FILE COPY RESTRICTED Report No. AF-34c This report was prepared for use within the Bank and its affiliated organizations. They do not accept responsibility for its accuracy or completeness. The report may not be published nor may it be quoted as representing their views. INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION ECONOMIC GROWTH OF NIGERIA: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS (in ten volumes) VOLUME X EDUCATION November 29, 1965 Africa Department EQUIVALENTS Currency Currency Unit: Nigerian Pound (E) U. S. $1 i6 0. 357 (7 shillings 2 pence Nigerian) L I U.S. $2.80 Weights 1 long ton = 1. 12 short tons - 1.02 metric tons Fiscal Year The fiscal year is April 1 to March 31 Table of Contents Page I. Introduction I II. An Outline of Major Problems 2 :III. Trends and Problems in General Education Below the University Level 10 IV. The Costs of Education 8 V. High-level and Intemediate Manpower and the Progress of Vocational and Technical Education 23 VI. Recommendations for the Current Program 32 VII. Preparing for the Next Plan 34; Attachments: A. An Annotated Bibliography B. Statistical Appendix List of Text Tables IhLmber Page 1. Growth of Enrolments: 1959-63 8-a 2. Investment in Education During the Second Half of the Plan: Government Estimates and Mission Recommendations 13-a 3. Capital Allocations for Education and for All Purposes During the Plan (1962-68), by Federal and Regional Governments 14-a 4. Comparison of Increases in Current Expenditures for Education 15-a and for All Purposes, by Governments, 1959/60 to 1963/64 and 1963/64 to 1967/68 5. Government Current Expenditures for Education and for All 15-b Purposes, 1959/60 - 1967/68 6. Percentage Distribution of Recurrent Expenditures on 16-a Education, by Type (1962/63) 7. Unit Costs (Recurrent) of Education at Various Levels 17-a 8. The Burden of Primary Education in the Budgets of 20-a Eastern and Western Nigeria, 1965/66 9. Broad Distribution of High-Level Manpower, 1963 23-a 10. Non-Academic Intermediate 14anpower Needed by 1968 24-a THE EDUCATION SECTOR - 1965 I. INTRODUCTION 1. For the past 10 years education has been one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy. In primary education a period of rapid expansion occurred in the mid-19501s, before Independence (October, 1960). In secondary and higher education, the period of rapid growth has occurred since Independence. The need for such expansion had been brought home to the country by the Ashby Commission Report, submitted to Government in September, 1960. This influential report dramatized the country's need for trained manpower and laid out the general size and structure of the educational system required to produce that manpower. 2. The Ashby Report led to a number of further studies and reports, and to government policy decisions.!J By the end of 1961 the Archer Re- port had translated the Ashby targets into a phased program of expansion and had estimated how much the program would cost, both capital and re- current. The Caunce/Cottier Report on technical education suggested a specific program for realizing the Ashby targets in this important field. In the Western Region Dr. Adam Skapski submitted a report on vocational and technical education to the Regional Government; in the East, Mr. Goldway submitted another. Accepting Ashby's recommendation, the Govern- ment in 1962 established a National Universities Commission, which pro- ceeded to draw up a general plan of university growth and financing. By 1962, when the six-year Development Plan started, the Government's com- mitment to education was so great that this sector was given (with agri- culture and industry) "the hi hest priority" in the Plan, with an alloca- tion of ,69.8 million ( l0o o of the whole plan). 3. Archer had suggested'that perhaps half the capital needed for the sector would have to come from abroad. The proportion will turn out to be much smaller than half, but the necessity for large amounts of foreign help, both money and technical assistance, was clear even beforer Independence. The U.K. has continued its long involvement in Nigerian education with continued financial and technical help. The U.S. AID program has given more attention to education than to any other sector. Over 400 U.S. Peace Corps teachers are now at work in the country. The Australian government has supplied technical assistance. UNESCO, the ILO, and FAO have all mounted substantial technical assistance projects in education. Late in 1964 the I.D.A. extended a large credit ($20 0 million) to Nigeria for a set of projects in the field of secondary education, including teacher training and technical education. A Nation- al Manpower Board was established to identify more clearly the nation's future manpower needs and its training capacities, and to make periodic re-assessments of the demand-supply situation. J See the Annotated Bibliography, attached. -2- 4. The burst of activity in post-primary education since Independence has brought major changes in the proportions of students enrolled in dif- ferent levels of the system and in different types of institutions. The greatest change has been the growth of the university system. Equally important, there has begun a process of experimentation and change in many of the traditional forms and techniques of education inherited from the Colonial period. 5. It would be wrong to think that important changes have swept over Nigerian education only since Independence and the trumpet-call of the Ashby Report. The big changes in primary education occurred in the mid- 1950's, when the Federal, Western, and Eastern Government all adopted Universal Primary Education (U.P.E.) on a fee-free basis. The rapid adop- tion of UPE placed very heavy additional burdens on Regional budgets. The East soon tried to re-impose fees throughout primary school. The eruption of rioting forced the government to limit fees to grades IV, V, and VI. An attempt to substitute local taxes for school fees (a system now used in the North) also failed. The burden of free primary education in the West and Mid-West is now so heavy that the Finance Ministries in both regions are pressing for the re-introduction of some kind of fees. Since 1960 overall primary enrolments have expanded slowly except in the North, where the low primary enrolment rate and less-developed state of educational system have called for a major expansion of primary education in the 1960ts. II. AN OUTLINE OF MAJOR PROBLEMS 6. Eight major problems seem likely to dominate the educational scene in Nigeria over the next few years. 7. Routine Professional Problems: Educators everywhere are inevitab- ly concerned with problems of educational standards; curriculums and syllabuses; the training and qualifications of teachers; examination sys- tems; and similar professional problems. However, in Nigeria these rou- tine problems require more than routine attention and present more than their normal share of difficulty, because the entire educational system is in a period of transition and experimentation. On the one hand, old standards and methods are being called into question. In addition, the rapid expansion of the system has inevitably led to a fairly serious fall in the standards of both primary and secondary education. These profes- sional problems are well recognized in Nigeria and are receiving consid- erable attention. There is, of course, a shortage of skilled profession- al personnel to give attention to these problems. There is also need to build up a better network of communication among the existing profession- al personnel so that there can be more interchange of ideas among leaders of educational thought. -3- 8. Finance: The problem of finding sufficient funds to carry out the large-scale educational expansion now in hand has at least two impor- tant dimensions. The first is the obvious one of finding enough money to cover (a) the heavy volume of capital expenditures involved in the present development plan and (b) the rising need for recurrent funds. The dual commitments to both universal, free primary education and to the development of a large,diversified structure of post-primary education involve huge financial requirements. The aggregate financial problem could be approached much more directly and would be more manageable were there not a second major financial problem, i.e., the problem of the dis- tribution of financial burdens. This has three aspects. Tnere is the problem of allocating financial costs among the various levels of govern- ment concerned, i.e., the federal, regional and local governments, which together account for public funds going into education. There is the fur- ther problem of working out new distributions of public funds among the various concerned governments at each level and branch of education. The latter is partly a constitutional matter, since by law the general subject of education is reserved to the regions, and partly a matter of impending changes in the locus of administrative and financial responsibility for primary and secondary education (see para. 9). The third distributional problem concerns the proportions of educational costs that shall be borne from public and private funds. The traditional system of primary and secondary education, with its hea-vy reliance on the voluntary agencies, assigned a considerable role to private financing, especially at the se- condary level. However, the degree of dependence upon private finance seems bound to diminish in the years ahead. 9. The Nationalization and Secularization of the Educational System: Historically, the development of primary and secondary education, includ- ing teacher training, has been an activity of the church missions, much the largest of the Voluntary Agencies (the principal other class of V.A.'s are individual proprietors). In the earliest days the educational activ- ities of the missions provided a system of education that was not only almost exclusively financed from private funds but from funds that came from overseas. The colonial government early concerned itself with edu- cation and it was not long before the government began to participate in the educational system. It began to establish standards and (as in Brit- ain) it gradually built up an elaborate system of grants-in-aid to private educational bodies. Today the regional governments cover much the larg- est part of the recurrent expenditures of all V.A. schools which qualify for assistance (as almost all do). In recent years the regional and Fed- eral governments have established schools of their own. In certain fields, such as vocational, technical, and university education, government has been the only proprietor -- i.e., voluntary agencies have not engaged in any acitvity in these fields. 10. The educational structure and its financing described above is strikingly similar to that which existed in England in the nineteenth cen- tury, and indeed in several other British countries. A major theme of British educational history during the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- turies has been the progressive conversion of what was originally a privately organized, privately administered, and privately financed system of edu- cation, largely presided over by church groups, into a system of state- run education in -which almost all the initiative, authority, finance, and responsibility lies with various levels of governrient.l/ Many recent and prospective developments in educational arrangements in Nigeria are to be interpreted as the repetition of an evolution which parallels what has happened earlier in the United Kingdom and other British countries. There is, however, one great difference: in Great Britain the process of nationalizing and secularizing the educational system was spread over more than a century; in Nigeria there is pressure to compress this time- table greatly. The evolution of Britainrs educational goals and of a political concensus supporting these goals was a slow process. When Nigeria became independent the goals of a democratic state-sponsored edu- cational system were already part of the national consensus and strong political pressures called for their impleraentation as rapidly as possible. The two main problems in moving forward on this front are: (1) The country's ability to develop the administrative structure necessary to make effective a state-owned and completely state-run system, and (2) The financial capacity of governments to take on the increased financial responsibilities which 100 per cent responsibility for the system would entail. There are, however, offsetting financial advantages arising from the greater possibilities for consolidating duplicate facilities and moving toward lar- ger(and more economical) institutions. 11. Political Pressures: The development of a more rationalized eiducational system may be undermined by two kinds of political pressures. The first are the present strong rivalries, which may interfere with important administrative arrangements (e.g., the recent serious difficul- ties at the new University of Lagos arose from such rivalries). The second and closely related political possibility is that the natural and positive competition among the various regional governments will be carried to excess so that any attempt to develop a rational structure of specialized education, particularly at the higher levels, will become all but impossible. 12. Educational Planning: The planning of education appears relatively good. However, only one region, the North, has a really effective spe- cialized planning unit in its Ministry of Education; the other regions 1/ See Educational Documents: England and Wales, 1816 - 1963, by J. Stuart Maclure, London. Chapman & Hall. 1965. 307 pp. present a rather wieak picture of educational planning, with the Western region probably the weakest of all. At minimum, educational planning should be done by specialized planning units within Ministries of Education, staffed by competent personnel, Nigerian where available, partly foreign where necessary. One impressive feature of educational planning and administration is the healthy atmosphere which seems to exist almost everywhere between Nigerians and foreigners, although the position of some foreigners with purely advisory responsibilities - as distinct from line responsibilities - is sometimes fairly difficult. 13. Manpower Needs: A major thrust of the educational effort since the Ashby Report has been to gear the development of education to the future needs of the labor market. Professor Harbison's contribution to the Ashby Report was to make estimates of high-level manpower require- ments needed by the economy during the 1960's and to suggest the establish- ment of a national manpower board which cou-Ld keep under continuing study the emerging balance of supply and demand by important categories of manpower. A National Manpower Board has now been in existence for more than three years. Its first task was to prepare estimates for 1968 of the supply of and demand for high-level manpower (HLM), defined as persons holding positions requiring a minimum of one or two years of education or training beyond the Ordinary or Fifth-Form level of secondary school. 14. In manpower planning the difficulty of making estimates is matched by the difficulty of interpreting them. It is important to de- velop best numbers possible; it is also important to interpret them cautiously, taking into account the likely margins of error. Sensible investment decisions in the education sector depend upon the availability of reasonable estimates of present supplies of various kinds of HLM and reasonable assumptions about the growth of demand. One can place much more confidence in the figures of present supplies than in those of future demand: here the uncertainty is much greater unless the specific occupational figures rest on careful, separate studies. 15. The NMB recognizes that the targets it has set for 1968 and 1970 represent no more than "broad orders of magnitude". It arrived at these targets by applying reasonable growth-rates to the stock of HLM in existence in 1963. The assumptions chosen, after consultation with foreign experts who attended an International Manpower Seminar in Lagos in March, 1964, were: - 6 - ... that national income would grow at X per cent p.a. (the plan assumes 4 per cent). ... that overall employment would grow at X per cent p.a. (i.e. 2 per cent). 2 ... that demand for Senior (university-trained) ¶EM would grow at 2X per cent p.a. (i.e. 8 per cent). ... that demand for Intermediate (non-university trained) HLM would grow at 3X per cent p.a. (i.e. 12 per cent). Both the Senior and Intermediate grades of HLM were broken down into about 20 occupational groups. This was done on the basis of questionnaire- returns from public and private employers who were asked to estimate their employment of HLM in 1968 and 1970. This method of arriving at projections, while sometimes used, cannot produce reliable estimates. The most reliable alternative is to mount special studies for key occupations. The NNB has not yet been able to conduct such studies. 16. The plan's manpower targets are expressed in terms of a lower and upper range. This range has nothing to do with the range of uncer- tainty in the projections. The lower figure is the Manpower Board's estimate of the number of new jobs that will need to be filled. The upper figure is an estimate of the number of jobs that would be available for Nigerians if all present and future positions were to be filled by Nigerians, i.e., assuming all expatriates were replaced. There is no expectation that such a goal can be reached by 1968, or by 1970. 17. On the supply side, a major conclusion of the 1964 manpower report is that Nigeria's five universities (plus students returning from overseas) will turn out sufficient graduates to meet the lower estimate of needs for Senior HLM. This apparently reassuring judg- ment is based on aggregate numbers; it means relatively little. The NMB and the National Universities Commission both recognize that the generalized supply of university graduates is likely to contain too many arts graduates and too few in the technical fields and the sciences, where the most pressing needs exist. The award of Federal and Regional scholarships is intended to reflect national manpower needis. However, the system works very imperfectly, partly because the amounts of scholar- ships do not vary according to national needs. 18. The limited contribution which the NMB has so far been able to make to the identification of requirements in sufficient detail to be help- ful for educational planning reflects both the difficulties inherent in -7- the subject and slowness in mounting the more detailed studies that would make it more effective. The Board has been short of qualified staff. 19. At the level of individual institutions in the field of sub- professional vocational and technical education, the great need is for local advisory committees to work closely with the -technical education officers in the Ministries of Education and with the principals of region- al technical institutions. Nowhere are such local advisory committees in existence and operating effectively. As a result, the only guide vwhich educators have by which to Judge the appropriateness of their curriculums is their experience in securing employment for graduates. Thus, an im- portant need is to develop much more satisfactory methods for determining ex ante what the needs of the labor market are instead of having to learn, ex post, only by one's mistakes. 20. The Basic Approach to Vocational and Technical Education: Through- out the country there is widespread ferment, among educators as to the most appropriate way to approach vocational and technical education. To oversimplify, the conflict is between the well-ordered and highly struc- tured system afforded by the traditional British pattern (which has relied quite heavily on specialized schools, on external examinations, and on standards that emanate from the City and Guilds Institute of London and the Royal Society of Arts) and a feeling that the principal contribution to be made to vocational education lies in changing the conception and curriculum of the ordinary secondary schools. The latter reform would conceive of vocational education as being primarily a process of intro- ducing students to a much broader range of activities and skills than the traditional rather classical secondary curriculum ordinarily provides; the student's commitment to a particular line of work would be postponed until a much more mature age and would leave more responsibility for train- ing to the larger employers able to afford such programs. 21. The foregoing considerations app:Ly particularly to the concep- tion of vocational education below the level of the regional technical college. The present plans to create one or two such institutions in each region are already well advanced and no change in the conception of those institutions seerns likely. There are, however, a number of other voca- tional and commercial educational programs at the next lower level and it is these which now appear in a considerable state of flux. The prob- lem is intimately related to the revision of secondary curriculums and the question of what to do with primary school leavers, who present a serious unemployment problem. The latter phenomenon complicates the con- sideration of vocational education on purely professional grounds because there is a considerable element of employment-relief in the starting of specialized vocational schools for primary school leavers. 22. The Need for Improved Communications: It is a mistake to believe that as the rapid expansion of Nigeria's educational system proceeds the answers to the many complex professional and political questions that arise can be settled if only the right technical expert can be found. It is -8- desirable that the present decade should be one of considerable experi- mentation; inevitably this will entail a period of confusion. However, it is essential for the long-run health of the system that the present experimentation and questioning should eventually lead to a greater de- gree of consensus than now exists. This consensus has to be built up in the minds and convictions of those people in Nigeria who will have a continuing responsibility for setting goals, working out technical solu- tions to specific problems, and carrying out programs. Progress will depend partly on the mounting of sensible research projects on education- al problems, on the effective diffusion of research studies, and on the spread of opportunities for people with differing points of view and different contributions to make to compare notes and to discuss and eval- uate problems with people from other parts of the country and at different points in the system. The growth of four Institutes of Education in four of the five universities (Ibadan,Ahmadu Bello, NTieria and Lagos) is much to be welcomed. It will be important to strengthen these Institutes and to bring them into more effective contact with the Ministries of Education in the regions they serve. A potentially important development of a similar kind is the proposal, currently under discussion, for the estab- lishment of a National Educational Research Council. At present it is not clear whether the proposal to establish this body can hurdle the familiar political rivalries which now make it so difficult for officials at the Federal level to take initiatives and to play a strong role. The regional fears are always that any Federal "lead" will lead to Federal "control". III. TREWIDS AND PROBLEMS IN GENERAL EDUCATION BELOW UNIVERSITY LEVEL 23. Enrolments: Statistics from the Federal Ministry of Education show the trend of enrolments in various types of educational institu-tions for the five-year period 1959-63 (Table 1). The most striking fact over this five-year period is the difference between the rapid rise in secon- dary education (both general and vocational-technical) and the low increase at primary level. The slow rise of primary education (less than 5 per cent for the full five-year period) is difficult to understand in a coun- try where nearly half the population is entitled to free primary education and where fertility is still high. One reason primary enrolment looks surprisingly stationary in recent years may be the elimination of grades 7 and 8, and the re-introduction of fees in grades 4, 5, and 6, in the Eastern regiono These changes were made mainly for budgetary reasons; when the two final grades were eliminated the school entering age was raised from 5 to 6 years. Thus the age at which children graduate from primary school suffered a net reduction of only one year, not two. At the present time there is talk in the Midwestern Nigeria of adding a 7th and 8th class to the present six-year primary school. It is hoped this extension would help improve the standard. of primary school leavers, felt to have deteriorated after the introduction of UPE in the late 1950ts. Table 1 GROWTH OF ENROLMENTS, 1959-63 Per cent Rise Level 1959 1963 in 4 years Primary 2,776,000o/ 2,896,000o/ 5 per cent Secondary (General) 116,000i/ 212,000i/ 82 It Tech. & Vocational 4,100 / 7,4002/ 80 " if Teacher Training 26,5002I 32,000?] 20 Universities 1,958 5,148 / 162 " 1/ Rounded to nearest thousand 2/ Rounded to nearest hundred 2/ 1964/65 figure: 6655 (up 29 per cent over 1963). Total graduates in 1965 were about 1100 which compares with 300 in 1959, 708 in 1964, and the Ashby Commission target of 1,000 by 19619. -9- 2h. Both the important Western and Eastern regions consider that primary school enrolmenits have become fairlyM stabilized, in tile sense that no large prc.rams cf prim2icry school c.nstrictJion should be neces- sary in the next few ye&srs. In the West, -he nn,irer of primry schools has been reduced from over 7,000 in the early 1960's to something less than 4,500 in l965. The latter numher was considered adequate "for the present". This dces not mean that there w1ill be no need to construct addit:ional primar- schco's in the Wost or the East but simply that they have a low priority. Flowever, additional primary schools will continue to hold a higher priority in the Worth, which has lagged far behind the other regions in educational progress, and in Lagos, where there is se- rious overcrowding of present primary facilities (in 1965 47 per cent of primary school children were enrolled in a second shift)> 25. General Secondary Education: In the past, general secondary education has been conceived of primarily as a route for those intending to enter universities, with students better prepared in classical subjects than in mathematics, science, and applied arts. For several years now the conception of secondary education has been undergoing substantial broad- ening, partly out of recognition of the fact that as enrolment increased the great majority of secondary graduates will not go on to a university. One change is the effort (represented by the attempt to increase the number of VIth forms 1/ with emphasis on science and math., in their curriculums) to pre- pare students for university work with greater emphasis on science and technology than was earlier the case. Increasing the number of VIth forms is also regarded as a way of improving the qualifications of secon- dary graduates so that the general standard of university work could be raised. However, the increase in the number of first-year places in the country's five universities has grown much more rapidly than the number of VIth form graduates (in 1965 there were only about 800 VIth form grad- uates as against about 2,000 first-year places in the five universities; there were not enough VIth form graduates -to fill the places at Ibadan alone). As a result, the universities have had to admit many students without VIth form training. There has been a high-level attempt to dis- suade the universities from taking "concessional entrants"; but in the absence of additional VIth form graduates they had little alternative. One incomplete study now in progress at the University of Nigeria has reached the preliminary conclusion that there is no significant differ- ence in the university performance of those who entered from the VIth form level and those who entered on a concessional basis (which means entering two years younger). Such a finding would only confirm the doubts many people have about the usefulness of extending the VIth form beyond the 80 or so schools which now have them. Some secondary school principals are against its spread for fear it will concentrate their abler teachers in the VIth form to the neglect of the earlier grades. Some university people seem to feel that the objectives of the VIth form could be better realized by having a preliminary year attached to the 1J The "VI Form" consists of two school years. -10- university, which they feel would be a more efficient way of giving re- quired preparation to university students. National policy on what to do with the VIth form question has been awaiting a study which the Vice- Chancellorts Committee has been intending to make, supported by Ford Foundation funds. However, the sub-committee has not been organized and no study is yet underway. 26. A second approach to the strengthening of science education has been the establishment of a Federal School of Science in Lagos. This is in effect an independent VIth form specializing in Mathematics and Science. The experiment is generally regarded as a success; the school has attract- ed many applicants and the universities which have taken its graduates speak well of their training. So far there is little talk of duplicating this experiment at other points in the country. 27. A general problem of the more than 1,000 secondary schools in the country is the fact that many of them, like many primary schools, are too small to be considered economic units. (The same comment applies as well to teacher-training colleges, which are simply a specialized branch of secondary education for the training of teachers.) This condition has grown out of denominational and local rivalries. Insome regions an attempt is being made to increase the scale of secondary institutions. For exam- ple in the West there is a regional policy of concentrating funds for se- condary education on the expansion of existing schools instead of start- ing new ones. However, mere size of schoo:L is no guarantee of low unit costs. Everything depends upon the conception and design standards of the particular facility. As explained below, the two comprehensive high schools (at Port Harcourt and Aiyetoro, the latter being the largest se- condary school in sub-Sahara Africa) appear too costly to deserve dupli- cation. However, the impulse to broaden the traditional grammar school curriculum is widely supported in Nigeria today; the main problems are what to do and how to do it in an economical way. 28. Cne purpose of broadening the curriculum is to develop termi- nal education below the university level. Another and somewhat earlier experiment that has not worked satisfactorily was the rapid development of secondary modern schools in the West (only 11 or 12 such schools were opened in the East as compared with 400 - 500 in the West). The secon- dary moderns were not grant-aided; they were three year junior secondary schools entirely supported from student fees. Demand for places in these schools has been fal3ing off. As an alternative the lWrest has started experi.,enting with six juiior secondary schools with vocational streams; these -ill have somewhat lower fees than the secondary moderns. Where secondary modern school facilities can be converted to other uses, the government may purchase them and put them to other uses. In the East the secondary moderns have almost all been closed; about half a dozen have been converted into junior vocational schools for girls. -11- 29. Another secondary-level experiment is the attempt to establish three Inter-regional High Schools (originally called National High Schools, but the regions objected to this name). The initial suggestion came from the Ashby Report. The conception was that the Federal government would establish in the regions three or more boarding schools whose staff and student body would be chosen on an inter-regional basis. It is hoped these schools may make a contribution to the mitigation of ethnic and regional rivalries. It remains to be seen whether the rather widespread scepticism about the conception and practicality of these schools will be borne out by experience. 30. One impending new departure at the secondary level is the pro- posed establishment of 11 or 12 three-year post-primary agriculture schools in the Eastern Region. It is hoped that authorization for the first will be made in January 1966. The curriculum and syllabuses for these are ready but officials are still wrestling with school design and location. It is symptomatic of an increased ability to put education projects through a tighter planning and justification process that the original designs were turned down and an attempt is being made to produce more economical plans. 31. There is growing interest in reform of the traditional secondary curriculum. This interest runs not only to the adding of new streams alongside the traditional curriculum but the reform of the latter as well. At a UNESCO supported conference held in Logos in the spring of 1965 cur- riculum reform was reportedly one of the topics in which Nigerian officials showed the most interest -- at primary as well as secondary levels. This is an area in which the university-based Institutes of Education will in- evitably play a 'Leading role. So far, however, university people have paid practically no attention to primary school curriculum and have de- voted all their attention to the secondary level. Even at the latter level experimentation and research are still at a very early stage. For example it has only been this year that the Institution of Education at Ahmadu Bello University has received a grant from the Carnegie Corpora- tion to permit research on curriculum. 32. One aspect of secondary education that seems to have so far received little experimentation is the development of alternatives to the almost universal boarding school pattern. Everyone agrees that boarding facilities are very expensive, though there are many principals who say that a boarding school provides an environment so much better than stu- dents' homes that the extra cost is more than justified. There is not universal agreement on this and there would seem to be a strong case for deliberately creating more secondary day schools to see whether they are viable. The existence of the remarkably heavy demand for correspondence courses in the country suggests that many students are able to study un- der home conditions often inferior to those found in boarding schools. -12- 33. Teacher Training: There is a mood of confidence that despite the rapid expansion of the system the country is gradually gaining in its efforts to train enough qualified teachers. Three classes of teachers are recognized for grading purposes: Grade III consists of people who have had two years of school- ing after the primary level; Grade II is for those with five years of education beyond primary level, normal:Ly in teacher-training colleges. Grade I is for those who have graduated from an Advanced Teacher Training College (two years beyond secondary school) and who have been awarded the Nigeria Cer- tificate of Education, a special sub-university qualification. It should also be mentioned that there has been a large class of ungraded (i.e. uncertified) teachers who had to be hastily recruited and assigned to the primary schools during the period of very rapid expansion in the middle 1950's. At the present time the training of Grade III teachers is everywhere dying out; the regions are concentrating on the expansion of Grade II training facilities, together with building up the Advanced Teacher Training Colleges. Grade II teachers are the products of the five-year teacher training colleges, most of which are run by voluntary agencies. The present policy of upgrading the qualifications of the teach- irng staffs for both primary and secondary schools means the feeding into the system of higher-salaried teachers, a trend that will have a measur- able impact on recurrent costs. In addition, there is some thought that the Advanced Teacher Training Colleges may one day become degree-granting institutions, entitling their graduates to a higher starlting salary than they now receive as holders of the Nigerian Certificate of Education. In addition, all universities except Ife have recently introduced under- graduate degrees in teaching (this represents a change from the awarding of a diploma in education, given for one additional year of study after receipt of an ordinary university degree.) It is not yet clear to what extent university graduates, particularly Arts graduates who have no other specialized training, may turn to teaching as a career. There is already some evidence that a shortage of alternative openings may lead many university graduates into this field. 34. At present there does not seem to be any shortage of candidates for the teacher training colleges or the ATTC's. While it is true that teaching may not be the first choice of many applicants, nevertheless there is no shortage of applicants. The salary levels for teachers are not un- attractive, although this arplles to government schools mucn more strongly than to voluntary agency scuiools. The great dif.:erence between teaching careers in government schools and other government careers is that while the starting rates for teaching and positions in other ministries are comparable, the prospects for rapid and substantial promotions are much greater in fields other than teaching. - 13 - IV. THE COSTS OF EDUCATION 35. Aggregate Costs: It is necessary to know the probable amount of investment in educational facilities which will occur during the present 6-year plan, 1962-68. It is also necessary to know wrhat level of recur- rent expenditure is likely to be reached by the end of the decade and what the more important influences will be in determining that level. Both capital and recurrent costs also involve major problems of their distribution among the several sources of finance. 36. It is not possible to give a very confident and precise answer to the question of how much investment will occur in even a relatively well- planned sector such as Nigerian education, for two reasons. One reason has to do with the availability of finance, the other with the care and specificity with which the investment program has been worked out. Where planning has been rather loose and finds expression mainly in general finan- cial targets not *tied to a very specific and well-worked-out set of projects, the predictable level of investment tends to be quite elastic and open-ended. Under such circumstances Education Ministries will attempt to spend as much money as they can persuade the Ministry of Finance to give them. This is a common phenomenon in planning. It means that what education will "cost" depends on what the Ministry of Finance will allow the Ministry of Education to spend. A Ministry of Finance normally operates in two ways: (a) It makes initial allocations of recurrent expenditures according to some rule-of thumb (e.g.,'hold each Ministry's allocations to 5 per cent abov6 last yea!s budget, or "hold each IMinistry to the' growJth rate anticipated for the total budget"), and (b) It then allows for "exceptions" to its first-approximation rule- of-thumb, such exceptions to be justified either (i) profes- sionally, in a confrontation between the spending ministry and the Ministry of Finance, or (ii) by political command. At this point the drama shifts back to the Ministry of Eduication: it must demonstrate whether or not it can present a convincing case for the exceptions it seeks. 37. There are considerable differences among the Federal and the four regional governments in the degree of care and specificity underlying their figures of capital expenditure in education, as in other sectors. The Northern Region and the Federal Government appear to have the firmest and best worked out investment programs. Least confidence can be placed in the estimates of the West. This is partly because of weakness in planning and partly because of a higher degree of uncertainty surrounding the region's financial situation. In the East, planning is not as well worked out as in the North but the overall financial outlook is considerably more hopeful. The small Midwestern region does not yet have a well-worked out complete educational program, though it does have several quite specific projects already in hand. The figures of Table 2 show planned. second-half capital expenditures supplied by the governmtents concerned and those recommended by the mission. 13-a Table 2 Investment in Education During the Second Half of the Plan: Government Estimates and Mission's Recommendations £ 1000's Government Government Suggested Revised Percentage target change target change Federal 9,789 6_29 we. Primary schls. in North -175 334. Primary schl. expansion -1,287 12-C. -2. NIat'l Univs. Commn. -1 375 6?952 -29 per cent Northern Region 14,692 Teacher training -27 Technical education -428 Secondary education -1 197 12,793 -13 per cent Eastern Region h,570 Univ. of Nigeria +150 Technical education -270 Pt. Harcourt Comp. H.S. -400 -520 L,050 -11 per cent Western Region 8,4501/ Univ. of Ife -2,750 Trade Centers -250 Non--Govt. grammar schls. -200 Regional library -264 -2,089 6,361 -25 per cent Nid-Western Region School workshops -55 Sapele Trade Center +101 7T 1,558 +3 per cent ALL GOVERNMENTS: 37,050 -7,299 30,202 -19 per cent 1/ Subsequently revised to 8,002 - la - The changes proposed by the mission are explained more fully in Chapter VI, "Recommendations for the Current Programi". 38. Table 3 below shows the place of capital spending on education within the total investment program for each of the governments involved (1962- 68). Of a total revised investment target of i850 million ( see Volume I of thit Report) nearly 9 per cent is to be spent on educations The largest amount, sor:s £30 million, is to be spent by the Federal Government; this will include not only investment in facilities in the Federal Territory but capital subventions of various kinds for the regions. Among the regional invest- ment programs the proportion of education in the total varies from about 8 per cent in the small Midwestern region (which has a large construction program of government buildings) to over 20 per cent in the Northern Region. However, the Northern Region has been able to spend on education only about £3 million during the first three years of the Plan. Its plan to spend nearly £15 million during the last three years of the plan will require a fivefold increase in the rate of investment in education. The main reason for the relatively slow performance during the first half of the plan was the delay in the availability of the IDA credit; but even with this money available it rerains to be seen whether the administrative and construction capacity in the North will permit such a rapid expansion of activity in the sector. The expected level of investment in the North combined with the £15 million to be spent by the Federal Government accounts for two-thirds of the total investment in education anticipated for the second half of the Plan. There is little or no difference in. the level of expenditure at the Federal level between the first and second halves of the period. 39. If there are to be any significant savings in the overall level of capital expenditures for education, they must be sought in the programs of the Federal and Northern Regional Governments. The only other possibility for reducing total investment in the sector exists in the Wrest. The es- tablishment of new units at the University of Ife could be postponed until the next Plan. It is understood that the agricultural facilities are now under construction at the new site at Ife but that no start has yet been made on other units. However, no discussions were held with the Western Regional Government about the feasibility or desirability of slowing down the intended rate of expenditures at Ife. 40. It shoulcd be understood that Table 3 refers to the level of capital expenditures to be financed from the budgets of the Federal and Regional Government. It does not include investment activity by local governments (i.e., the Native Authorities in the North and the District Councils in the East, West, and Midwest). Also excluded are any capital expenditures which may be undertaken by the voluntary agencies. It is safe to say, however, that a relatively small proportion of investment activity is likely to be undertaken outside that which will be financed from regional and federal budgets. Therefore, the difference between the estimates of financial costs to regional and federal governments in Table 3 and total financial cost, public and private, is not likely to be significant. 14-a Table 3 Capital Allocations for Education and for All Purposes During the Plan (1962-65), by Federal and Regional Governments N£ Thousands (1) (2) Education All Purposes 1(b):2(b) (a) (b) (a) (b) original revised original revised Federal 26,265 30,o6o0/ 237,397 324,389 9.2 per cent Statutory Corps. - - 165,227 197,288 North 18,900 20,701 96,142 101,719 20.1 IX East 8,805 9,260 75,192 84,642 10.9 West / 12,850 13,019 90,287 112,548 11.6 I H TOTALS: 66,820 73,040 664,2L5 849,894 8.6 per cent j Including the Mid-Western Region. When the latter separated in 1964 and made its own allocations it earmarked 2,419 for Education against total capital allocations of 2L[,583. The latter figure was subsequently raised to 29,308, making Education 8.2 per cent of the latter figure. 2 Includes grants of £9.1 million to National Universities Commission for University construction. - 15 - 41. The level of recurrent costs to which a proposed investment program will lead is of obvious importance. Table 4 summarizes the average rate of growth for (1) educational expenditures (recurrent), and (2) the total level of current expenditures in the government budgets and government projections for the 8-year period 1959/60 through 1967/63. Comparison is made between the compound rates of growth for the first and second 4-year periods in the 8-year span. The outstanding conclusion is the sharp rise in the projected rate of increase of recurrent expenditures at both the sectoral and total levels for the second half of the period. Table 5 shows the ralative weight of recurrent expenditures on education in the total recurrent budget of each of the five governments at the beginning, middle and end of this 8-year period. 1/ The general impression is one of relative stability in the proportion, although it rises somewhat in the N7orth and falls somewhat in the West. Taking all five governments together, education accounted for some 23 per cent of total expenditures at the beginning of the period and is projected at 24 per cent at the end. 422 The proportion of total public funds devoted to recurrent expenditures on education is fairly high by world standards. There is wide regional variation in this proportion (see Table 5). During the early 1960's the proportion has ranged from about 25 per cent in the Nlorth to 44 - 45 per cent in the West and East. These figures are influenced by the arrangements for sharing the financing of education, crid other types of recurrent expenditures, between the Regional and Federal Governments. 43. Another way of looking at the proportion of education in the total recurrent budgets of the five governments is to look at the actual and projected rates of growth for (1) education and (2) for all current purposes for the first and second four-year periods between 1959/60 and 1967/68. 2/ In the North, the West, and the Mid-west the growth of eXducation and total recurrent expenditures has been fairly close. In these regions, this close relationship is projected to continue through the balance of the period. The Eastern and Federal Governments, however, show a large disparity between the growth rates for education and for all current expenditures over this period. In the East education expend- itures have grown much more slowly than general recurrent expenditures during the first half of the period; during the second half of the period, however, the government expects them to rise significantly above the budget's general growth rate. At the Federal level, the rise in the education budget has been consistently much faster than that for general purposes. Furthermore, the rate of increase in Federal current expenditures for education has been and is projected by the government to continue to be substantially above the increase in educational expenditures for any of the regions. Thus the Federal Government is coming to play a relatively 1/ Table VIII of the Appendix shows how different assumptions about costs might affect the level of recurrent expenditures by 1968/69. 2/ See Table 4 above. 15-a Table l Ccmparison of Increases in Current Expenditures for Education and For All Purloses by Governments 1959/60 to l963/6t and 1963/6o 976 1959/60 to 196j1/64 1963/64 to 1967/68 actual estimated Z/ Region (yo Increase Alnnual 9c/ % Increase Annual North Education 70 ]L<2 54 11.2 All Purposes 9.6 57 11,9 East Education 14 3.3 95 18.0 All Purposes 9.6 60 12.5 1West Education 21 4.9 38 8.3 All Purposes 27 6.3 50 10,7 Federal Education 85 16,7 115 21.0 All purposes 43 9.3 67 13,5 All Governments Education 37 8.2 72 1h45 All Purposes 10 8.9 61 12.6 1/ Ccmpound growth rate 2 Based on Government projections at June, 1965. Federal Governmentts expenditures for Education as a percentage of all government expenditures for Education: 1959/60 1506 1967/68 25%o 15-b Table 5 Government Current Expenditures for Education and All Pulp oses, 1959/60 - 1967/68 _ (in millions of Nigerian pounds, rounded) 59160 6/161/62 62/63 63/6h 6L/65 65/66 66/67678 North fd-uc- 3.3 3 3:9214 1L123 11.8 25 5.6 27 6.1 26 6.9 26 7i72 8.6 2 Tot. Cur.r 1.4. 3 16 2 17.8 19o2 20.7 23 3 26 3 29.3 32.5 East XWuica. 5.8 45 6.8 45 6.9 43 16.8 39 6 6_36 9.0 11.la2 44 12.0 13.0 Tot. Curr 1Z58 15.1 16.11 17.3 18.11 22.2 25.5 27.44 29.5 1 Educa. 7 2 2 0 7 42 19: l7 3 1 9 45 1 7 7;1 38 756333 20 36 2 8 Tot. Curr. 1652719 14 7 73 * 852321628 Aid-weset3 Educa. 1 62/ 3.0k 3.33 3:8 ~ WO. Tot. Eurca 3 6.5 7.6 8 7 9.1 .ederal Educa.- 2/ 2.8 7 3.0 7 3.4 7 4.0 8 5.2 9 6.1 10 7.2 10 9e0 11 1l.2 12 Tot. Curra,* 38.1 43.3 7.5 51.2 54.7 62.8 71.3 80.2 91.2 All Gowts. EdUca. 19.0 23 22.5 24 22.9 23 21.5 23 26.1 23 31.2 23 36.2 241 24 11448 24 Tot. Curr.3I 81.7 95.2 101.2 107.1 lJ.9 133.3 151L0 167.2 185.1 1/ Figures for 1959/60-636/41 are actual expenditures; for 1964/65 are provisional expenditures; for 1965/66-1967/68 are government forecasts. 2/ Figures for Total Current Expenditures exclude Public Debt Charge and Transfers to the Development Fund. 3/ Indicates the year in which the Mid-West Region was. established out of territory formerly part of the Western Region, resulting in a reduction in the West's budget. 4/ These figures were supplied in 6/65. Subsequent revisions now project substantially higher expenditures, to wit: 64/65 65/66 66/67 67/68 8.3 10.1 12.3 13.6 Per cent increase over table above: 12 33 58 70 Furthermore, these revisions do not reflect an increase of 12.5% in grants-in-aid for V.A. and L.A. schools resulting fram a national salary adjustment approved in 8/65. - 16 - more important role than it traditionally used to in financing the current costs of education. In 1959/60 the Federal budget carried only 15 per cent of all public expenditures for current educational costs; by 1967-68 tlhe proportion will rise to about 25 per cent. This change reflects both the increase of those educational activities in which Federal subsidies play a relatively important role (e.g. university education) and, apparently, a new willingness of the Federal Government to assume some of the con- tinuing costs of programs traditionally financed by the regions in which the Federal Government has a particular interest. 144. The growth rates in educational spending between 1959/60-67/68 I'Table 4) are not nearly as high as the growrth that occurred between :L952-53 and 1962-63. It was during the middle of this period that universal primary education was introduced in the Western, Eastern and Federal territories. Table I (Statistical Appenidix) shows the amounts Spent for various types of education in 1952-53 and 1962-63 for the four governments that then existed. Any prediction in 1952-53 that educational budgets could rise at the rate which they did in fact achieve over the next decade would have seemed highly unrealistic. The Table also shows that the big bulge in education expenditures occurred betwieen 1954-55 zmd 1959-60. 45. Costs by Level of Education: There are significant regional dif- ferences in the proportion of totial government funds spent for different educational purposes. Table 6 (next page) shows that percentage break- down of total recurrent expenditures for education in the four regional governments for 1962-63. The Federal Goverrment devotes a far larger share of its resources to higher education than do the regional governments. This reflects the fact that the Federal Government pays 100 per cent of the recurrent costs of two of the country's five universities (Ibadan and Lagos) and 30 per cent of the running costs of the three regional univer- sities. The regional governments typically have the largest part of their funds devoted to primary and secondary education, with teacher training commanding a significant proportion. The relatively less-developed state of the educational system of the Nortl is crudely reflected in the clifferences between it and the West: the North spends a lower proportion on primary education and a higher proportion on teacher training. 1/ 46. The relative cost of different levels and branches of education are indicated in Table 7 below. The term "recurrent cost" presumably does not include any allowance for annual depreciation; since it is safe to assume that the capital cost per student place increases as one pro- ceeds from primary upwards toward university facilities Table 7 would tend to understate the true relative costs of different levels of education. If one multiplies these figures of unit costs by the enrollment for 1963/64 and then by the percentage of total recurrent costs borne by governments for the various levels, one comes out at a total figure that is within about 10 per cent of the figure for total public expenditures on education I/ The figures in Table 6 are provisional. 16-a Table 6 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF RECURRENT EXPENDITURES ON EDUCATION, by_TYPE T1962 Federal North West East Total Primary 10 35 64 6o 47 Secondary: General 8 18 1 13 13 Technical & Vocational 4 9 2 3 4 Teacher Training 2 23 12 13 12 University 68 6 6 6 18 Adult - 1 - - - Special Schools - - - - - Non-ed. 6 5 2 5 4 981/ 971/ 100 100 981' 1 Totals do not, add to 100 because of rounding. - 17 - for 1963/64 given in Table 5 above. Thus there is a rough internal con- sistency between the unit and the total cost figures. Unit cost figures can serve as rough guides to the financial implications of alternative policies for expanding various levels and types of education. 47. From Table 5 it is clear that much the largest share of total pub- lic funds goes into primary education -- nearly half. Secondary education gets only a quarter as much, although the proportion rises to one-half if teacher-training is counted as secondary. The five universities were getting 50 per cent more than the 266 teacher-training colleges or the 1,245 general secondary schools. The lowest proportion of public funds, about 4 per cent was going into the country's 32 technical and vocational schools; this proportion was about the same as the amount of public funds devoted to administering the whole educational system.i/ 48. Reresentative Costs for Various Types of Schools (Northern Region): Tables II (A - G) in the Appendix present detailed cost figures for different types of schools in the North. These figures are useful for giving some insight into the costs of running different types of schools and also for showing the dispersion around an average cost for a particular type of school. One point that stands out (as it does from almost all figures on the costs of education in Nigeria) is the high proportion of total edu- cational costs arising from the need to run boarding facilities. Indeed, the tables in the Appendix refer only to the weight of boarding costs in current costs. If investment costs are added to running costs then the additional burden of carrying boarding as part of the costs of education in Nigeria would appear even greater. For example, the Northern government estimates that to provide one school place in a non-boarding teacher training institution costs about £250. To provide a place in a similar institution operated as a boarding college costs between £400 and £450. A major contribution to reducing the costs of education in Nigeria would be made if the system could be rationalized so that there was less need for boarding places and a higher proportion of students could be accepted as day students. One cannot blame the present prevalance of the boarding pattern in secondary education entirely on the rural pattern of the country and low population densities. One suspects that a substantial part of the explanation lies in the competitive nature of the denominational school system, built on the voluntary agencies, each of which is forced to draw its students from a larger radius than would be necessary if there lJ What is probably the most thorough study of the costs of education in Nigeria is currently being prepared by Mr. Samuel Bowles, a doctoral candidate in the Department of Economics at Harvard. Bowles will complete his thesis on educational costs in Nigeria (with par- ticular reference to the Northern region) during the fall of 1965. 17-a Table 7 Unit Costs (Recurrent) of Education at Various Levels Level and Type Total Recurrent Index numbers of Education Costs (Lys) Primary 8 1.00 Secondary 100 12350 Teacher Training 110 13.75 Technical & vocational 185 23.25 University 1000 125.00 Source: Based on "A Statistical Appraisal of the Development Plan for Educaticn", by Dr. A. Musone, UNESCO Adviser on Statistics, Federal Ministry of Education (1965) - 18 - were only one institution of a kind serving a particular district. l/ 44. One costly element in almost all post-primary institutions is staff housing. For example, Table III in the Appendix shows that 55 per cent of the capital costs of constructing teacher training college facilities in the North consists of either dormitories or staff housing. As one ad- viser commented "half the program is tsleeping'." It seems unrealistic to hope for the elimination of the need for staff housing; but perhaps its cost could be reduced. Although Nigeria abounds in strikingly modern and attractive architecture, there does not appear to have been any significant effort at developing low-cost, mass-produced and perhaps prefabricated housing units that would serve the very large needs of the educational system, not to mention the rapidly expanding needs of the government establishment.2/ 5)0. University Costs: In 1963/64 about 1.5 per cent of all public funds for education were being spent on the country's five universities. ,1. The whole question of university firancing (both capital and current) seems so far to have been handled tolerably well. The National Universities Commission has announced general rules for sharing capital and current ex- penditures for each of the five universities and the government has, with slight modifications, announced its acceptance of these proposals.3/ How- ever, the rules announced in 1963 by the NUC pertain to the 1962-67 plan period; whether a new distribution of financial burdens will be made for the next development period is not yet known. The main question now 'bothering people is student fees. A large number of students at all five universities have complained of inability to meet the required fees.L/ To cope with this problem,there is a proposal to establish a revolvinfg loan 1/ Not all the costs of boarding are additional costs to the econowy, in - the sense that these costs would be avoided if students attended as day students. Some of the boarding are simply costs which students incur at'school which they -uould bth'erise incur in their homes.- However, a family may have la'rger cash outlays required by boarding At school'instead of boarding at home, and the high cost of school boarding doubtless adds to pressures to transfer more of these costs from private to public budgets. On the capital side, boarding costs probably represent a substantial net addition to the total cost to the economy, since students leave vacant at home a block of "private capital" which is not used while they are at boarding school, where additional-(and more expensive) capital facilities have been built. 2/ Prefabricated housing sent from Britain has proven nearly as costly as con- ventional on-site construction. 3/ See item No. 9 in the attached bibliography. 4/ Believed to be uniform at all universities at £150 per annum for Arts and Sciences students, £160 for Agriculture and £180 for Ivledicine. - 19 - fund, supported jointly by the Government of Nigeria and the Ford Foundation, for the purpose of assisting university students with their fees. The fund would be administered by each of the universities individually under general rules worked out at the national level. The successful working out of such a loan fund will reduce pressure for the government to enlarge its already heavy expenditures for outright scholarships. 52. University running costs will probably be higher than originally expected, The key question is whether these costs can be held to reasonable levels. The answer depends primarily on whether or not the various regional influences will force each of the five universities to ignore any sensible plan for specialization, particularly in the costly graduate programs for professional training, or whether each will try to develop programs on an entirely self-sufficient and competitive basis. The National Universities Commission is well aware of the danger of duplicate investment in costly programs and facilities. However, the NUC is not in a strong position vis-a- vis the five universities and it must rely as much upon its informal con- tacts with foreign embassies in Lagos in order to coordinate foreign assis- tance into a reasonable pattern as upon its direct influence with the university administrations. The NUC has recently added two foreign experts to its staff whose job it is to try to help each of the five universities develop a master plan of future development. These master plans would presumably be the basis for further investment in university facilities during the next development period. In addition, the NUC is trying to find a suitable expert, recruited through the Ford Foundation, who would spend one year working on university finances. Nobody outside the individual universities seems to have a clear picture of the full amounts of money that have been invested in university facilities or of university revenues and expenditures ol/ 53. The Financing of Primary Education: The extent of which free primary education burdens the pubL:Lb'o budgets cmn be seen from the situation in the 1/ Some idea of the cost of establishing and operating a major new univer- sity in West Africa is given by Table IV in the Appendix. This shows the amount and percentage distribution of total investment in the various assets required to establish the University of Nigeria at Nsukka, built between 1960 and 1964. Total value of the land, buildings, plant and equipment amounted at July 1, 1964 to 14.6 million or just under $13 million, About 85 per cent of this investment was located at Nsukka, with the remaining 15 per cent at the university's inlerited campus at Enugu. The revenue and expenditure accounts for the University of - Nigeria are shown in Table V of the Appendix. These show--a total bud- get for fiscal 1964 of bl.3 million, which includes a non-cash de- preciation expense of :183,000. The university's cash requirements of bl.146 million were met almost equally from cash grants from -the Federal and Regional Governments, on the one hand, and from non-grant income of b546,00o. Student fees amounted to nearly 3O300,OO, a sig- nificant part of total income. The Western Regional Government has es- timated that by 1966/67 it will spend 1,1.8 million for recurrent costs at the University of Ife. This is nearly three times the public funds received in 1965/66 by the University oc Nigeria from the Eastern and Federal Covernments combined. - 20 - Eastern and Western regions which together dominate the system. Table 8 shows estimated enrollment of primary students in the East and the WIest for 1965-66, plus the budget estimates for grants-in-aid for primary edu- cation, plus total educational allocations in each of the regions. The approximately 2-1/2 million primary students enrolled in these two regions account for over 80 per cent of all primary enrollments in the country. For the current year these two regions will spend just under £12 million in primary grants-in-aid for these 2-1/2 million students, or just under £5 per student. l 54. The £11.95 million being spent this year on primary education accounts for about 65 per cent of total recurrent expenditures for education, excluding expenditures for university education, which is not financed from the budget of the Ministry of Education. If these two regional govern- ments continue to attempt to provide primary education that is both univer- sal and almost free it is clear that the weight of primary expenditures in regional budgets will continue to be extraordinarily heavy. 55. If it were politically feasible to reintroduce some kind of school fees for primary students, a £1 fee would increase revenues by approximately £2 million or something over 20 per cent of the primary school grants now provided by both regions combined. The reintroduction of fees would also tend to slow down the rate of growth of primary enrollments. Savings of 20 per cent or more on primary grants-in-aid wiould mean savings of approxi- nately 12 per cent in total education budgets. Wlith education accountmng for 40 per cent, plus or minus, of total recurrent budgets in the East and the West, a 12 per cent saving in education budgets implies a total budget relief of about 5 per cent. These rough orders of magnitude are useful in putting the problem of primary school finance in proper budgetary pers- pective. 56. The reimposition of school fees after a decade of experience with free primary education is obviously a delicate political question. If a problem cannot be approached on a straightfonrard manner - by reimposing the fees - the alternatives would seem to be something as follows: 1) the redefinition of primary school to. include, say, only the first four grades, with fees being charged after class 4. This is what 1/ This £5 per student cowpares with an estimated average cost for primary students of between £8 and £10 per annum. It is not fully clear why the grants-in-aid in these two regions do not work out at something closer to the national average of £8 to £10. Little if any of the difference would be made up by contributions from the voluntary agencies which are the proprietors of most primary schools. In the Western and Midwestern regions all six primary grades are com- pletely free. In the East, only the first three grades are free; grades 4, 5 and 6 still require the payment of student fees (sig- nificantly, enrollments tend to drop off quite sharply beginning with class 4.) After deducting enrollments in the Eastern region for the last 3 years of primary school there is a combined system of ap- proximately 2 million students who are getting completely free primary education. 20-a Table 8 The Burden of Primarv Education in the Budgets of the Eastern and Western. Regions, 1965/66 Enrolmentsj/ Grants for F'rimary Total Recurrent Expend. Education for Education (Estimates) (Estimates) East 1,350,000 £ 5,000,000 £ 8,200,000 West 2 1,150,000 £ 6,950,000 £10,397,000 Totals: 2,500,000 £11,950,00O £18,597,000 1] Estimated: the actual figures for 1963 (rounded) were 1,279,000 for the East and 1,099,000 for the West for a total of 2,378,000. The latter figure represented just over 80 per cent of all primary students in the country. S/ Includes the Midwestern Region - 21 - is already being done in the Eastern regioni (with fees starting at class 4).L/ 2) the imposition of certain charges without calling them fees, e.g. the introduction of a "development charge', (already common in V.A. secondary schools), the imposition of a "school tax" on parents of school children or the requirement that local communities provide some form of "local contribution", which, if not found from school fees, might be raised through local taxation. However, the Eastern region has already experi- mented with an attempt to substitute local taxation for school fees, with unhappy and unsatisfactory results that have ended in abandoning the attempt, at least for the present. 3) Limiting all primary schools to six years; 4) enlarging classes or running double shifts (perhaps with shorter daily sessions) wherever feasible, thus minimizing the need for additional teachers. 5) Finally, without abandoning the political attractiveness and democratic ideal of universal free primary education, governments may be able to accommodate themselves to the fiscal implication of Ue.P.E by a judicious amount of "foot-dragging.'t This temporary expedient would involve deciding against the opening of new primary schools "this year" on grounds that sufficient funds were not available: it is tantamount to a slowing down the expansion of facilities. 57. It is to be noted, however, that both the East and lWest have pro- jected only modest increases in their education budgets for the remaining years of the current plan. The East is paanning to go from a total of 111.2 million in 65/66 to I12.0 and 12.8 for each of the succeeding 2 years. The West plans to move from a 1965/66 total education budget of P7.6 million to E7.8 and b8.o million. Thus the real problem in the next two or three years, in these two regions, is not one of an inordinate rate of growth. The real problem for the current and the rlext succeeding two years would seem to arise only if total budgets, and consequently budgets for education, have to be reduced from projected levels. It is impossible to say what might become politically possible under crisis circumstances. If a fiscal crisis appeared to be only temporary the governments might choose some form of deferred payments to teachers rather thlan the reintroduction of school fees. (One alte,rnative open to the West is to slow down construction of the University at Ife so as not to have tthe additional running costs of the university further burden the regional budget at an early date. However, this proposal means little for the current plan period. It is understood there is only one unit under construction at Ife - the agri- cultural college - so that even if construction of other units should be taken in hand during the present plan period they are unlikely to reach a stage where they would irniluence the current budget.) The complexity 1/ This discriminatory treatment of the hiighest grades has a disadvantage that it penalizes continuation of education of many children who would benefit from the additional grades and so would the national economy. An expert observer in Nigeria has suggested that fees should be reintro- duced for all primary grades, but highest for the lowest grades and lowest or only nominal for the highest grades. This system would be economical: who enters school he would most likely finish it since the costs to his parents wsould be declining as he moves up: half- education would thus be minimized and the benefits to the society from educational expenditure maximized. But this would be a ruthless system, and there is the major question whether it would be politically feasible. - 22 - of the problem can be seen from the experience in the East during the late 1950's. It was originally intended in. the East that UPE would be financed 55 per cent from regional government funds and 4[5 per cent from local rates. However, there was such great, difficulty in collecting local taxes that the original intention was abandoned. As a result the regional government in February 1958 reintroduced a modified fee system. This led to riots so serious that the way out was to modify the structure of the primary school system so that the junior primary school (i.e. to grade 3) has been kept fee-free, while fees have been retained in the higher grades.l/ But this solution, of course, suffers from the disadvantage discussed in the footnote in the preceding page. 58. The Use of Cost Data: An encouraging amount of work on educational costs has recently been done in the country. It remains to make use of the digures now becoming available. The most useful work that should now be done would be to attempt to relate costs (mainly recurrent costs) to educational targets and policies. The aim should be to lay out, in general orders of magnitude, the cost to ttle country of trying to achieve various goals, and especially the differing implications for public budgets. A set of such exploratory papers should be prepared at both the Federal and regional levels. They could be prepared on the basis of information already at hand, i.e.: . . . available unit cost figures * . . alternative assumptions about enrollments in different types of institutions alternative assumptions about the proportion of total costs to be borne by public budgets alternative assumptions about the distribution of total public costs among Federal, regional, and local governments, by level and type of institution. The preparation of such estimates is essential as part of the process of setting targets and policies since there is little purpose in setting targets the country cannot afford. Table VIII of the Appendix illustrates the kind of exploration of alternatives that needs to be done on a much more detailed basis, and for a target date beyond 1968/69. This kind of exercise is essential for planning the educational expenditure in the next Development Plan of Nigeria. 1/ A good review of the history of this period will be found in Chapter 1 of the DIKE Report, entitled Report on the Revision of the Educational System in Eastern Nigeria (see item no. 23 in the annotated bibliography). - 23 - V. INTERMEDIATE MANPOWER AND THE PROGRESS OF HIGH-LEVEL AND VOCATIONAL IMU TEC1NICAL EDUCATION 59. The National Manpower Board figures on the countryts high-level manpower in 1963 are given in Table 9. Senior high-level manpower is de- fined as those in positions where a university degree is normally required. The Intermediate category includes persons normally required to have at least one year of specialized training after the normal five years of se- condary school, or the equivalent (Grade II teachers fall within the cate- gory but not the very large number of Grade III teachers). 60. In 1963 82 per cent of everyone with high-level skills was em- ployed by government. Even when teachers are excluded the proportion falls to only 72 per cent. The 1968 projections also show how heavily dependent HIM will be on public employment. Thus the demand for HFLM will be particu- larly sensitive to the administrative and f'inancial ability of government bodies to expand their programs. 61. Of the 58,000 non-academic high-level jobs in 1963 about one in eight was filled by an expatriate. The proportion was much higher when senior positions alone are considered -- over one in three was filled by an expatriate. Among engineers, two-thirds were expatriates. This show3 the enormity of the task facing the Nigerian education system and the Nigerian economy. In planning investment in education, there are therefore two de- mands that have to be met: long-term growth for high-level and intermediate manpower, and substitution of domestic expertise for that currently provided by foreign imports. The latter demand is large but temporary: long-term growth goals have to be based on the first source of demand, with an appro- priate adjustment over the medium-tern to take care of the substitution de- mand. While the process of NigerianjzatioTi iS going on,this special source of substitution-demand will provide a temporary cushion against the over-produc- tion of Nigerian professionals - an unlikely prospect for several years. 62. The IMB has estimated the numbers of additional high-level posi- tions to be filled by 1968 and 1970 as follows: 1968 1970 Senior category Percent Percent Non-academic 12,400 8o 16,300 79 Teaching & Research 3,050 20 4,300 21 Total: 15,450 20,600 Intermediate category Non-academic h2,150 61 57,150 55 Teaching & Research 26,950 39 47,550 45 Total: 69,100 1041700 Senior plus Intermediate: 8tK550 125,300 23 -a Table 9 Broad Distribution of High-Level Manpower 1963 (Expt. '= Expatriate) I. Non-Academ:ic Government Non-Government Total Expt. Total E-vt- Senior 7,814 (1,726 - 22%) 5,916 (3,455 - 58%) 13,730 (5,181 - 33%) Inter- mediate 34,,123 ( 676 - 2%) l0,040 (1,380 - 13%) Lh,163 (2,056 - 5%) Totals: 41,937 (2,402 - 6%) 15,956 (4,835 - 30%) 57,893 (7,237 - 12%) II. Academic: Teaching and Research Institutions High-Level Employment2/ Senior Intermediate Total 1. Universities a63 - _ 43* 2. Research Institutions 168** 247-*k 415 3. Technical Institutes & Trade Centers 83 362 445 4. Teacher Training Colleges h75 1,535 2,009 5. Secondary Modern, Secondary Schools & Sixth Forms 2,185 7,504 9,689 6. Primary Schools - ].5,705 15,705 7. Other Training Institutions 197 327 524 Totals: 3,571 25,680 29,250 * Expt. 415 *' Expt. 88 and 91 III. Academic and Non-Academic Combined Senior 17,9h1 20C Intermediate 69,743 80% Totals: 87,68h 100% Teaching and Research as a percent of total high-level manpower: 33%1 J Excludes about 80,000 teachers who did not hold a Grade II qualification or higher. Source: NMB. - 24 - While total outturn of Senior manpower is expected to be at the level needed by 1970, it is very unlikely that the universities will turn out the needed product-mix.l/ The qualified - and only very partly justified - optimism with regard to Senior personnel has led the NMB to conclude that Intermediate manpower is a more serious problem. Teaching personnel will continue to account for a large proportion of the Intermediate category. A structure of special institutions caters to the production of teachers (see paras. 33-34). Consequently the NMB has concerned itself with the 42,150 non-academic per- sonnel who will be needed by 1968. This number consists of 18 occupational groups. Since S of these groups have some kind of training institutions of their own, the NTIB has been more concerned with the 10 other groups which it assumes ought to be trained in Technical Institutes. These occupations account for over 33,000 of the 42,150 needed by 1968. In focusing on this group, the NMB concluded that "the need for the rapid development of the Technical Institutes 2/ can be seen as clearly the most critical problem of manpower development in Nigeria". The Board compared the annual outturn of 700 from Technical Colleges 2/ in 1963 with the outturn of 6,600 needed by 1968, thus suggesting that the capacity of Technical Colleges should be expanded by over 9 times. 63. Not all qualified observers accept the notion that Technical Colleges should be relied on as the main source of the most important Intermediate grades who will be needed. For example, two-thirds of the additional 33,000 needed (Table 10) is projected to consist of "Junior Managers and Administra- tors"l.3/ Miany experts would argue that it is more appropriate to look to the regular secondary schools to provide the kind of pre-employment education needed for the majority of junior managerial and administrative personnel and to expect only a small proportion of specially trained people to come from business courses in Technical Colleges. This is but one example of the general problem of identifying more satisfactorily the kinds of terminal secondary education that various types of secondary schools ought to provide before heavy commitments are made in expensive types of institutions that may not be necessary for the purposes to be served. This problem also illust- rates how difficult it is to gear educational activities to the needs of the labor market where "needs" are inherently :omewhat vague and imprecise. We do have doubts whether the projections in Table 10 accurately measure the need: the demand for engineering, technical and agricultural assistants may be seriously understated, if not for 1968 then certainly for the next plan. I/ See para. 17. 2/ One finds the terms "technical college" and "technical institute" used interchangeably in Nigeria today. This is a distinction without a difference. The Federal Advisor on technical education in the early 1960's used his influence to get certain technical institutes renamed technical colleges in order to give them higher prestige. However, not all of the earlier technical institutes succeeded in getting renamed. 3/ There may be doubts whether the demand for such a large proportion of managers and administrators may not be overstated and that for engineering and technical assistants and agricultural assistants and extension workers understated. The proportionate relationship of the two groups does not "sound right" unless it is greatly infLuenced by the substitution demand (para. 61). 24-a Table 10 Non-Academic Intermediate Manpower Needed by 1968 I. Occupations Assumed to be Trained in Technical Institutes 1. Junior Managerial and Administrative 22,600 2. Surveying Assistants 450 3. Engineering and Technical Assistants 4,400 4. Laboratory Technicians and Assistants 550 5. Draughtsmen 400 6. Radio and Telephone Operators 350 7. Accounting and Audit Assistants - 8. Cashiers, Book-Keepers and Storekeepers 1,200 9. Foremen and Supervisors - 10. Occupations not elsewhere classified 3,200 33,150 II. Occupations with Avenues of Training Outside Technical Institutes 1. Nurses and Midwives 3,300 2. Medical Technicians 300 3. Journalists 150 4. Library Assistants 500 5. Secretary-typists and Personal Secretaries 300 6. Agricultural Assistants & Extension Wiorkers 2,550 7. Forest Assistants 1,800 8. Statistical Assistants 100 9,000 Grand Total: L2,150 Source: NMB - 25 - 64. At its present stage of evolution Nigeria is moving from the orderly and well-structured system of vocational and technical education which the country inherited from its British connections into a stage where the traditional approaches, philosophy, and institutions are being exposed to criticism, advice and projects from other countries, including various countries in Europe and, particularly, the U.S.A. There is no longer any agreed framework of thought to guide development of the system. There is a mood of questioning, uncer- tainty, and sometimes of conflict among the leading individuals and groups concerned with vocational and technical education. However, if one believes in identifying new alternatives and in the competition of ideas in the market then one can reasonaoly hope that in the Icing run the present discussion will contribute to the evolution of a system bet,ter suited to Nigeria's needs than any model which could be imported from any single foreign country. 65. At present there is no national plarn for the development of vocational and technical education. In 1961 or 1962 the Federal Advisor on technical and vocational education proposed such a plan, but it proved unacceptable to some of the regions. Consequently each of the five governments is moving forward rather independently, with some attempt at regional coordination from the center. The major influences from the center are three: (i) The Federal Ministry of Education, which has a Federal Advisor on technical and vocational education; (ii) The U.S. AID, which strives for a certain amount of consistency in what it tries to do in different regions and which is influen- tial because of the size of its education program; and (iii) The Ford Foundation, which has concerned itself with vocational and technical education. 66. The lack of a national plan and the confusion and conflicts of phil- osophy are reflected in the different structures and nomenclature of vocation~`L and technical training institutions in the different regions. One of the dif- ficulties is to sort out to what extent differences in nomenclature reflect real differences in purpose and organization. 67. Structure of the System: There are about 30 government institutions commonly regarded as making up the system of vocational and technical educa- tion. There are a few private vocational schools that are not attached to any employer; none is of much consequence. In addition to the private schools there are 15 - 20 additional private training facilities that belong to individual employers and are operated to serve their own needs. The government schools consist of 5 Technical Colleges (at Yaba, Ibadan, Kaduna, Enugu, and Auchi); 6 Trade Training Centers (1 in the Federal Territory, 4 in the West and 1 in the Midwest); the 13 Craft Schools and 3 Technical Training Schools of the Northern Region; and in the East 2 - 3 relatively new Trade Schools plus a small number of Handicraft Centers. This list excludes the few specialized "captive" training institutions operated by a few government departments to serve their own needs (the most numerous of these are the in-service training schools run by some of the ministries of agriculture). - 26 - 68. The level and purpose of each of the five types of vocational institutions mentioned are as follows: Technical Colleges: 3 year post-secondary training to produce technicians, i.e. persons above the skilled tradesman level but below that of the professional engineer. The skilled trades- man works mainly with his hands; the technician does not. Trade Training Centers: secondary-level institutions (3 years in the West, 5 in the East) intended to produce skilled tradesmen. Craft Schools: these Northern institutions date from the 1920's, although they were closed in the 1930's for fiscal reasons and were reopened in 1957. They are post-primary, lower-secondary schools whose 3-year course amounts to a general secondary edu- cation with considerable practical work. About 50 per cent of the graduates from the Craft Schools proceed directly to the Techni- cal Training Schools. The remainder enter the labor market as lower-level artisans. Technical Training Schools: These Northern institutions are upper- level secondary schools for the training of skilled tradesmen below the technician level. Handicraft Schools: These few Eastern Region institutions pro- vide primary-level students with an introduction to manual opera- tions on a part-time, day-release basis. 69. Omitting the Handicraft Schools, 1963 enrollment in the 30 or so technical and vocational schools was as follows: Technical Colleges North East West Lagos All Junior courses 214 h70 - 939 1,623 Senior courses 113 322 200 759 1,39L 327 792 200 1,698 3,017 Trade Centers Craft Schools Technical Schools Others All W E Lagos N N E 575 477 536 1,787 5h19 4,338 Grand Total: 7,355 Although there was a fairly vigorous expansion of enrollment in 1960-62 this did not continue. Today there are on]y about 20 per cent more stu- dents enrolled in the 30 vocational schools than in the country's five universities. The universities are finding it much easier than the tech- nical schools to expand their enrollments- The disappointing - 27 - growth of enrollments in the technical schools reflects the lower status of this branch of education and lack of strong incentives that might overcome student resistance, particularly at the technical college level where attendance is too expensive for many students unless they have scholarships or are sponsored by an employer. 70. Future expansion of the system: There is no doubt that Nigeria will - and should - experience a rapidly growing clemand for technically-trained intermediate-level manpower. This demand rill have to be satisfied and the needed investment commands top priority above any other investment. At the same time there is no point in undertaking costly new investment in particular cases if the expansion, reorganization and modernization of existing facili- ties can produce the needed supply in a particular locality or in a specific branch of specialization. The criterion has to be that all demand for technically-trained people must be met, ancl met at the lowest possible cost. There is a temptation to believe that since technically-trained intermediate- level manpower is scarce the establishment of almost any kind of vocational or technical institution is justified. This rests on a naive view of the role of formal pre-employment training in the total process of skill-formation lWhile the need for additional technical schools is beyond dispute, there are three possibilities for expanding the supply of vocationally-trained manpower that should be pushed more energetically arid wqhich would reduce the need for investment in newr vocational facilities and their subsequent heavy operating costs: (i) More attention needs to be given to make the existing institutions more efficient. Some can expand enrollments at costs much cheaper than building new institutions, e.g., by adding new boarding facilities, or part-time courses, or new subject-matter. Some could take more students if their operating budgets were more generous (e.g., Yaba had to keep 15O of its 700 beds empty last year because there was no money to pay the 4/- food allowance if students had been admitted). A shortage of scholarships has held down enrollment at some oi' the new institutions (e.g., ITadan Technical College). (ii) No serious effort has yet been made to explore the possibility of making public use of private training facilities. The Nigeria Employers Consultative Association (NECA) reports that there are between 15 and 20 large firms in the country which have recently had private training programs. Several of these firms have reportedly filled thleir own training requirements and are even considering closing down their facilities. This is occurring at a time when governments are trying to expand training facilities. Thus governments might rely more heavily on employers to carry a larger part of the vocational training burden than they now do. Nothing is likely to bring about such public-private cooperation unless responsibility is fixed for trying to achieve it. The best approach would probably be the appointment of a one- or twio-man task force to work up specific alternatives and specific proposals for consideration - 28 - by the Federal and the four Regional governments. The kind of arrangements which might prove feasible are for the govern- ment to extend to private employers the same kind of grant-in- aid assistance that has developed for general secondary and primary education. The government might extend running cost grants and perhaps even help meet a part of the capital cost of such firms as would agree to admit to their own training programs a certain proportion of outside trainees along with their own personnel. Private facilities might also be made available for "lsandwich" courseS for employees from other establishments, including government. The cost to government and to the economy of extending vocational and technical training by this method should be considerably cheaper than if it tried to achieve the same objectives by establishing everywhere indei6endent training facilities. Of course, this method can help meet only a part of the total demand. Discussion of its feasibility could be an appropriate topic for the advisory body of the private sector representatives and government officials which has recently been established under the aegis of the Federal Ministry of Economic Development. (iii) The present interest in diversifying the traditional secondary curriculum deserves strong support. Although the two experi- ments with comprehensive high schools (at Port Harcourt and Aiyetoro)lj/ have probably resulted in institutions too costly to serve as models, their innovations in curriculum are likely to be useful pioneering efforts. But there needs to be a wider and more intensive effort to see how the traditional secondary school curriculum can be diversified to prepare the great majority of graduates for the labor market they will enter rather than for the university they will not. A reformed, diversified curriculum for the ordinary secondary school is no substitute for a technical college, properly conceived. But it can sub- stitute for some of the lower-level vocational schools. 11 The term "comprehensive high school" means different things to different people. In the American philosophy which underlies these two experiments, the term has two main dimensions: 1) The notion that a high school should admit all successful primary school leavers within its natural area of influence, and 2) That the curriculum should be sufficiently broad and flexible to prepare students for several different alternatives upon graduation and not simply for proceeding to university. This implies that the curriculum should have several vocational streams alongside the more traditional curriculum intended for university preparation and should afford students a chance to experiment somewhat so as to identify their own interests and aptitudes. A good system of student counseling or guidance is an important element in such a scheme. - 29 - 71. Gearing Training Activities to the Needs of the Labor Market: The problem of deciding what courses to offer and how large enrollments should be in the various types of training institutions is not yet being handled very satisfactorily. The key to the problem lies in the development of reasonably good information about the present and future needs of the la- bor markets served by particular training facilities. So far the develop- ment of local labor market information has been weak. Neither the National Manpower Board nor the Ministry of Labor has been able to work up information which school officials find helpful in planning curriculums and setting targets. A method which could be tried would be the development of effective local advisory boards to work with the principals of each training institution; but so far there are practically no effective committees. Consequently each institution must rely on the shrewdness, energy, and local knowledge of its principal or other staff members. These individuals have nothing to go on except the information they can glean from contacts with local employers and from their analysis of placement experience with recent graduates. 72. Teaching Staff: Finding adequate numbers of qualified teaching staff is of course a major problem. However, this problem does not seem to be quite as formidable as are some of the other problems cited. One reason is the relatively high proportion of expatriate staff found in most of the technical training institutions, particularly the newer ones. For example, at the Ibadan Technical College wJth a present staff of about 30, about two-thirds are non-Nigerians; this institution has been in operation only since 1962. On the other hand at the Yaba Technical Training Center there is a total staff of 50,of whom only !) are now expatriates; this is a well-established institution. One factor in favor of staff recruitment is the relatively favorable salary level for technical training teachers as compared with salaries paid in industry,, At the Yaba Trade Training Cen- ter for example, where 90 per cent of the 3taff are Nigerians, the main problem in retaining staff is not competition from the heavily industrialized Lagos area but the desire of staff members to get jobs in ministries, where opportunities for promotion are considerabLy better than if they remain in a technical training institution. In view of the general tightness of the housing situation throughout the country it is not surprising that at any new technical training institution the availability of housing has a great deal to do with the institution's ability to attract staff. The construc- tion of a new Technical Teachers' Training College by the Federal govern- ment, in Lagos, should ease the supply of vocational teachers in the years ahead. 73. Standards, Curriculum, and Syllabi: The maintenance of a set of national standards for vocational and technical education is important for reasons of administrative convenience, employer evaluation, and stu- dent motivation. At present such a system is administered by the West African Examination's Council, the external examining body in the country for technical as well as for general education. Standards are based on the City and Guilds Institute of London (CGIL), for vocational and technical - 30 - subjects, and on the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) for commercial subjects.i/ The chief mechanism by which st-andards are made elfective is the control over course syllabi inherent in the knowledge that students will sit for external examinations and tests based on a model syllabi approved by CGIL or RSA. The same set of influences are at work at thae next higher level of standards, i.e., the make-up of the curriculum. 74. There has been considerable criticism of the tying of Nigerian standards of vocational education to the COIL and RiSA. The main criticism is that students are forced to take courses in subjects which are not appro- priate for Nigeria and that even where courses are appropriate the syllabi may not be. A conclusion sometimes drawn from these criticisms is that the country should rtbreak loose" from OGIL and RSA and develop its own independent standards for both commercial and non-commercial vocational edu- cation. It is not clear how fair this criticism is. The London offices of CGIL and RSA have reportedly shown great willingness to adapt curricu- lums and syllabi to the needs of particular countries and they have had representatives visiting many countries to help national officials work out this kind of adaptation. However, the process of adaptation requires ini- tiatives within the particular country. If there are no initiatives then the standards remain those in force in Britain, and this will indeed be inappropriate. Hence, the criticism of the tie to CGIL and RSA often heard in Nigeria seems as much a criticism of lack of initiative and imagination within the country (including, of course, among many foreign advisers) as it is of the linkage itself. At the present time there appears to be in- creased activity toward adapting curriculums and syllabi -Lo Nigerian con- ditions. This requires the setting up of trade comrittees to pass judg- rment on what is or is not suitable. How extensively and rapidly this effort is going forward is not clear. It is the long-run policy of the WAEC to effect a gradual and orderly transition from dependence upon London stand- ards to those which are entirely national. At some time, several years in the future, the certifications issued by WhEC will be independent of CGIL and RSA. Today, students, teachers, and administrators place great empha- sis on maintaining the tie. 75. Agricultural Skills and Attitudes: Nothing has been said about sub-professional schools for the training of people in agricultural skills. Whether or not such institutions are included within the field of vocational and technical training is a matter of definition. But defini- tions aside, it is important to note how srmall has been the attention given to the general training of secondary level students for agricultural work. / At the artisan level (semi-skilled operators), i.e. below the levels of the technical and skilled craftsman, there is a purely Nigerian certificate that is not tied to any parent body in the U.K. This is called the "craftsman's certificate". - 31 - Generally speaking, much less thought and resources have been devoted. to the development of agricultural training facilities at the sub-profession- al level than has been true of vocational and technical education as con- ventionally defined. All regions except the Midwest have some agricultur- al training institutions for sub-professional work, but all are for in-service training of persons already employed in the Department of Agriculture. The only exception is in the North, where a system of Farm Institutes is being developed. These will be one-year residential farm training centers for teen-age farm boys. Only two of a proposed, set of about 15 such institutes had been constructed by the summer of 1965. In the East planning is in the early stages for the establishment of approximately a dozen new junior secondary schools designed to take primary school leavers with agricultural backgrounds and prepare them for careers in agriculture. These will pro- bably be residential schools and may be located near the regionts experi- mental farm settlements. 76. The 1964 Rowat Report 1/ to the Government of Nigeria on educa- tion and training programs for agriculture has relatively little to say about education and training for people who are not intending to enter government service. Consequently, the subject of whether or not the coun- try should develop a set of agricultural vocational schools not aimed pri- marily at providing sub-professional personnel for the government services must still be considered a neglected area.!/ The most significant pro- gress on this front is likely to be found in the attempts to introduce agriculture as a new element in the curriculum of certain general secondary schools. However, the amount of experimentation with agricultural subjects now going on in the curriculums of such schools is much less than even the limited experimentation now occurring with technical and commercial sub- jects. Much discussion of agricultural education and training is not con- cerned with the creation of skills but with keeping primary school leavers from migrating to the cities, where they are likely to swell the ranks of unemployed youth. The development of specialized agricultural schools at the secondary level may simply postpone the time when migration occurs. Educated youth are likely to remain in agriculture only if other measures, outside the education sector, are taken which make farming more attractive as a career. 1/ See item No. 8 in the attached bibliography. / A U.S. AID study team will be making a thorough study of Nigerian agricultural problems over the next two or three years and is expect- ed to devote some attention to this problem. - 32 - VI. RECOGLfr'DATIOŽS FCR THE CMRRENT FOR'aM 77. The capital spending targets of the five governments for the second half of the plan are given in Table 2. They total £37.5 million. This com- pares with expenditures of £18.5 million during the first half of the plan. It seems unlikely that the sector will in fact be able to double investment activity in such a short period, mostly because of limits to administrative aLnd construction capacities and partly because of shortages of funds. A somevhat more realistic target can be set at a figure of £30.2 million, about 20 per cent below the official targets. The revised distribution of spending among the five governments is also shown in Table 2. 78. The suggested reductions do not assume equal percentage cuts for all five governments. The revisions would range from 29 per cent cut in Federal spending to a small rise of 3 per cent for the iddwest. The reasons for the suggested cuts are explained briefly in the paragraphs that follow. It should be noted that the proposed changes agree broadly with the revenue outlooks for each of the five governments -- i.e., the smallest cuts are suggested for those regions where the least financial difficulty is expected. 79. Federal: The reduction in Federal spending arises from three changes: a modest reduction in the subvention for building primary schools in the North; a major reduction in the high allocation for primary schools in the Federal territory; and a 50-50 sharing in the proposed cut on spending for the UJniversity of Ife (50 per cent of the cut to be borne by the Federal Government, 50 per cent by the Western region). 80. Northern Region: Two suggested revisions account for the 13 per cent cut: economizing on the teacher-training program (the allowances for staff housing seem unnecessarily generous) and an advance account of probable inability to carry out the targets for secondary and technical education. 81. Eastern Region: It seems likely that economies can be made in the program for technical education, without affecting the goals. On the other hand it seems unrealistic to think that no funds will need to be spent on the University of Nigeria at Nsukka; hence an increase of £150,000 has been made there. 82. Western Region: The proposed postponement of further new constructior at Ife allows a reduction of £1-375 million, similar to that proposed at the Federal level (which shares construction costs at Ife on a 50-50 basis). The regional library seems a relatively low priority for a period of financial stringency. Enrolment in the Trade Training Centers can probably be increased with less investment than now planned; an attempt to do this seems in order when money is scarce. The reduction for non-Government grammar schools is based more on expectation of under-spending than on a positive recommendation that such a cut is desirable. - 32 - VI. RECOWNENDATIONS FOR THE CURRENT FROGRAl 77. The capital spending targets of the five governments for the second half of the plan are given in Table 2. They total £37.5 million. This com- pares with expenditures of £18.5 million during the first half of the plan. It seems unlikely that the sector will in fact be able to double investment activity in such a short period, mostly because of limits to administrative and construction capacities and partly because of shortages of funds. A somewhat more realistic target can be set at a figure of £30.2 million, about 20 per cent below the official targets. The revised distribution of spending among the five governments is also shown in Table 2. 78. The suggested reductions do not assume equal percentage cuts for all five governments. The revisions would range from 29 per cent cut in Federal spending to a small rise of 3 per cent for the Midi-est. The reasons for the suggested cuts are explained briefly in the paragraphs that follow. It should be noted that the proposed changes agree broadly with the revenue outlooks for each of the five governments -- i.e., the smallest cuts are suggested for those regions where the least financial difficulty is expected. 79. Federal: The reduction in Federal spending arises from three changes: a modest reduction in the subvention for building primary schools in the North; a major reduction in the high anlocation for primary schools in the Federal territory; and a 50-50 sharing in the proposed cut on spending for the University of Ife (50 per cent of the c-ut to be -borne by the Federal Government, 50 per cent by the Western region). 80. Northern Region: Two suggested revisions account for the 13 per cent cut: economizing on the teacher-training program (the allowances for staff housing seem unnecessarily generous) and an advance account of probable inability to carry out the targets for secondary and technical education. 81. Eastern Region: It seeas likely that economies can be made in the program for technical education, without affecting the goals. On the other hand it seems unrealistic to think that no funds will need to be spent on the University of Nigeria at Nsukka; hence an increase of £150,000 has been made there. 82. Western Region: The proposed postponement of further new constructior at Ife allows a reduction of £1i375 million, similar to that proposed at the Federal level (which shares construction costs at Ife on a 50-50 basis). The regional library seems a relatively low priority for a period of financial stringency. Enrolment in the Trade Training Centers can probably be increased with less investment than now planned; an attempt to do this seems in order when money is scarce. The reduction for non-Government grammar schools is based more on expectation of under-spending than on a positive recommendation that such a cut is desirable. - 33 - 83. Mid-Western Region: Two adjustments are made in the governmentts tar- gets simply to make these figures agree with those contained in the 1964 I.D.A. credit agreement. The latter contains figures for school workshops and for the Sapele Trade Center slightly different from those in the overall capital pro- gram. - 34 - VII. PREPARINhG FOR THE NEXT PLAN S4. The first Plan embidied several major educational initiatives started during the early 1960's. These included the establishment of four new universities, erecting a new structure of teacher-training institu- tions, introducing several important experiments in secondary education (e.g., two comprehensive high schools, three National High Schools, the extension of Sixth Forms, the extension of science teaching in grammar schools, and the starting of a Federal Science School), and the extension of vocational and, especially, higher technical training. Institutes of Education are now functioning at the three major universities. Several foreign governments and international agencies have associated themselves closely with the country's educational development, and a healthy atmosphere exists for cooperative relationships between Nigerians and foreigners for working on the sector's problems. 85. In 1965 only the most general statements can be made about the education objectives of the plan which is to begin in 1968. A few points are obvious. At the university level, for example, the most important projects will center on completing and extending the existing five institu- tions. The N.U.C. is already trying to assist each university to develop a Master Plan. The danger that these may be competetive rather than complementary is obvious - the unnecessary duplication of facilities for costly professional education would be wasteful of both capital and recurring funds, and of scarce teaching personnel. At the secondary level the most important decisions for the Second Plan will depend on an evaluation of the experiments of the First. Already it seems doubtful that either the Comprehensive High School or the National High Schools will be considered suitable models for wider adoption. Cn the other hand, the Federal Science School (a science-oriented Sixth Form) might be worthy of duplication. The muajor effort in teacher-training rmust be to contirne a vigorou5s up-grading of both primary and secondary staffs to help arrest the deterioration in standards that has occurred over the past decade. But it is not yet clear whether the main burden of teacher education will continue to fall on the specialized teacher-training institutions or, increasingly, on the universities. In vocational and technical education, serious work on clarification of objectives and philosophy is urgently needed to enable proper planning of future investment. One special branch of vocational education, agriculture, deserves much more attention than it has so far received. Throughout primary and secondary education there is much interest in curriculun reform, a reflection of changing educational philosophy and goals. - 35 - 86. The development of research, planning, and administrative institutions in education are most important to the next Plan. Strengthen- ing the Institutes of Education and bringing them into closer touch with the Ministries of Education in their regions is one current task that will pay long-term dividends. So is the proposed establishment of a National Council for Educational Research. Perhaps most important of all, so far as the next Plan is concerned, is the strengthening of planning units in all of the Ministries of Education. "Strengthening" means making certain that such units exist; that they are strongly staffed with competent advisors; and that they are given explicit responsibility for drafting proposals, suggestion projects, costing out alternative programs, and forcing key policy-decisions from those who must make them. The degree of instability in financial projections which is encountered in some places does not reflect a satisfactory basis for making decisions. 87. It might give focus and discipline to the work of planning units if a series of special conferences, undertaken in cooperation with one or more international agencies, could be held in the summer of 1967 for the specific purpose of outlining the educational objectives (policies, programs, and major projects) of the Second Plan. The main role should be played by Nigerians, but staff support might be available from the International Institute for Educational Planning and financial support from aid agencies or private foundations. For such conferences to be fruitful, a great deal of very hard work is needed over the next 18 months: but irrespective whether this particular suggestion is appropriate, such hard planning work will pay great dividends, resulting in an ambitious, properly focussed and realistic educational program for the Second Nigerian Development Plan. Attachmnet A PARTIAL LIST OF BACKGROUND DOCUMENTS The annotated bibliography that follows is intended primarily for those with little or no knowledge of documents useful in understanding the Nigerian educational scene. The list is doubtless incomplete; in two or three cases the exact titles of documents not seen are unknown to me. Despite its informality and incompleteness the list will give any- one a good running start in the subject. A few of the items refer to studies now in manuscript form whose publication is expected in 1965 or 1966. Some of the Goverrment reports may now be out of print, with only file copies available from government offices and libraries. G. B. Baldwin The "World Bank September, 1965 1. Investment in Education: The Report of the Commission on Post-School Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria ("The Ashby Report"). Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education, 1960. 140 pp. 5/-. The big postwar increases in primary education occurred in the mid-1950's; the big expansions of secondary and higher education are occurring in the 1960's -- largely as a result of concepts and goa'ls established by the Ashby Commission. Fully as important as the main 48-page General Report are the seven Special Reports that comprise Part II. 2. Educational Development, 1961-70. Sessional Paper No. 3 of 1961. Lagos. Federal Government Printer. 1961. 10 pp. 9d. A White Paper in which the Government accepts most of the recom- mendations of the Ashby Commission's Report. Contains a useful summary of the latter. Points out that the level of investment in educational expenditures for the period 1961-70 is likely to be £75 million, with recurrent costs at the same figure by 1970. These are costs that will fall on government budgets under exis- ting grants-in-aid systems; they do not include private costs (financed mainly from student fees). These capital and recur- rent costs represent an approximate tripling of educational effort over the decade. 3. Educational Development in Nigeria, 1961-70: A Report on the Phasing and Cost of Educational Development on the basis of the Ashby Com- mission's Report on Post-School Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria ("The Archer Report"). Lagos. Federal Government Printer. March, 1961. 137 pp. (Restricted). The Ashby Report set general targets: the Archer Report estimated the cost of implementing them. "It consists of a detailed assess- ment of the capital and recurrent costs, year by year from 1961 to 1970, and Region by Region, covering the whole educational system, - 2 - from primary to university education including technical and vo- cational training, teacher-training, agricultural and veterinary education; and translates the proposals of the Ashby Commission into a phased programme of development suitable for incorporation into Regional and Federal estimates of expenditure" (from the White Paper, item No. 2, above). 4. Report on the Development of Technical and Commercial Education (below professional level) in the Federation of Nigeria, 1961-1970 ("The Caunce/Cottier Report"). October, 1961. 124 pp., mimeo. A report by two United Kingdom technical experts who were asked to review "in the light of the Ashby Commissionts Report, plans for de- veloping technical and commercial education", including the costs thereof. By the time their work began, the Government had doubled the Ashby Commission's original target of 2,5000 technicians per annum in technical institutes. 5. Nigeria's High-level Manpower, 1963-70. Lagos. National Manpower Board. (Manpower Study No. 2). 1961a. 67 pp. 7/od. A series of tables, with supporting analysis and explanation, that show the country's expected shortages by major occupational groups. These figures have been used in establishing targets for educational and training institutions. A limited number of more detailed studies are in progress at the NMB. Manpower Study No. 1 was a 19 pp. Preliminary Report entitled Manpower Situation in Nigeria (Lagos, 1963); Manpower Study No. 3 is an un- dated 16 pp. publication, A Study of Nigeria's Professional Manpower in Selected Occupations 1964. 6. Statistics of Education in Nigeria, 1963. Series No. 1, Vol. III.Lagos. Federal Ministry of Education. February, 1965. 114 pp. 5/- The one official statistical publication that gives figures not only for the Federal Territory but for all the regions. Mbst of the time-series cover the years 1959-63. Vol. II (n.d., 99 pp. 5/-) was titled, Annual Digest of Education Statistics. 7. A National Plan for the Development of Technical Education in the Republic of Nigeria (draft). ("The Gailer Report"). Lagos. Federal Ministry of Education. 1962 (?) An attempt to develop a national plan for technical education, based heavily on the Ashby Report and the Caunce/Cottier Report. The Report was not accepted by all the regions and cannot be considered a master-plan which the country is now in process of executing. However, the report has been an important influence on the thinking of many persons concerned with this subject. 80 Report to the Federal and Regional Governments of Nigeria on The Development of Education and Training in the Field of Agriculture and Related Subjects. ("The Rowat Report"). Rome. F.A.O. 1964 109 pp. mimeo. Deals with specialized institutions, with little or no concern for the treatment of agricultural subjects in the general school system. Recommends the establishment of a continuing Council for Agricultural Education. Muich information on specific institutions, with recom- mendations for programs and enrolments. 9, University Development in Nigeria: Report of the National Universities Commission. n.p. Federal MvLinistry of Information. 1963. 47 pp. The N.U.C. was created at the suggestion of the Ashby Commission. This is its initial report on the development of the country's univer- sity system and its financing. The Government's reaction to the recommendations of the N.U.Co are contained in Sessional Paper No. 4 of 1964, entitled "Decisions of the Government of the Federal Repub- lic of Nigeria on the Report of the National Universities Commission" (Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education, 1964, 9 pp.) The N.U.C. also publishes annually (as a mimeographed document) a statistical summary of university enrolments by university and fields. (These figures are also published in item No. 6 above). 10. Study of Manpower Needs and Educational Capabilities: Nigeria ("The Masland Report" to the U.S. Agency for International Develop- ment). This is one in a series of country reports on all English- speaking countries of sub-Sahara Africa (except the Fed. of S.A.) done for A.I.D. by a committee of Education and lVorld Affairs. The committee was headed by Dr. John W. Masland, Provost of Dartmouth College. The reports may not be formally published but should be available from either EWA or AID. The Nigeria report runs to about 50 pp., mimeo. 11. Report of the Commission Appointed to Review the Educational System of Western Nigeria("The Banjo Commission Report"). Ibadan. Govern- ment of Western Nigeria. 1962 (?). 89 pp. 2/6d. A useful overview of the structure of education in the region, with recommendations for improving the system in the light of the Ashby Commission recommendations. 12. Report of Commission of Inquiry into the rise in Fees charged by Public Secondary Grammar Schools and Teacher Training Colleges in Western Nigeria ("The Ajayi Commission Report"). Ibadan. Western Nigeria Official Document No. 11 of 1963. June, 1962. 69 pp. 2/- An excellent guide to a somewhat tricky subject. Appendix VI (pp. 44-h6) gives a useful "Historical Sketch of the Grants-in-Aid System" both before and after the important review of the grants system by Sir Sydney Phillipson in 1948 (see next item). 13. Annual Abstract of Education Statistics, 1962 and 1963 combined. Ibadan. Ministry of Economic Planning and Community Development, Statistics Division. Western Nigeria, January, 1964. 79 pp. 2/6d. Intended to be an annual volume, published early in the calendar year. (The 1964 edition was out of print by mid-year). 14. Education Laws. (CAP. 34) Ibadan. The Govt. Printer, Wlestern Nigeria. 1962. 110 pp. 7/6d. The basic education law of the Region. A supplement has also been published. Other regions (e.g. the East) are known to have a similar publication. 15. Grants in Aid of Education in Nigeria, by S. Phillipson, C.N.G. Lagos. Government Printer, 19b. The key document explaining the relationship between government finance and the Voluntary Agency schools. The future is bound to see fairly frequent modifications of the "classical" grants-in-aid system as -bhe educational system moves in the direction of becoming a full-fledged system of government-o¶ined and government-run schools. But the various governments have neither the funds nor the adminis- trative resources to move towards this goal precipitately without disastrous results. 16. White Paper on Education Development in Northern Nigeria. Kaduna. Govt. of Northern Nigeria. The Govt. Printer, 1961. 8 pp. 9d. 17. School Directory for Northern Nigeria Kaduna (Northern Nigeria), Ministry of Education, Planning and Development Division, 1964. iv + 79 pp. 18. Education Law of Northern Nigeria 1964. Kaduna (Northern Nigeria), Kinistry of Education, Planning and Development Division, 1964. 49 pp. 19. The Administration of Primarv Education ("The Oldman Report"). Kaduna. The Government Printer. (Northern Region). n.d. (1962?) 184 pp. An important document, with much material on educational costs and finance in the Northern Region. Also contains recommendations on the establishment of local education authorities as the most satis- factory basis for extending public control over the educational system. Many useful tables; useful 13-item bibliography at pp. 118 - 119. 20. Northern Nigeria Local Government: Yearbook, 1965. Prepared by the Department of Local Government, Institute of Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 95 pp. (1965). A useful handbook. Pp. 64 - 71 are devoted to "Education in Northern Nigeria" and contain tables of enrolments, costs, and financing. 21. Classes, Enrolments, and Teachers in the Schools of Northern Nigeria, 1964. Kaduna. Planning and Development Division, Ministry of Education. 1964. 32 pp. This is "the fourth annual publication of numerical and statistical information on the schools in Northern Nigeria." The same Division of the Ministry has also published a number of mimeographed "Planning Papers" useful to people with somewhat specialized interests (e.g., No. 1 - 4, "Preliminary Study of Wastage in Pupils of Primary Schools in Northern Nigeria", June 1965, 11 pp.) 22. "Planning of Primary Education in Northern Nigeria" by J. F. Thornley, U.K. educational advisor. (Kaduna). 92 pp., June 1965. (mimeo) A clear, detailed account of educational planning irn the Northern Region since the publication of the Ashby Report in 1960. The paper is one of several on Nigerian education prepared for the International Institute of Educational Planning and intended initially for use in a conference to be held in Dakar late in 1965. Other reports on Nigeria being prepared as part of this same IIEP effort include: "Qualitative Aspects of Teacher Supply and Demand" (A. Taylor) "Quantitative Aspects of Teacher Supply and Demand" (R. Hollister) "Process and Implementation of Educational Planning in Nigeria" (A. Wheeler) "Integration of External Assistance for Educational Planning in Nigeria" (L. Cerych) "Costs and Financing of Education in Nigeria" (A. Callaway). 23. Report on the Review of the Educational System in Eastern Nigeria ("The Dike Committee Report"). Official Document No. 19 of 1962. Enugu. Ministry of Education. The Government Printer. 1962 96 pp. plus tables and maps. 4/-. A basic general overview that does for the Eastern Region much of what the "Banjo Report" did for the Western Region (see item No. 9). Contains a useful review of developments for the decade preceding 1958, which included the introduction, in 1957, of Universal Primary Education, with attendant financial difficulties. 24. Policy for Education. Enugu. M4inistry of Education, Eastern Nigeria. Official Document No. 7 of 1963. The Govt. Printer, 1963. 6 pp. 6d. The first summary of Regional educational policy since Policy Paper on Education in 1954 (Sessional Paper No. 2 of 1954) when Nigeria was still under colonial rule. (see also item No. 23, below). 25. Report of the Conference on the Review of the Education System in Eastern Nigeria ("The Ikoku Report"). Official Document No. 25 of 1964. Enugu. The Govt. Printer. 1964. 53 pp. 2/- A review by Nigerian educators based on an eight-day conference held in the sumner of 1962. Concerned with primary, secondary, and teacher education. - 6 - 26. Ministerial Broadcast on Education, by Dr. S. E. Imoke, Ninister of Education, Eastern Nigeria. Enugu. The Government Printer. 1964 23 pp. Reprints of four talks given by Dr. Imoke. Summarizes the key policy objectives of the Ministry as of 1964. (see also item No. 21, above). 27. Report of the Comparative Education Seminar Abroad. Ministry of Education, Eastern Nigeria. Official Document No. 21 of 1963. Enugu. The Govt. Printer, 1963. 10 pp. 1/- A brief summary of the main impressions gained by a 16-man team of Nigerian educators, from all regions, who participated in a 10-week study tour to Sweden, France, and the United States to examine foreign education systems and "in particular, looking for such features as -- if adapted to Nigerian conditions and needs - might improve education in Nigeria" (from the Introduction by Dr. Adam S. Skapski of U.S. AID, which sponsored the Seminar. In 1965 Dr. Skapski, now with the Ford Foundation in Lagos, was planning a similar Seminar Abroad for Nigerians concerned with vocational and technical education). 28. 1962 Annual R ort, Ministry of Education, Eastern Nigeria Official Document No. 5 of 1965. Enugu. The Govt. Printer, 1964 (sic), 105 pp. plus 22 charts. 4/6d. Contains 30 pp. of narrative reports on administration, finance, primary eduication, secondary education, etc., plus extensive tables. 29. Education Handbook 1965. Enugu. Eastern Nigeria Ministry of Education. Eastern Nigeria Official Document No. 26 of 1964. 59 pp. 30. Report on Investigation of Vocational Education in Eastern Nigeria ("The Goldway Report") Enugu. Ministry of Education. Official Document No. 13. 1962. An influential report done for the Eastern Regional Government, about 1962. Believed to have been published by the Govt. Printer, Enugu. 31. The Development of Technical Education and its Relation to the Educational System in Western INigeria, 1962-1970, by Dr. Adam S. Skapski. Ibadan. The Government Printer. Nay, 1962. This seminal report has been influential throughout the country. Two major themes are (1) that the general secondary schools should be broadened to assume a larger role in pre-vocational education and (2) that government should induce large employers to do more in the field of vocational training. The author's views stand in some contrast to many of those expressed in other influential reports on technical education presented to the government at about the same time. - 7 - 32. Appraisal of Educational Project: Niaeria. Department of Tech- nical Operations, IBRD7TDA. TO-434 (b). Washington. December 16, 1964. 34 pp. plus tables and appendices. (Restricted). The summary review of Nigeria's needs in the fields of secondary, vocational, and teacher education, plus a description of the IDA project involving a credit of $22.5 million for a set of projects supporting expansion of these branches of education. 33. The Birth of Nigeria's University, by Kenneth Mellanby. London i4ethuen & Co. 195d. 263 pp. An account of the origins, construction, financing, organization, staffing, and other aspects of Nigeria's first university college, by the man who was Principal of the institution during its first six years (1947-53). 34. Public Programmes for Nanagement Education and Training in Nigeria. Prepared for the Nigeria Employers' Consultative Association by the P-E Consulting Group (West Africa) Ltd. Lagos. May, 1965. 14 pp. plus XII appendices. Prepared for the Training and Education Committee of N.E.C.A. in order to "provide the Association and its Member firms with up-to- date and comprehensive information about the managejment education and training programmes in Nigeria which are available for use by all employers", to "indicate the areas in this field where further development is required", and to "recommend the measures necessary to achieve the development needed ... "t 35. U.S. Technical and Capital Assistance in Support of Economic Develop- ment in Nigeria (Report as of January 1965). Lagos. U.S. Agency for International Development. 1965. 89 pp. Contains surnmary material on AID projects assisting Nigeria's educa- tional growth. Education projects constitute the largest sector in the AID assistance program in Nigeria. More detailed descriptions of the individual projects will be found in the annual E-1 reports (these are internal reports used largely for budgetary purposes and are unlikely to be generally available). 36. Recruitment and Training in the Electricity Corporation of Nigeria. Prepared for the Govt. of Nigeria by E. Eskilsson. United Nations. New York, 23 January 1963. 52 pp. (Report No. TAO/NIG/2 - "Restricted"). In this Technical Assistance report a U.N. expert surveys not only the training programs within the ECN but the use made of outside institutions. Contains brief descriptions of the training prog- rams at some 9 technical training institutions. - 8 - 37. Report of the UNESCO Educational Investment Programming Mission to Nigeria. (Professor Thomas Wilson (University of Glasgow), Mr. J.M. Wilson (Dept. of Education in Tropical Areas, London University Institute of Education), Mr. Thomas Wilson (Unesco Chief of Mission in Nigeria), Mr. Ashfaque Husain, 25 November 1962-1 January 1963). n.p.n.d. 164 pp., bibliogr. Classified STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL. 38. ASHBY, Eric. African Universities and Western Tradition. London, Oxford University Press, 1964. vi + 113 pp. 10/6. Concise, stimulating introduction to present-day problems. 39. EBERLY, Donald. Overseas Scholarships: Policies and Machinery_for a Developing Country. Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. April 10, 1964. Attachment B STATISTICAL APPENDIX List of Tables I. Recurrent Expenditure by Type of Education, 1952/53 to 1962/63 A. Federal Government B. Northern Region C. Western Region D. Eatstern Region II. School Costs in Northern Nigeria (Preliminary figures, 1964) A. Primary Schools, 1964 B. Government Post-Primary Schools C. Non-Government Post-Primary Schools D. Government Special Teacher Training Schools E. Recurrent Expenditures Per Pupil: RCM Teacher Training Colleges F. Recurrent Expenditures: Government Technical Institutes and Technical Schools G. Recurrent Expenditures: Government Secondary Grammar Schools III. Estimated Building Costs for New and Expanded Teacher Training Colleges, Northern Region IV. Investment in Fixed Assets, University of Nigeria, at July 1, 1964 V. University of Nigeria: Income and Expenditure Account for the Years Ended 30th June, 1963 and 1964 VI. Financing of Primary Schools in the Northern Region VII. Students Enrolled in Universities by Sex, Field of Study, and Level of Course (Academic Year 1964/65) VIII. Estimates of Total Recurrent Expenditures, by Type of Education, in 1963/64 and 1968/69, Using Various Assumptions Table I-A EDUCATIONAL FINANiCE: FEDEFAL GOVIERBMENT RECURRENT EXPENDITURES BY TYPE OF EDUJCATION (£N '0007) 52/53 59/60 62/63 iPimary School 3 50 390 526 Se-ondary School (a) 532 64 268 426 Technical & Voc:ational 171 59 202 233 Teacher Training 23 17 22 115 Higher Education 1,936 1,195 1,522 3,414 Adult Education 1 - 2 2 Special Schools - - 2 7 Non-Educational- Institutions 57 110 265 308 Grand Tota) 2,726 1,498 2,673 5,031 (a) Revision of Teacherst Salaries ?? Table I-B EDUCATIONAL FINANCE: NORTHERN GOVERNMENT RECURRENT EXPENDITURE BY TYFEX OF EDUCATION (EN '000) 52/53 54/55 59/60 62/63 Primary 366 473 1,311 1,719 Secondary 111 212 519 890 Technical & 85 352 445 Vocational Teacher Training 154 236 721 1,143 Higher Education 16 20 160 365 Adult Education 12 87 82 66 Arabic Schools 4 4 9 20 Special Schools - Non-Educational Institutions 38 174 166 261 Grarnd Total 748 1,292 3,320 4,910 Table I-C RECURRENT EXPENDITURE FOR EDUCATION: WESTERN REGION (£N '000) 52/53 54/55 59/60 62/63 Primary 799 1,656 4,944 6,017 Secondary 121 281 682 1,325 Technical & Vocational 34 69 198 215 Teacher Training 122 328 735 1,168 Higher Education 13 118 154 549 Adult " 6 6 Non-Educational ilnstitutions 32 89 239 210 Total: 1,127 2,547 6,952 9,484 Table I-D RECURRENT EXPENDITURE FOR EDUCATION: EASTERN REGION (£N 7000) Type of Education 1952/53 1954/55 1959/60 1962/63 Primary Schools 855 1,297 4,178 4,o6g Secondary Schools 122 2l4 467 866 Technical and Vocational - 26 91 232 Teacher Training 188 266 678 853 Hligher Education 42 80 196 398 Adult Education 6 12 Non-Educational Institutions 30 41 149 349 TOTAL 1,243 1,966 5,769 6,767 TABLE II-A PELIMINARY SU-MARY OF SCHOOL COSTING IN N. NIGERIA: PRIMARY SCHOOLS, 1964 (Nigerian pounds) NUMBER OF PRIMARY AUTHORITIES NUMBER OF TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL SCHOOL (OR SCHLS.) STUDENTS RECURRENT CAPITAL ALL CONTROL REPORTING ENROLLED EXPENDITURE EXPENDITURE EXPENDITURE GROSS PER GROSS PER GROSS PER TOTAL PUPIL TOTAL PUPIL TOTAL PUPIL NON-RCM (V.A.) PROPRIETORS 7 25,319 181,366 7.16 l1,144o4 046 I92,806 7.62 RCM PROPRIETORS 6 40,918 287,282 7.02 26,898 0966 314,180 7.68 TOTAL ALL V.A. 13 66,237 468)6b8 7.08 38,338 0.58 506,986 7.66 BAUCHI N.A.'s 6 19,4322 174,533 8.98 42,900 2.21 217,433 11.19 BENUE N.A.'s 5 13,051 111,112 8.51 12,591 0.97 123,703 9.48 BORNU N.A.'s 5 17,140 185,319 10.81 59,128 3.45 244,447 14.26 ILORIN N.A.ts 4 9,826 101,79)4 10.36 2,000 0.20 103,794 10.56 KABBA N.A.'s 1 1,807 18,201 10.07 9,250 5.12 27,451 15e19 KANO N.A.'s 4 29,472 341,103 11.57 247,373 8.39 588,476 19.96 KATSINA N.A.'s 2 16,150 160,863 9.96 52,200 3.23 213,063 13.19 NIGER N.A.ts 7 12,023 117,779 9.80 14,950 1.24 132,729 11.04 PLATEAU N.A.'s 4 5,901 50,087 8.49 6,250 1.06 56,337 9.55 SARDAUNAN.A.'s 5 5,594 58,193 10140 2,200 0140 60,393 lo.8o SOKOTO N.A.Is 3 17,591 184,111 10.47 114,066 0.48 298,177 16-95 ZARIA N.A.'s 1 3,700 26,889 7.27 5,400 1.46 32,289 8.73 TOTAL ALL N.A.'s 47 151,687 1,529,984 10.09 568,308 3.74 2,098,292 13e83 TOTAL ALL N.A. & V.A. 60 217,924 1,998,632 9.17 568,308 2.78 2,605,278 11.95 TABLE T1-C PRELIMTNAIY SUMNiRY OF SCHOOL COSTING IN N. NIGERIA: NON. GOVT. POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS - 1964 (Nigerian pounds) STAFF RECURRENT TOTAL RECURRENT TYPE OF NO. OF NO. OF SALARIES EXPENDITURES WITS BOARDING SCHOOL AND SCHOOLS STUDENTS AND RUNNING (EXCLUDES BOARDING EXPENDITURE CONTROL REPORTING ENROLLED ALLOWANCES EXPENSES BOARD) COSTS INCLUDED TOTAL PER TOTAL PER TOTAL PER TOTAL PER TOTAL PER PUPIL PUPIL PUPIL PUPIL PUPIL N.A. SEC. GRAMMAR 9 2499 120,196 48.10 60>565 24.23 180,761 72.33 103,979 41.61 284,740 113.94 RCM SEC. GRAMMAR 12 1773 122,253 68.95 47p5O2 26.79 169,755 95.74 27,408 15i46* 197,163 111.20 NON-RCM (VA) SEC. GRAIMMAR 11 1575 75,588 47.99 66,876 42.46 142,464 90.45 29,746 18.89* 172,210 109.34 TOTAL ALL GRAMMARS 32 5847 318,037 54.39 174,943 29.92 492,980 811.31 161,133 27.56* 654,113 '111.87 RCM TCHR1 TRNG.COLLEGE 12 1371 90,773 66.21 32,541 23.73 123,314 89.94 31,533 23.00- 154,847 112.94 NON-RCM (VA) TCHR.TRNG, COLLEGE 8 1238 88,928 71.83 47,709 38.514 136,637 110.37 33,576 27.12 170,313 137.49 TOTAL ALL TCHR.TRNG. COLLEGES 20 2609 179,701 68.88 80,250 30.76 259,951 99.64 65,107 24.95 325,061 124.59 ALL NON-GOVTo POST PRIMARY 52 8456 497,738 58,86 255,193 30.18 752,931 89.04 226,242 26.76 979,173 115.80 SCHOOLS "-NOTE: Includes all schools, even though some are not boarding Schoois TABLE II-D NTorth RECUPRENT EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL: GOVERNMENT SPECIAL TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOLS - 196h. (EN tOO') Adv. T.T. 2 rural ed. Coll., Zaria colLeges 211 students 64 + 48 112 students I. Staff Salaries & Allowances Non-Nigerian 16.38 31.98 Nigerian 47.18 58.10 Total 63.56 90.08 II. Running Expenses Equipment Consumable 3.75 15.60 Non-Consumable 16.05 - Light 3.17 4.07 Water - 5.68 Postage 0.22 Labour - 31.75 Games O.73 - Prizes - - Building Repair 2.27 Misc. 0.67 106.46 Total 24.37 166.05 III. Total Recurrent Expend. 87.94 256.13 IV. Boarding Costs 30.21 - 'i. Total Recurrent with 118.15 256.13 Boarding TABLE II-E North RECURRENT EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL: RCM TEACHER-TRAINING COLLEGES, 196)4 (Nigerian pounds T Ave. 16 instns. I. Staff Salaries & Allowances Non-Nigerian 47.08 Nigerian 13.10 Total 60.18 II. Running Expenses Equipment Consuimable 4.68 Non-Consumable 3.78 Light 1.65 Water 1.16 Postage 0.71 Labour 3.20 Games 1.11 Prizes 0.10 Building Repair 2.24 Range Misc. 4.04 Total 23.67 III,, Total Recurrent Expenditures 83.85 137.77 51.70 IV. Boarding Costs 23.27 51.01 13.16 V. Total Recurrent 107.12 161.89 67.15 with Boarding TABLE II-F North RECURRENT EXPENDITURES: GOVERNZENT TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS - 1964 (Nigerian pounds) Total for three 304 students Tech. Tng. Schools Kaduna narin - Kano - Bukuru Tech. Inst. 193 96 191 I. Staff Salaries & Allowances Non-Nigerian 36,866 52,135 Nigerian 8,013 31,102 Total 44,879 83,237 f I. Running Expenses Equipment Consumable 1,789 9,993 Non-Consumable 6,991 4,932 Light 583 6,568 Water 1,206 1,679 Postage - 574 Labour 1,632 6,800 Games - 302 Prizes Building Repa:ir - - Misc. 932 6,500 Total 13,131 37,348 III. Total Recurrent Exp. 58,010 120,585 'V, Boarding Costs 9,817 24,174 r'. Total Recurrent 67,827 144,759 with Boarding North TABLE II -G '-' RECURRENT EXPENDITURES - GOVERNMENT SECONDARY GRAIqIMR SCHOOLS - 1964 (5 Schools) Total Expenditure Per Pupil £ £ I. Staff Salaries & Allowances Non-Nigerian 88,606 58.22 Nigerian 23,008 15.12 Total 111,614 73.34 II. Running Expenses Equipment Consumable 5,173 3.40 Non-Consumable 7,797 5.12 Light 4,569 3.00 Water 1,355 0.89 Postage 630 0.41 Labour 9,556 6.28 Games 445 0.29 Prizes 91 O.o6 Building Repair - - Misc. 2,072 1.36 Total 31,688 20.82 III. Total Recurrent Expenditure 143,302 94.15 IV. Boarding Cost 62,061 40.78 V. Total Recurrent with 205,363 134.93 Boarding No. of students: 1,522 TABLE III ESTIMATED BUILDING COSTS FOR NEW AND EXPANDED TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGES (Nigerian pounds) ROMAN PROTES- NEW GOVERNMENT CATHOLIC TANT L;XILDING TYPE GOVERIIENT EXPANSION EXPANSION EXPANSION TOTAL PER CENT COLLEGES 10MINISTRATION 35,720 27,080 8,360 9,430 80,590 4.2 GZlZRAL CLASSROOVZ 122,360 69,930 6,785 54,330 253,405 13.3 SPECIAL CLASSROOMJS 66,11oo 53,120 9,940 19,880 1h9,340 7.8 EJJETI-PURPOSE BUILDING 37,010 53,485 13,065 13,065 116,625 6.1 LLIBRARY 36,090 20,090 3,650 5,475 65,305 3.4 DINING KITCHEN 50,150 15,150 3,235 11,630 80,165 4.2 FIELD STORAGE 2,210 285 64o 640 3,775 0.2 t.LLUTIONTS 36,730 42,265 5,845 19,405 104,245 5.5 DORMITORIES 70,710 47,790 24,340 22,720 165,560 8.7 STAFF HOUSING 300,000 322,500 90,000 177,500 890,000 46.6 TOTAL 757,380 651,695 165,860 334,075 1,909,00lo100.0 V, CENT 39.6 34.2 8.7 17.5 100.0 These expenditures will provide an additional 7,000 teacher-training places. Average Cap. cost per place = c. £270. This compares with C. £17:18/- per place in a primary school. Archer used £600 for 1 place in a boarding teacher-training institution, £200 for a non- boarding place. Boarding place now estimated at £400-450) the £270 is a mixture of boarding Non-Boarding place now estimated at £250) & non-boarding, new institutions & extensions. TABLE IV UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA FIXED ASSETS Total At July 1, 1964 Per Cent £. s d COMPENSATION AND EXPENSES ON LEASEHOLD LAND 31,587: 9: 6 0.7 ROADS, FOOTPATHS, AND LANDSCAPING 109:257:19: 5 2.4 BUILDINGS Residential 2,189,945: 8: 4 47 Non-Residential 1,320,405: 8: 6 29 3,510,350:16:10 76 PLAYING FIELDS 108,934:14: 2 2.4 PLANT AND MACHINERY Agricultural Farm Equipment 23,953: 9: 4 0.5 Sewage Plant 65,528:10: - 1.4 Extension to Water Installation 8,057: 4:10 0.2 97,539: 4: 2 2.1 FURNITURE AND EQUIPMENT Office, Hotels and Staff Quarters 343,722:12: 8 7 Kitchen & Dining Hall 57,619:13: 6 1.2 Chancellorts Lodge 2,553: -: 6 - Health Centre 12,683:16: 8 0.3 Fire Fighting Equipment 550: 9: 9 - Workshop Equipment 6,516: -: 8 0.1 Special Equipment 246,985:17: 2 5.3 670,631:10:11 14.5 BOOKS 68,193: 3: 1 1.5 MOTOR VEHICLES 37,451: 8: 3 o.8 £4,633,94S: 6: L 100.50 7 ij Sub-totals do not add exactly to 100.0 because of rounding^. TABLE V UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA INCOIE AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE, 1963 AND 1964 (rounded to nearest £) 1963 1964 I PERSONAL EAOLUNENTS AND ALLOWANCES £ £ Staff Salaries and Wages 496,414 639,112 Staff Superannuation and Provident Funds - University Contribution 40,4h6 51,338 Car Allowances 21,998 28,851 Outfit Allowance 180 60 Children's Allowance 1O,471 13,542 569,509 732,903 II ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES Transport and Travelling Expenses Council Miembers 2,360 3X747 Staff Passages and Travelling 58,361 68,315 Office and General Expenses 3,086 2,899 Postages, Telegrams and Telephone 7,622 8,511 Printing and Stationery 15,340 16,807 Bank Charges and Commission 3,O094 4,h11 Audit Fees and Expenses 82h 791 Legal Fees and Expenses 411 300 Medical and Other Expenses 7,057 12,842 Insurances 7,084 8,073 Periodicals, Papers and Journals 143 4 Publicity and Advertisement 9,655 11,402 Rent, Rates and Taxes 1,381 1,528 Research Materials and Expenses 5 208 Seminars and Learned Societies 7,642 4,348 Conferences Hospitality and Entertainment 1,616 1,207 Freight and Handling Charges 559 399 M.S.U. Advisory Group 20,026 14,139 D.TIC./I.U.C. Group 942 1,616 Loss from Enugu Campus Rest House - 155 American Peace Corps 35,749 19,321 182,957 181,023 752,466 carried 913,926 fonward -2- 1963 1964 £ £ 752,466 Brought 913,926 Forward III MAINTENANCE AND OTHER EXPENSES Maintenance, Repairs and Replacements 35,849 34,525 Minor WVorks (Buildings) 22,517 5,056 Ibtor Vehicles and Tractor 10,247 15,236 Running Costs Fuel, Light and Water 24,936 23,948 Laundry and Sanitation 10,960 10,242 Agriculture/Botany Expenses 1,790 11,641 Sewage Farm Expenses 166 308 106,465 100,956 IV STUDENTS SECTION AND HOSTEL Food and Provisions 71,146 85,495 Foundation Loan Szholarships 27,510 29,107 Sports and Students' Expenses 9,903 7,958 Convocation (second graduation) 2,793 1,312 Expenses Teaching Aids 9,454 5,674 Vice Chancellor2s Charity Fund - 1,045 120,806 130,591 V OTHER EXPENSES University Primary School 1,053 329 Cash Losses 10 19 Loss on Sale of Assets and - 840 Assets written off 1,063 1,188 VI PROVISIONS FOR DEPRECIATION Buildings 56,643 67,363 Plant and Machinery 3,120 5,650 Furniture and Equipment 73,471 101,079 Mbtor Vehicles 8,279 9,029 141,513 183,121 1,122,313 Carried 1,329,782 Forward -3- 1963 1964 £ £ 1,122,313 Brought 1,329,782 Forward Deduct: Students' Fees 200,278 300,153 Rents - Staff Quarters 25,105 28,219 Primary School Fees 2,693 3,623 Sundry Income 17,7h7 16,053 Income from Investments 13,446 6,164 Gifts 104,058 116,616 Sales of Agricultural Products - 49 R.I.C.S. Expenses Reimbursement from Federal Government 75,000 Income from Ehugu Campus Canteen - 235 363,327 546,112 758,986 783,670 Expenses not covered by direct income and gifts 758,986 783,670 Ainus: Depreciation charges 141,513 183,121 Cash subsidy required from Federal & Regional Governments 617,473 600,549 TABLE VI FINANCING OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THE NORTHERN REGION Kaduna Capital Territoryl964 Kano Province 1 N.A. School- 1560 pupils 4 N. A. Schools - 29,h72 pupils Per Per Per Per Total Cent Pupil Total Cent Pupil T. Recurrent Income £ £ £ £ 1. Government 4,771 30 3.06 98,756 29 3.35 Grants 2. Local Tax 10,285 64 6.59 238,717 71 8.10 3. Tuition & 970 6 0.62 200 - 0.01 Fees 4. Other Misc. - - - Income 5. Total 16,026 100 10.27 337,673 100 11.46 IIo Capital 1. Government 15,750 10.10 77,937 2.64 Grants 2. Local Tax 15,750 10.10 136,864 4.64 .3. Total 31,500 20.19 214,801 7.29 !iv. Total: All 47,526 30.47 522,474 18.75 Income NTote: Figures for 9 other provinces in the Northern Region show a similar pattern of financing primary school education, i.e., local taxes provide from a half to two-thirds of the funds, with grants from the regional government providing most of the balance. In no case do school fees account for as much as 10 per cent of recurrent income, and in most cases they come to less than 5 per cent. N.A. = Native Authority (local government) TMz Viii STDUI5 inI.M IN UN1VDITIW UT SEX. F= OF S7UDI AND LEM 70 JRE ACADDaC ZAR 196^-6 Non-Degree Degree Post- Total FIELD OF STUDY (a) Dete _ tI F i1~~~~~ F m F M F MF ANMADU ELLO UNIVESITY Arts - 1 91 10 - - 91 11 102 Fine Art - - 62 6 - - 62 6 68 Public Administration - - 105 1 - - 105 1 106 Arabic & Islamic Studies 13 - 24 - - - 37 - 37 Science 24 - 48 4 - - 72 4 76 Agriculture - - 24 - - - 24 - 24 Architecture - - 72 4 - - 72 4 76 Engineering: Civil - - 61 - - - 61 - 61 Electrical - - 52 1 - - 52 1 53 Mech. - - 60 - - - 60 - 60 Law - - 32 1 - - 32 1 33 Physical Education 13 - - - - - 13 - 13 Art Teachers' Course 5 - 5 - 5 Total 55 1 631 27 - _ 686 28 714 UNIVERSITY OF NI(MIA, NSUKKA Agriculture - 23 323 25 - - 323 48 371 Arts - - 294 46 - - 294 46 340 Business Adin$istration 49 1L 31.3 6 - _ 362 20 382 Education - - 3 32 32 - - 332 32 364 Engineering - - 222 _- - 222 - 222 Law - - 8( 10 - _ 80 10 90 Science - - 288 39 - _ 288 39 327 Social Studies - - 372 14 - - 372 14 386 Tota:L 49 37 2224 172 - - 2273 209 2482 UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN Arts 51 4 457 88 - - 508 92 600 Science 47 2 386 34 - - 433 36 469 Medicine 33 1 323 33 - - 356 34 390 Agricu Lture 21 - 145 1 - - 1i66 1 167 Economics & Social Studies - - 250 1 - - 250 1 251 Education & Extra-Hiral Studies 85 44 85 6 31 6 201 56 257 Librarianship 17 6 - - - - 17 6 23 Junior Year Abroad & Similar. - - 6 11 - - 6 11 17 Postgraduate Research - - - - 99 11 99 11 110 Total 254 57 1652 174 130 17 2036 248 228L UNIVERSITY OF IE, (IBADAN BRANCH) Agriculture 12 - 24 3 - - 36 3 39 Arts - - 236 17 - - 236 17 253 Economics - - 80 5 - - 80 5 85 Law - - 92 3 _ - 92 3 95 Science 22 12 57 16 - - 79 28 10? Pharmacy - - 55 6 - - 55 6 61 Postgraduate Diploma-Adm. 16 3 - - - - 16 3 19 Total 50 15 544 50 - - 594 65 659 UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS BuBiness & SociEil Studies | - 1 220 - - 1220 8 22 Engineering - | 3B - - - 38 - 38 Law i- - 112 8 - - 112 8 1120 Medicine | Social 77 S 22 - - 272 4 224 Science 24 5 17 7 - - 41 12 53 Toola 24 5 464 23 - - 488 28 516 ALL STUDENTS' 42 115 ¢515 446 130 17 6077 578 6655 TABLE VIII RECURRENT EXPENDITURES ON EDUCATION: ALL GOVERNMENTS 1/ 1963/64 1968/69 Moderate High Primary £14,500,000 £22,330,000 £31 100 000 Enrolment 2,900,000 (2%) 3T9 U ( T1) O:u Unit Cost £8 £10 £11 Gox->t.per ct. 62,5 p.c. 70% 80% 'Secondary: General 2 12,0000£0 £lh 250,000 £18 750,000 Enrolment 212,0CO-(%00buu (0% 4,b Unit Cost £100 £100 £110 Govt.per ct. 40 p.c. 50% 5C% .Peacher- Training £ 3,400,000 £ 4,660o000 £ 5,650,000 EDrzolment 32,300 -(4) 5;( ) U% 4 u Unit Cost £110 £125 £125 Govt.per ct. 95.5 p.c. 95.5 95 % Technical & V(ocational 1235,000 1950,000 £ 2,500,000 Enrolment 7,400 (),50 (lo,%) l,o UJnit Cost £185 £200 £220 (ovt. per ct. 89.2 p.c. 90% 95 % tJiversity £ 4,120000 £ 6 600,000 £ 9,100,000 Emrolment 5,150 (10%) (15%) I0, 3 Unit Cost £1,000 £1,000 £1,100 Govt.per ct. 80 p.c. 8T% 80% Total Govt. Expenditure £31,735,000 £49,790,000 £67,100,000 Compound Growth rate over the 5 years: 9.h45 16.2 1965 Government projections of the 68/69 figure: about £49 million 11 The 1963/64 figures apply the Yiusone-Callaway estimates of unit costs, and the per cent borne by government, to the 1963 enrol- ment figures in Statistics of Education in Nigeria, 1963. The two estimates for l968/69 are illustrative only; they show the implications of differing growth-rates for enrolments, possible changes in unit costs, and varying assumptions about the pro- portion of total costs met from government funds.