.13. Loss exceedance hybrid curve exclusively for Colombia’s fiscal portfolio 1,000 0.001 100 0.01 10 0.1 Surplus rate of losses (1/year) 1 1 Return period (years) 0.1 10 0.01 100 0.001 1,000 0.0001 10,000 0.0001 100,000 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 Losses (US$ million) Empirical curve Analytic curve Hybrid curve Source: Ingeniar Ltd., 2011. 270 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies high-cost events. In the case of La Niña 2010- The delay in the adoption of this strategy 2011, the investment budgeted was US$16 bil- is due in part because there is no entity or agen- lion, ten times more than in the case of the Coffee cy clearly responsible for disaster fiscal manage- Growing region earthquake. ment, and although there is a legal framework More refined and accurate risk assess- for contingent liability management, it does ment models are essential to optimize the public not consider disasters as one of the State’s fiscal and private asset insurance in facing disasters. risk sources. Law 819 of 2003 established the At present, the Government (through the Finan- requirement to include in the State medium- cial Institutions Superintendence in coordination term fiscal framework an annual statement of with Fasecolda) seeks to promote the use of ad- contingent liabilities arising from public credit vanced techniques for risk assessment to establish transactions, administrative contracts, rul- the probable maximum losses and premiums, in ings, and settlements. This requirement was in order to promote a partnership between the pub- response to budgetary imbalances that arose lic and private sectors to improve the financial during the 1990s due to private concession component of risk management in the country. contracts that generated high unforeseen pub- lic expenditures. Taking into account this law’s origin, it should consider disasters as fiscal risk 4.3.4. Progress and sources, although it does not currently do this. considerations in the creation of Moreover, the Risk Division of the General Di- a fiscal management strategy for rectorate of Public Credit and National Trea- the State’s response to disasters sury of the Ministry of Finance, which has led to contingent liability management since 2003, In addition to the instruments presented has not included disaster risk within its func- above in sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2, the Colombian tions, though it has been interested in giving State has identified the need to adopt a compre- comprehensive managing to the subject; this hensive fiscal management strategy for its disas- discourages a continuation of this process. ter response, knowing that both instruments and sources are disarticulated and do not have enough Physical disaster risk reduction to supplement resources. The resources allocated annually to the the fiscal management strategy of the State’s FNC have been insufficient to address the minor response to disasters disasters that have occurred annually, its budget has had to be aggregated, and despite that it has The State is aware that the best strategy to never exceeded 10% of the estimated losses. In reduce fiscal disaster risk is to mitigate physical addition, when disasters are of national magni- risk, and thus the disaster impact. Although the tude, the FNC capacity is overwhelmed and the risk in Colombia continues to grow, this analysis State must seek and achieve funding sources that shows that institutional, sectoral, and local enti- were not foreseen. For these reasons, in the last ties’ efforts to control the physical risk are still National Development Plans (2002-2006, 2006- insufficient. The government, aware of the limita- 2010, and 2010-2014), the State has included the tions of those efforts, is reconciling a Law Project need to formulate a financial disaster risk man- to increase the effectiveness of SNPAD, and has agement strategy and define the State’s responsi- given specific instructions in the current PND, bility in the reconstruction processes. among others, in terms of inventory and control Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 271 of high-risk settlements. Moreover, the State can Articulation of existing instruments and reduce its contingent liability by reducing the risk supplementing them with other additional of its exposed assets and avoiding the generation instruments is a fiscal management strategy of of new scenarios through inclusion of disaster disaster response by the State risk control criteria in the instruments governing the approval of public investment. A differentiated structure is proposed that It is essential, however, that the State is pre- addresses the needs of high-frequency/low-cost pared institutionally, technically, and financially to and low-frequency/high-cost events in order to respond to disasters, since it is impossible to elimi- achieve transferring risk to where it is economi- nate risk entirely, and the process of reducing it to cally reasonable and to constitute reliable re- acceptable standards is costly and time-consum- sources to respond adequately to the retained risk. ing. According to Chapter 1, Colombia has made Table 4.13 shows a scheme where existing in- progress in terms of reducing loss of life and the struments are articulated with others that are number of people affected by disasters, although supplementary, so as to ensure in advance a in economic losses there is a significant increase, timely and optimal funding, and also to protect and there are still major challenges. It is essential the State’s fiscal balance. Adopting such strategy to reduce risk growth rate and it is possible to do requires detailed identification of the amounts it by working in two fields; reducing physical risk needed, choosing the most appropriate instru- and improving the institutional, technical, and fi- ments, and application of those that are finan- nancial management to disaster response. cially more economical for each risk layer. Table 4.13. Scheme of fiscal management strategy for the State’s response to disasters Risk layers Instruments Retention Transfer High-risk layer (low frequency/high cost) • Loans within the borrowing capacity of the nation • Traditional insurance (may include public • Sale of public assets previously identified as infrastructure and lower-strata housing) Amount to be defined candidates to finance a possible disaster • Municipal collective housing insurance • Contingency fund with regional resources • Parametric insurance (US$16 billion was the response cost to • New taxes • Vehicle reinsurance the rainy season 2010-2011) • Catastrophe insurance pool • Disaster bonds • Contingency credits Medium-risk layer • Flexibility to reallocate resources from PGN Low-risk layer (high frequency/low cost) • Relies on enough annual resources in FNC and the exception to the principle of the budgetary annuity, so savings can be made in relatively At least US$450 million calm years (If the State is responsible for the effects • Sectoral funds on the strata 1 and 2 population) • Territorial funds Source: Adopted from World Bank, 2008. 272 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Determining risk and funding needs of the State in detail various measures to enhance risk man- agement by private actors, it is worth reviewing From the advances in modeling disaster risk compliance with current regulations, including losses, a study must be carried out to identify the the amounts by which the property is insured, as resources the State needs to address the stages of well as considering new rules on issues, such as disaster response, rehabilitation, and reconstruc- coverage of publicly traded companies, in order tion. There is a great methodology development to reduce the risk impact on financial markets in estimating the disaster damages and losses; and to protect the patrimony of the sharehold- however, it must be supplemented with additional ers, who may be ordinary citizens. information, such as the State’s asset value and vul- Monitor the adopted measures to expand nerability under its responsibility (not just build- agrarian insurance so as to increase the area in- ings, but also other types of infrastructure). It is sured. Section 4.2.5 presents the historical and also necessary to calculate the costs of response, recent measures taken to promote agrarian sec- rehabilitation, and reconstruction. While advanc- tor insurance in the country, which up to date ing on this path, the historical cost information represents less than 1% of the cultivated area, can be used as a starting point, along with the in spite of the sector being a recurrent victim available studies of probabilistic risk assessment. of floods, droughts, or frosts. It is convenient to monitor the responsiveness of recent measures Risk retention to force the insurance of Finagro credits and ex- tend awareness campaigns. The FNC, in conjunction with other liquid- ity sources for financing disaster response, should Transfer of public risk be able to meet the low-risk layer in any year. If the decision is clear that the State is respon- There are several ways to extend insurance sible for all of the effects caused by disasters to coverage of public assets and to reduce the cost of citizens in strata 1 and 2, between the FNC, sec- the policy, exploiting economies of scale from a toral sources, and regional funds, it should have large number of properties. Presently, the com- the capacity to provide sufficient resources per pliance with Law 42 of 1993 with regard to State’s year, and as far as possible to allow the FNC to property insurance is done property by proper- become a true multiannual reserve instrument, ty, since the law assigns responsibility to the en- exempt from the principle of budgetary annuity, tity’s representative owner of the property. This so savings can be made in years of relative calm. mechanism is inefficient because it does not al- low the benefits of diversification, which would Encouraging greater risk transfer by the be generated by the risk pooling of all buildings private sector in a single portfolio, resulting in lower cost of coverage. Therefore, the assurance of public Strengthening the measures identified in goods could be strengthened by (i) designing a section 4.3.2 of this chapter and developing aware- collective policy for public building insurance, ness campaigns, new incentives, and mandatory (ii) requesting from the insurance market a par- standards will greatly contribute to risk reduction ticular product for the infrastructure sector, and and provide the resources required by the State to (iii) evaluating the establishment of a National respond to disaster. Although Chapter 5 reviews Reinsurance System to reduce insurance costs. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 273 An interesting alternative might be to regu- the transfer cost). According to Ghesquiere and late a subaccount within the State Entities’ Con- Mahul (2010), the mechanism would reduce in- tingency Fund, operating as a “captive” insurer of surance costs significantly: (i) reduction of 7% to State agencies, combining risk retention and trans- 10% of administrative costs due to the premium fer for more efficient use of available resources. collected through property taxes, (ii) reduction be- The various government agencies would contrib- tween 15% and 25% of the premium cost for the ute to the Fund in proportion to their individual collective risk (for the five largest cities in Colom- risk calculated on actuarial basis. To improve the bia), and (iii) decrease of 25% to 35% of the premi- financial viability of the Fund, the State may re- um cost for risk retention guaranteed by the State. tain some of the risks, either through a simple Finally, although it is not a highly devel- guarantee or through a credit line. This would oped market and it is costly, it is worth taking enable it to increase its reserves rapidly. into account alternatives for risk transfer, such The promotion by the National Government as parametric insurance and catastrophe bonds. of the adoption of collective municipal housing in- These options are useful because the payments surance schemes would contribute to transferring are triggered by the occurrence of an event that part of the risk to local entities that are currently exceeds certain parameters. Some products may the State’s responsibility. As an incentive for the be triggered by parameters, such as the Richter adoption of these schemes, the MHCP could en- scale earthquake intensity or maximum wind courage the creation of a catastrophe insurance speed, allowing a property not to be insured pool for the largest municipalities in the country, or the damage assessment to receive resources. offering a line of credit to back it up (which would This makes them complementary instruments help increase the retention capacity, thus lowering to traditional insurance. Reinforcement of the Caldas Hospital. Municipality of Manizales (Caldas, Colombia). 2011. Photography: Dora Catalina Suarez. 274 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 4.4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STRENGTHENING PUBLIC SECTORAL MANAGEMENT PRIORITY RECOMMENDATION RESPONSIBLE High (H) Medium (M) Reduce risk generation and disaster impact through specific policies and action plans Designate an office responsible for risk management in each sector. H Ministries Adopt sectoral policies for risk management in each Ministry. H Ministries • Intervention policy for settlements at risk. H MVCT • Financial protection policy. H MHCP • Comprehensive risk policy for natural hazard phenomena, market risks, and other risks MADR H associated with climate change. • Minor and medium-intensity disaster management policy. H UNGRD • Policy mechanisms to orient reconstruction processes in a declared situation of national UNGRD M disaster. • Policy to incorporate risk management in public utilities in the supply of water, sewerage, and MVCT H sanitation services. • Risk criterion inclusion in policies and planning “locomotives for growth and employment MT, MVCT, MME, and M generation”. MADR Adopt and implement Sectoral Action Plans and interministerial risk management. • Strategy to generate information, and knowledge on hazards, infrastructure vulnerability and Ministries H exposed property, early warning and climate change. • Road Vulnerability Reduction Program. H MT • Program to Reduce Settlements at Risk. H MVCT • Adopt the risk management chapter in the RAS. H MVCT • Cofinancing program for the implementation of Ministerial Directive No. 12 of 2009 on the MEN H continued provision of educational services in emergency situations. • Strengthening Safe Hospitals Program. H MSPS • Regulating flood risk management criteria in the operating protocols of dams. M MME and MADS • Program to support local entities in risk management inclusion in land use planning. H MVCT, MADS, and MADR • Strengthening the inclusion of risk management in the Land Use Planning and Watershed MADS M Management (POMCA). • Program to encourage risk reduction measures and adaptation to climate change in medium MADR H and small agrarian producers. • Adopting a strategy for disaster management in each sector. H Ministries Delineate public and private responsibilities in risk management and extend the reduction of the State’s fiscal vulnerability to disasters Adopt clear political guidelines on the level of protection that the Colombian State and local entities Central Government H must offer to those affected by hazardous events. DNP, MHCP, UNGRD Adjust regulations to clarify the private sector responsibility in risk management, and strengthen Ministries H the defense of public entities to reduce the State’s fiscal contingencies for claims on this matter. Design and implement a comprehensive strategy for financial protection of the State at the different MHCP sectoral and territorial levels , in order to ensure an adequate disaster response and protect the H long-term fiscal balance. Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 275 Reduce risk generation and disaster impact essential to generate local capacity for specific through specific policies and action plans sectoral risk management actions and mecha- nisms for articulating with local authorities. It Assign an office responsible for the risk should also include institutional strengthening management in each sector. Most ministries and risk reduction cofinancing, so as to meet and entities have no direct functions or units their needs while promoting responsibility and responsible for risk management, which has in this manner achieving a synergy among the been noted repeatedly in documents such as the different levels of government. Guild organi- Conpes 3146, mentioned as one of the causes zations are able and willing to play a deciding of poor management in this area. The answer role in this field. The PND 2010-2014 aims to to this is the definition of dependencies or of- build the National Policy and also some Sec- ficials with clear responsibilities and hierarchy, toral Policies on Disaster Risk Management to coordinate the creation of sectoral risk man- that would become constituent elements of agement policies and lead their implementation, the National Policy and Planning Sectors with as is provided by the Decree 919 of 1989. These special emphasis on “Locomotives for growth dependencies could also coordinate issues such and employment generation”: transportation, as climate change and environmental sustain- housing, mining and energy, and agriculture. ability in each area, simplifying their coordina- Among the prioritized sectoral policies cur- tion within the sector and with other sectors. It rently in the PND are: would also facilitate the adoption of policy in- struments, including environmental and climate • Housing. Intervention policies for settle- change risks, and it would strengthen the per- ments at risk, aimed at controlling and man- formance of the sectors and the local capacity aging these settlements and reducing the to implement instruments such as POMCA, the construction of informal housing. The over- POT, and the PD. all improvement of neighborhoods, through Adopt sectoral risk management poli- risk analysis and the introduction of restric- cies in each Ministry. The approach to sectoral tions and constraints in land use planning risk management has been largely reactive and (POT), development of projects to mitigate protective, resulting in a steady increase in risk, family relocation in high-risk non- vulnerability and disaster impacts. This can be mitigable areas, and additional urban land managed with a comprehensive policy, which availability increase VIS construction and also ensures risk assessment and awareness and strengthen urban control. the reduction of existing risk. It also eliminates • Finance. Financial protection policies to re- the generation of new risks in projects and in- duce the State’s fiscal vulnerability resulting vestments, and the effective and timely disaster from disasters. The policy defines a differential response, promoting joint and shared responsi- strategy to address the needs of high-frequen- bility with local authorities and the private sec- cy/low-cost events, as well as low-frequency/ tor. This strengthens risk awareness, especially high-cost events, transferring the risk as far as in vulnerability studies in each sector, and bet- is economically possible, constituting a reli- ter strategies can be designed for reducing able source of funds to address the retained physical, operational, and financial risk, and risk and encourage participation of local gov- properly planning disaster management. It is ernments and private entities. 276 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies • Agriculture. Comprehensive risk policy to face ment in land use planning, granting equal natural phenomena, market risks, and risks as- priority to rural and urban space. This will sociated with climate change that includes an help to confront municipalities’ technical integral knowledge strengthening, risk reduc- and financial capacity limitations and bring tion, and disaster risk management. sectoral policies to the territory. • Interior and Justice. Low- and medium-in- • Transportation. Vulnerability Reduction tensity disaster management policy as well Program in the different modes of transport, as policy mechanisms to guide the recon- prioritizing the roads, establishing a solid struction process in a declared national di- program to invest in reducing existing vul- saster situation. nerability, focusing on the critical sections, • Drinking water and sanitation. Policy to in- either with stabilization work and/or im- corporate risk management in the provision proving standards of alternate routes. This of water supply, sewerage, and cleaning pub- reduction program should also involve up- lic services for which there is a document dating technical specifications and procure- proposing these guidelines, though they ment systems, incorporating the definition of have not been formally adopted. acceptable risk levels, assessment of projects • Transportation. Contracting concession from feasibility stage, design methods, and management policies incorporating risk re- construction systems, operation, monitoring duction criteria. and control, and establish the risk profile and strengthen road maintenance. Adopt and implement Sectoral and In- • Housing. Promote the Settlement Risk Re- terministry Action Plans on risk management. duction Program, which includes the defi- Once Sectoral Policies are implemented, the nition of inventory methodologies, capacity Sectoral and Interministry Action Plans would strengthening, cofinancing, and technical become their application instruments. These assistance to the municipalities’ census of plans could define short- and long-term stra- an endangered population. Implement the tegic priorities, and identify funding and de- Comprehensive Neighborhood Improve- velopment mechanisms. The objectives of risk ment Policy. Adopt a strategy to control knowledge and reduction, and disaster man- risk resulting from informal urbanization, agement mentioned in the policies should be which may include affordable housing al- reflected in the strategies, programs, and proj- ternatives such as leasing for lower strata ects’ action plans. Moreover, they must also and training in construction. Formalize include assigning those responsible and the co- self-construction of one- and two-floor ordination, financing, monitoring, and control houses to intercede in the process of build- mechanisms, addressing the needs and pro- ing informal housing. Adopt acceptable risk moting the responsibility of territorial authori- levels for residential buildings facing floods ties and private sector agents. Some specific and landslides, much in the way they are actions recommended for inclusion in these implemented in seismic risks. plans are as follows: • Drinking water and sanitation. Implement • Agriculture, housing, and environment. the RAS risk management chapter, includ- Promote a partnership to support territo- ing approval of acceptable 16 maximum rial entities in incorporating risk manage- risk levels, infrastructure risk assessment, Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 277 reducing existing risk, and the design and adequate production technologies, erosion construction of parameters in accordance prevention, and flood control. Risk reduc- with the standards set for new infrastruc- tion strategies are also recommended. Using ture. With regard to the fee structure, incor- drought- or flood-resistant varieties, weath- porate crossed feasibility for financing risk er forecasts to make decisions during the management activities, vulnerability stud- production cycle, and early warnings about ies, risk reduction criteria maintenance, El Niño and La Niña phenomena are recom- and the ability to secure the infrastructure. mended strategies when deciding on prod- • Education. Establish a capacity strengthening uct types, sowing seasons, and planning any program and cofinancing to support territo- livestock relocation. Along with the environ- rial entities in compliance with Ministerial mental sector, implement a joint strategy for Directive No. 12 dated July 2009, both to re- recovering marsh areas where flooding oc- duce educational infrastructure risk and to curs as areas to mitigate floods. improve preparedness to face emergencies. • All sectors • Health. Strengthen and expand hospital in- a. Implement a decision-making strategy surance program coverage. in each sector through strategies aimed • Energy. With the environmental sector, ar- at providing information and knowledge ticulate the inclusion of flood risk manage- on hazards, infrastructure vulnerabili- ment criteria in dam operation protocols, ties, property exposure, early warnings, starting from adopting maximum accept- and climate change. Vulnerability as- able risk levels. sessment and the risks to each one allow • Environment. Strengthen the inclusion of each person to formulate their own risk risk management in the POMCA, adopting reduction plan. Actions and investments maximum acceptable risk levels for all haz- based on where hazards are concentrated ards and the definition of restrictions and and a cost-benefit analysis should be a constraints that must be reviewed and de- priority. Hazard exposure, susceptibility, tailed in the planning processes such as land and damage assessment methodologies, use planning (POT). Include in the POMCA as well as assigning responsibilities and a Master Plan for Flood Risk Reduction, en- deadlines have to be adopted. It is impor- suring articulation between different actors tant to consider not only present scenar- in watersheds and verifying that the risk re- ios, but also future ones, which take into duction investments are consistent and posi- consideration aspects such as growth in tive for the entire area, not just a part of it. demand and aging of the infrastructure. • Agriculture. Organize with the agrarian It is also convenient to encourage sectoral guilds the implementation of a program to information and knowledge needs by encourage small and medium farmers to use strengthening the financial and technical risk reduction measures and to adapt to cli- coordination among SGC, IGAC, Ideam, mate change. This includes a collective and DANE, and academia in general to sup- aligned effort with the Ministry of Environ- ment and Sustainable Development to pro- mote sustainable land management through planning and applying environmentally 41 Service suspension risk for natural disaster events. 278 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies port the sectoral needs of information Delineate public and private responsibilities in and knowledge. risk management and extend the State’s fiscal b. Implement sectoral strategies to build a vulnerability reduction in confronting disasters culture of accountability and risk man- agement among private actors. This strat- Adopt clear policy guidelines on the level of egy may include awareness campaigns protection that the Colombian State and territorial and training on the risks to which they entities should offer to those affected by hazardous are exposed, the responsibility of private events. One of the requirements of appropriate actors, and alternatives to reduce risk, im- preparedness and response to a disaster situation prove risk management, and prepare for is to have a financial protection strategy. For this, action in case of an emergency. The drills it is essential to clearly define the State responsi- are used to evaluate and improve the pro- bilities with respect to those affected, specify the posed actions and to increase awareness. scenarios in which the nation will participate, as The guild organizations can be a key part- well as the actions of the State’s different levels ner in this endeavor. under the principles of correspondence, comple- c. Adopt a strategy for disaster management mentarity, and subsidiarity with the territorial in each sector, articulated and supported entities, and the role of the private sector (more by the UNGRD and the FNC. The cur- details on this aspect are presented in the recom- rent PND assigns to the UNGRD, with mendations in Chapter 5). the support of the DNP, the formulation Adjust the regulations to clarify the re- of a public policy of “Minor and medi- sponsibility of the private sector in risk man- um-intensity disaster management” and agement, and strengthen the defense of public “Mechanisms for guiding reconstruc- entities to reduce State fiscal contingencies for tion processes in a situation declared a claims on this issue. A clear definition of re- national disaster”. Experiences like the sponsibility of the private sector will strength- one in Mexico show the advantages of en the defense of public entities in the courts. ministries of each sector controlling Additionally, specific guidelines to facilitate the rehabilitation and reconstruction the proper integration of risk management in processes of their own infrastructure: governance will reduce vulnerability and losses opportunity, autonomy, technical suit- caused by Government actions. In addition to ability, monitoring, and control. Trans- the priorities in this area, identified in Recom- parency and efficiency are guaranteed mendations in Chapter 5, other priorities re- by using standardized and established lated to sectoral public management are: procedures to assess damage, access to resources by Government agencies and • Analyze the risks and alternatives from the private sector, and mechanisms for prefeasibility of projects. Incorporate this in monitoring and control. However, the the rules of the Public Investment Projects’ Oil Spill Contingency National Plan Banks (BPIN). experience and its replication to other • Regulate concession contracts, in compli- sectors should be assessed, and it should ance with the Conpes 3107 of 2001, assigning probably be extended to contingency risk management responsibility for natural plans for each of the hazards. events to private investors as a transferable Disaster Risk Management in Sectoral Administration 279 risk through insurance policies and other fi- to encourage responsibility based on the prin- nancial mechanisms. ciples of complementarity and subsidiarity: • Implement technical regulations for each sec- tor, such as bridge code update. Complete • National financial protection strategy (See the adoption process of the risk manage- section 4.3.4 and Table 4.13). ment chapter in the Technical Regulations of • Financial protection for each sector to comple- Drinking Water and Sanitation Sector (RAS), ment the national strategy, coordinated by the among others. Ministry of Finance with the following ele- • Articulate between the agriculture, min- ments: (i) identification of funding needs, (ii) ing, and environmental sector strategies for definition of retention strategies and risk trans- implementation of the recent Environmental fer, (iii) national and sectoral funding sources Sanctioning System, in terms of illegal defor- with complementarity rules defined to account estation, drought, wetland invasion, altera- for the retained risk (sectoral funds, the Na- tion of watercourses, etc. tional Calamity Fund, Risk Management Fund, Design and implement a comprehensive currently included in the law project to reform State financial protection strategy at different SNPAD, royalties resources) (see section 4.3.2), territorial and sectoral levels, in order to ensure and (iv) promoting responsible risk manage- an adequate response to disaster occurrence and ment among private agents. to protect the long-term fiscal balance. There is • Incentives to promote the establishment of not enough information to determine financing funds and territorial strategies to protect the needs with regard to low-frequency/high-cost State from disasters. This may include (i) the events, but in the case of La Niña 2010-2011, adoption of clear rules of territorial cofinanc- the budgeted investments amounted US$16 bil- ing to access national and sectoral sources of lion, ten times more than in the Coffee Growing funds for risk management, (ii) national co- region earthquake. However, the calculation of financing incentives for territorial strategies, these amounts depends on the definition of the and (iii) incentives for municipal adoption State responsibilities and the efficiency in the of collective housing insurance schemes, implementation of resources. In addition to the such as the creation of a catastrophe insur- Government’s strategy, it would be convenient ance pool for the largest municipalities in the to establish risk management funds and finan- country, and a credit line to support this pool cial protection strategies at the sectoral and ter- (which would help to increase the retention ritorial level (municipalities and departments) capacity, and thus reduce transfer). 280 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Municipality of Gramalote (Norte de Santander – Colombia), 2011. Photography: Gabriel Jaime Arango Zapata. 5 Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management Carlos R. Costa, Ana Campos García, Víctor Manuel Moncayo, Alejandro Vega 5.1. THE NEED TO ESTABLISH Limits BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RESPONSIBILITY When discussing responsibilities in disaster risk, it mitigation, financial protection, response, and is necessary to understand the social construction recovery measures. According to this concept, of risk. Risk refers to the potential damages or decisions are made regarding seismic resis- losses that may occur due to the effects of danger- tance standards that set design parameters ous physical events during a specific time period, for a 500-year return period. These standards which later become real damages, depending on contemplate a 10% probability of an event be- the vulnerability of the exposed elements (Inge- ing exceeded during the 50-year useful life of niar Ltda., 2011). Therefore, disaster risk derives a building, so that the building does not col- from the combination of hazards and vulnerabili- lapse and protection of life is assured, and cer- ties. The latter refer to factors built by man as a tain levels of acceptable damage. However, in result of various decision-making processes re- terms of perception, it is important to point out garding the occupation of territories, design, and that seismic resistance does not imply that a technical characteristics of the construction that building is “anti-seismic”, because anti-seismic make up the physical component of the afore- structures do not exist. The real goal of seismic mentioned occupation. These decisions are influ- resistance is a significant reduction in the ef- enced by economic, social, political, cultural, and fects of the phenomenon. other factors. On the other hand, a hazard refers In spite of the high frequency with which to the probable occurrence of a dangerous phe- Colombia faces disasters caused by dangerous nomenon, which is usually classified as a natural physical events, the limits of public responsibil- phenomenon in events such as earthquakes and ity and private responsibility are not clear yet. volcanic eruptions, where there is no direct or After a disaster occurs, most victims, ranging significant human intervention. Other phenome- from low-income families who have lost their na, such as floods, landslides, etc., are classified as homes to productive sectors, that have suffered socio-natural phenomena, because in most cases damages to their infrastructure or production they are exacerbated by anthropic activities such facilities, expect replacement of their assets as deforestation and inadequate handling and use and government subsidies or tax incentives, of land and runoff waters, as mentioned in the without being aware, in most cases, of the re- previous chapters. sponsibilities of self-construction and the pre- When making decisions about risk re- vention and reduction strategies they might duction and management, it is essential to un- have adopted before the disaster. The most re- derstand that the concept of acceptable risk is cent Colombian administration has responded always implicit. Acceptable risk is defined as in different ways to expectations and demands the risk that is reasonably assumed or toler- after serious disasters, which proves that there ated due to the probability of occurrence of is no applicable policy in place. the risk, the limited nature of the damages that The absence of a clear policy and a record may be caused, or the feasibility of prevention, of past cases, in which the government has usually Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 285 taken responsibility, discourages citizens and the On the other hand, the government is re- private sector from assuming their role in risk re- sponsible for protecting the victims, especially duction and management. Ideally, both citizens when they are in a condition of “evident weak- and the private sector should be aware of their ness”. However, the goal is not to compensate for own risks and should manage them consciously, damages and losses, but to provide special protec- i.e., reduce the physical and economic aspects of tion to the population as far as it is possible. Ar- risk as much as is feasible, in order to protect ticle 13 of the Constitution of 1991 orders the their life and assets as much as possible. Residu- government to protect “those persons who due al risk, or risk which cannot be reduced, may be to their economic, physical, or mental condi- managed with preparation and assurance strat- tion are in a state of evident weakness”, which egies for knowing how to act in the event of a applies to many of the victims of a disaster. disaster. In this regard, the government should However, in rulings SU-111/97, SU-225/98, do its part by following constitutional precepts and C-251/92, the Constitutional Court estab- and policy guidelines, in order to enable and en- lished that this obligation is not applicable im- courage citizens and the private sector to take mediately and its performance depends on the on the reduction of risk, which ultimately would capacity of the government. reduce the fiscal vulnerability of the country. To Regarding losses or damages suffered, al- that end, it is necessary to first clearly establish though the Constitution assigns the Government the limits between public and private responsi- the duty to protect the “life, honor, and property” bility so that all parties can take measures and of citizens, the Council of the State has ruled that, act effectively. Second, it is essential to encour- in cases of natural or socio-natural disasters, the age social agents to recognize and accept their government is liable only for damages caused by responsibility so that they may implement pre- an action or omission (failure) of public entities. ventive strategies in a timely fashion. According to the Constitution, authorities are established to “protect the life, dignity, beliefs, and other rights and liberties of all persons re- 5.1.1. The current gray area siding in Colombia, and to enforce the social du- between public and private ties of the government and of citizens” (Article 2 responsibility of the Constitution), which is a very broad state- ment that is subject to interpretation. However, 5.1.1.1. Responsibility of the government in a ruling dated June 24, 1994, regarding the Armero disaster, the Council of the State ruled From a legal standpoint, it cannot be ar- that there were grounds for responsibility of the gued that the government is not liable for the government only if the judge who was hearing damages caused to a private agent by disasters. the case found evidence of the following: (i) fail- In both private and public tort responsibility, ure, (ii) unlawful damages to individuals, (iii) a the parties are exempt of all responsibility due to causal link between the failure and the damages, force majeure events. Since disasters are a typi- and (iv) the absence of grounds for exemption cal example of force majeure events, it could be such as force majeure. said that the government should not be under When damages are proven, even if they any obligation whatsoever as a result of the oc- are caused by a dangerous physical event but are currence of a dangerous physical phenomenon. attributable to failure of public entities, the gov- 286 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies ernment is required to pay indemnification. Ar- authorities is only in light of the functions they ticle 90 of the Constitution mandates that “the have been assigned. There are numerous legal government is financially liable for the unlaw- proposals that have defined the authority of ful damages for which it is accountable, wheth- the government regarding risk management at er they are caused by the action or omission of different levels of its hierarchy, but loopholes authorities.” In other words, it is required, on remain in the private sector, which gives rise the one hand, to provide solidarity protection, to situations of unlawful damages that may be sometimes called humanitarian protection, problematic for the government. For example, based on Article 13 of the Constitution, and the adoption of regulations that require risk on the other hand, to respond financially to control (such as mitigation works or zoning of the harmful consequences of disasters caused hazards) reduces the occurrence of disasters, by dangerous physical phenomena, when it can but a failure that is not detected or controlled be proven that all or part of the damages have by the corresponding authorities (such as a been caused, either exclusively or concurrently, failure in design of mitigation works or risk by the action or omission of the government. estimation) could result in financial responsi- Once government responsibility is es- bility to the government. In the absence of reg- tablished in this matter, there are several in- ulations, the risk for the population would be struments available to private actors for its greater, but when regulations are present and enforcement. These instruments include their limits or the jurisdiction of the private Protection action [writ for the protection of sector are not taken into account, the finan- constitutional rights] (Article 86 of the Con- cial risk to the government usually increases, stitution), popular actions and group actions unless the regulation makes it clear from the (Article 88 of the Constitution), compliance start that complying with public requirements actions (Article 87 of the Constitution), and does not transfer responsibility to the govern- legal actions for nullity and reestablishment of ment. In this context, the requirements of the the right to direct and contractual compensa- government shall be construed as minimum tion (Articles 84 and 85 of the Constitution). requirements, not a guarantee for eliminating There are still many loopholes in the defi- risk completely, which would be technically nition of responsibilities, as mentioned in previ- impossible or economically unfeasible. ous chapters, but the process of regulating and The government is responsible for protect- defining obligations should be comprehensive ing, as far as it is capable, victims in a state of “ev- and should consider both public and private ident weakness,” and for responding financially agents, because the risk of lawsuits against the to the damages that are attributable to actions government due to action or omission is pro- or omissions (failure) of public entities, which portional to the amount of existing legislation, clearly does not mean the government is required unless responsibility of both parties is clearly to pay full indemnification for the losses of those established. Article 121 of the Constitution affected by a disaster. Although it seems contra- indicates that “no government authority may dictory, this does not allow for a clear definition perform any functions that are different from of the responsibility of the government. How- those assigned by the Constitution and the ever, it is legitimate to respond to the victims in law”; therefore, the way to determine failure by different manners in each disaster situation; the action or omission on the part of government financial risk for the government, and therefore, Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 287 for the population, may be greater depending on vironment, and many other activities, clearly how regulations for reducing risk are adopted. It increases vulnerability to dangerous natural is necessary, therefore, to delimit the scope and phenomena and gives rise to risk situations extent of public and private responsibility with that later become disasters. However, accord- a clear understanding of the regulations and the ing to Article 6 of the Constitution, citizens policy definitions. are liable to authorities only for infringing the One way to delimit the obligations and re- Constitution and the laws; therefore, it is nec- sponsibilities of all agents could be the adoption essary to develop adequate regulations so that of risk awareness and reduction and disaster the consequences of generating risk scenarios management policies (handling, rehabilitation, are assumed by those who cause them and not and reconstruction), in which criteria for differ- by the victims or the government. ent types of events are established. Regulations Due to the deficiencies of public entities already exist in the field of seismic resistance, and the weaknesses of regulations, in many cases which includes parameters for microzoning the government ends up assuming the costs of studies, building design and construction, and regulatory noncompliance by private agents. The vulnerability assessments. These regulations regulations for controlling public risk generation also define who is in charge of executing, re- by private actors are focused on establishing re- viewing, and approving blueprints, works, strictions and standards for private actors, such and other elements. Therefore, it is necessary as risk zoning in the Land Use Planning (POT) to create policies and regulations that estab- or the regulation for seismic-resistant construc- lish security or acceptable risk parameters for tions. However, failure to comply with these re- floods, landslides, and other phenomena, as strictions or standards on the part of a private well as the roles and responsibilities of different actor does not necessarily mean that the private public and private agents in planning, design, actor bears full responsibility. The government construction, operation, maintenance, follow- may be partially responsible, due to either fail- up, and control processes. In this manner, the ure to enforce compliance with a regulation or government and the citizens would know the a poor legal defense when faced with a lawsuit. guidelines, procedures, and responsibilities As a result, there are many rulings in which 50% from the start, and would undertake the imple- of the costs are borne by the government and mentation of ex ante actions and prepare for ex the remaining 50%, by the private actor. The post actions related to disaster risk. Colombian government has created an agency for its legal defense due to the high number of 5.1.1.2. Responsibility of private agents as negative rulings on account of deficiencies and generators of public risk inadequate processes. When adopting levels of acceptable risk, The actions of the private sector may cre- such as those established in seismic resistance ate risk for society, but only the failure to comply standards or in risk zoning in the POT, such lev- with an explicit regulation generates legal re- els should be explicit and should be known to all sponsibility for the private agent. Construction agents so that private and public responsibilities of infrastructure or housing that is vulnerable are clear. For example, Article 1 of Law 400 of to hazards, handling of dangerous materials 1997 regarding seismic-resistant constructions or production processes, alteration of the en- establishes that “a building designed in accor- 288 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies dance with the standards for seismic-resistant Low levels of implementation of current- constructions should be able to withstand, in ly available instruments have been identified. addition to the forces imposed by use, low-in- These instruments set forth some of the spe- tensity earthquakes without suffering damage, cific duties of private actors with regard to risk moderate-intensity earthquakes without suf- management. No use has been made of instru- fering structural damage, but possibly sustain- ments such as the Statutory Law on the duties ing some damage to nonstructural elements, of private actors, which is mentioned in Article and high-intensity earthquakes with damage 152 of the Constitution; Section 10 of Article to nonstructural and structural elements, but 2 of Decree 919 of 1989, which registers in the without collapsing.” Therefore, anyone who National System for Disaster Prevention and builds, approves the construction of, or buys a Response (SNPAD) all private agents who on house under these criteria, should know that account of their purpose and functions have a it is feasible (10% probability according to connection with disaster prevention and man- the provisions of the standard) that a seismic agement; or Article 4 of the same Decree, which event of a magnitude greater than considered allows the government to ask for cooperation may occur and may cause structural failure of of private agents in the preparation and execu- the buildings designed in accordance with the tion of the National Plan for Disaster Preven- construction code. Complying with the stan- tion and Response (PNPAD). Participation of dard does not make constructions seismic-re- private actors in the SNPAD has been very lim- sistant. The lack of awareness of this situation ited, few specific implementations are known, by society in general may result in lawsuits and the mechanisms have not been regulated. against the government. The rules established in Articles 8 and The regulations regarding the responsi- 9 of Decree 919 of 1989 have only been imple- bility of private agents in risk management are mented partially in the city of Bogota. Accord- inadequate, which forces the government and ing to these standards, and as a preventive the victims to assume responsibility for the measure, “private agents in charge of provid- damages caused by a disaster. Article 95 of the ing services, who perform large-scale civil Constitution expressly indicates the duties and works or carry out industrial activities or any responsibilities of every person, which include other type of activity that poses danger or the following duties and responsibilities relat- high risk, as well those activities specifically ed to risk management: “to respect the rights determined by competent public authorities, of others and not abuse their own rights (…), are required to carry out a vulnerability analy- to act in accordance with the solidarity prin- sis and take appropriate protective measures.” ciple (…), to protect the cultural and natural This responsibility has been implemented resources of the country and watch over the only partially in Bogota, as part of the city’s preservation of a healthy environment (…), disaster prevention and management system, to contribute to the financing of the expenses but it has not been implemented nationwide or and investments of the government under the by other territorial entities. It is set forth that, concepts of fairness and equality.” However, re- for the handling and management phases of a garding explicit obligations in matters of risk disaster, specific action plans are mandatory management, progress is insufficient or the ob- for the private sector (Article 20 of Decree 919 ligations have not been duly implemented. of 1989). Furthermore, participating in opera- Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 289 tions in disaster situations is also mandatory, insuring private property assets, except in the in accordance with specific action plans and case of horizontal property and real property the nature of the purpose, functions, and ju- that is financed with credit. risdiction or sphere of influence of the private In the absence of the above develop- actors (Articles 11 and 22 of Decree 919 of ments, the obligations of the government and 1989). Nevertheless, it is not known if these the private agent who is affected by a disaster provisions have been implemented. are subject to interpretation by the judicial Clarifying regulatory frameworks, re- branch of the government. Courts have ruled quiring the private sector to meet its respon- against the government in numerous cases sibilities, and ensuring the disclosure of this even when the decisions that placed lives information are key elements toward a sustained or assets at risk were made solely by private reduction of risk conditions. It is essential that agents. Insurance plans, even if they are vol- more regulations, diffusion, and enforcement untary, as in the cases of Manizales (Caldas) be developed related to the responsibilities of and Sabaneta (Antioquia), which are dis- private agents as generators of risk and to their cussed in Chapter 4, would reduce the risk of duties in supporting the government in risk the individual and the government by having management issues, with the purpose of reach- a system that responds to damages to homes ing the stated goals of significantly reducing affected by a disaster, and would provide clar- risk in the country and having all agents as- ity to courts when assigning responsibilities, sume their respective obligations. because the courts would have to take into ac- count that the victims had been informed of 5.1.1.3. Responsibility of citizens in managing the risk they were exposed to and of the pos- their own risk sibility or obligation of purchasing insurance. Private agents do not assume the respon- sibility of knowing and managing their own 5.1.2. Government fiscal risk. The obligation of the government to pro- contingencies related to lack of tect the “life, honor, and property” of citizens, clarity in policy frameworks which is set forth in Article 2 of the Constitu- tion, could be supplemented with the respon- 5.1.2.1. Contingencies in post-disaster sibility of citizens for knowing and managing assistance and recovery programs due to lack their own risk, so that when making decisions of clarity in policies in a risk situation, they would at least have a concurrent duty with the government. How- After a disaster, the government should ever, there are currently no regulatory devel- perform several tasks. One of these tasks is as- opments in this regard. sisting the affected population, and estimating The only provision concerning the respon- its costs is of the utmost difficulty. In a disas- sibility of citizens in risk management is the re- ter, the government is required to rescue and quirement to insure common areas in horizontal protect the people who are endangered, and it property buildings as well as property that is fi- should also reestablish the services under its nanced with some kind of credit. There are no charge. The government has information about requirements for other forms of risk transfer by these services, which allow it to formulate 290 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies the case strategy. During reconstruction, the • During the reconstruction following the government should take charge of its own in- disaster in the Coffee Growing region, the frastructure, but it should also ensure the well- FOREC (the Coffee Growing Region Recon- being of the population groups that are in a state struction Fund), provided subsidies for re- of “evident weakness” and the reconstruction pairing all affected homes, regardless of their of the social fabric and, if deemed necessary, owners’ socioeconomic status, but during the it should also contribute to the replacement of La Niña 2010-2011 episode, government res- physical losses and repair the damages caused olutions for assistance were directed mainly at to the aforementioned population groups, so the poorest classes (strata 1 and 2). that they may bring their lives back to normal. • The decision by the FOREC to grant a repair Not knowing who belongs to the population subsidy for all affected homes was modified by groups in a state of “evident weakness” and a court order, based on the right-to-life argu- how much support they need, makes the costs ment. The FOREC was required to direct the of this government task most uncertain. subsidy not only to repair the affected homes, The Constitution and the laws are flexible but also to reinforce their structures. The ab- with regard to the responsibility of the govern- sence of clear policies in this matter resulted ment for the victim, since they allow responsibil- in unforeseen costs for the government. ity to be defined according to the capabilities of • The decision to provide temporary lodging the government. As mentioned in the previous to the persons affected in the Coffee Grow- paragraph, the responsibility of the government ing region case led the FOREC to assign sub- to those affected by disasters is limited to per- sidies for new homes to all affected families sons who are in a state of “evident weakness”, and who were in the shelters, even to those who the interpretation of the Court in this respect were living in rented accommodation before has been that the government should respond as the occurrence of the earthquake. This deci- far as it is capable. This grants the government sion, which was the only measure that could flexibility in scope and form of action but, at the be used to end the temporary situation, gen- same time, it generates uncertainty both for the erated additional costs that had not been ini- government and for the potential victims. Legis- tially foreseen by the government. lators could reduce the uncertainty by assigning • The assistance to victims of the La Niña phe- specific responsibilities through new laws. On nomenon 2010-2011, as a result of the decla- the other hand, it is possible for the government ration of National Disaster, is different from itself to define its obligations by means of policy that given to victims of previous rainy season instruments, which would simultaneously max- emergencies, in which this declaration was imize flexibility and reduce uncertainty. not made and no programs were adopted, like Due to the absence of preexisting policies the one currently developed by the Humani- or more regulatory development regarding the tarian Colombia or the Adaptation Fund. assistance to victims, the government is forced • Bogota has a relocation policy for at-risk pop- to make decisions during a crisis, which ends up ulation groups that grants housing subsidies generating differential treatments, whose fiscal only to families in the poorest classes (strata consequences are difficult to quantify. Below are 1 and 2). However, pending a court decision, some examples of recent decisions based on cir- the city has been granting rent subsidies for cumstances and their consequences: more than five years to lower-middle-class Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 291 families (stratum 3) who were in risk zones, After a Protection Action based on the right while the courts decide whether those fami- to life and adequate housing was filed by one lies are also entitled to subsidies for housing of the co-owners of the building, a ruling by relocation. As a result of the lack of clarity, a court of appeals ordered the municipality, the costs of rent that have been assumed by among other things, to clear the rubble and to the city are in some cases almost equivalent design and execute the works for stabilizing to the costs of a new home. the slope. The costs so far have surpassed 10 billion Colombian pesos. The ruling found the 5.1.2.2. Fiscal contingencies in lawsuits city fully liable, based on the argument that in against the government due to lack of clarity 1992 the Administrative Agency for Munici- in regulations concerning public and private pal Physical Control granted the construction responsibility in risk management permit without placing any responsibility on the project promoters, designers, and con- It is clear that the government should re- structors, even though the terrain was classi- spond financially to private agents who have suf- fied as high-risk in the Cali POT, and previous fered damages due to failures of service by public studies by the project developers showed that entities. The current constitutional precept (Ar- they were aware of an existing hazard. ticle 90) is not only mandatory for requiring the • A judge ordered the municipality of Bogota government to respond, but it also establishes to carry out mitigation works in an area that distinctions depending on the area of activity of was undergoing resettlement after it had been public authorities. This precept actually establish- declared a nonmitigable high-risk area. In es two conditions under which the government 2006, a significant portion of the San Rafael, can be found liable: when there exist unlawful Rincón del Porvenir, and Porvenir de la Es- damages and when the unlawful damages are at- tancia neighborhoods in the Ciudad Bolivar tributable to action or omission by a public au- locality were undergoing a resettlement pro- thority (Constitutional Court ruling C-333-96). cess financed and executed by the city after it In spite of the obligatory nature of this had declared itself as a “nonmitigable high- precept for the government, factors such as the risk area.” However, the community action lack of clarity in some regulations, the interpre- committees filed a Protection Action invok- tation of these regulations by the courts, and the ing the rights to physical integrity, health, weak legal defenses of the government have giv- adequate housing, and a healthy environ- en rise to controversial rulings. Below are two ment. Eventually, the city agencies were or- recent examples: dered, among other things, to “immediately begin working to stabilize the terrain (…) • The city of Cali was found to be fully liable without the excuse that the initiation or du- for the failure of a retaining wall in an upper- ration of the works depends on, or is subject class building (stratum 6). In 2009, a 5,000 m3 to, financial resource availability.” Currently, avalanche of mud and rocks blocked the rec- in addition to complying with the ruling, reational area (pool and arcade) of the Mon- at a cost surpassing Col$30 billion, the city terrosa Building in Cali, which had been built is carrying out the resettlement process of by private developers from 1993 to 1995 in more than 3,000 families because the area is an upper-class sector (stratum 6) of the city. still declared a high-risk area. 292 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 5.2. COLOMBIAN Citizens and risk management The configuration of risk conditions in a country is trolling its causes, on the part of citizens. In largely the result of decisions made by its citizens. order to assess the levels of awareness of Co- The disaster risk of a territory is made up lombian citizens about their own risk and their mainly of the probability of losses to govern- responsibility in reducing and managing risk, ment assets, damages to private production in- and in order to make recommendations for frastructure, and revenue losses for the private improving decision making by Colombian citi- sector and endangerment of the lives and as- zens, the World Bank conducted a nationwide sets of its citizens. The decisions made by citi- evaluation. Approximately 1,150 persons of all zens about where they live, the type of homes socioeconomic levels were surveyed in eight they live in, how they protect their lives and Colombian capital cities with different risk lev- their family circle’s lives, how they invest their els. As many as 90% of interviewees have been family patrimony, and even apparently trivial living for more than 4 years at their current decisions such as where they take vacations location. Box 5.1 shows the methodology and determine either directly or indirectly the risk technical details of the survey. The results are configuration of a country. analyzed in the sections below. The decisions of citizens to occupy and use territories do not necessarily make them respon- sible for risks because the lack of options and Box 5.1. Data sheet. Risk perception survey of information makes it impossible to avoid them. Colombian citizens Critical factors related to the lack of safe hous- Sample: 1,148 respondents ing at affordable prices, or the lack of basic Cities: Bogota, Cali, Medellin, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Manizales, income to afford such housing, encourage the Villavicencio, and Pasto occupation of risk zones and the informal con- Data collection dates: May 30 to June 15, 2011 struction and use of homes. Furthermore, there Strata: 1 to 6 – urban population Collection technique: home personal interviews are deficiencies in access to information about Respondents’ profile: male and female heads of households the hazards to which people are exposed, and Age: 20 to 65 years old as a result people cannot make objective deci- Distribution of the sample: sions. On the other hand, elevated indices such Bogota: 405 surveys as the Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) Index Cali: 122 surveys Medellin: 120 surveys and conditions of poverty make risk manage- Barranquilla: 100 surveys ment a low priority for a family. Therefore, the Cartagena: 102 surveys government should guide citizens in making Manizales: 100 surveys Pasto: 100 surveys the best decisions in a complex socioeconomic Villavicencio: 100 surveys environment and assist them in case they are Sampling error for the country: 2.7% affected by a disaster. Confidence level: 95% Greater levels of awareness of risk and (Error is greater when analyzing results by city and stratum). of the responsibility for managing risk should Source: World Bank, 2011a. contribute to reducing risk, or at least to con- Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 293 5.2.1. Citizens’ perception of risk of dangerous phenomenon. Although the Ande- an region population lives in a high or interme- According to the survey, 18% of Colombi- diate earthquake hazard and is also exposed to ans do not feel exposed to any risk from natural a great possibility of landslide occurrences, al- phenomena that may endanger their lives, while most half of the people surveyed in the Andean 82% felt themselves threatened by a risk. Graph cities do not feel threatened by seismic events. 5.1 shows how a high percentage of the popula- The exception is Pasto, where people have a high tion surveyed is aware of their risk conditions, degree of awareness of this scenario, probably although, according to Chapter 1 of this docu- due to the frequent occurrence of the Galeras ment, all Colombians are exposed to some type volcanic activity. Graph 5.1. Perception of major hazards to which households are exposed Question: What natural events do you feel exposed to that threaten your life in your home? Type: Spontaneous answer to an open-ended question None Earthquake Thunderstorm Flood Landslide 90% 84% 80% 70% 60% 50% 46% 44% 41% 40% 34% 32% 33% 30% 30% 27% 27% 25% 25% 22% 22% 24% 21% 21% 21% 20% 20% 16% 17% 18% 12%10% 10% 9% 9% 9% 8% 9% 7% 6% 5% 4% 6% 2% 1% 3% 2% 2% 3% 1% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% Barranquilla Bogota Cali Cartagena Manizales Medellin Pasto Villavicencio Total Type: Multiple-choice answer with option to add information None Earthquake Thunderstorm Flood Landslide 100% 99% 90% 88% 80% 76% 74% 70% 66% 68% 67% 59% 60% 57% 53% 54% 52% 50% 50% 41% 41% 40% 38% 38% 35% 30% 30% 30% 27% 26% 22% 25% 19% 19% 20% 16% 20% 16% 16% 16% 17% 17% 14% 14% 14% 12% 8% 7% 8% 10% 7% 5% 2% 1% 0% Barranquilla Bogota Cali Cartagena Manizales Medellin Pasto Villavicencio Total Source: World Bank, 2011a. Sample base: 1,148 respondents. 294 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Among the cities studied, Cali reported fected more than 90% of the municipalities of the the lowest perceived risk to seismic events, de- country (Figure 5.2). spite being in a high-hazard area. Only 53% of Risk perception is similar in all the socio- respondents in Cali consider earthquakes as a economic strata, although it is slightly higher in hazard, compared with 67% in Villavicencio, the lower strata. According to Chapter 1, the lev- 76% in Manizales, and 99% in Pasto, taking els of risk in strata 1 and 2 are greater, especially into account that these four cities have the same due to unsuitable land occupation for urban- level of seismic hazard. The risk perception of ization, informal settlements, noncompliance respondents in Cali is even less than the levels with building standards, and social vulnerability registered in Bogota (66%) and Medellin (57%), factors in general. Accordingly, disasters in Co- areas with an intermediate seismic hazard level. lombia tend to produce a larger relative impact Awareness of other threats such as floods, in these strata. Therefore, it is not surprising to storms, and landslides is closer to reality. The sur- find the highest level of risk perception among vey shows a high perception of flood risk in cities this population. On the contrary, lower levels of such as Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Villavicencio, risk recognition are concentrated in strata 3 and and a high recognition of storm and gale risks in 4, which may be due to the fact that minor di- Barranquilla and Medellin. As for the landslides, sasters do not affect them with the same recur- the city reporting the highest risk perception is rence as in strata 1 and 2, whose their priorities Medellin, followed by Manizales. Outcomes are and concerns are different from those of social consistent with geographical conditions and the groups with higher incomes (Graph 5.3). number of registered events in these cities. Frequent exposure to events seems to ex- Only 49% of respondents say that disas- plain higher levels of risk perception. The sur- ter losses are increasing. This view is similar to a vey shows higher risk recognition of frequent worldwide trend, according to the survey reported hazardous events such as floods and landslides, in “Frontline Vision, 2011,” and although this per- rather than of earthquakes. The exception is centage reflects a certain level of awareness, it is not Pasto, which can be explained by the high recur- consistent with the reality of a country where losses rence of seismic events associated with volcanic are evidently increasing. “Frontline Vision, 2011” activity experienced by the city. In fact, about concludes that “57% of respondents feel that disas- 40% of citizens surveyed in Bogota and Medel- ter losses have increased in the last five years, while lin does not know they are located in areas of 21% perceive that these have decreased” (Global intermediate seismic hazard, and 46% of Cali’s Network of Civil Society Organizations for Disas- population do not identify their exposure level ter Reduction, 2011, p. 4). According to the World to earthquakes. Ignorance of this kind of risk in Bank survey, 8% of the respondents in Colombia most of the Andean cities surveyed is worrying, think losses have been reduced, 24% think that which makes relevant a clear need to promote losses have remained the same, while 49% believe high levels of awareness, prevention, and pre- that losses are on the rise, leaving a significant per- paredness to achieve risk control and mitigation. centage of the population that is not aware of the situation. It disturbingly draws attention that this risk underestimation in Colombia is registered in a 1 The “Front Line Vision, 2011” is a research and action project carried out by civil society actors along with government agencies, whose purpose survey that was conducted during the flood caused is to measure progress toward implementing the Hyogo Framework for by the La Niña 2010-2011 phenomenon, which af- Action (HFA) at the local level in developing regions and countries. Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 295 Graph 5.2. Perception of losses resulting from disasters (cities) Question: Going over the past five years, do you consider that losses suffered directly or indirectly by disasters in your area have increased, decreased, or remained the same? Barranquilla 48% 10% 35% 7% Bogota 59% 5% 17% 19% Cali 57% 3% 21% 19% Cartagena 31% 16% 34% 19% Manizales 62% 17% 18% 3% Medellin 22% 12% 39% 27% Pasto 11% 14% 16% 59% Villavicencio 32% 3% 50% 15% Total 49% 8% 23% 20% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Losses have increased Losses have decreased Losses have not changed Does not know/ Does not answer Source: World Bank, 2011a. Sample base: 1,148 respondents. 5.2.2. The perception of Graph 5.3. Perception of losses resulting from disasters citizens and the Government’s (strata) responsibility Question: Going over the past five years, do you consider that losses suffered directly or indirectly caused by disasters in your area have increased? While 83% of Colombians surveyed feel at risk from natural hazards, only 61% believe they Total 83% should take steps to reduce it, and only 35% are reported having done so. In every city, there is a Strata 5 -6 83% significant gap between the percentage of house- Strata 3 -4 79% holds that are considered at risk and the percent- age of people that have taken any step toward risk Strata 1 -2 87% management. This means that with appropriate awareness campaigns, proper information man- Source: World Bank, 2011a. agement, and incentives, there is a great potential Sample base: 1,148 respondents. for reducing risk in Colombia, since it is expected that if the majority of the population has greater clarity about disaster risk concepts, this popula- tion will take actions to mitigate risk (Graph 5.4). 296 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 5.4. Relationships among taking measures, risk perception, and other variables Type: Relation between levels of risk perception and measures Considered at risk Measures must be taken Measures have been taken 100% 99% 98% 90% 86% 89% 86% 84% 83% 81% 78% 80% 80% 73% 70% 65% 66% 57% 58% 61% 60% 55% 50% 45% 43% 38% 41% 37% 40% 31% 35% 30% 27% 24% 21% 20% 10% 0% A CIO ILL A ES N EN TA EN LLI QU AL O L LI TA AG ST GO VIC NIZ DE AN CA PA TO RT BO LA ME RR MA CA VIL BA Type: Multiple-choice answer with option to add information 100% 90% Has undergone earthquakes 80% 70% Has known earthquake 60% prevention campaigns 50% Has taken part in 40% prevention activities 30% 20% Feels at risk due to earthquakes (spontaneous) 10% 0% A CIO Has taken measures ILL NA LES IN EN TA QU O L GE LL IZA LI TA ST GO VIC DE AN A CA PA TO RT N BO LA ME RR MA CA VIL BA Source: World Bank, 2011a. Sample base: 1,148 respondents. Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 297 The survey shows that risk perception it- Graph 5.6. The level of detail of the knowledge of self is associated with prior exposure to disaster risk management actions in both cities is different, events, awareness campaigns, and participation in because 76% of the population in Pasto, who have prevention activities. The graph presented below reported having taken measures, failed to specify shows that levels of risk perception can be ex- what type of measures were taken. In compari- plained by the historical memory and exposure son, only 25% of the population in Bogota did not to disaster events. Thus, cities with a high occur- respond to that question. Moreover, the actions rence of earthquakes, such as Pasto, have broader implemented in Bogota were more effective than measures of risk perception than cities such as those developed in Pasto. While Pasto reported Cali and Bogota, where these events occur less that 5% have insurance and activities such as frequently. The graph also shows that cities like “protecting the children” or “listening to the early Bogota and Manizales, where respondents report warning systems”, strategies taken in Bogota were higher levels of recall of awareness campaigns more specific and indicate prior planning. Some and participation in prevention activities (such 13% of the population in Bogota has insurance, is as drills, brigade organization, etc.), reveal higher equipped with an “emergency kit,” and is aware of of risk perception. The exception seems to values ​​ “evacuation routes” and “meeting points.” This sit- be Medellin, where despite reporting campaigns uation implies that citizens in Bogota have greater and prevention activities, the percentage of per- clarity on how to respond to a seismic event, de- ceived seismic risk remains low. spite not being exposed to the same frequency There seems to be a direct relationship be- as Pasto’s population. This graph also indicates tween the perceived risk and the measures taken for that Bogota’s citizens have had more contact with its reduction. In cities where there exist medium awareness campaigns such as “Bogota with its feet or high seismic risk situations, between 30% and on the ground”, with its “six masterstrokes” that 50% of the population who feel exposed to risk say provided training on preventive measures. These they have taken steps to reduce their risk. The per- strategies explain the difference between the two centage of families reporting the implementation cities in knowledge and clarity of the subject. of measures to reduce their risk is more or less the same for every social stratum, where strata 5 and 6 distance themselves from the average with posi- tive trends. Stratum 5 evidently is more active in Graph 5.5. Taking measures to reduce disaster risk by managing their risk, while stratum 6 reports less socioeconomic stratum activity. Several hypotheses arise in explaining this behavior, which should only be evaluated with a Has taken measures more extensive study (Graph 5.5). 70% 60% 61% Citizens’ decision to implement actions in 50% order to reduce risk is not enough for effective 40% 32% 34% 35% 35% 30% 27% risk management, so there is a need for them to 20% 22% receive advice on how to guide their intervention. 10% 0% Bogota and Pasto indicate a higher percentage Stratum 1 Stratum 2 Stratum 3 Stratum 4 Stratum 5 Stratum 6 Total of families who took measures to reduce seismic risk. However, the quality of the reaction report- Source: World Bank, 2011a. ed in each city seems to be different, as shown in Sample base: 1,148 respondents. 298 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 5.6. Types of measures for earthquake risk reduction as reported by the citizens of Bogota and Pasto Bogota 66% 48% 25% 18% 13% 7% 4% 5% 5% Exposed to Has had Insurance Insurance Meeting Calm Evacuation Emergency Does not earthquake knowledge against against point route kit answer /shakes /campaign earthquakes disasters 99% Pasto 76% 14% 5% 6% 4% 4% 4% 4% Exposed to Has had Insurance Insurance Calm Tape in Be alert to Be alert Does not earthquake knowledge against against windows the media to warnings answer /shakes /campaign earthquakes disasters communications Source: World Bank, 2011a. The survey indicates that apart from the hazard zone, only 45% of the surveyed popula- citizens’ lack of clarity on facing their responsibil- tion consider themselves responsible for taking ity in risk reduction, about 40% of Colombians measures to reduce risk. Cartagena, which is in believe that other agents should be responsible a low seismic hazard zone, has a similar percent- for implementing intervention measures. Some age. In the case of Cali, where there have not been 61% of the respondents believed that they should many prevention campaigns, levels of knowledge take steps to reduce their risk and that this task and recall of these strategies have been higher should be accompanied by the national govern- than those of Bogota over the past five years. ment and relief agencies. However, the remaining Consequently, variables such as the quality of 39% thought that the responsibility falls entirely the campaigns, their duration, and the economic on the government and relief agencies, and it is situation of the city, among other factors, should not their obligation to intervene. It is particularly be examined so as to design an effective and sus- interesting that in Cali, located in a high seismic tainable strategy for risk reduction (Graph 5.7). Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 299 Graph 5.7. Social agents responsible for taking prevention and/or assistance measures Regional Autonomous Corporations (CAR) 19% Private sector 25% Ministry of Works 30% Utilities 30% Ministry of Health 35% The community 39% Departmental Government 39% Police 39% Local Emergency Committees 39% Civil Defense 40% Red Cross 43% Fire ghters 46% National Government 51% City Hall 51% Yourself 61% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Source: World Bank, 2011a. Sample base: 1,148 respondents. The citizens’ willingness to participate in strates that there is a far greater capacity to offer disaster management activities is much greater citizen participation programs in risk reduction than the opportunities offered to do so, so pub- than what is currently presented. The challenge lic entities and civil society organizations have a to public and private entities is the design and great mechanism that so far has been underuti- coordination of such programs. lized. Although only 26% of the respondents A significant number of Colombians sur- reported having engaged in activities in disas- veyed consider themselves mutually responsi- ter risk management (drills, brigades, commit- ble for their risk to natural disaster events and tees, etc.), 72% expressed their willingness to are willing to take action, but require informa- participate. The latter figure is very similar to tion to guide their actions and take participa- the percentage of citizens who indicate feeling tion opportunities. Therefore, it is necessary to threatened by some kind of event and it reflects strengthen the transmission and the quality of the sense of mutual responsibility and willing- awareness campaigns and risk reduction pro- ness to contribute. The highest participation in grams, as well as preparation for emergency such activities appears to occur in cities where response involving citizen participation. Drills, historically there have been more programs for brigades, and response plans are a fundamental the population to participate in. This demon- part of these programs. 300 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Box 5.2. Few Colombians consider insurance as a measure to reduce disaster risk • Between 50% and 60% of life and property insurance in Colombia is the result of mandatory compliance, life insurance penetration being higher than housing insurance penetration. According to the survey, about 30% of Colombian households have a member with life insurance, and about 20% have two members with this insurance. However, they report that only in half of the cases the life insurance was taken voluntarily, in contrast to the other half, in which the insurance was considered an employer or business requisite. Moreover, as far as housing, the survey coincides with Fasecolda’s figures (2011) in that 13% of homes are insured (from the more than 8 million homes that exist in Colombia) and more than half of the insurance policies are mandatory, since these are associated with a mortgage. Earthquake insurance figures, 2010 Field Premiums issued Average premiums Number of insurance (thousand of Col$) (thousand of Col$) policies Earthquake $477,086,716 $374 1,277,283.65 Approximate number of risks 1,277,283.65 Number of mortgages (December 2010) 785,563.00 Mortgages 61.35% Percentage of insurance policies Voluntary 38.65% Source: Fasecolda, 2011. • Overall, Colombians do not consider property insurance as an attractive alternative to protect themselves against disasters. This is evidenced by the low market penetration of housing insurance. In addition, in the World Bank survey, the insurance option was chosen by less than 10% of respondents as an alternative, since they were aware that their house was at risk. • Accessibility to housing insurance seems to explain part of the greater penetration of this class of insurance in other countries. In Chile and other places with higher market insurance penetration, there are very aggressive strategies, where the policies are offered in banks and supermarkets. Similarly, in Manizales, a voluntary housing insurance offer, through the property tax bill, initially generated an increase of insured homes, although it has recently decreased, probably influenced by the increased value of the property tax bill, which includes the voluntary insurance charge. Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 301 5.3. THE COLOMBIAN PRIVATE SECTOR FACING RISK MANAGEMENT 5.3.1. The private sector as risk risk activity, as well as those specifically set by generator and the responsibility UNGRD should perform a vulnerability anal- for risk management ysis that considers and determines the prob- ability of a disaster in the areas under their Entrepreneurs in the industry, infra- jurisdiction or influence, or that may be pro- structure, housing, and agriculture guilds as duced as a result of their activities, the capacities well as public service operators are the private and availability in all aspects to address them actors with the greatest potential to generate (...), and should take applicable protective mea- disaster-causing public risk and therefore, sures as a result of this vulnerability analysis.” they need to take precautionary measures. In- Although the adoption of this regulation, dustry, transport, and public services in gen- in most cases, has resulted in risk management eral may produce hazardous conditions as a measures by public and private agents, its appli- result of substance use, or operation of sub- cation is not uniform, and thus requires further stances, or inadequate equipment, and also development. Sectors of industry, infrastruc- may have infrastructure failures caused by ture, and public services in medium-sized and natural and/or anthropic causes that affect large cities in some cases count on vulnerability their staff or the public. For these reasons, studies and Emergency and Contingency Plans. the different sectors, proactively, should be However, their implementation is heteroge- aware to avoid and keep under control risk neous, since the elements required in Decree resulting from their activities or infrastruc- 919 such as standards for risk assessment and ture throughout the development process prevention, minimum standards of protection, (construction, operation, or maintenance). and risk monitoring have not been specified and detailed with the thoroughness required. The lack of clear rules in industry, Neither have they appointed those responsible, infrastructure, and service sectors has nor the mechanisms for monitoring and con- produced heterogeneous results trol. The exception is Bogota, which has pro- gressed in this sense. This has been observed in Decree 919 of 1989 specifically requires the quality of its action plans, frequent drills, that industry, utilities, and infrastructure sectors and the “mutual aid committees” implemented carry out a mandatory analysis of vulnerabilities in industrial areas such as Puente Aranda, or and the protective measures to be taken. As it institutional areas like 72nd Street,, although has already been mentioned, Articles 8 and 9 of the latter area was chosen because of the ter- this Decree state that “all public or private enti- rorist attack that occurred at the Club El No- ties responsible for public utilities, or execut- gal in February 2003. Other municipalities and ing large-scale civil works, industrial activities, the UNGRD would benefit from these relevant or developing any type of dangerous or high- regulatory developments. 302 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 5.3.2. Private sector and its own before 1984, the year in which the Seismic Re- risk management sistance Regulation was issued, is one of the most concerning issues. It is expected that the 5.3.2.1. Institutional and regulatory infrastructure constructed after the Seismic development for occupational risks is Resistant Building Code of 1984 counts on ad- effective for workers equate seismic-resistant standards. However, prior construction should have had very var- Life risk management of the private sector’s ied specifications. It is highly recommended employees, consistent with institutionality and that the production and services infrastructure strict regulations in professional risks, has been ef- built before 1984 be evaluated and strength- fective in everyday conditions, although it would ened where necessary, taking into account the be worthwhile to assess their performance in facing direct and indirect consequences if these are major disasters. The governing body of the policy affected and the potential impact it could have in this area is the Directorate of Risk Management on society and the economy. While some in- of the Social Protection Ministry, whose strategic dustries have done so in a timely manner, no instrument is the National Occupational Health information exists for the entire country to be Plan 2008-2012. There is also the current Pro- able to reach conclusions. There are some ad- fessional Risk Fund to finance research, studies, vances in the field, according to the provisions and campaigns. At company level, Decree 614 of of the Seismic Resistance Regulation, mainly 1984 establishes the obligation of organizations to for essential buildings and those that provide carry out Occupational Health Programs, which services to the community, such as schools and according to Resolution 1016 of 1989 should in- emergency, and health facilities. clude, among other subjects, identification of risks The insurance market for property and in companies’ facilities and activities, control and trade in Colombia is below the levels of devel- monitoring of the existing risk, and an emergency oped countries and those of Chile and Panama. plan. Additionally, in terms of institutions, there is Insurance penetration in the nonlife (insurance the Colombian Safety Council as a private trade other than life insurance) segment in 2009 in organization and leader in the field. Thus, the per- Colombia, including industry and commerce, formance of private companies, accompanied by housing, vehicles, and others, was 1.11% (ex- institutional and regulatory developments, finds pressed as a percentage of GDP). The country Colombia being well evaluated by international is then placed in the lower range of the region, standards. However, since high-impact events do ranging from 0.76% for Bolivia to 2.04% for not occur often, there is no information on the Panama, which is explained by the very low performance of emergency plans, so the evalua- contracting of home insurance. In relation tions should be made through drills. to the industry and trade insurance segment, Colombia has a high penetration range if ex- 5.3.2.2. An important part of the physical pressed as a percentage of GDP, but in terms of infrastructure of the production sector is at risk per capita value, it is within the region’s aver- age, but well below Chile and Panama, coun- There is no data on risk management in tries known for large insurance penetration in the service and productive infrastructure of the the industrial sector (Table 5.1). private sector. Therefore, infrastructure built Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 303 Table 5.1. Insurance penetration, expressed as total value of insurance premium per capita and as percentage of GDP, by country (nonlife, industrial and commercial, and housing) Nonlife(1) Property(2) Total nonlife Industry and trade Housing Total property % Per capita % Per capita % Per capita % Per capita United States 0.24 109.44 0.44 205.00 0.95 438.30 3.26 1,511.7 United Kingdom 0.30 130.21 0.45 199.36 0.87 381.50 2.69 1,174.70 France 2.30 1,057.73 Canada 2.24 1,008.81 Panama 2.04 139.35 Venezuela 1.97 224.68 Germany 1.93 856.87 Argentina 0.10 7.94 0.09 6.89 0.27 21.14 1.86 143.73 Japan 1.44 555.81 Ecuador 1.61 61.19 Chile 0.47 45.74 1.19 114.84 Colombia 0.18 9.08 0.01 6.68 0.22 10.90 1.11 55.64 Brazil 0.11 8.95 0.07 5.44 0.21 16.73 1.05 85.49 Mexico 0.23 18.86 0.84 67.63 Bolivia 0.76 13.44 Peru 0.71 30.64 1 Nonlife segment pools all insurance except life, car, and health insurance. 2 Property pools cars, transportation, theft, housing, industry and trade, and other types of insurance. Source: AXCO, 2010. Although insurance penetration in the in- 5.3.2.3. The agriculture sector has a modest dustrial and trade sector is increasing, in absolute management of its risk, despite being one of terms it remains stable when expressed as a per- the most vulnerable centage of GDP. The level of insurance policies in this sector rose by 35% between 2005 and 2009, The agriculture sector is aware of its hazard virtually the same percentage that Colombia’s levels, mainly caused by extreme weather events. GDP grew in those years. It would be desirable However, although the sector is working on them, to identify strategies to increase the use of in- it does not have individual, guild, or public strate- surance, particularly among small and mid-size gies to mitigate risk or to deal with disaster events. enterprises, which are those with the lowest in- According to a survey conducted of the guilds af- surance rates (Graph 5.8). filiated with the Agricultural Society of Colombia 304 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 5.8. Performance of insurance penetration for industry and trade from 2005 to 2009, expressed as the total value of insurance premium Industry and trade 1,000,000 45% 39.6% 900,000 40% 800,000 35% 32.6% 700,000 30% 600,000 25% 24.8% Col$ million 500,000 20% 400,000 20.4% 19.1% 15% 300,000 10% 200,000 665,462.0 676,770.3 703,544.8 776,660.0 898,121.0 100,000 5% 0 0% 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Premium Loss Rate Source: AXCO, 2010. (SAC), the risks to which they are mostly exposed guild campaigns to prevent and reduce vulner- are associated with extreme weather events, ability are other critical elements registered. The drought being the most common phenomenon. survey also reports that practically agricultural For dairy and livestock groups, flooding is the insurance, despite being heavily subsidized, has major impact. However, they also reported that very low levels of acceptance. Despite this situa- guild capacity to address the situation is poor due tion, the sector is aware of the need to develop to the lack of strategies to reduce risk and deal different strategies, showing interest and giving with disasters. In addition, the modest participa- the topic the required relevance. tion of the sector in the Local and Regional Com- The strategy that the agriculture sector mittees of Disaster Prevention and Response is is building attempts to comprehensively man- evident, with the exception of Asocaña, which age disaster risk and climate change by starting has been particularly concerned about fire is- from the current advances. While there is no sues. Moreover, the low penetration of govern- structured strategy, many members affiliated ment programs to encourage or cofinance risk with the SAC guilds have taken measures to mitigation measures and the lack of public and reduce the risk, from which a formal strategy Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 305 can be built. The use of climate forecasts to make disasters that affect the agriculture sector are as- decisions about products to plant and planting sociated with weather, it is essential and strictly dates is reported. Some guilds, such as coffee and necessary to link the issue of climate change and sugar cane growers, show greater knowledge and its adaptation measures. experience and it is well worth being duplicated The aim of this strategy is to include mar- in other sectors. Some other measures used are ket risk, which can be effective, since insurance the use of varieties resistant to thermal and wa- is part of the solution for all hazards, but prog- ter stress and the construction of reservoirs. It is ress is needed in its review, extending its cover- noteworthy that according to the SAC, half of its age, and improving its disclosure. The insurance members that are vulnerable to extreme weather industry has developed several products to events expect the government to support them serve the agriculture sector from general crop to cope with disasters, which is logical given the insurance to other types of disaster events. tendency of the Colombian government and There is insurance that is activated when there other countries to grant subsidies. It is therefore is a loss of crops, and other types of insurance important to review the current programs of the that are only activated by the behavior of cli- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, matic variables. These are known as parametric based on a more holistic and proactive approach insurance, since it needs no verification or the toward reducing disaster risk. Such programs quantification of individual losses in the field. should include technological development ac- There are also financial instruments to address tivities, support to irrigation systems, rural land price volatility and currency, and many of these use plans, making the agrarian species more products can work in combination. In this con- adaptable, awareness and training campaigns, text, it makes sense to include price risk man- and guild articulation to implement cost-effec- agement to the management and prevention tive strategies, among others. Finally, given that strategy in the agriculture sector. 306 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 5.4. RECOMMENDATIONS TO ACHIEVE A BALANCE BETWEEN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC Responsibility FOR RISKs AND DISASTERs RECOMMENDATION PRIORITY RESPONSIBLE High (H), Medium(M) Accurately define the public and private responsibilities for risk management and extend fiscal vulnerability reduction policies of the State in facing disasters Adopt policy guidelines on the level of protection that the National Government and Presidency H territorial entities should offer to those affected by hazardous events. Adjust the regulations to clarify the responsibility of the private sector in risk management All Ministries and strengthen the defense of public entities to reduce state fiscal contingencies due to H claims of this type. From the regulations, clarify the participation forms and mechanisms of private agents in Presidency, UNGRD, DNP, H the different phases of risk management. Ministries Promote and encourage municipal and sectoral strategies for raising awareness and UNGRD, Ministries, territorial H capacities of the population in risk management. entities Delimit public and private responsibilities extent the Government will be responsible in the for risk management and extend the event of a disaster. In turn, with this knowledge, Government’s fiscal vulnerability reduction citizens will be encouraged to assume responsi- policies in facing disasters bility for their own risks and take measures in risk prevention, mitigation, or risk transfer, according Adopt clear policy guidelines on the protec- to their particular situation. Seeking for coher- tion level that the National Government and local ence and integrity, this policy should consider the authorities should offer to those affected by haz- following elements: ardous events. The Government should assess its ability to support people affected by a disaster, and • Characteristics to describe and catalog the it should previously define a policy, which should affected people’s “evident weakness” (e.g., be expected of the government, to respond to the the condition of belonging to the poorest possibility of imminent disasters. It should also group of people -strata 1 and 2- has been establish the scope of responsibility of the central used frequently). government and territorial entities by promot- • Protection offered to those affected and cata- ing joint responsibility based on the subsidiarity logued as “evident weakness” and what kind and complementarity principles. In this way, the of support will be offered to others affected. financial provisions required to meet obligations • Tax, financial, and other incentives to miti- to those affected can be estimated. Additionally, gate losses in the productive sector. adopting clear policies in this regard and their • Tax, financial, and others incentives to pro- disclosure will allow citizens to know to what mote economic recovery. Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 307 Adjust regulations to clarify the private sec- ity, or concurrent conditions of responsibility tor responsibility in disaster risk management, in favor of the State, and also the possibility of and strengthen the defense of public entities to re- filing judicial actions against public servants duce Government fiscal contingencies produced by accountable for their actions. the claims of those affected. This will facilitate the • Regulations stating, as clearly as possible, the adoption of fair rulings and discourage breaching functioning fields of competence of public agen- of the law in risk management. The policy adjust- cies in risk management. An important aspect, ments could include the following: in legal disputes over the State’s responsibility, is the definition of the content, scope, and lim- • Regulation should be issued that would define its of the powers that correspond to each of the accurate guidelines on exclusive, solidarity, or public entities involved directly or indirectly in complementarity concurrence of public and risk management. Thus, it is imperative that private responsibility. Facing risk manage- the law governing the subject be especially ment, the responsibility normally is shared clear when it comes to processes in which se- between (i) public entities, by act or omission, quentially different state agencies participate. (ii) private actors that as part of their pro- • Regulations setting out precisely the ways duction activities generate risk, consciously to establish and derive State and private re- or unconsciously, and (iii) victims or people sponsibility, and as far as possible, eliminate affected, who have, consciously or uncon- the uncertainty about the power of judicial sciously, decided willingly or unwillingly to interpretation. There is a need for legal rules assume the risks that later are materialized that define the ways to establish the State’s into disasters. However, most judicial com- responsibility with all the requirements and plaints for risk management are addressed conditions. Jurisprudential and doctrinal in- against public entities, although in many cas- terpretations may be used, but considering es, there is third party participation, wheth- that in terms of risk management, there are er it is private or public, or even if the same both public and private factors that estab- plaintiff affected is an excluding or reducing lish the concurrence of responsibility among circumstance to the Government’s respon- multiple entities. This will determine, for ex- sibility. Absence of rules generally leads to ample, that in case of gross negligence or will- establishing responsibility almost exclusively ful misconduct by private agents in their risk on public agencies, affecting their economic responsibilities, they shall be the people who or budgetary conditions. Therefore, a careful should assume the entire cost of damages. and thoughtful legal reform is advisable. In • A legislation which confirms and clarifies those judicial proceedings against those instances, responsible for the physical protection of con- started from general, contentious administra- structions. Advance toward a regulation that tive, or protective special actions, the reform will establish the responsibility of the Urban will facilitate that both plaintiff as well as judi- Curators, who prior to issuing the license or cial courts may call to the proceedings other authorization acts, will require the compli- possible risk event generators, whether they ance with technical construction standards in be private or public entities. This possibility terms of Decree 564 of 2006, Article 49, and shall open the space to define if there are, and the provisions of Law 400 of 1997, Decree 33 under what circumstances exclusive, solidar- of 1998, and other related norms. 308 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies • Mandatory legal rules regarding financial incentives, but the insurance sector should protection applied to both public and private be responsible for increasing and offering the sectors. Assess cases in which individuals availability of its products. may be forced to define strategies for insur- ance or other financial protection mecha- Promote and incentivize municipal and nisms similar to those existing in regulation sectoral strategies to make the population aware of the common areas in condominiums. and competent in risk management. Section 5.2 • Modification of the person’s rights and obli- of this chapter refers to how the levels of aware- gations in risk reduction and management ness and knowledge about alternatives for risk in the Statutory Law. Assign citizens the re- management are highly related to effective man- sponsibility of knowing and managing the agement by the community, while in the sectors, risk they are exposed to, due to the probabil- the low values ​​in perception of risk management ity of a natural disaster occurrence. is associated with lack of alternatives to do so. Take advantage of the citizens’ readiness to con- Clarify, as far as regulations, the procedures tribute and advance in awareness and knowl- and mechanisms as to how private agents partici- edge in risk management using cost-effective pate in the different phases of risk management. measures to reduce risk to the nation, which the The current system provides the intervention of State can implement by: private agents in risk management, but with insuf- ficient development and lacking the conditions to • Developing awareness campaigns, mainly apply it. This could include the following elements: in those cities that have high risk levels, ver- sus those where hazards are scarce; likewise, • Obligations of private and public agents in in cities or towns where these risks are more the preventive phase, as referred to in Arti- frequent in order to strengthen the appropria- cles 8 and 9 of Decree 919 of 1989 or in deal- tion level of the campaigns. Clarify public and ing with the results of damages, which with private responsibility, especially evaluating vul- the exception of the partial development of nerability in each home and disclosing clear Bogota have not been used. and effective risk reduction recommendations. • Specific modifications in Statutory Law in • Implementing risk management programs regards to citizen participation in risk man- jointly with the community. These should agement that take into account that every have real and sustainable impacts and have individual should “act in accordance to the to include risk prevention strategies and di- principle of social solidarity and carry out saster preparation (drills and brigades). They humanitarian deeds where there exist life- have to achieve effective risk reduction, so the threatening situations or those endangering participants will have a greater awareness and the health of the population” (numeral 2, Ar- knowledge of these risks. ticle 95 of the Constitution). • Accompanying the guilds in designing risk • Design and implement a strategy where the management strategies to inform and train State, the insurance sector, and the private their members, promoting measures to miti- sector are included in order to reinforce insur- gate existing risks, and reinforcing coordina- ance penetration in Colombia. This should be tion in decision making. Thus, the guilds can done in order to increase insurance coverage influence their members on how to reduce among individuals as well as coverage in the risk, so it can consequently be mitigated in private sector. The strategy may include State the sector as well as in the country in general. Public and Private Responsibility in Disaster Risk Management 309 Panorama of the Tumaco (Nariño - Colombia) municipality, 2009. Photography: Colombian Ocean Commission. Final Conclusions 6 and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management Ana Campos G., Niels Holm-Nielsen, Carolina Díaz G., Diana M. Rubiano V., Carlos R. Costa P., Fernando Ramírez C., Eric Dickson Although the scope of this study is fairly articulate it in priority spheres such as adaptation broad, the dimensions of the subject have not to climate change, environmental sustainability, permitted a more exhaustive and detailed evalu- and development. ation of the different risk management processes Achieving improvement and effective con- (awareness, risk reduction, and disaster manage- solidation in risk management as a public policy ment), diverse phenomena (geological and hy- required that the analysis would be critical and drometeorological), and sectoral and territorial at the same time offering proposals. In this re- realities (municipalities and departments by cat- gard, commentaries regarding existing gaps and egories). In this context, the conclusions and limitations should be understood as they were recommendations in the Analysis of Disaster Risk formulated, taking into account that they are an Management in Colombia can only be taken as the invitation and a suggestion to improve disas- most exceptional aspects from the point of view ter risk management permanently. Hence, the of the authors and the persons interviewed and World Bank is willing to provide any support re- surveyed. From these opinions and relevant in- quired by the country and to provide continuity formation, elements have been extracted that will to the efforts that have been jointly developed help strengthen risk management in the country. during the last 12 years. In the measure that its implementation advanc- The report shows four factors that explain es, more specific studies will be required so that the increase in disaster risk and it points out that these may be adapted to each sector or territory this increase is more due to inappropriate terri- without misplacing a comprehensive and holistic torial, sectoral, and private management than to approach and acknowledge explicitly the need to external factors such as climate change. 1 The conceptual advances in the relationship between risk management and development have not been raised to the level of State policy, nor have they been incorporated as an integral part of the public administration, thus contributing to the growth of risk conditions. Despite Colombia’s long history in orga- this matter have been addressed by planning nizing and designing risk1 management instru- instruments such as the National Plan for Di- ments, the conceptual advances achieved and saster Prevention and Response (PNPAD) and the efforts carried out to update the System with some Conpes documents. However, the guide- this information have failed to permeate gov- lines and contents of these instruments have ernment practices. The materialization of risk been ineffective in their implementation. reduction policies, cross-cutting in both sec- tors and territories, require surmounting the reactive tendency to disasters. There is no na- 1 National System for Disaster Prevention and Response (1985), Na- tional policy on disaster risk management and tional Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response (1999), Conpes Docu- as a consequence, the Government’s actions in ment (2001). Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 313 There has been progress in incorporating The existing institutions for risk man- risk management in the instruments guiding agement at the national level, despite their planning and furnishing it with political sig- long history, show a protectionist approach nificance. Despite this, the fulfillment of com- and have negligible articulation with other ter- mitments is deficient and disarticulated. Since ritorial agencies. In addition, critical factors the PNPAD formulation, the subject has been such as the following are identified: multiple incorporated into the Development Plans (PD) functions and great responsibilities versus of the last four presidential terms, putting em- ineffectual leadership in the former Direc- phasis on risk knowledge, strengthening the torate for Risk Management (now UNGRD), system, reducing fiscal vulnerability, and risk not pertaining to sectoral or territorial levels, transfer. However, although the description of irregular and limited operation of advisory the activities and challenges is quite clear and Committees, and the possibility of creating consistent with the needs, the definition of parallel structures in the System under a state goals and indicators established for each one of emergency in case of a severe public catas- of these axes do not reflect the scope proposed trophe. Overall, poor backing in territorial and only sets aside partial coverage of the pro- risk management from the majority of gover- posals outlined. norships and the CAR is due to the divergence Observing the resources allocated to com- in interpreting current regulations. This con- ply with the goals set at different government lev- clusion has been reflected in the weak incor- els, it can be concluded that there are fundamental poration of the subject in the Regional Land differences between the allocated amount and the Use Plans (POT) and Land Use Planning and items financed. While the nation has focused its Watershed Management (POMCA). efforts on disaster management and risk knowl- Seismic hazard management has strengths, edge, being the main financial entity of these ac- since it has stronger legal and institutional instru- tivities, the municipalities have carried out these ments that define acceptable risk levels, scope of activities by risk reduction, particularly in areas studies and designs, and the roles and responsibili- such as reforestation and watershed conserva- ties of public and private actors. For nearly twenty tion which supply clean drinking water. Nation- years, the seismic subject has incorporated seis- al investment has had two growth cycles related mic resistance standards set by established criteria to major disasters namely the cases of the Cof- in carrying out microzoning studies, and setting fee Growing region earthquake (1999) and the minimum requirements and those responsible La Niña phenomenon of 2010-2011. However, for the design, construction, and technical su- municipal investment shows an inverse perfor- pervision of new buildings and reinforcing the mance, evidencing the nation’s intense inter- existing ones. This situation does not occur at vention in the reconstruction process without the same level of detail in the cases of floods and requiring any compensation, and thus discour- landslides in view of the growing number of im- aging the local authorities’ responsibilities in the pacts caused by these phenomena. risk area. The departments revealed significantly lower investments from 1998 to 2010. 314 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 2 Risk is accumulating permanently in cities and in rural areas due to the lack of implementation, monitoring of municipal land use planning policies and instruments, and inadequate watershed management. Planning in Colombia faces the challenge CAR. The departments have the responsibil- of articulating various existing instruments, espe- ity to guide local planning in a supramunicipal cially those related to environmental and territo- context and coordinate the formulation and im- rial management, such as the POMCA, the POT, plementation of the PD and the Departmental and the PD, at municipal and departmental levels. Water Plans (PDA). In turn, the CAR have the Having a consistent and updated diagnosis authority to (i) formulate planning and water- (including the institutional, organizational, shed management instruments, which may not regulation, and financial framework for risk always coincide with departmental boundaries; management and information on specific risk (ii) regulate the use of rural land by means of conditions) is the starting point for the planning issuing licenses for the right to use water, which process. Subsequently, there should be an inte- interferes with the constitutional duty assigned gration of risk management with other dimen- to the municipalities to regulate land use; and sions of development. Policies, strategies, and (iii) approve the environmental proposals of the especially priority programs should be defined municipalities’ POT that the CAR rarely review- within the annual investment plan, ensuring that when granting licenses. In so far as planning, goals and indicators are set in order to facilitate land use planning, and rural land use, these monitoring and control activities. These ele- are loosely referred to in the POT, so the deci- ments should be incorporated into the POMCA sions are left to the CAR, or they are made at as instruments with greater hierarchy and scale a national sectoral level. The regional territorial in watersheds, and more specifically addressed management responsibility is diluted among the to the POT and incorporated into the PD to as- various actors, not only nationally and region- sure investment. Therefore, overcoming the cur- ally, but also among private entities involved in rent disarticulation of planning instruments is the geographic area. a critical step in disaster risk management. This There are factors associated with policies, would allow the integration of policies, prioriti- territorial planning, and control mechanisms zation of investments, and the strengthening of that are affecting the way in which risks have mechanisms for monitoring and control. been shaped and emergencies and disasters have The ambiguity in regional competencies taken place in the history of the country’s cities. in planning and land use planning increases risk. Some of the factors contributing to the above Whereas there is no single authority in regional are weak planning, lack of control policies, planning or a balanced system that integrates land speculation, monopolization of construc- the instruments of different character and level, tion materials and supplies, and the particular- municipal risk growth in both urban and rural ities in the administration of local territories, areas is the result of decisions and actions related which only had competence over land use until to disarticulated territorial use and occupation the 1991 Constitution. On the one hand, the by different actors. Regional planning compe- needs of land occupation, under an unplanned tency is shared among the departments and the city model, necessitate overcoming the natural Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 315 limits of habitability, demanding greater inter- In some cities in the country, accumulation action to achieve stability. On the other hand, of risk has been observed in formal construction the absence of an urban-regional land policy areas as well as in upper-class areas. Environmen- and the belated interventions regulation and tal problems generated by land speculation and control influence a disarticulated expansion conflicting uses within suburbanization processes process that affects territorial reality in bio- have been revealed.2 In Medellin, Cali, and the physical, social, and economic terms. This is Bogota Savannah, there have been emergencies evidenced through spontaneous participation, in formal construction areas, which implies that plot by plot, and making clear the difficulty of risk is created not only in illegal settlements built responding with effective housing solutions without appropriate construction techniques, but and in providing more and better public facili- also in developments that have not undergone ties. In addition, activities related to the exploi- any type of local or regional planning. Addition- tation of building materials without planning, ally, the desire for economic gain by landowners control, and proper recovery have greatly con- has taken precedence over the planning and in- tributed to instability in hillside areas and to vestment required for preparing and installing environmental degradation, especially in the the service infrastructure and equipment needed outskirts of the cities. for construction in suburban areas. A high exposure to diverse and potentially Colombian municipalities show a growing dangerous phenomena has been identified in Co- trend in disaster occurrence, although in some lombian cities. There has been a gradual increase cases, progress has been made in significantly re- in the occupation of areas that are unsuitable for ducing their impact and frequency. Biophysical ensuring sustainable development. As a result, and geographical factors in municipalities that the population is under elevated hazard levels. determine vulnerability to certain types of haz- However, in addition to spatial exclusion fac- ards, along with inadequate procedures for terri- tors, economic and social exclusion factors are torial intervention, marginal human settlements, also observed, which are found to correlate to and social and economic segregation, generate an accumulation of risk conditions. Municipal numerous vulnerabilities, which have had disas- government agencies are expected to respond to trous consequences throughout the history of variations in the quality of life, both in urban and Colombian cities. Cases such as Cali, Medellin, in rural areas. However, many of these agencies Cucuta, or Barranquilla show that the risk factors are not prepared to meet the basic needs of their in the cities are cumulating and taking shape in a inhabitants with regard to housing, employment, greater number of events and damage concentra- availability of utilities, education, health services, tion. In other cases, such as Manizales and Bogota, and transportation (Díaz, 2007). Indicators such due to the risk management actions, the impacts as the Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) Index and associated with disasters have diminished, but the Poverty Line Index, or overcrowding levels, there are still critical conditions that demand the support the aforementioned statements. Fur- thermore, the quantitative and qualitative hous- ing deficit is concentrated on the poorest classes, 2 Known as the growth processes of cities, through which suburban areas which gives rise to a vicious cycle regarding ac- are created. From the spatial point of view, these areas are adjacent to spaces where urban building is continuous, and they are used as transi- cess to adequate and safe housing for the most tional areas between cities and rural areas, where these functions com- vulnerable population groups. pete with each other. 316 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies sustainability of such policies. In general, special targeting technical criteria, having the awareness category municipalities have an immense capaci- that will allow continuity at the political level, and ty in incorporating risk management in planning, the budgetary provision to ensure comprehensive finance, and execution, while those that are in disaster risk management. category 1 show medium competence, although Financing and investment instruments in in most cases they have the resources to carry out risk management are rarely used and the resourc- adequate territorial administrational organiza- es basically correspond to the current revenues tion. As for the municipal categories 2 to 6, these of the municipalities (37%), followed by trans- have a more critical situation due to technical, fers from the General Participation System (SGP) human, and financial limitations. (21.1%). The cities that invested in risk manage- Land use planning is not a recent process ment between 2002 and 2008 were Bogota, Me- in the country. However, its progress has not been dellin, and Manizales, amounting approximately uniform among municipalities. A negligible level to 43% of the total investment at the municipal of acknowledgement of hazard scenarios and level4. The per capita investment in risk man- their management needs, gaps in hazards and agement in Bogota averaged Col$21,238, and in vulnerability identification, lack of articulation Manizales it was Col$16,981. Likewise, Medel- in investment instruments, and weaknesses in lin invested during that period Col$14,712 per monitoring and control mechanisms confront- capita, and Cali Col$10,713, in contrast with ing the POT implementation are some of the cities like Barranquilla, where the per capita in- obstacles that reduce the effective incorpora- vestment amounted to only Col$5,278. Specifi- tion of risk management in land use planning. cally, the amounts for the last two cities in risk Specifically, the situation is more critical in mu- management did not have significant impacts; nicipalities in categories 2 to 6, given their low in addition to being minor in comparison to technical competence, thus requiring backup of other urban centers in the same category, the in- appropriate incorporation of risk management vestment was disarticulated and scattered. in the POT3). Apart from the weakness in incorporating Municipal Development Plans are instru- risk management into territorial planning, there ments that allow moving from policy to risk man- is the absence of real articulation with environ- agement practice, guiding the territorial planning mental instruments, where the POMCA should and, in turn, executing the necessary actions. provide guidelines for the preparation of munici- The PD have a political makeup, so that the pal POT and comprehensive watershed analysis. incorporation of risk management requires a The 83 POMCA adopted at the time of the PND consensus process with different social agents. 2010-2014 formulation are long-term plans, have Starting from a technical assessment prepared their own watershed analysis, use scenarios and and properly updated, the preventive, correc- tive, and reactive actions for risks are defined and should be integrated into the annual invest- ment plans through policies, strategies, and pro- 3 Therefore, efforts have been made through the Fiscal Vulnerability Re- duction Program to Natural Disasters, where the national government grams, using their corresponding monitoring between 2006 and 2011 provided technical assistance to 792 municipali- and control system. In turn, municipalities in cat- ties (equivalent to 72% of municipalities) for the inclusion of risk analysis in the municipal land use planning (POT) and municipal PD, of which 379 egories 2 to 6 state the need to strengthen the use municipalities already have an action plan. In addition, 36 municipalities and effectiveness of this planning instrument, by have hazard and/or risk zoning studies. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 317 guidelines for their management and administra- contribution offered to land use is very limited. It tion, but have not yet adequately incorporated the is therefore a priority to promote a comprehensive risk management component. Most of the POMCA perspective between risk management and environ- only describe the types of phenomena currently mental management to complement the efforts and existing in watersheds without exposing a special initiatives associated with natural phenomenon risk analysis of hazards and much less of risks, so the control and management. 3 The gaps in the field of disaster risk management policies and sectoral plans threaten the sustainability of investments, both in productive and in service sectors, thus contributing to increased exposure and vulnerability. Institutional and sector-specific capacity ing, municipalities are required to regulate land in risk management is heterogeneous and quite use, and control and inspect construction and limited. Although regulations such as Decree the sale of residential properties. However, only 919 of 1989 and the Conpes Document 3146 re- 35 cities have Urban Curators and about 90% of quest the creation of agencies with specific func- Colombian municipalities (categories 5 and 6) tions for risk management in several Ministries, do not have trained personnel or resources to the only national sectoral entities that have di- perform these tasks properly. As for the trans- saster prevention and response offices are Invias, portation sector, municipalities are responsible the Department of Water and Sanitation, and for the tertiary network, which generally has the the Ministry of Health and Social Protection. greatest vulnerabilities. Currently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Ru- There have been major developments in ral Development is seeking alternatives to create the availability of information in the fields of an Agrarian Risk Management Department and energy and education, while other areas show the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable limited risk knowledge, which is a key element Development has also considered the possibility in designing sectoral policies. The energy sector of establishing a department for disaster preven- offers real-time information on hydroelectric tion and response. reservoir levels and weather forecasts, result- The role of municipalities and depart- ing in making timely decisions to avoid service ments in the implementation of sectoral policies shortages. In relation to the education sphere, is essential, since they are administrators of their an infrastructure inventory is being processed. territory, responsible for providing public ser- It has defined mechanisms for post-emergency vices and risk management. The lack of policies damage assessment, which were implemented and instruments for risk management in the dif- ferent sectors as well as support, complementar- ity, and competency transfer strategies to local authorities may be considered as some of the 4 The information for the investment analysis in disaster risk management for this publication is supported by the databases provided by the DNP main factors in producing risks. For example, with the Sustainable Territorial Development Directorate (DDTS), which according to Law 136 of 1994, regarding hous- include the data investment made. 318 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies in the census of the damages caused by the La most 18,000, volcanic eruptions 5,400, and Niña 2010-2011 phenomenon and have shown other events such as gales and fires, 35,000. to be valuable instruments that provide a timely It can be concluded that 51% of residential response to this sector’s needs during the last buildings destroyed during that period (those emergency. In other areas, the availability of sys- affected by floods, landslides, and volcanic tematic and prior information at a detailed level eruptions) were the result of their location in required to make decisions is limited. areas unsuitable for housing developments, Unfortunately, in other sectors the lack while 26% of households destroyed (by two of application of technical and design standards earthquakes) can be associated to construc- to ensure proper location and quality of infra- tion deficiencies. structure is influencing the systems’ vulnerabil- On the other hand, the damage caused ity. Weak technical regulation and mechanisms by extreme weather conditions in the agri- that allow incorporating security criteria from culture sector is due to the vulnerability of the projects’ prefeasibility as well as the infra- this sector when facing these conditions. structure design, construction, and operation This vulnerability resulted from the lack of of different services and production systems clear responsibilities and strategies for risk generate risk conditions. This is especially reduction, as addressed in the PND 2010- critical in road systems, safe drinking water, 2014. Thus far, the measures taken by the gov- and sanitation. The weather conditions of the ernment to manage the impact of disasters in country, its difficult topography, and the young the agriculture sector have been more of pro- geology of the Andes are very demanding, but viding a response to the effects than of work the real causes of the disaster impacts in the on prevention and mitigation of risk factors. road infrastructure are its design, and preven- The strategies implemented are supported tion and maintenance deficiencies. primarily by providing direct compensation The increase and accumulation of vul- or financial relief to the affected farmers after nerability of the residential buildings facing the occurrence of the phenomena. The only hazardous phenomena in Colombia is mainly measure available that could be considered as due to the growth of informal housing, the preventive is the agrarian insurance subsidy. breach of standards in design and construc- Despite the efforts made by the government, tion, their location in hazardous areas, the pos- its popularity has been very low due to insuf- sible presence of natural phenomena, and the ficient disclosure of information and little lack of strategies to intervene in constructions awareness of the benefits of this insurance. prior to the first seismic resistance standard The analysis considers that the Ministry of (1984). According to DesInventar information Agriculture and Rural Development requires (OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011), out of the the design of much more comprehensive risk 190,000 houses destroyed by disasters in the reduction strategies and measures that take country during the period 1970-2011, the into account rural land use planning, the im- greatest losses were caused by floods (more provement of productive infrastructure, and than 79,000 units), while the earthquakes af- the adaptation of agricultural species. fected a total of 51,000 houses, landslides al- Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 319 4 The absence of a clear policy and the background in which the State generally assumes the responsibility discourage citizens and the private sector from undertaking their role in risk reduction and management, thus incurring greater fiscal costs. In relation to losses or damages suffered by exclusively or concurrently, have been caused by disasters and although the Constitution assigns the the action or omission of the State. State the duty to protect people “in life, honor, and Despite of this State obligation, the lack of property”, in case of natural or socio-natural events clarity in some standards, their interpretation by the Council of the State has ruled that the govern- the courts, and weaknesses in the defense of the ment can only be responsible when damage is caused State, have led to controversial decisions, gen- by an act or omission (failure) of public entities. erating contingent liabilities and escalating the Under the Constitution, the authorities are set nation’s fiscal vulnerability. There are many ex- up “to protect all persons residing in Colombia, amples where the ruling by the judges has obli- in life, honor, property, beliefs, and other rights gated municipalities to take actions that may be and freedoms, and to ensure the fulfillment of the considered controversial. For example, the city State’s and individuals’ social duties” (Article 2), of Cali was condemned to bear full responsibil- which is a very broad statement and subject to ity for the failure of a retaining wall in a stratum interpretation. However, the Council of the State, 6 building whose costs have exceeded Col$10 in pronouncing judgment dated June 24, 1994, billion. Moreover, a judge ordered the munici- on the tragedy of the avalanche that destroyed pality of Bogota to carry out mitigation works Armero, concluded that the State may possibly in an area that was in the process of resettlement have had responsibility only if the trial judge after it was declared as a nonmitigable high-risk proved (i) a service failure, (ii) unlawful dam- zone. The compliance with this latest ruling has ages to individuals, (iii) a causal link between the cost over Col$30 billion and in addition, the re- failure and the damages, and (iv) the absence of settlement of more than 3,000 families has had grounds for exoneration such as force majeure. to continue because the area remains under risk. Once the damages are evidenced, although In the absence of a prior policy or more im- triggered by a physical event of a dangerous nature, portant regulatory developments in assisting the which are attributable to a failure of public enti- affected population, the State has been forced to ties, the State is obligated to pay compensation. make decisions during various crises, which has led Article 90 of the Constitution imperatively ex- to differential treatment and fiscal consequences. presses that “the State shall be financially liable During the rebuilding process, after the di- for unlawful damages attributable to it, caused saster in the Coffee Growing region, the fund by acts or omissions of public authorities.” Based for its reconstruction (FOREC) offered repair on Article 13 of the Constitution, the State has subsidies to all affected homes regardless of so- on the one hand the obligation to provide soli- cial status. This decision was later amended by darity protection, sometimes called humanitar- a court order based on the right to life, forc- ian, and on the other hand it may be required ing the FOREC to structurally strengthen the to provide materially for harmful disaster conse- houses that were being repaired. Additionally, quences caused by dangerous physical phenom- the decision to bring the affected people to ena, provided that the damages in full or in part, temporary shelters obligated FOREC to allo- 320 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies cate subsidies for new housing to all affected have of seismic hazards, although their impacts families, including those that previously to the have been severe for the country. earthquake had paid rent. Government deci- In addition to the citizens’ lack of clear sions regarding the response to the La Niña responsibility in risk reduction, the survey in- 2010-2011 episode are aimed primarily at the dicates that about 40% of Colombians consider population in strata 1 and 2, and restoring ser- that implementing intervention measures is the vices rendered by the State. Currently, these duty of other agents. Some 61% of respondents processes are being carried out by Humanitar- believe they should take steps themselves to re- ian Colombia and the Adaptation Fund. duce their risk and this task should be comple- The private sector and civil society are not mented by the national government’s and relief aware of their responsibility toward risk knowl- agencies’ actions. However, the remaining 39% edge, occurrence, education, and control, forcing considered that it is entirely the responsibility of the Government to assume responsibilities and the government and relief agencies and that it is costs that are beyond its competence. The config- not their obligation to intervene. uration of risk conditions of a country is largely As a result of insufficient knowledge re- the result of decisions made by its citizens. Peo- lated to risk and the need to take measures, in ple choose where and what type of dwelling they general protection and insurance mechanisms inhabit, how to protect their lives and their fam- in buildings and individual patrimony are not ilies, and how to invest their family’s patrimony; used, which increases pressure and public risk even seemingly trivial decisions, like where to (fiscal vulnerability). According to Fasecolda’s take vacations, determine directly or indirectly data (2011), only 7% of those affected by La the country’s risk conditions. To evaluate Co- Niña 2010-2011 had insurance. In Bogota, only lombians’ risk level awareness and their respon- 4.5% of the condominiums are insured and in sibility in risk reduction and management, and the other cities studied, this figure may be lower. to make recommendations for improving their In the earthquake that occurred in the Coffee decision making, the World Bank conducted Growing region (1999), only 10% of direct loss- a national awareness survey within the frame- es were covered by insurance. work of this study. As a result of the work carried out, six strate- According to the survey, 18% of Colombians gies and thirty activities are established to enhance do not feel exposed to any risk derived from natu- governance in disaster risk management. Such ral risk phenomena that endanger their lives, while strategies are aimed at consolidating government 82% perceived themselves as threatened by some policy in disaster risk management that compris- risk. Out of the Colombians who feel at risk from es strengthening local capacity for land manage- natural hazards, only 61% believe they should ment, articulating the different agents involved in take steps to reduce it, and only 35% reported watershed management, defining development having done so. There is a tendency for greater sectors’ responsibilities, and promoting the par- identification and recognition of risks associated ticipation of all public and private actors, thereby with more frequent events such as floods and contributing to reducing the State’s fiscal vulner- landslides, in contrast to the perception people ability to disasters (Table 6.1). Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 321 322 Table 6.1. Recommendations to strengthen public administration in disaster risk management in Colombia RESPONSIBLE RELATION TO GOALS OF THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN RECOMMENDATION CHAPS. ENTITY 2010-2014 1. Incorporate risk management as a State policy and overcome existing imbalances in the System through the adjustment and harmonization of a regulatory and institutional framework Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with the Adopt a national policy in disaster risk management that is integrally articulated with public support of the National Committee administration, provides support to the territorial entities, and promotes the creation of specific 2 for Disaster Prevention and Guideline: Governance best practices policies and sectoral action plans. Response /GRD Goal of the process: Formulate and adopt a National Policy in Disaster UNGRD with the support of Risk Management and update the regulation framework and management Create a risk management statute to harmonize the current legislation addressing the gaps identified National Committee for Disaster instruments of SNPAD. 2 in defining public and private responsibilities. Prevention and Assistance /GRD Goal of the process: Design second phase for the State’s Fiscal Vulnerability Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Reduction Program Facing Disasters. Reorganize the System by strengthening technical and financial management capacity at the the support of the National Goal of the process: Formulate a policy for the reconstruction process of a 2 different territorial levels and the participation of the private sector. Committee - PAD/GRD declared national disaster. Give priority to strategic orientation, technical direction, authority, and control of the functions Presidency 2 performed by the National Unit for Disaster Risk Management (UNGRD) as head of the System. 2. Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of risk management investments through strategic planning, coordination among territorial levels and monitoring, and control Promote the adoption of the Territorial Risk Management Plans (PTGR) as long-term instruments DNP, UNGRD, MADS, MVCT 2, 3 to guide the POMCA, POT and PD, and articulate public, and private investments. Establish a national cofinancing (fund) mechanism to encourage investments in disaster risk Guideline: Governance best practices UNGRD, MHCP, DNP 2, 3 management and generate capacities at territorial and sectoral levels. Goal of the outcome: Improve technical capacity of the territorial entities and ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Adopt risk reduction goals in policies and plans, and ensure compliance through progressive the CAR in disaster risk management. UNGRD, DNP 2 implementation of results-based strategic planning. Guideline: Risk control and reduction Strengthen the mandatory incorporation of criteria in disaster risk management when formulating Goal of the process: Define and incorporate risk management criteria in the DNP 2 public investment projects (BPIN). formulation of national public investment projects. Adopt a monitoring strategy for following up on responsibilities and investments in risk management Presidency, UNGRD, DNP 2, 3 at different territorial levels. Table 6.1. Recommendations to strengthen public administration in disaster risk management in Colombia (continued) RESPONSIBLE RELATION TO GOALS OF THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN RECOMMENDATION CHAPS. ENTITY 2010-2014 3. Strengthen local capacity in territorial management so as to reduce the causes and accumulation of disaster risks Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Guideline: Governance best practices Adopt a national strategy to strengthen municipal risk management that takes into account the the support of the National Goal of the outcome: Improve technical capacity of the territorial entities and 1, 2, 3 differences in capacities. Committee - PAD/GRD, departmental governments the CAR in disaster risk management. Guideline: Improve risk awareness Goal of the process: Design and implement methodological instruments for DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS hazards, vulnerability, and risk zoning in the municipal sphere. Structurally review deficiencies in the capacities to assess disaster risk in order to provide an effective Ideam, SGC, IGAC, DANE, the Goal of the process: Modernization of the Integrated Information System for 1,3 response to the knowledge demand for the POT and the PD. CAR, Colciencias, departmental governments Disaster Prevention and Response to Disasters. Goal of the outcome: Expand monitoring networks and early warning systems, and update hazard maps. Strengthen departmental governments’ capacities in coordinating the municipalities, defining their Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Guideline: Governance best practices competencies in disaster risk management according to the principles of concurrence, and subsidiary the support of the National Goal of the outcome: Improve technical capacity of the territorial entities and 2 capacities as established in the Constitution and the possibilities offered by the Organic Land Use Committee PAD/GRD, Planning Law. departmental governments the CAR in disaster risk management. Guideline: Governance best practices Design and implement the PTGR as instruments which orient and give priority to interventions and City halls and departmental Goal of the outcome: Strengthen technical capacity of the territorial entities 3 investments in municipalities and departments. governments and the CAR in disaster risk management. Guidelines: Governance best practices Goal of the process: Formulate a policy for risk settlement intervention. Formulate and implement the national policy in the intervention of settlements at risk that set the DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS Guideline: Improvement of disaster risk knowledge 3 guidelines for land zoning, and define mitigation criteria and action strategies. Goal of the process: Design and implement methodological instruments for hazards, vulnerability, and risk zoning in the municipal sphere. Reduce the number of homes in high-risk areas by implementing integral neighborhood Guideline: Governance best practices DNP, UNGRD, MVCT, MADS 3 improvement and family resettlement programs from nonmitigable high-risk areas. Goal of the process: Formulate a policy for risk settlement intervention. Promote and continue with the efforts carried out in the cities (case studies) for cross-cutting Guideline: Risk control and reduction DNP, municipalities, inclusion of disaster risk management in planning and municipal investments as a fundamental Goal of the process: Define and incorporate risk management criteria in the 3 departmental governments strategy in land development. national public investment project formulation. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 323 324 Table 6.1. Recommendations to strengthen public administration in disaster risk management in Colombia (continued) RESPONSIBLE RELATION TO GOALS OF THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN RECOMMENDATION CHAPS. ENTITY 2010-2014 4. Reduce flood and landslide risk through planning, investment, monitoring and control, and coordination of different agents responsible for watershed management Assign responsibility for hydraulic management of rivers and water bodies to a Government agency, Guideline: Governance best practices Presidency, DNP, MADS, MT 2 and establish the roles and mechanisms of coordination of the different agents involved. Goal of the process: Formulate a policy for management of recurrent disasters. Adopt regulations for flood and landslide control and management including the definition of MADS, Permanent Committee Guideline: Improvement of disaster risk knowledge maximum acceptable risk5 and technical standards for risk assessment and mitigation, and a strategy created to manage the hydrology Goal of the process: Formulate a strategy for strengthening risk management 1, 2 for its implementation, monitoring and control. of rivers and water bodies research. Understand in depth the role of risk management, and its links to environmental management, Presidency, DNP, UNGRD, with Guideline: Improvement of disaster risk knowledge development management and climate change adaptation to incorporate it in decision making at the the support of the National Goal of the process: Formulate a strategy for strengthening risk 1, 2 sectoral and territorial level. Committee PAD/GRD management research. Guideline: Governance best practices MVCT, MADS, Ideam, with the Goal of the outcome: Improve technical capacity of the territorial entities and Regulate the inclusion of a Master Plan for Flood and Landslide Control as an integral part of Permanent Committee created the CAR in disaster risk management. 2, 3 the POMCA. to manage the hydrology of Guideline: Improvement of disaster risk knowledge rivers and water bodies Goal of the Outcome: Expand monitoring networks and early warning systems, and update hazard maps. Guideline: Governance best practices Accelerate the formulation and implementation of POMCA and their incorporation as a determining MADS, the CAR Goal of the outcome: Improve technical capacity of the territorial entities and 3 instrument in municipal POT. ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies the CAR in disaster risk management. Guideline: Risk control and reduction DNP, municipalities, Implement a strategy to strengthen the livelihood of the population in pursuit of poverty reduction. Goal of the process: Define and incorporate risk management criteria in the 3 departmental Governments national public investment project formulation. 5 Acceptable risk is one that the community is willing to take on to change a certain rate or level of benefits. In the design of engineering works, it has been common to use this concept implicitly in order to achieve a level of protection and security to justify the investment, considering as reference the useful life of the work. For such purpose, safety factors are used that in probabilistic terms, cover “reasonably” the uncertainty of the possible magnitude of external actions, the imprecision of the analytical modeling, and approximation of the simplifying assumptions (Cardona, 1990). Table 6.1. Recommendations to strengthen public administration in disaster risk management in Colombia (continued) RESPONSIBLE RELATION TO GOALS OF THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN RECOMMENDATION CHAPS. ENTITY 2010-2014 5. Reduce risk generation and disaster impact through policies and sectoral action plans. Appoint a unit responsible for disaster risk management in each sector All of the Ministries Guideline: Governance best practices 4 Implement sectoral policies for risk management in each Ministry. All of the Ministries Goal of the process: Formulate and adopt a National Policy on Disaster Risk 2, 4 Management, plus update the SNPAD regulatory framework and management instruments. Goal of the outcome: Improve technical capacity of the territorial entities and the CAR in disaster risk management. Adopt and implement sectoral and interministerial risk management Action Plans. All of the Ministries Goal of the process: Formulate a policy for management of recurrent disasters. 4 Guideline: Improvement of disaster risk knowledge Goal of the process: Formulate a strategy for the strengthening of risk management research. 6. Delimit public and private responsibilities for risk management and deepen the State’s fiscal vulnerability policies facing disasters Adopt clear policy guidelines on the level of protection that the National Government and local Presidency 4, 5 authorities should offer to those affected by hazardous events. Adjust regulations to clarify the private sector responsibility in disaster risk management, and strengthen the defense of public entities to reduce the State's fiscal contingencies produced by the All of the Ministries Guideline: Governance best practices 4, 5 demands of those affected. Goal of the process: Design a second phase of the Government Fiscal Vulnerability Reduction Program facing disasters. Design and implement an integral strategy for the financial security of the State at the sectoral and Goal of the process: Formulate a financial protection strategy Facing Disasters. territorial level with the purpose of guaranteeing an adequate response when there is a disaster and MHCP 4 to protecting the country's financial balance on a long-term basis. Goal of the process: Formulate a policy for management of recurrent disasters. Clarify, as far as regulations, the procedures and mechanisms as to how private agents participate in Presidency, UNGRD, DNP, 5 the different phases of risk management. Ministries Guideline: Improvement of disaster risk knowledge Promote and incentivize municipal and sectoral strategies to make the population aware of and UNGRD, Ministries, territorial Goal of the process: Implement a National Plan for Training and Education on 5 competent in risk management. entities Risk Management. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 325 1 Incorporate risk management as a State policy and overcome existing imbalances in the System through the adjustment and harmonization of a regulatory and institutional framework Adopt a national policy in disaster risk Create a risk management statute to har- management that is integrally articulated with monize the current legislation addressing the public management, provides support to the terri- gaps identified in defining public and private re- torial entities, and promotes the creation of specific sponsibilities. Legal reorganization is required policies and sectoral action plans. The risk man- for all norms related to disaster risk manage- agement policy, as an integral part of public ad- ment, through a specific statute that would also ministration, should be articulated in planning, complement aspects that are not yet regulated. execution, monitoring, evaluation, and control Defining the processes in knowledge, risk re- of the economic, social, cultural, technological, duction, and disaster management is recom- environmental, and political strategies. It should mended for each of the different phenomena. be more decentralized, participatory, democratic, Likewise, the actors who should be involved at and results-oriented. This policy should consider the different territorial levels and their specific risk knowledge and information, risk reduction, roles and responsibilities should also be includ- and disaster management as well as its contribu- ed. The statute should also articulate the differ- tion to territorial safety, social welfare, quality of ent regional levels to work together according to life, and sustainable development, starting from their capabilities and resources, thus ensuring creating regional consensus spaces and coopera- compliance with the principles of competition, tion mechanisms among municipalities, govern- subsidiarity, and complementarity as estab- ments, the CAR, regional entities, if any, sectors, lished by the Constitution. With regard to risk and other National Government actors. Likewise, materialization situations, it is essential to ex- it should be in charge of promoting the creation plicitly regulate the types of different situations of policies and sectoral action plans so that each (emergency, disaster, calamity), so that the con- sphere defines its responsibility in its infrastruc- cept of severe public calamity, as provided in the ture safety, minimizing loss of life and the im- Constitution, Article 215, is consistent with the pacts on production means facing disaster risks, current disaster declaration (Decree Law 919 of and ensuring the ongoing rendering of services. 1989). It is also necessary to regulate the respon- The policy requires the formulation and sibilities and instruments of the recovery pro- implementation of specific strategies for each cesses (rehabilitation and reconstruction). The of the geological and hydrometeorological phe- contact points between sectoral legislation and nomena, considering variables related to climate disaster risk issues should be strengthened and change and prioritizing recurrent phenomena. the participation and involvement of persons in Last but perhaps most importantly, this this management require specific regulations. policy should promote capacity strengthening, Reorganize the System by strengthening complementary and subsidiary strategies to pro- technical and financial management capacity vide support to municipalities in territorial risk at the different territorial levels and including management, recognizing that local capacities the participation of the private sector. A nor- are limited (in availability of economic, techni- mative and structural transformation of the cal, and human resources). System is needed. It should include its mis- 326 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies sion, vision, and the objectives of the State agement policy, and carry out authority and and society actions in facing risks and disas- control functions. In addition, it should rely ters6, as well as being in coherence with the on highly skilled technical human resources Constitution, through an adequate articula- and strengthen its internal operating proce- tion with the principles and guidelines con- dures. Leading risk management policy not templated therein. It is necessary to change only involves the coordination of national the current notion of disaster, reduce duplica- institutional activities led by the government tion in functions, and establish mechanisms entities, but UNGRD should also be the inter- to ensure a coordinated effort so that all ac- locutor among all levels of government in the tors involved have a clear understanding of country, in compliance with the principles of the System’s orientation and its contributions coordination, concurrence, and subsidiarity. to achieving the proposed objectives. Local The complexity of risk management requires Government Councils should be the basis of an “integrating” policy formulation within the System and substitute the committees’ sectoral limits. The administration implied formal structure, whose management and in supplies should be replaced by rendering decision-making process should be guided accounts based on products and results. Ad- by the planning. Likewise, it is necessary to ditionally, the UNGRD and the different na- strengthen the departmental level in its ar- tional and territorial entities should work on ticulating role between the national and the better informing the population about the local spheres and among the municipalities project, strengthening the information sys- within its jurisdiction. This should be done tem so that it constitutes a support system for at the same time that the nation in its strate- all the processes. Its successful management gic formulating and implementing policy role depends on the skills and the convening and based on the territorial entities’ needs and coordination mechanisms produced. Its func- capacities shall consequently provide techni- tion and activities should focus on strategic cal assistance, co-financing, and incentives to leadership and management and leave opera- promote better and more efficient risk man- tional responsibility and emergency manage- agement by territorial authorities. ment efforts to other actors. This unit should Give priority to the strategic orientation, also create incentive systems in the System’s technical direction, authority, and control to different entities, linked to strategies and pri- the functions performed by the National Unit orities identified and agreed to in the National for Disaster Risk Management (UNGRD) as Risk Management Plan. It is essential to focus head of the System. The UNGRD should as- management strategy, financial resources, and sume a clear strategic direction, maintain its organization on successful critical factors. main coordinating role of national risk man- 6 As the Act Project proposed, filed in the Congress of the Republic in July 2011 (Ingeniar Ltda., 2011). Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 327 2 Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of risk management investment through strategic planning, coordination among territorial levels, and monitoring and control Promote the adoption of the Territorial and sectoral projects contributes strategically Risk Management Plans (PTGR) as long-term to risk reduction. The execution of the preven- instruments to guide the POMCA, POT, and PD, tive and corrective actions, including emer- and articulate public and private investments. gency response, should be covered in order to Planning processes are fundamental in a Risk have a shared responsibility among the territo- Management System, since it implies formaliz- rial levels, where municipalities evaluate the ef- ing objectives to meet this end in every institu- fectiveness of including in their annual budget tion including its formulation in the National, a representative percentage (between 0.1% and Departmental, and Municipal Risk Management 0.5% of the current revenues) oriented at risk Plans, and its connection and subordination to management, to leverage resources that serve as the national and territorial PD. Thus, the incor- a counterpart to what is available in the Disaster poration of programs and projects is assured Risk Management Fund. This Fund should co- in the respective institutional investment plans ordinate with or be part of a financial strategy and the complementarity among the different that permits risk transfer and retention. financing sources to provide greater effective- Adopt risk reduction goals in policies ness. These plans should include dynamic in- and plans, and ensure compliance through pro- struments that can be updated and additionally gressive implementation of results-based stra- to the activities related to the risk management tegic planning. Modern risk management has process mission (awareness, risk reduction, and the challenge to evolve toward strategies that disaster management), incorporate strength- achieve greater investment transparency and ening capacities, and support instruments and effectiveness using a results-based monitoring information management relevant to risk man- and evaluation approach applicable to projects, agement. This should be followed by systematic programs, and policies. This type of monitoring monitoring, as an execution control element of and evaluation requires the definition of roles actions developed by the System. In order to ad- and responsibilities in the generation of prod- equately implement it, emphasis should be made ucts and results by those involved, thus estab- on professional training at all levels, focusing on lishing a clear and verifiable relation between the importance of emergency response and pro- the results expected and the allocated resources. moting risk reduction. It strengthens investment articulation and terri- Establish a national cofinancing (fund) torial, sectoral, and institutional coordination. It mechanism to encourage investments in disaster also requires the definition of baselines and the risk management and generate capacities at ter- identification of key performance indicators, ritorial and sectoral levels. Creating a Disaster and facilitates the implementation of incentives Risk Management Fund requires establishing in terms of performance recognition. It is not an different financing strategies and mechanisms easy task; it requires commitment, time, and ef- under the existing risk conditions and the mu- fort, but national and international experiences nicipalities’ capacities. Focusing mainly on ca- in other areas show that the work is justified by pacity strengthening and cofinancing regional its proven successful performance (Graph 6.1). 328 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph 6.1. Ten steps to design, create, and support a results-based monitoring and evaluation system. Conducting a Selecting key Planning for preliminary indicators to monitor improvement selecting The role of INSUMOS evaluation GESTIÓN outcomes results targets PRODUCTO RESULTADO evaluation IMPACTO Using ndings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Agreeing on outcomes Baseline data on Monitoring for Reporting Sustaining the to monitor and indicators-Where are results ndings M&E system evaluate we today? within the organization Source: Zall and Rist, 2006. Strengthen the mandatory incorporation articulate these analyses with the preparation of criteria of disaster risk management when of the different modules. This process should formulating public investment projects. In or- be accompanied by training and technical assis- der to effectively incorporate risk management tance at the sectoral and territorial level in order throughout the planning process and the ex- to reinforce key concepts in risk management, ecution of public investment, it is necessary to thus assuring its appropriate implementation. explicitly express it in the formulation of proj- This initiative is currently being proposed as ects filed in the Public Investment Project Banks an objective in the National Development Plan (BPIN). Although there has been some initial 2010-2014. progress, to incorporate the subject, it is nec- Adopt a monitoring strategy for follow- essary to review the General Adjusted Meth- ing up on responsibilities and investments for odology proposed by DNP, which determines risk management at different territorial levels. the minimum content of preinvestment studies The strengthening of policies and plans, clari- and verifies the analysis components, the proj- fication of roles and those responsible, and the ect evaluation, and the registration cards. This definition of baselines and performance indi- methodology should identify and evaluate the cators should be accompanied by the strength- type and level of damages and potential losses ening of monitoring and control processes. Its that could affect the investment, taking into ac- importance lies in that authorities and civil so- count the different infrastructure locations and ciety should fulfill the tasks of monitoring and the existing hazards in the territory, both in con- controlling the entire public administration pro- struction materials and techniques, with the aim cess, not just the end result. Working together is of assuring that the ones selected are the safest pertinent in ensuring articulation and continu- and most cost-effective. It should evaluate the ity of the actions required for regional planning project’s impacts in generating new risks and and risk management. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 329 3 Strengthen local capacity in territorial management so as to reduce the causes and accumulation of disaster risks Adopt a national strategy to strengthen mu- ment entities with the aim of fully developing the nicipal risk management that takes into account aforementioned principles. (v) Identify and ana- the differences in capacities. Risk management lyze successful partnership experiences in pro- and regulation and land use planning control are viding services in risk management, so that these closely linked to the municipal administration’s may be implemented in horizontal cooperation operational capacity and action, as well as the re- processes among territorial entities. (vi) Study strictions made on their professional personnel, strengthening mechanisms in the fields of risk their technical training, and their limits to access- information and risk knowledge by decentraliz- ing available technologies. In order to guarantee, ing technical-scientific organizations, such as the on a mid-term basis, an appropriate control of SGC and the Ideam; coordinating among univer- hazard, vulnerability, and risk conditions, it is sities and research centers through the National necessary to strengthen the municipalities at Science and Technology System; defining clearly institutional, technical, and financial level by the responsibilities undertaken by the CAR, de- adopting a proactive and strategic approach ac- partmental governments, and other national or cording to the complementarity and subsidiarity sectoral agencies; and enriching the municipali- principles set forth in the Constitution of 1991. ties’ capacities with the purpose of supplying the These municipal capacities are clearly differenti- information needed for risk management as part ated according to the categories specified by the of management and territorial planning. DNP and the DANE, which then may propose Structurally review deficiencies in the ca- recommendations for municipalities with high, pacities to assess disaster risk in order to provide an intermediate, and low capacity. Therefore, dif- effective response to the knowledge demand for the ferent options should be analyzed through the POT and the PD. Although a significant effort has following: (i) Redefine the competence distri- been made in the country in carrying out hazard bution in line with the municipalities’ poten- and risk studies, there have been few results at the tial capacities and their different characteristics different territorial levels, so appropriate decisions and requirements, in a sector (if a cross-cutting cannot be made to reduce them. Their evaluation subject like risk management can be called that should follow a prospective approach, taking into way) that Law 715 of 2001 did not take into ac- consideration the possibility of highly destructive count. (ii) Consider the possibility of applying a events in the future. Therefore, risk assessment municipal certification system for risk manage- should be oriented at applying models that allow ment processes and establish a priority in sub- using the scarce information available in order to jects such as risk knowledge, investment in risk forecast possible catastrophic scenarios in which reduction, and land use planning. (iii) Broaden great uncertainty is taken into account in the anal- the Departments’ and the CAR’s responsibili- ysis. Likewise, the systematic loss and damage reg- ties and competencies in order to support risk isters have to be more efficient and effective, since management at a municipal level. (iv) Foster these are fundamental in measuring the extent of greater cooperation among different govern- the disaster’s real impacts. The implementation of 330 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies a technical support strategy, coordinated among ning in the departments as an intermediate level national entities and departments, is indispensable of government, and the municipality as a funda- to facilitate future updates of these risk scenarios mental entity in the State’s political-administrative as well as the formulation of the new municipali- division; (iv) the joint and articulated action of the ties’ POT and the PD’s jurisdictions with less than different levels of government through alliances, 50,000 inhabitants. According to Law 507 of 1999, associations, and delegation agreements; and (v) the National Government has implemented tech- the design of regional administration modes for the nical assistance in the municipalities particularly development of special projects, increased produc- through the Ministry of Housing, Cities, and Ter- tivity, and modernized municipal administration. ritories, the previous Risk Management Office, Design and implement the PTGR as stra- and some CAR. However, other government enti- tegic and prospective instruments to orient and ties such as IGAC, DANE, Ideam, SGC, and the give priority to interventions and investments in universities and research centers have to combine municipalities and departments. The PTGR seek their efforts. Similarly, it is essential that the depart- to contribute to the acquisition of knowledge in ments take the lead and support with greater vigor risk scenarios, the application of integral inter- the municipalities’ formulation of the POT and the ventions for reducing and controlling risks, and incorporation of risk management in the PD. strengthening actions in disaster management. Strengthen the departmental govern- Articulated agendas and action plans among re- ments’ capacities in coordinating the munici- sponsible entities should be established in order palities, defining their competencies in disaster to develop internal procedures, define tasks, and risk management according to the principles of guide and optimize the use of the resources avail- concurrence and subsidiarity capacities as estab- able (municipal agencies, public companies, the lished in the Constitution and the possibilities private sector, departmental governments, CAR, offered by the Organic Land Use Planning Law. etc.). Planning should be accompanied by greater The recently approved Organic Land Use Plan- investment; therefore, the Ministries of Planning ning Law offers alternatives aiming at reinforcing and Finance have to reinforce the allocation of re- functions among territorial entities in risk man- source mechanisms and to verify the safety con- agement, especially in the departments where the ditions related to the different policies and types common denominator of almost all the municipal- of expenses so as to endorse, from the outset, risk ities is disturbing poverty indicators and low-level reduction in municipalities and districts. institutional capacity, as for example in Amazonas, Formulate and implement the national poli- Guaviare, Guainia, Vaupes, and Vichada, the ma- cy in order to intervene in settlements at risk that set jority of the Pacific coast municipalities (Choco, the guidelines for land zoning, and define mitiga- Cauca, and Nariño), and a great part of Caribbean tion criteria and action strategies. The municipali- municipalities (La Guajira, Magdalena, Sucre, and ties’ POT should clearly establish the management Cordoba, with the exception of their capital cities). of high-risk areas in accordance with the national This Law also promotes the following: (i) a greater policy. Mitigation may be understood as a condi- delegation of functions and competencies at the tion where it is feasible to intervene technically, national level over the territorial level; (ii) eliminat- economically, socially, and politically in a territory, ing duplication between the central and decentral- in order to reduce risk for the purpose of produc- ized administration and the territorial entities; (iii) ing stability in the population, the infrastructure, strengthening regional administration and plan- and the economic activities within reasonable and Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 331 socially accepted safety margins (Ramírez and and public services, among others, should work Rubiano, 2009). This means that a comprehen- jointly. Moreover and with the purpose of protect- sive analysis has to be prepared that will define if ing areas that have been resettled, surveillance, a high-risk territory may or may not be mitigated. municipal land use, and occupation control pro- Depending on the condition defined, specific in- grams are required through the participation and tervention actions should be established, in which intervention, not only of the responsible entities, are considered, among other factors, mitigation but also within the same communities. works (when risks are mitigable) or the resettle- Promote and continue with the efforts car- ment of families (when they are nonmitigable). ried out in the cities (case studies) for cross-cutting In some cities where there is greater management inclusion of disaster risk management in plan- capacity, progress has been made in the establish- ning and municipal investments as a fundamental ment of risk reduction criteria and intervention strategy in land development. The cities studied policies. However, implementing a national policy (Bogota, Cali, Medellin, Barranquilla, Manizales, will provide instruments for the municipalities Cucuta) should promote more decisively and/or to duly develop actions oriented at appropriately continue with strategies that incorporate disaster managing high-risk areas. risk management in planning, actions, and mu- Reduce the number of homes in high-risk nicipal or district investments. It should be point- areas by implementing integral neighborhood im- ed out that Cali needs to implement a specific provement and family resettlement programs from strategy to principally manage seismic risk and nonmitigable high-risk areas. The focalization of floods. And likewise applicable in Barranquilla actions oriented at reducing exposure and vulner- are landslides and floods (specifically for the well- ability is an effective option to diminish risk condi- known streams). A Risk Management Plan that tions. This means incorporating in the POT and relies on essential financing for its development the PD projects and specific investments that are should be prepared and implemented in all of focused on implementing these two programs as the cities analyzed. This plan should include ac- basic axes to reduce existing risks. The develop- tions to carry out effective risk management due ment of these programs entails the participation of to natural and unintentionally human-induced different municipal agencies so that their interven- phenomena. The plan has to incorporate activi- tion is carried out completely and integrally. Sec- ties in risk knowledge and risk reduction as well tors related to housing, education, social welfare, as in disaster management. 332 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 4 Reduce flood and landslide risk through planning, investment, monitoring and control, and articulation of different agents responsible for watershed management Assign responsibility for hydraulic man- construction of less vulnerable buildings and agement of rivers and water bodies to a Gov- structural measures for flood control and miti- ernment agency, and establish the roles and gation, depending on recurrence periods, the mechanisms of coordination of the different estimated height of the water level, its extension, agents involved. It is necessary to define an au- and where appropriate, the speed of the current thority responsible for the hydraulic manage- or water flow, among other factors. It is also im- ment of the rivers, so that the entity can develop portant to establish responsible roles and their policies and standards, define roles and those implementation, monitoring and control of these responsible, and coordinate actions through a regulations according to the type of construction Standing National Advisory Committee for Hy- or project. The sectoral institutions, policies, and draulic River Management.7 This Committee plans should be strengthened so that their infra- shall be responsible for providing technical ad- structure and production can be more resilient vice to the competent authority, covering both and redundant when confronting risks, and at the official and private consultations, performing same time their development mechanisms con- functions assigned by the research manage- tribute to safety and sustainability. ment and monitoring authority, organizing Understand in depth the role of risk man- seminars and updating courses, and guiding agement and its links to environmental manage- and advising in flood studies. ment, development management, and climate Adopt regulations for flood and landslide change adaptation to incorporate it in the decision- control and management, including the defini- making process at the sectoral and territorial level. tion of maximum acceptable risk8 and technical The institutional and programmatic mechanisms standards for risk assessment and mitigation, and between the subjects of risk and climate change a strategy for its implementation, monitoring, should be incorporated in the development plan- and control. It is necessary to overcome existing ning processes and public investments. This re- environmental imbalances that cause increased quires the definition of guidelines and spheres susceptibility to floods and landslides, which requires adjusting and articulating policy, and 7 The Standing Advisory Committee for Hydraulic River Management, like the regulatory and institutional framework for en- Standing Committee on Seismic Resistant Standard, may be composed of one vironment and risk management. This means representative each from the Presidency of the Republic, Ministry of Housing, Cities, and Territories, Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, standardizing acceptable risk parameters in order Ministry of Transportation, Ideam, IGAC, Colombian Engineer Society, Colom- to establish technical standards for the execution bian Association of Hydraulic Engineers, Asocars, plus a representative of the departmental governments, and a representative of the academic circles. of hazard zoning maps and evaluate the suscep- 8 Acceptable risk is one that the community is willing to take on to change a tibility or threat by floods and landslides (recur- certain rate or level of benefits. In the design of engineering works, it has rent periods, safety factors, etc.) for the purpose been common to use this concept implicitly in order to achieve a level of protection and security to justify the investment, considering as reference of land use planning; reviewing the criteria es- the useful life of the work. For such purpose, safety factors are used, which tablishing urban and rural protection zones and in probabilistic terms cover “reasonably” the uncertainty of the possible magnitude of external actions, the imprecision of the analytical modeling, setting minimum guidelines for the design and and approximation of the simplifying assumptions (Cardona, 1990). Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 333 of action to clarify responsibilities and scopes in of this diagnosis9; (iii) regulation of restrictions each subject, thereby avoiding overlapping and and constraints of land use for each area under​​ superimposition of roles that do not coincide hazard/risk; (iv) formulation of penalties for non- with the ecosystems, watersheds, and govern- compliance; and (v) list of programs and projects ment entities. Additionally, efforts to strengthen for risk reduction and control, protection of hu- disaster risk management should go hand in man lives, economic activities, ecosystems and hand in with actions to combat poverty in such cultural heritage, as well as the responsible people a way that there is a real intervention that allows and funding mechanisms and the strategies for the reduction of vulnerability conditions. their implementation and monitoring. Regulate the inclusion of a Master Plan for Accelerate the formulation and implementa- Flood and Landslide Control as an integral part tion of POMCA and their incorporation as a deter- of the POMCA. By nature, basins are the regional mining instrument in municipal POT. Taking into territorial units, bordered by the dividing lines be- account that POMCA are instruments that incor- tween them. Comprehensive understanding of the porate comprehensive knowledge of the basins and hydrological system that shapes them, planning define the actions and interventions for their prop- according to their use and occupation, and the er management, it is urgent to hasten their formu- definition of constraints and potentials for their lation in order to generate the required guidelines territory, offers valuable input for their adequate for updating and implementing the local POT, protection and utilization. It is then recommend- thus promoting coherent planning between the re- ed that a Master Plan for Flood and Landslide gional vision of the basins, flood control measures, Control should be included as an integral part of and the restrictions and constraints in land use and the POMCA, which would make possible estab- occupation of each municipal jurisdiction. lishing the necessary actions and investment re- Implement a strategy to strengthen the quirements to prevent the generation of new risks livelihood of the population in pursuit of poverty and reduce those already existing. The develop- reduction. Changes in population and property ment of this Plan provides, as an environmental vulnerability are highly dependent on the de- determinant for the municipal POT (Decree 1729 velopment stage and the socioeconomic char- of 2002, Article 17), the possibility of regulating acteristics of the population. The link between land use and determining the programs and proj- poverty and susceptibility to natural disasters ects that should be introduced in order to execute is increasingly acknowledged, so the country appropriate local risk management. The Master should move forward in developing effective Plan should include, among other aspects, the fol- strategies for reducing poverty, including imple- lowing: (i) reduction and risk management as an menting a rural development policy, investing integral part of the goals and objectives to ensure in natural resource management, developing watershed safety and sustainability; (ii) definition infrastructure, generating livelihoods and social of the scope and orientation with state-of-the-art protection mechanisms to reduce vulnerability, zoning methodologies based on hazard assess- and enhancing resilience of rural livelihoods. ments, in case of low-, medium-, and high-prob- ability phenomena. Likewise, definition of the risk maps to show the possible effects of floods, 9 In this regard, examples of some European countries, USA, and Japan can be found at determining, the number of people and types of http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/flood_risk/flood_atlas/index. economic activities that could be affected, as part htm: Handbook of Good Practices in Flood Mapping. 334 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies 5 Reduce risk generation and disaster impact through policies and sectoral action plans Appoint a unit responsible for disas- strengthening and risk reduction cofinancing, ter risk management in each sector. It is nec- in order to meet their needs while promoting essary to define sectoral units or civil servants responsibility and in this manner achieving a with clear responsibilities and hierarchy to co- synergy among the different levels of govern- ordinate the creation of the specific policies of ment. On the other hand, it is also essential risk management and lead their implementa- to embrace the private sector in these policies tion, as prescribed by Decree 919 of 1989. These with the aim of accompanying and providing its units could also coordinate subjects such as cli- risk management knowledge and responsibility. mate change and environmental sustainability Guild organizations are able and willing to play in each sector, simplifying the articulation of a decisive role in this field. The PND 2010-2014 these spheres within each Ministry and among aims to create a National Disaster Risk Manage- themselves. In addition, it would facilitate the ment Policy and some of the Sectoral Policies on adoption of multipurpose policy instruments, this subject, which would become elements of strengthen the sectors’ performance, and en- sectoral planning with special emphasis on “Lo- hance local capacity to implement instruments comotives for growth and employment genera- such as the POMCA, the POT, and the PD. tion” such as transportation, housing, mining Implement sectoral policies for risk man- and energy, and agriculture. Among the recom- agement in each Ministry. The sectoral approach mended sectoral policies, some priorities in the to risk management has been largely reactive and current PND are as follows: protectionist, resulting in a steady increase in the vulnerability and disaster occurrence impacts in • Housing. Intervention policies for settlements all spheres. This can be approached with a com- at risk, aimed at controlling and managing these prehensive policy, which also ensures assessment settlements and reducing the construction of in- and knowledge about risk and the reduction of formal housing. The policies should cover over- existing risk. It also eliminates the generation of all improvement of neighborhoods, through new risks in projects and investments, and ensures risk analysis and the introduction of restric- effective and timely disaster response, promoting tions and constraints in the POT, development joint and shared responsibility with territorial en- of projects to mitigate risk, family relocation in tities and the private sector. This strengthens risk nonmitigable high-risk areas, additional urban knowledge, especially in vulnerability studies in land availability, increased VIS construction, each sector. Better strategies can be designed for and strengthening of urban control. reducing physical, operational, and financial risk, • Finance. Financial protection policies to re- and for planning disaster management in an ap- duce the State’s fiscal vulnerability resulting propriate manner. It is essential to generate local from disasters, which define a differential capacity for specific sectoral risk management ac- strategy to address the needs of high-frequen- tions and mechanisms for coordinating with lo- cy/low-cost events, as well as low-frequency/ cal authorities. It should also include institutional high-cost events, transferring the risk as far Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 335 as it is economically reasonable, constitut- agents. Some specific actions recommended ing a reliable source of funds to address the to be included in these plans are as follows: retained risk and encourage participation of local governments and private actors. • Land Use Planning. Promote a partner- • Agriculture. Comprehensive policies to face ship to support local entities in incorporat- natural phenomenon risks, market risks, and ing risk management within their territorial risks associated with climate change, where planning and providing equal priority to the strengthening of risk knowledge, risk reduc- rural and urban areas. This would help to tion, and disaster management is compre- confront the municipalities’ technical and fi- hensively observed. nancial capacity limitations and the applica- • National Unit for Disaster Risk Manage- tion of sectoral policies in the territory. ment. Low- and medium-intensity risk man- • Transportation. Develop the Vulnerability agement policies and mechanism policies to Reduction Program for the different means guide reconstruction processes in a declared of transportation. national disaster situation. Roads should be a priority, since these cur- • Drinking water and sanitation. A policy to rently have the highest risk levels. Establish incorporate risk management in the render- a solid program to invest in existing risk re- ing of public services in water supply, sew- duction, focusing on critical road sections, erage, and sanitation, for which there is a with stabilization work and/or improving draft document that has not been formally the standards of alternate routes. Also up- adopted yet. date technical specifications and contracting • Transportation. Contracting policies and systems that should include the definition of concession management that incorporate acceptable risk levels. Evaluate projects from criteria for disaster risk reduction. the prefeasibility stage, design methods and construction, operation, monitoring, and Adopt and implement sectoral and in- control systems, all to establish the risk pro- terministerial action plans on risk manage- file and strengthen road maintenance. ment. Once sectoral policies are implemented, • Housing. Promote the Settlement Risk the sectoral and interministerial action plans Reduction Program, which includes the would become their application instruments. definition of inventory methodologies, ca- These plans could define short- and long- pacity strengthening, cofinancing, and tech- term strategic priorities, and identify funding nical assistance to the municipalities’ census and development mechanisms. The objectives of endangered population. Implement the of risk knowledge and risk knowledge, risk re- Comprehensive Neighborhood Improve- duction, and disaster management mentioned ment Policy. Adopt a strategy to control risk in the policies should be reflected in the strat- resulting from informal urbanization, which egies, programs, and project action plans, may include affordable housing alternatives as well as when assigning those responsible such as leasing for lower strata and training in and in the coordination, financing, moni- construction. Formalize self-construction of toring and control mechanisms, addressing one- and two-floor houses to intervene in the the needs, and promoting the responsibility process of building informal housing. Adopt of territorial authorities and private sector acceptable risk levels for residential buildings 336 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies facing floods and landslides, much in the way ers to use risk reduction measures and they are implemented in seismic risks. to adapt to climate change. This includes • Drinking water and sanitation. Implement a collective and aligned effort with the the RAS Risk Management chapter, including Ministry of Environment and Sustainable approval of maximum acceptable risk levels10, Development to promote sustainable land infrastructure risk assessment, reducing exist- management through planning and apply- ing risk, and the design and construction pa- ing environmentally adequate production rameters in accordance with the standards set technologies, erosion prevention, and flood for new infrastructure. With regard to the fee control. Risk reduction strategies are also structure, incorporate crossed feasibility for recommended. Using drought- or flood-re- financing risk management activities, among sistant varieties, weather forecasts to make which are vulnerability studies, risk reduction decisions during the production cycle, and criterion maintenance, and the ability to se- early warnings about El Niño and La Niña cure the infrastructure. phenomena are recommended strategies • Education. Establish a capacity strengthening when deciding on product types, sowing program and cofinancing to support territo- seasons, and planning in advance of any rial entities in compliance with Ministerial livestock relocation. Along with the envi- Directive No. 12 dated July 2009, both to re- ronment sector, implement a joint strategy duce educational infrastructure risk and to for recovering marsh areas where flooding improve preparedness to face emergencies. occurs as areas to buffer floods. • Health. Strengthen and expand hospital in- • All sectors surance program coverage. (i) Implement a decision-making strategy • Energy. With the environment sector, artic- in each sector through strategies aimed ulate the inclusion of flood risk management at providing information and knowledge criteria in dam operation protocols, starting on hazards, infrastructure vulnerabili- with the adoption of maximum acceptable ties, property exposure, early warnings, risk levels. and climate change. Vulnerability assess- • Environment. Strengthen the inclusion of ment and the risks to each sector allow risk management in the POMCA, adopting each person to formulate their own risk maximum acceptable risk levels for all haz- reduction plan. Actions and investments ards and the definition of restrictions and based on where hazards are concentrated constraints that should be reviewed and de- and a cost-benefit analysis should be a tailed in the planning processes such as the priority. Hazard exposure, susceptibil- POT. Include in the POMCA a Master Plan ity, and damage assessment methodolo- for Flood Risk Reduction, ensuring articula- gies as well as assigning responsibilities tion between different actors in watersheds and deadlines have to be adopted. It is and verifying that the risk reduction invest- important to consider not only present ments are consistent and positive for the en- scenarios, but also future ones, so that tire area, not just a part of it. • Agriculture. Organize with the agrarian guilds the implementation of a program to encourage small and medium farm- 10 Risk of service suspension resulting from disasters caused by natural events. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 337 aspects such as demand growth, the in- ported by the UNGRD and the National frastructure aging, and climate change Calamity Fund (FNC). The formulation of are taken into account. It is also conve- public policies on “Minor and medium-in- nient to encourage sectoral information tensity disaster management” and “Mecha- and knowledge needs by strengthening nisms for guiding reconstruction processes the financial and technical articulation in a declared national disaster situation” among CMS, IGAC, Ideam, DANE, and have been assigned by the current PND to academic sectors. the UNGRD, with support from the DNP. (ii) Develop sectoral strategies in order to Experiences such as those in Mexico dem- create accountability and risk manage- onstrate the advantages of each Ministry ment culture among private actors in monitoring its own infrastructure reha- each sphere. These strategies may in- bilitation and reconstruction process. This clude awareness and training campaigns experience offers: opportunity, indepen- on the risks that they are exposed to, the dence, technical expertise, monitoring, responsibility of the private agents in and control. Transparency and efficiency this subject, and alternatives to reduce, are guaranteed by using standardized manage, and prepare to act in case of an and established procedures to assess emergency. Drills and simulation exer- damage, access to resources by Govern- cises are used to evaluate and improve ment agencies and the private sector, and the proposed actions, and contribute to mechanisms for monitoring and control. increasing the level of awareness. Guild However, the Oil Spill Contingency Na- organizations in each sector can be a key tional Plan experience and its replication ally in this endeavor. to other sectors should be assessed, and (iii) Implement a strategy for disaster manage- it should probably be extended to contin- ment in each sector, articulated and sup- gency plans for each of the hazards. 6 Delineate public and private responsibilities for risk management and deepen the State’s fiscal vulnerability policies in facing disasters Adopt clear policy guidelines on the pro- Government and territorial entities to promote tection level that the National Government and joint responsibility based on subsidiarity and territorial entities should offer to those affected complementarity principles. Therefore, financial by hazardous events. The Government should provisions required to meet obligations to those assess its ability to support people affected by affected can be estimated. Additionally, clear a disaster, and decide in advance of upcoming policy implementation in the above matters and events a policy defining the government’s ex- its disclosure shall allow citizens to know to what pected response. It is also important to estab- extent the Government will be responsible in the lish the levels of responsibility for the Central event of a disaster. In turn, with this knowledge, 338 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies citizens will be encouraged to take responsibil- in risk management are addressed against ity for their own risks and take measures in risk public entities, although in many cases, there prevention, mitigation, or risk transfer, accord- is third-party intervention or participation, ing to their particular situation. Searching for whether it is private or public, or even if the coherence and integrity, this policy should con- same plaintiff affected is an excluding or re- sider the following elements: (i) the characteris- ducing circumstance of the State’s respon- tics to describe and catalog the affected people sibility. Absence of rules generally leads to as “manifesting weakness” (e.g., the condition of establishing responsibility almost exclusively belonging to the poorest group of people -strata on public entities, affecting their economic 1 and 2- has been used frequently); (​​ ii) protec- or budgetary conditions. Therefore, a careful tion offered to those affected and catalogued as and meditated legal reform is advisable. In ju- “manifesting weakness” and support of others dicial proceedings against the State, whether affected; (iii) tax, financial, and other incentives they be general, contentious administrative, to mitigate losses in the productive sector; and or protective, the reform will make it possible (iv) tax, financial, and others incentives to pro- for both plaintiff and judicial courts to call mote economic recovery. to the proceedings other possible risk event Adjust regulations to clarify the private generators, whether they be private or public sector responsibility in disaster risk manage- entities. This possibility shall open the space ment, and strengthen the defense of public en- to define if there are excluding, solidarity, or tities to reduce the State’s fiscal contingencies concurrent conditions of responsibility in produced by the demands of those affected. A favor of the State, and also the possibility of clear definition of responsibility of the private filing judicial actions against public servants sector will strengthen the defense of public enti- accountable for their actions. ties in the courts. Additionally, specific guide- • Regulations stating, as clearly as possible, the lines to facilitate the proper integration of risk functioning fields of competence of public management in governance will reduce vulner- entities in risk management. An important ability and losses caused by State actions. The aspect, in legal disputes over State’s responsi- regulation adjustments could include: bility, is the definition of the content, scope, and limits of the powers that correspond to • Regulation containing detailed provisions each of the public entities involved directly on exclusive, solidarity, or complementar- or indirectly in risk management. Thus, it is ity concurrence of each of the participants imperative that the law governing the subject who may be responsible for the disaster im- be especially clear when it comes to process- pacts: (i) public entities by act or omission; es in which sequentially different govern- (ii) private actors that as part of their pro- ment agencies participate. duction activities generate risk, consciously • Regulations setting out precisely the ways or unconsciously; and (iii) victims or people to establish and derive State and private re- affected, who consciously or unconsciously sponsibility, and as far as possible eliminating have decided, willingly or unwillingly, to the uncertainty of the judicial interpretation. assume the risks that will later materialize There is a need for legal regulations that de- into disasters. This regulation will help to fine the ways to establish State responsibil- face the fact that most judicial complaints ity with all the requirements and conditions. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 339 Jurisprudential and doctrinal interpretations (iii) Stipulate technical regulations for each may be used, but considering that in terms of sector; for example, updating bridge codes risk management, there are both public and and tunnel regulation; terminate the imple- private factors that establish the concurrence mentation process of the Risk Management of responsibility among multiple entities. This chapter found in the Technical Regulations for will determine, for example, that in case of in- Drinking Water and Sanitation Sector (RAS), tent or grave fault by a private agent in its re- among others. (iv)Articulate strategies in the sponsibilities in facing risk, this agent should agriculture, mining, and environment sectors assume the entire cost of damages caused. to regulate and apply the recent Environmen- • Legislation which confirms and clarifies the tal Sanctioning Regime in the illegal activities responsibility for the construction’s physical of deforestation, desiccation, wetland inva- protection. Advance toward a regulation that sion, alteration of a river’s course, etc. establishes responsibility for Urban Curators and that upon issuing the license or autho- Design and implement an integral strategy rization acts, requires the compliance with for the financial security of the State at the sectoral construction technical standards as set forth and territorial level with the purpose of guarantee- in Decree 564 of 2006, Article 49, the provi- ing an adequate response when there is a disaster sions of Act 400 of 1997, Decree 33 of 1998, and protecting the country’s financial balance on and other decrees. a long-term basis. There is not enough informa- • Mandatory legal rules regarding financial tion to determine the financial needs of low-fre- protection applied to both public and private quency/high-cost events, but in the case of the La sectors. Assess cases in which individuals Niña 2010-2011 phenomenon, the budgeted in- may be forced to define insurance strategies vestments were approximately US$16 billion, ten or other financial protection mechanisms times more than in the case of the Coffee Grow- similar to those existing for regulations of ing region earthquake. In any case, the calcula- common areas in condominiums. tion of these amounts depends on the definition • Modification in the Statutory Law of people’s of the State’s responsibilities and the efficiency rights and obligations in risk reduction and with which these resources are executed. In addi- management. Assign citizens the responsi- tion to the strategy of the Central State, it would bility of knowing and managing the risk they be desirable to establish a risk management fund are exposed to due to the probability of a and financial protection strategies at the sectoral natural disaster occurrence. and territorial level (municipalities and depart- • Other regulations related to the public admin- ments) in order to foster the principles of corre- istration sector, such as: (i) Analyze the risks spondence, complementarity, and subsidiarity. and alternatives from the projects’ prefeasi- Clarify, from the regulations, the proce- bility; incorporate the subject in the BPIN dures and mechanisms as to how private agents norms. (ii) Regulate concession contracts participate in the different phases of risk manage- and in particular comply with Conpes 3107 ment. The current System anticipates the inter- of 2001, assigning responsibility for natural vention of private agents in risk management, event disaster risk management to the private but with insufficient development and lacking investor, as a transferable risk through insur- the conditions to apply it. This could include, ance policies or other financial instruments. among others, the following elements: 340 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies • Obligations of private and public agents in and increase awareness and knowledge levels in the preventive phase, as referred to in Arti- risk management using cost-effective measures cles 8 and 9 in Decree 919 of 1989, or in deal- to reduce risk to the country, which the State can ing with the results of damages; although implement through: with the exception of the partial develop- ment that Bogota has had, these obligation • Develop awareness campaigns, mainly in definitions have not yet been used. those cities that have high risk levels versus • Specific modifications in risk management those where hazards are scarce. Likewise, in in the Citizen Participation in Statutory Law, cities or towns were these risks are more fre- taking into account that every individual quent, strengthen the appropriation level of should “act in accordance to the principle of the campaigns. Clarify public and private re- social solidarity and respond with humani- sponsibility, especially in evaluating vulner- tarian actions to situations that may endan- ability of each home and disclosing clear and ger life or health of the population” (numeral effective risk reduction recommendations. 2, Article 95 of the Constitution). • Implement risk management programs joint- • Design and implement a strategy where the ly with the community. These should have State, the insurance sector, and the private real and sustainable impacts and include risk sector are included in order to reinforce prevention strategies and disaster preparation insurance penetration in Colombia. This (drills and brigades). They have to achieve ef- should be done in order to increase insur- fective risk reduction so that the participants ance coverage among individuals as well as will have a greater awareness and knowledge in the private sector. The strategy may in- of these risks. clude State incentives, but the insurance sec- • Accompany the guilds in designing risk tor should be responsible for increasing and management strategies to inform and train offering the availability of its products. their members, promote measures to miti- gate existing risks, and reinforce coordina- Promote and incentivize municipal and tion in decision making. Thus, the guilds can sectoral strategies to make the population aware influence their members in how to reduce of and competent in risk management. Take ad- risk, so it is mitigated in the sector and by vantage of the citizens’ readiness to contribute and large in the country. Final Conclusions and Recommendations to Strengthen Disaster Risk Management 341 Floods. Route Montería - Arboletes, rural area. Municipality of Montería (Córdoba - Colombia), 2011. Photography: María Isabel Toro Quijano. Planning From to Implementing A Disaster Risk Management in Colombia Carolina Díaz G., Diana M. Rubiano V., Carlos E. Vargas M., Ernesto Betancourt M. ppendixes A.1. INVESTMENTS in DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT When reviewing planning and implemen- reduction, while 2.1% of the total was invested in tation actions developed in risk management at knowledge, information, governance, and educa- different territorial levels, it is evident that there tion. The national public investment in risk man- has been significant progress. Nevertheless, there agement during the mentioned period showed is also a significant disarticulation between public two major growth cycles directly related to major investments and the effectiveness of these actions. disaster occurrences. The first was related to emer- Following the priority reference areas described gency management and infrastructure reconstruc- in the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), it tion after the earthquake in the Coffee Growing can be seen that despite the country’s achieve- region (1999-2001), where the resources assigned ments there are still gaps and limitations in amounted to almost Col$2.4 billion (equivalent to financial terms, resource allocation, and effec- US$2.1 billion). The second was associated with the tiveness in governance, knowledge and infor- management of the La Niña phenomenon experi- mation, education and communication, risk enced by the country in 2010, in which the State reduction, and disaster management at the na- assigned Col$3.1 billion as of December 31, 2010 tional, regional, and municipal level. These anal- (approximately US$679 million), especially in hu- yses were performed based on data provided by manitarian aid and early recovery (Graph A.1). DNP-DDTS, information that subsequently was The State’s investments made in the field of reclassified to obtain a more detailed assessment institutional strengthening, policy formulation, and on progress in risk management (Box A.1). other elements related to risk management gover- nance have been small throughout the entire period under analysis, experiencing a slight increase start- A.1.1. The State’s investment in ing in 2005. The activities aimed at strengthening disaster risk management the mechanisms of organization, coordination, sectoral and territorial participation, planning, Most of the allocated resources for risk management, and monitoring require consider- management financing come from the national able technical and political management, though level through the General Budget of the State they are inexpensive and would produce power- (PGNE). Between 1998 and 2010, the invested ful impacts. Particularly striking is the low prior- resources in absolute terms amounted to Col$7 ity given to implementation and investment, while billion1 (about US$3.5 billon2), equivalent to policy formulation and planning have been given 2.5% of the total national investment and to due relevance since 1989 in the PNPAD, in the 0.15% of the GDP. In per capita terms, the an- Conpes Document 3146, and in the last four Na- nual risk expenditure was close to Col$12,726. tional Development Plans. This situation largely Within the framework of priority areas, explains the weakness of the SNPAD and its low 81.5% of the investment budget executed by the governance capacity. State during the 1998-2010 period was allocated to 1 All values are reported in Col$ of 2010 (US$1 = Col$1,913). disaster management, and 16.3% to existing risk 2 Representative market rate as of December 31, 2010. US$ 1 Col$1.913. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 345 Box A.1. Information for the analysis of risk management investment: Scope and limitations The main source of information for risk management investment analysis for this publication was the database provided by DNP-DDTS. This information includes investment figures made by national entities under the General Budget of the State (period 1998-2010) and the amounts of investments reported annually, by territorial entities at departmental (period 2004 – 2008) and municipal (period 2004 – 2008) levels. From the data provided a classification of risk management investment accounts was carried out using the HFA priority areas: (i) governance, (ii) knowledge and information, (iii) education, (iv) risk reduction, and (v) disaster management. • At the national level investment programs and projects were grouped according to their scope, making them coherent with the five HFA areas. • At the departmental level the risk management investment accounts were classified and grouped as follows: (i) Governance: strengthening of the Disaster Prevention and Response Committees. (ii) Knowledge and information: risk identification, analysis, and assessment studies related to regulation and land use planning. (iii) Education: education in disaster prevention and response. (iv) Risk reduction: urban and rural area adequacy in high-risk zones; conservation of microbasins; physical infrastructure investment for prevention, protection, and contingencies in infrastructure works; reforestation and erosion control; resettlement of families from high-risk zones and land adequacy; watershed and microbasin use and management; subsidies to improve social housing; subsidies for housing located in high-risk areas; other risk prevention programs. (v) Disaster management: emergency response (disaster response); agreements with fire departments for fire prevention and control; design, development, and updating of Emergency and Contingency Plans; investments in machinery and equipment for disaster prevention. • At the municipal level, the risk management investment accounts were classified and grouped as follows: (i) Governance: preparation, design, and updating of disaster prevention and response plans; strengthening of Disaster Prevention and Response Committees. (ii) Knowledge and information: risk monitoring, assessment, and zoning for planning purposes. (iii) Education: education for disaster prevention and response. (iv) Risk reduction: urban and rural area adequacy in high-risk zones; microbasin conservation; flooding defense; irrigation, drainage, and land recovery; disaster prevention; foresight, protection, and contingency in strategic infrastructure works; housing construction and improvement; reforestation and erosion control; water riverbed and stream regulation; physical infrastructure for structural preparation and reinforcement; high risk-zone resettlement and relocation; subsidies for social housing purchasing; subsidies for social housing improvement; subsidies for high risk-zone housing relocation. (v) Disaster management: disaster response; agreements with fire departments for fire prevention and control; machinery and equipment endowment to fire departments; design, development, and updating of Emergency and Contingency Plans. Graph A.1. Public investment in risk management at the national level by priority area 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 Disaster management Col$(2010) million Risk reduction 1,000,000 Education 800,000 Knowledge and information 600,000 Governance 400,000 200,000 - 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by PGN, DNP-SDAS, 2010. 346 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Major efforts in institutional strengthen- ing have begun to be observed since 2005 with Graph A.2. Public investment in governance by national entity the State Fiscal Vulnerability Reduction Program 2,000 in Facing Natural Disasters led by the Ministry of 1,800 Environment, Housing, and Territorial Develop- 1,600 1,400 ment (MAVDT) and the Ministry of Interior and Col$(2010) million 1,200 Justice (MIJ) through the Risk Management Divi- 1,000 sion (DRG). Thus, between 2005 and 2010, the MA- 800 600 VDT allocated constant Col$1.8 billion of 2010 for 400 the coordination of this program and the support 200 to municipalities in their territorial planning pro- - 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 cesses. This resource allocation represented an MHCP MIJ MAVDT average of 39% of the investment in the budget appropriation named “Governance Strengthen- Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by PGN, DNP-SDAS, 2010. ing” in this analysis. Between 2008 and 2010, the investment made by the MIJ was Col$2.5 billion, equivalent to 49% of the total resources assigned The budget allocation in knowledge and to the ​​ governance area in actions such as support information fields during the late 1990s and 2000 to policies and financial instrument strengthening experienced a dynamic and sustained growth, and for the SNPAD, as well as technical assistance to it represented 2% of the total investment in risk municipalities and departments in the Risk Man- management. Investments made in the areas of agement Plan formulation. Additionally, the Min- knowledge and information at the national lev- istry of Finance and Public Credit (MHCP) made el during the period 1998-2010 were valued at investments in a financial protection strategy for- Col$143 billion, in which entities such as SGC mulation in 2007, an activity which was not con- (former Ingeominas), Ideam, and IGAC invested tinued during the 2008-2010 period (Graph A.2). 85% of these resources (Graph A.3). Graph A.3. Public investment in knowledge and information by national entity 30,000 25,000 Other entities Invias 20,000 Col$(2010) million Ingeominas 15,000 IGAC Ideam 10,000 CAR 5,000 - 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by PGN, DNP-SDAS, 2010. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 347 While in 1998, the SGC allocated just cause there was no access to their own resource over constant Col$2.5 billion in inventories investments or other sources. and geohazard monitoring in 2010, the total in- Finally, the IGAC accounted for 7.2% of vestment amounted to Col$5 billion, accumu- resources allocated for knowledge and infor- lating for the period constant Col$72 billion. mation, equivalent to approximately Col$10.3 An addition to the entity’s budget made pos- billion in the years under analysis. These invest- sible an increase of the geological phenomenon ments were aimed at gathering information on monitoring by updating the National Seismic soils, geographical studies, and monitoring the System, remodeling the Pasto Volcano Observa- soil as a resource. It supported the implemen- tory and the geodesic station network, and the tation of appraisals for housing relocation and geodynamic studies. other activities related to damage assessment Ideam reports a similar dynamic in and post-disaster censuses. relation to increased investment, consider- Investments in education and commu- ing that in 1998 it had at its disposal approxi- nication are the least favored with lowest rates mately Col$1.2 billion throughout the area compared to other risk management actions at of knowledge ​​ and information, and by 2010 the national level, and their dynamic in recent this figure was a constant of Col$7.7 billion. years remains the same. From the total invest- The entity has focused the priority of their ment budget on risk management at the na- investments on specific fields in hydrometeo- tional level during the period 1998-2010, the rological knowledge management, network education and communication fields received maintenance of national environmental sta- an equivalent of only 0.02%, which corresponds tions, and broadcasting environmental infor- to constant Col$1.1 billion. Although resources mation. These are the areas in which the entity are limited, entities such as the MAVDT as well has oriented its priorities in terms of invest- as some CAR have decided on the 73% of total in- ment, registering total resources of constant vestments in this area. The MAVDT has focused Col$38 billion for the period 1998-2010. its activities on environmental management During the same period, the Regional training with emphasis on risk management, Autonomous Corporations (CAR) have invested particularly during 2007 and 2008, through the in knowledge and information generation close State Fiscal Vulnerability Reduction Program. to Col$13.3 billion, equivalent to 9.3% of total Moreover, Corantioquia and Corpoamazonia investments that have been made with PGN re- also assigned significant resources to instruct sources. In 1998, the CAR assigned 40% of the social and environmental promoters and to PGN resources for hazard and risk studies to support anthropic risk training programs, but give support to the POT in hydrometeorologi- these are specific projects that lack continuity cal instrumentation systems and diagnostics on a long-term basis (Graph A.4). for supply basins. Unfortunately, this partici- pation gradually declined to 2% in 2010. It is remarkable that these data only refer to the re- sources of the CAR that come from PGN, be- 348 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph A.4. Public investment in education and communication by national entity 450 400 350 MPS 300 Col$(2010) million 250 Corporinoquia 200 Corpoamazonia 150 MAVDT 100 Social Action 50 - 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by PGN, DNP-SDAS, 2010. Evolution was unstable in terms of tion through the FNR and the CAR, followed public investment allocated to risk reduction by investments in road infrastructure made​​ between 1998 and 2010. However, there was by Invias. In 1998, the CAR spent on risk re- a pronounced tendency of growth between duction Col$23 billion with funds from the 2009 and 2010 due to the participation of the PGN, an amount that represented about 57% National Royalties Fund (FNR). Risk reduc- of the total investment made by national en- tion had within the total investment in disas- tities that year. In 2010, this proportion was ter risk management for the country 16.3%, evidently reduced to a figure of 1% (Col$2.4 equivalent to constant Col$1.1 billion, and billion) for that component. Also signifi- represented the second rank in importance cant were the amounts primarily associated by resources spent at the national level (a big with watershed conservation and recovery difference with disaster management which financed by the National Royalties Commis- ranked first with an investment of 81.4%). sion, and road infrastructure improvement Moreover, the increase of the allocation in risk with investment from the Caminos Vecinales reduction was mainly due to projects funded Fund and later from Invias, although a large by the FNR. Between 2009 and 2010, invest- proportion of these investments have been ment spending directed through the Fund to- focused on maintenance and post-emergency taled Col$511 billion, of which 60% went to road repair and they are not strictly considered prevention and relief projects and 30% to con- to be entirely allocated to risk reduction. The struction, improvement, and rehabilitation of MAVDT has allocated resources since 2007 emergency works in the Magdalena River. to several projects especially on technical as- The largest investments for risk reduc- sistance, watershed protection, and forest fire tion were performed in watershed conserva- prevention (Graph A.5). Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 349 Graph A.5. Public investment in risk reduction by national entity 500,000 450,000 Other entities 400,000 MPS National Royalty 350,000 Commission Col$(2010) million 300,000 CAR 250,000 MIJ 200,000 Invias MADR 150,000 MAVDT 100,000 Caminos Vecinales 50,000 FNR - 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by PGN, DNP-SDAS, 2010. There are several organizations identi- the region. Subsequently, the investment for disas- fied that have made ​​ investments in areas such as ter management declined substantially until mid strengthening of health infrastructure and finan- 2000. Since 2005, the budget appropriation began cial protection, with initiatives worth noting. In a new cycle of growth, where the highest level 1998, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural De- experienced was in 2010, related to the presence velopment (MARD), through the implementa- of La Niña, which caused heavy rains for several tion of agricultural insurance, allocated resources months, causing floods and landslides in almost all associated with financial protection. The Minis- the country (as described in Chapter 1). try of Social Protection (MPS) invested during A large part of the investment in emer- the period under study more than Col$16 billion gency management was performed by the MIJ in strengthening hospital infrastructure, standing through the National Calamity Fund (FNC), out as the sector that has made most effort to re- leaving limited resources for risk reduction. Es- duce seismic vulnerability. pecially in 2010, the MIJ spent approximately Investment in disaster management be- Col$832 billion for managing the tragedy that tween 1998 and 2010 was constant Col$5.7 billion, was sparked by La Niña in the country. The and in this period most money at the national level FNC, which mainly receives it resources from (85.1% of total) was channeled to this area. Between the PGN, according to Ingeniar Ltda. (2011), 1999 and 2001, through the now liquidated Re- has had irregular and insufficient flow of re- construction Fund for the Coffee Growing Re- sources, giving priority to disaster management gion (FOREC), a significant amount of resources and investing very little in activities for risk re- (Col$2.4 billion) was executed in disaster manage- duction despite the fact that both areas are part ment and response caused by the earthquake in of its objective. Therefore, the above-mentioned 350 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph A.6. Public investment in risk management by national entity 1,400,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 Other entities FNR Col$(2010) million 800,000 Aerocivil MPS 600,000 Invias MIJ 400,000 FOREC 200,000 - 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by PGN, DNP-SDAS, 2010. reveals the existence existence of a real gap in reduction, and 18.1% was allocated for disaster the main financial mechanism available to the management. The areas of education (5%), gov- system to encourage and internally cofinance ernance (1.6%), and knowledge and informa- risk management (Graph A.6). tion (1.6%) were placed in marginal positions. Unlike the national level, where investment in governance and education areas is minimal, de- A.1.2. Regional investment in partments become more important in relative disaster risk management3 terms, although the total allocation of resourc- es in these areas still continues to be incipient. Departmental investment in risk manage- According to information provided by SDAS in ment as part of the total investment during the governance, the only registered budgetary ap- period of 2004-2008 was 0.65%, making it the ter- propriations in 2007 and 2008 were of Col$3.8 ritorial level with the fewest resources in absolute billion and Col$1.3 billion respectively. These and relative terms. In the period under analysis, resources were aimed at strengthening the the amounts were constant to Col$1 billion, Prevention and Response Committees. The showing a minimum percentage of investment ​​ area of knowledge and information received in 2006, equivalent to 0.37%, and a maximum about Col$5 billion concentrated in 2004 investment ratio in 2007 of 1.21%. On per capita terms, it averaged Col$1.8 billion annually. Within the priority area framework, 3 For this level of government, information was available only for the period 2004-2008, according to DNP databases. In order to analyze this 73.7% of the executed budget in departments information, some accounts that the DNP categorized as DRM or DRM- during the 2004-2008 period focused on risk related were rejected, as they do not report investment as such. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 351 (Col$1.1 billion) and 2005 (Col$3.3 billion), while in the following years investment de- Graph A.7. Public investment in risk management at creased to less than Col$200 million, as hap- departmental level by action axes pened in 2007 and in 2008. Returning to the​​ education area, it mainly shows an expendi- 160,000 140,000 ture made in 2004 in the department of Cun- 120,000 dinamarca (Graph A.7). 100,000 Col$(2010) million A strong increase is evidenced in 2007, 80,000 the year in which the concept of subsidies for 60,000 social housing improvement was introduced 40,000 (Col$78.6 million) and an ​​ unprecedented in- 20,000 vestment at the territorial level was made. Sub- 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 sidies for social housing improvement received Risk reduction Disaster management in only one year 25% of departmental spending Education Knowledge and information in risk management, and 80% of it was allocat- Governance ed to Antioquia. The area of ​​ disaster manage- ment performed in the same way that disaster Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by DNP-DDTS, data processing DNP-SDAS, 2010. response did: it increased from Col$5.1 billion in 2004 to Col$15.8 billion in 2005, decreasing in 2006 to Col$8.5 billion, and then increasing again in 2007 to Col$22.6 billion, with a fur- Graph A.8. Departmental investment in risk management ther decline in 2008 to Col$7.2 billion. These by funding source* for disaster management were shown values ​​ 160,000 throughout the national territory, with empha- 140,000 sis on the departments of Santander, Magda- 120,000 lena, Casanare, and Nariño, which accounted 100,000 Col$(2010) million for more than 50% of total resources. 80,000 Figures according to the funding sources 60,000 show that owned resources (current income free 40,000 of destination and specific destination) are those 20,000 that have the largest participation in risk man- 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 agement investment at the departmental level, followed by direct royalties. In this way, owned Other sources Unenforceable balance resources (47.6%) and royalties (27.3%) repre- Direct royalties Co nancing national entities Own resources Credit sent approximately 75% of the resources used by departments in risk management and are * Note: For this graph, other sources were used, such as SGP, FNR, FAEP, transferred rents, balances not executed from other years that also include the primary source of funding for risk reduc- sales of assets, financial returns, and others. tion (Graph A.8). Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. 352 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Given the low level of departmental fund and Cundinamarca (15.2%), but in terms of per allocation, this could be reinforced by the wide- capita investment Casanare, with a much smaller spread use of cofinancing projects (only 5.9% of population, reached Col$40,377, which means the investment in departmental DRM is funded four times the investment of the second depart- through national entities) and economic in- ment, Arauca, with an investment of Col$10,913 struments, following, for example, the model per capita. One should highlight the importance introduced by the CAR in environmental man- that direct royalties have for some departments in agement, which is funded in part with resources the funding of this area, amounting to about 50% from such instruments. As an example, several for Santander, Meta, and Arauca, and over 80% of CAR charge effluent fees for the right to dump funds for risk management activities in Casanare waste, a fee for using water, fees for forestry ex- and La Guajira (Graph A.9). ploitation, eco-labels, the Clean Development In assessing the relationship between disas- Mechanisms, the Forest Incentive Reforestation ter occurrence in a department and its response Certificate (CIF), and municipal compensation and responsibilities in facing disasters, overall it for landfill (Ecoversa, 2009). All these elements is not true that territorial entities with greater oc- seek to change the agents’ behavior against ac- currence of disasters are those that invest more in tions that produce high impact on environment risk management (whether it be in spending on and have consequences that negatively affect disaster management or on the four remaining the population. Additionally, these instruments areas) as a proportion to their total investment. serve as another way to raise some resources to Two indicators were defined to explain the above continue with environmental management and conclusion. The first was the responsibility for risk management4. risk management, understood to be the ratio In practice, the CAR do not have appropriate between investment in activities different from mechanisms through which to report their expenses disaster management (mainly risk reduction, in risk management. Despite the positive meaning but also governance, knowledge and informa- of using “alternative” funding instruments for risk tion, and education) and the total departmental management, or their being better for environmen- tal management, which by their close relationship creates a double impact in terms of investments made, these budgets are inconspicuous and do not 4 Likewise, the use of tax incentives to change disaster risk reduction per- formance is another option that should be analyzed. Among these types allow national or territorial control of the same5. of instruments used by the CAR are VAT deductions, income tax deduc- This also creates disarticulation between risk man- tions, and property tax conservation exemption (Ecoversa, 2009). 5 With the CAR, there are two tracks: either use the information contained agement carried out by the CAR and the different in each of the Action Plans, or use information from the General Comp- levels of government. troller of the Republic (CGR). In both cases, the information obtained is not reliable (it is based on projections, it presents information on resource A comparative analysis of the departments execution for only some years, and it is dissimilar because data cannot be shows that those with increased investment in risk compared across the different CAR). However, it is noted that the infor- mation collected by the CGR presents investments in DRM that cannot be management were Antioquia, Casanare, and Cun- ignored. The result of these data are investments worth Col$88.91 billion dinamarca, while per capita investment was headed adjusted to 2002 currency for the period 2002-2006, implemented by 24 CAR, with the Autonomous Regional Corporation for the Defense of by Casanare, Arauca, and Meta. Antioquia had the the Bucaramanga Plateau (CDMB), the Regional Autonomous Corpora- highest allocation of resources in risk management, tion of Cundinamarca (CAR), the Regional Autonomous Corporation of Santander (CAS), and the Regional Autonomous Corporation of Risaralda accounting for 27.5% of the total investment of all (Carder) contributing approximately 60% of the investment reported the departments, followed by Casanare (18.6%) (OSSO Corporation, 2009b). Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 353 Graph A.9. Per capita investment in risk management by department 45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 Col$(2010) 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 ATLANTICO CORDOBA QUINDIO BOLIVAR GUAINIA RISARALDA SAN ANDRES AND PROVIDENCIA AMAZONAS ANTIOQUIA ARAUCA BOYACA CALDAS CAQUETA CASANARE CAUCA CESAR CHOCO CUNDINAMARCA GUAVIARE HUILA LA GUAJIRA MAGDALENA META NARIÑO NORTE DE SANTANDER PUTUMAYO SANTANDER SUCRE TOLIMA VALLE DEL CAUCA VICHADA VAUPES Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. investment. The second indicator was the disas- quia), which could be described as positive, ter response, understood to be the ratio between but at the same time there are territorial en- expenditure on disaster management and the tities such as Córdoba, Valle del Cauca (with total departmental investment. The results are the highest total investment), Boyaca, Cesar, presented in the following charts for all depart- and others, which despite having large num- ments, placed according to their position on the ber of disasters do not invest in disaster risk scale facing the two indicators (highest to low- management8 (Graphs A.10 y A.11). est) and their relation to the position occupied by each department in the ranks of disaster oc- currence (also from high to low)6. Relating the position of the departmen- tal responsibility indicator and disaster occur- rence7, it can be concluded that departments with higher disaster occurrence are not those that invest more in risk reduction (e.g., Casa- 6 Information on the number of disasters was obtained from the DesIn- nare, Arauca, Meta, Sucre, Vaupes, Quindío, ventar database. 7 Graph A.10 presents favorable positions to the left and unfavorable to and Putumayo). Certain kinds of proportion- the right, with the center as an area that shows proportionality in risk ality are observed between the two variables management investment facing occurrence of disasters. 8 The last departments are discarded from the analysis in the responsibil- in some departments (Caldas, La Guajira, ity indicator scale (and response as well) because they reported a Col$0 Norte de Santander, Risaralda, and Antio- investment or did not report. 354 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph A.10. Departmental scale of risk management responsibility indicator and the number of disasters recorded 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ATLANTICO QUINDIO CORDOBA BOLIVAR GUAINIA CASANARE ARAUCA META SUCRE PUTUMAYO MAGDALENA CUNDINAMARCA CALDAS LA GUAJIRA SAN ANDRES AND PROVIDENCIA NORTE DE SANTANDER AMAZONAS RISARALDA GUAVIARE ANTIOQUIA NARIÑO SANTANDER VICHADA CAQUETA CAUCA HUILA CESAR TOLIMA BOYACA CHOCO VALLE DEL CAUCA VAUPES Responsibility indicator position No. disasters position Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DNP-SDAS, 2010. Graph A.11. Departmental scale of disaster response indicator and disaster occurrence 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ATLANTICO QUINDIO CORDOBA BOLIVAR GUAINIA SAN ANDRES AND PROVIDENCIA GUAVIARE CASANARE MAGDALENA ARAUCA SUCRE HUILA RISARALDA LA GUAJIRA NORTE DE SANTANDER AMAZONAS NARIÑO SANTANDER PUTUMAYO CAQUETA META VICHADA CESAR CUNDINAMARCA CAUCA CALDAS CHOCO TOLIMA BOYACA VALLE DEL CAUCA ANTIOQUIA VAUPES Response indicator position No. disaster position Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DNP-SDAS, 2010. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 355 The relation between position on the disas- information (1.19%), governance (1.16%), and ter response indicator and position on the disas- education (0.8%) had marginal investments. ter occurrence shows that it is not true that those As is evident, the money aimed at risk reduc- departments that undergo most disasters are tion exceeded, as in the departmental level, those that invest most in disaster management. the money addressed to other areas of action, Departments that have few investment resources, and thus acquired more importance in relative such as San Andres and Guaviare indicate that terms (Graph A.12). they are relatively committed to being prepared In terms of public investment allocated to for an emergency response in spite of not having risk reduction between 2002 and 2008, develop- frequent events. On the other hand, it can be con- ment was unstable, with a pronounced tendency cluded that there are departments that have more to grow in 2003 and 2006. From the total funds resources, such as Valle del Cauca and Antioquia, invested in risk management, the scope of risk which have a high incidence of events and still do reduction corresponds to Col$2.9 billion. This not take the necessary appropriations for their investment was led by spending on the “water- disaster response. This may be related with the shed conservation” account in the amount of investment made by the nation in Valle, which Col$606 million, which was particularly strong shows that if there is national money earmarked in the 2004-2006 period, principally because of for disaster management as a result, the depart- the resources allocated to Bogota. Also, a peak ment does not make the investments it should is noted in 2003 due to the “housing construc- in this sense. Similarly, it is observed that there tion and improvement” account in the amount are departments “proportionally” committed to of Col$300.5 million, which only appeared disaster response, such as Santander, Norte de that year. In this case, investments were con- Santander, Nariño, Atlantic, Meta, Caqueta, and centrated in Bogota and Medellin. Regarding Putumayo (Graph A.10 y A.11). the “adequacy of urban areas in risk zones”, the money invested amounted to Col$165 million on actions that were executed principally in the A.1.3. Local investment in cities of Bogota and Medellin, followed by Cali disaster risk management9 and Cartagena. However, it should be noted that actions in watershed management, physical in- Municipal investment in risk management frastructure tasks in structural reinforcement, in absolute terms amounted to a total of Col$3.5 and the housing resettlement processes, among billion in 2010 pesos during the period 2002- others, are still insufficient to sustainably reduce 2008. In the period under analysis, the invested risk conditions, since there is no comprehensive amounts were the equivalent to 2.30% of total recognition of the problem in the territory, so municipal budget, showing a maximum in 2003 that interventions are not necessarily planned with a rate of 3.44%, and a minimum in 2008 and there is no national policy to guide such in- with a rate of 1.57%. In per capita terms, the an- vestments (Graph A.13). nual average was Col$12,012. The municipal budget appropriation in this area was focused on risk reduction activi- 9 For this level, the available information was for the period 2002-2008, according to DNP databases. To analyze this information, some accounts ties (83.1%) and secondarily on disaster man- cataloged in principle by DNP as risk management or related to it were agement (13.6%). The areas of knowledge and rejected, since they did not report investment. 356 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph A.12. Public investment in risk management at municipal level, by action axes* 800,000 700,000 600,000 500,000 Risk reduction Col$(2010) million Disaster management 400,000 Education Knowledge and information 300,000 Governance 200,000 100,000 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 *Note: Other sources: Etesa, FAEP, Cordoba and Sucre Department Fund, own capital resources (balances not executed from prior fiscal years, financial returns, asset sales, and endowments), and others. Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DNP-SDAS, 2010. Graph A.13. Municipal investment in risk reduction Risk reduction other accounts 700,000 Land irrigation, drainage, and recovery 600,000 High risk-zone settlement relocation 500,000 Protection against oods Adequacy of high-risk urban and rural areas 400,000 Col$(2010) million Reforestation and erosion control 300,000 Dwelling building and upgrading 200,000 Regulation of ows and water currents Subsidy for upgrading social interest dwellings 100,000 Investment in physical infrastructure for structural prevention and reinforcement 0 Preservation of microbasins 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by OSSO-EAFIT Corporation, 2011 and DNP-SDAS, 2010. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 357 Municipal investment in risk management tions, reflects part of this same result, since it is versus disaster management has been the second less expensive (in per capita terms) to manage most important area and accounted for 13.6%. large investments in municipalities with large Spending on disaster management has been in- populations, than in municipalities with fewer creasing continuously as a result of an increase than 10,000 inhabitants, such as those in cate- and provision of equipment for firefighters. The gory 6. For municipalities with lower incomes, increase of the allocation for disaster response is which are approximately 90% of the country, highlighted in the years 2006 and 2008, where the lack of scale of economies is an aggravating once again it was mainly assigned to Bogota and factor, where governance, knowledge and infor- the municipalities of Antioquia (Graph A.14). mation, and education are those with the fewest Like in the departments, the most impor- resources (Col$35 per capita in knowledge and tant funding source for risk management at the information, Col$79 in education, and Col$126 municipal level is the current revenue from the in governance). Thus, although compared with municipalities (37%), followed by transfers from other municipal categories, category 6 is not the the General Participation System (SGP) (21.1%). one that has the lowest per capita investment in The direct royalties (8.3%) at this level are situ- such areas, the fact is that it is unlikely that it ated in a second position, though they continue will have a palpable effect on the local society being relevant in oil-producing municipalities. (Table A.1). Highlighted is the credit-financed spending in 2006, which was almost entirely executed in Bo- gota and was used for structural reinforcement Table A.1. Per capita investment in risk management by and preventive measures. It is worth noting the municipal category in Col$(2010) low but ever-present coinvestment (national and departmental) as an instrument to encour- Municipal category Per capita investment (Col$) age resource channeling in risk management Special 16,729 (Graph A.15). 1 9,789 It is interesting to note that in local analy- 2 8,811 3 9,608 sis, the performance of investment in risk man- 4 7,814 agement by municipal categories indicates that 5 10,639 next to Special category municipalities (the larg- 6 10,980 est and with most resources, including Bogota, Source: Authors’ table from the information Medellin, Cali, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, and provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. Cucuta), those with highest per capita invest- ment in risk management are less populated municipalities with less of their own resources10. Municipalities that spend the least on risk man- agement (per capita), and by a significant margin, are in category 4. There is also a significant dif- 10 Municipalities in the Special category are Bogota, Medellin, Cali, Barran- quilla, Bucaramanga, and Cucuta (for the end of the analyzed period). ference in amount spent by Special category mu- Among category 1, during the period 2007-2008, the municipalities nicipalities compared to others. In this regard, it were Cartagena, Pereira, Manizales, Villavicencio, Ibague, several of the metropolitan areas of Valle de Aburra, Dosquebradas, Yumbo, among may be noted that the scale of economies, which others, totaling 14 in 2008. In turn, categories 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 in 2008 can be used by municipalities with large popula- had 14, 19, 22, 25, and 931 municipalities respectively. 358 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Graph A.14. Municipal investment in disaster management 140,000 120,000 Preparedness, development and update of emergency and contingency plans 100,000 Machines and equipment endowment Col$(2010) million 80,000 for re departments 60,000 Contracts entered into with re department for re control and 40,000 prevention 20,000 Disaster response 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010 . Graph A.15. Municipal investment in risk management by funding source* 800,000 700,000 600,000 Other sources Co nancing departmental entity 500,000 FNR Col$(2010) million 400,000 Direct royalties Co nancing national entity 300,000 Credit Current income 200,000 SGP 100,000 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 * Note: Other sources: Etesa, FAEP, Cordoba and Sucre Department Fund, own capital resources (balances not executed from prior fiscal years, financial returns, asset sale, and endowments) and, others. Source: Authors’ graph from the information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 359 Municipalities that had the most risk man- es radically, since small municipalities are the agement funding in the period under analysis are major recipients of royalties, putting them on Bogota, Medellin, and Cali, with approximately top of the list. These estimates contrast with 43% of total investment. Particularly noteworthy the municipalities with the highest invest- is Bogota’s investment execution (Col$1.016 bil- ment per capita which were Castilla la Nueva lion), which alone represented a third of what (Meta), Col$542,262, Cantagallo (Bolivar) was invested by all municipalities, and was with Col$296,588, and Aguazul (Casanare) about four times more in absolute terms than with Col$211,207 per person. However, it the investment made by Medellin (Col$230 ​​ bil- should be noted that the data and impacts lion) which was second on the list, while Cali of actions showed a lack of monitoring, and ranked third with Col$159 billion (Table A.2.). therefore generate some skepticism given the Estimates of risk management invest- magnitude of the figures. ment per capita show that the spectrum chang- Table A.2. Municipalities with most investment in risk management in Col$(2010) during the period of 2002-2008 Investment in governance, knowledge, Disaster management No. Municipality Total education, and risk reduction investment 1 Bogota 896,201,098,021 120,527,515,690 1,016,728,613,711 2 Medellin 205,070,077,409 22,112,954,119 227,183,031,528 3 Cali 111,009,847,437 47,995,910,592 159,005,758,029 4 Cartagena 68,778,857,762 5,953,171,403 74,732,029,165 5 Montería 48,342,333,530 6,349,286,311 54,691,619,840 6 Villavicencio 46,180,723,061 3,412,549,884 49,593,272,945 7 Envigado 38,840,822,987 4,482,067,506 43,322,890,493 8 Barranquilla 29,590,184,562 12,739,266,173 42,329,450,735 9 Aguazul 40,141,539,941 1,661,161,721 41,802,701,662 10 Manizales 26,565,277,060 5,563,445,781 32,128,722,841 11 Girón 30,937,113,681 940,590,536 31,877,704,217 12 Pereira 21,811,996,278 7,914,098,883 29,726,095,162 13 Pasto 25,016,434,836 4,539,705,196 29,556,140,032 14 Barrancabermeja 25,157,470,718 2,309,290,937 27,466,761,655 15 Neiva 24,974,555,464 2,356,796,408 27,331,351,872 Source: Authors’ table from information provided by DNP-SDAS, 2010. 360 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies A.2. PROGRESS in disaster risk management A.2.1. Progress in risk system are the CAR, territorial entities, research management at the national level institutes attached to and affiliated with the Min- istry, and other public, private, and nongovern- Risk management governance mental institutions. The SINA has formulated, guided, and promoted environmental policies Risk management policies are not coor- and regulations at the territorial and sectorial lev- dinated with public administration in Colombia els in areas such as renewable natural resources, and their implementation is deficient in terms of land use, land use planning, business, and insti- efficiency and effectiveness. A preliminary evalu- tutional management for sustainability, drinking ation of Conpes Document 3146 (DNP, 2009) water, basic and environmental sanitation, territo- conducted by the DNP concluded that the poli- rial and urban development, and integral housing. cies have not been fully implemented and that It has also made progress in a process-oriented although implementation effectiveness is 77%, approach for establishing functions, roles, and re- results have been achieved later than was origi- sponsibilities. In this regard, the SNPAD is lagging nally set forth. Regarding efficiency, the Conpes in basic elements that ensure risk management Document was rated at only 29%. The strategies governance in the country. for strengthening the SNPAD and disseminating The proposals for strengthening and up- risk and disaster prevention and mitigation had dating the regulatory framework for disaster risk the lowest efficiency ratings (4% and 5%, respec- management in Colombia have not produced con- tively). In this regard, the policy instrument has crete results. Conpes Document 3146 stipulates been partially implemented and there is evidence the need to update Decree 919 of 1989 with re- of weak coordination both with the correspond- gard to jurisdiction, coordination mechanisms, ing entities and with the rest of the planning in- and financing for disaster risk management; fur- struments related to risk management. thermore, the 2006-2010 National Development Although the SNPAD was established in Plan established the requirement to revise and 1988 and has a broad legal and regulatory frame- update the regulatory framework of the SNPAD work, its development is incipient in comparison and other related regulations, so that territo- with more recent systems such as the SINA (Na- rial entities could develop, within their jurisdic- tional Environmental System). The SINA contains tion, technical and financial instruments that are a set of guidelines, rules, activities, resources, in agreement with an integral approach to risk programs, and institutions for implementing the management and ensure that resources are per- general environmental principles set forth in the manently available. In spite of existing actions Constitution and Law 99 of 1993. Its governing and obligations, the update initiative has not yet body is the Ministry of the Environment, Hous- materialized in the country. ing, and Territorial Development (currently the As mentioned in Chapter 2, the strength- Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable ening by national-level entities of regional Development). Other entities that make up the and local committees for disaster prevention Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 361 and management is an essential requirement for 7293-CO). During the first phase, the goal was the sustainability of risk management actions. to formulate policy guidelines for risk manage- One of the main organizational gaps is the ment in the country based on the preparation general weakness of the regional and local of a conceptual framework and a diagnosis of committees, which are part of the SNPAD. Al- SNPAD regulations, and involving processes though there are exceptions in big cities, these with the participation of the different entities of committees are characterized by a deficient the SNPAD. During the second phase, the goal ability for action, coordination, and coopera- was to propose regulations for implementing tion among territorial entities, a lack of clar- a policy and a National Disaster Risk Manage- ity in functions and responsibilities, as well as ment System, in coordination with a strategy deficiencies in human, technical, and financial for financial sustainability. In order to develop resources, all of which have an obvious impact plans for transferring risk, the MHCP, with the on effective risk management. These gaps lead support of the DNP, Bank of the Republic, the to a lack of governance for addressing the is- Bank Superintendence, La Previsora Fiduciary, sue at various levels. Priority must be given to and the DGR, carried out a risk transfer study the creation and implementation of a strategy that included guidelines for promoting massive for strengthening local committees, especially disaster insurance for public and private prop- with support from national- and regional-level erty and so-called catastrophe bonds. technical and operating entities for carrying Monitoring and evaluation are essential out actions related to knowledge and reduction tools for analyzing compliance with risk man- of risk and disaster management. agement obligations and their effectiveness. The inclusion of risk management in sec- Evaluating risk management performance at all toral planning processes (health, drinking water levels of the SNPAD requires different tools for and basic sanitation, the environment, agricul- monitoring the effectiveness of public admin- tural development, and industrial safety) has not istration and compliance with obligations and produced compelling results. Above all, there is goals set forth in various plans. On the other a lack of coordination and integration among hand, although there are control mechanisms expected goals. The first actions taken should and supervising entities – such as the System make scaled information available in the form of for Managing and Monitoring Government maps and sectoral studies in order to prioritize Goals (SIGOB) - there is a need for monitor- and guide decisions, and should have an integral ing and greater support in order to ensure approach to incorporating sectoral risk manage- coordination among the processes performed ment into national development plans. by the entities in the system, prioritization of There are no financial protection policies programs and projects, and effectiveness of in Colombia. Awareness of this situation has led planned and executed investments. Since the to the execution of the following projects: the PNPAD was created, the subject of risk man- 2004 project titled Support for Strengthening Fi- agement has been incorporated into each Na- nancial Policies and Instruments of the National tional Development Plan during the last four Disaster Prevention and Management System presidential periods; however, the goals and (DGR), and the Program for Reducing the Fis- indicators that were established do not reflect cal Vulnerability of the Government to Natural the scope that was planned and cover what was Disasters (APL 1), which began in 2002 (IBRD proposed in the narrative only partially. 362 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Knowledge and information national level, which is used as a strategic input for building risk knowledge. Maps with land- Significant progress has been made in moni- slide, flood, and seismic hazards, as well as haz- toring seismic and volcanic hazards in the country; ard maps for the most important volcanoes are however, the early warning systems currently imple- available in the country. The Ideam, the SGC, mented for floods and landslides are inadequate. the OSSO Corporation, the CAR, seismic and Networks for monitoring seismic, volcanic, geotechnical engineering associations, univer- climatic, meteorological, and hydrological sities, and other entities have been essential for conditions are available across the country advancing the understanding and knowledge of and cover 96% of the territory. As a result of hazards. Furthermore, a geo-referenced inven- the process of updating and expanding seismic tory of disasters due to historic and ordinary and volcanic surveillance networks, 12 active events, with records since 1970, is available volcanoes are permanently monitored from through DesInventar, a tool for classifying and three volcanological observatories (Manizales, consulting the database. The tool has various Popayan, and Pasto), in order to provide infor- resolution levels (municipal, departmental, and mation and issue early volcanological alerts to national), which allow the magnitude of the im- the entities of the SNPAD. Furthermore, the pact of disasters to be estimated. On account of SGC (formerly Ingeominas) has expanded and its importance and usefulness, it is desirable to modernized the seismological stations off the strengthen it by including criteria for assessing Pacific coast of Colombia (stations in Tumaco, the economic impact of disasters. Gorgona, Málaga, Malpelo, and Solano), and Seismic hazard is one of the most studied has installed a Network of GPS Satellite Sta- phenomena. A national hazard map, a techni- tions in Malpelo, Tumaco, and Buenaventura, cal standard for seismic-resistant construction with the purpose of improving the information (since 1984), and risk assessments for some cit- on tsunami hazards and providing input for ies are available. Nationwide seismic activity is constantly updating the National Tsunami Risk monitored by the SGC and there are regional Management System (Office of the President observatories such as the OSSO (Southwest Seis- of the Republic of Colombia, 2010a). These mic Observatory). The cities of Bogota, Man- advances have been made in accordance with izales, Pereira, Armenia, Medellin, Popayan, the obligations established in development and Cali have carried out seismic microzoning plans and allow for the strengthening of risk studies. Programs for managing the reduction management insofar as monitoring is useful of seismic risk involving projects for reinforc- for updating and developing hazard maps and, ing the structures of health centers, schools, and therefore, making decisions. However, very few other buildings have been executed in Bogota. early warning systems for floods, landslides, Although studies of flood hazards have avalanches, mudslides, and other events have been conducted, it is necessary to advance the been implemented at the local level, and it is knowledge of this type of phenomena. The Ide- necessary to work in a coordinated fashion on am generates precipitation maps and intensity, their design, implementation, and operation. duration, and frequency curves for various ar- Various institutions, regional entities, as- eas of the country. It has also prepared nation- sociations, and nongovernmental organizations wide maps of areas vulnerable to flooding that have generated information about hazards at the prioritize the information on past events and Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 363 the topography of the low-lying areas of valleys evaluating the level of physical vulnerability of and basins. On the other hand, various public specific elements. There have been still fewer and private entities have hazard maps for some studies done in evaluating social, economic, and basins in Colombia. However, considering the environmental vulnerability. large amount of basins that exist in Colombia, Implementing a methodology-based strat- there is a need for greater information coverage egy for advancing the knowledge of hazards and on this type of hazards, which can be used as a risks that takes into account different territorial basic input for risk management and territorial levels is an essential requirement for decision- planning processes. making. The strategy must include the prepara- There are different approaches to iden- tion of specific terms of reference for detailed tifying landslide hazards in the country. How- hazard and risk studies that allow decision mak- ever, it is essential to carry out studies with a ers to conduct processes for generating knowl- greater level of detail for supporting decision edge and truly incorporate risk management in making in risk reduction and urban and rural regions and municipalities. It is also necessary land use planning. The Ideam and the SGC have to specify what type of information maps must carried out nationwide and local-level studies in contain so that they can not only be read and order to understand these phenomena. How- used appropriately in planning processes, but ever, the use of the information provided by sta- also used to establish programs and projects for bility studies requires a spatial understanding of disaster risk reduction. mass removal phenomena and their relation to Risk management requires needs to be uses and activities that take place in their sphere coordinated with adaptation to climate change. of influence. Therefore, it is essential to carry Although there are initiatives in this matter, de- out studies with an appropriate level of detail in ficient knowledge, decoupling of institutions, order to guide specific risk reduction decisions. and a limited vision of the issue reduce the ef- Very little progress has been made regard- fectiveness of interventions. Multiple technical, ing knowledge of vulnerability in Colombia. regulatory, and environmental initiatives related Vulnerability is a function of the exposure to the to climate change and options for adapting to elements, the resistance to a specific phenom- it have been identified. However, they do not enon, and the degree of resiliency. The evalua- necessarily complement disaster risk manage- tion of exposure includes information about the ment initiatives. The main initiatives include location and conditions of settlements, the char- the approval by Colombia of the United Nations acteristics of dwellings and infrastructure, and Framework Convention on Climate Change the economic activities. To that end, informa- (UNFCCC); Law 164 of 1994; the approval by tion generated by the DANE, IGAC, MAVDT, Colombia of the Kyoto Protocol (Law 629 of MADR, the Ministry of Public Works, Cama- 2000); the First and Second National Communi- col, and others, is used. Vulnerability analysis cation on Climate Change; the 2002 Guidelines includes technical evaluations that seek to es- for Climate Change Policy; Conpes Document tablish the resistance of exposed elements to a 3242 of 2003, regarding a national strategy for specific phenomenon. There are some studies on the sale of environmental services for mitigat- physical vulnerability, especially to seismic risk. ing climate change; Conpes Document 3700 of With respect to landslides, floods, avalanches, 2011, regarding an institutional strategy for co- etc., very few studies have been performed for ordinating climate change policies and actions 364 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies in Colombia; the National Board for Education, i. SGC has a corporate portal for accessing Training, and Awareness of the Public; the 2010 seismic activity reports as well as catalogs, National Plan for Climate Change Adaptation maps, perception surveys for recording (PNACC); the Colombian Strategy for Low- seismic intensity, educational materials, etc. Carbon Development (ECDBC); the National The information from seismic and volcanic Strategy for Reduction of Emissions Caused by monitoring networks is coordinated with Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Devel- some of the entities of the SNPAD. How- oping Countries and the Role of Preservation, ever, there are limitations for the analysis Sustainable Forest Management, and the In- of this information by other systems due to crease of Forest Carbon Reserves in Developing the format in which it is published (image Countries (ENREDD+); the Disaster Financial format). Information on alerts is not inte- Protection Strategy, and others. grated with other institutions like UNGRD Information must be accessible and relevant and Ideam. Although progress has been for decision making and must use appropriate lan- made in transmitting the information in a guage to foster capabilities and behaviors through format that is understandable, there are still ex ante and ex post risk management actions. Dur- gaps in guidelines on using cartography, ing the last two decades, the subject of information especially regarding land use planning and diffusion mechanisms has been a priority for the development planning. country, as reflected in the commitments estab- ii. Ideam has a major hydrometeorological lished in various planning instruments (PNPAD, monitoring network and offers real-time in- Conpes, and National Development Plans). As a formation products (bulletins, maps, alerts, result, the Integrated Information System has haz- etc.). The Daily Technical Report on Alerts is ard maps of seven departments (for floods, mass published on the website of the Ideam before removal, landslides, and volcanic hazard), which noon and is sent via e-mail and fax to the are accompanied by basic cartography (depart- UNGRD and various entities throughout the mental and municipal limits, rivers, and roads) country; special reports are also produced (Office of the President of the Republic of Colom- when necessary. However, limitations have bia, 2010a). However, the design and operation of been identified when other entities access an information system with an accurate integral and use this information. It is feasible to im- focus has not materialized yet. The achievements prove the distribution mechanisms and ap- to date are more intrainstitutional than interin- plicability of alerts. stitutional, and no information crucial to disaster iii. UNGRD has an internal information system management (organizational structures, tasks and and some public applications (documentary functions, inventories, standard damage reports, information and alerts). Limitations exist etc.) has been produced in a coordinated manner. due to a lack of coordination with regional There is even a requirement for establishing pro- and local committees (emergency reports, cesses to guide updates to information according integrated damage evaluations, coordina- to entities responsible for themes and platforms tion of resources), poor diffusion of alerts to for its diffusion. Below is a list of the geographical other entities using inefficient mechanisms information systems that contain the majority of (manual systems), and a lack of systematic information on their advances and weaknesses: updates to disaster inventory databases. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 365 Education and communication to identify risk reduction strategies. The Strat- egy had three components: (i) development of Both the PNPAD and Conpes Document research on hazards and risks, (ii) education and 3146 have established an education and com- the inclusion of the subject of risk reduction in munication strategy for risk management. Fur- education, and (iii) ownership and dissemination thermore, the subject is included in the risk of knowledge on risks from and to the regions. management strategy of the National Develop- Although the implementation of the Strategy got ment Plan. However, the importance of education off to a good start by supporting the strengthen- and communication has not been made visible. A ing of capabilities in the education sector by pro- preliminary evaluation of the Conpes document moting the idea of safe education facilities and (DNP, 2009) concludes that a strategy for dis- emergency preparation programs, it has been seminating prevention and mitigation of risks weakened over the years. Furthermore, no sys- and disasters, including training and education tematic monitoring is being carried out and there of communities, communication and informa- are gaps in coordination among national-, re- tion for decision making, and elevation of pub- gional-, and local-level agents. Additionally, there lic awareness, has an effectiveness rating of only is the challenge of working in coordination with 13%. There is even a disparity in the progress the National Climate Change System which was made in the implementation of activities: for recently created. example, entities such as the MADR and MPS have made less progress than the DGR and the Risk reduction MAVDT. Regarding efficiency, the Conpes doc- ument points out that it is one of the most inef- Significant progress has been made in ficient strategies (5% efficiency). The rating is a government investment processes in Colombia. reflection of the gaps in the subject and the par- Nevertheless, the incorporation of disaster risk tial and uncoordinated application of the strat- management is still at an early stage and its inclu- egy, which suggests it is a rhetorical component sion in sectoral planning is incipient. At the na- of planning instruments that lacks any real per- tional level, there has a been a gradual increase in formance of its obligations. This situation is evi- awareness of the importance of introducing risk dent in the goals of the 2006-2010 PND, which management in government investment projects are not coherent with the need to strengthen a and carrying out risk analysis to ensure effective culture of prevention. and sustainable territorial interventions. How- There is a lack of continuity in the efforts to ever, the practical implications of this awareness coordinate risk management with science and tech- are not as compelling as might be expected. The nology, education, and the environmental system. General Adjusted Methodology (MGA) from the The National Science and Technology System Bank of National Investment Programs and Proj- demonstrated significant progress in 2002 by for- ects (BPIN) is available to the DNP when prepar- mulating a Strategy for Strengthening Science, ing investment projects. Although the need for Technology, and Education for Risk Reduction risk analysis at various project stages has been and Disaster Management (Ministry of the Inte- established as a requirement, the corresponding rior et al, 2002), which established that the SN- parameters are still basic, with an emphasis on PAD, the SINA, and the Education, Science, and hazard conditions and a lack of coordination with Technology System shall work in coordination the other project formulation modules. 366 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The availability of measures for anticipat- the Republic of Colombia, 2010a). Subsequently, ing the creation of risk conditions implies work- the government of Colombia has been monitoring ing on underlying causal factors in a territory. resources amounting to Col$24.6 billion that were Reducing existing risk before it materializes in di- assigned for the 2008-2009 fiscal year to structural saster conditions requires the deployment of cor- reinforcement works in hospitals (Office of the rective or compensatory intervention measures. President of the Republic of Colombia, 2010b). There is a requirement for actions in environ- Furthermore, the MPS issued Resolution 976 of mental management, land use planning, and de- 2009 in order to respond to the “Disaster-Safe velopment planning, as well as interventions for Hospitals” Global Initiative, a nationwide program reducing hazard and/or vulnerability levels and for risk reduction in the health sector. Ecopetrol their potential effects on population groups, infra- also completed studies and designs for 94% (251) structure, and existing platforms for goods and ser- of its buildings and executed reinforcement works vices. In response, there are efforts by the Program on 55.8% of them, even though, according to the for Reducing Fiscal Vulnerability to Natural Disas- studies, 66 buildings did not require any kind of ters, through which the government of Colombia intervention. provided technical assistance from 2006 to 2011 to 792 municipalities (equivalent to 72% of all the Disaster management municipalities in the country) for including risk analysis in their POT and PD, and 379 of which The recent rainy season in Colombia re- currently have an action plan. Furthermore, 34 vealed important facts about the country’s capac- municipalities have zoning studies of hazards and/ ity and regional and local bodies to handle disaster or risks. Figure A.1 lists these municipalities and situations. Following the La Niña phenomenon in their current project status. In this regard, a greater the country, officially taking place between April 6, diffusion of guidelines, materials, and instruments 2010, and June 30, 2011, generated a total of 3,379 developed at the national level is desirable, in or- reported events, which affected 1,052 municipali- der to guide the incorporation of risk management ties in 28 departments plus the Capital District, in the POT because, as of today, the visibility and causing a total of 486 deaths, the destruction of ownership are still not as high as required. about 16,000 houses, and causing damage to an- In order to reduce the government’s fiscal other 550,000 dwellings. In addition to the impacts vulnerability in vital infrastructure, a structural from the closure and destruction of the country’s reinforcement of strategy is required. In compli- road system, mobility problems, and economic ance with the provisions of the National Seismic- and social effects on population groups, Bolivar, Resistant Regulation and Law 715 of 2001, the Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Norte de Santander, Boya- MPS designed a technical assistance and cofinanc- ca, Cundinamarca, and the Coffee Growing region ing strategy for evaluating the seismic vulnerability emerged as the most affected regions (SNPAD and of health institutions. In this regard, investments DGR 2011). Regarding this it can be said that de- amounting to Col$3.986 billion (2010 Colombian spite the concentration of resources invested in the pesos) were made from 2003 to 2005 in 161 stud- country, there is no clarity as to disaster manage- ies for structural reinforcement of Level 1, Level 2, ment actions or factors relating to the coordina- and Level 3 of hospitals, and structural reinforce- tion, logistics, communication, and capacities of ment works amounting to Col$44.114 billion that the entities in the different territorial levels, requir- were cofinanced from 2006 to 2009 in 14 Level 2 ing not only a strengthening but a transformation and Level 3 hospitals (Office of the President of that goes beyond emergency response actions. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 367 Figure A.1. Incorporation of risk management in land use planning TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FROM 2006 TO 2011 IN INCORPORATION OF RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE POT LEGEND Departmental border TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE IN INCORPORATION OF RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE POT, 2006 TO 2010 Assisted municipalities in risk management incorporation in the POT. Assisted municipalities in preparation of hazard zoning studies, vulnerability, and risk, and assisted in incorporaton of risk management in the POT. Source: MVCT, 2011. There are strategies for the formulation 2001). Based on this, progress has been made of national guidelines and protocols for the in Departmental and Local Emergency and preparation of disaster response, but there are Contingency Plans, as well as Emergency Sec- gaps in the governing instruments. The experi- toral and Institutional Plans. ence gained caused by disaster events that have There are Local Emergency and Contin- occurred in the country facilitates the prepa- gency Plans (PLEC) to confront different types of ration and updating of the acting protocols events, but there is a lack of a leading instrument in case of national disaster. However, these in terms of a national emergency plan to guide protocols do not show great clarity regarding the management of disasters in the country. the functions assigned to those responsible Colombia has six PLEC available that provide (Presidential Directive 005 of November 27, guidance for similar instruments at the region- 368 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies al/local levels (forest fires, oil spills, natural A.2.2. Progress in risk gas transportation, tsunamis, massive influx management at regional level events, confronting events such as El Niño and the case of the Galeras volcano eruption, Governance in risk management where the country has an institutional coordi- nation process). However, there is no National The SNPAD decentralization process has Emergency Plan, as a leading instrument to been internalized inadequately at a departmen- guide disaster management actions (includ- tal level. While departments have created the ing an interinstitutional structure, assigning Regional Committees for Disaster Prevention functions and responsibilities, coordination and Response (CREPAD), most of them meet mechanisms, communication and implemen- only in emergencies and do not have specific tation, and activation, and control actions). agendas for issues related to prevention and This implies, in particular, a critical factor in mitigation. Few departments have Depart- relation to the definition of a specific network mental Disaster Prevention and Response of actors that allows emergency response co- Plans. Issues related to disaster prevention and ordination and control, enabling those differ- responses are taken into account above all in ent groups to jointly carry out activities and Cundinamarca, Caldas, and Antioquia. have available standardized procedures. Also, There are instruments available at the re- articulation with other instruments available gional level, but there is a real inertia in their ac- for risk management is necessary. curate implementation, quality, and updating. The Damage and Needs Assessment is Although the situation is not widespread, as an essential task of the response process and mentioned before, there are a few Disaster should be coordinated with rehabilitation and Prevention and Response Departmental Plans, reconstruction processes. The SNPAD has de- and it is noted that in their implementation signed a unique instrument to collect general and monitoring processes, there are major lim- information regarding damages and needs, itations that reduce the scope and implementa- addressed to municipalities and departments tion of their objectives. This is due particularly as well as some sector spheres, which is use- to the lack of coordination between planning ful for carrying out the initial Damage and instruments and entities within the same ter- Needs Assessment (EDAN) once an adverse ritorial sphere, low levels of instrument inter- event occurs. However, these instruments nalization, and to the limitations of the same should provide support in targeting rehabili- Regional Committees and the loss of continu- tation and reconstruction activities, that is, ity in the training processes due to high per- they have to perform a key role in evaluating sonnel turnover. funding mechanisms, identification of future Despite the weak integration of the disas- projects, and foreseen interventions. Thus, a ter risk management approaches within politi- gap is displayed in the different territorial lev- cal processes, organizations, and CAR funding, els and with the sectoral disarticulation facing there is a core capacity in the institutional struc- different risk management processes. ture to incorporate this vision. The CAR know in depth the environmental problems facing Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 369 the regions, but there is still work to be done in a wide range of communication approaches, the understanding of the relationship between they have more capacity committed to com- environmental impacts and risk factors. The munities in tasks such as watersheds, wetlands, CAR, with better institutional capacity, have wilderness, and other sensitive ecosystem some knowledge of natural and anthropic conservation and management. Said channels hazards that occur in the territory. However, it have been directed almost exclusively toward is important to intensely look into (i) the un- environmental management and sustainable derstanding that environmental management management of natural resources, but have oriented at ecosystem managing, protecting, not been integrated with risk management. and recovering is linked to prospective risk However, it is important to mention that the management; and (ii) technical strengthening communities in such activities are without a of corporations to incorporate risk manage- doubt in line with risk reduction. ment in environmental planning instruments and in programs they are carrying out. Risk reduction Knowledge and information The reduction of existing risk and pre- vention of future risk is an integral objective There are failures in the production of risk of plans and environmental policies, but their analysis and diagnosis, and difficulties in the in- real impact has not been overwhelming. Gover- formation systematization. Diagnoses, regional nance mechanisms in environmental aspects, views, and environmental synthesis of planning in theory, should facilitate and enable a more instruments count on natural hazard informa- synergetic articulation with disaster risk man- tion, especially hydrometeorological. Unfor- agement. However, progress in implementing tunately, these diagnoses only have regional actions is still timid, despite the obvious inter- problematic issues and they are not used to sug- est that is generated by climate change adapta- gest alternative solutions for risk reduction. In tion issues in different sectors and institutional addition, some departments and the CAR have agents, integrated management of watersheds, basic information systems and protocols that do and territorial environmental planning. At de- not take into account protocols to systematize, partmental level, there are multiple regulations, save, and protect historical data. The data and instruments and methodological guidelines statistical series produced by the CAR are often (Regional Environmental Management Plans, incomplete, lack consistency, and do not have Environmental Agendas, Watershed Manage- the best quality standards. ment Plans, etc.), which have been generated in different temporal contexts and reflect in- Education and communication adequate articulation processes. In addition, they do not show consistency with other plan- Departments and the CAR have not de- ning instruments, such as Risk Management signed training and communication strategies Plans, the POT, and the PD. Moreover, there oriented at risk management. Education, com- is a shared concern for the need to expand the munication, and participation have not been climate change adaptation issue at territorial oriented at defining actions on disaster risk levels, and how knowledge (scales, levels of management. Moreover, while the CAR use certainty) would advance decision making. 370 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies The CAR have earmarked significant eco- A.2.3. Progress in risk nomic, human, and technical resources to mini- management at local level mize environmental impact, and this has had impact on reducing risk factors in the regions. Governance of risk management Appropriate interventions in environmental management, although they are not explicitly A genuine disaster risk management policy considered to have the goal of reducing risk has not been able to be consolidated and imple- factors, have been essential in minimizing mented in a comprehensive and articulated man- potential social and environmental disasters. ner in public administration. There have been Actions and investments to protect environ- advances in large cities incorporating risk man- mental resources, such as the protection of agement in their PD. These are pragmatic and riverbeds, construction of dams and retain- budgetary inclusions, as well as their recogni- ing walls, or measures to prevent erosion, can tion as the cross-cutting axes in the Municipal be capitalized for risk management and con- Administration Secretariats’ functions (envi- sidered on their own. However, the absence ronment, health, housing, infrastructure, and of a comprehensive analysis to plot potential planning). The Planning Secretariat is identi- risk reduction strategies, articulating envi- fied as the essential base of the articulation ronmental management with disaster risk between planning instruments and decision management, prevents adding results and can making (hazard and risk maps are essential for increase flood risk in some areas that have not land use planning, land use classification, is- been previously flooded. suance of building permits, etc). Furthermore, although efforts are being made in small mu- Disaster management nicipalities, through the Fiscal Vulnerability Reduction Program to Natural Disasters, the Emergency response actions and plans National Government between 2006 and 2010 conducted by the regional governments and the provided technical assistance to 528 munici- CAR by themselves are not able to reduce the palities, and currently only 128 of them have potential factors that trigger disaster risk. Due a Local Risk Management Plan (Presidency of to the rainy season, the need is made evident the Republic of Colombia, 2010a). for departmental entities and the CAR to play a Territorial differences are evident in re- more active role in response and rehabilitation lation to risk management effectiveness due to phases, with the aim of incorporating instru- limitations in access to economic and financial ments for disaster planning and prepared- resources and the availability of technical and ness. However, such plans per se are not able human capital. In most of the municipalities, to manage and control risk. It is necessary for although formally CLOPAD exist, they only planning tools to adopt more explicitly and act when they have to respond to an emergen- comprehensively a risk management approach cy or disaster, having few technical, financial, by building planning instruments not only and human resources and no infrastructure to with environmental emphasis and criteria, but execute actions. In some cases, they can only also by introducing the risk management vi- provide one delegated official as coordinator. sion and adaption to climate change. Additionally, and to the extent that the role Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 371 of the territorial entity is not clear (risk man- for educational institutions from the standpoint agement responsibility is not assigned to the of its vision and its impact on the organization Committee, but to the municipal executive of the curriculum, enabling its adaptation to a power), there is no clear political commit- particular context. PEI seeks conceptual and ment to this issue (Presidency of the Republic methodological integration of the risk concept of Colombia, 2010a). with other projects and different subjects in the Study Plans. Moreover, Resolution 7550 of 1994 Knowledge and information regulates the development of the School Proj- ect for Emergency and Disaster Prevention and There are important advances in the field Response as an integral part of the PEI and is of knowledge, although there are thematic and binding. From this, schools have created PAD territorial differences and inconsistencies of the School Committees, school brigades, and drill responsible people assigned to the activities. The developments. They also have the School En- subject of knowledge is conceived heteroge- vironmental Projects (PRAE), which are part neously. While microzoning studies for floods of the PEI, where its design and framework of and landslides and progress in studies of physi- possibilities have been developed on an ongoing cal vulnerability and damage scenarios in large basis through the National Environmental Edu- cities (e.g., Bogota, Cali, Manizales, and Pereira) cation Program in the Ministry of Education. are highlighted, in small towns there are gaps Despite the multiplicity of instruments, in small in information, making it difficult to advance municipalities raise a recurring criticism about in risk assessments. Among the main demands the disarticulation between different strategies made by small municipalities are problems relat- and instruments developed in the field of edu- ed to providing basic information (cartographic cation: PEI, PRAE, and School Plans for Risk and documentary) to cover rural areas, such as Management and Emergency Response Plans the limitations of scales and levels of details in on school grounds, among others. This disartic- existing hazard maps. These shortcomings nec- ulation is due to the fact that in many cases, all essarily affect their actual implementation in these plans are developed just to meet existing decision making, especially in the PD and ter- policies without having a real vision of preven- ritorial planning. On the other hand, limitations tion and emergency response. in terms of reviewing the technical quality of There are recognized experiences in pub- risk assessments (hardly any sources of informa- lic education and communication in disaster risk tion and lack of criteria and methodology stan- management. Although it is not a generalized dardization) and their monitoring processes are condition for all territorial areas, there are expe- recognized. riences, particularly in capital cities and in some departments, where there have been interest- Education and communication ing public awareness campaigns, among them campaigns such as “Bogota with its feet on the Different political and regulatory instru- ground” (Bogota, Cundinamarca), “Culture of ments related to risk management incorporation prevention and early warning” (Bogota, Cun- in formal education have been formulated within dinamarca), “Galeras Professorship” (Nariño), the education system. The Institutional Edu- “Toward citizens’ awareness in environmental cational Project (PEI) constitutes a stronghold education” (Quindio), “Living in community: 372 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies Everyone’s commitment” (Sandona, Nariño), and ers are justified by the lack of financial, technical, “Slope Guardians Program” (Manizales, Caldas), and human resources for not carrying out detailed among others. This denotes a move toward insti- studies, and for this reason they have not pro- tutionalization that is acquiring the subject and gressed in structuring a portfolio or a project bank the feasibility of articulation between different that ensures quality. This situation has implications educational, technical, and community entities. in emergency events, when local entities often pro- Under this framework, it would be desirable to pose projects that do not necessarily coincide with capitalize on these experiences and coordinate territorial planning priorities. with national entities to ensure their reproduc- tion and sustainability. Disaster management Risk reduction There are guidelines for instrument formula- tion at the local level, but there are also weaknesses Interventions to reduce existing risk con- in monitoring their real implementation, quality, ditions require better articulation with other de- and updating. Guides are available for the prepara- velopment planning instruments. Municipalities, tion of PLEC, and the national-level efforts in de- since the formulation of the POT based on the veloping skills make possible their development. information and knowledge about the territory, Nevertheless, it is noted that in their implementa- now have criteria for prioritizing interventions tion and monitoring process, there are limitations (potentialities and limitations of the territory), that reduce the scope of and compliance with the which should be incorporated into the PD, sec- instrument objective: (i) small municipalities that toral plans, and investment projects, which in do not establish a relationship between the risk turn should be aligned with the risk management scenarios and the likely disaster impact have to plans, environmental management plans, and face the needs in each of the functions and du- watershed management. However, gaps and dis- ties required by emergency and contingency re- continuities in the risk management actions and sponse, as well as the inventory of resources; (ii) lack of clarity in the prioritization of criteria and weakness or lack of harmonization of PLEC with verification mechanisms are some of the recur- warning systems and monitoring phenomena; and rent items in analyzing different territorial levels. (iii) low sense of instrument ownership by Disas- Investment project quality may be affected ter Prevention and Response Committees, as well by critical factors such as urgency of carrying out as disarticulation between entities within the same projects under emergency situations and deficient territorial level, plus lack of continuity in training project planning. In many cases, project develop- and development of professionals. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 373 A.3. PERCEPTION OF PROGRESS AT EACH OF THE TERRITORIAL LEVELs There is a certain correspondence between Both perceived differences between terri- the risk management investment expense under- torial levels and the thematic area development taken by different levels of government and how denote widely different assessments according to they perceive the actions implemented in disaster respondents. Progress in governance is assessed risk reduction. The overall average results of the as emerging (global average 2.5), and gaps and self-assessment survey show perception values​​ voids (in policies, organization, monitoring, from emerging up to acceptable in the five the- and funding) are perceived as the most critical matic areas of the HFA, and important differenc- element for municipalities in category 6, where es are perceived at the territorial level. It can be the issues of autonomy and decentralization are perceived that the greatest advances are identified still in process of consolidation and lead to the in the municipalities from the Special category need to make modifications and adjustments to and category 1, in contrast to the situation occur- SNPAD. As for the actions in knowledge and ring in the other municipalities of the country. In information, these are also assessed as emerg- the framework of the actions taken by the CAR ing (global average 2.9), with relevant variations in risk management, there has been progress in between country level and territorial entities, education and governance fronts more than in principally the responses obtained by the mu- national and territorial entities, although these nicipalities of the Special category and category levels do not exceed the acceptable range. 1 reporting more strengthened effectiveness ranges. The education and communication ac- tivities are evaluated as acceptable (overall aver- age 3.0), with similar situations at the national, Table A.3. Data sheet of self-assessment surveys of risk departmental level, and in large cities, and no management progress marked difference for small municipalities. Total surveys 225 surveys Moreover, the effectiveness of risk reduction ac- Surveys by National entities: 17 surveys tions is rated as acceptable (overall average 3.1), population target CAR: 23 surveys Departments: 12 surveys Municipalities in Special category and category 1: 14 surveys Municipalities in categories 2 to 6: 159 surveys 11 The “HFA Monitor” is an online instrument to capture information on the Instrument design 5 sections progress made i​​ n implementing the HFA, generated through a multisec- 15 indicators toral review process. The primary purpose of this instrument is to assist Collection method Virtual (through Survey Monkey*) countries in monitoring their progress and reviewing the challenges in the implementation of disaster risk reduction and recovery actions un- Dates From April 30, 2011, to June dertaken at the national level, in accordance with the priorities of the 20, 2011 HFA. With this national consultation, processes are carried out to collect relevant information pertaining to risk management actions. The official *Survey Monkey is an online software tool that allows users to create report for Colombia for 2009-2011 is available at surveys and questionnaires. http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/progress/reports/index. php?o=pol_year&o2=DESC&ps=50&hid=2010&cid=37&x=8&y=10. 374 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies where the current situation in the country and indicate that the vision of the national govern- territorial entities shows no major variations, ment entities, within the Hyogo Framework for but the insights obtained for small municipali- Action, gives higher grades to disaster manage- ties show more critical conditions, compared ment over other priorities, such as governance, with other territorial levels. Finally, the effec- knowledge and information, and education. Di- tiveness in disaster management is assessed as saster management is considered of great impor- acceptable (overall average 3.4), being the risk tance in the context of the actions taken at the reduction area that has been rated in perception national level and their effectiveness is qualified surveys (Graph A.16). by a notable score (4). The results are consistent The perception from the national level is con- with the analysis of public investment assigned to sistent with the resources invested in this sphere, risk management. The second area of ​​ importance especially in relation to disaster management. is risk reduction which, in the country, once more The results showed by the self-assessment surveys receives more investment resources (Graph A.17). Graph A.16. Risk management effectiveness by action axes and indicators for each territorial level 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Policy Monitoring Information Syst. Organization Participation Financing Evaluation Control Alerts Education Environment Land use plans Development projects Disaster management Governance Knowledge and information Education Risk reduction Disaster management Nation Departments CAR Special and category 1 municipalities Category 2 to 6 municipalities Source: World Bank, 2011c. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 375 Graph A.17. Effectiveness of disaster risk management at national level 5,0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.0 3.0 Level of e ectiveness 3.0 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Policy Monitoring Organization Participation Financing Evaluation Control Information system Alert Education Environment Land use plans Development projects Disaster management Governance Knowledge and information Education Risk reduction Disaster management Source: World Bank, 2011c. Contrasting self-assessment surveys con- to a major institutional and regulatory reform ducted by the World Bank with the National in the subject for the country (Graph A.18). Progress Report on Implementing the Hyogo At the departmental level, the effective- Framework for Action in Colombia12, it appears ness of action in risk management reports bet- that in general the report has higher levels of ter self-assessments in the spheres of disaster achievement, although the justification and lim- management and risk reduction. The results are itations reported are similar to the arguments consistent with the resources invested by these compiled by the Bank. The progress review territorial entities. Surveys show that depart- made by the Government of the five HFA pri- mental entities have a better appreciation of ority areas notes that disaster management and their performance in terms of disaster man- governance are the areas where the country has agement and risk reduction (both rated at ac- been vastly strengthened: response capabilities, ceptable levels) over other priority areas, such disaster management instruments, and finan- as governance and knowledge and informa- cial strategies, as well as organizational frame- tion. Positive assessments of these actions have works and policies are some of the factors that even been made in education, especially by were improved. While the trend of the ratings the CAR, with levels much higher than those (though not the level of achievement assigned) obtained for other local areas. However, when is similar to that obtained in surveys of per- the results are put into perspective and com- ception, it is a paradox that national reality denotes its main limitations and gaps in these same factors. These factors became more vis- 12 The “HFA Monitor” for Colombia 2009-2011 is available at ible and critical from the last La Niña phenom- http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/progress/reports/index. enon (2010-2011), which was a part of what led php?o=pol_year&o2=DESC&ps=50&hid=2010&cid=37&x=8&y=10. 376 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies pared with the resources invested, it is clear ing the link between local areas, the availability that departments are not making a substantial of resources, and a limited scope of action from contribution to risk management, reflecting a a regional level. A low score in funding is evi- passive attitude of their territorial reality and dent (1.9), and for education the survey reports thus making evident the existing gaps regard- an acceptable level (3) (Graph A.19). Graph A.18. National Progress Report on the Implementation of Hyogo Framework for Action, Colombia 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Level of e ectiveness 2.0 1.0 0.0 Policy Resources Participation Organization Evaluation Monitoring Recovery and rehabilitation Alerts Regional projects Information availability Education Sensitization Environment Development plans sectoral Land use plans Development project Prepardness and risk plans Inventories/evaluation Investigation Disaster management capacity Financial aid Governance Knowledge and information Education Risk reduction Disaster management Source: Authors’ graph from information provided by MIJ-DGR, 2010. Graph A.19. Effectiveness of disaster risk management at departmental and CAR levels 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 Level of e ectiveness 3.0 2.9 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.0 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Policy Organization Participation Financing Monitoring Evaluation Control Information system Alerts Education Environment Land use plans Development projects Disaster management Governance Knowledge and information Education Risk reduction Disaster management Departments CAR Source: World Bank, 2011c. Appendixes. From Planning to Implementing Disaster Risk Management in Colombia 377 The perception from the municipal level in traterritorial entities. Usually, in the municipali- relation to performance actions in risk manage- ties of categories 2 to 6, Disaster Prevention and ment is assessed as acceptable, although signifi- Response Committees depend on the Govern- cant interterritorial differences are observed for ment Secretariat, reducing their participation small municipalities that self-assessed as the least and articulation with other planning processes, effective. While the areas of risk reduction and which necessarily must be articulated for risk disaster management are perceived with accept- management (POT, PD, Environmental Agen- of effectiveness, areas of governance, able values ​​ das, etc.). Some experiences with government knowledge and information, and education re- agencies have been identified as responsible for ceive lower ranks, having coincided with the guiding, regulating, and coordinating actions investment structure. However, municipal self- in risk management in capital cities such as Bo- assessment by categories reveals that those in the gota, Manizales, and Medellin, and have been Special category and category 1 denote greatest achieved with a systemic approach operation. strengths in the production of knowledge and While risk reduction investments con- information, with levels above those of all other centrate more resources in relative terms in actors (national, departmental, CAR, and mu- municipalities, and the same entities surveyed nicipal categories 2 to 6) (Graph A.20). perceive that this is the area in which the biggest According to the perception reflected by progress has been made, in practice, gaps and the self-assessment results through surveys, it limitations are evident. Although efforts made can be assumed that at the local level, there is a by municipal authorities in risk management, concentration of operational and protectionist technical, financial, and human resources are actions with insufficient levels of coordination recognized, weaknesses are some of the items and articulation among the social inter- and in- that recurrently appear related to risk reduc- Graph A.20. Effectiveness of risk management at municipal level 5.0 4.5 4,0 3.8 3.8 3.5 3.2 3.3 3.6 3.5 3.1 3.2 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.8 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 2.8 Level of e ectiveness 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.5 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Policy Organization Participation Financing Monitoring Evaluation Control Information system Alerts Education Environment Land use plans Development projects Disaster management Governance Knowledge and information Education Risk reduction Disaster management Municipalities in Special category in category 1 Municipalities in categories 2 to 6 Source: World Bank, 2011c. 378 ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A contribution to the creation of public policies tion effectiveness. In this context, actions and and in general, there is no coordination among investments are still insufficient to substan- territorial entities. At this stage, interventions tially minimize risk conditions. 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Bibliography 393 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ACCI* Colombian International Cooperation Agency (Agencia Colombiana de Cooperación Internacional) AIS* Colombian Association of Seismic Engineering (Asociación Colombiana de Ingeniería Sísmica) ANI* National Infrastructure Agency (before 2011 National Concession Institute) (Agencia Nacional de Infraestructura) ASIC Trading System Administrator Asocars* Association of Regional Autonomous Corporations and Sustainable Development (Asociación de Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales y Desarrollo Sostenible) ATC* Freight Transportation Association (Asociación de Trasportadores de Carga) AXCO Insurance Information Services BPIN* Bank for National Investment in Programs and Projects (Banco de Programas y Proyectos de Inversión Nacional) CAF* Andean Development Corporation (Corporación Andina de Fomento) Camacol* Colombian Chamber of Construction (Cámara Colombiana de la Construcción) CAN Andean Community (Comunidad Andina) CAR* Regional Autonomous Corporation (Corporación Autónoma Regional) CAR* Regional Autonomous Corporation of Cundinamarca (Corporación Autónoma Regional de Cundinamarca) CARDER* Regional Autonomous Corporation of Risaralda (Corporación Autónoma Regional de Risaralda) CAS Regional Autonomous Corporation of Santander (Corporación Autónoma Regional de Santander) CASH* National Advisory Committee on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (Comisión Nacional Asesora de Agua, Saneamiento e Higiene) CCA Climate Change Adaptation CCO* Colombian Ocean Commission (Comisión Colombiana de Océano) CDMB* Regional Autonomous Corporation for the Defense of the Bucaramanga Plateau (Corporación Autónoma Regional para la Defensa de la Meseta de Bucaramanga) CGR* General Comptroller’s Office of the Republic (Contraloría General de la República) CIA Central Intelligence Agency CIF* Certified Forestry Reforestation Incentive (Certificado de Incentivo Forestal de Reforestación) CLOPAD* Local Committee for the Disaster Prevention and Response (Comité Local para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) 395 CMNUCC Framework Convention on Climate Change Colciencias* Administrative Department of Science, Technology, and Innovation (Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación) Coldeportes* Colombian Institute for Sport (Instituto Colombiano para el Deporte) Confis* Superior Council for Fiscal Policy (Consejo Superior de Política Fiscal) CONPAD* National Operating Committee for Prevention and Disaster Response (Comité Operativo Nacional para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) Conpes* National Council for Economic and Social Policy (Consejo Nacional de Política Económica y Social) CRA* Atlantic Autonomous Regional Corporation (Corporación Autónoma Regional del Atlántico) CREG* Energy and Gas Regulatory Commission (Comisión de Regulación de Energía y Gas) CREPAD* Regional Committee for Prevention and Disaster Response (Comité Regional para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) CSB* South Bolivar Corporation (Corporación del Sur de Bolívar) CTN-ERFEN* National Technical Committee for the Study of the El Niño Phenomenon (Comité Técnico Nacional para el Estudio del Fenómeno El Niño) CTN-PAD* National Technical Committee for Disaster Prevention and Response (Comité Técnico Nacional para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) CVS* Corporation of the Sinu Valley and San Jorge (Corporación de los Valle del Sinu y del San Jorge) DANE* National Statistics Administration Department (Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística) DCC* Colombian Civil Defense (Defensa Civil Colombiana) DDTS* Sustainable Territorial Development Office of the National Planning Department (Dirección de Desarrollo Territorial Sostenible del Departamento Nacional de Planeación) DGR* Risk Management Directorate - Ministry of Interior and Justice (Dirección de Gestión del Riesgo - Ministerio del Interior y de Justicia) DIMAR* General Maritime Directorate (Dirección General Marítima) DNP* National Planning Department (Departamento Nacional de Planeación) DPAD* Disaster Prevention and Response Directorate (Dirección de Prevención y Atención de Desastres) DPAE* Bogota Emergency Prevention and Response Directorate (Dirección de Prevención y Atención de Emergencias de Bogota) DRM Disaster Risk Management (Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres) EAAB* Bogota Aqueduct and Sewerage Company (Empresa de Acueducto y Alcantarillado de Bogota) 396 ECDBC* Colombian Strategy for Low-Carbon Development (Estrategia Colombiana de Desarrollo Bajo en Carbono) ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe) EDAN* Damage and Needs Assessment (Evaluación de Daños y Necesidades) EEB* Bogota Power Company (Empresa de Energía de Bogota) ENREDD+ National Strategy for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries and the Role of Conservation, Sustainable Management of Forests, and the Increase of Carbon Forest Reserves in Developing Countries (Estrategia Nacional para la Reducción de las Emisiones debidas a la Deforestación y la Degradación Forestal en los Países en Desarrollo, y la Función de la Conservación, la Gestión Sostenible de los Bosques y el Aumento de las Reservas Forestales de Carbono en los Países en Desarrollo) ENSO El Niño/South Oscillation ERN* Natural Risk Evaluation (Evaluación de Riesgos Naturales) FAEP* Savings Fund and Oil Stabilization (Fondo de Ahorro y Estabilización Petrolera) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fasecolda* Colombian Insurers Federation (Federación de Aseguradores Colombianos) FINDETER* Finance for Territorial Development (Financiera de Desarrollo Territorial) FNC* National Calamity Fund (Fondo Nacional de Calamidades) FNCV* National Rural Roads Fund (Fondo Nacional de Caminos Vecinales) FNR* National Royalties Fund (Fondo Nacional de Regalías) Fonade* Financial Fund for Development Projects (Fondo Financiero de Proyectos de Desarrollo) FONAM* National Environmental Fund (Fondo Nacional Ambiental) Fonvivienda* National Housing Fund (Fondo Nacional de Vivienda) FOPAE* Bogota Prevention and Emergency Response Fund (Fondo de Prevención y Atención de Emergencias de Bogota) FOREC* Coffee Growing Region Reconstruction Fund (Fondo para la Reconstrucción del Eje Cafetero) Fosyga* Solidarity and Guarantee Fund (Fondo de Solidaridad y Garantía) GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GMCC Climate Change Mitigation Group GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation HFA Hyogo Framework for Action 397 IAvH* Alexander von Humboldt Research Institute of Biological Resources (Instituto de Investigaciones de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt) IDB Inter-American Development Bank IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ICDE* Colombian Infrastructure of Spatial Data (Infraestructura Colombiana de Datos Espaciales) ICFES* Colombian Institute for the Promotion of Higher Education (Instituto Colombiano para El Fomento de la Educación Superior) Icontec* Colombian Institute of Technical Rules and Certification (Instituto Colombiano de Normas Técnicas y Certificación) Ideam* Colombia Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies (Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales de Colombia) IGAC* Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi) IIAP John von Neuman Pacific Environmental Research Institute Inco* National Institute of Concessions (Instituto Nacional de Concesiones) Incoder* Colombian Institute of Rural Development (Instituto Colombiano de Desarrollo Rural) Ingeominas* Colombian Institute of Geology and Mining (Instituto Colombiano de Geología y Minería) Instituto Sinchi* Sinchi Amazonian Institute of Scientific Research (Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas Sinchi) Invemar* José Benito Vives de Andreis Institute of Marine and Coastal Research (Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras José Benito Vives De Andréis) IGR* Risk Management Index (Índice de Gestión del Riesgo) Inurbe* National Institute of Social Housing and Urban Reform (Instituto Nacional de Vivienda de Interés Social y Reforma Urbana) Invías* National Roads Institute (Instituto Nacional de Vías) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IRG* International Resources Group (Grupo Internacional Recursos del Sur) La Red* Network for Social Studies on Disaster Prevention in Latin America (Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina) MADR* Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural) MADS* Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development (prior to 2011 Ministry of Environment, Housing, and Territorial Development) (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible) MAVDT* Ministry of Environment, Housing, and Territorial Development (Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial) 398 MDN – FAC* Ministry of National Defense - Colombian Air Force (Ministerio de Defensa Nacional - Fuerza Aérea Colombian) MECI* Internal Control Standard Model (Modelo Estándar de Control Interno) MEN* Ministry of National Education (Ministerio de Educación Nacional) MHCP* Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (Ministerio de Hacienda y Crédito Público) MI* Ministry of Interior (Ministerio del Interior) MINTIC* Ministry of Information Technology and Communication (Ministerio de Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones) MME* Ministry of Mines and Energy (Ministerio de Minas y Energía) MSPS* Ministry of Health and Social Protection (before 2011 Ministry of Social Protection) (Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social) MT* Ministry of Transportation (Ministerio de Transporte) MVCT* Ministry of Housing, City and Territory (before 2011 Ministry of Environment, Housing, and Territorial Development) (Ministerio de Vivienda, Ciudad y Territorio) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration OSSO Southwest Seismological Observatory PD* Development Plan (Plan de Desarrollo) PDA* Departmental Water Plan (Plan Departamental de Agua) PEAPAD* Andean Strategic Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response (Plan Estratégico Andino para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) PEI* Institutional Education Projects (Proyectos Educativos Institucionales) PGAR* Regional Environmental Management Plan (Plan de Gestión Ambiental Regional) PGN* General Budget of the Nation (Presupuesto General de la Nación) PLEC* Local Emergency and Contingency Plan (Plan Local de Emergencias y Contingencias) PNACC* National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (Plan Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio Climático) PND National Development Plan (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo) PNPAD* National Plan for Disaster Prevention and Response (Plan Nacional para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) POMCA* Watershed Conservation and Management Plan (Plan de Ordenamiento y Manejo de Cuencas) POT* Land Use Plan (Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial) PRAE* School Environmental Projects (Proyectos Ambientales Escolares) PREDECAN* Support Project for Disaster Prevention in the Andean Community (Proyecto Apoyo a la Prevención de Desastres en la Comunidad Andina) PRICC* Regional Comprehensive Plan on Climate Change (Plan Regional Integral de Cambio Climático) 399 PTAR* Wastewater Treatment Plant (Planta de Tratamiento de Agua Residual) PTGR* Territorial Risk Management Plan (Plan Territorial de Gestión del Riesgo) RAS* Technical Regulation for Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation (Reglamento Técnico para el Sector de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Básico) REDD* Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (Reducción de Emisiones de Deforestación y Degradación) Ricclisa* Interinstitutional Network on Climate Change and Food Safety (Red Interinstitucional de Cambio Climático y Seguridad Alimentaria) SAC* Agricultural Society of Colombia (Sociedad de Agricultores de Colombia) SDAS* Sustainable Environment Development Subdirectorate of the National Planning Department (Subdirección de Desarrollo Ambiental Sostenible del Departamento Nacional de Planeación) SDHT* Habitat District Secretariat of the Bogota City Hall (Secretaría Distrital de Hábitat de la Alcaldía Mayor de Bogota) SDPAE* District System for Disaster Prevention and Response of Bogota (Sistema Distrital para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres de Bogota) Sena* National Apprenticeship Service (Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje) Senplandes* National Secretariat for Development Planning (Secretaría Nacional para la Planificación del Desarrollo) SGC* Colombian Geological Survey (before 2011 Colombian Institute of Geology and Mining) (Servicio Geológico Colombiano) SGP* General Participation System (Sistema General de Participaciones) SICIED* Interactive Consulting System of Education Infrastructure (Sistema Interactivo de Consulta de Infraestructura Educativa) Sigob* Management and Monitoring System of Government Goals (Sistema de Gestión y Seguimiento de Metas del Gobierno) SIGOT* Geographic Information System for Planning and Land Use Planning (Sistema de información geográfica para la planeación y el ordenamiento territorial) SIGPAD* Geo-referenced Information System for Disaster Prevention and Response (Sistema de Información Georeferenciado para la Prevención y Atención de Desastre) SIIF* Comprehensive Financial Information System (Sistema Integrado de Información Financiera) SINA* National Environmental System (Sistema Nacional Ambiental) SNB* National Fire Department System (Sistema Nacional de Bomberos) SNC* National System of Climate Change (Sistema Nacional de Cambio Climático) SNCyT* National Science and Technology System (Sistema Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología) SNPAD* National System for Disaster Prevention and Response (Sistema Nacional para la Prevención y Atención de Desastres) 400 UAEAC* Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics (Unidad Administrativa Especial de Aeronáutica Civil) UBN Unsatisfied Basic Needs UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Education, Science, and Culture Organization UNGRD* National Unit for Disaster Risk Management (before 2011 Risk Management Directorate) (Unidad Nacional para la Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres) UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (Estrategia Internacional para la Reducción de Desastres) UPME* Mining and Energy Planning Unit (Unidad de Planeación Minero-Energética) USAID United States Agency for International Development VIS* Social Housing (Vivienda de interés social) *for its acronym in Spanish 401 Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433, USA Telephone: 202-458-0268 E-mail: GFDRR@worldbank.org Facsimile: 202-522-3227 Special thanks and appreciation are extended to the partners who support GFDRR’s work to protect livelihood and improve lives: ACP Secretariat, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Denmark, Egypt, European Commission, Finland, France, Germany, Haiti, India, Indonesia, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Ireland, Islamic Development Bank, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Malawi, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United Nations Development Programme, United States, UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Vietnam, the World Bank, and Yemen.