Report No. 24448-ERI Eritrea Education and Training Sector Note July 8, 2002 Human Development I Africa Region Document of the World Bank Abbreviations and Terms ABCI Asmara Business and Commerce Institute ASFA Asmara School of Fine Arts ASM Asmara School of Music ATS Asmara Technical School DANIDA Danish Intemational Development Assistance Deb-Keih-Bahri South Red Sea (Zoba) DGE / MOE Department of General Education in the MOE DRHRD I MOE Department of Research and Human Resource Development of the MOE DRP Demobilization and Reintegration Project DTAE Department of Technical and Adult Education ECD Early Childhood Development ECDF Eritrea Community Development Fund EMIS Education Management Information Systems ESECE Eritrean Secondary Education Certificate Examination ETSSP Education and Training Sector Strategic Plan GER Gross Enrolment Ratio HMAS Hamelmalo Agricultural School ICT Information and Communication Technology IDA Intemational Development Association IT Information Technology KFW Gennan Development Cooperation LAN Local Area Network MHTS Mai Habar Technical School MOE Ministry of Education MOF Ministry of Finance MOH Ministry of Health MOLG Ministry of Local Government NER Net Enrolment Ratio NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation PTI PTI, Pavoni Technical Institute R&HRD Research and Human Resource Development Sem-Keih-Bahri North Red Sea (Zoba) TTI Teacher Training Institute TVET Technical and Vocational Education Training UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund UOA University of Asmara WTS Winna Technical School Zoba District or Region Vice-President Callisto Madavo Director Human Development Oey Meesok Country Director Makhtar Diop Social Sector Managers Dzingai Mutumbuka and Arvil van Adams Task Team Leader Jacob Bregman Eritrea Education Sector Note TABLE OF CONTENTS Context and Objectives of the Eritrea Education and Training Sector Note (EESN) ... ix Executive Summary and Main Conclusions ................................................x Key Education Policy Options ............................................. xiv Eritrea Economic and Social Sector Performance Indicators . ............................... xv Chapter I: Social and Economic Background ....................................1 Poverty, Health and Education ..............................................1 Economic Progress in "Ups and Downs" ..............................................4 Chapter II: Education and Training Provision and Organization in Eritrea ..........................7 Overview of Eritrea's Education System and its Issues ..............................................................7 Major Pedagogic and Curricula Problems Facing Education and Training .............................. 10 Enrolment and Access, Quality of Output, and Inequity ........................................................... 13 Management and Governance in Eritrea's Education and Training Sector ............................... 19 Information and Communication Technology Infrastructure .................................................... 21 Eritrea Government Education and Training Strategy and Action Plans .................................. 22 The Government's Analysis of Education and Training Sector Achievements and Issues ....... 24 The Government's "Education For All (EFA)" Goals .............................................................. 27 Conclusions and Recommendations on Pedagogy, Quality and Service Provision .................. 28 Conclusions and Recommendations for Management ............................................................... 30 Chapter III: Cost and Financing of Education and Training in Eritrea ............................... 31 Macroeconomic Context ................................................................. 31 Education Expenditure Normns and Procedures ................................................................. 31 External funding of the Education and Training sector ......................................................... 32 Public Spending on Education and Training ................................................................. 34 Distribution of Public Expenditure ................................................................. 36 Teacher Salaries and Recurrent Spending in Eritrea ................................................ ........... 38 Private Expenditures in Education ................................................................. 41 Developing a Sustainable Strategy for Education and Training Financing ............................... 42 Overview of the Simulation Model and Key Variables and Assumptions ............................ 42 Changes in Operational Characteristics ................................................................. 44 Financing Gaps in the Education and Training Sector Reform Scenarios ............................ 45 Chapter IV: Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) .............................. 49 Dimensions and Distinguishing Characteristics of TVET ......................................................... 49 TVET Delivery Mechanisms ................................................................. 49 Private Proprietary Providers ................................................................. 50 Access and Equity ................................................................. 51 Enrolment .................................................................. 51 Quality of Learning Outcomes ................................................................. 52 External Efficiency .................................................................. 53 Eritrea Education Sector Note Labor Market .................................................. 53 Government Strategy for TVET Reform .................................................. 54 Demobilization and Reintegration Project .................................................. 56 Telecommunication and ICT Training Institutes in Eritrea .................................................. 56 Conclusions and Recommendations on TVET in Eritrea .................................................. 57 Chapter V: Tertiary Education in Eritrea: Issues for Development. ..... .............................. 59 Institutional Setting and Governance of Tertiary Education .................................................... 59 Access and Coverage .................................................... 60 Financing, Staffing and Infrastructure ......................... 61 Output and Quality .......................... 62 Development Strategies .......................... 63 Conclusions and Recommendations for Higher Education ........................................ 64 Chapter VI: Overall Focus of Sector Strategy . ................................ 67 Overall Focus of Sector Strategy ................................. . 67 Eritrea Education Sector Short and Medium/Long-term Goals ........................................... 70 Annex 1 ..-....... 76 Anniex 2 ...... ......10 Annex 3 ............... . . . . 121 Documents Consulted . ..... 153 Tables Table 1.1. Eritrea Demographic and Health Indicators and Projections .........................................2 Table 1.2. Eritrea's Millennium Development Goal Indicators ......................................................4 Table 1.3. Macroeconomic Consequences of the War ...................................................................5 Table 1.4. Comparative Aggregate Government Expenditure, in Percent of GDP 1997-2001 ......5 Table 2.1. Distribution of Government and Non-govenmment Schools by Region and Level of Schooling, 1999 .................................................................. 10 Table 2.2. List of On-Going Donor-funded Projects in Education and Training (as of April, 2002) .................................................................. 20 Table 3.1. Govermment and Donor Contribution to Education and Training Expenditure in Eritrea, 1993-2000 (miillion, US$) .......................... 32 Table 3.2. External Funding for Basic and Secondary Education and Training in Eritrea in Nakfa and US$, 2000 ................................... 33 Table 3.3. DANIDA Funds in US$ for 2002-2005 ................................... 33 Table 3.4. Level and Trend in Public Spending on Education in Eritrea (Million, US$), 1993-2000 ...... : 34 Table 3.5. Spending on Education and Training in Eritrea As Percent of GDP and Total Government Spending (Million US$), 1993-2000 ..................................................... 35 Table 3.6. Spending on Primary Education Among Select Low Income Countries ..................... 36 Table 3.7. Distribution.of MOE Recurrent Expenditures by Line Item (Million US$), 1993-2000 ...... ; 36 Table 3.8. Unit Spending by Level of Education in Eritrea, 1999- 2000 (in US$) ....................... 37 Table 3.9. Allocation of Recurrent Expenditures Between Teacher Salaries and Non-teacher Salaries in Basic and Secondary Education in Eritrea, 1993-2000 ........ 38 Eritrea Education Sector Note Table 3.10. Public Spending per Pupil in Basic and Secondary Education, by Zoba, in Eritrea (1999) ................................................................ 40 Table 3.11. Assumptions for Simulating the Budget Envelope .................................................... 42 Table 3.12. Summary of Major Targets of the Simulation Model ................................................ 43 Table 3.13. Teacher Salaries and the Public System's Operational Characteristics in 2000 and 2010 .................................................................44 Table 3.14. Financing Gap Under Different Reforrn Scenarios (Million US$) ............................ 45 Table 3.15. Resource Requirement for Expanding Coverage and Improving Quality of Basic and Secondary Education (% of GDP and Total Budget) ................................. 46 Table 4.1. Eritrea: Number of Participants by Programs Offered through MOE, MOH, MOA, 1993-1999 ................................................................ 50 Table 4.2. Eritrea: Number of Privately Owned Training Schools by Type and Region .............. 50 Table 5.1. Profile of Tertiary Education Institutions (as of 1999-2000) ....................................... 60 Table 5.2. Governance Structure of Tertiary Education Institution in Eritrea .............................. 60 Figures Figure 1.1. Eritrea Population in 2000 and 2020 ('000) .................................................................3 Figure 2.1. Eritrea: Education and Training Provision System .......................................................8 Figure 2.2. Eritrea: Share of Students Enrolled in Government Schools, 1991-1999 .....................9 Figure 2.3. Physical Conditions in Classrooms ................................................................ 13 Figure 2.4. Eritrea: Net Enrolment Rate by Level, 1991-1999 ..................................................... 14 Figure 2.5. Eritrea: Drop-out Rates by Grade and Gender, 1999 .................................................. 15 Figure 2.6. Eritrea: Grade I Enrolment Age Distribution, 1999 ................................................... 15 Figure 2.7. Eritrea: Average Number of Years Spent to Complete Primary School by Zoba, 1999 ................................................................ 16 Figure 2.8. Eritrea: Transition Rates from Primary to Middle School by Zoba, 1999 .................. 16 Figure 2.9. Eritrea: Girls' Enrolment by Level as Percentage of Total Enrolment in Each Zoba,1999 ................................................................ 16 Figure 2.10. Eritrea: Regional Share of Total Gross Enrolment by Level, 1999 . . 17 Figure 2.11. International Comparisons of GER among Low Income Countries . . 17 Figure 2.12. Qualifications of Eritrea MOE Staff ................................................................ 21 Figure 2.13. Eritrea: Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Level . ................................................. 24 Figure 3.1. Spending on Education as % of GDP ................................................................ 35 Figure 3.2. Comparative Average Annual Teacher Salaries in Africa .......................................... 38 Figure 3.3. Comparative Spending per Primary Pupil in Publicly-Funded Schools ..................... 39 Figure 3.4. Basic Structure of the Education Finance Simulation Model ..................................... 42 Figure 4.1. Eritrea: Employment Status of Tracer Study Participants .......................................... 53 Figure 5.1. Comparative Tertiary Education Gross Enrollment Ratio (1970-1997) ..................... 61 Figure 5.2. Enrollment by Faculty/College at UOA (1' semester, 2000/2001) ............................ 61 Figure 5.3. Forces of Change in Tertiary Education ................................................................ 66 Boxes Box 1.1. Millennium Development Goals (MDG) ................................................................. 4 Box 2.1. Household Education Expenditures in Africa ................................................................ 10 Box 2.2. Guinea and Uganda's Response to Teacher Shortages ................................................... 11 Box 2.3. Respondents Perceptions of the Reasons for Class Repetition and Drop-out from School ................................................................ 18 Box 2.4. Respondents' Perceptions of Factors Leading to Repetition in Grade 1&4 ................... 18 Box 2.5. The Brazil Education Law ........................................................... 19 Box 2.6. ICT in Education: The Case of Singapore ........................................................... 21 Box 2.7. Lessons from the "ADEA Prospective Stocktaking Review of Education in Africa" ...23 iii Entrea Education Sector Note Box 2.8. EFA: Education For All Fast Track .26 Box 4.1. Eritrea Demobilization and Reintegration Project (EDRP) .56 Box 5.1. Asmara Teacher Training Institute Partnerships with St. Martine College of England. 60 Box 5.2. "Borderless" Tertiary Education Market .64 Box 5.3. Response to "Borderless Tertiary Education" .65 Box 6.1. Teacher's Role in Active Learning: Nueva Escuela Unitaria in Guatemala .68 Box 6.2. How the Private Sector Can Help Improve the Quality of Public Schools: The IQE Program ................................................... - 68 Box 6.3. Radio Instruction for Literacy, Mathematics and Social Issues. :.69 ANNEX 1: EDUCATION SERVICES AND PROVISIONS ................... ............................. 76 Economic and Social Bacl kground ............................... . 76 Demographic and Health Situation .76 Eritrea Government Education and Training Strategy and Action Plans .77 The Government's Analysis of Education and Training Sector Achievements and Issues ........ 79 Eritrea Government Strategy for "Education For All (EFA)" ...................................................... 80 Eritrea EFA Goals ................................................................ 82 Eritrea EFA Development Process Stages ................................................................ 82 Eritrea's Lifelong Learning Strategy ................................................................ 83 Education Services and Provisions ................................................................ 85 Description of the Education Delivery System ................................................................ 85 Government and Non-government Provision ................................................................ 87 Access and Equity ................................................................ 88 Physical Conditions and School Environment ................................................................. 88 Enrolment ................................................................ 89 Differences in Enrolment and International Comparisons ...................................................... 92 Internal Efficiency ................................................................ 93 Repetition Rates ................................................................ 93 Drop-out Rates ................................................................ 95 Differences among zobas ................................................................ 96 Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................ 98 Tables: Annex 1 Table A1.1. Eritrea: Demographic and Health Indicators and Projections ............... .................... 77 Table A1.2. Performance of the Education Sector in Eritrea and Sub-Saharan Africa ................. 79 Table A1.3. Eritrea: Distribution of Govemment and Non-govermnent Schools by Region and Level of Schooling, 1999 .......................... ....................................... 87 Table A1.4. Eritrea: Primary Level GER and NER, 1991-1999 ................................................... 90 Table A1.5. Eritrea: Middle Level GER and NER, 1991-1999 ............................... ..................... 90 Table A1.6. Eritrea Secondary Level GER and NER, 1991-1999 ...............91............................... 9l Table A1.7. Eritrea: Flow Rates (%) by Grade, 1995 and 1999 ............................... .................... 96 Table A1.8. Eritrea: Respondents Perceptions of the Reasons for Class Repetition and Drop-out from School ..................... ............................................ 97 Table Al .9. Eritrea: Respondents' Perceptions of Factors Leading to Repetition in Grade 1&4 ................................................................. 98 Eritrea Education Sector Note Figures: Annex 1 Figure Al.1. Eritrea: Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Level ................................................. 80 Figure A1.2. Eritrea: GER by Level, 1999 .................... ......................................... 85 Figure A1.3. Eritrea: Education and Training Provision System .................................................. 86 Figure A1.4. Eritrea: Share of Students Enrolled in Government Schools, 1991-1999 ................ 88 Figure A1.5. Eritrea: Net Enrolment Rate by Level, 1991-1999 ................................................... 89 Figure A1.6. Eritrea: Girls' Enrolment by Level as Percentage of Total Enrolment in EachZoba, i999 ..............................................................9i Figure A1.7. Eritrea: Grade 1 Enrolment Age Distribution, 1999 ............................................. 92 Figure A1.8. International Comparisons of GER Among Low Income Countries ....................... 92 Figure A1.9. Eritrea: Regional Share of Gross Enrolnent by Level, 1999 .............. ................... 93 Figure A1.10. Eritrea: Total Enrolment by Grade, 1999 ............................................................. 94 Figure Al. 11. Eritrea: Repetition Rates by Grade and Gender, 1999 . .......................................... 94 Figure A1. 12. Eritrea: Drop-out Rates by Grade and Gender, 1999 . ............................................ 95 Figure Al. 13. Eritrea: Promotion Rates by Grade and Gender, 1999 .......................................... 95 Figure Al.14. Eritrea: Average Number of Years Spent to Complete Primary School by Zoba, 1999 ........ 96 Figure Al. 15. Eritrea: Transition Rates from Primary to School by Zoba, 1999 ......................... 96 ANNEX 2. TECENICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINNG (TVET) ............. .... 100 Dimensions and Distinguishing Characteristics of TVET ...................................................... ; 100 TVET Delivery Mechanisms ........................................................... 100 Access and Equity ........................................................... ; 102 Enrolment .............................;.: 102 Output ............................ 104 Quality of Learning Outcomes ............................ 105 External Efficiency ............................ 106 Labor Market ............................ 107 Cost of TVET ............................ 108 Government Strategy for TVET Reform .............................111 Demobilization and Reintegration Project ............................ 115 Tables: Annex 2 Table A2. 1. Eritrea: Number of Participants by Programs Offered through MOE, MOH, and MOA, 1993-1999 ............................................................... 101 Table A2.2. Eritrea: Number of Privately Owned Training Schools by Type and Region ......... 101 Table A2.3. Eritrea: Intermediate Level TVET Enrolment, 1995-2000 ..................................... 103 Table A2.4. Eritrea: Advanced Level TVET Enrolment, 1996-2000 ......................................... 103 Table A2.5. Eritrea: Number of TVET Graduates, 1995-2000 ................................................... 104 Table A2.6. Eritrea: TVET Yearly Share of DANIDA Funds .................................................... 108 Table A2.7. DRP Overall Budget by Component ............................................................... 116 Figures: Annex 2 Figure A2. 1. Eritrea: Employment Status of Tracer Study Participants ................ ..................... 106 Figure A2.2. Eritrea: Share of Intermediate Level TVET Recurrent Budget by School, 2000 ............................................................... 109 Figure A2.3. Eritrea's Intermediate TVET Per Capita Budget, 2000 ......................................... 110 Figure A2.4. Eritrea's Share of Advanced Level TVET Recurrent Budget by School, 2000 ..... 111 Figure A2.5. Eritrea's Share of Advanced Level TVET Per Capita Budget by School, 2000.... 111 v Eritrea Education Sector Note ANNEX 3: COST AND FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN ERITREA ............................................ 121 Macroeconomic Context ............................................ 121 Education Expenditure Norms ............................................ 121 External Funding of Education and Training ............................................ 123 Public Spending on Education and Training ............................................ 124 Distribution of Public Expenditure ............................................ 128 Equity in the Distribution of Public Resources for Education ............................................ 132 Private Expenditures in Education ............................................ 133 Developing a Sustainable Strategy for Education Financing ............................................ 134 Key variables and Assumptions ............................................ 135 Simulation Results ............................................ 138 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................ 140 n4 Eritrea Education Sector Note Tables: Annex 3 Table A3. 1. Government and Donor Contribution to Education and Training Expenditure in Eritrea, 1993-2000 (Million, US$) ................................................................. 122 Table A3.3. DANIDA Funds in US$ for 2002-2005 ................................................................. 124 Table A3.3. Level and Trend in Public Spending on Education in Eritrea (Million US$), 1993-2000 ................................................................. 125 Table A3.4. Spending on Education and Training in Eritrea As Percent of GDP and Total Government Spending (Million US$), 1993-2000 ................................................ 125 Table A3.5. Spending on Primary Education Among Select Low Income Countries ................ 127 Table A3.6. Total, Recurrent and Unit Spending by Level of Education in Eritrea, 1999- 2000 (in US$) ................................................................. 128 Table A3.7. Allocation of Recurrent Expenditures Between Teacher Salaries and Non-teacher Salaries in Basic and Secondary Education in Eritrea, 1993-2000 ....................... 129 Table A3.8. Public Spending per Pupil in Basic and Secondary Education, by Zoba, in Eritrea (1999) ................................................................. 132 Table A3.9. Assumptions for Simulating the Budget Envelope ................................................. 135 Table A3. 10. Summary of Major Targets of the Simulation Model ........................................... 137 Table A3. 11. Teacher Salaries and the Public System's Operational Characteristics in 2000 and 2010 ................................................................. 138 Table A3.12. Assumptions for Simulating Capital Costs ........................................................... 138 Table A3.13. Financing Gap Under Different Reform Scenarios (Million US$) ....................... 139 Table A3.14. Resource Requirement for Expanding Coverage and Improving Quality of Basic and Secondary Education (% of GDP and Total Budget) ....................... 139 Table Al. Spending on Education by Other Line Ministries and Development Agencies (in US$), 1996-2000 ................................................................. 143 Table A2. Capital Spending in Basic and Secondary Education by Source (million US$), 1993-2000 ................................................................. 144 Table A3. Externally Funded Past and On-going Projects in the Education Sector (US$) ........ 144 Table A4. Growth in Education Spending Relative to 1993 and 1997 ........................................ 145 Table A5. Distribution of MOE Recurrent Expenditures by Line Item (million US$), 1993-2000 ......... 146 Table A6. Ministry of Education Recurrent Expenditure for the Year 1993-2000 (in 000 US$) ......... 146 Table A7. Maintaining the Status Quo Under Improved Financing (9% of Government Budget by 2010) .......... 148 Table A8. Medium Case Scenario Under Current Financing (4.3% of Government Budget) .... 149 Table A9. Medium Case Scenario Under Improved Financing (9% of Government Budget) ... 150 Table AIO. High Case Scenario Under Improved Financing (9% of Government Budget) ....... 152 Figures: Annex 3 Figure A3. 1. Spending on Education as % of GDP .................................................................. 126 Figure A3.2. Comparative Public Recurrent Spending on Primary Education ........................... 127 Figure A3.3. Comparative Average Annual Teacher Salaries .................................................... 130 Figure A3.4. Comparative Share of Spending on Non-teacher Inputs ........................................ 131 Figure A3.5. Comparative Spending per Pupil in Publicly-Funded Schools .............................. 131 Figure A3.6. Basic Structure of the Education Finance Simulation Model ................................ 135 vii Eritrea Education Sector Note The Eritrea Education and Training Sector Note summarizes findings of IDA education missions over 2000-2002. Jacob Bregman, lead education specialist in AFTH3, was the task team leader. The Ministry of Education and Training and other line ministries in Eritrea provided inputs, engaged in discussions on all issues, and organized school and field visits. We thank our Eritrea counterparts, and all education mission members who contributed to this Sector Note. Special thanks to the Norwegian Education Trust Fund and Dutch Trust Fund which both provided financing for consultants. The work in this Note is also linked to the Africa Region's "Secondary Education In Africa (SEIA)" study (ibregman@worldbank.or ). Several times helpful discussions on the sector and its priorities were held with Govert Visser and Yoka Brandt (Dutch Embassy, Asmara), Else Moller-Nielsen (Danish Embassy, Asmara), and Mogens Jensen (Technical Advisor, Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs), and Inaki Zabala (European Union, Delegation of the European Commission, Asmara). Danida provided significant contributions by making its vocational training reports available. Andrew Dabalen (economist) did the economic and financial analysis. Harry Faulkner (senior educator) from Scotland provided inputs on school management and principals' leadership. Jon Lauglo (AFTH1), Egil Fr0yland (consultant) from Norway, and Erik Winther-Schmidt (Chief Technical Advisor DANIDA, MOE) provided major inputs for the Vocational and Technical Education and Training sections. Gwang-Jo Kim (HDDED) from Korea provided the inputs for Govemance, Management and Higher Education. Dr. Maarten Pieters from the Amstel Institute and Frans Rameckers from the Netherlands, and Dr. Joyce Blueford and Oscar Rosenbloom from the Math/Science Nucleus in the USA provided inputs for pedagogic quality and science, mathematics and ICT education. Karen Bryner organized and edited all documents and provided valuable inputs. Nellie Sew Kwan Kan did the final formatting. Peer reviewers were David Harding (WBIHD) and Mourad Ezzine (AFTH2). nii Eritrea Education Sector Note CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES OF TE ERIrREA EDUCATION AND TRAINING SECTOR NOTE (EESN) The Government of Eritrea (GOE) and its Ministry of Education (MOE) is preparing a longer- term strategy to improve the coverage and performance of its education and training sector. This includes an ambitious plan for achieving its "Education Fort All (EFA)" goals by 2010, while concurrently increasing net enrolment and completion rates at middle and secondary education and training levels over the next decade. This Eritrea Education and Training Sector Note (EESN) document can be used as one of the inputs in the GOE's process of sector strategy development. It was prepared jointly by the Ministry of Education and the World Bank, in cooperation with education stakeholders, NGOs and major international donors. The conclusions and recommendations are based on the documents and statistics provided by the MOE, meetings with MOE and Zoba officials, school surveys and interviews, other existing MOE documentation, and existing reports by various external donor sources, such as the DANIDA, Dutch Cooperation, European Union, UNICEF, the World Bank, and others. The Minister of Education, Mr. Osman Saleh, provided guidance on the sector strategy. The MOE technical team was led by Tesfamichael Gehratu (Director General) and received major contributions from Petros Hailemariam (Director General HRD); and Ayn-Alem Marcos and Abraham Tecle (Directors General TVET). The Eritrea Education and Training Sector Note objectives are to assist the Government of Eritrea and its Ministry of Education to develop a joint strategy and action plan for the education and training sector, and to improve coordination of donor inputs related to that strategy. The EESN provides (a) an analysis of major issues, achievements and bottlenecks in the current system, and (b) an overview of key priorities and recommendations for actions to improve the performance of the education and training sector, and (c) a background document for discussions with other education stakeholders and interifational donors. The follow up to this EESN will be the preparation and implementation of the Eritrea Education Sector Improvement Project (EESIP), for which the GOE will seek multi-donor financing and technical assistance. A project proposal by the MOE has been submitted to the World Bank for IDA funding. Significant contributions were also made by Dr. Wolde-Ab Yisak (President University of Asmara); Beraki Woldemaimanot (Dean, College of Science), and staff from the UOA Faculties. Many other MOE central and Zoba staff contributed to our better understanding of Eritrea' s education and training system. These includes Mehret lyob (Project Management Division, MOE), Haileslasse Kelati, Isaias Merhazion, Habtom Tsegay, Haile Alazar, Ghirmawit Negassi, Selome Iyob, Selam Libse, Mesfin Desta, Melete Tesfamichael, Mebrak Haile, Measho Gebretensae, Ogbay Habteyohannes, Tedros Sium, Temesgen Tekie, Weini Tesfatsion, Zeresenay Abraha, Wunesh Sium, Gebrezghi Dmam, Tminit Fessahaye, Woldu Berhe, Kuflom Kidane (MOE staff), Geberezghi Dimam (Director Adult Education, MOE), Director Asmara Teacher Training Institute (Mebrahtu Gilogabir), Anseba Regional Office (Haile Mebrahtu), Debub Regional Office (Gebreselasse Negash / Yeman / Eden / Nebyat), Northern Red Sea Regional Office (Mesfin Tecle, Massawa), Keren Sub-Regional Education Office, Dekemhare Sub- Regional Office (Rigbe Kifle), Central Maekel Administrator (Girmai.Ghebrehiwet), Elabered Sub-Regional Office (Yacob Beyen/Azieb Negash), Keren Regional Office (Abrehet Berhe), Agordat Sub-zoba Office (Tedros Abraham), Gash-Barka Statistics Office, and Massawa Sub- Regional Education Office. Their contributions and the support from school and other sub-zoba staff is gratefully acknowledged. Without their contributions this report would have been incomplete. ix Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Summary EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND MAIN CONCLUSIONS i. This Education and Training Sector Strategy Note was jointly prepared with the Government of Eritrea (GOE). Its objectives are to assist the government and its Ministry of Education (MOE) to develop a joint strategy and action plan for the education and training sector, and to improve coordination of donor-inputs related to that strategy. The EESN provides (a) an analysis of major issues, achievements and bottlenecks in the current system, (b) an overview of key priorities and recommendations for actions to improve the system's performance, and (c) a background document for discussions with education stakeholders and the international donor community. Economic Development Context ii. The Government of Eritrea (GOE) proposed an ambitious and optimistic reform plan for the education and training sector, linked to its "Education For All" goals. The intention is to rapidly close the economic development gap with other countries and create a knowledge society for the 21st century. However, Eritrea will have to live with the macroeconomic consequences of the recent war with Ethiopia for years to come. Income per capita levels slipped back to the levels seen just after independence in 1993. A decade of progress has been lost in flow terms. The State has become the dominant actor in the economy. Public expenditures averaged an astonishing 90 percent of GDP in the 1998-2001 period. Dependence on support from the Diaspora (Eritreans living abroad) has shifted to dependence on donor aid to make these levels of government expenditures possible. In 2001 donor support rose to 34 percent of GDP, and Diaspora transfers were 27 percent. Parent contributions represented an additional 2 percent of GDP spending for education and training. By contrast, Tanzania receives about 8-9 percent of GDP as aid and 2-3 percent of GDP in private transfers. Eritrea has become a highly indebted country and it is one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world. Social Context iii. The effects of the recent war, and changes in the local and international labor markets will force changes on Eritrea. In this context Eritrea's Ministry of Education (MOE) and the University of Asmara (UOA) are formulating a sector reform strategy for rapid and fundamental change. The plans call for increasing expansion at all levels, and improving quality, relevance of output, and equity in the provision of education and training services. These reforms also include key steps in the country's poverty reduction strategy. The main emphasis will be on achieving the goals for Eritrea's "Education For All" program, which is being developed by the MOE. All stakeholders recognize that significant financial and institutional capacity constraints will need to be overcome in the next decade. The current system suffers from significant inefficiencies at all levels, and further expansion will only be sustainable if these would be drastically reduced. In addition, between 2000 and 2010 Eritrea's population will increase at a projected annual rate of 2.1 percent. The dependency ratio is currently 100 percent, of which the under 15-year age group represents 90 percent. This will only slightly decrease the demand for pre-, primary and secondary education services remains strong and is growing. Many famnilies make significant financial sacrifices to keep their children in school. iv. In order for Eritrea to achieve EFA by 2015, grade one enrolment capacity should be sufficient to accommodate all 7 year olds (estimated at 149,000 children) by 2010. Assuming no more than 10 percent inefficiency (as formulated in the GOE's EFA program), the large number of over-aged students would need to be reduced and, compared to the system's capacity in 1999, an additional 73,000 places or 1,650 classrooms would be needed by 2010 (assuming a student- teacher ratio of 42.) Also, about 12,000 additional primary teachers would be needed by 2015 (in x Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Summary 1999 there were 6,230 primary teachers.) Eritrea plans to qualify for EFA "fast track" status, and is working on its Poverty Reduction and EFA Action programs. Perhaps the greatest strength of education in Eritrea are its teachers, school principals, and zoba (regional) managers who are dedicated to bringing about change despite the enormous challenges they face. Priority Challenges Improve Access, Equity and Quality v. Although the primary gross enrolment rate has increased over the past decade, it still stands at only 57 percent. The net enrolment rate is 38 percent. There are significant enrolment differences among zobas. The South Red Sea Zoba enrolls 12 percent of its 7-11 population while Debub has a primary GER of 79 percent. Although the reasons for such enrolment disparities is not completely clear, the effects of the recent conflict (significant numbers of displaced people and destruction of infrastructure and schools) and the large nomadic part of the population present formidable challenges for an efficient provision of services. An exercise involving school mapping to establish the need for provision of primary, middle and secondary education services, as well as a strategy document for providing services to the large nomadic population will be needed in order to raise the NER to more acceptable levels. vi. Significant inefficiencies in the sector remain and should be addressed to allow the rapid expansion as proposed under the GOE's EFA program. Only about 45 percent of students who enter grade 1 complete primary education. Repetition is commnon; it takes on average 9 years to complete the 5-year primary cycle. In one zoba, the average completion time is 16 years. As a result of repetition and late-entries, over half of the students in each grade are over-aged, presenting pedagogical challenges and affecting the quality of learning outcomes. International experience shows that grade repetition does not necessarily improve academic performance. The causes and effects of repetition and drop out should be further analyzed. It is significantly affected by teacher skills and attitudes. Solutions to combat inefficiency could include-(a) introducing automatic promotion for the primary level, with substantively improved classroom support; (b) rapidly phasing out late-age-entry into primary and over-age students in all cycles by capping the grade 1 enrolment at age 8 or 9, and not allowing students in a grade with more than 2-3 years age difference, while providing alternative education services for those groups such as distance education; (c) significantly. improving teacher support and the supply of teaching materials; and (d) considering double shifting at middle and secondary level where this is necessary. vii. Emergency teacher training would also need to be set up in order to address the significant demand for more primary and middle school teachers. Obviously, special teacher certification procedures, concurrently with intensified in-service support, would be needed. New teacher recruitments could be done on contractual basis, as is currently done in several other African countries, and against new professional performance standards. Transition from primary to middle school appears to be hampered by the switch from the local mother tongue to English. This probably requires better English language skills for all teachers. A start could be made by retraining primary and middle school teachers in "English language skills". Special service provision for nomadic children and those out-of-school would also need to be developed. Longer term quality improvements could focus on the school environment and involve (i) the establishment of an inspectorate, (ii) making curricula at all levels more relevant, (iii) providing better quantity and increased qualities of student textbooks, teacher guides, and extra-curricular teaching materials, (iv) retooling the pre- and in-service teacher training, and (v) improving teacher professional career development mechanisms. xi Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Summary viii. The Government of Eritrea estimates that 70 percent of the population is still illiterate. The low NER for primary no doubt continues to contributes to this percentage. Adequate life- long learning mechanisms should be established to provide continued education for out-of-school youth as well as an alternative service to obtain an education diploma outside the formal school system. This can be done cost-effectively through distance education and the use of ICT. Strengthen and expand Institutional Capacity at all Levels ix. This review does not underestimate the difficulty of taking action on these broad fronts. It is relatively easy to identify what needs to be done, but hard to get organized to do it. Virtually all stakeholders agree that the education system's most pressing constraint and challenge is better management of the sector. The MOE faces a considerable need for strengthened and improved institutional capacity at all levels (central, zoba, sub-zoba, and school level). Solutions and capacity building should be linked to the GOE's decentralization plans. x. For a thorough improvement of institutional capacity, the new responsibilities for decentralization per level (national, zoba, sub-zoba and school) for decision making need to be defined. A survey of management capacity at all levels could be conducted to determine the current skills mix at each zoba office. Based on the survey, a qualitative and quantitative plan could be drafted for training administrative staff (current and future) with needed skills in order to create an appropriate skills mix of personnel in the offices and schools to carry out the decentralization plans. Specific performance improvement action plans per zobas and per sub- zobas could be established based on eligibility criteria for funding and a performance reporting system. Create a Sustainable and Equitable Financing System xi. Annual education and training spending as a percentage of total government spending (and as a percentage of GDP, since GDP spending by the GOE was equal to 90 percent between 1998-2001) grew modestly from 4 percent in 1993 to about 5 percent in between 1998-2000. Government spending as a percentage of GDP is estimated to drop to 55 percent by 2005. This creates negative pressure on possible private sector financing in human development. The GOE's dependence on support from the Diaspora has shifted to dependence on donor aid to make these levels of government expenditures possible. The MOE's total education and training spending in the year 2000 amounted to about US$26.8 million, of which US$8.3 million was capital spending. Donor support for pre-tertiary education and training amounted to about 85 percent of capital and 26 percent of overall spending. The UOA's budget is directly financed by the Ministry of Finance, and it spent about US$3.5 million in 2000, of which 51 percent was donor- financed. GOE line-ministries, including the MOE, do not have an adequate multi-year budget planning system based on informed political and management decisions. This hinders transparency, decentralization and priority budget decision-making. xii. It is recognized that EFA in Eritrea will require significantly increased resource allocations due to geographic (reaching nomadic populations) and other problems. It would be beneficial if the MOE could select and agree on quantitative and qualitative sector performance targets for the longer term. The first step could be a detailed cost and financing study of the education and training sector per level of education. Three financial scenarios are included in the main text to be used as a reference point for creating a sustainable planning and budgeting system based on priority policy decisions. One of the major policy issues in Eritrea is related to the sector's teacher and staff salaries, which in the year 2000 were in the range of 8-10 time GDP per capita. Based on a comparison with other African countries and general trends in OECD countries, a sustainable wage policy for expansion of the present system would need to bring xii Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Summary teacher and staff salaries to below at least 5 times GDP per capita. An unknown proportion of teachers at primary and middle level appear currently to draw a lower salary now as part of their national service. It is not known for how long this will continue, but its phasing out, combined with a substantial expansion, will certainly inflate the MOE's wage bill. Significant expansion can not take place if salaries remain at this unsustainable level. This will require a balanced wage policy for the sector, agreed with the major stakeholders. This issue is also linked to the lack of pension arrangements in the current system. xiii. The major source of inequity in education and training spending comes through differences in spending per level of education. Per pupil spending at the tertiary level was the equivalent of US$1,000 in 1999 (or five times GDP per capita), and in TVET US$880, compared to basic and general secondary education where per pupil spending was only US$55. Since most of the poorest students do not make it to the university level, these spending patterns suggest that children of families who are better off would receive significantly larger subsidies than children from poor families. More balanced spending is needed per level of education, relevant to unit costs, and improved resource allocation for school environment along with improved transparency of reporting on recurrent non-salary spending. xiv. External funding plays a crucial role in overall spending on education and training in Eritrea. Donor funding has increased over 1993-2000. Most donor involvement is concentrated on basic education and TVET. The level of foreign donor support for the University of Asmara is not known. Lack of donor coordination has led to unbalanced and fragmented development within the sector. For example, the neglect of general secondary education by donors has affected quality at this level. In addition, there is bound to be volatility of funding, creating problems for long-term strategic sector development. Eritrea will continue to be dependent on significant external donor funding and would need to (i) improve coordination mechanisms between and within the UOA and MOE, and (ii) start to establish better donor coordination mechanisms based on agreed and realistic sector development strategies. The Diaspora funds could potentially be of great help to Eritrea's education and training. Mechanisms could be established to improve the monitoring of these external funding streams, and incentives could be created to stimulate participation by private sources in the financing of services. In Summary xv. The following matrix summarizes the major priorities and recommendations for. strengthening and expanding the education sector, which are worked out in further detail in Chapter VI of this report. xiii Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Summary Eritrea: Key Education Policy Options Priority issues Policy choices Means Imnproved budgeting and . Develop a sustainable remuneration policy for teachers and staff , .' planmng system * Equitable funding of schools and across levels * Phase in a transparent budgeting system for central and zoba levels linked to policy priorities - Improved donor coordination and between the MOE, UOA, Finance, and other line rmnistries Greater private provision * Provide incentives for increased private provision and investment ,.. ~'i and financing of education * Establish improved legal and regulatory framework -. Reach agreement on * Produce and agree on Poverty Reduction Strategy Program , Eritrea's EFA strategy (PRSP) ,r''' - >hM * Produce a realistic EFA implementation plan Provide adequate services and infrastructure facilities for the , -' "'-{-g expansion under EFA * Establish emergency teacher training procedures to respond to the increased demand for teachers Greater provision for out- * Develop and implement distance education mechanisms rof-school population * Provide non-formal certification mechanisms Increase efficiency * Rapidly reduce repetition and dropout rates * Consider automatic promotion for pnmary grades £ -F * ., X . Consider better student support and improve the school environment * Consider phasing out over-aged student population by capping entrance age to grade one at 9 years, and also over-aged in other grades and cycles. r . ' 4 s Quality teaching * Provide better teacher support S4. . * ^ r * Improve English language skills among teachers * Improve pre- and in-service training to address problems related to multi-grade, multi-age, and learning disability situations * Establish effective mechanisms to promote teacher networks and -'~~~~~ ~~~ ~better communication among teachers * Provide incentives for teacher deployment to rural areas Quality instructional * Revise all cumcula to improve relevance, sequencing and $-- *' < matenal coherence ~ ~-:l;t 'k .' .2 * . . Timely and equitable distnbution of school and teacher kits, and wr:~rt7S better support to zoba- and sub-zoba levels . . Tighter accountability * Create an effective Inspectorate mechanisms * Review the process and institutional capacity for assessment of - k ~ student learning outcomes (including exams) L 1,49x.¢9k }i.569 * Establish a performance indicator framework per level of education, and develop effective monitoring mechanisms Institutional strengthening * Define and decentralize responsibilities to zoba , sub-zoba and schools, and establish accountability mechanisms * Develop improved skills mix at MOE and zoba levels. among Ks4 , staff xiv Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Sumnary ERITREA ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SECTOR PERFORMANCE INDICATORS Eritrea, Demographic Indicators Estimated for 2000 to 2020 | 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Population in mnillions (% of increase) 4.10 4.60 (12%) 5.10 (24%) 5.60 (37%) 6.20 (51%) Population Growth Rate (%) 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.6 Population by Age Groups ('OOs) 0-4 730 760 810 870 930 5-9 610 710 740 800 860 10-14 520 600 700 740 790 Sub total 1,860 2,070 2,250 2,410 2,570 15-19 420 510 590 690 730 20-64 1,710 1,530 3,950 2,630 3,100 65+ 110 120 140 170 198 Total 4,100 4,650 5,220 5,880 6,610 Dependency Ratio%* 100 97 91 81 74 Of which under 15 group% 90 88 81 72 65 Women of Childbearing Age (15-49) 21% 23% 24% 25% 26% Labor Force Participation (15-60) 50% 51% 53% 55% 58% *Dependency Ratio is population under 15 and over 64 divided by the 15-64 age group population. Source: World Development Indicators 2001 Eritrea Key Economic Indicators, 1993-2001 1993 1998 -~-- [ 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2001 Real GDP growth (%) 4.9 3.9 -1.5 -10.9 9.1 0.2 Inflation (% change, end of year 9.1 9 10.6 26.8 7.7 13.5 Gross National savings/GDP (%) 39.4 12.0 13.7 19.1 21.1 16.5 Income per capita* 200 207.6 191.7 173.8 175.0 187 Gvt. expenditure/GDP (%) 63.5 81.8 99.6 101.4 78.1 90.2 Gvt. domestic debt (net)/GDP (%) 34.3 63.4 98.8 127.5 105.9 98. 9 Net donor support/GDP (%) 13.3 173 27.1 243 33.7 25.6 Source: BIF, World Bank Database Eritrea Government and Donor Contribution to Education and Training Expenditure (US$ M), 1993-2000 S ending on Basic and Secondary Education Universitv of Asmara Total Capital Donors' Donor Contribution Total Donors' % Donors' Spending Spending Contribution % of Total % of Capital Spending Contributio Contributio Year US$m US$m US$m Spending Spending US$m n US$m n 1993 10.8 2.5 2.5 23.1 100.0 0.9 0.3 32 1998 33.9 9.3 7.1 20.9 76.3 3.6 1.7 46 1999 34.9 13.4 9.7 27.8 72.4 4.2 2.3 56 2000 26.8 83 7.1 26.5 85.5 3.5 1.8 51 Source: Eritrea Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance. xv Eritrea Education Sector Note: Executive Summary C veSpendin on Basic Education among selected Low Income Countries Primary Education Education Average Non- Spedin spending annual teacher % of total teacher salary Govt. Govt. Gvt. Unit costs salaries spending Year spend( revenue % of total spending (% per (as (% of Prim. % of (% of Gvt. % of on % of capita multiple recurrent Country data GER GDP) GDP) spend. GDP education GDP GDP) of GDP) spending) Benin 1998 86 15.3 17 2.5 63 1.6 12 4.6 26.4 Burkina 1998 45 14.7 17 2.5 64 1.6 24 8.0 30.7 Faso _ _ Burundi 1998 60 24.9 17.4 20 3.6 36 1.3 12 5.3 22.1 Ethiopia 1999 55 31 17.8 15 2.7 46 1.2 14 6.8 20.5 Guinea 2000 62 16.9 11.1 18 2.0 37 0.8 8 2.7 34.7 Lesotho 2000 103 50.3 35.9 22 8.0 40 3.2 21 6.6 29.9 Malawi 1999 117 18.1 20 3.6 50 1.8 9 4.0 14.0 Mali 1998 49 16.8 14 2.3 42 1.0 14 6.1 31.1 Rwanda 2000 101 9.8 33 3.2 45 1.4 9 4.0 8.6 Uganda 2000 102 10.8 30 3.2 53 1.7 10 2.9 26.2 Eritrea 2000 57 100 34.0 5 4.9 64 2.1 34 9.8 36.0 Source: World Bank; World Development Indicators, 2002 Eritrea: Stu ents, Teachers and Schools by Level 7 year old entrants Primary Middle Secondary TVET* Un. of into grade 1 (NER) (NER) (NER) Asmara* Students 28,230 295,940(38%) 74,320(11%) 59,630 (14%) 1,860 4,640 Teachers 6,230 I1,310 1,050 230 Schools J_ _ 655 131 38 11 NA *TVET, UOA information is from 2000. Source: Eritrea, Basic Education Statistics, 1999/2000 Millennium Development Goal Indicators Current Target Poverty Rate (% of population below $1/day) 53% 22% Net Primary Enrolment Rate (Grades 1-5) 38% 100% Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) 61 34* Child Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) 94 52 Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primiary & Secondary Education 85-70 Equal* % Births Attended by Skilled Health Personnel 29% 90% Use of Contraception - Any Method (Men) NA NA Use of Contraception - Any Method (Women) 8% 25* % of Population with Access to an Improved Water Source 7% 75%* *Target is inconsistent in various documents, requiring confirmation of actual targets. xvi CHAPTER I: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 1. Eritrea's independence struggle started in 1961 when Eritrea was annexed by Ethiopia. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) gained control of Eritrea in May 1991. Following an internationally supervised referendum, Eritrea formally gained its independence on May 24, 1993. Open conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia erupted in May 1998, as a consequence of a dispute over their common border in the Badme region. In May 2000 full-scale fighting resumed for five weeks and Ethiopia advanced into Eritrea. This caused severe destruction, and a humanitarian crisis. In June 2000, peace talks were resumed on the basis of the existing OAU Peace Framework Agreement. Today Eritrea is still maintaining a significant proportion of its 15-14 years age group in the army. This is expensive and uses valuable public resources which could otherwise be used for social and economic development. In 2000 the GOE spent about the equivalent of the total GDP, and it plans to continue these unsustainable high public spending patterns for some time to come. It is projected that in 2005 the GOE will still be spending about 50 percent of GDP, with a significant proportion going to defense. Among positive signs are that the GOE will start a demobilization and re-integration process of soldiers in the coming months. 2. The war, as well as a severe drought, have brought untold destruction and disruption. One third of Eritreans were displaced from their communities, and deprived of their livelihoods. Massive destruction of schools, health clinics, agriculture, power supply, local roads, bridges, and water supply further exacerbated the effects of the ongoing drought. The economic impact has been far-reaching as agricultural output, exports and government revenues have all fallen dramatically. There has been little or no rain for the past three years in most of the country and the poor rains of the 1999 winter resulted in widespread crop failure. The loss of trade with Ethiopia has led to a two-thirds decline in port revenues and a significant drop in exports. The depreciation of the exchange rate (Nakfa) and lack of access to foreign exchange are constricting grcwth, particularly private sector development. 3. The Government of Eritrea (GOE) and its Ministry of Education (MOE) have presented ambitious and optimistic goals and implementation plans for guiding the country's education and training Sector into the 21st century and to close the performance gap between Eritrea and other countries. The GOE aims to achieve a balanced and equitable education and training sector development, but recognizes there are significant financial and institutional capacity constraints over the next 5-10 years. Between 2000 and 2020 the population of Eritrea will increase at a projected annual rate of 2.1 percent. The population under 15 years will, by 2020, in absolute terms have increased from 1.9 to 2.3 million. 4. Demand for pre-, primary and secondary education services is enormous and continues to grow strongly. Parents want more than just primary education for their children, and many families are burdened by having to make significant financial sacrifices to keep their kids in school. In spite of the recent war, many of Eritrea's schools are still functioning, but many do so without basic learning and teaching tools. The strengths of Eritrea's education system are its dedicated teachers, principals and admninistrators, who continue to make progress against severe challenges. Funding for education and training will suffer for some time to come, due to the heavy burden on the Government's public purse from the recent conflict. Poverty, Health and Education 5. The population' of Eritrea will continue to grow over the next twenty years due to its high fertility rates. Eritrea's population2 is estimated at about 4 million in 2000, with a projected All data and information regarding demographics and health are based on a draft Eritrea Health Sector Note. A task team for the preparation of this Note is led by Eva larawan (lead health specialist, AFIH3). Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report annual growth rate over the next 3-5 years of 2.3 percent. By 2020, the population growth rate is expected to decline to 1.9 percent (2015-20), but the population will have grown to 6.2 million. The population under 15 years will decrease from 45 percent of total population in 2000 to 38 percent by 2020, although in absolute terms, this population sub-group will increase from 1.9 to 2.3 million. The largest percentage increase will be seen among the adult population (15-60 years) from 50 percent in 2000 to 58 percent in 2020. By 2010, the country's population will be 24 percent larger, and the major health burden will be from children and women of childbearing age. Table 1.1. Eritrea Demographic and Health Indicators and Projections Actual Projected Indicators 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Population (millions) 4.10 4.60 5.10 5.60 6.20 Population change since 2000 (%) 12% 24% 37% 51% Population Growth Rate (%) 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.6 Life Expectancy at Birth (years) 50 51 54 57 58 Total Fertility Rate 5.2 4.7 4.1 3.5 2.9 Infant Mortality / 1,000 live Births 61 57 52 47 43 Population by Age Groups Children under 5 years 0.7 (18%) 0.7 (16%) 0.8 (15%) 0.8 (14%) 0.8 (13%) Youth under 15 years 1.9 (45%) 2.1 (45%) 2.2 (43%) 2.3 (40%) 2.3 (38%) Labor Force Participation (15-60) 2.1 (50%) 2.3 (51%) 2.7 (53%) 3.1 (55%) 3.6 (58%) Dependency Ratio Total (under 15 and over 60 years) 100 97 91 81 74 Youth only (under 15 years) 90 88 81 72 65 Source: World Development Indicators, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2001 6. Life expectancy remains 50.4 years overall in 2000 (52 years for females and 49 years for males). By 2020, life expectancy in Eritrea is projected to increase to 58 years overall. The total age-dependency ratio remains high with almost half the population either under 15 (46 percent) or above 60 years (5 percent), resulting in a total dependency ratio of 100 percent, and a youth dependency ratio of 90 percent. The reduction in the total dependency ratio will remain slow within the next twenty years. Modern contraceptive methods are used by 4 percent of married women. Female circumcision is still almost universal. In 1998, Tuberculosis was the second and ILV/AID)S the fifth cause of inpatient mortality in the age group five years and above at the national level. In 1999, however, HIV/AIDS has emerged as the first major cause of inpatient mortality for those 5 years and older. There are efforts to teach "health and life skills" and provide sexual education in middle and secondary schools, but there appears not to be a formal curriculum with clear attainment targets and effective learning materials in these areas. The ethnic diversity and nomadic lifestyle in Eritrea will require an in-depth study in the coming years to (i) develop and produce effective learning and teaching materials in child and adolescent health, life style skills and sexual behavior; (ii) develop a mechanisms of low-cost production and distribution of these materials in Eritrea's schools; and (iii) developing and implementing teacher and staff training to provide guidance counselors for parents and students. The population estimates differ. The formal estimate stands at 4.2 mnillion. However, probably the real number is closer to 3 rnillion. For the zobas populations MOE numbers are used in this report. 2 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Figure 1.1. Eritrea Population in 2000 and 2020 ('000) 7. The conflict with Ethiopia has had 75.1 : ,- ., ., . devastating social and economic impacts in Eritrea. Over 1 million Male ; Female people were driven from their homes. Most left on _j,: ~foot, leaving all their possessions behind. The conflict has also strained D, MI ',-the housing, educational 1K2000 _; > and public service systems of the villages and towns where the internally displaced people have resettled. -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 The natural environments of these areas are also rapidly being degraded. Many villages have been heavily damaged and returnees have limited resources with which to rebuild. Because almost all men of ages 16-40 have been called up for military service, most of the displaced people are women and children. They have been receiving minimal services such as education and health care. Many are living in the hills without shelter and sanitation and many are seeking safety in remote areas, making access by the relief agencies extremely difficult. Because of the sparseness of trees and shrubs in these areas, most people living here are exposed to extreme heat, and, since the beginning of the rainy season, to rain. Most of the country's social indicators, already below the average for Sub-Saharan Africa before the conflict, will likely deteriorate further. 8. Eritrea has a net enrolment of 38 percent at primary (grades 1-5) and 12-14 percent at middle (grades 7 and 8) and secondary (grades 9-11) levels. Gross primary enrolment is 57 percent. In addition, there are significant repetition and drop out rates (respectively about 16 and 15 percent on average per grade). The effects of the recent conflict and the significant nomadic part of the population contribute to the large groups of children in the 5-17 years age range out of school. Of those who go to school many enroll late into primary (at ages above 7 years old), presenting a complex pedagogic and teaching dilemma for teachers and schools. TVET enrolment has a limited capacity and relatively small enrolment proportion. It is clear that about half of Eritrea 's primary school age group is not in school, and will grow up illiterate. There is also a risk for those who do complete primary education (one third of the relevant age group) but do not continue to middle school of losing skills andfalling into semi-illiteracy sincefive years of Eritrea primary school is hardly enough to acquire and solidify the 3Rs. Less than l Opercent of the corresponding age group completes the 7 years of middle school. Quality of primary and middle school education is weak. Much of the burden for the provision of learning and teaching materials, electricity charges, and drinking water provision in the schools, falls on parents, teachers and communities. A heavy burden willfallfor some years to come on the Government to provide Adult and Literacy Education courses. This is more expensive than formal primary education at the appropriate ages. Eritrea, as other countries throughout the world, is highly motivated to aggressively promote increased enrolment and improved quality and relevance of education. The GOE strives for poverty reduction by 2015 and has set its Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as follows: 3 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report '¢ " ' . ' - Bax 1 .1. Millenim Deve!opmenl oai,s (M,D^G;) '- --- .At the Millennium Summit inaSepiember-2W00the st,les,ofth,e UnieN ationrs.reaffirnied,their commitment to ~working toward a world in which sustaininig developnient and eiiin.iitig poverty would have.the highest pr,ioity. -The Millennium' Develoiment Goals grew out:of the agreements idtlresolutions of world '6onfiference6s' rganiized by .,.U,nited Nations in the past decade. The goals ,have been c'e'ted as a fr.aiiework for meas'.ng development progress.:- 'Mile opnimDeveopent oal -: - -,-Eradicae extreme poverty andhger `.ICombat HIVIAlDS. malara. and other disease- SAchieve universal primary education Ensure eI"irrunental sustainabUity ^mote gender equality and'cir - r er woren De ,: ', - ,, .., velop a global partnership for development - - ,Yuce child mortality ' ;' ' Imnprove maternal health * Source: http /iwww developmentgoals'orJ , Table 1.2. Eritrea's Millennium Development Goal Indicators Current Target Poverty Rate (% of population below $1/day) 53% 22% Net Primary Enrollment Rate (Grades 1-5) 38% 100% Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) 61 34* Child Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) 94 52 Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary & Secondary Education 85 - 72 Equal* % Births Attended by Skilled Health Personnel 29% 90% Use of Contaception - Any Method (Men) NA NA Use of Contraception - Any Method (Women) 8% 25* % of Population with- Access to an Improved Water Source 7% 75%* *Target is inconsistent in various documents, requiring confirmation of actual targets. Economic Progress3 in "Ups and Downs" 9. Eritrea declared independence on May 24, 1993. However, achieving macroeconomic stability meant pursuing fiscal discipline. The Eritrean authorities also had to balance several competing needs against one another; i.e. the needs for reconstruction, demobilization and reintegration of 55,000 former combatants into civilian life, resettlement of about 190,000 returning refugees, helping to take care of the families of the tens of thousands of fighters who had died or been maimed during the war of independence4, and an upward adjustment in salaries of the severely underpaid civil servants. This had to be done with the scant public resources that they could squeeze out of a rundown economy or muster from the Eritrea Diaspora and donor agencies. This looked like an impossible task in 1993. But by 1997, this is precisely what the Eritreans had achieved. 10. The war with Ethiopia that began in 1998 reversed many of the macroeconomnic gains. As military expenditures shot up, the trade relationship with Ethiopia was severed and port revenues from Ethiopian traffic dried up, the macroeconomic stress was severe. GDP growth was negative in 1999 and 2000. By 2001 the economy had begun to stabilize. The Bank approved a US$60 million credit in May 2002 to assist with demobilization and reintegration of soldiers. This should facilitate a reduction in military expenditures and strengthen the labor force. There will be longer term macroeconomic consequences of the war. Income per capita levels have slipped back to the levels seen just after independence. The State is the dominant actor in the economy. 3 Revitalizing Eritrea's Development Strategy, CEM; African Region, World Bank, April 2002. 4Govermnent of Eritrea, National Economic Poticy Framework and Program (NEPFP) for 1998-2000, Discussion Paper, Asmara, March 1998, p.6 also in Govemment of Eritrea's. Transitional Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction Stategy 2001-2002, Asmara, August 2001, p.6. 4 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Eritrea's always high public expenditures averaged an astonishing 90 percent of GDP between 1998 and 2001. Dependence on supportfrom the Diaspora shifted to dependence on donor aid to enable these levels of govemment expenditures. Eritrea averaged private transfers of 43 percent of GDP and net donor support of 13 percent between 1993 and 1997. By 2001 donor support had risen to 34 percent and transfers 27 percent. By contrast, Tanzania receives about 8-9 percent of GDP as donor aid and 2-3 percent of GDP in private transfers. Consequently Eritrea has become a highly indebted country, and would be HIPC eligible. 11. The extreme levels of Government expenditure as a percentage of GDP indicate the extent to which the economy is dominated by public expenditures. This is not purely a wartime phenomenon. Levels of public expenditure in Eritrea have been much higher than comparator countries such as Uganda, Rwanda or Ethiopia. In these countries, public expenditure has fluctuated around 15-30 percent of GDP. Eritrea averaged 63 percent between 1993 and 1997, and an astonishing 90 percent between 1998 and 2001. Eritrea has a public sector driven economy since independence, and even more so during the war. High levels of donor support have contributed to this situation. The table below shows the magnitude of the external flows relative to the level of economic activity that Eritrea has been receiving, initially from the Diaspora, but increasingly from donor aid. At 33 percent of GDP in 2001, Eritrea is one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world. Table 13. Macroeconomic Consequences of the War 1993- 1998- 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2001 Income per capita* NA NA 180 200 220 200 207.6 191.7 173.8 175.0 187 Govermment expenditurelGDP (%) 61.8 59.3 69.2 65.9 55.4 63.5 81.8 99.6 101.4 78.1 90.2 Government domestic debt (net)/GDP (%) NA NA NA NA 34.3 34.3 63.4 98.8 127.5 105.9 98.9 External public debtlGDP (%) 0.5 4.8 5.7 6.2 11.7 7.9 19.8 39.8 51.7 60.9 43.1 Private transfer/GDP (%) 40.5 56.7 37.6 38.9 54.6 43.7 34.7 36.9 32.2 26.5 32.6 Net donor support/GDP (%) 17.6 21A 13.8 13.8 12A 13.3 17.3 27.1 24.3 33.7 25.6- Source: IMF, * World Bank Database, 2002 12. Eritrea's overall dependence on the aid and Diaspora flows is very clear. The current Table 1.4 Comparative Aggregate Government levels of aid are unlikely to be sustained. The Expenditure, in Percent of GDP 1997-2001 very large disbursements of the last couple of 1993 1998 1999 2000 2001 years were driven primarily by IDA Eritrea' 61.8 81.8 99.6 101.4 78.1 emergency lending. After the Demobilization Ethiopia2 19.6 30.6 33.0 31.2 29.1 and Rehabilitation Program (US$60 million Uganda3 18.6 19.0 20.5 21.1 19.6 IDA Credit) which is expected to disburse Rwanda4 23.9 18.9 19.7 18,9 21.4 mostly in 2002 and 2003, IDA flows will Source: World Bank Economic Country Reports decrease significantly. For Education and Training an IDA Credit for FY03 (July 2002 to June 2003) is scheduled in the pipeline. If the ongoing dispute with the EU is not resolved, then total aid flows will be even smaller. Over the long term, the current levels of Diaspora transfers are also unlikely to be sustained. The current levels are at least partially driven by the patriotism of Eritreans abroad after the country finally 5 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report achieved independence. As time passes, and the next generation is born abroad, these flows are likely to decrease. 6 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report CHAPTER IH: EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROVISION AND ORGANIZATION IN ERITREA 13. This chapter discusses: (i) education services provision, quality, effectiveness and equity, (ii) the organization, management and institutional capacity of Eritrea's education system, (iii) current governmental reforms and strategies, and (iv) specific conclusions and recommendations. Overview of Eritrea's Education System and its Issues 14. Most statistical data5 used in this report is produced by the Ministry of Education. The abstract "Essential Indicators" was produced by the MOE's "Department of Research and Human Resource Development. In agreement with the MOE we use primary school / education for grades 1-5, middle school education for grades 6-7, and secondary education for grades 8-11. In the near future the MOE plans to extend the middle school to three years, and add grade 12 to the secondary cycle. This would extend the total schooling tract to 5+3+4 years. Primary and middle school together are labeled "basic education". Earlier education publications by the MOE refer to elementary education (grades 1-5). This term has now been abandoned by the MOE. Pre-school is a two year program offered for children 5-6 years of age. It is not considered part of basic education. There are three Special Schools for the deaf and blind. The system flow chart below shows the dynamics between the types of schooling provided by the government: (i) formal education (general, tertiary, and technical and vocational programs), and (ii) non-formal education (adult education and literacy programs). 15. All students with satisfactory primary grades (local school-based exam) may continue to middle school. At the end of grade 7, students are selected by their own schools to take the Grade 7 National Exam to qualify for entry into secondary school or basic level TVET. At the end of grade 9 some students shift into middle level TVET programs. At the end of grade 11, students take the Eritrea Secondary Education Certification Exam (ESECE) to qualify for entry into tertiary education. Three qualification levels for the ESECE are distinguished: degree, diploma and certificate. The "degree qualification" allows entry into the University of Asmara. A diploma qualifies for entry into a teacher training institute and several advanced-level TVET schools (there are about eight vocational institutes run by various line-ministries). The certificate qualifies for a variety of vocational training schools. Those students who do not continue on to the tertiary level participate in the mandatory national service progran. 5Eritrea: essential education indicators and education statistics 1999/2000 (and earier years); Ministry of Education, Asmara, November 2000 7 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Figure 2.1. Eritrea: Education and Training Provision System Tertiary Education _ Un. of Adv. Teach. Asmama Level Train. 4 yrs. TVET Iyt.l Adult Education 2-3 yrs. Ilyr. Enrol. NA 4,640 360 940 students students students N dational S ,-ervc , IE _S N rESECE PassRate 26% ---i 11 IntermediSecondary Level ate Level TVET 10 NER 14%, GER 21% 1.430 students 9 (Ages 14-17) ______ v PI 8 _L.____ ___ __ Grade 7 National Exam Basic Level TVET Pass Rate: 68% "} 70 students Middle Level _ 7 NER 1%, GER 43% (Ages 12-13) 61 Data refers to 1999/2000; TVET and Tertiary data is __________________________________ 2000/2001. General Education enrolment includes Primnary Level govemnment and non-government schools; TVET enrolment is 5 NERiary Level GERgovernment only. Private TVET enrolment figures are not 4 ~~NER 38%, GER 57 available. 3 (Ages 7-11) ESECE: Eritrean Secondary Education Certificate 2 Exarnination. 1 Tertiary Education: The University of Asmara (UOA) . ~~~~~~~~~~~~contains 6 faculties, including the Faculty of Edurcation which ________________________________ trains Middle and Secondary Education teachers. Advanced Vocational Institutes include Asnara Business and Pre-School Level Commerce Institute (ABCD and Pavoni Technical Institute n NER 4%, GER 5% (Ages 5-6) (PTI). Teacher Training Instiutions, which train Primary (Ages 5-6) J School teachers,'include Asrnara Teacher Training Institute (ATTI') and Mai-Nefi Teacher Training Institute (MTTI). Adult Education: This includes Skill Development Centers (SDC), lliteracy Eradication programs, and Continuing Education. 16. In Eritrea there are six governmental regions, called zobas. Each of the zobas has its own educational offices and is responsible for monitoring and evaluation of the zoba education system, inspection of schools and teachers, communications with parents and communities, and planning and budgeting. A major problem in the zobas is their weak management capacity and lack of professionally trained staff. However, zoba staff are very motivated and demonstrate a good understanding of what quality, relevance and efficiency of schools, teaching and leaming should be at the various levels of education. However, they have almost no means, and the support structure from the MOE is weak. Primary schools are taught in each community's 8 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report dominant native language. According to the MOE Eritrea made good progress in combating illiteracy. 17. Effective teaching and learning classroom time. The Eritrea school year starts in mid September and goes to the end of June. The school year includes various national festive days and a national sports week which provides "learning opportunities for children," and promotes "ethnic and cultural tolerance". Some regions, like the desert areas along the Red Sea, close their schools in early June because of intense heat. In total, the school year is about 206 days of instruction. Compared to international standards this is reasonable. However, it would be more relevant to measure the real "time-on-task" per grade and per cycle of education, and compare - T - @;- D£: - sL, a ~,:,U ,;.sCU-q2" - n > la "e this with international practices. ______________,_._____,_1_____________'___,'_.,_rv, According to OECD data the 98% : average school year should be 96% ' about 900-1,000 clock hours at 94% 92% primary level, and about 1,000- .988% = 1,200 at lower secondary level. In 86% .>-* Eritrea we estimate that the real 84% _ _ _ number of clock hours spend by 82% 80% __g,, students and teachers in a 1-, * ,,4 As A4 X p "teaching and learning classroom ; situation" is closer to 800-900 ¢='EIementaiy 'C~Middle .i.-.- ;-:. Souice Communiiity Support for MBa0icEduci6n in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank. 2001. 19. Participation of non-governmental organizations in education differs by level. At the pre- primary level, in 1999 out of the 90 pre-primary schools in the country, only 5 were government owned. There is also concentration by zoba. Out of the 45 pre-primary schools in Zoba Maekel, 84 percent are located in the town of Asmara. At the primary level, about 85 percent of schools are public. Not surprisingly, most non-government schools are located in the relatively densely populated zobas (Anseba, Debub, and Maekel.) The table provides an overview of school ownership per zoba. Table 2.1. Distribution of Government and Non-government Schools by Region and Level of Schooling, 1999 Primary Middle Secondary Region Number Goy. Nongov. Number N Number Coy of schools of schools ongov of schools Anseba 107 69% 31% 18 72% 28% 5 80% 20% Deb-Keih-Bahri 24 92% 8% 2 100% 0% 1 100% 0% Debub 200 88% 13% 42 83% 17% 8 88% 13% Gash-Barka 132 89% 11% 20 100% 0% 4 100% 0% Maekel 112 81% 19% 34 74% 26% 16 81% 19% Sem-Keih-Bahli 80 96% 4% 15 93% 7% 4 100% 0% Source: Eritrea: Basic Education Statistics, 1999/2000 Major Pedagogic and Curricula Problems Facing Education and Training 20. There is a large lack of trained teachers, teaching materials and adequate facilities in Eritrea. Nevertheless, school directors and teachers are knowledgeable and motivated, and continue to look for practical solutions under extremely difficult conditions. It is admirable that the system has maintained and even slightly increased its primary enrolment since independence. However, this has been at the cost of quality and school support. 10 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 21. According to the MOE, about 70 percent of primary and secondary teachers are qualified, but only 32 percent of the middle school teachers. Lacking sufficient training in pedagogy, many teachers are unable to engage students in active learning. At all levels, teaching practice is strongly influenced by the approaches set out in the textbooks. There is a strong emphasis on content and knowledge and insufficient focus put on the development of understanding, evaluation and critical thinking skills. There are no mechanisms for regular and formal teacher reviews on aspects of pedagogy at the school level. 22. Although teacher and staff salaries are comparatively high, (8-10 times GDP per capita) they are rather "flat" for career development and promotion. There are no pension arrangements. School directors mentioned that this causes "lack of motivation." The average staff, teacher, school director salary ranged in 2000 between US$1,600-2,000 per year, from which about 25 percent tax was further deducted. Bx 2.2. Guiinea an 'Ugad Teache Shortage s U ,da Emergency Resp e t r polocy hasexed toamassive epansion of pupil numbers -ganda's primary. edtication system was devastated by' _ad: a consequeni detenora49n ,in the pupil to teadier .dte Amini and Obote years. While.schools.continued to ratio. The supply 'ofqualified teachers is not meeting function,-teachers were in short supply, aid about '56 -:thedetiand. iCurrently, ther& ate plans to, post about- ..percent-, of. 'the primnarv teachers~ vere,untrained., ,20.000 0O' and-"A" levelgdgiuatestoschools to-reduce .Follovving:the -NRM ta,,kJeover.- a. number -of-upgrading' 'the rat,i. -Te TDNIS model' Wfil be-uitilized to provide courses ta~t-a-digtance helped up,giade the qualificatio,n,s. u,pgr,ad,i,ng.. -> - ,: ¢ .-.: .: :: . .,.,,i- of ieacbers in'the'classroom.L For:exafniple, the Mubende -Source: EnhancingLesimin,g Opportunities in Africa, The Inmegrated Teacher Education Program (MITEP) aimed World Bank. *002. . to upgrade teachers' qiialification in the, Mubenfde - - - distiict ,of Uganda and used tWenty-two printed self-- Guinea's re-erviceTeacher Education Project instructional booklets, tutor-marked assignments, five - . - ;- Pro - res'dential '' courses -.-each, of mare ut ' .-two yeeks . Toachiev,,e l'"E. ,ducation fior Al' Guinea will need tto re ..duies..eqh_of about tw6 Weeks, --dii ii-- - .!.durat,ion group meetings every two -weeks,- and rec,ru itabout 25.000 new' teachers over the-rnext 12 -teaching supervision; Nine hundred teachers' enrolled years. oTo:increase the efficiency of training and the and about 7.00 completed the course. three -ears later- --quality .of, i6W-tedchers, the government needs new Other' istrictsha-d,,similar.courses. -.. . . -- .kappr,,oaches] 6 .rvicete,acher edcation. Two new . .. ,. approac,h,es, we,repioedia 1998. .. In1994, the.govyernment established the Teacher e Sho.t-terr intensive summer c,ourses, for .which Developmrnent.. and. Management. System i(-MS),.'- ' -teacher-.-received priovnsional -certification.- For com',xnpris,ing a network of-eighteen core pnmar.y teache-rs - permCain cent ficaion, teachers must participate in :.colleges, .each supportrig- about 't-wenty' coordin-ating - in-service training within a specified period cnte:rs, staffedby.tut.,ors, a,nd each coordinating center -An iniensn'e pTogram lasung an entre school year .in -turn responsible for about twenty -to twenty-five and focusing on classroom practice. with student schools. This national system:is used for a wide variety teachers spenidiig 30 40% of their timre i primary of purposes: managemient training and support to head school classrooms, folowed by teacher mentoring teachers, district education officials,- school -community ; and linkedin-service6trainiing. organs,pre-service training foi teachers; in-service By Augu.st l1999, the teacher. education program had upg~rading'for practicitig teachers tioughi vocational trained mor.e than 3,000 .new teachers-20 times as courses and disiance education; on-going- in-service many as,were traineedin the year before the program training- -to bring new methods, text .and learning started., The ,teachers trairind in.the intensive sumnier .-ierials to teachers in school., -e u'pgrading course course in 1998 heled increase 1998-99 enrcilineit's. iy builds on the work of MITEP and uses the outreach 52X,O00 itudents, m,rc,i than half oif thei. girls. In 1999,. tutors to,support coordinating center tutors, who in turn 1,500 moretrained -teac,hers began teachiig, and the .su~p6prt 'and supeivise the' under.qualified teachers and - pgrga,rplamnied to Erain 3.000. more. teachers during'the ' -the'teachers' coll.eges to -provide residential courses. in' 1999-2000'schoi year.. the period from 1996; over 10,000 teachers halb Source:AClanceto[ein,TheWortdBank,2001 - - .upgraded. IThe UPE Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 23. The present curriculum is narrow. For example, there is no place for creative, aesthetic and technological subjects, or for health education. In theory, schools can enrich the curriculum but, in practice, this is usually limited to experimenting with some new teaching approaches or introducing different resources rather than introducing more breadth into the curriculum. The curriculum is not balanced. Often, 40 percent of instruction time is given to mathematics and science. Of necessity, there is an emphasis on teaching theory that limits development of understanding. There is virtually no student choice in the secondary curriculum except at grades 10 and 11 when there is a choice of two options. Lack of even a limited choice of subjects may account for what teachers recognize as a student reluctance to take responsibility for their own learning and may help to explain a high repetition rate among students. 24. Primary and middle schools have approximately 1 formal subject textbook per 4 pupils (about 5 subject textbooks per grade are needed from grade 3 onward). Teacher support materials are few to none. These supplies are to be provided for through mandatory school fees from the pupils. The fees are US$l (NklO) for primary, US$2 (Nk20) for middle and US$10 (Nk4O) for secondary school. In addition, pupils at junior secondary and high schools contribute about ,US$2-25 (Nk8O-100) per year for the MOE textbooks. The school directors administer this "school fund" with the Parent Committees and teachers. Pupils who are too poor to pay can get a "poverty declaration" exemption from their local (sub) zoba administration. However, the schools do not get compensated for the "lack" of these funds. This leaves many schools without needed resources. 25. School directors declared that science laboratories are, in most cases, absent (even in recently built schools), and in those that exist there is no equipment and often water, gas and electricity are not available. School libraries, found in some schools, contain mostly outdated books, and all Eritrean educators expressed an urgent need for modem books, and updated content and technology. 26. The shortage of pedagogic support materials (in all its forms) is compounded by the need to update the curricula in terms of quality of content, and relevance. In addition, there appears to be a need to define a "core-curriculum" per cycle of education and per grade. The current MOE textbooks date from the early 1990s and need to be revised to deal with current problems such as HIV/AIDS, other communicable diseases, science, mathematics and information and conimunication technologies. In addition, over the past decade, better and relevant ways of organizing the subject content at junior secondary and high school levels have emerged. 27. As the world moves towards a knowledge-based economy, Eritrea must educate students to be math, science and technology (MST) oriented in order to compete globally. In an effort to compensatefor the lack of trained teachers in these fields, non-national teachers are used in secondary education. 7here are highly qualified Indian teachers with Science and Math Masters Degrees and some with PhD's. Sometimes, however, there are serious language problems. SMT school textbooks tend to be highly academic, especially in the sciences. The science textbooks present models and theories as givenfacts to be learned by heart, and do not stimulate students to any real learning activity. Unless guided by an experienced and skilled teacher, learners are limited to traditional rote learning. School class sizes are large, averaging 50 students per class. Particularly in science, in combination with limited labfacilities, this reduces possibilitiesfor practical or hands-on work. Some students report this as their highest priority problem. 28. An additional need in curriculum and teaching is to create an effective link between academic and technical-vocational content at the high school level, which gives young students the basic skills for further vocational training, higher education studies or entry into the local labor market. These outpu.t conditions for high quality, a better society and labor market relevancy, and more efficient graduate production will, beyond other obvious needs, also require intensive teacher 12 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report training and improved student guidance services in the schools (job orientation and information). The capacity for bringing about this fundamental change is currently unavailable. This situation has a significant negative effect on the learning results. The quality monitoring system (inspection and supervision) is suffering from identical problems. 29. School health education and information about health risks. In general Eritrea society and communities protect children against behavioral health risks. However, directors suggested that the school could play a more pro-active role, if they were provided with information and the means. School directors also argued for better coordination between the Ministries of Health and Education to provide information on children's health and preventive and curative strategies related to HIV/AIDS and other relevant issues. This would give them the opportunity to inform their teachers and parents, and to install adequate school procedures and policies. Enrolment and Access, Quality of Output, and llnequity 30. Challenges with infrastructure and physical conditions offacilities create inequity in the education services provided. Roads in many areas outside the urban center are non-existent, causing school officials from the zobas to use off road vehicles, establishing communication with schools only once or twice a semester. However, in Asmara, there is access to telephones and internet through the city infrastructure, facilitating communication, thus enhancing coordination among schools and offices. The city infrastructure also provides urban students with technology that most other students do not have. Lack of transportation for students is also a major problem. Children in rural areas have difficulties traveling large distances to schools, which cause tardiness and absenteeism, especially when the students are needed at home. As well, some areas have an acute shortage of space, because an increasing student population is attending school. Lack of electricity as well will become a major issue as schools begin to use a more modem curriculurn requiring electronic equipment using a stable electrical output. 31. In most cases, funds are not available Figure 2.3. Physical Conditions in Classrooms to do even the most basic maintenance and rehabilitation of school buildings. Many schools do not have adequate , sanitation, water or electricity. Often primary schools have a large drum or water collection vessel in which children pour the drinking water they carry each day from home. Many buildings and classrooms are in need of substantial repair. The furniture in most schools is in need of repair. Many classrooms must fit three to four students on a bench for two; furniture is often too small for the ~ age group. These problems are compounded by the overcrowding in Almost 90 students are in this small classroom at Adi Ugn classrooms and buildings, which in many Secondary School in the Debub Zoba. zobas run two shifts per day (each about 4 hours) and sometimes an evening shift for adults. In cramped and uncomfortable conditions, some teacher often handle up to 90 students in a classroom built for a maximum of 40 students. The intensive use of schools also causes significantly delayed maintenance and school rehabilitation. These conditions create a level of discomfort and increased possibilities of transmission of diseases. The challenges in learning under these conditions are obvious. Much of this could be reduced if recurrent preventive maintenance funds were provided directly to the schools. 13 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 32. The quality of early childhood development programs, especially those that include health and nutrition interventions, positively correlates with higher primary school enrolment rates, appropriate enrolment age, higher academic performance, and lower dropout and repetition rates. Given the critical role of such programs in raising enrolments and improving learning outcomes in basic education, early childhood development deserves more support as part of a balanced approach to education. Efforts should be made increase the l999five percent pre- primary school GER. Due to the pay-off of better perfornance in primary school and the reduction of repetition and dropout, low-cost early childhood development programs can payfor themselves. Currently the GOE is implementing a 5 year Integrated Early Childhood Development Project (IECDP), financed by an IDA credit of US$49 million (US$13.6 million is earmnarked for pre-school education). Among other objectives it plans to improving access to and quality of early childhood education and provide enhanced learning materials and teaching aids and support to teachers. FluiWe 2A.4^ E!1tea Net £nrohueut Rate hy 1eel, 1991-l99' ,, .L !- a I - * 33. Although the primary 40% - gross enrolment rate (GER) 35% - Pnmay -U-Middle Secondary has risen over the past 10 30% years, the net enrolment 25%- rate5(NER) increase has been 20% - low, and in 1999 was at 38 15% percent. The MOE estimates lO9b - . . ' *'' ^ that 7 out of IO primary-age 5470 - children are not attending _________________________________________ _ - .school. Especially in grade A 3 ef ah =So ^^ l one, primary repetition rates f\O Cg h 9-'99S C9S'¢@ are high (22 percent average, . _____________________________________________ _ s I but slightly higherfor girls S-r bS - - !iS4'.Mk AiWm S"CS imno-- than boys.) Repetition in grade one should be considered as "unacceptable ". On average 16 percent per grade (18 percentfor girls) of the combined primary, middle and secondary school students repeat, and about 15 percent per grade (13 percentfor girls) abandon school. The MOE is well aware of these problems and is considering a number of administrative measuresfor improvement. However, issues of repetition and dropping out are related to the poverty level offamilies (inequity in rural areas), the qualification of teachers, and the support systemfor schools in terms of pedagogic and teaching support. This will require significantly more resources allocated to school level. Absolute quality of the outcomes of teaching and learning cannot be determined, because there are no internationally comparable assessments. 6Recently the MOE pubhshed three important overviews of education statlStics (i) Basic Education Statistics, December 2000, (ii) Essential Education Indicators, November 2000, and (iii) Access & Equity, Quality Issues and Capacity development 1999/2000, June 2001. These three publications contain many additional statistics on enrolment differences by zoba and gender 14 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 34. Trends in mriddle school enrolment are simnilar, although there is a significant "break-off' | 205 -____ 1__ _ ________between the two levels: the NER X *.10 _ ___ _ * 1 - lL 11 for grades 6 and 7 is only about | s s | " ! r 12-14 percent. Duetothe 2g 3 4 S . , , . , , j significant repetition and many 1 - ~1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 Grade children entering school at a later age, the GER for middle and secondary levels are high. Just as in primary enrolment trends, the GERfor middle school has only slowly increased from 20 percent in 1991 to 43 percent in 1999. However, major problems persist. Only I out of 10 children in the 12-13 age group are enrolled in middle school, and the NER has hardly improved over time. This suggests a major transition problem between grades, as well as between cycles. 35. Trends in secondary enrolment are similar to those at middle school level. Due to the score requirements from the Grade 7 National Exam, only a few of the relevant age group (14-17 years old) are admitted into secondary schools. The NER for secondary level stands at around 14 percent, with drop out rates of 26 percent for boys and 12 percent for girls. The proportion of girls in secondary schools is 37 percent of the total number of students, indicating gender inequality. Repetition rates for girls per grade in secondary are on average higher (24 percent) against boys 16 percent. There is no clear explanation for these gender differences. It may be that those girls who reach secondary are better learners, but the higher repetition numbers would argue against that. This issue needs to be investigated through a specific study, and differences per zoba should also be included. 36. More than half of the students in .et, any given grade are over-aged. For 30,000 grade 1, the official entrance age is 7. However, the majority of grade 1 20,000 7 e - students are over-aged. Some of 10,000 this imbalance is due to students who are repeating, yet, there is a 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 large number of students entering Age school later than recommended. In 1999, 65 percent of grade I students were over-aged. In grade five, 83 percent of the enrolled students were over-aged, grade 9 was at 56 percent and grade I I at 70 percent over-aged students. This trend, as mentioned above is a burden on the system, affecting the efficiency and quality of the education provided. A large age range within a single classroom is particularly challenging to teachers in the lower grades where young children have varying needs based on their abilities as they develop and grow. The attention span and ability to think abstractly vary for children of different ages. Thus, for a teacher to be expected to successfully address the learning modes of students in several different stages of development is overwhelming. 15 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 37. Internal efficiency varies among zobas. The average number of years to complete the 5 tpi* 2t Z.rijtrea: Aerage Number of is . -, . Flgu& Ertreae: Transiton Rates fromEPnury, w#Uli4itEoipl$Pe-rimnry SaqgoL by ,oI,j1999 - to Middle School by Zoba, 1999 - w Scm Kezh Bahn . . .._ ^ . Sem-Keih-Bahri _ . - Maekel Maekel %. Gash Bark aj Gash Barka Debub Debub Deb-Keih-Bahri Deb-Keih-Bahn . i A Anseba 9 eia . lebKhB.. _______ Anseba . . 't 0 5 10 15 20 .; ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 20 40 60 80 100. . wle: ulsbasbaid 1999/200M lawVeftas ; Dmv efii qs on of each aob3 i%weq Snt& Et Ihdi,Suanlt-^. 1999--''r,. grades of primary school is 9, ranging between 7 years for Sem-Keih-Bahri and Maekel Zobas and 17 years for Gash Barka Zoba. With such a difference in completion rates, it is not surprising to see a large difference among transition rates from primary to middle school between zobas. Deb-Keih-Bahri, Sem-Keih-Bahri and Maekel Zobas, which were more efficient in moving students through primary school, had the highest transition rates into middle school among the zobas. Gash Barka Zoba's transition rate is only 20. 38. Access and inefficiency problems at primary and middle school levels aggravate the inequity situation for rural schools and for ,oo ijpre 2.9. fljttea: Girls' Enrolment by Level as Percentage or gender. Enrolment ratesfor girls T6W Ei o i Each Zoba, 1999 across all levels have remained lower . thanfor boys throughout the 1990s. 60% *Elementarn Mddenecnay Within regions, gender disparities are 50%- even more pronounced. Girls' 40%; enrolment varies greatly from region rin to region. Leaving aside the Maekel 30 r I- Zoba (Asmara), where female ..20% *- enrolment is highest, the other zobas U 0% i I 10% exhibit different patterns of female -l 'T T -T] _, _r enrolments that change little over - Anseba Deb- Debub Gash- Maeklc Sem- Total time. In some regions, the female Keh Barka Keih- enrolment rates are comparatively Bahri Bahn high at elementary schools, but drop . . d sharply at middle and secondary schools. In some zobas, gross and net the enrolment rates are lower than average at all levels (Sem-Keih-Bahri and Deb-Keih-Bahri.) 16 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 39. At primnary school level the gross enrolment (57 percent) masks great disparities between zobas. The lowland zobas of Deb-Keih-Bahri (South Red Sea), Sem-Keih-Bahri (North Red Sea) and Gash-Barka have GERs far below the national average. The Red Sea Zobas have the worst J m -2.10. Eritreni koionatShareof T4tvGroskIEiolm6ntby enrolment and equity rates. By ~'L#veCl499 tcontrast, Maekel and Debub zobas 60 have enrolment ratios well above 50- _Primary *Middle OSecondary the national average. At the secondary level, over 80 percent 40 - 1" of all students are enrolled in two 30 - zobas (Maekel and Debub). This 20 probably includes a proportion of students from other zobas, but the lo - _ n l - ; _ _ lack of boarding facilities is O0 I | _ romrr D E * * _ ebound to reduce the number of Anseba Deb-Keih- Debub Gash- Maekel Sem-Keih- students from other zones. This Bahn Barka Bahri implies that regional disparities _ pu: iEdtres: Bs.-.erdal Bdlc;tontdtcatii,1999 ,remain serious. If Maekel Zoba (includes Asmara) and Deb-Keih- Bahri Zoba (has very few students) are excluded from secondary education analysis, female students represent only 27 percent of the secondary student population. Demands for girls' to work at home, long walking distances to school, few safe boarding opportunities, and traditional norms and beliefs (such as early marriage), are among factors inhibiting greater female participation in the school system. 40. Eritrea compares about equal with similar low-income countries. By all accounts, there is a high level of wastage throughout the Eritrea education sector. The performance of the Eritrea education system deteriorates as one moves from primary to upper levels as is illustrated in repetition and dropout rates seen in all zobas. The main causes of inefficiency are late enrolment, over-aged students, drop-out and repetition. The causes for these inefficiencies should be tackled lFiRre 2.11.-JfiterUational Comxparisons of4GER smongLoiHIi*cme~ +; at school level by ZouSes: M o R - - S -t -strengthening the zoba management and support : 60 -3 65 sn 57 I E1 Pnmary * MiMle O Secondary structures, and providing 60m57 nmary U MideD Secondary the schools with adequate so 50 . r | 41 .teaching and learning 40- 3 materials and equipment. 30- 41. The quality of 20 educational output, - 10 _ | * 2 * _ 6 including internal 0. LoeI efficiency, is determined by . 9erra Leone Eritrea Mozambique Niger Burkina FasD a range of in-and out-of- $138 CDP $173 GDP $198 GDP $209 GDP $267 GDP school variables as revealed per capita per capita per capita per capita per capita in the findings of the Uottrce: Source: Siena Lecne Education Riaiisticai aniais of U _d survey,; v rCurriculum Review Field .UCS 2000, 20011. ritrca: Ministry of Editation, Bhtitea,, L9fl. Mozambique: M y Study'. As part of the -ofEdjicatdn, l998, Niger MOE: Anunairo des Staffstiques Scolais 19+~ Bkina,- *, study of wider community -Paso: Sotirce' l: flts,'fiaancewent etfQncioeaients1uaystlxme educatif duBurkina >. attdstoeuain Faso, 1998199: 5.: ., ' >': ^ - ' t 9> ; >6 ^attitudes to education, respondent groups 7Our People and Our Future A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. MOE, November 2001 17 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report (teachers, head teachers, students, parents, cormmunity leaders) were invited to offer reasons for class repetition and drop-out. Some common patterns emerged from the analysis of their responses. Some of the school related factors mentioned in the research presented here (e.g. authoritarian/abusive teachers; shortage of textbooks; talk and chalk instructional approaches) might not be peculiar to grades I and 4 alone. However, there are some concerns which appear to be grade specific (e.g. large age differentials in grade 1; allocating inexperienced teachers to grade 1; too much content to cover in grade 4 math and English; difficulties in coping with the demands of the curriculum in grade 4). These concerns raise a range of curriculum, pedagogical and classroom organization issues and they need to be studied and addressed as part of the wider Box 2.3. Resp6ndents Perceptions of the Reasbns ror Class Repetition and Drop-out from Sciool Repetition -- Drop-out . Work load at horme . * Class repetition and reeling of hoje!sness * Prolonged absenteeism mainly due lo illness * Illnesses and other physical disabilities - School distance * School distance - : Lack o paretal interest and support - * Parental indifferrence, . Social problems (poverty, dependence on relations. * Poverty and other social pfoblems family problems, death in the familyl * Early marriage (mirdly gils)' : Lack of intirestseriousness on the part of the * Huge age differentials , ;, st'udents.-::-'-,-' 2 -'. . ;' - -Punisi,hment (both corporal and'.suspension from. -. U isfich-' between the- cu 'rculurn an-d ~s, nt- ,, t schooij -- <'. >.-, -. - :, tebiures riculu' ad s_ .. I..lnability tO setle school fees and other expenses . *,Laick of sound rowiodation in education. particuilarl;Y . --Pastoral/nomadic life styles'of some of the students. - in English . * Voluntary registraion with the national service * Unfaii promotiori policies * Lack of supportive and competent teachers effort of improving educational inputs and outputs in the school system. 42. A more recent (but limited) MOE study involving 11 head teachers, 114 teachers and 17Ž students in a sample of 11 primary schools in three regions also identified similar patterns of in Box 2.4. Respondents' Perceptions of Factors Leading to Repetition in Grade 1&4 In-School-Faclors - Out-df-School Fa&tors * Huge age differentials. particularly in grade 1, and. * Domestic chores * the railur of teachers to address the needs of * Distance from hometo school younger learners * Absenteeism due to illnesses and cormrutments ,' Practice or allocating inexperienced teachers to ~'i, Effects of poverry and bther soiio-economic handle grade l' - probesi i - - .* Misrfiatch between the children's readiness levels Lack of parentalsupportrande Acouagement and the language used in the texts (grade 1) Lack of prg-school experiences (grade 1) * Confusion arisinig from the use of the Latin script in : some motier tongue education programs(Erid 1),.. * Lack of ftit educational foundation to,cope vwith tie transition from the curmculum of grade 3'to that of grade 4 .* Too many subjects to learn (grade 4) - Too much content to cover, especially4iir iciiathuan4d. English (gfade 4) ' Shorage of textbooks for homeworklassign,ment (grade 4) . Teachers spending too much time on g'iving`'noteds- ' with little time left for clarification and-exlah'ati6n * (grade.4): ,-, .* Authoitarian/abusive behavior on the part of some ' teacheis - , Discomnfort.asing from sitting on stones...._______________________: . . . . Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report and out of school factors to explain the high rate of repetition among grade 1 and 4 students. Management and Governance in Eritrea's Education and Training Sector 43. The MOE is facing a considerable lack of . Box 25. The Brazil Education Law, , ,institutional capacity at all levels (central, zoba, sub-zoba, and school management). The The Brazil Education La'w, adopted in 1996, is one e'aipe o alea] raewrk s fondtin fr he MOE recognizes these problems and agrees 'eduainsetrIn eealsse -ik BnI, that planning and institutional strengthening where education is decentralized to diff&ren'6levels, it for longer term solutions (with costs and is especially important to ha%ea legairbasis' for the; action plans) needs to be undertaken in the distrbution of adiinistranve responsibility of coming year. This will allow the sector to be financing and provision: Among otiher issues, c yse Education law sripuJaues that .municipal. and, state more realistic in setting goals and targets. govemmentsshare the responsibilityf-r firiancing and * Absence of longer term budgetary provision of grades 1-8, while stame rineits are pinarily responsi,ble,fo,r, provis,ion of wgrades:9-I. 'On planning mechanisms based on research thethe thr 'side, Brazil i's one of. the ma,ny countries in, and informed decision making which great discrepan,cies can -be found .between legal * Lack of resources and training for theory, as codifiedin-itslaws anthiegal pract, as as the decentralization and capacity building at effective functioning- of the education system. The oba leve .challenge in Eritrea is therefore t,otnly to.establish a legal framework -in.educatii, 'b,it.also to c-reate those * Lack of capacity and resources for a rapid educ,ation- goyernance. mechanismrs, that en'sure the and effective response to improve the i"f,ofcement in:prace. - quality of teaching and learning at the Source. -Wortd Bik, 2001 Brazii .Secondary Eucaion. school level (learning and teaching .Profile :. '-''"' ~ ~~~~-:'~~''-':~'~-~' ''-''''''' materials, teacher training, textbooks, simple school equipment); * Lack of donor coordination by the MOE and coordination between ministries * Difficulty in responding to the temporary (but substantial) problems related to the recent conflict and the upcoming demobilization. 44. Eritrea's regulatory framework for education and training includes statements of commitment and has been included several times in the GOE's macro-economic policy. The Constitution of Eritrea in Article 21(1) of Chapter m on Fundamental Rights, Freedoms and Duties provides as follows: "Every citizen shall have the night of equal access to publicly funded social services. The State shall endeavor, within the limits of its resources, to make available to all citizens health, education, cultural, and other social services. "Beyond these policy, mission, and constitutional statements, however, there is no formalized "Legal Education Act" which establishes the basis for educational law and a regulatory framework in Eritrea. The development of such an act would have the benefit of providing a general framework for organization, structure, governance and implementation of education and training. It would be beneficial for Eritrea to study examples of "Education and Training Acts" from other countries. 45. The Ministry of Education (MOE) of Eritrea sets out education policy and goals that coincide with the national development strategy as outlined in the Macro policy document of 1994 (http:/Hwww.erimoe.aov.er). The MOE is responsible for primary, middle and secondary education and TVET. The University of Asmara (the only University in the country) is funded directly from the Ministry of Finance, and is thus "autonomous". The Ministry of Education (MOE) is one of 17 ministries. The MOE sets out education policy and goals that coincide with the national development strategy as outlined in the macro policy of 1994. This implies that the MOE is moving vigorously toward expanding and improving the provision of education and reducing the illiteracy rate. As shown in the table, a number of donor projects are supporting the government's education reform. 19 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Table 2.2. List of On-GAng-Donur4fnmkdeS Pa oieLs in Eduesdci &ao Ta DingD(7 oAp3ro. S fXducaocrPcollcy Areas Pftject% (Donrk.rs) Piin'Act adgeb/hiilt, Earh' Cy ldhood EizciaonD' < tI[DA) .1vioLG. ' ,40M :Sltff Dev0dopment HIDQDA) ,. - UOA i.iinisIiL- tg53Mn *SceboI Conktmcuon ECDF (DA)I 't G X l Ur$M.5. S&ool i iealth aid. HV/AIDS HA4IT i,' USi1 U , k Basic Educanon, 9 JOA DANIMA rDeu-nar . ' ' tS$2 , ' j,p,qary Eciucadon , Bilai.e.ihal Sippor. (ily' , UGAL. SE hold ;; r and teat Bitiks- BiliLmd STipor; (Nei0ierlands) . hOE - On hold fl*rht.r Recruitmen- CDP WI2NDP) iviO2 tJS,2.o k(K1/0N ipBag4c Educafio6: PEQ & PRCPFFV 'UICTLWF) - iVIOR UST3C I- CM0 TIefharTr.ining NORAD rNnr, fa, moLl '4- Or( 50Mv , S4iol Cbnsotctiricm SSS) KF%W 3iran)u h.OE . unrdegofiat:on. Aaul E4ucaion. SIDA S wcibty) ivi)E IJS"3.9hi(2CI) ,Sure Pmijae NlMaLgervtnnt Dia '40. 46. While these donor-funded projects are in line with Eritrea' s national human development goals, there is an enormous challenge for the MOE to coordinate and manage various projects within a coherent policy and implementation framework. This will require a significant strengthening and reorganization of the MOE and its six zobas. The MOE further needs a credible and transparent budget planning system linked to informed decision making. This will improve the dialogue between the MOE and the Ministry of Finance. Finally, the priorities, costs and financing for the sector should be better coordinated between the MOE and the University of Asmara. At present both fend more or less on its own, and there appears to be little capacity to produce cost-scenarios for the various strategies and expansion plans. 47. There is no regulatory documentation setting the responsibilities between different divisions and of individual officials in the MOE. Policy decisions are made in a collective manner in the MOE management team consisting of director generals and directors. While collective decision making could be amenable to building consensus and ownership, it could blur accountabilities. It is not a common practice that the director generals, and the directors delegate their authority to junior staff This may be an indication of a capacity gap between the top officials and the junior staff It would appear that the practice of documenting rules, regulations, and information will take some time to niature. Norms regarding information sharing between divisions and individuals are yet to be developed. An improvement in managerial practice regarding information sharing and documentation alone could free up a lot of resources, staff time and effort for other more important uses such as planning and project management. 48. As of June 2001, the Ministry of Education's head office employed 661 officials including permanent staff, contractors and those in the National Service. Of these, 331 are deployed in 2 boarding schools and 3 technical and vocational institutes. Available information suggests that there is large room to upgrade staff qualifications (seefigure 2.12). However, it is not clear how qualifications, types of tasks, workloads and competences are being evaluated and rewarded in the MOE. Such information would help the MOE to determine the magnitude of its capacity gap as well as the need for additional staffing and training. Considering the growing demandfor planning, policy making and effective administration in the education sector, the MOE seems to be seriously understaffed in terms of both quantity and quality. 20 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 49. The zoba level education offices emlo 1,141 administrative or support staff whose main _1 o _ responsibility is to support schools and teachers. ; The majority of these support staff (90 percent) 018% are regular staff and the rest are employed on contract basis. On average, the staffing ratio K ] s (number of staff per school) ranges between 1 and 2 across zobas. The skill profiles across *47 zobas are unknown. An analysis of the skill profile of the regional support staff, using the EMIS database in the MOE, would help determine the staffing needs of each zoba and 035% _ allow to draw up a plan for professional skills strengthening. | Grade 12+ * BA+ O MA+ Information and Communication Technology , ,^-, - . l Infrastructure 50. The Ministry of Education has its own intra Local Area Network (LAN) which is used for electronic commnunication and internet server. Databases on personnel, school and student management are developed and updated to be used for planning and decision making. Six zobas and 30 out of 55 sub-zobas are currently connected to the MOE server system through dial-up modems. Most staff at the MOE head office have learned to use e-mail for external communications. Additional ICT training has been provided to zoba staff. However, there is no systematic plan for the use of ICT in management which in turn makes it difficult for the MOE and zobas to benefit from the existing ICT infrastructure. Considering the foreseeable increase in the workloads, the ICT capacity needs to be expanded within next 3-5 years to better manage increased projects and responsibilities. Box 2.6. ICT in Education: The Cise ofSingapore Decentralization and Stakeholder .:Curriculum Change:by'2002. pupils,-will spend up to 30. atcpto percent of cumciilr ntime using iT; . 51. The MOE has a strong commitment to ' livestment in School Infrastructure: Program for decentralization. ThenationalEFA Rebuilding and Improving Existing Schools (PRIME) to ,:sui,pport the Miisty's Tning Schools. - Learning policy, for example, emphasizes the Nation" vision by ensuring thaL all schools have a importance of empowering decentralized conducive physical environment to enhance teaching and educational governance and management .learning. Schools will be networked for access io Intemet. to suit the ever-changing social and Teacher Support: MOE co-pays 20%iA0 of.'comnputer i e n costs for teachers to achieve a teacher-notebook raiioiof 2:1 ' in every school. - ' effective servicing of cultural diversity at Partnership with Tertiary Institutions: The -histituti6ns regional and local levels.8 The policy of Higher Learning (IHLs) play. an important ,role in adopts decentralized education process developing the school curricula and. in .educ,t,i,nal and consolidated school management as research. P'ilot Program forE-Book: A p-ortable and',wireless hand- one of the EFA strategies. There has been held computer was introduced at- a secondary school for some progress towards increasing local students to read their textbooks, sur the-internet and e-mail management capacity. All "Chief questions to their tea,cer'. - Education Officers" of the zobas have Creation of an ICT Unit in the MOE: The Education:al Technology Division spearheads the implementation of the recently attended courses i educational master plan and coordinates the.efforts;of other Divisions planning and management both at home ,in the MOE. and abroad.9 By now the maajority of sub- Source:http://www.moe.edu.sgtiteducation/res6urcesi.itresources;htm 8 MOE, 2001. Eritrea: National EFA Framework for Action, p. 15 9MOE, 2001. Our People Are Our Future, p. 66 21 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report regional education officers are grade 12 completers with additional post-secondary qualifications in school management. However, it would appear that regional education offices are lacking both capacity and infrastructure to design and implement policies that matter to the regions. For instance, 90 percent of the elementary school directors are teacher training (217) graduates with no particular school administration or management training. Moreover, school principals are not selected by qualifications but by appointment through competition. Inadequate communication and transportation infrastructure (e.g., there is no computer in 25 out of 55 sub- regional offices) also makes it difficult to effectively decentralize the management of education projects. 52. The MOE cannot effectively monitor the effectiveness of individual schools from the center. Its role at the center is to monitor overall quality and performnance and to reflect the main findings in the ways national priorities are taken forward. The MOE needs to relinquish more responsibility for monitoring quality at school and zoba levels to the zoba and equip them to perform this role by more meaningful decentralization. A significant step would be to delegate a share of the budget to support planning at the local level so that the periodic general meetings held by zobas to review needs could have the capacity to prioritize, identify and resource local improvements. This will not only produce some diversity in the way education is managed at the local level, indeed such diversity should be welcomed as one of the best ways to raise standards, but will also introduce some real accountability at local level which does not really exist at present since most decisions are made centrally. Making schools and zobas more accountable for quality would be one of the gains of a decentralization program. Eritrea Government Education and Training Strategy and Action Plans 53. The MOE's education policy and goals coincide with the national developmeuit strategy as outlined in the macro policy of 1994. The MOE aims to move vigorously toward expanding and improving the provision of basic education in the coning 15 years while reducing the illiteracy rate to 40 percent by the year 2003. This is unlikely to be achieved as the MOE's Adult and Literacy Department quotes it currently to be about 70 percent. Most of Eritrea's population is young and outside the economically active group. This suggests a substantial dependency burden (96 percent) on the adult population. It also suggests a chalenge and an opportunity in terms of developing a substantial pool of human resourcesfor the country. Although nearly 80 percent of Eritrea's economically active population is engaged in agriculture and related agro-pastoral activities, this sector accounts for less than 15 percent of the country's GDP. The decline in agricultural productivity is symptomatic of a number of factors, including frequent drought, environmental degradation and lack of investment in facilities and skill training. The broad principles underpinning the need for balance in national development have been articulated in the government's macro-policy framework."' This framework focuses on growth with equity in the context of an open market economy in both agriculture and industry; human capital formation, with education and health as key inputs; and improvements of infrastructure and services. The framework also sets the strategic parameters around which medium and long term plans are being developed by sector institutions, including education and training. Education and training will play a crucial role in addressing Eritrea's human resource needs. The government's macro-policy further states that key inputs are the provision of "broad based education incorporating widespread dissemination of skills and languages and extensive human capital formation." This is translated into a set of OOE-MOE" objectives: Our people are our future: A framework for tbe development of Human resources in the education sector, Ministry of education, Asma=, November 2001. 11 The Government's Education and Training Policy are described and discussed in the following documents: EPLF Experience in the Field; Eritrea Macro-Policy (GSE); Constitution ofEritrea and the PFDI Transitional Constitution; Eritrea's declaration of policy on education (POE); Eritrea : analysis of current societal situations and future needs 22 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report * produce a population equipped with the necessary skills, knowledge and culture for a self- reliant and modem economy. * develop self-consciousness and self-motivation in the population to fight poverty, disease, and all the attendant causes of backwardness and ignorance. * make basic12 education available to all. -Box 2.7. Lessons From the "ADEA Prosptive Stocktkig Renew of Education in Africa" "-,n 1998 Ithe A,s,iation .for -the' -e,vel,opmn of - 'Co nni,tiebhave a vital r le to play'in educa ion - 'Educ'ation in m Afica' (ADEA) invited African development. They need opportunities lo ideritify governments -to piodu'ce country case studies of their education needs and -priorioies and to,piay 'a;. successful practice in advan,,e.of;the ADEA.biennial larger role in school managemeni. Often meeting in Johannesburg in December 1999. The aim decentralzaton reforms can help achieve'ttu of the exercise~ .,was -to: begin identifyi.'n'g 'educ,ation objective: Community participanon should 'not .soluti,onis ' and, policy r,esponses, frornm. the :.African jeopardize equity and efficiency objecives. coniexm; to well-known .constrailt& aand p.rblems. be T,wenty-five countnes responded. The synchronized .. i n a. findings from the's-e studies reveal that the educaton grounded in, sound research and analysis. sector in many African countries is rich ini Educatiom interventons should be founded on lessons ~~~~~~~~ r~obus daaad steailly mronitored so that' -and p'romnising appr6aches.- Key lessons-that- emerged their 'imact s known and key policy lesso t,e included: .inicmazed " * The political context of.educationi development is ' ' ''Important. Gover'nments need,'to be:comninitted to :,. All parts of . the sector sh,,ould be ad,dressed. '!' .'.. 'io. - me,g , e a. ' ii' ' holistically. Each country will need t o establish ran inequalitiesg whernei thesear,et barriea totneducation -.'' a~ppropriaLe balance betveen the needs of each .-'ineualis !whr these are6 barri'ers' to: education - ;. .-. i........... ; fo Ial. Strong and sustained political comjmitment subsector and ensur& fynergy between different -to universal basic education is vital,--asis'a- of.; subsectoral inter entions , ,core guiding principles and a clear vision of the, * Costeffectiveness- is a blind spot in the case studie's. -`Witho-ut a fll aisessmertb ii'd direction of education developmeit. ent of financing - Counh6ies shoudhbe prepared to* dbevelop policy and management costs, the study could draw few solutions -.t prgres. and build c i by, ,,..:.- concl~usions .about cost-effectiveness or the scope I " t Tasytneed top makesureprogrels andfor taking innovations t6oscale. Strengthening the ."doing." T~hey_need.to rnake sure thatlamun I . -:..... --..- . does not 'slow implementation, and realize-that capacity for financial analysis in the education . .des 'not silow iiiplementation, arid realize! that . ;.--- . - - : _-"-- _. .. --_ - ---. l ;.everything 'nieed -not -be 'in place' 'be;fore ' !to,isanurgent'aiiority'in.much of the region. implementation can start. Fexibility and -a . Many of, the -innovations excessively *stress.l wilingness to take risks are hallmarks of th expandg. access and,pay. too little attentiori to approach. ' im~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~uproving -quality, Intervention thtneglec' v,_,,,-"''education qality are unhkely to be sustained, .. . Education development-is more likely to succeed " s w d a -- c ru- - ed; ':if'- it is based on consensus among ail the ,,, . ,,,, ,., ,.. . ,. , . 1, ..,. . .to poor quality provision. stakeholders. Educaion planning should,be based p a . on participattoryprinciples, which foster a sense of ownership and understanding of policies. * Accelerated education developrnent. depends on - effecive partnerships among governien', donors, commumties, civil society organizations, and. tIe pivate sector. Each of these stakehoiders can contribute a combination of ideas and finance to i ' education development. Partnerships. are also -cicial at" the international level, 'both within -Africa and between Africa and other regio,ns. Source: AD)EA, 1999. '"Prospective, Stocki3king.Review of.Education in Africa. Piris.j 54. The government's principles for Eritrea's National System of Education and Training are based on (a) Access and Equity; and (b) Relevance and Quality. The Government's policy 12 Basic education in the Eritrea context is defined as primary education (grades 1-5) and mniddle school education (grades 6-7). 23 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report declaration on education includes statements on education as a human right and as a means by which equity can be achieved: "Every citizen has the full right to be schooled.... As such policy is being rendered practical special attention will be paid to those quarters of Eritrea which, so far, have not had much schooling opportunities. ' In addition, the government declaration states that primary and middle schools will provide sound general education focusing on core basic skills, whereas education at the secondary school level shall be used to prepare "productive citizens" through the provision of practical oriented learning. Another important feature of the declaration is the need to use education as a tool for national integration and development. In a way these principles reflect the adaptation of the Eritrea Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF) field experience of the past to the realities and challenges of the present. The Third Congress of the EPLF held in the town of Nakfa a few years ago made similar statements. The government states in its Human Resources Policy Document (November 2001) the principles of education, and declares: "Education in Eritrea is a fundamental human right and a lifelong process by which all individuals are given opportunities to attain their potential as all round citizens along with a firn belief in and loyalty to the Eritrea nation. This process includes the development of enlightened, creative, confidentand productive individuals with a sense of responsibilityand socialjustice who are capable of contributing towards the development of a united, harmonious, democr tic, equitable, modern, technologically advanced and self-reliant Eritrea. " The Government's Analysis of Education and Training Sector Achievements and Issues 55. Like many other countries, Eritrea faces the dual challenge of having to increase access to education and training, while at the same time improving the quality, relevance and efficiency of the system. Unlike many other countries, however, Eritrea faces the added challenges of social and econorDic repairs due to the liberation war and recent border conflict, and the need to adapt to a rapidly changing global market. This requires a direct link between educational and training provision and the country's overall socio-economic development strategy. The sector also should respond to the legacy of conflict and war, which contributed to regional and gender imbalances in access to education. This causes additional strains in the system. A!lgie 2,13. Eritreas Gross and Net-EIirMmtftRaftos y Leve - . 56. Yet, the 60' government considers * '9... ~~~~that it made 50% - . - g -__ considerable progress .'' "' ' Xover the past decade in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4 *j -,i >-t 4,improving education, both in terms of quantity and access. ~30% Regarding access, the - ~~~~~~government built Iw 20% - schools, and achieved modestly higher I ,iog w - __ ; enrolment over 1994- 2001. Regional and '95 19961-9- ; ; -, M * - gender disparities are r, 199 * lis2is3 lys4F t > iss6/97 /: 1998tlg (. being addressed as far - MIk -R - :^as possible. However, ; .; *: - }e1en~ntai7 (3~R 7B1ementuy,N i.'A MideBR..{the high repetition and r -MiddkiNER d SCeco"na'GERB SSecnd4yr ER drop out rates remain a ; . , * . ' - . : : l cause for concern for - - ', .4 >. '<\T W the MOE. Regarding quality, the MOE is 24 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report engaged in curriculum reforms and upgrading of the academic and professional competence of teachers with the Danish Cooperation. It also supplies basic school textbooks. This is undertaken with limnited resources. Despite government efforts the sector performance indicators are not improving fast enough, and Eritrea risks to fall even further behind countries with comparable incomes and development. It is crucial that the GOE will do more to expand basic education, increase levels and thresholds of literacy, expand and realign the secondary school system, improve its teacher training system, and mobilize the private sector and private providers of education and training services. 57. The government's commitment to "Basic Education For All" (EFA goals) and to the provision of continuing education through formal and informal channels guides its strategy for lifelong learning. Central to this is the process of learning to learn, the acquisition of a spectrum of knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes that enable people to become more effective, flexible and adaptable learners in a variety of contexts. Lifelong learning involves continuous adaptation and flexible provision of services in education and training. It also involves acquiring the right professional skills and attitudes for the labor force and for participation in society. This includes the principle that completing schooling or one phase of schooling is not the end of learning. The education policy declaration by the GOE states that 'orimary and middle school cycles should pro vide sound basic education focusing on core skills, whereas education at the secondary level shall be used to prepare productive citizens through the provision of practical oriented learning. " These policy issues are also reflected in one of the government's national development objectives, which specifically refer to the provision of "broad-based education incorporating widespread dissemination of skills and languages and extensive human capital formation". 58. The MOE's basic-level Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is intended for those who have completed the primary and middle school cycles, and opt for an area of interest in TVET. This is the first entry point from general education into technical and vocational training. The second entry point is at the end of grade 10 when students can be channeled to Intermediate Level TVET. The Government also intends to make several tracks available at the end of secondary education for students who wish to enter further technical and vocational training, teacher training and other professional skill training programs. At the heart of this arrangement will be Colleges of Further Education and Training (CFET). The main functions of these colleges will be to train skilled human resources, consolidate the transition from school to work and provide opportunities for continuous learning. It is envisaged that graduates from the colleges will be offered progression routes to pursue further studies in institutions of higher learning, including the university. 25 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report -- - B*2:8. 'EPA:Educati&i For AUl Fast Tra'ck----' - - Ii,-A,pnl 20,mqre than 1,100 deliae s' - -Ssra te'cIt hi Aph 200,bioe ta'n4,00.de gav~fromn 164, countries r-eaffirmed theui commitmient -to EA at,teMol Efduafibn Poruam in Diikai;r,Senegal. They- adopted the DakarF,rame wrk fc r Acuon.' 1. Expand early childhob'd care and education. '2. 'Free and a bucaon ofg-od-aitybyb 2015.,; ' -' - - - 3. Promote the acquisiton of life-killsk y adolescents and youth. 4. Expand adull literacy tO 50 percent by 2015. - - 5. Eliminate gender dispanues by 2005 and achieve gender equality in edicaLi6 by 2015, 6. Enhance educ'anrial 4tiality. ' . -' The Dakar Framework for Action sets three major deadlines: I1 -200,2. Finalizing national action plans: 2) 2005 Ensuring equality for boys and jirls, 3) 2015 FirstEFAFa,lTrack . Achiesing Education F6r AU. Group 2002 Bolivi'a Achieving EFA by:~2015 mnay seem a near irmpossible task, but the -prospects of,- Bukna Paso achieving the goa],are nuch better ioday than they have ever been since.the fopnal laiifchiuig of the EFA movement in 1990. Many countres-not onl1jthe.richest7 Hondras , parts of the' w6rld but amso in iu'A menca the Caribbeani, East Asia and'Africii , Mauritasia ' are now approaching unisersaI primary education frn thfo first time. Pwe,v,' ein;, Mozamnbique reognition 'that a large number of low- and uiddle-zicoraegna achieve EFA by-2015 uitho t specia] natona and global efforts, the World Ba-ik- T nia created the Educatibn For AU Fast Track Initiative. 'Thd ,Fasit Track Iitiative. Uganda announced irn June 2002, provides-additional financirfg to support couritries' prim 'g, educatibn systin bsy stengthng its quality and de,iver mba To qdai fy Fait'Tri,k ve, countries ,tmst Albrianrifiiz-a r Iana for flh6iijguhdet - ~~~~~~~Ghana .primary. education d-edban cepojcies;tliatt-improve the -quality and efficie,ncy of. their primary education:syste'ms.s Aikey-lesso5nof aid effectiveness is thatSwhere . Guyana government coi.trneit iis; stronig, -anbd a'ound policy framework is in,piagei Vietnam. deVelopment assistance can be very effective Therefore, under the EFA iniie --i e framnew,ok,- each parucipating country will need to reach agreement on targetsfr. Ethiopia i) govermment spendig, ,2) edc'hon spending on ri educ ation, 3 )7teactr Y em- salary levels, 4) pupil teach,r r atio s :5)no,n salary- r&r-, nt sp,hd4 'aud 5) aver,age&-- - repetidon ates. : --, x, .ndia Pakistan . , . - . -. - ,,,,. .- ., . <., -.Banglaesh':;: Twenty-three countries; listed to-'the side. weFe selected to be the fis.t-Fast Track : anglaDesh group. The last 5 countnes are }hose with'theggar'est nuiers of children''nt - Cngo em Rep ~ .. - - 6"Republic .e Nigeria school-India, Pakistan, Bg esh, Dmocratic pblof Congo, a,n,d Nigia,;.i. Together these 5 co,intries account for 50 million of the estimated worldwide total of i 13 mrillion childreh out of school. ! . To be eligible for. Fast -Trrack finaficing, tw6 -tareant crteria have been. set. namely: ! a fual Poverty. Reductiod Strategy 'or PRSP in place (by enidAAugust 2002)- and 2) an education sector-wide plan for education agreed with the donors- and being implemented effectiv-eiy. ' - - Sourde: World Bank, 2002;.Uiescb, 2002. ' Restructuring the Basic and Secondary Education Cycles 59. The government's commitment to lifelong education mandates that opportunities should be made available to all citizens for completing basic education and pursuing further education in a field of need or interest. However, the limited access and constraints of our formal education system would require the development of effective programs of adult and non-formal education. Large numbers of adults and out-of-school youth remain beyond the reach of the formal school system. The availability of alternative access routes is intended to address the learning needs of these and other target groups. 60. The MOE aims to move towards a more streamlined and integrated curriculum provision focusing on core basic skills at the primary and middle school levels, and proposes to make the 26 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report length of the middle school cycle three years. This would bring the duration of the basic education phase to a total of eight years. The four year secondary education cycle would start in grade nine, with curriculum diversification and possible TVET choices at the end of grade ten. This would also mean extending schooling to twelve years instead of the current eleven year arrangement. This will no doubt be beneficial to the learning and training outcomes. However, the cost, management and teacher implications of this extension are still unclear. The Government's "Education For All (EFA)" Goals 61. Eritrea's EFA goals are ambitious and aim to reach universal primaiy education by 2015. It is clear that implementing Eritrea's EFA strategy would require significant financial and human resources, and that the government also needs to mobilize support and inputs from private stakeholders. During the EFA Conference in Amsterdam in April 2002, Eritrea also proposed that it be one of the "fast track" EFA countries. Analysis of available Eritrea's EFA 2000 assessment report reveal that efforts to develop an equitable, high-quality and efficient education system from 1991-2001, notably at basic and secondary levels, by both the public and private sector need to be significantly intensified in the coming decade. Few 5-6 year old children in the country have access to early childhood education. The NER informal basic education is too low. In many respects gender and regional inequity in education are general phenomena. All programs in basic vocational training, continuing education and informal education for human living are lagging far behind the needs of the people. However, in its EFA report the MOE has formulated the following EFA goals: * Significant expansion of integrated, low-cost and community based early childhood development programs of high quality with over 80 percent of the children covered by 2015 through formal and non-formal means. * Universal access and completion of quality primary education for all to basic education by 2015, and more than 80 percent of the relevant age group completing formal basic education. * Male illiteracy reduced to about 10 percent by 2015, with female literacy at least 60 percent. More than 60 percent of literate Youth and Adults should complete post-literacy primary education and minimum skill training by the year 2015. * Achieving high standards of national attainment targets by 2015 (however, the framework of national attainment targets is not yet available). * Expanding "Life-long Learning" to achieve a modem cultural transformation among all disadvantaged groups in rural areas. Integrated, comprehensive and diversified adult education opportunities will allow women to enter, stay and continue their education and training equal with men. A set of cultural institutions will be created at local level with the purpose of expanding relevant and quality informal learning. The use of modern technologies (TV, radio, ICT) will be promoted. 62. The MOE intends to organize its EFA efforts along three stages: (a) the consolidation, (b) developmental and (c) qualitative stages. The consolidation stage (2002-2006) will be to strengthen the EFA movement and promote basic education in the country, and improve efficiency and quality of learning achievement. The developmental stage (2007-2011) will focus on the consolidation of required Institutional Capacity and provision mechanisms. By the end of the medium term EFA should be a strong national movement for capacity and community development at the grass root level. The MOE will make increased efforts to continue the expansion of middle and secondary schooling with low inefficiency rates. The qualitative stage (2012-2016) will be the stage where the country achieves universal basic education (UBA) and a high level of literacy. The duration of basic education should slowly evolve to more than seven 27 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report years to suit the national and international development requirements. The MOE objective is that the education system will have extensive community control in its entire management complex. 63. In order for Eritrea to achieve EFA by 2015 all 7-year olds (149,000 children) should be enrolled in 2010 and complete primary school in the 2015/2016 school year. Assuming no more than 10 percent inefficiency, the large over-aged population would move through the system. Compared to 1999 an additional 73,000 places or 1,650 classrooms would be needed by 2010, assuming a student-teacher ratio of 42. Compared to 1999 around 12,000 additional primary teachers would be needed by 2015 (currently there are 6,230 primary teachers). If the primary cycle would be brought more in line with international practice by covering the 5-6 year old age groups, an additional 327,000 pupil places would be needed by 2015. 64. Compared to the situation in 2010 capacity of grade one services would need to have increased by 16 percent in 2015. Expanding primary school provision to accommodate a 100 percent NER iD all grades by 2015, the school system will have to grow roughly 165 percent of its 1999 capacity. This is assuming there is only a 10 percent repetition rate among the grades and no over-aged students. Around 10,900 primary school teachers would need to be trained to accommodate the increased number of grade 1 to grade 5 students. 65. The MOE does not count much on support from the private sector in the provision of education. It contends that the Eritrean private sector is weak at present and cannot grow so fast as to be able to contribute significantly to the development of Eritrea's education and training system. However, the MOE intends to actively promote its partnerships. The Moe encourages the creation of private schools, and helps where it can to promote private initiatives. The government's strategy is to advance with the participation of all public and private stakeholders. 66. Donor support is even more justified and required in view of Eritrea's commitment to international EFA initiatives. Limiting factors at present identified are (a) MOE low absorption rate of donor resources, (b) weak management at MOE central and zoba levels, (c) need to reform concurrently the curricula at elementary, middle and secondary levels, and (c) also retrain teachers and improve the school environment. Conclusions and Recommendations on Pedagogy, Quality and Service Provision 67. The effects of the recent conflict (significant numbers of displaced people and destruction of infrastructure and schools) and the large nomadic part of the population present forriidable challenges for an efficient provision of services. An in-depth study concerning themes of access, equity and quality should be considered to develop a realistic and sustainable scenario for achieving EFA and significantly increasing secondary enrolment. 68. The primary gross enrolment rate in 1999 was 57 percent; the net enrolment rate was 38 percent. For middle and secondary school, GER were 43 and 21 percent respectively, while NER was much lower at 12 and 14 percent. However, among zobas, there are large enrolment differences. Enrolment rates need to increase and be equalized among regions and groups. a. Conduct a school mapping exercise to establish the need for primary, middle, and secondary education services in each zoba and alternative provisions for nomadic population groups. b. Develop a social and pedagogical monitoring system based on equity criteria at zoba and sub-zoba levels. c. Conduct a study relative to the conditions which parents/families are willing to send their children to middle and secondary schools. 28 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report d. Determine the need and cost to build student boarding facilities and teacher housing for secondary schools. 69. The current system contains inefficiencies. About 45 percent of students who enter grade 1 complete primary education. Repetition is common; the average number of years to complete the 5-year primary cycle is 9; in one zoba, the average completion time is 16 years. A burden on the system is the large number of over-aged students found in all grades. More than half of the students in each grade are over-aged, creating pedagogical challenges affecting the quality of learning outcomes. This situation is due both to high repetition and late enrolment trends. To decreases inefficiencies and wastage in the system: e. Conduct a study on factors contributing to late enrolment, repetition, drop-out and promotion rates, paying attention to differences among zobas and gender. Develop and implement a strategy to address demand and supply issues linked to these trends f. Consider immediate automatic promotion for primary grades. International experience shows that grade repetition does not necessarily improve a student's academic performance. g. Consider immediately phasing out over-aged entry by capping the grade 1 enrolment age at 9 years. Provide alternative primary education services for entering students over 9 years of age. h. Develop and implement mechanisms to improve transitions between grades and levels, lowering inefficiency to 10 percent. The transition from primary to middle school is greatly challenged by the switch in language of instruction, going from the local mother tongue to English. Improved support needs to be considered to ensure better instruction and learning of English. i. Although a long-term objective, consider increasing pre-school enrolment for children 5- 6 years of age. This should be reviewed in view of available public resources. 70. Improvements in teaching, curriculum and provision of teaching and learning materials would also contribute to attracting and retaining more students. Nearly a third of the teachers in primary and secondary school are unqualified and an even larger percent in middle school teachers lack sufficient training. The present curriculum is very narrow, having no place for creative, aesthetic and technological subjects. Resources for teaching and learning, such as guides and textbooks are scarce: To enhance the overall quality of the system: j. Revise and strengthen pre- and in-service teacher training and teacher support by developing specific teaching strategies and providing specialized instruction material for situations related to multiple over-aged students within one classroom, nomadic student populations, children with learning disabilities, and multi-grade classrooms. Incorporate pedagogical best practices in Eritrea and abroad. k. Consider developing and implementing ICT means for distance education of in-service teacher training and classroom support. 1. Implement a study on supply and demand of teachers in order to deploy teachers into all zobas. This should be accompanied with an incentive plan to recruit teachers to rural areas and encourage local teachers to work in their own communities. m. Implement an emergency recruitment and training program for teachers to address shortages. n. Establish a reliable and effective inspectorate, taking international best practices into account. 29 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report o. Establish core subjects and attainment targets for each cycle of education, taking into account international best practices and national needs. Ensure logical sequence and coherence of curriculum and attainment targets between grades and levels with comparable international standards. p. Review the quality of textbooks and teacher guides according to the new curricula. Improve production, distribution, and use. q. Provide standard support packages (school kits) per school and level. Provide all teachers with packages of free textbooks and teacher's guides (teacher kits). r. Based on eligibility criteria for funding and a performance reporting system, develop and establish a pedagogical school implementation plan (PSIP) for individual schools. s. Piloting the use of solar energy packages and water storage facilities in schools. After one year, evaluate and take to scale. t. Improve school and classroom environment by assessing infrastructure conditions and prioritizing of maintenance and rehabilitation needs. u. Consider introducing ICT for teaching and learning into middle and secondary schools. Conclusions and Recommendations for Management 71. This review does not underestimate the difficulty of taking action on these broad fronts. It is relatively easy to identify what needs to be done, but hard to get organized to do it. Virtually all stakeholders agree that the most pressing constraint and challenge is better management of the sector. The MOE faces considerable lack of institutional capacity at all levels (central, zoba, sub- zoba, and school level). It is an urgent issue and should be addressed in the context of the announced decentralization plans. a. Define responsibilities per level (national, zoba, sub-zoba and school) for decision making to take place when decentralization is phased in. Design and implement performance improvement action plans for zobas and sub-zobas based on eligibility criteria for funding and a performance reporting system. b. Conduct a survey of management capacity at all levels and determine the appropriate skills mix for each zoba according to their priorities. Based on the survey, prepare a qualitative and quantitative plan to train administrative staff (current and future) with needed skills for decentralized responsibilities. c. Prepare an implementation plan for ICT expansion (hardware and skills) into all zoba and sub-zoba offices and schools to improve communication and education management information systems (EMIS) capabilities. 30 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report CHAPTER III: COST AND FINANCING OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN ERITREA Macroeconomic Context 72. This chapter examines the level and distribution of public spending on education in Eritrea. Data were provided by the MOE and other line ministries (MOH, MOLG, and MOT), and interviews were held with Eritrea Government officials, zoba officials, schools, and teachers. Real economic progress was made in Eritrea between 1992 and 1997, when broad-based macroeconomic reforms caused average annual GDP growth rates of 7 percent. But this promising start came to a halt in 1998 when a border conflict with Ethiopia escalated into a full- fledged war by May of 2000. During the war years and the immediate aftermath, macroeconomic conditions deteriorated rapidly. The border conflict also put a strain on the government budget. Total government spending, traditionally high, rose to almost 100 percent of GDP by 2000. Prior to the conflict government spending already averaged 64 percent of GDP. Defense spending rose from 13 percent in 1997 to an average of 38 percent of GDP during 1998-2000. 73. As a consequence, education spending stayed stagnant and was sustained largely by the largesse of external donors. Rebuilding social and economic progress will require (i) a broad education and training sector reform, (ii) establishment of sustainable sectorfinancing accompanied by a modem budgeting process, (iii) strengthening the central and Zoba management and skills base, and (iv) building public-private partnerships at all levels of education and training. An additional element is the need to improve coordination and public funding arrangements between the MOE and Higher Education (University of Asmara). Building a privatized system of higher education and vocational training, based on regulatory and financial incentives from the government, should be seriously considered. This could be achieved over the nextfive years if the GOE would agree on a strategy in the coming year. 74. Given this background, there are several questions this chapter seeks to answer. The technical annex provides details. The first question refers to spending. How much is spent on education and training, who spends it, what is it spent on, and how efficiently is it spent? In particular, in light of the Eritrea's ambitious "National Objectives", how adequate is the financing for education and training? The second set of questions concerns sources of revenue. What financing instruments are used, what are the levels of subsidies, cost recovery, and private sector provision? Related to this, how much does education cost parents? Finally, a number of scenarios have been developed which explore how much would it cost to expand the system and improve quality of basic and secondary education. An examination of these questions provides the basis for looking at common, but complex priorities and trade-offs in the education sector. Education Expenditure Norms and Procedures 75. Eritrea's budget process.is not an integral part of its strategic policy making. The MOF currently requires separate units such as Departments in the central MOE, regional education offices (zobas), and individual schools to report their planned and projected expenditures separately. Approval of requests is then done per line item by a committee from the MOF and the Office of the President. Existing budgeting norms are not conducive to the emergence of effective zobas, and their capacity to do rational financial planning and setting priorities. The MOE began keeping track of spending across levels and zobas in 1999. However, it is still not possible to distinguish how much of the non-salary recurrent spending went to primary or secondary. And at the zoba level, it was not possible to break down non-salary recurrent spending between primary, middle and secondary levels, because the central MOE procured for schools at all levels and for all Zobas. Therefore, there is a need to simplify the reporting mechanisms and coordinate and integrate program execution. There is no official budget presentation to define the spending priorities of the government. Line ministry managers do not 31 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report have adequate autonomy to set priorities and execute their strategic programs, nor are they held accountable. This adds to the existing operational inefficiency. Table 3.1. Government and Donor Contribution to Education and Training Expenditure in Eritrea, 1993-2000 (million, US$) Spending on Basic and Sec ndary Education University of Asmara Donors' Contribution Total Capital Donors' % of total % of capital Total Donors' % Donors' Year Spending spending contribution spending spending spending contribution contribution 1993 10.8 2.5 2.5 23.1 100.0 0.9 0.3 32 1994 13.6 3.8 2.8 20.6 73.7 1.1 0.1 12 1995 18.1 5.1 2.4 13.3 47.1 1.3 0.3 19 1996 15.9 5.0 2.5 15.7 50.0 3.1 0.9 29 1997 25.5 8.1 5.8 22.7 71.6 7.2 1.5 21 1998 33.9 9.3 7.1 20.9 76.3 3.6 1.7 46 1999 34.9 13:4 9.7 27.8 72.4 4.2 2.3 56 2000 26.8 8.3 7.1 26.5 85.5 3.5 1.8 51 Source: Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance. Notes: Total spending for basic and secondary education includes spending by the MOE and all other line ministries who are involved in education activities. Total spending by the University of Asmara includes funds from the general funds that come from cental government allocations and special funds, obtained from numerous external linkages that the university maintains. 76. The sector's accounting system is improving, but remains weak. This manifests itself in three ways. First, there is a non-transparent classification of expenditures. For example, a look at the MOE budget shows that Eritrea spent about 16 percent of the recurrent budget on materials and supplies in 2000. However, 80 percent of this went into school feeding programs. Second, there is program fragmentation due to lack of donor coordination. Capital spending, which includes donor support in basic and secondary education, from year to year has been erratic. Third, there are inconsistencies between records kept at the Treasury Department, the MOF and line ministries. For example, the University of Asmara maintains linkages with several external universities. The university receives substantial assistance through these external linkages, which are reported under a Special Fund. But because there was no requirement that the university do so, the funds in the Special Fund were not reported to the Treasury Department of the MOF prior to 2002. These special funds have been a significant source of program development at the UOA. External funding of the Education and Training sector 77. External funding plays a crucial role in overall spending on education and training in Eritrea. The table below shows the donors and their level of commitment in 2000. There were several donors with widely varying commitments in 2000. The majority of the funding came from 10 donors, and 73 percent of commitments came from only 5 donors. DANIDA, the single largest donor, accounted for one-third of total external funding for that year. External Donor funding of basic and secondary education is mainly used for capital spending. The share of external funding in capital spending has increased in recent years from 50 percent in 1996 to 86 percent in 2000. Most donor involvement is concentrated on basic education and TVET. The level of foreign donor support for the University of Asmara is not known. Lack of donor coordination has led to unbalanced and fragmented development within the sector. For example, the neglect of general secondary education by donors has affected quality at this level. In addition, there is bound to be volatility of funding, which creates problems for long-term strategic sector development. Eritrea will need significant external donor funding for some time to come. This mandates better coordination mechanisms within the MOE. 32 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Table 3.2. External Funding for Basic and Secondary Education and Training in Eritrea in Nakfa and US$, 2000 Name of Donor Amount (Nakfa) Amount (US$) Share of Total Donor Contribution (%7) DANIDA 21,771,450 2,419,050 33.1 ECDF 4,417,270 490,808 6.7 Govemment and SIDA 6,182,840 686,982 9.4 KFW 5,737,820 637,536 8.7 NORAD 4,940,340 548,927 7.5 UNCDF 1,622,930 180,326 2.5 UNDP 3,225,780 358,420 4.9 UNHCR 1,020,560 113,396 1.5 UNICEF 6,553,900 728,211 10.0 World Bank 8,058,940 895,438 12.2 Total Contribution 63,560,470 7,062,270 96.5 Other Donors* 2,305,300 256,149 3.5 Grand Total 65,865,770 7,318,419 100.0 Source: Ministry of Education, Budget and Accounts Division. Note: Other donors* not listed include Aliance France, British Council, China Embassy, CRS, DED, Dutch l.C.A., Eritrean Red Cross, EU, HBF, Sweden, SIDA, and UNESCO. 78. The World Bank is actively promoting donor coordination and seeks partner for the proposed Eritrea education Sector Improvement project, which the GOE intends to start in 2003. The Danish Cooperation is currently one of the biggest donors, but has decided to phase out all monetary assistance to the education and training sector after 2005. Italian cooperation is mainly used for the higher education sector. As soon as the political current conflict with the EU will be solved, Dutch and EU donor support will be resumed and could amount to about US$10-15 million each per year. If the MOE's own annual budget of US$26 million is added, this would bring the MOE's discretionary spending to an annual US$46-56 million. This may severely stress the capacity of the MOE. The argument to be made is that the MOE'sfinancial and management performance, absorption capacity, and internal planning and coordination capacity should be drastically and rapidly improved in order to make meaningful usage of external funding by donors. Table 3.3. DAN1DA Funds in US$ for 2002-2005 Components 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total Curriculum Review and Education 367,000 710,000 1,539,000 474,000 3,090,000 Material Development Physical Infrastructure 1,065,000 1,125,000 1,125,000 236,000 3,551,000 Capacity Building 1,302,000 1,492,000 1,657,000 521,000 4,972,00 TVET (Massawa College) 1,847,000 2,770,000 1,231,000 474,000 6,322,000 Exchange Difference 36,000 48,000 48,000 48,000 180,000 Grand Total 4,618,000 6,145,000 5,600,000 1,752,000 18,115,000 I Danish Krone = 0.11840 US Dollar exchange rate; Source: Correspondence to Danish Embassy from Chief Adviser to MOE 33 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Public Spending on Education and Training 79. Since 1993, public spending on education in Eritrea has risen dramatically. Basic and secondary education spending more than doubled between 1993 and 2000, increasing on average by more than 12 percent per year. While the recurrent budget more than doubled during this period, the capital budget increased four times. Spending on basic and secondary education increased by 148 percent over this period, or 18 percent per year. Spending in tertiary education is allocated to the University of Asmara and scholarship programs abroad, both mainly funded by donor agencies. The "dip" in sector spending for the year 2000 is due to the conflict with Ethiopia. The patterns shown indicate that sector spending has increased significantly over the past decade. However, this is not matched by a corresponding rapid increase in net enrolment and improved quality of service delivery. Table 3.4. Level and Trend in Public Spending on Education in Eritrea (Nillion, US$),1993-2000 Basic and Secondary Education University of Asmnara Total Basic Total (% of Total Other line and University Spending on education Recurrent Capital Sub-Total ministries Secondary of Asmnara Education spending) 1993 8.2 2.5 10.8 . 0.0 10.8 0.9 11.7 7.7 1994 9.9 3.8 13.6 0.0 13.6 1.1 14.7 6.8 1995 13.0 5.1 18.1 0.0 18.1 1.3 19.4 5.7 1996 10.1 5.0 15.0 0.9 15.9 3.1 19.0 16.3 1997 16.6 8.1 24.7 0.8 25.5 7.2 32.7 22.0 1998 20.1 9.3 29.4 4.5 33.9 3.6 37.5 9.6 1999 19.7 13.4 33.1 1.8 34.9 4.2 39.1 10.7 2000 17.0 8.3 25.3 1.8 26.8 3.5 30.3 11.5 Note: Other line ministries which spend on education activities, but whose expenditures are not recorded in the Ministry of Education (MOE) budget, include Ministry of Labor (MOL), Ministry of Local Government (MOLG), through Eritrea Community Development Fund (ECDF), Ministry of Health (MOH) and Ministry of Tourism (MOT). In addition, The German Development Cooperation (KFW) funds school construction but pays contractors directly and so its contribution is not included in the MOE budget. This table does not yet include spending by MOL. Spending for University of Asmara includes both the government allocations and special funds that the university generates from numerous external linkages it maintains with institutions in Europe and North America. 80. Total public education and training expenditure as a percent of GDP rose from 2.2 percent in 1993 to 4.9 percent in 2000, or an annual average of 3.9 percent. Spending on basic and secondary education increased from 2.0 to 4.3 percent of GDP, an annual average of 3.4 percent of GDP. Recurrent spending in basic and secondary education also increased from 1.5 to 2.7 percent of GDP. Eritrea's low share of government spending in education and training reflects the high government spending as a proportion of GDP. It makes it difficult to compare Eritrea's education and training sector public spending with those by other countries. Eritrea's government spending of 4.9 percent of GDP on education and training is complemented by about 2 percent contributions by parents and communities. In comparison to other developing OECD countries the 7 percent of GDP should produce a satisfactory performance and relatively high (between 70-90 percent) net enrolment rates for primary, and middle schools, and an enrolment ratio of around 50 percent for the secondary age group. The reality of 38 percent in primary and 12-14 percent NER in middle and secondary, and the accompanying low quality, leads to a conclusion of low cost-efficiency and performance. 34 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Table 3.5. Spending on Education and Training in Eritrea As Percent of GDP and Total Government Spending (Million US$), 1993-2000 Education Spending Total Education Spending (% of Total Government Govt. (% of GDP) Spending) Total Spending Basic + Education Basic + Govt. (% of Total Secondary spending (% Total Secondary Year GDP Spending GDP) education Total Recurr of GNI) education Total Recurr 1993 536.9 296.3 55.2 2.2 2 1.5 2.3 3.9 3.6 2.8 1994 597 258.4 43.3 2.5 2.3 1.7 2.2 5.7 5.3 3.8 1995 650.4 425.4 65.4 3 2.8 2 2.8 4.6 4.3 3.1 1996 736.7 428.7 58.2 2.6 2.2 1.4 2.5 4A 3.7 2.4 1997 649.5 359.8 55.4 5 3.9 2.6 3.9 9.1 7.1 4.6 1998 713.9 583.9 81.8 5.3 4.7 2.8 4.7 6.4 5.8 3.4 1999 690.8 663.3 96 5.7 5.1 2.9 5 5.9 5.3 3 2000 622.6 617.9 99.2 4.9 4.3 2.7 4.4 4.9 4.3 2.8 Annual Average 69.3 3.9 3.4 2.2 3.5 5.6 4.9 3.2 Pre-1998 annual average 55.5 3 2.6 1.8 2.7 5.5 4.8 3.3 Source: The GDP and Total Government spending data are from the CEM, 2002. GNI= Gross National Income Notes: Total education spending includes all spending on basic education, general and technical. secondary education by MOE and all line ministries and donor agencies and spending by the University of Asmara. 81. Eritrea's average spending on basic and secondary education is in line with the Sub-Sahara African average. As seen in the chart'3 Eritrea spends less on primary education than Lesotho, which is a high EFA achiever, but about the same as Uganda (another high EFA country) and Rwanda. Between 1997 Figure .3.______________________ L i d a f;and 2000, Eritrea's GDP Eritrea spending on education and . ' I I I I I i I | ~~~~~~~training was higher than Uganda _ Education *Primary education t Rwanda the Sub-Sahara Africa Mali _ average. This reflects the Lesotho _ _ __= _= "; unusual circumstances of - Guinea =_ . Eritrea, where there was a Ethiopia large infusion of exteral Burundi Burkina Faso . funding (donor and Benin Diaspora funds) into education and at the same 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a . . % of GDP time a shrnking economy due to the war with Source: World Banik: JPT database, World Development Indicators, 2002. Ehoi.Teeoe caution should be exercised when comparing Eritrea's spending and performance with other countries. However, it is clear that given the 5 percent of GDP public spending in the education *and training sector, and the additional (at least) 2 percent GDP spending by private sources, the system's performance should be significantly better. 13 Data in the chart are from the World Bank HPIC report (JPT, World Bank, 2002). 35 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Table 3.6. Spending on Primary Education Among Select Low Income Countries Average Education Primary education annual expenditure spending teacher Non- teacher Gov. Govt. % of total Unit costs salaries salary Year spend. revenue % of total govemment (% per (as spending of (% of (% of government % of spending on % of capita multiple (% recurrent Country data GER GDP) GDP) spend. GDP education GDP GDP) of GDP) spending) Benin 1998 86.4 15.3 16.5 2.5 62.6 1.6 11.6 4.6 26.4 Burkina 1998 45.2 14.7 17.1 2.5 64.0 1.6- 23.6 8.0 30.7 Faso Burundi 1998 59.7 24.9 17.4 20.4 3.6 35.5 1.3 12.4 5.3 22.1 Etiopia 1999 54.6 31.0 17.8 15.0 2.7 46.2 1.2 14.0 6.8 20.5 Guinea 2000 62.2 16.9 11.1 18.1 2.0 37.2 0.8 8.4 2.7 34.7 Lesotho 2000 102.7 50.3 35.9 22.2 8.0 40.2 3.2 20.8 6.6 29.9 Malawi 1999 117.0 18.1 19.8 3.6 49.2 1.8 8.8 4.0 14.0 Mali 1998 48.9 16.8 13.7 2.3 42.1 1.0 14.3 6.1 31.1 Rwanda 2000 101.1 9.8 32.6 3.2 44.7 1.4 9.1 4.0 8.6 Uganda 2000 102.0 10.8 30.1 3.2 53.2 1.7 9.8 2.9 26.2 Eritrea 2000 58.0 100.0 34.0 4.9 4.9 64.0 2.1 34.0 9.8 36.0 Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators, 2002 Distribution of Public Expenditure 82. A conmnendable 72 percent of total and recurrent spending on education was allocated to general education in 1999, the share of primary education was 61 percent, and secondary education received 14 percent. Tertiary education received 14 percent of the total and 19 percent of the recurrent spending in 1999. Spending within the sector lacks balance. It is reasonable to conclude that primary education isfairlyfunded (primary student population share is 68 percent). The share of spending received by secondary education also seems to be within the range of its share of the total student population of 13 percent. Among the four major education cycles-primary, middle, general secondary and the University of Asmara, the middle level receives the lowest share of spending. Although the spending ratio for primary to middle is 10:1, the student ratio is only 4:1. Further, the share of recurrent spending in the middle level is significantly less than the share for the University of Asmara, even though the student ratio is 17:1 in favor of the middle school. It is not possible to show whether this pattern has improved or worsened over time as the breakdown of spending by level is not available prior to 1999. Table 3.7. Distribution of MOE Recurrent Expenditures by Line Item (Million US$), 1993-2000 Shares of expenditure items (%) Benefits, Materials and Contributions, and Purchase of Vehicles Year Salaries Non-staff Services Supplies Grants and Equipment 1997 85.7 5.3 7.0 0.6 1.4 1998 85.0 6.0 8.1 0.4 0.6 1999 76.0 7.7 16.0 0.1 0.3 2000 75.1 7.8 15.9 0.3 0.8 Source: Ministry of Education; Notes: Non-staff services include repairs and maintenance, public utilities services, and traveling, subsistence and transportation; Materials and supplies include food-stuff, uniforms, educational supplies, office supplies, etc.; Benefits, Contributions and Transfers include grants to individuals, institutions, and international organizations; and Purchase of Equipment include purchase of motor vehicles and equipment. 36 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 83. Unbalanced spending is further confirmed by an analysis of unit costs. Per pupil spending fluctuates significantly, probably due to the recent war effort. Student unit spending at middle and secondary education in Eritrea is lower than at primary education. Recurrent cost per student at the middle level was less than half that of primary level in 1999, and for secondary education 18 percent less than in primaiy in 1999. Recurrent unit costs in technical education and at the UOA were respectively 6 and 19 times more than those in primary education in 1999. Lower unit costs in middle and secondary education reflect a lower quality of operations. The secondary schools lack basic learning materials and equipment. Many secondary schools have no laboratories, libraries, sufficient textbooks, or enough qualifled teachers. The latter is also especially acute at the middle level. In addition, middle and secondary schools have larger class sizes. The average student to teacher ratio at middle school level is about 58, and at secondary about 60 (higher ih some urban schools), and at primary level about 48. The MOE has formulated a strategy which intends to address the quantitative and qualitative input imbalances in education and training. But the resources requiredfor the government's EFA strategy will need to be protected. Table 3.8. Unit Spending by Level of Education in Eritrea, 1999- 2000 (in US$) Spending on Education (million US$) Spending per student (US$) Students Total Recurrent Total Recurrent enrolment spending spending spending Spending Level of Education 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 Basic 23 19.8 16.1 14.5 70 54 49 39 Primnary 261,960 295,940 19.7 17.5 14.6 13.2 .75. 59 55 44 Middle 67,020 74,320 3.3 2.3 1.5 1.3 49 31 22 17 Secondary 4.7 3.7 2.5 2.2 General 47,530 59,630 3.9 3.1 2.2 2 82 52 46 33 Technical 9,10 1,020 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.2 879 588 329 196 Tertiary 4.4 3.7 4.3 3.6 University of Asmara 4,090 4,140 4.2 3.5 4.1 3.4 1,027 845 1,002 821. ATTI 470 480 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 425 408 425 408 Total 381,980 435,540 32.1 27.2 22.9 20.3 Note: Total spending includes recurrent and capital expenditures by MOE and other line ministries and agencies (MOW and KMW). Spending on non-formal education; summer programs and scholarships abroad awarded by MOE are not included. It is not clear which level these expenditures should be assigned. The total number of students does not include the number of students in the School of Nursing and Health Technology and Students in the School of Catering managed by the MOT. The total of students left out are less than a thousand, and would have minimal impact. 37 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Teacher Salaries and Recurrent Spending in Eritrea 84. As in most countries, Figure 3.2. ComparativeAv,erage Annual Tea,cher Salaries in A teacher salaries dominate recurrent spending in ~Eritrea _ _ _ _ ..;.... : . , :- - $ , T-,T,.___ ,, _. . _ =- : .. Eritrea. Teacher and staff Uganda - salaries are fixed, on par Rwanda with civil service pay, and Malh _ _ _ _ I . . :. . .; the MOE has no discretion. - Malawi .. .. fi . : . ... . . . .. . . -. .. Salary-related spending Guinea levels are determined by Ethiopia the number of teachers and Burundi distribution of their Burkina Faso _ qualifications. Eritrean Benin - _ ', r, , , , ' :: ' : . teacher salaries relative to GDP per capita are high in 0 .2 A A I10 12. oprsnt te :Multiple of per capita GDP comparison to other - ; ~~~~~~~~~~~countries and will be Source: World Bank, World Development Iidicators; 2002 . . unsustainable in view of the expansion and quality improvement plans of the Government. The total teacher salary mass as a share of total recurrent spending in Eritrea appears reasonable when compared to that of other African countries. However, this should be concluded with caution, as the allocation of expenditure categories is not in compliance with international standards. In many countries the recurrent salary mass approaches 95 percent of total recuffent education sector spending. In Eritrea, the recurrent salary share for education and training is probably underestimated because a sizeable proportion of teachers are in the national service and consequently do not receive full pay. By contrast, teacher salaries relative to GDP per capita are high. The average primary teacher in Eritrea earned 9.8 times GDP per capita in 2000. Average teacher salaries in the middle level were 4.5 times per capita GDP. Overall this compares to average teacher salaries in general education of 8 times GDP per capita. The OECD average is between 1.5 and 3 times GDP per capita. It indicates the current teacher and staff salaries are unsustainable in view of the Government's plans to expand access and improve quality at all levels, and to achieve ambitious EFA goals by 2010. Table 3. 9. Allocation of Recurrent Expenditures Between Teacher Salaries and Non-teacher Salaries in Basic and Se dry Education in Eritrea, 1993-2000. Total teacher Total non- Recurrent Non-teacher salary salary salary Spending Teacher salaries expenditure (% of (% of (million Other recurrent recurrent Year US$) Primary Middle Secondary TVET Admin. recurrent spending) spending) 1993 8.2 57% 11% 9% 1% 8% 14% 78% 22%. 1994 9.9 50% 8% 8% 1% 7% 27% 67% 33% 1995 13.0 39% 6% 7% 0% 16% 32% 52% 48% 1996 10.1 48% 8% 9% 1% 16% 19% 66% 34% 1997 16.6 55% 8% 10% 1% 11% 15% 74% 26% 1998 20.1 58% 6% 9% 1% 10% 16% 74% 26% 1999 19.7 52% 5% 8% 1% 9% 25% 66% 34% 2000 17.0 50% 5% 8% 1% 11% 26% 64% 36%' Source: Ministry of Education, Eritrea. 38 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 85. As the table 3.9 shows, the share of teacher salaries in recurrent spending on basic and secondary education has averaged 68 percent between 1993 and 2000. Higher teacher salaries can be justified when it will lead to improved motivation and quality of learning outcomes. It can also be used for creating incentives, for example to allow posting of teachers in rural and remote areas. Unfortunately, in Eritrea the quality of schooling leaves a lot to be desired and there is no indication that teacher morale is high. To the contrary, teachers, like most civil servants are unhappy that they do not have pensions. They also complain about the flat salary structure where more experienced teachers without added responsibilities (such as being a school principal) earn the same salary as newly hired teachers. It is difficult to envision how expanded coverage and improved quality would be achieved with such levels of teacher salary structure, especially given the challengingfiscal outlook. The GOEfinancial constraints require improved efficiency teacher salary pressure. In this regard two suggestions can be made. One involves hiring teachers on contract of certain duration and renewing these contracts on the basis of performance and need. An additional option would be for the government to encourage and actively promote the emergence of private sector providers of education, especially at the secondary level. This may mean that the current practice where only government schools receive anyfinancial support must change to include the private schools. Such a strategy would increase access and ease thefinancial burden on the government. 86. Non-teacher salary recurrent spending in Eritrea averaged 32 percent of the total recurrent spending on education and training between 1993 and 2000. Staff breakdown for the year 2001 shows that administration staff at central and regional offices comprised 7 percent of total staff (the sum of administrative and teaching staff), while their salaries were 12 percent of total staff salaries. This indicates that there is no significant wastage of resources in administrative costs. However, 80 percent of these funds are spent on nutrition support in the schools and 16 percent 3.3. Comparative Spending per - Prary Pupil in Publicly-Funded on pedagogic materials. Figure : - : . . : . ~ ~: ; ' ~ ; Still this is puzzling, Schools -* .. - ~ > ...because in most schools Eiitrea . . _ there are no pedagogic Uganda . _ . . .. . :: . , ' ,. ' - I .; . ......... ; - --. materials other than Rwanda some government- Mali _-. . . - .. ;-: . . . . ........... .. :printed textbooks. In Malawi ]Lesotho general there appears to Ethiopi - . _ - ' . , . = . . . . . be an inadequate Burundi '' spending pattern and Burkna Fawn lack of transparency :;_ - - - -regarding non-salary I2 30 D recurrent spending. As As % of 0r capitaGP illustrated in the chart As%otpercapitaGDreurrntPost -e Source: World Bank: WoId Deyeldpment Indicators, 2002. recurrent costs per primary student in Eritrea are higher than in many comparable countries. Spending per student as a percent of GDP per capita was 26 percent in 2000 compared to 24 percent in Burkina Faso, 21 percent in Lesotho and 8 percent in Guinea. Inefficiency in education spending and the costs of producing a primary graduate 87. Since there is significant wastage through high repetition and drop out ratios per grade at primary, middle and secondary levels, the actual total unit costs per graduate are comparatively higher. For example, it takes 9 years to produce a primary level graduate. There is also considerable variation between Zobas, and the number of years to produce a graduate ranges from 9 to over 15 years for the 5-year primary cycle. This again indicates gross inequity in the 39 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report system. The recurrent cost of producing a primary graduate would be US$415 if the unit costs in 2000 were to prevail throughout the grade progression of such a graduate. Under perfect efficiency, i.e. no grade repetition, the cost per graduate would be US$223, which means that the current system is 86 percent more costly than the desired. Put differently, for every I US$ (Nakfa) spent, an additional 0.86 US$ (Nakfa) is wasted. Under the current levels of inefficiency, the extra cost per graduate is almost enough to produce an additional graduate. Moreover, unit costs are likely to be higher than reported in 1999 and 2000, since many teachers under national service are not fully paid. 88. The foregoing discussion identifies two sources of high costs in service delivery in Eritrea' s basic education. Thefirst is the prevalence of grade repetition and dropout. The second is the high cost of primary level teacher salaries. The cost of high grade repetition and dropout ratios and its solution is well understood by the government. As stated in the MOE's recent human resource development document, the government "needs to discourage or even consider abolishing class repetition in order to maximize the use of space in primary schools. "14 Cost savings can be realized by a more rational use of teaching staff. In addition to considering the introduction of multi-grade teaching in schools with small class sizes in remote areas, the government needs to consider integrating the curricula of primary and middle levels and developing more systematic and balanced teacher training and allocation strategies for both cycles. Equity in the Distribution of Public Resources for Education 89. The table below uses average spending per student in basic and secondary education to estimate average unit spending per zoba. Except for the two Red Sea Zobas (DK-Bahri and SK- Bahri), differences in average unit spending across Zobas are not significant. The costs are Table 3.10. Public Spending per Pupil in Basic and Secondary higher for the relatively poor regions Education, by Zoba, in Eritrea (1999) along the Red Sea, due to the Unit Spending Relative Population, age7- geographic conditions, and the Zoba Nakfa US$ RahoSpending I I difficulty of reaching under-served Zoba Nakfa US$ Ratio % out of school communities. Unit costs and Anseba 240.8 26.8 0.9 48 Debub 210.2 23.4 0.8 30 enrolment ratios determine the DK-Bahri 704.5 78.3 2.6 89 distribution of public spending. The Gash Barka 287.9 32.0 1.0 63 major source of inequity in recurrent Maekel 310.9 34.5 1.1 22 public spending would come through SK-Bahri 374.2 41.6 1. 71 differences in enrolment ratios National 274.3 30.5 1.0 47 between socio-economic groups. As Source: Ministry of Education, Eritrea, Asmara shown in the table 3.10, per pupil Notes: To obtain the proportion of school age students out of school, the spending at the tertiary level was the 1998 population and enrolnent ratios were used. The estimates of unit costs alent of use the 1999 spending and enrolment rates. In general, there was nota equav US$1,000in 1999, or substantial improvement in enrolment rates in 1999 to change the out of 520 percent of GDP per capita, school ratio estimates. compared to primary and general secondary education where per pupil spending was only US$55 (28 percent of GDP per capita) and US$46 (or 24 percent of GDP per capita) respectively. Since most poor students do not make it to the university level, these spending patterns suggest that children offamilies who are better off would receive significantly larger subsidies than children from poor families. 14 GOE. 2001. Our People Are Our Future: A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. Ministry of Education, Asmara, Eritrea. Draft. Page 120. 40 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Private Expenditures in Education 90. In the latest human resource development policy document of the MOE 5, the government identifies three ways to involve private households to share in the cost of education investments. The first involves cost sharing, which in the Eritrea context includes nominal fees and parental contribution towards construction of schools and school facilities. Currently, nominal fees in primnary education range from US$1-4 (1040 Nakfa), while middle and secondary students pay a bit more. In addition, parents pay for school uniforms, transportation to and from school, essential learning materials such as pens, erasers, exercise books, copiers in schools, typewriters, electricity, telephone and water, as well as school guards and janitors. School uniforms cost about US$6-8 (60-80 Nakfa). Textbooks at primary and middle levels are free, but secondary students pay US$3-5 (30-50 Nakfa) per school year. And although rare, extra contributions may be asked from communities by parent-teacher associations, especially in urban areas, whenever the revenues from nominal fees fail to meet the costs of the non-salary recurrent costs. It must be noted that many parents do not necessarily incur each one of these costs. Uniforms are not required outside of major urban areas and many students do walk to school, in part to avoid transport costs. Moreover, many schools do not have telephone and electricity services. However, where these costs are called for, they fall on parents. 91. Private enrolment in Eritrea is less than 10 percent for basic and secondary education. School fees paid by students in non-government schools vary by grade, but range between US$27-50 (270-500 Nakfa) per school year. For secondary, this will be considerably higher. Teacher salaries in private and community schools are financed entirely by student fees. It is not known if the teacher salaries are equal or close to those paid in the government schools. Cost sharing in capital spending requires that communities contribute 5 to 10 percent of the costs of new schools to encourage responsibility and ownership of the schools. The contribution can be in-kind or cash, with the majority of communities choosing in-kind contributions. The government's position is that no child should be denied a place in school due to lack of school fees. Therefore, poor students are exempted from paying nominal fees. Whenever private groups found it difficult to continue to fund schools, the government had usually stepped in to finance, and in the process. acquired control of such schools. In 2000, 12 such schools (11 Protestant missions and 1 Islamnic) were acquired by the government. 92. A possible alternative to nominal fees is a loan scheme for higher education at lower interest. Such schemes are practiced in many countries, but are characterized by low recovery rates and substantial administrative costs. So for now, higher education remains free in Eritrea. Another possibility is to recover costs through income generation from industrial and enterprise attachment programs. This is particularly applied in technical and vocational education and training and would include direct costs of training provision. However, given the current economic situation and the virtual absence of private industries and enterprises with sufficient income, this will not be a viable solution for the next 5-10 years. The third strategy is to promote initiative from schools to diversify their sources of funding through fundraising from NGOs and alumni. The government can encourage donations by private individuals through tax incentives. However, widespread poverty constrains how much can be expected from private contributions. Households are already believed to contribute a substantial amount to the education of their children. Efforts to deepen and expand their participation would ease the government's fiscal burden, without slowing education development in the country. 5 GOE. 2001. Our People Are Our Future: A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. Ministiy of Education. Asmara, Eritrea. Page I ]7-120. 41 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Developing a Sustainable Strategy for Education and Training Financing 93. Eritrea faces a challengingfiscal environment, but the government has consistently stated that education and training will remain a priority. At present, numerous challenges face the education sector. These challenges need to be tackled in the next few years, otherwise current achievements face reversal. The most pressing of these challenges are expanding access, and improving quality and the management capacity of the MOE. Improving on all three will require significant infusion of resources into the sector. Mobilizing required resources will have significant implications on the entire budget. Therefore, a dynamic and sustainable strategy for financing improvements in education, which is long term and involves all the stakeholders, is needed. 94. This section looks at the fiscal impact of expanding the education system, based on a model of education finance. The key question addressed by the fiscal impact analysis is whether any given reform is financially feasible. Such an analysis is crucial because reforms will fail if adequate financing has not been secured. The process for estimating the costs of reforms follows three steps. First, quality and expansion targets are set. Second, a model of education finance is used to determine the additional resources required and costs of the expected targets. Third, and finally, the impact of additional costs on the government budget is estimated, and the financing gap is identified. The detailed analysis is presented in the annex 3. A summary is presented here. Overview of the Simulation Model and Key Variables and Assumptions Fgure 3.. Basic Str-ucture of the E,ducation Finnce: 95. Overview of the simulation model. ,, Sim,nul,ation M,del, : -,.- : - - '- ''. '' 'The figure 3.4 shows the model used. The - : ' ,; -- ';- - , simulation is made only for primary, Buidget ,enve sdl6iet --* . Projected govt. middle and general secondary education. for b-i en d ope 9 spending ::, The TVET share in secondary education is secondary - O basicand,,,still small. The government has plans to educauon - secondeducaducation expand the sector, but the targets are still *! :S ' - ' - ~~' ,, ' ! being developed. The model makes ', , ',projections to the year 2010, starting from I ,, ~' - ', '- t - - - the base year in 2000 when most of the Qi GDP groth .Enrolment flows data for input variables are available. Intermediate outputs are also obtained for .: . a ;Teacher salary levels Ta> revenues - ,- Table 3.11. Assumptions for Simulating the , Budget share",, Budget Envelope - of basic,and,, -. System's oparatipnal Initial value Target in o secorfdary characteristics - in2000 Year i~ - educati6ri, - 2010 * - --"-Construction costs GDP growth rate -- 7% - Gq '- - - - - - - ' - ' ~~~~(% pr year) 2001, 2005, and 2008 by linear projections between Govemment budgyt 100 55 2000 and 2010. (% of GDP) Spending on basic and secondary education (% 96. The simulations that follow assume an optimistic of total spending): macroeconomic environment in which the annual Scenario l (low 4.3% 4.3% economic growth rate will rise to 7 percent, which was case) the average growth rate prior to the war. It is further Scenario 2 3.7% 9% assumed that the government budget as a percent of Primary education 79% 79% share of spending GDP will decline from 100 percent in 2000 to 55 on basic and percent in 2010, the latter being the pre-war share. secondary education The primary education share in total basic and (%) secondary education is assumed to remain at its Source: World Bank, 2001 Note: The rate of growth of GDP is assumed constant -at 7% per annum. 42 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report current level. The budget envelope is then predicted for two scenarios: one where the current share of education in the total government budget is maintained at 4.3 percent, and another where it rises steadily to 9 percent by 2010. The table 3.11 shows base and target values for the macroeconomic and education spending variables. The model uses explicit targets for education reform in terms of coverage and quality. It sets these targets for three possible scenarios: low, medium and high case. 97. In the low case, the status quo is maintained. In this case, enrolment will grow from the natural increase in the school age population. Enrolment inwprimary cycle would have increased by about 14 percent in 2005, and by 24 percent in 2008, and by 31 percent in 2010. Middle school enrolment would increase about the same percentages. 98. The medium case scenario sets the expansion targets at more ambitious rates and projects the entry rate to grade 1 at 85 percent of the relevant age cohort by 2010. Survival to the end of the cycle would improve from the current 55 to 85 percent. Under these assumptions, enrolments relative to 2000 would be 44 percent higher in 2005, 75 percent in 2008 and 97 percent in 2010. For the combined basic and secondary cycles, the enrolment ratio would increase from 57 to 86 percent. These expansion rates are higher than the rates achieved over the last 8 years. However, they are feasible compared to historical achievements for the middle school cycle. Moreover, they will bring Eritrea quite close to achieving universal primary education by 2015. Grade repetition too would decline from 21 to under 10 percent and would help maintain the survival rate at relatively high levels. Compared to 2000, primary enrolments would be 50, 86 and 112 percent higher respectively in 2005, 2008 and 2010. , or an overall average primary enrolment ratio of 61 percent. Given the 160 percent increase in enrolment in the past 8 years, these rates are feasible. The secondary enrolment ratio would have increased to 32 percent by 2010. However, this rapid growth rate would pose enormous management, institutional and governance challenges. The zoba structures, especially in the poorest ones, would have to be strengthened considerably and rapidly. Also, attention needs to be given to ensure a sustainable and transparent absorption of funding. Table 3.12. Summary of Major Targets of the Simulation Model. Simulation targets in 2010 Simulation results Number of public school Enrol student as a multiple of ment Enrol Student flow indicators number in 2000 in last ment Student Access to Survival Average % students grade in the flow first grade to end of grade in private of cycle scenarios in cycle cycle repetition school 2005 2008 2010 cycle (GER) Primary Status quo 62 55 19 10 1.14 1.24 131 34 57 Medium 85 85 10 10 1.44 1.75 1.97 72 86 High 100 90 5 10 1.57 1.97 2.29 90 100 Middle Status quo 97 87 21 7 1.14 1.24 1.31 29 37 Medium 85 80 10 7 1.50 1.86 2.12 49 61 High 95 85 5 7 1.84 2.44 2.90 73 83 Secondary Status quo 88 52 13 4 1.14 1.24 1.31 13 22 Medium. 75 52 13 4 1.40 1.69 1.90 19 32 High 75 52 10 4 1.94 2.60 3.10 32 46 Note: The access rate for primary level is the entry rate to grade I. For the middle and secondary cycles, it is the rate of transition from the last grade of previous cycle to the first grade of the cycle. Secondary refers only to general secondary, and does not include technical and vocational. 99. In the high case, universal entry of the appropriate age group (seven year olds) into grade one would seem to be the appropriate place to start the simulation given the GOE' s intention to accelerate its EFA goals. To make this pledge meaningful, in addition to a 100 percent entry to 43 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report grade one, the survival rate to the end of the cycle is assumed to improve from 55 percent to 90 percent, and grade repetition to decrease to less than 5 percent. The share of students in the private sector remains the same. Under these assumptions, enrolments relative to 2000 would be 57, 97, and 128 percent higher. Purthermore, overall net primary enrolment would increase to 100 percent. In the middle school cycle, we assume a near universal transition rate of 95 percent. The survival rate would improve to 85 percent while grade repetition would decreases to 5 percent. The student population would increase respectively by 84, 144 and 190 percent in the years 2005,2008, and 2010. Overall middle school enrolment would rise to 83 percent of the age cohort. Although this would-be higher than the 160 percent increase achieved over the last 8 years for this cycle, it could be done. In the general secondary cycle, we assume that transition and survival rates remain as in the medium case, but grade repetition rates decrease from 13 to less than 10 percent. This leads nevertheless to explosive growth at the secondary level of respectively 94, 160, and 210 percent increases in enrolment relative to 2000, or an overall secondary enrolment ratio of 46 percent. Changes in Operational Characteristics 100. In order to reach these targets, the system's operational characteristics are expected to change. We assume that the pupil to teacher ratio would fall from their initial levels of 49 and 58 for primary and middle to 42,-in the medium and high case scenarios. At the secondary level'6, the projections lower class sizes from their current levels of 60 to 40 in the medium and 35 in the high case scenarios. Spending on pedagogic materials for both primary and middle levels is expected to rise to 8 percent and 16 percent of teacher salaries in the medium and high case scenarios. This corresponds to 5 percent and 10 percent of recurrent spending on education. At the secondary level, the same assumptions are made. However, the scenarios are only indicative. Teachers in Eritrea do not receive pensions, and the scenarios do not include a more realistic and sustainable teacher salary development. These conditions are dependent on the Government strategy, and there are no indications that such a strategy exists, or that the Government intends to change the current teacher salaries. In the high case scenario a modest increase of administrative costs is assumed to accommodate increasing demands for strengthened implementation and planning. Table 3.13. Teacher Salaries and the Public System's Operational Characteristics in 2000 and 2010 Status quo Target for 2010 values (2000) Medium Case High Case Primary level Average teacher salaries (multiple of GDP per capita) 9.8 9.8 9.8 Pupil-teacher ratios 49 42 42 Pedagogical inputs (% of teacher salaries) 4 8 16 Administrative costs (% of teacher salaries) 29 29 32 Middle level Average teacher salafies (multiple of GDP per capita) 4.5 4.5 4.5 Pupil-teacher ratios *52 42 42 Pedagogical inputs (% of teacher salaries) 4 8 16 Administrative costs (% of teacher salaries) 29 29 32 General secondary Average teacher salaries (multiple of GDP per capita) 8 8 8 Pupil-teacher ratios 60 40 35 Pedagogical inputs (% of teacher salaries) 4 8 16 Administrative costs (% of teacher salaries) 29 29 32 16 At the secondary level, average weekly workload for teachers is 20 hours, and is believed to reach 28 hours for teachers of history. Class sizes are also very high. To provide a better learning environment, the projections lower class sizes, but maintain contact hours at 20. 44 Eritrea EducatiQn Sector Note: Main Report 101. Even a modest expansion of the system would require significantly more physical facilities. The unit cost of constructing a furnished primary and middle level classroom is based on actual data from on-going MOE projects. One primary classroom construction is estimated at US$10,000. The cost of constructing a furnished secondary level classroom is obtained by assuming a premium of 20 percent over the primary and middle level costs. Turning to the space required, at the primary and middle level, classrooms needed would correspond to the number of teachers, plus a small adjustment for administration, libraries, and space for non-teaching staff. At the secondary level, subject specialization and relatively higher demand for laboratories, libraries and meeting rooms would imply higher allowance for non-classroom space. These costs and space parameters are assumed to remain constant throughout the simulation period. Financing Gaps in the Education and Training Sector Reform Scenarios 102. The table below shows the cost of meeting the possible menu of reforms. More detailed results for each scenario are shown in annex 3. Maintaining the current system is the least costly. More ambitious reforms require significantly more resources. With medium case targets, an average of US$22 million would be needed annually if the current shares of spending on education were maintained. If the share of total government spending on education increases to 9 percent, extemal financing would still be needed but at much lower levels of US$3 million per year. The costs of achieving universal primary education, in the high case scenario, and close to universal middle education, would be even higher. Without an increase in the share of public spending, the financing gap would grow from US$48 million in 2005 to US$74 million in 2010. This implies an average annual gap of US$37 million between 2000 and 2010. An increase in the share of the government budget to education would narrow the gap to US$19 million annually. Table 3.14. Financing Gap Under Different Reform Scenarios (Million US$) Average Projected budget envelope and financing gap 2005 2008 2010 Annual Gap Projected budget envelope (million US$) Maintain current financing level (4.3% of government spending) 29 29 29 Increase education spending to 9% of total government spending 45 55 61 Projected Financing Gap (million US$) 1. Maintaining the status quo Maintain current financing level (4.3% of Total 4 1 -5 Surplus Spending) Increase education spending to 9% of total spending by 19 24 25 Surplus 2010 2. Medium Case Maintain current financing level (4.3% of government -13 -30 -46 -22 spending) Increase education spending to 9% of total government 3 5 -15 -3 spending by 2010 3. High Case Maintain current financing level (4.3% of govemment -22 -48 -74 -37 spending) Increase education spending to 9% of total govenmment 7 39 spending by 2010 '43 -19 103. The following table shows that both coverage and quality cannot be expanded at the same time without a significant increase in the share of education expenditures as a percentage of GDP. The medium and high case scenarios call for substantially more resources than current scenario. To meet the high case targets, the share of basic and secondary education spending in GDP would 45 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report have to increase from its current rate of 3 percent to respectively 6, 7 and 8 percent in 2005, 2008, and 2010. The corresponding share in total government spending on education and training would need to be respectively 7, 11 and Table 3.15. Resource Requirement for Expanding 15 percent under the high case scenario. Coverage and Improving Quality of Basic and Secondary Education (% of GDP and Total Budget) 104. These results need to be seen as Required Resources 2005 2008 2010 Required Resources (% minimum estimates. They do not take GDP) into account the costs of expanding and 1. Maintaining the status 3 3 3 improving the quality of technical and quo vocational education or grants to private 2. Medium Case 5 5 6 schools. They also assume that teacher 3. High Case 6 7 8 Required Resources (% of salaries as a proportion of GDP per capita Total Government Spending) will remain the same throughout the 1. Maintaining the status 4 4 5 projected reform period. quo 2. Medium Case 6 8 11 Conclusions and Recommendations 3. HighCase 7 11 15 105. The budgeting process does not allow for flexibility and waste reduction. Cash budgeting is an inappropriate tool to undertake long term planning. Separate unit budgets create duplication and operational inefficiency. The current process reduces budgeting to account keeping and not a mechanism for setting priorities. Also, there has been a significant increase in public expenditure on education and training, from 2.2 percent in 1993 to 4.9 percent in 2000, or an average of 3.9 percent for this period. The comparison with other African countries should take the costs and resulting outcomes into account. In this context the perfornance of the Eritrea education and training system should be considered as comparatively low. a) Capacity building at the central MOE level and in the zobas for modern budget planning and setting spending priorities should be undertaken as soon as possible. A comnprehensive plan and specific terms of references for the various areas of concern should be developed and discussed with the Ministry of Finance. A technical assistance plan for the longer term (focused on specific donors and coordinated with other donors) and a specific plan for equipping the MOE departments and the zobas with ICVT and other modern management tools should accompany these measures. b) Decentralization plans should take the capacity building into account and proceed only when and if the zobas have developed standardized procedures and have an adequate skills mix for carrying out their new tasks satisfactorily. c) The MOE and University of Asmara should both improve their budgeting methodology and their inter-communication. In this respect, it will be crucial to invest in modem ICT technology and tools, and the corresponding training of effective staff (in the MOE and zobas and for all Faculties and the central Administration of the UOA). d) Detailed and comprehensive terms of reference for such a strengthening of institutional, financial and management capacity should be drawn up as soon as possible, discussed with donors (maybe it could be financed under the current Danish aid?). 106. A significant share of the MOE budget goes to basic education. Data for 1999 and 2000 show that significantly higher shares of education spending go to basic education. A commendable 72 percent of the total spending on education was allocated to basic education in 1999, which is higher than many comparable low-income Sub-Sahara African countries. This supports the government's often-held position that it has been promoting non-tertiary education. However, spending within the sector is unbalanced. Among the four major education cycles 46 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report (primary, middle, secondary and the University of Asmara) the middle level receives the lowest share of spending. a) Redress imbalances across levels. Enrolment and unit spending for the middle school level should be drastically increased. Most probably this will need to come out of the increased public budget for the education and training sector, since current spending levels, under the prevailing conditions of today, are still too low for achieving the MOE's ambitious EFA goals. b) A clearer and more realistic vision is required from the MOE on the longer-term outcomes and situation of the sector. Such a vision is already partially elaborated in the MOE's Human Resources Strategy paper. However, these do not provide realistic action plans with costs. 107. Primary teacher salaries were 10 times GDP per capita in 2000, and the average for the combined primary and middle school level was 8. This is much higher than the averages in Guinea, Malawi and Uganda. Because of the recent conflict, a significant number of teachers are under national service and do not receive full pay. Eritrea' s spending on non-teacher salaries is higher than comparable countries such as Burkina Faso and Guinea, but little of this spending goes to pedagogical inputs. The cost of service delivery is high and quality outcomes poor. The current unit costs and wastage together mean that for every 1 US$ (10 Nakfa) spent, 0.86 US$ (9 Nakfa) is wasted. Eliminating or substantially reducing grade repetition can lead to savings that can be used to reach more children. EFA goals cannot be reached without a substantial increase in resources for education. According to the Eritrea EFA Framework for Action, the goal is to universalize basic (primary and middle school) education by 201]5, and have 85 percent of basic cycle completers proceed to the secondary cycle. In recent discussions, the government seems to be working on plans to reach these targets earlier than 2015. At the same time, Eritrea faces a difficult fiscal outlook, as government spending as a share of GDP remains extremely high. a) Simulations suggest that, under fairly optimistic macroeconomic conditions, the government would have to increase spending on education to levels above 9 percent of the total government spending to achieve these goals. b) Also important is undoubtedly to bring the teacher and staff salaries to more sustainable levels. The GOE could explore reforms with a compensation scheme for teachers as part of its overall civil service reform program. One suggestion would be to hire teachers on contracts of given duration and monetary value, whose renewal would be based on past performance. Another alternative would be to cap teacher salaries in the medium term while more resources flow to the sector. c) The government could also consider lowering teacher salaries as a multiple of GDP per capita. For instance, assuming that the current funding conditions to the sector persist into the future and the government proceeds with the ambitious EFA goals for 2010, the simulation model shows that lowering primary teacher salaries from 9.8 to 5 times GDP per capita and secondary teacher salaries from 8 to 6 times GDP per capita by 2010, would lower the financing gap from US$37 million to US$23 million per year. d) Additional savings can be achieved by introducing an equitable user fee structure for TVET and higher education (exempting those opting for teacher training if there is strong demand for new teacher recruits). e) On the longer term, the private sector contributions to the education and training system should be increased through a variety of measures (for example tax incentives, regulatory framework, mobilizing more Eritreans abroad, attracting contributions from local 47 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report industries and enterprises). Eritrea is fortunate in that it has a large and well-educated Diaspora who can be a major source of private finance in this sector. f) However, in terms of quality and effectiveness of teaching and learning, the system should also introduce improved management measures and incentives for teachers and school principals. The career development and skills of teachers and school principals should be transformed and brought in line with the MOE's strategic vision for better and more effective teachers. The teacher distribution to rural and remote areas should be studied and an incentive plan should be introduced to encourage local teachers to work in their own communities. Significant external donor resources will be needed to meet the financing gaps and priorities will have to be established for development of the sub-sectors. The 5 percent share of GDP and the GOE' s budget which was allocated to education and training in 2000 will not be enough to finance reforms. Even if the economy grows at its highest projected growth rate (7 percent) annually, the MOE would be able to meet barely 50 percent of total costs. The financing gap grows larger if the economy grows at the moderate estimate of 5 percent or lower. Increasing the budget allocation to education and training to 9 percent of GDP will ease the financing gap, but will not eliminate it by much. Annex 3 contains detailed tables with financing scenarios for consideration. 48 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report CHAPTER IV: TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TVET)7 108. The organization of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is separate from mainstream general secondary education.18 About 1 percent of the country's middle and secondary school students feed into TVET programs after grade 719.9 or 11. In a larger scale of comparison, 1,800 out of the total 500,000 youth in the age group of 12-18 old enroll in TVET. The training is intended to produce semi-skilled, skilled and technician level workers ready to meet the demands of the labor market. The govermment intends to (i) introduce a National Qualification system for professional skills and (ii) significantly strengthen the quality and enrolment of TVET. Although the MOE is aware of the private provision of TVET, there is no information regarding private TVET enrolment or certification. Public TVET has a high internal efficiency rate. Dropout and repetition rates are both about 2 percent. In comparison, secondary schools have annual repetition and dropout rates of about 19 percent and 21 percent. Teacher qualifications are inadequate. Instructional materials, curriculum and connection to the labor market need strengthening. External efficiency tends to be high for formal training programs; however there is question as to if it is due to the quality of skills a trainee takes to the job market, or the current need for laborers regardless of skills. There is also concern regarding the new pattern of middle level TVET graduates continuing onto higher education rather than applying their expensively acquired training to the labor market as technicians. The non-formal TVET training offered at Skill Development Centers (SDCs) has not proven to be effective in generating workers who are quickly absorbed into the labor market. The recurrent budget for intermediate and advanced level TVET in 2000 was US$739,000. Dimensions and Distinguishing Characteristics of TVET 109. The MOE's Department of Technical and Adult Education is responsible for TVET in Eritrea. However, in addition to in-house training of own staff, other ministries also conduct skills training through their field services. The annex on TVET provides details. Governance of TVET is based on regulations and directives issued by the State. There is no TVET legislation. While primary, middle20, and secondary schools report to offices of the MOE at the regional (zoba) level, TVET institutions report directly to the Department of Technical and Adult Education. However, a proposed National TVET Board is forthcoming. TVET Delivery Mechanisms 110. The mechanisms for delivering TVET include formal training in school-like settings at three levels. There is also non-formal training of varying type and duration as well as private training institutions. Formal training is offered by the MOE at Basic, Intermediate and Advanced Levels. Basic Level training is currently being piloted at the Hagaz Agricultural School, offering a 2-year program. Grade 7 is required for entry. Intermediate Level begins after completion of grade 9. Programs are three years in length. Advanced Level accepts those who have completed grade 11. Programs are 2 to 3 year duration. Non-formal training provided by the MOE is given through SDCs with no previous education requirements. These training courses, lasting form 6 to 9 months, are offered to displaced persons, ex-soldiers, disadvantaged youth and others. Report prepared by the IDA Education and Training Mission, June 2001, led by Jacob Bregman (lead education specialist, AFrH4). The TVET report was prepared by Jon Lauglo and Egil Frpyland and financed under the Norwegian education Trust Fund. 18 There was earlier an attempt to introduce practical training in wood, metal work, electricity and agriculture as curriculum elements in 4 comprehensive secondary schools. Within MOE these have not been considered as part of TVET, but as part of general education. 19 There is one TVET pilot program for students exiting grade 7. 20 Sometimes also referred to as junior secondary schools in English. 49 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 111. In addition to the Table 4.1. Erltrea: Number of Participants by Programs Offered MOE, other ministries also Through MOE, MOH, MOA, 1993-1999 MO, thr instie aso Area of Skill Male Female Total run non-formial skills courses Ae fSU ae Fml oa und organizetrainings evenes. Soil conservation, Seed and Water 35,710 300 36,000 and organize training events. Ti 5 0202,3 Alsigof these porm, Tailoring 150 20,280 20,430 Alisting ofteeprogramns, Ti1,250 11,930 13,180 along with the number of Typing 2,630 5,890 8,520 particpantsfrom 193 to Computer applications263 589 850 participants from 1993 to Mechanics and tractor operator 4,740 1,730 6,460 1999 is seenain nthe table 4.1 General agriculture and extension 5,550 610 6,170 Soil conservation constitutes Forestry and wild animal conservation 5,580 0 5,580 the largest group of trained Construction 2,800 360 3,160 participants. It is apparent Wood and metal work 1,170 290 1,460 from the enrolments that the Animal health and husbandry 1,090 200 1,290 Ministry of Agriculture Commerce admin. and leadership 180 700 890 (MOA) services thousands of Tech-Mechanization 300 0 300 participants through their Inter-personal communication 110 50 160 animal health and husbandry, Hotel and tourism 10 110 120 and various conservation Electricity 100 10 110 programs. Plumbing 60 10 70 Fishing 0 30 30 General Mechanics 20 6 20 Total 61,450 42,506 103,950 Source: Ministry of Education, Department of Adult and Technical Education Private Proprietary Providers 112. There is no information on enrolment qualifications for private TVET programs. Courses are usually 3-4 months. The table below shows the type of training by region. Table 4.2. Eritrea: Number of Privately Owned Training Schools by Type and Region Region Area of Skill Gash k North South Total Anseba Debub Macce Barka Red Sea Red Sea Computer applications 2 2 1* 2 8 Typing 3-6months 2 5 1 10 2 - 20 Office practice, English 1 0 0 1 3 months Tailoring, sewing, embroidery 15* 19* 3* 21* 5* 0 63* 1-2 years part time CookeTy 2 1 16 0 0 0 19 Total 21* 27* 21* 52* 8* 2 131* * Includes NGO based institutions which charge fees Source: Eritrea, Ministry of Education 50 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Access and Equity 113. At present, access is highly unequal. Females constitute only 19 percent of TVET enrolments, ethnic groups in remote regions are greatly under represented2 I and youth from the poorest households will have especially weak chances of attaining a level of schooling required for entry into formal TVET. The location of schools is unequally dispersed. Asmara holds the only two Advanced Level institutions and 37 percent of total Intermediate Level enrolments for 1999/2000. The need to redress geographical inequity in access is politically compounded by ethnic differences among the regions. The technologically 'advanced' part of private TVET being computer applications is also concentrated in the capital. Gender inequity is sharp. In 1999, women constituted 14 percent of trainees at the Intermediate Level, 35 percent at Advanced Level and 36 percent of learners in non-formal skills courses run by MOE. Reasons for the bias are not only the 'male' contents of most trade skills taught, but also the greater chances, which males have of performing well and surviving in school up to points of selection into TVET. 114. As a step to reduce access inequity, the MOE's basic SDCs have been established in very remote areas of disadvantaged regions that have potential for growth. For the medium plan, the MOE will establish one adult skill-training center in each of the six regions of the country, where target groups and training areas will identify regions. As a matter of policy, a quota of 20-30 percent of admission will be reserved to females in the adult skill training centers. At the intermediate level, entrants from disadvantaged ethnic groups have been enrolled in secondary schools with boarding facilities, thus after receiving a one year academic instruction they have been made to join the intermediate technical schools and newly established agricultural schools of Beijuck and Gagaz. Thus, 40-50 percent of the enrolment at these schools is from the educationally disadvantaged and previously marginalized ethnic groups. Enrolment 115. Although enrolrment is very small in comparison to general education enrolment, Eritrea's technical education is not a 'second choice' alternative to an academic education as is the trend seen in some other countries. For example, Intermediate Level TVET has been receiving the academically best students from grade 9, creaming off students from their feeder secondary schools. Middle Level enrolment has nearly tripled in the last six years. This is greatly due to the establishment of more institutes. The highest enrolments are found in the technical institutions totaling 710 students in 2000. Asmara Technical School had the highest number of students as well as the highest number of trades offered. The fine arts institutions have the lowest enrolments totaling 128 students. It is clear that there are more males than females enrolled in Middle Level TVET. The highest female representation, being 38 percent, is found at the Asmara Music School, while the lowest, at 19 percent is found at the Mai Habar Technical School. Such numbers reflect the existing vocational stereotypes in the country. 116. Since 1998, entrance procedures have changed to give students of more average academnic performance an opportunity to transfer to Intermediate Level TVET, under the assumption that these students will opt more for the labor market, rather than university, after completing technical school. However, repetition and dropout are said to be likely to rise as a result. At present, the entrance criteria are under review again. Process for admittance or selection into the programs is unclear. 117. Advanced level enrolments have increased from 20 in 1996 to 359 in 2000. The privately owned Pavoni Technical School (PTS) began offering classes to 20 students in 1996 and is currently working at full capacity. Asmara Business and Commerce Institute (ABCI) began 21 The lowland regions of North and South Red Sea, and Gash-Barka lag behind the highlands in developing primary education. Regional enrolment rates for middle and secondary school are not available. 5. Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report offering services in 1997 to 91 students and is now at full capacity as well. Although female enrolment has risen from 17 percent in 1996 to 30 percent in 2000, it is still only a third of the entire Advanced Level total enrolment. 118. Enrolment and the number of operational Skills Development Centers (SDCs) has fluctuated. In SDCs operated by the MOE, enrolment increased from 71 in 1994 to 944 in 1996 and then declined to 208 in 1999.22 During 2000, total enrolment was 247. The MOE estimates that the non-formal 'course-like' skills training cumulative output since 1994 would be in excess of 5,000. In addition to programs focused directy on livelihood related TVET, there is the adult literacy program, which in its most advanced phase seeks to provide some basic life skills and information. Such variation in enrolment may be explained by deployment of soldiers for the boarder conflict with Ethiopia. Adult literacy reached an enrolment of about 52,000 in 1999. The high enrolment was made possible because many women who were called up for national service were deployed for adult literacy teaching instead of serving at the front. No information is available on private proprietary enrolments. But with some 60 establishments teaching tailoring and embroidery and more than 20 establishments teaching computer applications, the annual number of participants in these short and/or part-time courses is sure to run in the thousand. Due to relatively small enrolments, TVET output from MOE is small. Quality of Learning Outcomes 119. All stakeholders agree that the quality of training in Eritrea needs to be improved. The view of the Chairman of the Employers Federation of Eritrea is that the TVET graduates lack the familiarity with modem technology that is needed in the modem economic sector of Eritrea. Although Intermediate Level TVET institutions have been able to recruit talented and dedicated students, as mentioned above, there is much work to be done before its quality would approximate international standards, even though in comparison to international standards, they have an exceptionally heavy study program of 50 weekly periods. Teachers, as well as students" recognize the poor quality of instruction.23 Much of class time is spent copying information from the blackboard or overhead projectors. This partly reflects old pedagogical traditions. But it also results from the severe dearth of training materials and learning resources. There is great need to update instructors' qualifications, curricula and training materials and equipment. 120. Aware of the current situation, the MOE has allocated quite a substantial amount of funds for the TVET sub-sector in maintaining the provision for quality training. These funds will be "topped up" by contributions from the DRP operation. Thus, some training workshops have been upgraded with new machines and equipment. To minimize the shortage of instructors, about 20 percent of the intermediate level teachers are expatriates from India, Philippines, DED, VSO, and Peace Corps. To improve skills and knowledge of instructors, in-service training has increased and several Eritrean instructors have received international training in countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, and Egypt. 22 One reason for the decline appears to be that former soldiers who were receiving non-formal skills training, were called up in 1997. Consultants surveyed,teachers, students and management at two middle level technical institufions regarding overall satisfaction x with the programs. 52 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report External Efficiency 121. A tracer study from 1996 by Atchoarena and Tekie (1997) is the most recent look at extemal efficiency of the formal TVET training and informal n training at SDCs. The tracer study found some very 80 promising results regarding the absorption of T formally trained TVET graduates into the labor t 60 market as seen in the figure 4.1. Technical School 9 4 graduates, who did not continue their studies, had an employment rate of 90 percent, as compared to 61 20 - percent in the control group. In the area of non- formal TVET training provided by the SDCs, this o same study showed very poor extemal effectiveness Formal Training SDC Training in spite of the manpower shortages reportedly existing at the time. Excluding the 9 percent who entered school, the employment rate for SDC graduates was only 49 percent. 2 These findings reinforce doubts regarding the extemal effectiveness of short courses in new areas of skill. Technical schools were the main providers of a qualified workforce for large enterprises. Although this 1997 survey does not give a true picture of the existing employment situation of the graduates of the system, there is not more recent information available. It is reflective of the labor market's great need of for workers that the majority of the participants from both groups reported finding their first job within the first three months of exiting training. The average time spent looking for a job was seven weeks. Although the extemal effectiveness appears to be good, one must keep in mind the size of the market and the relatively small number of TVET-trained students. Also, the market itself must be evaluated to see if the high absorption of TVET trainees into the labor force is sustainable as the Eritrea continues to reconstruct its economy. 122. The proportion of TVET graduates going to university studies is greatly increasing. As a result, Intermediate Level TVET now has a problem of low external effectiveness, but not with regard to the market for skilled labor. Rather, it is because so mnmy graduates continue to university and with no clear use at university or-later in their career for their expensively acquired TVET skills. The TVET Unit in Department of Technical and Adult Education estimates that overall, about half of the graduates go to university. To reduce the direct transfer to the university, the MOE is now in the process of increasing the proportion of Intermediate curriculum to be devoted to technical skills and theory, from 50 to 70 percent. The plan is also to reorient the contents of general education subjects towards application on technical issues. The intent is to require two years of work experience before a trainee can apply to university. These changes would be introduced at a time when, in the medium term, the labor market is affected by the demobilization of soldiers. Labor Market 123. At the most 100,000 persons are engaged in salaried employment in Eritrea, excluding the Police, Army and National Service; this is a rather optimistic estimation. Figure 4.1 includes temporarily vacant positions held by those presently in the Army and National Service. Thus, approximately 90 percent of the labor force depends on farming, micro enterprise activities or casual labor for their subsistence. Since disabled people face barriers in the labor market, the 29% of the graduates who were disabled is undoubtedly part of the explanation for the discouraging finding, but it is hard to see that SDC training possibly could have led to related work, or work of any kind, for the majority among those who were not disabled. 53 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report 124. All stakeholders, including representatives of employers and trade unions affirm that there has been a large unmet demand for all kinds of skilled labor since Independence. A report prepared in May 2001 addressing reintegrating of demobilized soldiers issues provides an in depth look at the current labor market trends. It is estimated that 50-65,000 salaried employment opportunities will open up in the next 1 to 2 years. In the public sector, 2-3,000 positions do exist, however, a considerable number of these positions require certification in areas such as nursing, teaching, and administration. In the private sector, there are more opportunities for employment in manufacturing, trade, services, construction, agriculture and fisheries. Manufacturing has the potential to offer 7-8,000 jobs for unskilled or semi-skilled laborers, while positions for skilled workers are approximately 3,000. Construction is also another area of high volume openings reaching an estimated 15-20,000 with one-third of these being for skilled workers. The agricultural industry is looking to fill 20-25,000 jobs, largely casual, seasonal work. Some of these positions however, are for drivers and mechanics of agricultural equipment. 125. Specific to the human resource needs for the manufacturing industrial sector, a different survey's findings were reported in The Industrial Human Resource Development in the State of Eritrea of November 2000. It states "...41 percent of the enterprises surveyed (both small and large) said they needed more employees in the coming five years, when extrapolated to the whole population of enterprises the figure comes to about 5,200 additional employees. Of these, 59 percent are technicians and machine operators, 5 percent clerks, and 4.4 percent professional and managerial staff. Given that at present the technical schools' capacity is still small, the future challenge of human resource development is quite considerable.. .of the technicians: 19.5 percent mechanist/metal, 12.4 percent electrical/electronics, 12.3 percent auto mechanics, 7.8 percent in woodworks, and other types of technicians constitute 42.6 percent."5 126. The large quantity of projected openings for semi-skilled and skilled openings in the labor market and relatively small number of students enrolled in the training programs favors high absorption rates for those students. However, approximately 200,000 soldiers will be entering the labor force over a 24-36 month period creating competition for positions. Yet, only 44 percent of these soldiers have completed grade 8 and an even smaller 16 percent have completed, grade 12 or above. Thus, a large proportion of those vying for jobs are untrained. The SDCs may see increased interest in their training programs as soldiers return home to work. 127. Even if economic recovery goes well, a very substantial part of the labor force will have to continue earning a living through peasant farming, petty trade, small-scale service, or a combination of these and other micro activities. However, as time goes on, it is hopeful that more jobs in both the public and private sector will be created. Labor-intensive public works initiatives, community-based mini-projects and other employment creating schemes may furthei add to economic and social growth. Government Strategy for TVET Reform 128. The need for vocational and technical education and training in Eritrea is acknowledged by the Government as well as by international experts on training and employment as laid down in various reports. Equally, government and international experts agree that presently this need cannot yet be supported by statistical data on labor market needs nor by the current state of the economy. The Government therefore intends to institute a national TVET system, which carefully follows national and regional social and economic developments. The private sector must play a central role in such developments. The Government will therefore encourage the participation of the private sector in the design, planning, management and financing of TVET. Technical Education and Vocational Training Sub-sector Achievements (1991-2001); Policies, Strategies and Priorities: Medium Term Projections, Forecasts and Scenarios (2002-2006). Ministry of Education, Department of Technical and Adult Education. Asmara, November 2001 54 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Reponi Federations of employers and of employees will be regarded as true representatives of the private sector. Likewise, the Government realizes that serving the needs of the people will require careful consultation and participation of the communities concerned. At present the private sector has limited ability to take the initiative in organizing TVET. Furthermore to involve communities the administrative structures for effective decentralized education need to be in place. This may take considerable time. Therefore the MOE will initiate a modest formal TVET system to meet the demands for skilled workers for national reconstruction, and to meet social demands for opportunities for school leavers and dropouts. A national agency will be established to set standards for examination and certification of all TVET activities. The existing TVET institutes will be upgraded and adapted to fit in the new structure. The TVET system will be comprised of three levels of training: basic, intermediate and advanced levels. It will be a dual system of institutional and industrial training. The system will enable participants to climb from one level to the next. The MOE will actively promote the integration of male and female participants, and discourage gender stereotyping in the programs. 129. The Ministry of Education will remain the central authority with regard to the development and co-ordination of TVET. However, various other government ministries and departments are involved in specialized TVET activities. The MOE will provide all possible support to these activities. Skills Development programs for returnees, internally displaced people and demobilized combatants will be organized. The Department for Technical and Adult Education of the MOE will run these programs until the demand is met. The MOE will also create the enabling environment for the TVET activities undertaken by the private sector and at community level. Curriculum development will be done through panels with the involvement of representatives of all relevant actors. Already an initiative has been taken to review the curricula of all existing technical and academic courses of the intermediate technical schools during the summer time. Realizing the critical situation with regard to qualified and experienced staff for the TVET, the MOE will pursue all avenues to upgrade its staff in post through in-service training courses, while simultaneously attracting and training new technical teachers. 130. The Government will not be able to fully finance the development and recurrent costs of its national TVET system. For the development costs, assistance will be requested from international funding agencies and to a lesser extent from beneficiaries. For the recurrent costs, the Government will provide the major share, but co-financing through training-fees, charges for boarding, training-levies from employers and employees, and from other sources will be introduced in consultation with the parties concerned. Co-ordination of the overall TVET activities will be ensured through a National TVET Advisory Board. This Board will include representatives of all relevant government departments, Federations of Employees and Employers, and the University of Asmara. Based on the existing TVET situation and the aforementioned national framework vision, The MOE intends over the next five years (2002- 2006) to increase the enrolment of female participants in TVET program to 30 percent. From these strategies, the MOE has selected the following as priority issues. 55 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Demobilization and Reintegration Project 131. In addition to the above-mentioned new policies, a Demobilization and Reintegration Project (DRF') has been . Box 4.1.. -E'ritti Demobiliation an;d ,R,,e,intti&nPr6jbect, ) , d esigned specifically to in - pproved a ~~~~~~~~~assist demobilized soldiers in May 2002. The World Bank s Board of Executive Direclors approved a $60 nilhon credit for the Dernobilization and Reintegiraion Project in as they transition from the Eriurea The credit will help 60.000 soldiers demobilize and rerneve theLr armed forces into society livelihoods. reverse the econornmic and social-slowdown due to Ehe conflict, ' and the labor mnarket. and reallocate publk resourc&e to social and econ6rmc iniestmenis Demobilized soldiers will The EDRP credit will support a comprehensive EriErean govemment progrman. have significant difficulty to demobilize and rTiniegtate 200.000 of the apptoxumately 350.000 soldiers entering the shattered under arms over a 2-year penod, un several phases. and prot ide economuc and economy which has little social integration suppon for both ex-soldiers and non-cbuiibatanr war- absorptive capacity, :affeted pebol: .r'r.J' .Sn . _ , affcte pe.. le , - . , . ....... , - . . . ...particularly in the medium ' The remo'l of troops from the iefeileayrwilfreTce the burden on the and large-scale formal bdidget-bj anwestiaed d'$60 xfiillio6n a y'ear,lr'eiinqui'shi vluable. anpower sector. The interventions of into-the econoAy andliberne desperately needed,public f,nds-for economc the DRP will begin to ' development-and socialivestmen,ts. Tbe,t,o,tal cost.of the program is increase the capacity of the estimated at aroun US$ 19>0 n, of wliich hifscre,dit form's part. The TVET system to provide World Food Progi%n is:dntrilbtfg in-hnid-fod support- for demobilized soldiers, and lhe Duich gover'mMent.is cointribfiting tb ahinitia pilot appropnate market operation via a Multi-Donor Trusi Fu'nid.sdtet-up.toi' axled 'grant ' responsive training that support from Eritrea's other donors. WTie';,W-rid;-Bbhlks Post-Conflict Fund concentrates on the basic provided a $,700,000 anto supporthe goveriun,ent's p'r.e,p,arat,io,n of the levels of the training system EDRP Project. A smi-autonomous entity,,the NatinaiCoimmiission for the lBmb i>i established by law to to stimulate entry to the coordinate theprograrn implementation will- d,elegated to-iine Miniistiies mIicro-sector, as well as on- and o,the.r,o,omzpeteit oigaiizatils-(e. NGOs) and eventually handed over to the-job training within the regular govern,ni,.tn,Lp,rQog_rms. There are thr& phases of the project, demobuiiiatiob; reinserii6ii & reint~gratioh.' private sector, to regenerate - : ' . -, :'- ... ' -...........i. the form al large-scale Source:-World-Bank, EDRP missionritportsi- - sector. To ensure that the interventions will be market responsive and generate economic activity, implementation will be organized within a partnership between all stakeholders. Thirty percent, the largest single amount of the EDRP budget, is dedicated to increasing TVET provision. Thus, the interventions of the DRP will take place concurrently with the phased demobilization and: a) increase the ability of the demobilized soldiers to enter training programs by increasing their basic education levels and recognizing the skills they have acquired during mnilitary service, b) provide demobilized soldiers with appropriate training programs to enable them to access opportunities in all economic sectors by quantitatively and qualitatively increasing TVET provision; and increasing the market relevance of TVET provision, c) accommodate the special needs of women and disabled persons, d) match the regeneration needs of the economy. Telecommunication and ICT Training Institutes in Eritrea 132. As Eritrea tries to move towards a knowledge-based economy, it is apparent that improved communication technology is needed. Telecommunications and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is currently limited in Eritrea, thus impeding the flow of infonnation and consequently development. To address this situation, the Government has 56 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report proposed to establish a Telecommunications and ICT Training Institute of Eritrea (TICTI), and to provide adequate resources to build and maintain strong competence in the field of telecommunications and ICT. In order to accomplish this, a 5-year Telecommnunications Development Plan has been established. The aim of the Five-year Development Plan (2001- 2005) is to raise the overall tele-density of the country from 0.98 percent to 3.34 percent and to raise the rural tele-density from 0.17 percent to 1.1 percent. The main focus of the plan is two fold: (a) to give automatic Voice and Data Services to rural areas by linking 52 sub-zone capitals and other important towns; and (b) to introduce Data, Mobile and Internet services into the network. In order to achieve these goals, deregulation, liberalization and privatization processes need to be introduced. Estimated costs for the 5-year plan are around US$142 million (Nakfa 1,378 million). Various partners in Eritrea from the public and private sector will be involved in the establishment of the TICTI. The Government also aims to mobilize donor support. 133. For successful completion of the Five-year Development Plan, qualified technicians must be trained. A modest projection of 900 people per year will need training in telecommunications and ICT skills. Currently there are no training centers in telecommunications. The Telecommunication Services of Eritrea (TSE) relies solely on sending employees abroad to gain skills or on-the-job training. There are three internet service providers in Eritrea which offer ICT training, including distance learning through the internet. In Asmara, there is a number of small computer companies offering computer courses. Through consultation with ICT industry players and others such as USAID and UNDP, a plan has been developed to establish Eritrea' s first TICT institution. After three years of operation the TICTI should be self-financing. The initial targeted capacity is 100 students; with 10 full time trainers including 2 chief instructors; additional part time trainers; and 9 administrative staff including management. When this program is well established, the TICTI would like to consider competing for market shares regionally. Conclusions and Recommendations on TVET in Eritrea 134. Extend Access. Currently, access is highly unequal. Females constitute only 19 percent of TVET enrolment, ethnic groups in remote regions are greatly under represented and youth from the poorest households will have especially weak chances of attaining the level of schooling required for entrance into TVET programs. 135. Increase external effectiveness by modifying entry criteria. All stakeholders agree that there is a large unmet demandfor all kinds of skilled labor. At present construction, which has picked up in response to reconstruction efforts, and manufacturing are estimated to have unmet demandfor semi-skilled and skilled workers. Many trainees now use their strong technical training in order to secure places in the university. Although there is nothing undesirable with the trainees pursuing university entrance, especially if they pursue technical professions, the economy's need for their training is not met. Allowing in students with a wider pool of aptitude, rather than just the top students into TVET programs may be one approach. 136. Make informal training more effective. The Skill Development Centers are not very effective. Those who have participated in SDC programs do not tend to have greater success at obtaining employment than those who receive no training. Although the government plans to increase access in more rural areas by establishing a SDC in each region of the country, if effective training programs are not created, inequality will only be perpetuated. It may be necessary to extend the training beyond the 6 to 9 months generally allotted for these programs. 137. Improve quality and quantity of instructors. The current TVET faculty is insufficient and many tend to be inadequately trained in pedagogy and lack experience in the skills they are teaching. Continued in-service training is necessary for improvement of current staff. Good 57 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report technical and vocational training requires instructors who have industrial experience and technical as well as pedagogical skills, 138. Generate Certification and Qualification Criteria. At the moment, there are no national criteria for successful completion of training courses. Public and private institutions are able to determine for themselves the levels of proficiency acceptable for certification, creating disparity among skill 'trained' workers in the labor market. As TVET improves the quality of training, a national standard must be established to secure equal training quality through out the country. The absence of a national system of assessment and certification reduces the information-value that certificates have in the labor market. Institutions could also use the testing standards to experiment with ways to reduce training time and costs while maintaining a constant level of quality. 139. Connect training to labor market. Currently, the connection is weak between skills taught and abilities needed on the job. The chairman of the Employers Federation of Eritrea believes that TVETgraduates lack the familiarity with modern technology requiredfor the modemn economic sector of Eritrea. In orderfor the training received to remain relevant and applicable to current market needs, TVET institutions must create partnerships with employers. As technology rapidly changes, the industry is a key informant of new trends and areas offocus which will need to be accommodatedfor. Also, institutions need to practice strong outreach towards industry in order to provide strong industrial attachments for the trainees. Internships at local industries would not only provide relevant work experience, but may also compensate for the lack of resources at the training schools. 58 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report CHAPTER V: TERTIARY EDUCATION IN ERITREA: ISSUES FOR DEVELOPMENT 140. The purpose of this chapter is to review the tertiary sub-sector of education in Eritrea, analyze its institutional setting, governance and management, financing, and development strategy. The objective is to identify key issues for the development of Eritrea's higher education and its potential contribution to the economy. Some policy recommendations are presented. However, this review should be regarded a first step in a longer process of studies and evaluation. The higher education sector in Eritrea is developing fast, but it will need more direction and a longer-term vision to justify the significant costs and to respond to the rapidly changing global economy. Higher education will also be looked upon to facilitate Eritrea's knowledge economy. Much is at stake and the investment needs are large. It is undeniable that the higher education sub-sector in Eritrea must be developed and must play a larger role in building the country. However, higher education access has to become much more equitable, and the quality of its outputs should improve significantly in order to justify the high costs. There are encouraging signs. All faculties of the University of Asmara (UOA) have twinning links with sister institutions abroad. These should be reinforced, especially with the aim for international cooperation in research for Eritrea. The transparency, capacity and quality of the management should also be improved, and strengthened. In Eritrea's situation of fiscalfinancial constraints for some years to come, choices for higher education development must be made on solid research and studies, transparent management and decision-making, weighing national priorities, and improved equity. Most higher education in Eritrea is still public. The private sector should be invited and promoted to be involvedfor reasons of quality and cost-sharing. This will be a challenge for the UOA, but also for the Ministry of Education, whose graduates enter higher education tracks and who should include higher education into its national education and training development vision. Institutional Setting and Governance of Tertiary Education 141. Tertiary education is still at its infancy stage in Eritrea with only 5 institutions in the system. Post secondary education in Eritrea consists of three types of institutions, each requiring successful completion of secondary education: 1) the University of Asmara (UOA); 2) advanced vocational education institutions (Asmara Business & Commerce Institute (ABCI) and Pavoni Technical Institute (PTI)); and 3) teacher training institutions, or TTIs (Asmara Teacher Training Institute (ATTI) and Mai-Nefhi Teacher Training Institute (MTTI)). Students who do not transition into tertiary education join the mandatory National Service Program. The number of secondary school leavers (grade 11) is projected to increase from 7,000 in 1999 to 15,507 in 2003. 142. As of 2001, the transition rate from secondary to post secondary education is about 20 %. After graduation from grade 11, 1,100 students enrolled at UOA, 300 in Advanced TVET programs, 600 at ATTI and 335 at MTTI. UOA admits the top performers on the Eritrean Secondary Education Certificate Examination (ESECE) with the cut-off score of 2.0. Those scoring lower are eligible to enroll at teacher and vocational education programs. The TTIs select students based on both academic achievement and ethnic background to keep balanced distribution of all the ethnic groups and zones. Except for Pavoni Technical Institute, all the institutions are publicly owned, run and financed. 143. The University of Asmara, founded in 1958, is the country's only higher education institution. In 1990, the Ethiopian government transferred the UOA's staff, students and other resources to Southern Ethiopia, closing the original campus. The UOA was reopened as an autonomous university by the Provisional Government of Eritrea in 1991 and currently focuses on the teaching of undergraduates. UOA recently began offering a two-year diploma course for prospective middle school teachers, which will continue until the proposed Keren Teachers 59 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Training College Project or an alternative is undertaken to create an institution specifically for middle school teacher certification. There are no graduate or research programs at UOA. As of 2000, the majority of the tertiary education students was enrolled at UOA. 144. The duration of tertiary studies differs by Box 5.1. Asinara Teacher Training Institute program and institution, ranging from one-year Partnerships witb SL Mlirtirie CoUege of England teacher certificate programs at TTIs to four-year A Link Prograrn..between Al and St. N1ariine degree programs at UOA. Teacher training -College begat in April 2002. This program will be institutions specialize in training professional operatonal for tliree years. 'The Link focuses its teachers for primary schools. Advanced level acivities oni developing -menlor expertise, vocational education institutions comprise the specifically in-sutpportng tekher-training progams third and final level in TVET provision. These emotional stress.. h .; , c W .institutions provide training in machine shop, accounting, banking and finance, management, Source:,Enritrea Newslerer1, Te Brinsh Council. Aprl- and secretarial science. . June.2002-. -. 145. A policy and governance framework for tertiary education is yet to be developed and integrated into a larger policy framework for the development of the economy and society in general and for the improvement of the education sector in particular. Also, the governance system is not fully developed. While UOA is being operated as an autonomous academic institution funded directly by the Ministry of Finance (MOF), the other tertiary education institutions are under the jurisdiction of the MOE. The tables below summarize the structure, input and outcomes, and the govemance structure of tertiary education institutions. Table 5.1. Profile of Tertiary Education Institutions (as of 1999-2000) No. of Enrolment Academic/ Awards for 1999- Teaching Graduate 2000 Staff (1999- Duration of Output in Institution (Female %) 2000) Study (year) 1999-2000 Degrees Diploma Certificates UOA 4,135 (14) 230 4 477 X X x ABCI 295 (36) 18 2 139 - X - PT] 64 (1) 7 3 20 - x ATTI 606 (21) 33 1 562 . x MmT . 335(-) 18 1 - - - X Table 5.2. Governance Structure of Tertiary Education Institution in Eritrea Degree-offering Advanced TVET Teacher Training University Institutions Institutions Who sets goals, standards Institution MOE MOE Responsible to whom President MOE MOE Who recognizes, licenses - MOE MOE Who allocate resources MOF MOF & MOE MOE & MOF Who manages enrolment Institution (UOA) MOE & institution MOE & institution Who monitors quality' - MOE MOE Access and Coverage 146. The tertiary education sector enrolled only 2 percent of the relevant age population in 1998. Female enrolment remains at a low level (only 14 percent at the UOA). There is no active participation with UOA from the private sector or foreign institutions. Distance or part-time delivery of education is rare in all of the institutions of tertiary education. Part-time students have- declined during the last 5 years at UOA. Enrolment is largely determined by the availability of spaces at each institution. Due to its autonomy, UOA decides its own enrolment size while the 60 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report MOE controls the enrolment of other tertiary education institutions. Students are selected according to their performance on the ESECE. UOA has more than doubled its enrolment size from 2,040 in 1992 to 4,642 in 2000. With the expansion of primary education and thus a greater demand for teachers, ATTI has also increased its enrolment from 480 in 1997 to 610 in 1999. Enrolment at advanced vocational education and training institutions increased from 20 in 1996/97 to 360 in 2000/01. Although enrolment is increasing, Eritrea, along with SSA countries in general, still lags far behind other world region enrolment figures (see chart). Figure 5.1. Comparative Tertiary Education Gross EnroRment Rato (1970197) - , F Eastem Eurpe/Central '- 35'- 'A's.,'i.a' ' .' t . 1'''1 ''' -E' t '' -' ' --- a aO a 25 S aain ./;ca - CD-. -'~_-'~.' '-. America/Caribbean ,,..- 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995 1997 -, ' - ;; , - . - --: .-. . ........ 5 i' - s-ub-Saaa fgi~ - .:- . . ~1970 .. 1980 1985 1990 - 1995 : . .1997 : Source: The World Bank, 2002. C,nstructgj,owledge Societies: New'Challi6engs''or e Edai( .73) Figure 5.2.-Enrollment-by, FqO04.4 147A UA1ofsemester,re 2000/2001) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ pogam,7 diplomna courses, and 4 certificate courses HealtAgrcultura;' through its 7 colleges. The Scienc 10% - enrolment breakdown shown 8% Education in Figure 6.2 shows that the ;7% \ 5|&, ='"largest number of students is - enrolled in the colleges of education and arts and social - - EngineerigngA _ - 11% :. >// \4 - -science. The faculty of education provides both Science / Arts and degree and diploma courses 11% Business and ocial Science. for prospective middle and Economics - 19% : secondary school teachers. -. . . ~~14% ,.Source: Tbe University of Asmara Finiancing, Staffmg and Infrastructure 148. The GOE spending on tertiary education stands at 10 percent of the total public recurrent education and training budget in 2000. UOA alone consumes 9 percent of this recurrent budget. This is due mainly to fact that university education is provided firee of charge to those who are 61 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report selected. As of 2002, the government will contribute about 50 percent of UOA's total annual budget, and 100 percent of ABCI and TTI's annual budget. The remaining sources of income for UOA come primarily from various external contributions. At present, UOA is receiving funds from 5 donor agencies. Available information on institutional spending suggests that tertiary education institutions have differing patterns for allocating their resources. UOA spends most of its resources on institutional capacity building. This includes capital outlays, reflecting an urgent need for expansion and quality enhancement. In contrast, ABCI and ATTI have little budget for capital expenses, making it.difficult to invest in infrastructure such as ICT and other technologies. 149. Student-teacher ratios of tertiary education institutions range between 15 and 20. The quality of the academic staff seems to be poor as the majority only have BA degrees. UOA is suffering from both quantity and quality dimension of staffing as it has outgrown its capacity over time. Advanced degree-holding instructors are relatively small in all institutions. Females are under-represented in UOA. While academic staff at UOA is recruited at the institutional level, MOE appoints ABCI and ATTI instructors. Staff workloads vary by institution. Faculty members at UOA are responsible for around 9 credit hours per week as lecturers. ATTI teachers have a heavy workload due mainly to non-teaching responsibilities such as evaluation, curriculum development and guidance/counselling. Opportunity for staff development is provided through various external linkage programs at UOA. However, TTI teachers lack professional development opportunities and career structure. It is recommended that the University and other tertiary institutions, in addition to the UOA 15 year development plan, develop a common vision and development strategy for the short, medium and longer term, and commence a dialogue with the MOE in order to coordinate their respective strategies. The strategies should all be accompanied by realistic and relevant action plans with agreed cost estimates. This shouldform the basis for discussion with the Ministry of Finance, and the donor community. Aidfor higher education should be coordinated with the donors, but the UOA should also keep its relative flexibility to mobilize funds and resources on its own. 150. There appears to be a severe infrastructure problem in higher education, as at all level in the Eritrea education and training system. The main university building is old and badly in need of maintenance. In addition, there is a shortage of space and specialized facilities, such as science laboratories, language labs, and other specialized research and teaching space. The UOA and other institutions are typically overcrowded with students. Buildings and lecture roorms have not been adequately refurbished or maintained. It is only recently that tertiary education institutions have begun to use ICT and other technologies in administration, management and course delivery tasks. UOA has introduced an ambitious plan to computerize its administration, library and other infrastructure for teaching and research (e.g. upgrading the Central Administration with the Dutch University of Groningen). Introducing modern technology in management at all levels is of great importance. The strengthening of the management and administrative capacity, at all levels, should be a priority for the UOA and other tertiary institutions. Specific support should be given to the strengthening and expansion of teacher training capacity, both for pre- service and in-service, and to make teacher training an attractive and high-quality academic choice. Output and Quality 151. The tertiary sector in Eritrea as a whole produces 1,100-1,200 graduates per year (400- 500 bachelor's degrees from UOA, 900 graduate teachers from TTI's, and 200 diploma holders from advanced TVET institutions). There is no doubt that this helps the country to broaden it4n knowledge and skill base. There is almost no information on the employment status of graduates. Anecdotal evidence suggests that most graduatesfind their work in the public sector. One of the problems is that the shortages of skilled people in Eritrea is so great and extends to all areas, 62 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report that almost anybody with some sort of education and training willfind employment. The dominance of the State in the economy is the cause that most skilled labor ends up in the public sector, but it is hoped (and necessary) that this will change in the nearfuture as the private sector gains strength. The challenge for the UOA and other tertiary institutions is to prepare for the longer-term economic developments and to anticipate the medium term labor skills needs. This will require in-depth studies of the Eritrea (private and public) economic development trends and the related local labor market. All Tertiary education is heavilyfinanced from limited pubic resources, and therefore the tertiary education and training system should effectively contribute to national growth (and to teacher quality since developing the basis of the education and training system should be one of the highest priorities for Eritrea). In this vein, tracer studies would inform the MOE and UOA how to better determine and manage enrolment and output. 152. The UOA and other tertiary education institutions are making impressive efforts to enhance the quality and relevance of their products through a variety of methods. They are seeking feedback from employers, consulting relevant line ministries and stakeholders, and building external linkages to bring in new knowledge and ideas. Nonetheless, it would appear that the quality of tertiary education remains at a very low level, as is illustrated by the quality of student intakes, staffing and poor physical infrastructure. The challenge seems to be the building of an appropriate accountability system with mechanisms such as stakeholder participation, competition and international benchmarking. This would provide incentives for the institutions to be more responsible for the quality of education they provide. It will also require high quality and standards of output for both the university and all middle and higher-level TVET institutions. No strategy or action plans for this kind of development exist currently. The various faculties and institutions are more or less developing on their own, and appear to have a short-term view of economic development issues and_future directions. Eritrea needs new private sector enterprises and industries, in new technical and service-oriented areas. This will require a fundamental change in the management and planning forward capacity of higher education. Development Strategies 153. There is a consensus in Eritrea that opportunities for tertiary education need to be expanded. The current focus of developing tertiary education appears to be on expansion through government provision andfinancing. The MOE plans to upgrade the TTI's and advanced TVET institutions to become community colleges or junior colleges. This will be costly, and it is not clear on which economic development or labor market demand trends the expansion of the six junior TVETcolleges (which will offer 3-year courses) is founded. The MOE has formulated its vision for continued education in various policy documents. It envisages Colleges of Further Education and Training (CEFT), whose main function will be to train skilled labor, consolidate the transition from school to work, and provide opportunities for continuous learning.26 According to the MOE's TEVT strategy, 3 full-fledged community colleges will be established.27 It seems that the expansion of the UOA is not linked to the larger education and training strategy of the MOE, but rather that the UOA is in competition with the MOE. This is not in the interest of economic development of the country. 154. UOA began its Fifteen-Year Strategic Plan in 1995, with Short Term (1995-2000), Medium Term (2000-2005), and Long Term (2005-2010) goals of both expansion and quality enhancement. As a way of increasing enrolment, UOA plans to construct six new 3-year junior colleges (advanced TVET) including Natural and Paramedical Science College at Mendefera. A major development strategy is "external linkages" of which typical components are: staff development, staff secondment, curriculum review and development, and strengthening of library 26 MOE, 2001. Our People Are Our Future 27 MOE, 2001. TEVT Sub-sector Achievements. Policies. Strategies and Priorities 63 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report and research. As of 2002, 8 colleges of UOA have 12 such external linkage institutions. The Word Bank supported Human Resource Development Project (HRDP) has also made substantial contributions to institutional capacity building of both UOA and the government with a total enrolment of over 600 students in various degree programs (bachelor's degree 133, master's degree 513 and doctoral degree 5) at foreign institutions. To date the linkages between the expansion strategies of the UOA and the GOE national development goals are unclear, especially the interdependency with the human development goals formulated by the MOE. It is also unclear how these strategies will be prioritized and financed. Conclusions and Recommendations for Higher Education 155. Significant progress has been made towards access and coverage. Enrolment has more than doubled for UOA. The supply of teachers and technical manpower has also increased as a result of institution building and expansion. There is a need to improve coverage and quality of tertiary education. The 18-24 age group of Eritrean population is projected to increase sharply and the EFA goals of the GOE would also dramatically increase primary, middle and secondary enrolments. Consequently the pressures on the tertiary levels will increase correspondingly. The current enrolment of about 2 percent of the relevant age group in tertiary education insufficient to bring about the economic and social changes envisioned by the GOE. The investment and recurrent financial needs will be significant and must be placed in the wider context of the education and training sector development priorities. 156. The fiscal constraints call for changes in development strategy for Box 5.2. 'Borderless" Tertiary Education Market tertiary education and training. The will need to come-in for Virtual.universities: The Meyucan Virtual University of ':' private sector wlll neea to come m for -:M°nte-bffef§ 15 master's degree-programs using two main reasons: (a) to provide jteleconferencing and the Ihternet to reach 50,000 students in additional financial support, and to bring 1,450'1e,ni'ng centers. throughout Mexico and' 16 other centers in competition, and higher quality and spread aWi over Latiin A,merica. The African Virtual Ufiiveisity better relevance of the outputs. Public -and the Francophone Virtual University are pioneering virtual 'edfication in Sub-~Saharan-Africa. provision of tertiary education is unlikely Feranchse universibiesl One`fifthof the,80,00 for,ii to increase with the current approach, and students enirolled in Australian universities are studying at the current private share of provision is 6ffshore-campuses, mainly ii-Malaysia and Singapore. minimal. Alternative delivery of tertiary iCorporrate iuiiiver'si ties: Recognized as one of the most education such as.distancerpsuccessful corporate-uriversities in benchmaring exercises, education, such as distance or part-time "h Motorola Unversity, which-operates with a,yearly budget of programs, should also be developed 120'million6dollars epresenting almost.4 poercent of its annual rapidly, because it will allow payrol , manages 99.1earning and training sites in 21 countres. significantly better coverage and cost- Media-comlpaniees, ibradine, museums: Examples involve efficiecy in ll tertary edcationpublishing.companies: providing-services liniked to curricdulum efficiency in all tertiary education -sl d'*9maelsf o * deinad the preartion of educational materials for online' institutions. delivery, or museums andbranes 'offriig continuing *ediiation couirses. 157. Eritrea's dependency on donor euao ore. - 1Education brokers: Companies'like Connect Education, Inc. funding will continue for some time to and-Electronic .Univers'ity -Net'wrk build,'lease and manage, come. This is especially true for the ca&puses` 'pro,du,ce 'miultimedia educational software, and Education and Training sector, including provide guidance:to'ser,vethe training,needs of corporate-clie,nts tertiary education and training. It is worldwide. therefore important for the GOE to Source: The World Banik -2002. Constructing Kn6wledge:Societies.: . develop specific strategy plans, and 1New Chafenges for.Tertiary-Education. organize a regular dialogue with all donors to channel the extemal funds according to the GOE's agreed priorities. This was not entirely clear in the past few years, where external donors continued to fund according to their own preferences and interest. It is important that both the donor community and the GOE agree on better coordination mechanisms and engagement rules. 64 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main. Report The other important source of extemal funding is through Eritrea' s "Diaspora". The UOA has already started to tap this source. The additional funding should be integrated into the strategies of the UOA and MOE. This will require formal communication, openness toward other donors, and improved transparency and accountability of the received funds. -Box 5.3.' Responseto aBorderless Tertiary, -ucaUon' 158. A stronger linkage between .. '. o3 . - -.. . . - .-..: ..'- -'UOA and the MOE could be achieved In-many countries? the naional tertiaTy e (a) df the respective roles increasingly challenged'by the availability of foreign programs by reeining through - -''distance ,education, franchise insttutions and- 3jnjin and responsibilities; and (b) course,s.. Very, few, de,veloping nations. h,ave afin. -establisi*d' strengthening the existing coordination accreditation and evaluation system, let'aline do'they.haveaccess-' mech'anism through linking budget to the-n s inforrnaon.on the quality these foreign and programs. The development of an programs or enlj6 tbe institutional monitoriinng capacityobe ae amelea to.: detect fraud and protect their students from low' quality enabling policy framework could also offerings. AIecent survey in Ind,ia sh6wed' thait '-ot o'f 144' be considered. This should include foreigni, ,r irs adetsn tetayedcto porii in the: establishing a legal basis, which sets conewspapers, 46 origi. neiTher eogized no actindiI in their. the standards for tertiary education; _country of rigin.i~ The risks of low-incomiecotuaitri'es 'fallngpey to unscrupulous borderless operators are .real. Thobe counties creates a mechanism whereby a new that cannot afford or do iot have the cap'it to dev'eloptheir institution is granted the authorization own in'formation 'sy'stem should have -the opporturuty -to - to operate; and most importantly, participate in international accreditation and evaluation networks. induce private participation and Another -option, following recent initiatives in Singapore Hong, investment Kong' and India, is to insist that foreignptertarry education institutions meet the same quality assurance requi ementsa,nd 159. A National Sector Strategy for guarantee the same type of degree recognition as those.prevailing T in the' parent institution'in-the country of origin. ertiary Education should be built upon the current strategy and Sburce:-lbe World Bank. 2002. Constructing Knowl0jg Societies: development plans of the UOA and New Challenges for.Terliary Education- Ne _ Challenges forTertiary Education . - other tertiary institutions. However, the linkages should be stronger and all plans should have realistic cost and financing estimates. Among the MOE, UOA and the other institutions of tertiary education, there is a common vision of the need for the expansion and diversification of the tertiary education system. A growth strategy of tertiary education needs to be integrated into a larger education and training sector strategy. As illustrated by experiences from other developing countries this process is complex and multidimensional (see text box and figure). 65 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Figure 5.3. Forces of Change in Tertiary Educatione < Regulations and Incentives Participation ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ hgerEdctin a / Li~~~~censing\ / ~~~~~Civil Service Rules\ / ~~~~Financial and Budget Rules\ and todCstnRecognition of Degrees & Competenyies / \ QuEty,Assumance Demand-Side FundPngrXrs / \ ~~~~Tax Code / \ Competitive Funding /\ IntiL ioa Forn~ula Funding / \ Participation /\ /Intttoa\/ IC\ M / / ~~~~~~~Autonomy\\ and Stakeholder Consuiltations Comipetitive Partnerships Boards of Trustees Tracer Surveys Competitive Delivery of fi _ Li~~nkages with Industry Emloyer Surveys Education Programs by. . . Ran~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~kings Variety of Providersv J \ ~~~Stirategic Alhances \// Surnaoa Unk Global Labor Market 28 The World Bank, (2002). Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education (p 73) 66 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report CHAPTER VI: OVERALL Focus OF SECTOR STRATEGY Overall Focus of Sector Strategy 160. In view of the Government's objectives and national strategy, the Eritrea education sector priorities over the next five to ten years should focus on: (1) Providing sustainable public funding of EFA, middle and secondary education, which should lead to significantly increased access and completion rates at pre-university levels; (2) Significantly improving primary, middle and secondary education quality, equity, relevance (3) Improving cost-efficiency in education and provide a better school and classroom environment; (4) Improving the management and governance of the system, and significantly strengthen the institutional capacity at central MOE and at the zoba management levels; establish clearer lines of responsibility and accountability for performance, 'and improve monitoring and evaluation mechanisms at central MOE, at zoba and at school level; (5) Improving coordination in decision making between the major sector actors (Ministry of Education, UOA, Finance, line Ministries); (6) Building up participation by Eritrea's private sector and promotion of private providers, by providing a transparent and pro-active incentive structure for private and public schools. 161. Under a "status quo" scenario for education and training, it is unrealistic to expect that Eritrea's current sector goals can be achieved with available public resources. The question to be solved first and foremost are how the Government can create a sustainable and equitable finance system for the sector. This should involve the private sector, and will require a more in-depth review of the sector's performance and how to reduce the relatively high salary levels. In many Asian and some African countries, teacher salary ranges are about 3-4 times GDP per capita. Additional incentives would need to be provided for teachers to go to rural areas. 162. The budgetary planning system in the education sector needs to be improved also, taking into account best international practices. It includes: * Transparent recurrent non-salary allocations for pedagogic materials * Improved career development prospects with incentives for achieving results * Provision of intensive (but short duration) training for all administrative levels (school directors, zoba, central), and installation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) services. 163. A concerted effort has to be made by the government and donors to drastically improve quality, relevance, equity and access to basic (primary and middle) and secondary education. Partnerships between public and private sector should also be actively encouraged, and monitoring and evaluation in the sector (EMIS) should be strengthened, based on performance improvement action plans at school and (sub) zoba levels. This also relates to the introduction of School and Zoba Performance Plans. Eritrea spends about 5 percent of its GDP on education and training (and an additional 2 percent by parents and communities). Compared with other low- income countries, Eritrea's performance lags behind. To provide better support to the schools and teachers, a reliable and effective inspectorate could be built up with technical assistance from other OECD countries. 67 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report Box 6.1. Teacher's Role in Acb;ve Learning: Nueva Escuela Unitafia in Guatemala - Teacbers are often the source of some of ihe best ideas for improving the way they (each and the way stude.nts:,earn In the Nueave Escuela Unitaria (NEU. New Multigrade Schools) in Guatemala. teachers are the key players-in' developing the curficulurm and in deciding how it is to be taught. Teachers from different NEU schools mneet together regulariytlo discuss their-ideas. knowledge, needs and problems and share how they address educational needs in their schools. The teachers hen agree on changes to initiate when they return to theireclassrooms and later -- inforTn the group of how the chartges worked in pi-actice. Tliisforbn of social learning is the central idea of the NEU model. These suppon tgroups encourage teachers to feel thai they are accountable for what they do th the classroom and raise thetr level of concern about their students. The innovations that have developed intihese ieachers',goups have ennched the education process in Guatemala /.En.. the classrooms in NEU schools, children of vanous ages play together and cooperate on lessons and.'pr.ojects sitting at common tables instead of individiual desks. The principle of self-directed learnung that prevails inNEU schools allow students to work at thei own pace and'devel6o tie' management skills. Collaborative projects h,elpstu"de"nts-' l develop communication and social skills, and the incorporation of cultural themes in those projects (such-as.human. rights or natural resource managemegt) means that what the students are leaming is relevant to theirlives. - Source: Educanonil Change in Latin Amenca and the Canbbean. 1998 Box 6.2. How the Private Sector Can Help Improve the Quiality Of Public Schods :i The IQE -Prog a The private sectoi can play a role in improving the leaching po,ddd by xig public schools. For example, the' instituto Qualidade no Ensino (IQE, the Institute for Improving Teachig Qtiality)'has helpedFpublic schoos mnSao Pauio raise their students' tests scores and lower their failure and dropout rates. More i--portatly,.this smill-scale - ,:pilot had a significant infl'ue-nce',on ,the government's own policies to'imnprove learing. The IQE is supported by privaie sector companiies in SAo Paulo and provides finanicial and technical support to - public schools with the aim of impToving the quality of education they provide. The organization is conducting a pilot.program in five Sao Paulo public schools. Students from the, schools are'tested tree-time a yeat.in aii effotto identify the areas in whuch remedial classes and on-site teacher training ar needed;- Test re'sults are returned to the schools,within three:weeks in a format Lhat provides detailed class-by-class and -student by student information. Rather than providing a simple score, the reports conin details of each student s grasp,of the various skills required'. by'the standard mathematics and Portuguese curricula, which stress logic and problem-solvin g skills. Armed with this information,,ihe IQE sends a technical teamfintothe school to provide LeacheT development wo'rkshops and'individuaLguidanc-e to thaders without disru pting regular asses. The team also assists . administrators and'teac ers.in adUustingclaas'sp'lans'ac--oiding to what was learned-fromn' the testresriits,-sel -tin''u'. incentivs for- he ~it d ineti pecific skills." Teacer re'ceiv'e speil ' g to 30% of stud'ents toat,,, a -s, ot,te m,rem'r r, ,1,a,s sea'-s,'s a,essingrg peecicsls s i '' incentives-for- the extrna tireey inmvest.. ,A :a composed:of volunteers froim the c6mpa'nies that are funding the. pilot, Secretariat of Education o,fficia s, teachers and parents supervise the p' cess and assist the schoos' . - administrators in p]r,o,blem solving and,planihrog.' - Schools involved in,the pilot:priject have made rapid and 'significant gains in student educational attainment anidl retention rates at a low cost.: After th,ie yearsin thne prograi fourth graders-at one school achieved Portuguese ... scores that were 49o%:higher and niath scores that were42% higher than those they had achieved in the first grade. Sinilar test results' we're.aclh,ieved in,'.al of: ,,aicipating schools, while fadure anddropout raesfllb 30%- Source: Educatioal Change inXi;'Aii,nierica-and Ihe.Canribbean,1998.. 164. The rate of increase in Eritrea's enrolment at primary, middle and secondary levels was rather slow during 1993-2001. This is compounded by the serious inefficiencies (around 18 percent per grade repetition and 10-14 percent averages for dropout rates), which resulted in 19991 in a 37 percent NER for primary, and around 12-14 percent for middle and secondary cycles. Over 50 percent of eligible primary school children do not enter middle school and probably fall back to functional illiteracy. While the indicators for literacy are probably not the most reliable, available data suggest that overall illiteracy remains around 70 percent on average. Eritrea's literacy ratio is at the lower end of the scale, compared to those in the developing world, 68- Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report including Sub-Saharan Africa. There are also significant disparities in illiteracy rates among iiien and women. The MOE stated that five years of primary education is sufficient to acquire reasonable functional literacy. This is highly doubtful under the current system, where quality and relevance of teaching and learning are severely undermined. -Box 6.3. Radio Instruction for Literacy, Mathematics and Social Issues The -Interactive Radio Instruction for Somalis (IRIS) project is a pilot activity that addresses the urunediate 'educational needs of Somali-speaking children living in Region 5 of Ethiopia. The acmit iCy weaves issues such as ,.drought. conflictp,revention and mediation, girls' education and other pertinetri cultural issues into literacy and math instruction, areas of high demand for Somalis. The pilot will utilize Multichannel learnng and interaclive radio '':imstfuction ([RI) rnethods in developing an engaginrg, culturally sensitive, and educationally effeclive pilot program. -Multichannel learning programming techniques will also be applied-lo make radio broadcasit attractive to a large *shadow" audience of olderchildien and ad .flts'. EIDC's proposal is based upon the recognition that radio -is the mnost tppuIar mediumn for information and 'entertainmnent arnong Sounialis. Rad,io offers a powerful -and -ubiquitous rneans for reaching th'e- various :'Soinali communities scattered across`the' Horn. Ftirthermore,- inreracnve-radio instruction (IR!) with applications in more; than two dozen countriesduring the past twenty.-five years has pioven to be a cost-effective means foi improving educational quality in developing,counritries, E).C ,hasyorked with USAID in pioneenng the developrent-of tie DR! methodology ana in assisti'ng appications inmore than adoecuntries. Source: http://www.edc.oniuxiucl/S smcSp bt ons ' more . -a S. Interactive Radio Instruction in Guinea. Gwnea's National Institute for Research and Pedagogical-Support (iNRAP) initiated the broadest IRI p,rograrn in Africa in 1998. which trains teachers in the use of IRI and.child- centered approaches to teadhin'g.- In the 2000-01 academic year. [RI was introduced to grades 1 through 6 in every 'school in the country. Language, maths ard science are taught in French. and early evaluations show t,hatiheralebf learning increases at least '6 percet as .compared to control groups. Radho broadcasts are supplemented by.print materials, posters (in grades 1 ,tbVQugh $), and science kits (in grades 5 and 6). This is the first instance of an iRI program in West Africa goi9g'to scale at the national level and is the proocss of going through a broad'arra' of e6valuations. . Source: Enhancing .enii6ing Oppoitnimtiet in Afica, TXi World Bank, 2002: - 165. There is a need to review and update curricula, and link these to effective pedagogic learning and teacher training techniques. The MOE is in the process of redesigning the primary curricula. Updated curricula for middle and secondary level will require improved science, mathematics and ICT educatiop, including improved laboratories and pedagogical materials. This should be accompanied by the provision of funds for school rehabilitation and maintenance. It could be considered to develop a strategy for the provision of teacher housing in those rural areas as an incentive for attracting teachers. For the secondary level, it will probably be necessary to provide all secondary schools with adequate boarding facilities, especially for girls (equity reasons). This will require some research, and donor financial support. 166. The University of Asmara (UOA) and MOE have announced plans to create six "Junior Colleges", which will offer specific TVET courses. There is currently a severe shortage in Eritrea' s economy of every type of skills, creating enough labor market demand to be able to justify this development. However, the management and financing structure of these "Junior Colleges" will need to be carefully developed. The Government has also formulated a strategy plan for technical and vocational education and training (TVET). This sub-sector is financed by different line-Ministries, but donor support constitutes its main financing channel. Starting in mid-2002 funds for TVET support will also come from the multi-donor supported Demobilization 69. Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report and Rehabilitation kroject (IvJKf), tor wnicn IL)A IS one ol mne main inanciers. IL Wlil Ut; Ut;I aI for success that improved donor coordination and project implementation capacity be created within the MOE and also in the zobas. 167. Finally, the sector could benefit from more decentralized decision-making in management. However, this goes against the current centralized approach in the MOE. Longer term technical assistance will be needed to strengthen capacity at zoba levels with modem equipment and methodologies. 168. The following matrix provides a tentative "road map" for discussion and dialogue. It can serve as a basis for internal decision making and the selection of priorities. The final strategy and action plan will be determined by the government and its sector institutions. This matrix provides a guide, based on best practices from many countries, and may be helpful in addressing critical questions. Eritrea Education Sector Short and Medium/Long-term Goals Government Objectives, Comments and Short-term Goals (2003-2005) Medium/Long-term Goals Assumptions Cost and Equitable Financing 1. Bring the relatively high salary levels of teaching 1. Agree with donors on the A. The MOE and non-teaching staff to levels below at least 5 times outcomes of the cost and financing policy of entry GDP per capita. Agree with stakeholders on a study and implement the into grade I sustainable remuneration package (which might include recommendations. remains at 7 pension benefits). (Salaries were about 8-10 times GDP years of age per capita in 2000.) 2. Gradually implement until 2008. sustainable wage policy for After 2008, it 2. Select quantitative and qualitative sector education and training. could be performance targets to be used for a detailed cost and considered that financing study of the education and training sector per .Implement new budgeting 5 and 6 year level of education. Include linkages between MOE, system based on policy priorities. olds are allowed UOA, and TVET as well as the opportunity costs of 4. Set longer-term goals for sector or encouraged to parents for enrolling their children in school (Study to financing needs and determine enter grade 1. be delivered before the end of 2003). priority public funding goals (i.e. B. The MOE 3. Establish a new budgeting and planning system for EFA goals, balanced spending for intends to add - the education and training sector: middle level). an extra year to a. Establish and implement formal budget 5. Implement study middle school coordination mechanisms between the recommendations for budgeting and (no timetable for Ministries of Education, Finance and cost monitoring at zoba and sub- this is Economic Planning, other line ministries and zoba levels. available). the UOA and set up transparent coordination 6. Develop a strategy to phase in C. The MOE rules. p e lop a st aff.yintendseto b. Agree on the establishment of adequate pensions for teachers and staff, intends to institutional capacity for cost analysis and 7. Set up formalized mechanisms schooling for the budget preparation within the MOE, UOA and. for mobilizing and registering 5-6 year old age other line education and training institutions. funding from Diaspora and private, group. (Funding c. Undertake a study on how to create effective sources. implications are budgeting mnd cost monitoring capacity at not clear as of zoba and sub-zoba levels, including setting up 8. Apply criteria for equitable 29 IDA approved a US$60 million Credit for DRP in mid-May 2002. Other donor commitments will add to this package. About US$12-14 million is aimed at financing VTET activitieg for reintegration of ex-military personnel. 70: Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report an effective organizational structure and student support. reporting system and creating the appropriate skills mix, design measures for: 9. Develop a long-term strategy fiscal restraints 1) Balanced spending per level of for sustainable tertiary education make it education financing from non-public funds impossible to 2) Balanced spending relevant to unit costs (University of Asmara, Teacher significantly (primary US$55, secondary US$46, Training Institutes, and TVET). expand higher US$880 TVET, tertiary US$1,000) 10. Establish regulatory and withouttaking 3) Improved resource allocaton for school consensus seeking structures for funds from pre- environment (teaching and leaning consultation and development of tertiary materials, furniture, libraries, and if longer-term strategies (include education levels. possible, computers) representatives from local 4) Improved transparency of reporting on community leaders, private recurrent non-salary spending. enterprises and Diaspora). 4. Assess the workload of teachers and staff in 9. Review taxation structure to relationship to remuneration, taking intemational detem ine how private investment in practice into account and determine where and how education can be encouraged. savings can be-realized. 5. Strengthen capacity for donor coordination within the MOE. 6. Create a stronger partnership between the MOE and the private sector by promoting private provision of tertiary and higher education services through: a An enabling legal and regulatory environment b. Providing tax and other financial incentives to private sector and private tertiary institutions c. Creating govemment-funded mechanisms based on performance and equity criteria d. Remove entry barriers to private providers. 7. Design a system for capitation grants that follow students enrolled in both pubic and private schools, based on equity criteria. (See examples from Chile, Scotland, Korea, Netherlands, and Denmark.) 8. Actively encourage Diaspora investment in education services and design a system for ransparent monitoring of funds. Management and Institutional Capacity 10. Define responsibilities per level (national, zoba, 11. Link staff training to career A. A timetable sub-zoba and school) for decision making to take place development and provision of a for completion when decentralization is phased in. Give zoba managers balanced skills mix in each of the of sustainable adequate autonomy to set priorities and execute their central, zoba and sub-zoba offices. decentralization strategic zoba programs. Design and implement will be needed. performance improvement action plans for zobas and 12. With MOE and UOA The legal and sub-zobas based on eligibility criteria for funding and a coordination, implement the strategy regulatory performance reporting system. for satisfying the supply and framework for demand of administrative staff, education 11. Restructure the MOE administration to prepare for according to priority, reaching full training its new role in a decentralized system. capacity in a sustainable manner. provision will be 12. Conduct a survey of management capacity at all 13. Provide needed support for reviewed, levels and determine appropriate skills mix for each transition into the new decentralized apdated and zoba according to their priorities. Based on survey, system so as to comply with the approved in prepare a qualitative and quantitative plan to train established implementation timeline. administrative staff (current and future) with needed skills for decentralized responsibilities. 14. Train both administration and skills teachers on new responsibilities of 13. Prepare an implementation plan for ICT expansion administration and teachers. 71 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report (hardware and skills) into all zoba and sub-zoba offices and schools to improve communication and education 15. Strengthen and train EMIS staff management information systems (EMIS) capabilities. at the zoba level. (Include cost analysis) 16. Expand ICT into all zoba and 14. Establish a reliable and effective inspectorate, sub-zoba offices and schools. taking international best practices into account. 17. Strengthen UOA's capacity for 15. Agree on a framework for: transparent and effective monitoring a. Coordination between the UOA and MOE for and administration based on needs sector development and planning. survey and efficiency criteria. b. Quality and output of teacher training capacity for middle and secondary schools. 16. Strengthen local research capacity of the Faculty of Education for pedagogic and management support to schools and teachers based on a needs survey. Access and Equity 17. Conduct an in depth study on how to achieve EFA 18. Achievement of EPA goals A. Govermmen goals under a realistic and sustainable scenario. The according to action plans for 2010 t EFA goals are outcome should be a national EFA report satisfactory for and 2015. to achieve 100% international donor funding. enrollment and 19. Establish primary and middle completion rates 18. Conduct a school mapping exercise to establish the schools in each community. by 2015. need for provision of primary, middle, and secondary education services in each zoba. 20. Determine the need and cost to B. Funding build student boarding facilities and plan by donors 19. Develop a social and pedagogical monitoring teacher housing for middle and will be agreed in system linked to equity at zoba and sub-zoba levels. secondary schools. early 2003 to Develop a strategy plan to equalize the enrolment bridge the imbalance of different groups (rural/urban, boy/girl, 21. Develop strategy for funding gap. rich/poor). public/private participation to allow increased tertiary production. Link C. Donors will 20. Develop and implement an equitable plan for to Eritrea's economic objectives. closely transportation to schools. codnt hi 22. Develop a strategy to address coordinate their 21. Design fast-track diploma courses for out-of-school school options for Nomadic efforts. youth to obtain primary or middle school certification. children. D. Inefficienc y in the system 22. Improve school and classroom environment by: 23. Monitor progress and at all levels will. a. Piloting the use of solar energy packages and . efficiency of the coordination be reduced water storage facilities in schools. After one system. drasticaly with year, evaluate and take to scale. in the next three b. Assessing all schools' physical conditions and years. The prioritizing needs of maintenance and repair of govemment buildings per level. plans to reduce' c. Incorporating solar packages, water facilities inefficiency to and building rehabilitation into the zoba 10%. budgets. E. Outcomes 23. With World Bank support, organize and conduct a on teacher workshop to discuss funding gaps and reform in supply and education and training with all potential donors. demand will determine the 24. Study under what conditions parents/families are seed of willing to send their children to middle and secondary speed of schools. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sustainable access increase. 25. Review and adjust current school construction F. Resource methods (design, cost-efficiency). allocation per level will be balanced and equitable 72 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report . ~~~~~~~~~according to enrolment and poverty .____________________________ _ considerations. Efficiency 26. Consider immediate automatic promotion for 24. Address demand and supply A. Internation primary grades 1-3 or grades 1-5 concurrently with in- issues related to repetition, drop-out al experience service teacher training and awareness program on the and promotion rates. shows that grade benefits of automatic promotion at primary level and repetition does more objective criteria for repetition and quality of 25. Consider expanding pre- not necessarily teaching. This should lead to a change in attitude among primary enrolment (currently 5% improve a teachers which is one of the main factors for successful GER) student's introduction of efficiency improvement. academic performance. 27. hnmediately phase out over-aged entry by capping Repetition is a the grade I enrolment age at 9 years. Provide alternative significant primary education services for entering students over 9 source of years of age. wastage in the 28. Provide extra ctassroom support to students and current system. teachers to improve mastery of English so students may B. According successfully transition into English as the language of to intemational instruction (grade 6). literature, early 29. Develop and implement mechanisms to improve childhood transitons between grades and levels, lowering education is cost inefficiency to 10%. decreases 30. Conduct a study on factors contributing to: repetition and a. Late enrolment (around 50% of new grade I drop-out. students enter late), b. Repetition (15-19%), c. Drop-out (16%) d. Promotion (69%) paying attention to differences among zobas and gender. 31. From the study results, set targets for reducing repetition and drop-out and increasing promotion. Develop and implement a strategy to address demand and supply issues linked to these trends. Quality and Relevance 32. Create enabling mechanisms for teachers to 26. Improve and strengthen teacher A. Good communicate one with another (local meetings, zoba training at ITlIs and UOA, making it practices were level workshops, etc.). an attractive choice for tertiary observed in education students. Supplement Ertirean 33. Develop and evaluate ICT means (distance both pre- and in-service teacher classrooms education through radio, etc.) for in-service teacher training with intemational and while on training and classroom support. domestic best practices. mission and 34. Revise and strengthen pre- and in-service teacher 27. Implement ICr means for pre- dcssenlnated to traiing by developing specific teaching strategies and and in-service teacher training. other schools. providing specialized instruction material for situations related to: 28. Provide cost efficient B. There a. Multiple over-aged students within one mechanisms for teacher professional should be a classroom development. "holistic" b. Nomadic student populations approach in c. Children with learning disabilities 29. Design, implement and fund implementing d. Multi-grade classrooms in rural areas training programs for middle and measures for secondary school teachers. teachers and 73 ritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report classroom 35. Design and implement a needs assessment survey 30. Develop an agreed framework pedagogy. for improved teacher support. with performance indicators to monitor teaching quality in the C. Consider 36. To improve pedagogy: classroom (per cycle and zoba). providing each a Conduct an in-depth study of pedagogy and school with a identify best practices in Eritrea and abroad 31. Provide sufficient numbers and package of 2 for application in primary and middle schools. quality of student textbooks and computers and b.- Provide mentoring/peer conferencing for rural teacher guides in line with printers and teachers and review teacher assignment new/revised curricula standards for software CDs distribution criteria according to teacher's primary and middle school. for professional experience. admninistration c. Monitor teacher's abilities to teach assigned 32. Implement and evaluate and teacher use. subject matter, particularly English. Provide incentive plan. needed support for adequate teacher mastery 33. Use strategy document to D. In many of appropriate subjects. appropriately provide needed, counries d. Consider introducing ICT for teaching and qualified teachers. prescrbed learning into middle schools. curriculum can e. Implement a study on the supply and demand 34. Implement new curriculum into be taught in 70- of teachers. Create a strategy document to primary, middle and secondary 80% of teaching equitably deploy teachers in all zobas. schools. time during the f. Create an incentive plan to recruit teachers to school year, rural areas and encourage local teachers to 35. Align teacher training with new leaving work in their own conmmunities. curricula material. flexibility for g. Implement a fast recruitment and training 36. Administer revised national inexperienced program for teachers to address shortages. exams. teachers and/or (See Uganda as an example). special projects. h. Provide support to teachers for diagnostic 37. Implement pedagogical school E. Middle testing and a databank of exam questions for implementation plans. school m-tiddle and secondary level. 38. Participate in international curriculum 37. Establish core subjects and their balanced content testing such as PISA and TIMSS. should be for each cycle of education, taking into account Design and implement pre-service planned intemational best practices and national needs. Ensure teacher training of diagnostic according to the logical sequence and coherence of curriculum and assessment and testing. new three-year attainment targets between grades and levels with schedule to be comparable intemational standards. 39. Develop databases with implemented. a. Primary: curriculum reform is underway with diagnostic tests and make these F. Experience Danish assistance. widely available to teachers. s from b. Middle: identify core subjects and redesign Mauritius, teacher and student textbook. Scotland, Korea, c. Secondary: Revise all subject curricula to Malaysia will comply with local needs and international provide useful standards (lessons may be drawn from OECD examples for guidelines). Develop and standardize renewed provision of cost efficient science labs and curricula. secondary school libraries. 38. After curricula reform: a Conduct regular impact reviews of new curriculum as it is introduced. b. Link new curricula content to revision of teacher training qualifications. c. Review quality of textbooks and teacher guides according to new curricula. Improve production, distribution, and use. 39. Provide standard support packages (school kits) per school and level. Provide all teachers with packages of free textbooks and teacher's guides (teacher kits). 40. Assessment and examination improvements: a. Improve capacity at zoba level to conduct primary, middle, and secondary school _ 74 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Main Report assessments. b. Implement a review study of the technical quality of examination and assessment practices for primary, middle and secondary education cycles (with intemational assistance). Take into account best practices from TIMSS and PISA. Phase in appropriate changes. c. Review the quality and relevance of national exams and make appropriate changes. d. Provide better in-service assessment training for teachers. e. Based on eligibility criteria for funding and a performance reporting system, develop and establish a pedagogical school implementation plan (PSIP) for individual schools. 41. Set clear standards for teaching performance and school management. Life-Long Learning and TVET 42. Assess labor market needs for trained workers. 40. Provide adequately equipped. Develop a strategy to piovide adequate TVET training labs and skilled technicians and in labor market demand-driven needs for skilled instructors in all vocational areas workers. Create appropriate links between the labor according to labor market demand. market and TVET training. 41. Establish sufficient life-long 43. Partnership with the private sector to ensure quality learning mechanisms to provide and relevance. continued education to the-out-of- school population, including ICT 44. Review the national certification and qualification means. system for both public and private TVET and modify accordingly. 42. Implement strategy document to improve SDC efficiency and 45. Evaluate and develop ICT capacity for distance quality. education for adults as alternative means for primary, middle or secondary completion as well as other programs. 46. Establish needs for adequate life-long learning mechanisms to provide continued education to the out- of-school population. 47. Review MOE and UOA policy on Junior Colleges, include cost analysis. 48. Develop a strategy for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of Skill Development Centers (SDC) with cost analysis. 49. Review the country's adult literacy program, assessing its curriculum and materials. Develop a strategy plan for equitable establishment of literacy courses throughout the country. 75 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 1 ANNEX 1: EDUCATION SERVICES AND PROVISIONS Economic and Social Background 1. Eritrea's independence struggle started in 1961 when Eritrea was annexed by Ethiopia. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) gained control of Eritrea in May 1991. Following an internationally supervised referendum, Eritrea formnally gained its independence on May 24, 1993. Open conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia erupted in May 1998, as a consequence of a dispute over their common border in the Badme region. Until May 2000, the war with Ethiopia was contained to a relatively limited area in Eritrea, with some 270,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs) escaping the border territories. However, in May 2000, full-scale fighting resumed for five weeks and Ethiopia advanced into Eritrea. This caused severe destruction, and a humanitarian crisis. In June 2000, peace talks resumed on the basis of the existing OAU Peace Framework Agreement. Today Eritrea is still maintaining a significant proportion of its 15-14 years old age group in the army. This is expensive and uses valuable public resources that could otherwise be used for social and economic development. The Government spent about the equivalent of Eritrea' s total GDP in 2000, and it plans to continue these unsustainable high public-spending patterns for some time to come. In 2005 it is projected that the Government will still spend about 50% of its GDP for public services; a significant proportion of that will still go to the maintenance of the army. Among the positive signs is that the Eritrea Government will start the demobilization and reintegration process of soldiers in the coming months. 2. The wars, as well as a drought, have brought untold destruction and disruption. One third of Eritreans were displaced from their homes and communities, and deprived of their livelihoods. Massive destruction of schools, health clinics, agriculture, power supply, local roads, bridges, and water supply are further exacerbated by the ongoing drought. The economic impact has been far- reaching in agricultural output; exports and government revenues have all fallen dramatically. The fighting and displacement in the most productive areas of Eritrea have resulted in a devastating loss of agricultural output. There has been little or no rain for the past three years in most of the country and the poor rains of the 1999 winter resulted in widespread crop failure. The loss of trade with Ethiopia has led to. a two-thirds decline in port revenues and a significant drop in exports. The depreciation of the exchange rate and lack of access to foreign exchange are constricting. growth, particularly private sector development. Demographic and Health Situation 3. Eritrea's population is estimated at about 4 million in 2000, with a projected annual growth rate over the next 3-5 years of 2.3%. Between 2000 and 2020 the population of Eritrea will increase at a projected annual rate of 2.1%, resulting in a 50% larger population. By 2020, the population growth rate is anticipated to decline to 1.9% (2015-20), but the population will have grown to 6.2 million. The population' of Eritrea will continue to grow over the next twenty years due to its high fertility rates. The population under 15 years will decrease from 45 % of total population in 2000 to 38% by 2020, although in absolute terms, this population sub-group will increase from 1.9 to 2.3 million. The largest percentage increase will be seen among the adult population (15-60 years) from 50% in 2000 to 58% in 2020. By 2010, the country's All data and inforination regarding demographics and health are based on a draft Eritrea Health Sector Note. A task team for the preparation of this Note is led by Eva Jarawan (Lead Health SpeciaGst, AFTH3). 76 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I population will be 24% larger, and the major health burden will be from children and women of childbearing age. Table Al.l. Eritrea: Demographic and Health Indicators and Projections Indicators Actual LProjected 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Population (millions) 4.10 4.60 5.10 5.60 6.20 Population change since 2000 (to) 12% 24% 37% 51% Population Growth Rate (%) 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.6 Life Expectancy at Birth (years) 50- Sl 54 57 58 Total Fertility Rate 5.2 4.7 4.1 3.5 2.9 Infant Mortality / 1,000 live Births 61 57 52 47 43 Population by Age Groups # Children under 5 years 0.7 (18%) 0.7 (16%) 0.8 (159%r) 0.8 (14%) 0.8 (13%) # Youth under 15 years 1.9 (45%) 2.1 (45%) 2.2 (43%) 2.3 (40%) 2.3 (38%) # Labor Force Participation (15-60) 2.1(50%) 2.3(51%) 2.7(53%) 3.1 (55%) 3.6 (58%) Dependency Ratio (%) Total((underl5andover60years) 100 97 91 81 74 Youth only (under 15 years) 90 88 81 72 65 Source: World Development hidicators. World Bank, 2001 4. Life expectancy remains 50.4 years overall in 2000 (52 years for females and 49 years for males). By 2020, life expectancy in Eritrea is projected to increase to 58 years overall. The total age-dependency ratio remains high with almost half the population either under 15 (46%) or above 60 years (5%), resulting in a total dependency ratio of 100 %, and an aged dependency ratio of. 10%. The reduction in the total dependency ratio will remain slow within the next twenty years. By 2020 the dependency ratio will be around 74%. 5. Modem contraceptive methods are used by 4% of the currently married women. Over 90% of the urban population (both men and women) and over half of the rural population know about modem contraceptive methods. Female circumcision is still almost universal (95% of women). Women's average age at first birth was 21 years in 1995. About 7% of married women were in a polygamous union in 1995, with variations found by zones (Southern Red Sea Zone at 22% and Southern Zone at 3%). In the population above five years of age, the top five causes of in-patient mortality were consequences of HIV/AIDS, TB, ARI, Malaria, Hypertension, and other Liver diseases in 1999. In 1998, TB was the second and HIV/AIDS was the fifth cause of inpatient mortality in the age group five years and above. In just one year, however, HIV/AIDS has emerged in 1999 as the first major cause of inpatient mortality in the age groups 5 years and above. Eritrea Government Education and Training Strategy and Action Plans 6. Most of Eritrea's population is young and outside the economically active group of citizens. This suggests a substantial dependency burden (96%) on the adult population. It also suggests a challenge and an opportunity in terms of developing a substantial pool of human resources for the country. Although nearly 80% of Eritrea's economically active population is engaged in agriculture and related agro-pastoral activities, this sector accounts for less than 15% of the country's GDP. The decline in agricultural productivity is symptomatic of a number of factors, including frequent drought, environmental degradation and lack of investment in facilities and skill training. The broad principles underpinning the need for balance in national 77 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 1 development have been articulated in the government's macro-policy framework (GSE, 1994)2. This framework focuses on growth with equity in the context of an open market economy in both agriculture and industry; human capital formation, with education and health as key inputs; and irmprovements of infrastructure and services. The framework also sets the strategic parameters around which medium and long term plans are being developed by sector institutions, including education and training. Education and training will play a crucial role in addressing Eritrea's human resource needs. The government's macro-policy further states that key inputs are the provision of "broad based education incorporating widespread dissemination of skills and languages and extensive human capital formnation" (GSE, 1994: 10). This is translated into a set of objectives: * produce a population equipped with the necessary skills, knowledge and culture for a self-reliant and modem economy. * develop self-consciousness and self-motivation in the population to fight poverty, disease, and all the attendant causes of backwardness and ignorance. * make basic education available to all. 7. The Government's Education and Training Policy are described and discussed in the following documents: * The EPLF Experience in the Field * Eritrea Macro-Policy (GSE) * The Constitution of Eritrea and the PFDJ Transitional Constitution • Eritrea' s declaration of policy on education (PGE) * Eritrea: analysis of current societal situations and future needs 8. The government's principles for Eritrea' s National System of Education and Training are based on (a) Access'and Equity; and (b) Relevance and Quality. The Govermnent's policy declaration on education includes statements on education as a human right and as a means by which'equity can be achieved: "Every citizen has thefull right to be schooled .... As such policy is being rendered practical, special attention will be paid to those quarters of Eritrea which, so far, have not had much schooling opportunities. " In addition, the government declaration states that primary and, middle schools will provide sound general education focusing on core basic skills, whereas education at the secondary school level shall be used to prepare "productive citizens" through the provision of practical oriented learning. Another important feature of the declaration is the need to-use education as a tool for national integration and development. In a way, these principles reflect the adaptation of the Eritrea Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF) field experience of the past to the realities and challenges of the present. The Third Congress of the EPLF held in Nakfa a few years ago made similar statements. Also, the national policy emphasizes the importance of developing "productive, patriotic and tolerant citizens". 9. The governrment states in its human resources policy document the principles of education, and declares: "Education in Eritrea is a fundamental human right and a lifelong process by which all individuals are given opportunities to attain their potential as all round citizens along with a firm belief in and loyalty to the Eritrea nation. This process includes the development of enlightened, creative, confident and productive individuals' with a sense of ., responsibility and social justice who are capable of contributing towards the,development of a 2 Our people are our future: A framework for the development of Human resources in the education sector; Ministry of education, Asmara, November 2001. 78 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I united, harmonious, democratic, equitable, modern, technologically advanced and self-reliant Eritrea." The Government's Analysis of Education and Training Sector Achievements and Issues 10. Like many other countries, Eritrea faces the dual challenge of having to increase access to education and training, while at the same time improve the quality, relevance and efficiency of the system. Unlike many other countries, however, Eritrea faces the added challenges of social and economic repairs due to the liberation war and the recent border conflict, and the need to adapt to a rapidly changing global market. The implication in this context is that educational and training provision will have to be linked to the overall socio-economic development strategy of the country. The system also has to respond to the legacy of conflict and war, which have also contributed to regional and gender imbalances in access to education. Net enrolment of primary age children stands at only 37% today, and many over-age children are in grades 1-5, because they could not enter at the appropriate age. This causes additional strains in the system. 11. Yet, the government considers that it made considerable progress over the past decade in improving education, both in terms of quantity and access. Regarding access, the govermnent has built more schools, and achieved modestly higher enrolment. Regional and gender disparities were also addressed. Regarding quality, the government has primarily focused on reforming the curriculum, supplying appropriate textbooks and upgrading the academic and professional competence of teachers. This was accomplished with limited resources. 12. As seen in Table A1.2, there has been an increase in Eritrea's GER for basic and secondary education from 1993-2001. GER for basic education increased from 43% in 1993 to 57% in 2000 and GER at the secondary level from 14% in 1993 to about 21% in 2001. However, this hides important inefficiencies, which result in net enrolment rates (NERs) about 37% for primary, and around 12% for middle and secondary cycles. It may also be noted that over 50% of primary school children do not enter mniddle school and probably fall back to functional illiteracy. Significant inefficiencies remain throughout the system, around 18% repetition and 10-14% for dropout rates. Table A1.2. Performance of the Education Sector in Erilrea and Sub-Saharan Africa 1993 1995 1998 k OO __ EntTea Eritrea Entrea -.-.Eritie. 'a Eibiopia ;.Uganda SSA GER basic (grades 1-7) 43 50 51 - <51 43j' r - -747- 783-? GER secondary tgrades 8-11 14 IS 16 ._2 17 1'5 GERterlazy I l X 2I ; 29 - NA, Illiteracy (Overall) 54 48 I 70; 62.. 33 39 Illiteracy (Males) 39 37 34 56 2'- 30- IillLeracy (Females) 68 66 62 67 43 46 - SnudentfTeacher rauo 37 40 43 . -49 -43;.- 35 'to.io Education expenditure in %r. of GDP 2 2 3.0 5 1 Ts-74 i41 S_ 4 ,=-4.i. .: Education expendirare as .- of total govi. expenditure 3.9 .S 6.2 7. 4 13 - 1' NA .. NA Educauion E%penditure per capita $(person i 34 5.4 9.3 -: 1.' -.--4.5. 96-' NA 79 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 1 The data is for the year 1998. Data is for the year 1995 - Data is for the year 1994 SSA- Sub-Saharan Africa: lliteracy rate for Eritrea in MOE reports is estimated at average of 70% (MOE literacy progranmne 2000101, Adult Education Division), the male and fernale illiteracy rates are not stated in that report. Source: Education Sector Review; World Bank database I In the case of Ethiopia, Uganda and Sub-Saharan Africa the enrohnent rate is for primary level (grades 1-8). 13. While the indicators for literacy are probably not the most reliable, overall illiteracy remains around 70 % on average. Literacy is far below international development goals and those in the developing world, including Sub-Saharan Africa. There are also significant disparities in illiteracy rates among men and women. 14. Compared to averages for low-income countries, in sub-Saharan Africa in particular, Eritrea remains far behind in the performance of its education and training system. Despite efforts in literacy and adult education, and "Education For All" the performance indicators are not improving fast enough, and Eritrea risks falling even further behind countries with comparable incomes and development. Certainly if we consider that the country is spending about 7% of GDP on this sector, the comparison with low-income countries which spend similar amounts does not come out in favor of Eritrea. In addition, the Government would benefit from addressing the puzzling issue of teacher and staff salary levels, which are on average found to be about 8 times the GDP per capita. This needs to be researched, analyzed and addressed in the context of sustainable public financing of the system. 15. Another pressing concern in Eritrea is the quality, relevance and equity of education. The MOE and the Government are aware of these issues and have recently announced that the education and training sector is one of the Government's top priorities. It is crucial that the Government of Eritrea do more to expand basic education, increase levels and thresholds of literacy, expand and realign the secondary school system, improve its teacher training system, and mobilize the private sector and private providers of education and training services. Eritrea Government Strategy for "Education For All (EFA)" 16. Analysis of Figure A 1.1. Eritrea: Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Level available education sector data, reports and the Eritrea 60% EFA 2000 assessment reveal that efforts to 50% - develop an equitable, high- quality and efficient 40% education system from 30% 1991-2001, notably at basic 30% and secondary levels, by 20% - - - - - both the public and private __ __)K____ K sectors need to be 10% - _ _ _-4 significantly intensified in - _ _ _ the coming decade. Very 0% few children in the country 199293 1994/95 1996/97 1998/99 have access to early --Elementary GER * ,Elementary NER childhood education. The - i - Middle GER - Middle NER net enrolment rate in formal -l- Secondary GER -_Secondary NER basic education is low. 80 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I Gender and regional disparity in education are common. The illiteracy rate is high, around 70% according to the MOE. All programs in basic vocational training, continuing education and informal education for human living are lagging far behind the needs of the people. 17. Management of the education sector at national, regional as well as school levels has been weak. The MOE has a plan in place to decentralize many responsibilities and related resource management to the zobas. However, this will require substantial, longer term strengthening of the zoba administration for the provision of education services and the monitoring and evaluation of education outcomes. 18. The Government of Eritrea (GOE) and its Ministry of Education (MOE) have formulated ambitious and far-reaching plans to achieve the goals of EFA by 2010 as well as to improve the education system in terms of equity, quality, efficiency and relevance of what is taught and learned. The building of the national framework of action for Education for All has been a crucial task in the continuum of achieving national sector goals. This is the corner stone of the Eritrea Education Sector Strategy. To successfully execute this national education sector strategy, the World Bank and other donors would need to support Eritrea with substantial resources over the next decade. Donor support is also justified and required in view of the international EFA initiatives by international communities. Under the current scenario and with the strong commitment from the GOE and the population, Eritrea can and will reform its education sector by 2010, followed by a phase of consolidation. The cost implications of the EFA and reform strategies are being analyzed and additional detailed studies will be executed under the proposed Eritrea Education Sector Improvement Project (EESIP), which will be financed by IDA and other donors. Limiting factors identified at present are (a) the MOE absorption rate of donor resources, (b) the weak management at MOE central and zoba levels, and (c) the need to reform concurrently the curricula at primary, middle and secondary levels, and (at the same time) retrain teachers and improve school management. However, there is no doubt that Eritrea can be a "fast track" country under its present scenario and that the MOE has the commitment to implement this. 19. The depth and scope of the Framework3 is organized across four areas. The first part presents the context under which EFA interventions will be made. The second part offers a macro-level orientation of EFA in terms of maturation stages, goals and strategies. The third part discloses EFA program briefs and targets until the year 2015. And the fourth part presents an organizational structure of the Eritrea EFA movement regarding the possible origin of required resources, mobilization of commitment, consultation structures and implementation benchmarks. 20. National development goals are linked to the EFA challenges. EFA is linked to poverty alleviation. It will help in the fight to improve the living conditions of children and taking measures against the spread of HIV/AIDS and other diseases in general. EFA will also help to eradicate illiteracy and provide basic education (grades K-9) for all. The major challenge in Eritrea for accelerated poverty alleviation is improving the access and quality of education and basic social services to the poor. All persons should have the opportunity to lead a long, healthy, creative and productive life and enjoy an adequate standard of living. To create a guarantee for equitable and sustainable development, poverty reduction should begin with children. In order to ensure the right role of EFA in poverty reduction, education policy reforms should be designed to achieve efficiency, equity, quality and effectiveness. These reforms will be based on the overall reforms of policies at macro level. Acknowledging the enormous disparities and cultural 3 Eritrea National Framework for Action, Ministry of Education, The State of Eritrea, July 2001, Asnmara. 81 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I diversity of Eritrean society, special measures and incentive policies benefiting the poor and marginalized groups should also be implemented under EFA. 21. The GOE intends to increase public spending on EFA in a way that promotes poverty alleviation. Thus, more investments in basic education infrastructure, improvement of quality, and monitoring in a way that gives special consideration to equity issues will occur. There will be more emphasis given to ethnic minority areas, marginalized areas and regions, nomadic populations, rural areas and girls. Efforts will also be introduced to promote per capita budget allocations for schools in rural community areas, disadvantaged poor and ethnic minority areas so as to create safety nets and protect the most vulnerable groups. These measures are meant to increase coverage, reduce drop out rates, bridge disparities among opportunities and improve standards of education. Eritrea EFA Goals * Significant expansion of integrated, low-cost and community based early childhood development programs of high quality with over 80% of the children covered by 2015 through formal and non-formal means. * Universal access and completion of quality primary education for all to basic education by 2015, and more than 80% of the relevant age group completing formal basic education * Male illiteracy reduced to about 10% by 2015, with female literacy to at least 60%. More than 60% of literate youth and adults should complete post-literacy primary education and minimum skill training by the year 2015. * Achieving high standards of National Attainment Targets (NAT) by 2015 (the NAT is not yet available to us). * Expand "Life-long Learning" to achieve a modem cultural transformation among all disadvantaged groups in rural areas. Integrated, comprehensive and diversified adult education opportunities will allow women to enter, stay and continue their education and training equal with men. A set of cultural institutions will be created at the local level with the purpose of expanding relevant and quality informal learning. The use of modem technologies (TV, radio, ICT) will be promoted. Eritrea EFA Development Process Stages 22. Until 2015, the EFA movement will be organized along three interrelated and integrated stages of a dynamnic process. These include (a) the consolidation, (b) developmental and (c) qualitative stages. 23. The consolidation stage (2002-2006) will strengthen the EFA movement and promote basic education in the country. Improving the efficiency and learning achievements in basic education will be a major objective. Substantial improvements in retention will need to be made and decisive cuts in drop-out rates. Strengthening institutional capacity and improving mechanisms of basic education provision will be important objectives too. 24. The developmental stage (2007-2011) will focus on the consolidation of required Institutional Capacity and provision mechanisms. By the end of the medium term EFA should be a strong national movement for capacity and community development at the grassroots level. 82 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I There will be a strong effort to bridge the gap between basic education opportunities for youth and adults. Thus, increased efforts will be made to continue the expansion of middle and secondary schooling with low inefficiency rates (on average the objective would be to reach less than 10 % wastage). 25. The qualitative stage (2012-2016) will achieve universal primary basic education (UBA) and a high level of literacy. The duration of basic education should slowly evolve to more than seven years to suit the national and international development requirements. Furthermore, the Eritrean education system will be characterized by an extensive community control in its entire management complex. 26. Currently, the private sector is weak and cannot be expected to contribute significantly to the development of Eritrea's education system. However, the MOE intends to promote its participation. There are encouraging signs at present. Many initiatives have started, and it is expected that this will grow more rapidly now that the "peace process" is completed. Partnerships between public and private sectors will be actively encouraged. The strategy of the Government is to develop education with the participation of all stakeholders. 27. The MOE has set the following goals and objectives according to the National Development Strategy. These objectives do not include specific quantifiable targets, but are general and larger in scope than the EFA goals. * Ensure the provision of pre-school education. * Ensure equal opportunity and access for all Eritreans to basic education and further learning. * Eliminate illiteracy. * Enforce the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction at the primary level and English at all levels of education. * Cater education for children with learning difficulties. * Develop work-oriented secondary education. * Ensure the parallel development of public and private schools. * Ensure the growing role of community in the development, management and cost-sharing of education'by improving relationships between communities and schools. * Encourage decentralized leadership in education development, organization and management. * Ensure the development of sports in scope and type by encouraging the participation of society. * Enhance the role of culture and the arts in the welfare of society .by effectively organizing this sub-sector. Eritrea's Lifelong Learning Strategy 28. According to the MOE, the current duration of primary schooling of five years is in line with "a commonly held view that five years of primary schooling is long enough for a child to become functionally literate and numerate (e.g. lUNESCO, 1966; Fredriksen, 1978; ADEA, 1997)." The MOE is moving towards a more streamlined and integrated curriculum provision focusing on core basic skills at the primary school level so as to achieve functional literacy. The MOE is also proposing that the length of the middle school cycle should be three years, shifting grade 8 from secondary school level into middle school level. This would bring the duration of the basic education phase to a total of eight years. With this change, it is also proposed that 83 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I secondary school be extended one more year by adding grade 12. This in turn suggests that the four-year secondary education cycle would start in grade nine, with curriculum diversification and possible TVET choices at the end of grade ten. Extending the length of general education to a total of twelve years would bring the Eritrea school system in line with most school systems in the world. 29. The government's commitment to "Basic Education For All" (EFA goals) and to the provision of continuing education through formal and informal channels lead to a strategy for lifelong learning. Central to this is the process of learning to learn, the acquisition of a spectrum of knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes that enable people to become more effective, flexible and adaptable learners in a variety of contexts. Lifelong learning involves continuous adaptation and flexible provision of services in education and training. It also involves acquiring the right professional skills and attitudes for the labor force and for participation in society. This includes the principle that completing schooling or one phase of schooling is not the end of learning. The education policy declaration by the Government of Eritrea states that primary and middle school cycles should provide sound basic education focusing on core skills. Secondary level education shall be used to prepare productive citizens through the provision of practical oriented learning. These policy issues are also reflected in one of the government's national development objectives, which specifically refer to the provision of "broad-based education incorporating widespread dissemination of skills and languages and extensive human capital formation". 30. The MOE's basic level Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is intended for those who have completed the primary or/and middle school cycle(s), and opt for an area of interest in VTET. This is the first entry point from the general education line into technical and vocational training. The second entry point is at the end of grade 10 when students can be channeled to "Intermediate Level Technical and Vocational Education and Training". 31. The Government also intends to make several tracks available at the end of secondary education for students who wish to enter further technical and vocational training, teacher training and other professional skill training programs. At the heart of this arrangement will be Colleges of Further Education and Training (CFET). The main functions of these colleges will be to train skilled human resources, consolidate the transition from school to work and provide opportunities for continuous learning. It is envisaged that graduates from the colleges will be offered progression routes to pursue further studies in institutions of higher learning, including the university. 32. The government's commitment to lifelong education mandates that opportunities should be made available to all citizens for completing basic education and pursuing further education in a field of need or interest. However" the limited access and constraints of the formal education system requires the development of an effective program of adult and non-formal education. Large numbers of adults and out-of-school youth remain beyond the reach of the formal school system, and the availability of alternative access routes is intended to address the learning needs of these and other target groups. 33. Eritrea' s EFA goals are ambitious and aim to reach universal primary education by 2008. It is clear that implementing Eritrea's EFA strategy would require significant financial and human resources, and that the government also needs to mobilize support and inputs from private stakeholders. During the EFA Conference in Amsterdam in April 2002, Eritrea also proposed that it be one of the "fast track" EFA countries. The EESIP can play an important role in this respect. 84 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 1 34. The following section of this annex contains a description of the educauon services and provisions of the Ertirean Education system. The discussion will focus on issues of access, equity, efficiency and quality of grades 1 through 11. Conclusions and Recommendations will follow at the end of the annex. Education Services and Provisions 35. Eritrea's education system Figure A1.2. Eritrea: GER by Level, 1999 35. Eritrea's education system provides services for children from 5 70% to 17 years of age, which is an 60% ,, 43 estimated 34% of Eritrea's entire 50% - population. However, due to several 40% 21% 30% access, equity and quality inhibitors, 20% - only 520 out of 1,000 students will 10% - successfully complete grade 5 0% !i requiring an average of 9 years to do Pre- Elementary Middle Secondary Total SO.' primary 36. As Figure A1.2 shows, the Source: Eritrea, Essential Education Indicators 1999/2000 Note: Total enrolment includes 24,000 students (5% of total) over the gross enrolment ratio (GER) for the official grade 11 school age of 17 school age population, in 1999 was only 37%. Regional disparities in access and equity contribute to low enrolment. The education sector's strength is its dedicated teachers, principals and administrators, who have achieved progress under difficult circumstances over the past years. However, low qualifications and lack of teachers and inadequate resources currently challenge the MOE's desired expansion and improvement of Eritrea's education system. Description of the Education Delivery System 37. In this annex, pre-school, primary, rniddle and secondary school will be discussed. Grades 1 through 5, in this report, it will be referred to primary school, as it is a more internationally familiar reference to these grades. Primary and middle school constitute basic education. The flow chart of Figure A1.3 shows the dynarnics between the types of schooling provided by the government: (i) formal education which is general, tertiary, and technical and vocational programs, and (ii) non-formnal education which is adult education programs. 38. In this annex, pre-school, primary, middle and secondary school will be discussed. The flow chart of Figure A1.2 shows the dynamics between the types of schooling provided by the government: (i) formal education which is general, tertiary, and technical and vocational programs, and (ii) non-formal education which is adult education programs. 39. Pre-school, a two-year program is offered for children 5 and 6 years of age, but is not considered part of basic education. Basic education begins with grade 1 for children 7 years of age. Primary school is five years in length. All students with satisfactory grade 5 course grades are promoted to middle school. Middle school constitutes grade 6 and 7 for students aged 12 and 13. At the end of grade 7, students are selected internally by each school to take the Grade 7 National Exam. The scores from this test earn students entrance into secondary school or basic level TVET. Secondary school is four years, starting with grade 8 and going through grade 11 for 14 to 17 year old students. At the end of grade 9, some students shift into the middle level TVET program. At gradel 1, students take the Eritrea Secondary Education Certification Exam (ESECE). Student performance on this national test determiines the kind of tertiary education for 85 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I which students qualify. The tertiary education institutions are the University of Asmara, advanced level TVET or Teacher Training Institutes. Those students who do not continue on to the tertiary level participate in the mandatory national service program. Figure A13. Eritrea: Education and Training Provision System Tertiary Education Un. of Adv. Teach. Asmarm Level Train. TVET Inst. 4 yrs. 2-3 yrs. I yr. Adult Education I ,3 4,640 360 940 .3 . students students students 2__I . ....._1. National Service F r ESECE 2I ) Pass Rate: 26% i ,_.___... . .. ! 11 Secondary Level Intermediate Level TVET 10 NER 14%, GER21% 1.430 students 9 (Ages 14-17) 8 G Grade 7 National Exam Basic Level TVET Pass Rate: 6 _ 70 students Middle Level , i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7 NER I11%, GER 43% (Ages 12-13) 6 Data refers to 1999/2000; TVET and Tertiary data is l 2000/2001. General Education enrolment includes 5 Primary Level government and non-government schools; TVET enrolment is 5 . NER 38%, GER 57% government only. Private TVET enrolment figures are not 4 available. 3 (Ages 7-11) ESECE: Eritrean Secondary Education Certificate 2 Examination. Tertiary Education: The University of Asmara (UOA) I contains 6 faculties, including the Faculty of Education which _____________________________________ trains Middle and Secondary Education teachers. Advanced l Vocational Institutes include Asmara Business and Pre-School Level Commerce Institute (ABCI) and Pavoni Technical Institute NER 4%, GER 5% (Ages 5-6) (PFM). Teacher Training lnstitutions, which train Primary School teachers, include Asmara Teacher Training Institute (ATTI) and Mai-Nefi Teacher Training Institute (MTTI). Adult Education: This includes Skill Development Centers (SDC), Illiteracy Eradication programs, and Continuing Education. 40. Services for children with special needs are also provided. There are three Special Schools for the deaf and blind. One is for the blind, located in Asmara; the other two schools are for the deaf, located in Asmara and Keren. 86 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I 41. The school year runs from mid September to the end of June. In the highlands, the school year is 206 days; in the lowlands it is 197 days. Students in grades 1 and 2 receive 25 periods of instruction a week; in grades 3-5 they receive 35. In the lowlands, this completes 724 hours of instruction for grades 1-2 and 1,018 hours for grades 3-5. Schools in the highlands have 674 hours of instruction in grade 1 and 2 and 943 hours in grades 3-5. 42. In the following section, discussions are found regarding: (i) government and non- government provision of basic and secondary education provision and (ii) access, equity and quality of government services. Discussions regarding adult and technical and vocational training are found in Annex 4 and review of tertiary education provision is provided in the main report Government and Non-government Provision 43. Within the system there are government and non-government4 schools. Government schools are adrninistered by the MOE. The non-government schools are operated by several different groups. Community Schools are administered by foreign communities (mostly Italian); Awkaf (Mahad) Schools are administered by Awkaf, an Islamic religion association; Mission Schools are administered by Coptic, Catholic, and Protestant churches; and Public Schools are administered by municipalities or village committees. See Annex 5 on cost and financing for more information on the financial contributions to the education systems by private organizations. 44. As far as actual services provided, the participation of non-governmental organizations in education differs by level. At the pre-primary level, in 1999 there were 90 schools in the entire country. Only 5 of these pre-primary schools were government owned. There is also concentration by region. For instance, 34, or 51% of non-governmental schools, are located in Zoba Maekel. Out of the 45 pre-primary schools in Zoba Maekel, 38 are located in Asmara. Table A1.3 shows the distribution of primary, middle and secondary schools according to ownership. 45. At the primary level, about 85% of schools are public. Not surprisingly, most non- government schools are located in the relatively densely populated zobas-Anseba, Debub, and Maekel. Government schools are schools. 46. The degree of ownership increases at higher levels of the education system. Although not shown in this table, the share of public schools has gone up in recent years. This is due to the typical government acquisition of schools when missionary and Islamic groups become unable to continue to fund their privately established schools. Table A1.3. Eritrea: Distribution of Govermnent and Non-govermment Schools by Region and Level of Schooling, 1999 Primary Middle Secondary Region Number of Number of Number of Non- schools Gov- Non-gov. schools Gov. Non-gay schools Gov. gov. Anseba 107 69% 31% 18 72% 28% 5 80% 20% Deb-Keih-Bahri 24 92% 8% 2 100% 0% 1 100% 0% Debub 200 88% 13% 42 83% 17% 8 88% 13% Gash-Barka 132 89% 11% 20 100% 0% 4 100% 0% Maekel 112 81% 19% 34 74% 26% 16 81% 19% Sem-Keih-Bahri 80 96% 4% 15 93% 7% 4 100% 0% 4Most of these schools are still fully funded by the MOE 87 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 1 Source: Eritrea, Basic Education Statistics, 1999/2000 47. Figure A 1.4 is a further confirmation of the predominance of public provision of the education services as it shows the share of students enrolled in government schools. Figure Al.4. Eritrea: Share of Students Enrolled in Government Schools, 1991-1999 98% 96% 94% 92% - 90% 88% -. 86% - 84%- 82%- 80% 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 + Elementary _Middle -Secondary Source: Ministry of Education, Eritrea: Basic Education Statistics, 1999/2000 Access and Equity 48. In Eritrea there are six governmental regions, called zobas. They are Deb-Keih-Bahri, Debub, Gash-Barka, Anseba, Sem-Keih-Bahri and Maekel. Each of the zobas has its own educational offices and is responsible for budgets, monitoring, and evaluation of schools. Primary schools are taught in each community's dominant native language. 49. In pursuit of its national goals, the Government of Eritrea (GOE) has made remarkable progress in combating national illiteracy since 1991. At the primary level, the GER has increased from 36% in 1991 to 57% in 1999. This growth is impressive given the long and protracted war of independence. Widespread access was accomplished through rehabilitation and construction of a network of schools throughout the country. That said however, the education system faces serious challenges as the government attempts to implement its goal of equalizing access and Physical Conditions . reducing illiteracy. Physical Conditions and School I | Environment 50. Challenges with infrastructure and physical conditions of facilities - create inequity in the education services provided. Roads in many areas outside the urban center are non-existent, causing school officials from the zobas to use off road vehicles, establishing communication with schools only once or twice a semester. However, in Asmara, Almost 90 students are in this small classroom at "Adi Ugn" there is access to telephones and internet Secondary School in the Debub Zoba. through the city infrastructure, facilitating 88 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I communication, thus enhancing coordination among schools and offices. The city infrastructure also provides students with technology that most other students do not have. Lack of transportation for students also is a problem. Children in rural areas have difficulties traveling large distances to schools, which cause tardiness and absenteeism, especially when the students are needed at home. As well, some areas have an acute shortage of space with an increasing student population going to school. Some schools have as many as 1 teacher for every 90 students, creating cramped and uncomfortable conditions. Lack of sanitary systems and clean water at schools also provides a level of discomfort, and increased possibility of transmission of diseases. Electrical problems will become a major issue as schools begin to use a more modem curriculum requiring electronic equipment using stable electrical output. 51. There are also significant differences in access between rich and poor households as well as urban and rural areas. This is difficult to show due to the lack of data, such as a nationally representative household survey or census. Moreover, education statistics collected by the Ministry of Education do not report separate urban and rural enrolments. The following discussion on regional and gender enrolment ratios show important differences. Figure A1.5. Eritrea: Net Enrolment Rate by Level, 1991-1999 40% - 35%- -+-Primnary UMiddle Secondary - 30% -- 25% - 20% 15%_ 10% 5% _ -_ _ 0% Source: Eritrea: Basic Education Statistics, 1999/2000 Enrolment 52. Pre-School. Since independence there have been initiatives to introduce non-government pre-schools. Though signs of progress are showing, the response has not been satisfactory. 53. The quality of early childhood development programs, especially those that include health and nutrition inter-ventions, positively correlates with higher primary school enrolment rates, appropriate enrolment age, higher acadenmic performance, and lower dropout and repetition rates. Given the critical role of such programs in raising enrolments and improving learning outcomes in basic education, early childhood development deserves more support as part of a balanced approach to education. Due to the pay-off of better performance in primary school and the reduction of repetition and dropout, low-cost early childhood development programs can pay for themselves. 54. Currently, the Eritrean Government in partnership with the World Bank is implementing the Integrated Early Childhood Development Project (IECDP). This project will run for five years, ending in 2005. The miain objective of the IECDP is to promote healthy and holistic 89 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I development of children under 6 years of age, primary school age children and children in difficult circumstances. The project will provide services and support for young children's basic needs: health care, nutrition, social protection, cognitive stimulation, affection and early education. The overall budget for the IECDP is US$49 million; US$13.6 million is intended for the education component. The early childhood education-related project activities for the IECDP are to: (i) improve access to and quality of early childhood education by establishing 105 kindergartens in rural areas, train 315 preschool teachers, 735 assistants, 105 directors and 250 community caregivers and providing learning materials and supplies; (ii) improve the quality of early childhood education and care through developing enhanced learning materials and teaching aids and by providing continuous support to teachers to help them adapt the ECE program to their own local situation, introduce innovations, and develop their own supplementary learning materials and aids; (iii) promote health and sanitation in 30% rural primary schools and preschool centers by establishing deep pit latrines and garbage disposal areas in each school and center; (iv) build institutional capacity for management and supervision of early childhood care and education. 55. Primary school. Table A1.4. Eritrea: Primary Level GER and NER, 1991-1999 Although GER has risen in the GER NER past 10 years as demonstrated by Year Male Female Total Male Female Total Table A1.4, it is also clear that 1991/92 39 34 36 23 22 22 the net enrolment rate (NER) has 1995/96 57 48 52 30 28 29 not experienced the same rate of 19967 55 46 51 30 28 29 growth. The GOE estimates that 1997/98 55 47 51 32 29 31 7 out of 10 chlldren are not attending school. Although this 1998/99 56 48 52 35 31 33 decreased slightly by 1999, 1999/00 62 52 58 40 36 37 progress has been slow. Source: MOE, June 2001(Quality, Access, Equity, and Capacity Development) Table A1.5. Eritrea: Middle Level GER and NER, 1991-1999 56. Middle school. Just as GER NER in primary enrolment trends, Male Female Total Male Female Total the GER for middle school is 1991/92 20 20 20 7 7 7 slowly increasing as shown in 1995/96 27 24 26 7 6 7 Table A 1.5. It has risen from 1996/97 32 27 30 8 8 8 20% in 1991 to 43% in 1999. 1997/98 39 31 35 10 9 9 However, major problems 1998/99 43 37 40 10 9 10 persist. First, very few of the 1999/00 46 40 43 . 9 1 children of this age group are Source: MOE June2001(0uality Access, Equity, andCapacity Development) enrolled. Figure A1.5 indicates that only I out of 10 children in the 12-13 age category are enrolled in this level of education. Second, unlike the situation with primary education, there is hardly any improvement in NER over time. Between 1991 and 1999, NER increased by a 4%, compared to a 16% improvement in primary NER. This suggests that there is a major problem in the flow rates between grades, as will be discussed later. (See Figures Al. 10 and A1. 11). 90 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I 57. Secondary School. Due Table A1.6. Eritrea Secondary Level GER and NER, 1991-1999 to the score requirements from y GER NER the Grade 7 National Exam (as Male Female Total Male Female Total discussed earlier) for admittance 1991/92 12 12 12 9 8 8 into secondary school, this level 1995/96 18 13 16 10 9 9 of education is selective. The 1996/97 18 13 16 10 10 10 problems of access and equity in 1997/98 18 13 16 11 10 10 primary and middle schools 1998/99 21 13 17 13 10 11 compound equity issues for 1999/00 25 15 20 16 12 14 transition into the secondary Source: MOE, June 2001(Quality, Access, Equity, and Capacity Development) level. Although enrolment rates have increased as shown in Table A1.6, they remain low. Between 1991 and 1998, secondary age population increased by 21%. At the same time, secondary school enrolments rose by 72%. However, despite this incredible expansion, in 1999, GER for secondary was only 25%, and NER was 16%. Interestingly, secondary school NER as reported by the MOE in 1999/2000 statistics is higher than middle school NER by 3%. 58. Enrolment rates for girls Figure Al.6. Eritrea: Girls' Enrolment by Level as Percentage of across all levels have remained lower Total Enrolment in Each Zoba, 1999 than for boys throughout the 1990s. 60% - , However, between 1991 and 1999, 50% lementary *Middle ElSecondary the female GER increased at the 40% 1__ primary levels by about 18%. 40% *Ir- i; L |Relative to male enrolment rates 30% i - though, the female participation 20% declined from 85% to 82% of the. 10% fl; I l ' ll S + X ' male GER. As for net enrolment, *! ifl *', i *':;1 _ male NER was 23% in 1991 and rose 0% *Li to 40% in 1999. For females, it was Anseba Deb- Debub Gash- Maekel Sem- Total 22% in 1991, rising to 37% in 1999. KeiBh Barka Kei Despite the divergence between boys Bahri Bahri and girls in GER, the 4% difference Source: Eritrea, Essential Education Indicators, 1999/2000 in NER implies either that boys drop out more, or more of the older girls are out of school. It appears that the largest difference in girls' enrolment is found at the secondary level. 59. Within regions, gender disparities are even more pronounced. As seen in Figure A1.6, girls' enrolment varies greatly from region to region. Leaving aside the capital zoba (Maekel), where female enrolment is highest, the other regions exhibit different patterns of female enrolments that change little over time. In some regions, the female enrolment rates are comparatively high at primary schools, but drop sharply at middle and secondary schools for Anseba, Gash-Barka, and Debub Zobas. In others, the enrolment rates are lower than average, but stable at all levels for Sem-Keih-Bahri and Deb-Keih-Bahri. For secondary education, if Maekel Zoba, which is atypical, and Deb-Keih-Bahri Zoba because it has very few students, are excluded from the analysis, female students are only 27% of secondary student population. The demand for girls' labor at home, long walking distances to school, and traditional norms and beliefs, such as early marriage, are among factors inhibiting greater female participation in the school system. 91 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I 60. More than half of the Figure A1.7. Eritrea: Grade I Enrolment Age Distribution, 1999 students in any given grade are 30,000 age over-aged. For grade 1, the 20,000- official entrance age is 7. 10, / 0However, as illustrated in Figure 10,0oo0-0 y ______________________________________ A1.7, it is apparent that the - _ , , _ : . e . - * majority of grade 1 students are 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 over-aged. Some of this Age imbalance is due to students who Source: Eitrea, Essential Education Indicators, 199w20M0 are repeating, however, there is a large number of students entering school later than recommended. In 1999, 65% of grade 1 students were over-aged. In grade 5, 83% of the enrolled students were over-aged, grade 9 was at 56% and grade 11 at 70% over-aged students. This trend, as mentioned above is a burden on the system, affecting the efficiency and quality of the education provided. A large age range within a single classroom is particularly challenging to teachers in the lower grades where young children have varying needs based on their abilities as they develop and grow. The attention span and ability to think abstractly vary for children of different ages. Thus, for a teacher to be expected to successfully address the learning modes of students in several different stages of development is overwhelming. Differences in Enrolmente and International Comparisons 61. International comparisons. As Figure Al.8 Figure A1.8. Intemational Comparisons of GER Among Low Income illustrates, among other Countries African countries with low 70 63 65 GDP per capita, Eritrea has 60 57 OP mn y *Midcle OSecon relatively high enrolment rates 50 - ___4_ in all levels of the education 40 system. Eritrea with a third 30 - less GDP than Burkina Faso is 20 __ 13 able to enroll 16% more of its 10l A primary population, 30% 0__ -_ more of its middle level Sierra Leone Eritrea Mozambique Niger Burkina Faso population and 17% more of $138 GDP per $173 GDP per $198 GDP per $209 GDP per $267 GDP per its secondary population. capita capita capita capita capita Source: Sierra Leone, An initial identification of some issues in Sierra Leone Education from a statistical analysis of the household survey, MICS 2000, 2001 Eritrea, Ministry of Education, Ertrea, 1999. Mozambique: Ministry of Education, 1998. Niger: MOE: Annuaire des Statistiques Scolaires 1999. Burkina Faso: Source: CoOts, financement et fonctionnement du systeme educatif du Burkina Faso; contraintes et espaces pour la politique educative, 2000, Data refers to 1998/99 Recently the MOE published three important overviews of education statistics: (i) Basic Education Statistics, December 2000, (ii) Essential Education Indicators, November 2000, and (iii) Access & Equity, Quality Issues and Capacity development 1999/2000, June 2001. These three publications contain many additional statistics on enrolment differences by zoba and gender. 92 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I Figure Al .9. Eritrea: Regional Share of Gross Enrolment by Level, 62. Zoba differences. The 1999 primary school GER of 57% 60 - masks great disparities between 50 ["Primary SMldie ElSecondarl 52 zobas. The lowland zobas of 50 * Primary U Middle D Secondary Deb-Keih-Bahri (South Red 40 3 Sea), Sem-Keih-Bahri (North 30 - _______ _ 29 2 Red Sea) and Gash-Barka have 30 GERs that are far below the 20 -5 IJ 1B _ national average. Figure A1.9 lo - 9 _ 9 8 shows that the Red Sea Zobas 0 Anseba with only 1% and 8% of the total Anseba Deb-Keih- Debub Gash- Maekel Sem- Babri Barka Keih- primary GER. By contrast, Bahri Maekel and Debub Zobas have enrolment ratios well above the Source: Eritrea, Essential Education Indicators, 1999/2000 naona rage. Te South -_-Inational average. The South Red Sea Zoba enrolls 12% of its 7-11 population while Debub has a primary GER of 79%. 63. As for secondary students, over 80% of all secondary students enrolled come from two zobas (Maekel and Debub). Although students from other zones are most likely enrolled Maekel and Debub Zoba schools, the lack of boarding facilities are bound to reduce the number of students from other zones. This implies that regional disparities do not only exist, but are serious. Internal Efficiency 64. By all accounts, there is a rather high level of wastage throughout the education sector. The main causes of inefficiency are late enrolment, over-aged students, drop-out and repletion. The performance of the education system deteriorates as one moves from primary to upper levels. This is illustrated in the repetition and dropout rates seen in all zobas. It is worth looking at the decrease in enrolment figures as one moves through the schooling system. Figure A1.10 illustrates that there are significant amounts of primary students who do not continue from grade 1 to grade 2. Although the difference in enrolment is not as drastic, there is a consistent decline, again being more prominent for transitions between grades8 and 9 and 10 and 11. At present, the average GER is about 57%, of the primary age population (ages 7-11) which is around 500,000. Since the GER includes over-age children, the NER is much lower at about 33%. The system is internally inefficient, since 20% of pupils repeat, on average, and only 60% of 1000 students entering grade 1 manage to survive to grade 5. Repetition Rates 65. Figure A1.10 displays grade specific repetition throughout the entire education system. There are three observations to note regarding the pattern of grade repetition in the education system. The first is that grade repetition at all levels is very high. In primary school, grade specific repetition rates remain in the range of 11 to 23%, and first grade repetition is almost three times as high as fifth grade repetition. 93 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I Figure Al.1O. Eritrea: Total Enrolment by Grade, 1999 66. Second, the repetition rate at grade 6 is 100.000 equal to that of grade 1. 100,000___________ _ -Grade 8 also has the- ] 80,000 highest repetition rate for 60,000 - secondary Education. The ° 40,000 - first year of each level 20000 * * * * maintains the highest z * - e * * , amount of repeaters, 0 - Grade suggesting something may 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I1 need to bedone to ease the Grade transition into the new Source: Eritrea, Basic Education Statistics, 1999/2000 learning settings. 67. Third, repetition rates for girls are higher than for boys. The discrepancy grows at each level and reaches its widest gap in secondary education. For instance, while average repetition at primary level for boys and girls stood at 14% and 15% respectively, the rate for boys remained at 16% while that for girls rose to 26% in secondary education. 68. These high repetition rates give partial explanation for the large discrepancy between gross and net enrolment rates, and they also account for the large gender gap in secondary enrolment ratios. 69. The reasons for high student repetitions are numerous and include a student's ability, family background, classroom atmosphere, and teacher quality. There are additional reasons why grade repetition is particularly serious at grade 6 and the first three years of secondary education. At grade 7 every school with middle level of education is required to present candidates for national examination, administered by the MOE, which will determine promotion into grade 8. To determine candidates for promotion, each school first sets an internal exam for its students and presents its candidates based on their performance on own-school-administered exam. So in addition to students who would naturally repeat, additional students choose to repeat grade 6, believing another year will better prepare them for successful completion of the of their schools' internal grade 7 exams. Figure Al. 1. Eritrea: Repetition Rates by Grade and Gender, 70. Moreover, the government's 1999 polky, which allows a student to w30 25 30 lilMale*Female 'a repeat middle level education at most 25 x -2C 20 20 twice, encourages students to repeat .~' r . ri grade6toimprovetheirchances. W 'W I I: r I I Knowledge that one has a chance to f S1 I I I FE l_ l., I I I repeat grade 7 if they are not J 2 o ! I I - I I - successful the first time, would lead I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 to high repetitions in grade 6, since Grade you cannot repeat a grade twice. In Source: Eritrea, Essential Education a 19992000 addition, grade 6 is the crucial transition time when students switch learning in their mother tongue to English. Since mastery of the subjects taught in the transition year is bound to be difficult, many students would choose to repeat especially since a national exam that determines their fate looms a year away. 94 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I Drop-out Rates 71. Figure Al.12 shows dropout rates at each grade by gender. The average annual dropout rate in primary school is 13%. However, almost 17% of an entering class dropout at the end of the first year, after which the rate drops to an average of 12% per year. At middle school, the average dropout is higher at 18%, escalating to 21% in secondary education. Figure A1.12. Eritrea: Drop-out Rates by Grade and Gender, 1999 72. Figure A1.12 also 30 - reveals that at the secondary 0 25 e 25 level, dropout rates for boys . 25 - 19 * * exceed those for girls. 20 1116 5 * * * Furthermore, there must be 15 lS *q_ w i 1 1 s _ large inter-zoba differences. 110 l - - - - The drop-out rates at Is I hhl * ** secondary level for Maekel o - P I * * P * P P P I Zoba between 1996 and 1999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 academic year was between Grade 2% and 5%, which are considerably lower than the Source: Eritrea, Essential Education Indicators, 1999/2000 national average of 9%. Although the average dropout rates may be low compared to repetition rates, over time they add up and pose serious problems to eradication of illiteracy. The average grade dropout rate in primary level means that 65% of an entering cohort will not proceed to the junior secondary level. 73. High levels of grade repetition and dropout rates together indicate very low retention and completion rates as seen in Figure Al.13. As an illustration, the current levels of repetition and dropout rates imply that for a cohort of 1,000 students who enter grade 1 in 1998, only 177 would graduate from grade 5 without ever repeating a grade in primary education. By the time they reach grade 7, only 88 would graduate without repeating, and at current promotion rates in secondary education, only 24 of the starting cohort would have reached grade 11 without repeating once. 74. Alternatively, only 56% of the entering cohort of 1,000 in Figure Al.13. Eritrea: Promotion Rates by Grade and Gender, 1999 1998 will complete the primary 100 -[ emale cycle. This includes multiple 80 - 77 7 77 77 7 75 80 66 repeaters. By the end of the 1 60 6 61 9 64 58 s5 62 Os junior secondary education, only - I *r 1 460 of the cohort would be left 40 * * [ and just 348 survive to grade 1. 20 U T ; 75. An interesting trend 0 1 1 . . .. ............... ~~1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 appears when looking at 2ra8 1 repetition, drop out and Grade promotion rates for males and females together. Although there Source: Eritrea, Essential Education Statistics, 1999/2000 is a nearly equal share of girls and boys who are promoted, more females tend to repeat while more males tend to drop out. In other words, of those students who are not promoted, it is the 95 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 1 boys who opt to drop out rather than repeat. As can be seen in Table A1.7, this trend increases after primary school. Table A1.7. Eritrea: Flow Rates (%) by Grade 1995 and 1999 76. Comparing the 1995 flow Grade Drop-out Repetition Promotion rates to the 1999 flow rates of Table 1995 1999 1995 1999 1995 1999 Al.7, drop-out rates have risen, 1 9 17 30 23 61 61 repetition rates have dropped and 2 6 11 20 11 74 78 promotion rates have increased or 3 6 11 16 12 78 77 stayed the same in only half of the 4 7 12 25 13. 68 75 grades. Drop-out rates for all grades 5 7 12 16 7 78 81 have nearly doubled. Grades 9 and 6 9 17 21 23 71 60 10 have the most extreme change 7 9 18 15 17 77 65 going from 9 in 1995 to 22 and 21 8 12 21 31 21 57 58 respectively in 1999. It is unclear, 9 9 22 25 15 65 63 however, considering that the 10 9 21 24 19 67 60 promotion rates have not increased Source: Eritrea, Basic Education Statistics, 1995/96 and 999/2000 systematically, the decline in repletion rates does not necessarily mean the system is more efficient. But rather the decline in repetition may explain the increase in drop-out rates. Although the MOE has been aggressive in expanding the system and has increased enrolment, the system's efficiency has not improved, but rather seems to have worsened. Differences Among Zobas 77. Internal efficiency varies among zobas, as seen in Figure Al.14. The average number of years to complete the 5 grades of primary school is 9, ranging between 7 years for Sem-Keih- Bahri and Maekel Zobas and 17 years for Gash Barka Zoba. With such a difference in completion rates, it is not surprising to see a large difference among transition rates from primary to middle school between zobas. Deb-Keih-Bahri, Sem-Keih-Bahri and Maekel Zobas, which were more efficient in moving students through primary school, had the highest transition rates among the zobas. Gash Barka Zoba's transition rate is 20. Figure A1.14. Eritrea: Average Number of Years Figure A1.15. Eritrea: Transition Rates from Spent to Complete Primary School by Zoba, 1999 Primary to School by Zoba, 1999 Sem-Keih-Bahri Sem-Keih-Bahri Maekel Maekel Gash Barka _ Gash Barka Debub Debub Deb-Keih-Bahri Deb-Keih-Bahri Anseba Anseba I - 0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Note: Numbers based on 1999/2000 flow rates and cohort reconstruction of each zoba Source: Eritrea, Essential Indicators, 1999/2000 78. The quality of educational output, including internal efficiency, is determined by a range of in-and out-of-school variables as revealed in the findings of the Curriculum Review Field 96 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I Study6 (MOE-DGE, 1998a). As part of the study of wider community attitudes to education, respondent groups (teachers, head teachers, students, parents, community leaders) were invited to offer reasons for class repetitions and drop-out. Some common patterns emerged from the analysis of their responses, listed roughly according to the frequency with which they were mentioned in Table A1.8. Table A1.8. Eritrea: Respondents Perceptions of the Reasons for Class Repetition and Drop-out from School Repetition Drop-out Work load at home Class repetition and feeling of hopelessness Prolonged absenteeism mainly due to illness Illnesses and other physical disabilities School distance School distance Lack of parental interest and support Parental indifference Social problems (poverty, dependence on relations, Poverty and other social problems family problems, death in the family) Early marriage (mainly girls) Lack of interest/seriousness on the part of the students Huge age differentials Mismatch between the curriculum and student abilities Punishment (both corporal and suspension from Lack of sound foundation in education, particularly in school) English Inability to settle school fees and other expenses Unfair promotion policies Pastoral/nomadic life styles of some of the students Lack of supportive and competent teachers Voluntary registration with the national service 79. Some of these factors are external to the school but they do interact in a cluster of two or three constraints to undermine student progression. For example, poverty among children from disadvantaged famnilies could trigger malnutrition and illness, and could consequently cause absenteeism. Incidence of absenteeism or irregular attendance could in turn lead to low achievement, academic failure and eventually to repetition and drop out. Other factors are school related focusing on teacher characteristics, the curriculum and assessment procedures. 80. A more recent, albeit limited, study (MOE-DGE, 1998c) involving 11 head teachers, 114 teachers and 172 students in a sample of 11 primary schools in three regions also identified simnilar pattems of in and out of school factors to explain the high rate of repetition among grade 1 and 4 students (Table A1.9). 81. Some of the school related factors mentioned above (e.g. authoritarian/abusive teachers; shortage of textbooks; talk and chalk instructional approaches) may not be peculiar to grades 1 and 4 alone. However, there are some concerns, which appear to be grade specific (e.g. large age differentials in grade 1; allocating inexperienced teachers to grade 1; too much content to cover in grade 4 math and English; difficulties in coping with the demands of the curriculum in grade 4). These concerns raise a range of curriculum, pedagogical and classroom organization issues and they need to be studied and addressed as part of the wider effort of improving educational inputs and outputs in the school system. 6Our People and Our Future: A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. MOE, November 2001. 97 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I Table A1.9. Eritrea: Respondents' Perceptions of Factors Leading to Repetition in Grade 1&4l In-School-Factors Out-of-School Factors Huge age differentials, particularly in grade 1, and Domestic chores the failure of teachers to address the needs of younger Distance from home to school learners Absenteeism due to illnesses and commitments Practice of allocating inexperienced teacher to handle Effects of poverty and other socio-economic grade I problems Mismatch between the children's readiness levels and Lack of parental support and encouragement the language used in the texts (grade 1) Lack of pre-school experiences (grade 1) Confusion arising from the use of the Latin script in some mother tongue education programs (grade 1) Lack of firm educational foundation to cope with the transition from the curriculum of grade 3 to that of grade 4 Too many subjects to leam (grade 4) Too much content to cover, especially in math and English (grade 4) Shortage of textbooks for homework/assignment (grade 4) Teachers spending too much time on giving notes with little time left for clarification and explanation (grade 4) Authoritarian/abusive behavior on the part of some teachers Discomfort arising from sitting on stones Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions 82. Particularly in remote areas school infrastructure does not yet meet the growing enrolment rates. The Eritrean government gives high priority to the extension and upgrading of school infrastructure in Eritrea. Recent infrastructural investments aiming at durable results, have improved the current education access capacity. However, particularly in rural and remote areas, schools are often still lacking the necessary capacity to acconmmodate the increasing numbers of students. Growing enrollment rates are not always in line with enlargement and improvement of the education infrastructure. Improving the infrastructure of schools buildings will allow students to be comfortable in schools and will reduce class size. 83. Teachers are often facing pedagogical and methodological problems when teaching in large classrooms. Although high priority is given to enlarge and upgrade school facilities, infrastructural investments most probably will not immediately lead to a lower teacher/student ratio. At present many teachers, particularly in remote areas, are facing problems of effectiveness and efficiency when they teach large numbers of students. 84. Recent initiatives have been taken to develop a national framework for gender issues. In line with its EFA strategies, the Eritrean government is promoting equal educational opportunities. In cooperation with e.g. UNICEF, the MOE has currently taken initiatives to develop a National Policy for Girls Education. A national framework on education equity would certainly support the break down of gender disparities. Recommendations 85. In view of the Government's objectives and national strategy, the Eritrea education sector priorities over the next five to ten years should focus on: 98 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex I * Providing sustainable public funding of EFA, middle and secondary education, which should lead to significantly increased access and completion rates at pre-university levels; * Significant improving primary, middle and secondary education quality, equity, relevance * Improving the internal cost-efficiency in education and providing a better school and classroom environment; * Improving the management and governance of the system, and significantly strengthen the institutional capacity at central MOE and at the zoba management levels; establish clearer lines of responsibility and accountability for performance, and improve monitoring and evaluation mechanisms at central MOE, at zoba and at school level; * Improving coordination in decision making between the major sector actors (Ministry of Education, UOA, economic planning and finance); * Building up participation by Eritrea's private sector and promotion of private providers, by providing a transparent and pro-active incentive structure for private and public schools. 86. School infrastructure investments. The MOE is encouraged to continue its prioritized investments in school infrastructure, particularly its current focus on building relatively smaller schools. Given the current differences between urban and rural areas, particularly the remote areas, relatively more emphasis might be put on investments in these rural areas. If additional funding is available, these areas may well be prioritized. 87. Large classroom teaching methods. Since investments in infrastructure will take time before delivering their results, the MOE, in cooperation with the UOA and the TTI's, is encouraged to develop appropriate and innovative teacher.training courses.aiming at increasing teacher's participation, with even large classes. 88. A "think tank" regarding education equity. The MOE is encouraged to continue its emphasis on equal education opportunities for all and at all levels. Establishing a group of people, who can further on recent initiatives regarding equity issues, would be an effective stimulus for further elaborate sustainable strategies. 99 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 ANNEx 2. TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TVET) 1. The organization of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is separate from mainstream general secondary education.2 About 1% of the country's Middle and Secondary School students feed into TVET programs after grade 73, 9 or 11. In a larger scale of comparison, 1,800 out of the total 500,000 12-18 years of age population enroll in TVET. The training is intended to produce semi-skilled, skilled and technician level workers ready to meet the demands. of the labor market. The government intends to (i) introduce a National Qualification' system for professional skills and (ii) significantly strengthen the quality and enrolment of TVET. Although the MOE is aware of the private provision of TVET, there is no information regarding private TVET enrolment or certification. Public TVET has a high intemal efficiency rate. Dropout and repetition rates are both about 2%. In comparison, secondary schools have annual repetition and dropout rates of about 19% and 21%. Teacher qualifications are inadequate. Instructional materials, curriculum and connection to the labor market need strengthening. External efficiency tends to be high for formal training programs; however there is question as to if it is due to the quality of skills a trainee takes to the job market, or the current need for laborers regardless of skills. There is also concern regarding the new pattern of middle level TVET graduates continuing onto higher education rather than applying their expensively acquired training to the labor market. The non-formal TVET training offered at SDCs has not proven to be effective in generating workers who are quickly absorbed into the labor market. The recurrent budget for intermediate and advanced level TVET in 2000 was US$739,000. Dimensions and Distinguishing Characteristics of TVET 2. Through its Department of Technical and Adult Education, the Ministry of Education (MOE), is the main Ministry responsible for TVET. However, in addition to in-house training of own staff, other ministries also conduct skills training through their field services. Governance of TVET is based on regulations and directives issued by the state. There is no TVET legislation. While primary, middle schools4, and secondary schools report to offices of the MOE at the regional (zoba) level, MOE's TVET institutions report directly to the Department of Technical and Adult Education in the central Ministry. However, a proposed National VTET Board is forthcoming. TVET Delivery Mechanisms 3. The mechanisms for delivering TVET include formal training in school-like settings at three levels. There is also non-formal training of varying type and duration as well as private training institutions. An explanation of the delivery mechanisms follows. The positioning of these public TVET programs within the education system is presented in Figure A2. 1. I IDA Education and Training Mission, June 2001, led by Jacob Bregman. The TVET report was prepared by Jon Lauglo and Egil Proyland. 2There was earlier an attempt to introduce practical training in wood, metal work, electricity and agriculture as curriculum elements in four comprehensive secondary schools. Within MOE these have not been considered as part of TVET, but as part of general education. 3There is one TVET pilot program for students exiting grade 7. Sometimes also referred to as junior secondary schools in English. 100 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 4. Formal and Informal Governmental TVET. Formal training is offered by the MOE at Basic, Intermediate and Advanced Levels to students coming directly out of school. Basic Level training is currently being piloted at the Hagaz Agricultural School, offering a 2-year program. Grade 7 is required for entry. Intermediate Level begins after completion of grade 9. Programs are three years in length. Advanced Level accepts those who have completed grade 11. Programs are 2 to 3 year duration. Non-formal training provided by the MOE is given through SDCs with no previous education requirements. These training courses, lasting form 6 to 9 months, are offered to displaced persons, ex-soldiers, Table A2.1. Eritrea: Number of Partidpants by Programs Offered dirsadvantagex-soldiy a ohs through MOE, MOH, MOA, 1993-1999 Area of Skill Male Female Total 5. In addition to the MOE, Soil conservation, Seed and Water 35,710 300 36,000 other ministries also run non- Tailoring 150 20,280 20,430 formal skills courses and Typing 1,250 11,930 13,180 organize training events. A Computer applications 2,630 5,890 8,520 listing of these programs, along Mechanics and tractor operator 4,740 1,730 6,460 with the number of participants General agriculture and extension 5,550 610 6,170 from 1993 to 1999 is seen in Forestry and wild animal conservation 5,580 0 5,580 Table A2.1. Soil conservation Construction 2,800 360 3,160 constitutes the largest group of Wood and metal work 1,170 290 1,460 trained participants. It is Animal health and husbandry 1,090 200 1,290 apparent from the enrolments Commerce admin. and leadership 180 700 890 that the Mi of Agriculture Tech-Mechanization 300 0 300 (MOA) services thousands of Inter-personal communication 110 50 160 patcp sthrough teir Hotel and tourism 10 110 120 participnts eirElectricity 100 10 110 animal health and husbandry, l i and various conservation Fishing 0 30 30 Fishing 0 30 30 programs. General Mechanics 20 6 20 Total 61,450 42,506 103,950 6. Private proprietary Source: Ministry of Education, Departnent of Adult and Technical Education providers. There is no information on enrolment qualifications for private TVET programs. Courses are usually 3-4 months. Table A2.2 shows the type of training by region. Table A2.2. Eritrea: Number of Privately Owned Training Schools by Type and Region Region Area of Skill Gash North South Total Anseba Debub Barka Maekel Red Sea Red Sea Computer applications 2-6 months 2 2 1 20 1 2 28* Typing 3-6 months 2 5 1 10 2 - 20 Office practice, English 3 months 0 0 0 1 0 0 I Tailoring, sewing, embroidery 1-2 years part time 15* 19* 3* 21* 5* 0 63* Cookery 3-6 months 2 1 16 0 0 0 19 Total 21* 27* 21* 52* 8* 2 131* * Includes NGO based institutions which charge fees Source: Eritrea, Ministry of Education 101 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 Driver training is also offered through private propriety. Between 1993-1999, 31,336 participants enrolled in driver training courses. Access and Equity 7. At present, access is highly unequal. Females constitute only 19% of TVET enrolments, ethnic groups in remote regions are greatly under represented,5 and youth from the poorest households will have especially weak chances of attaining a level of schooling required for entry into formal TVET. The location of schools is unequally dispersed. Asmara holds the only two Advanced Level institutions and 37% of total Intermediate Level enrolments for 1999/2000. The need to redress geographical inequity in access is politically compounded by ethnic differences among the regions. The technologically 'advanced' part of private TVET being computer applications is also concentrated in the capital. 8. Gender inequity is sharp. In 1999, women constituted 14% of trainees at the Intermediate Level, 35% at Advanced Level and 36% of learners in non-formal skills courses run by MOE. Reasons for the bias are not only the 'male' contents of most trade skills taught, but also the greater chances, which males have of performing well and surviving in school up to points of selection into TVET. 9. As a step to reduce access inequity, the MOE's basic SDCs have been established in very remote areas of disadvantaged regions that have potential for growth. For the medium plan, the MOE will establish one adult skill-training center in each of the six regions of the country, where target groups and training areas will identify regions. As a matter of policy, a quota of 20-30% for admission will be reserved to females in the adult skill training centers. At the intermediate level, entrants from disadvantaged ethnic groups have been enrolled in secondary schools with boarding facilities, thus after receiving a one year academic instruction they have been made to join the intermediate technical schools and newly established agricultural schools of Beijuck and Gagaz. Thus, 40-50% of the enrolment at these schools is from the educationally disadvantaged and previously marginalized ethnic groups. Enrolment Although enrolment is very small in comparison to general education enrolment, Eritrea's technical education is not a 'second choice' alternative to an academic education as is the trend seen in some other countries. For example, Intermediate Level TVET has been receiving the academically best students from grade 9, creaming off students from their feeder secondary schools. Tables A2.3 and A2.4 illustrate the increase in enrolment seen over the last several' years. The lowland regions of North and South Red Sea, and Gash-Barka lag behind the highlands in developing primary education. Regional enrolment rates for middle and secondary school are not available. 102 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 Table A2.3. Eritrea: Intermediate Level TVET Enrolment, 1995-2000 Academnic Technical Agriculture Fine Arts School ATS WTS MTS DTS BAS/HAS ASA/ASM -Year F T F T F T F T F T F T F T 1995 44 399 15 136 59 535 1996 55 408 15 136 70 544 1997 69 406 7 69 7 88 83 563 1998 95 474 16 180 26 185 24 66 161 905 1999 92 488 16 181 29 322 6 43 26 149 46 146 215 1,329 2000 117 476 34 178 55 333 22 86 63 232 46 128 337 1,434 Source: Ministry of Education, Technical and Adult Education Department ATS, Asmara Technical School; WTS, Winna Technical School; MTS, Mai Habar Technical School; DTS, Dombosco Technical School; HAS, Hagaz Agriculture School; BAS, Beijuk Agriculture School (Hamelmalo); ASA, Asmara School of Arts; ASM, Asmara School of Music; F, Female; T, Total 10. Middle Level enrolment has nearly tripled in the last six years. This is greatly due to the establishment of more institutes. The highest enrolments are found in the technical institutions totaling 710 students in 2000. Asmara Technical School had the highest number of students as well as the highest number of trades offered. The fine arts institutions have the lowest enrolments totaling 128 students. It is clear that there are more males than females enrolled in Middle Level TVET. The highest female representation, being 38%, is found at the Asmara Music School, while the lowest, at 19% is found at the Mai Habar Technical School. Such numbers reflect the existing vocational stereotypes in the country. Table A2.4. Eritrea: Advanced Level TVET Enrolment, 1996-2000 Pavoni Technical Asmara Business and Academlc Institute Commerce Institute TOTAL School Year Female Total Female Total Female Total 1996 0 20 0 0 0 20 1997 1 54 25 91 26 145 1998 5 78 62 187 57 265 1999 5 67 72 249 77 316 2000 3 64 107 295 110 359 Source: Eritrea, Ministry of Education, Technical and Adult Education Departinent 11. Since 1998, entrance procedures have changed to give students of more average academic performance an opportunity to. transfer to Intermediate Level TVET, under the assumption that these students will opt more for the labor market, r ather than university, after completing technical school. However, repetition and dropout are said to be likely to rise as a result. At present, the entrance criteria are under review again. Process for admittance or selection into the programs is unclear. 12. Advanced level enrolments have increased from 20 in 1996 to 359 in 2000. The privately owned Pavoni Technical School (PTS) began offering classes to 20 students in 1996 and is currently working at full capacity. Asmara Business and Commerce Institute (ABCI) began offering services in 1997 to 91 students and is now at full capacity as well. Although female enrolment has risen from 17% in 1996 to 30% in 2000, it is still only a third of the entire Advanced Level total enrolment. 13. For three years ABCI had another wing institution, Halay Comprehensive Secondary School for secretarial science and accounting. However, due to adverse problems with teaching and management, the school has been terminated. 103 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 14. Non-formal skills development: Enrolment and the number of operational centers have fluctuated. In SDCs operated by the MOE, enrolment increased from 71 in 1994 to 944 in 1996 and then declined to 208 in 1999.6 During 2000, total enrolment was 247. The MOE estimates that the non-formal 'course-like' skills training cumulative output since 1994 would be in excess of 5,000. In addition to programs focused directly on livelihood related TVET, there is the adult literacy program, which in its most advanced phase seeks to provide some basic life skills and information. Such variation in enrolment may be explained by deployment of soldiers for the boarder conflict with Ethiopia. Adult literacy reached an enrolment of about 52,000 in 1999/2000. The high enrolment was made possible because many women who were called up for national service were deployed for adult literacy teaching instead of serving at the front. 15. Private proprietary TVET: No information is available on enrolments. But with some 60 establishments teaching tailoring and embroidery and more than 20 establishments teaching computer applications, the annual number of participants in these short and/or part-time courses is sure to run in the thousand. Output Due to relatively small enrolments, output from MOE is small. Table A2.5 illustrates the increase of graduates from 1995 to 2000 in Intermediate and Advanced Level as well as SDCs. As with enrolment, the output of Private providers is not known, but is likely to run in the thousands each year. Table A2.5. Eritrea: Number of TVET Graduates, 1995-2000 Academic Intermediate Advanced SDC TOTAL School Year Female Total Female Total Female Total Female Total 1995 10 140 0 0 320 940 330 1,080 1996 20 200 20 60 90 300 130 560 1997 20 190 0 0 100 160 120 350 1998 20 1507 40 130 70 210 130 490 1999 60 340 50 200 200 250 310 790 2000 70 330 60 160 20 190 150 680 Total 200 1,350 170 550 800 2,050 1,170 3,950 Source: Technical Education and Vocational Training Sub-sector Achievements (1991-2001), Policies. Strategies and Priorities, 2001 16. As can be seen from the above table, the number of graduates in SDC programs fluctuated due to its non-formal nature as well as the boarder conflict with Ethiopia. It decreased from 940 in 1995 to 190n 2000. Of the total 2,050 SDC graduates, 39% were female. At the intermediate level, the number of graduates has grown from 140 in 1995 to 330 in 2000. Of these graduates, 20% were female. The reduction in graduates during 1997 and 1998 is due to relocation of Winna Technical School and the upgrading of Mai Habar Technical School. The graduates in expected to increase in 2002 due to two additional technical schools that opened in 1999. At the advanced level, Asmara Business Commerce Institute provided a one-year pilot training program in accounting and secretarial work in 1998. In 1998, it started a two-year 6 One reason for the decline appears to be that former soldiers who were receiving non-formal skills training, were called.up in 1997. 7The output declined during 1994-1999. Only Asmara Technical School could graduate students in 1998 and 1999, due to relocation of Winna Technical School and the upgrading of Mai Habar. 104 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 diploma. In total the advanced level institutions graduated 550 students, 31% of the graduates were female. 17. In comparison to basic and general sub-sectors, the dropout and repetition rates are negligible in the TVET sub-sector, particularly at the intermediate level. This could be attributed to the nature of the admissions requirement: the top ten students of each secondary school in the country are selected to participate in the TVET programs. It is unclear how much say the students have on being place in the TVET training. The wastage ratio is about 2%. Quality of Learning Outcomes 18. All stakeholders agree that the quality of training needs to be improved. The view of the Chairman of the Employers Federation of Eritrea is that the TVET graduates lack the familiarity with modem technology that is needed in the modern economic sector of Eritrea. Although Intermediate Level TVET institutions have been able to recruit talented and dedicated students, as mentioned above, there is much work to be done before its quality would approximate international standards, even though in comparison to international standards, they have an exceptionally heavy study program of 50 weekly periods. 19. Teachers, as well as students, recognize the poor quality of instruction.8 Much of class time is spent copying informnation from the blackboard or overhead projectors. This partly reflects old pedagogical traditions. But it also results from the severe dearth of training materials and learning resources. There is great need to update instructors' qualifications, curricula and training materials and equipment. 20. SDCs' short courses taught in order to give employable skills to the unemployed, or to youth lacking in labor market experience, have a distinctly poor track record internationally in both developing and industrially advanced countries. Eritrea is no exception to this. SDCs generally do not succeed in teaching employable skills or skills for successful self-employment, unless the training builds on and adds to skills already acquired and practiced. In Eritrea, the severe lack of qualified TVET instructors further constrain the potential, which such centers have for producing cost effective training. 21. It is tentatively considered that the minimum academic qualifications required to teach at the intermediate level schools is the completion of B.A. or B.Sc. in areas such as natural science, humanities and social sciences. Based on this, 20% of the teaching force is unqualified. More specifically, all chemistry, English, biology, geography, computer application, management and Arabic teachers are qualified. However, 29% of physics teacher and 20% of the math teachers are not qualified to teach. As for advanced level instructors, the above qualification for intermediate level instructors is the standard requirements for the technical professional fields and an M.AJM.Sc. for the academic course instructors. Thus all trainers in 2000 were qualified at ABCI and only 22% at PTI. The national average for skills upgrading requirement for the advanced level is 41% for the technical trades and 36% for the academic courses. 22. Aware of the current situation, the MOE has allocated quite a substantial amount of funds for the TVET sub-sector in maintaining the provision for quality training. Thus, some training workshops have been upgraded with new machines and equipment. To minimize the shortage of Consultants surveyed teachers, students and management at two middle level technical institutions regarding overall satisfaction with the programs. Tools used and results generated from the study are in the appendix of June 2001 TVET draft report by Jon Lauglo and Egil Froyland. 105 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 instructors, about 20% of the intermediate level teachers are expatriates from India, Philippines, DED, VSO, and Peace Corps. To improve skills and knowledge of instructors, in-service training has increased and several Eritrean instructors have received intemational training in countries such as Germany, Holland, and Egypt. External Efficiency Figure A2.1. Eritrea: Employment Status of Tracer Study Participants A tracer study from 1996 by Atchoarena and Tekie (1997) is the most recent look at extemal efficiency 100 of the formal TVET training and informal training at so SDCs. The tracer study found some very promising results regarding the absorption of formally trained 60 TVET graduates into the labor market as seen in _ . Figure A2. 1. The Technical School graduates, who X 40 did not continue their studies, had the employment 20 rate of 90%, as compared to 61% in the control group. o Formal Training SDC Training 23. In the area of non-formal TVET training provided by the SDCs, this same study showed very oure Achoarna ad Tekie, 1997. poor extemal effectiveness in spite of the manpower s shortages reportedly existing at the time. Excluding the 9% who entered school, the employment rate for SDC graduates was only 49%.9 These findings reinforce doubts regarding the external effectiveness of short courses in new areas of skill. 24. Technical schools were the main providers of a qualified workforce for large enterprises. Sixty seven percent of large enterprises and fifteen percent of small ones employed technical school graduates. Twenty-three percent and six percent of the large and small enterprises respectively employed SDC graduates. Although this 1997 survey does not give a true picture of the existing employment situation of the graduates of the system, there is not more recent information available. 25. It is reflective of the labor market's great need of for workers that the majority of the participants from both groups reported finding their first job within the first three months of exiting training. The average time spent looking for a job was seven weeks. Although the extemal effectiveness appears to be good, one must keep in mind the size of the market and the relatively small number of TVET-trained students. Also, the market itself must be evaluated to see if the high absorption of TVET trainees into the labor force is sustainable as the Eritrea continues to reconstruct its economy. 9 Since disabled people face barriers in the labor market, the 29% of the graduates who were disabled is undoubtedly part of the explanation for the discouraging finding, but it is hard to see that SDC training possibly could have led to related work, or work of any kind, for the majority among those who were not disabled. 106 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 26. Since this study, the proportion of TVET Box A2.1. Asmara Technical School graduates going to university studies has greatly increased. As a result, Intermediate Level TVET now Asmara is the oldest and largest intermediate has a problem of low external effectiveness, but not with technical school in Eritrea. It began in the has a problemof.lo x 1950's on the outskirts of Asmara, offering 4 regard to the market for skilled labor. Rather, it is courses. Today, it offers 3-year courses. It because so many graduates continue to university and has 9 specialized shops for: electricity, with no clear use at university or later in their career for electronics, auto mechanics, wood their expensively acquired TVET skills. The TVET Unit technology, machine shop, general metal, surveying, drafting and building construction. in Department of Technical and Adult Education Around 150 students graduate each year. estimates that overall, about half of the graduates go to Although it has boarding facilities, Asmara university. To reduce the direct transfer to the plans to discontinue servicing students with university, the MOE is now in the process of increasing boarding needs, recruiting only from the city the proportion of Intermediate curriculum to be devoted Asmara itself. to technical skills and theory, from 50 to 70%. The plan is also to reorient the contents of general education subjects towards application on technical issues. The intent is to require two years of work experience before a trainee can apply to university. These changes would be introduced at a time when, in the medium term, the labor market is affected by the demobilization of soldiers. Labor Market 27. At the most 100,000 persons are engaged in salaried employment, excluding the Police, Army and National Service; this is even a rather optimnistic estimation. This figure includes temporarily vacant positions held by those presently in the Army and National Service. Thus, approximately 90% of the labor force depends on farming, micro enterprise activities or casual labor for their subsistence. 28. All stakeholders, including representatives of employers and trade unions affirm that there has been a large unmet demand for all kinds of skilled labor since Independence. A report prepared in May 2001 addressing reintegrating of demobilized soldiers issues provides an in depth look at the current labor market trends. It is estimated that 50-65,000 salaried employment opportunities will open up in the next 1 to 2 years. In the public sector, 2-3,000 positions do exist, however, a considerable number of these positions require certification in areas such as nursing, teaching, and administration. In the private sector, there are more opportunities for employment in manufacturing, trade, services, construction, agriculture and fisheries. Manufacturing has the potential to offer 7-8,000 jobs for unskilled or semi-skilled laborers, while positions for skilled workers are approximately 3,000. Construction is also another area of high volume openings reaching an estimated 15-20,000 with one-third of these being for skilled workers. The agricultural industry is looking to fill 20-25,000 jobs, largely casual, seasonal work. Some of these positions however, are for drivers and mechanics of agricultural equipment. 29. Specific to the human resource needs for the manufacturing industrial sector, a different survey's findings were reported in The Industrial Human Resource Development in the State of Eritrea of November 2000. It states "...41% of the enterprises surveyed (both small and large) said they needed more employees (1971) in the coming five years, when extrapolated to the whole population of enterprises the figure comes to about 5,200 additional employees. Of these, 59% are technicians and machine operators, 5% clerks, and 4.4% professional and managerial staff. Given that at present the technical schools' capacity is still small, the future challenge of human resource development is qu-te considerable.. .of the technicians: 19.5% mechanist/metal, 107 *Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 12.4% electrical/electronics, 12.3% auto mechanics, 7.8% in woodworks, and other types of technicians constitute 42.6%."'0 30. The large quantity of projected openings for semi-skilled and skilled openings in the labor market and relatively small number of students enrolled in the training programs favors high absorption rates for those students. However, approximately 200,000 soldiers will be entering the labor force over a 24-36 month period creating competition for positions. Yet, only 44% of these soldiers have completed grade 8 and an even smaller 16% have completed grade 12 or above. Thus, a large proportion of those vying for jobs are untrained. The SDCs may see increased interest in their training programs as soldiers return home to work. 31. Even if economic recovery goes well, a very substantial part of the labor force will have to continue earning a living through peasant farming, petty trade, small-scale service, or a combination of these and other micro activities. However, as time goes on, it is hopeful that more jobs in both the public and private sector will be created. Labor-intensive public works initiatives, community-based mini-projects and other employment creating schemes may further add to the number of available employment opportunities. It would be good to check the results on the labor market survey, which was completed in 2001. Cost of TVET" 32. The GOE covers the overall recurrent budget, which for 2001 was US$739,000. As to the capital budget, a great proportion is financed by different bi-multilateral organizations. Since the time of liberation, the estimated capital budget secured from different partners, notably, GTZ, the Royal Government of the Netherlands, the Royal Government of Denmark, the European Union, the State of Lower Saxony of the Federal Republic of Germany, is about US$15 million. 33. Non-government funds for TVET mainly come from Denmark. DANIDA is the MOE's main development partner in education and training. In 2000, Eritrea and Denmark signed a new agreement amounting to DKK 153 million (US$18 million), of which US$6.3 million is to be devoted to TVET. There was to be an initial advance payment in 2001, however due to the war, it did not materialize. Therefore, funds were not released until 2002. The current yearly budget allocations are set out in Table A2.6. Table A2.6. Eritrea: TVET Yearly Share of DANIDA Funds 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total TVET Budget 1,850,000 2,770,000 1,230,000 470,000 6,320,000 in US$ I Danish Krone = 0.11840 USS exchange rate was used and rounded to the nearest 10,000. 34. Although there were complications in 2001 as mentioned above, DANIDA was able to accomplish some major achievements. Tender for construction of Massawa Technical and Commercial School was completed and tender evaluation was initiated in December 2001. Most teacher candidates for the Massawa School were identified, but not employed. Also, a labor '0 Technical Education and Vocational Training Sub-sector Achievements (1991-2001); Policies, Strategies and Priorities: Medium Term Projections, Forecasts and Scenarios (2002-2006). Ministry of Education, Department of Technical and Adult Education. Asmara, November 2001 "From an intemal MOE document from the Department of Technical and Adult Education. 108 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 market study for the Massawa area was conducted. However, the results were not available for review. DANIDA's work plan for 2002 includes the following main components: * Initial construction of Massawa Technical and Commercial School * Tender of equipment for the Massawa School in DK * Development of National Framework for TVET Sector * Strategic action plan developed and approved * Further development of dual and tripartite training system * Curriculum development for 9 basic level trades * Initiate teacher training program in Eritrea and DK * Commence development of finance system and MIS * Strengthening of TAE Dept through staff development 35. The final output of the National Framework for the TVET Sector is planned to be a comprehensive policy paper approved by all major stakeholders and ready for political action. As the resource base for the development work must be regarded as weak, it is suggested that a few international consultants, such as an expert in TVET policy development and another expert in financing of TVET systems, be hired during the process. A study trip outside Eritrea for the Coordination Committee is also suggested in order to familiarize the stakeholders with different TVET systems and in particular a dual and tripartite system. 36. Curriculum will be developed and elaborated for the following 9 trades: General Mechanics; General Wood; General Construction; Electrical Installation; General Metal; Electronics; Refrigeration and Air Conditioning; Boat Building; and Commercial Trade. Eritrean curriculum staff will be trained in the methodology of developing and revising curricula for the TVET sector during this process. 37. In terms of competencies and skills, the curriculum for each trade shall cover occupational profiles, core skills, specialist skills, common skills and personal skills. It will also cover both school and practical aspects of training and offer suggestions as to how to combine the two elements. A modular approach will be considered, especially for the initial part of the training program. A rotation principle is anticipated for the first 20 to 40 weeks. 38. Italian co-operation supports TVET components in higher education as well. During 1999/2000 school year, it committed US$45 Figure A2.2. Eritrea: Share of Intermediate Level million for Human Resource Development in TVET Recurrent Budget by School, 2000 higher education. It also intends to support a 40% strategic plan for higher education development 30% - 9 20% over 15 years that focuses on a network of junior 0 20% colleges. One such college is being constructed 20% * * in Meanderer. Plans have been designed for 10%3% 39 four other colleges in areas of natural science, 0% - A,,,_ marine science, agriculture, and social science. ATS WTS MHTS HMAS ASFA ASM 39. As for the Government of Eritrea, it Source: Technical Education And Vocational Training Sub- budgeted US$739,000 for recurrent expenditures sector Achievements 1999-2001c November 2001. US$739,000 ~~~~~~~~ATS: Asmiara Techinical School; 'WTS: Winna Technical in the year 2000 for formal middle and advanced School; MHTS: Mai Habar Technical School; HMAS: level TVET. The recurrent budget for SDCs is Hamelmalo Agiicultural School; ASFA: Asmaa School of Fine Arts; ASM: Asmara School of Music. not calculated here because of their non-formal 109 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 nature and unavailability of a regular budget from the government. Information follows for Intermediate and Advanced Level TVET recurrent and per capita budgets. The recurrent budget items are salaries and per diems, telephone, electricity and water supply, medical supplies, food and lodging, transportation, maintenance of infrastructure and equipment etc. Figure A2.2 indicates the share of the annual recurrent budget for the Intermediate Schools during 2001. 40. Observing the Ministry of Finance's US$661,000 (6.61 million Nakfat2) budget for Intermediate TVET, there is variation in funds allotted to schools depending on type as well as individual schools offering similar skill training. Winna Technical School received 31 %, US$208,000, of the budget while Asmara Technical School which had more than twice the students received nearly half the budget; Mai Habar Technical School which also had twice as many students as WTS received 6% less funding than WTS. For the private schools of Dombosco and Hagaz Agriculture Schools, their full recurrent budget expenditure is not incorporated; however, the Government of Eritrea covers the meals of their students. Figure A2.3.: Eritrea's Intermediate TVET Per Capita 41. As illustrated by Figure A2.3, Budget, 2000 the per capita expenditure also varies 1,400 1 170 from one school to the other due to the 1,200 type of training they provide as well 1,000 other parameters. The average per 8O0 700 capita expenditure for intermediate 600 4C 3 level TVET schools (technical, 200 - 1 agricultural, fine arts and music schools) is estimated to be US$530 ATS WTrS MHTS HMAS ASFA ASM (5,301 Nakfa). At the moment the average per capita approved budget is SouTte: Technical Education And vocational Training Sub-sector Achievements 1999-2001, Novenmber 2001 considered to be the average ATS: Asmara Technical School; WTS: Winna Technical School; MHTS: Mai expenditure. However, the Department Habar Technical School; NMAS Hanelmalo Agricultural School; ASFA: Asnmara o School of Fie Arts; ASM: Asmara School of Music. of Technical and Adult Education suggests that the requested per capita expenditure; rather than the approved, is the more accurate picture of actual estimated costs per student. For example, Asmara Technical School received US$270 per student, only 34% of its requested per capita budget of US$800. Winna Technical School, which received the highest per capita budget of US$1,170, requested US$2,230. Schools with boarding facilities and that are remotely located, such as Winna Technical School, require a very high per capita. Asmara Technical School is very low at US$270 in comparison to other sister schools such as Mai Habar and Winna Technical Schools. Asmara School of Fine Arts had higher per capita expenditure of US$430 compared to Asmara School of Music US$300. Per capita expenses need to be meticulously and painstakingly calculated for each trade, since trades of the industrial sector such as machine technology incur very high expenditure compared to agricultural or service sector trades. 12 Tlhe 10 to I Nakfa to US Dollar exchange rate was used 110 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 Figure A2.4. Eritrea's Share of 42. As for Advanced Level TVET, the total recurrent Advanced Level TVET Recurrent budget in 2000 was US$78,000 (780,000 Nakfa). Figure Budget by School, 2000 A2.4 shows that the privately owned Pavoni Technical ______________ - *Institute received 60% more funding than Asmara Business 100% w% and Commerce Institute even though it has half the 80% enrolment of ABCI. This is due to the provision of machine 60% technology training which is very expensive to run. 40% _0% 43. In 2000, the' allocated recurrent budget for Asmara 20% _% _ Business and Commerce Institute was US$14,000 (140,000 0% Nakfa), 10% of its requested budget. A much higher budget ABCI PTI of US$64,000 (640,000 Nakfa) was awarded to Pavoni Source: Technical Education And Vocational Technical Institute. This amount was 100% of Pavoni' s Training Sub-sector Achievements 1999- requested budget. 2001, November 2001 ABCI: Asmara Business and Commerce Institute; PTI: Pavoni Technical Institute. 44. When looking at the per capita budget seen in Figure A2.6, a sharp difference persists. As seen in Figure A2.5, Pavoni Technical Institute's per capita budget of US$1,020 (10,200 Nakfa) is more than twenty times the US$50 (500 Nakfa) per capita budget of Asmara Business and Commerce Institute. Figure A2.5. Eritrea's Share of 45. A high staffing ratio drives up the unit recurrent Advanced Level TVET Per Capita cost. The 1:4 ratio at the Pavoni Technical Institute is very Budget by School, 2000 high particularly in comparison with Asmara Business and 1,500 -,02o Commerce Institute's rate of 1:17. At the Asmara Business 1 and Commerce Institute, 90% of the TVET teachers were 1,000 expatriates. The MOE estimates a very high teacher/student 500 ratio of 1: 10 as an average at both the Intermediate and the so Advanced Level. ABCI PTI 46. Estimates of trade specific unit recurrent costs as Source: Technical Education And Vocational Training Sub-sector Achievements 1999- well as development costs are yet to be made. One can 2001, November 2001 expect accounting, which can be taught in large classes with ABCI: Asmara Business and Commerce little equipment and few consumables, to be much cheaper Institute; PTI: Pavoni Technical Institute than Machine Shop Technology. Decomposition of averages as to type of cost such as teacher salaries, boarding, consumables, and instructional materials has not yet been attempted either. 47. No analysis exists of development cost per student place. This should be done both for TVET and general secondary schools. Estimates of annualized depreciation of facilities and equipment, divided by the number of students benefiting from' these investments each year, could be added to operating costs in order to produce a more complete picture of the expense of operating different forms of TVET (and in comparison with other post-basic education). There is every reason to expect that the average annual unit will be much higher for TVET than for secondary school. Estimates for the latter are needed to make a comparison possible. Government Strategy for TVET Reform 48. The need for vocational and technical education and training in Eritrea is acknowledged by the Government as well as by international experts on training and employment as laid down in various reports. Equally, government and international experts agree that presently this need cannot yet be supported by statistical data on labor market needs nor by the current state of the economy. Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 49. The Government therefore intends to institute a national TVET system, which carefully follows national and regional social and economic developments. 50. The private sector must play a central role in such developments. The Government will therefore encourage the participation of the private sector in the design, planning, management and financing of TVET. Federations of employers and of employees will be regarded as true representatives of the private sector. 51. Likewise, the Government realizes that serving the needs of the people will require careful consultation and participation of the communities concerned. The proclamation for the establishment of regional administrations states that the participation of the people will be enhanced and affirms the intention for gradual decentralization. In technical and vocational training at the basic and intermediate levels, this will be achieved not merely through passing on administrative duties from central government to provincial and district authorities, but through empowering these offices to make decisions, concerning a variety of education matters, in consultation with the local communities. 52. At present the private sector has limited ability to take the initiative in organizing TVET. Furthermore to involve communities the administrative structures for effective decentralized education need to be in place. This may take considerable time. Therefore the MOE will initiate 53. a modest formal TVET system to meet the demands for skilled workers for national reconstruction, and to meet social demands for opportunities for school leavers and dropouts. 54. The existing TVET institutes will be upgraded and adapted to fit in the new structure. The TVET system will be comprised of three levels of training: basic, intermediate and advanced levels. It will be a dual system of institutional and industrial training. The system will enable participants to climb from one level to the next. The MOE will actively promote the integration of male and female participants, and discourage gender stereotyping in the programs. 55. The Ministry of Education will remain the central authority with regard to the development and co-ordination of TVET. However, various other government ministries and departments are involved in specialized TVET activities. The MOE will provide all possible support to these activities. Skills Development programs for returnees, internally displaced people and demobilized combatants will be organized. The Department for Technical and Adult Education of the MOE will run these programs until the demand is met. The MOE will also create the enabling environment for the TVET activities undertaken by the private sector and at community level. 56. Curriculum development will be done through panels with the involvement of representatives of all relevant actors. Already an initiative has been taken to review the curricula of all existing technical and academic courses of the intermediate technical schools during the summer time. 57. Realizing the critical situation with regard to qualified and experienced staff for the TVET, the MOE will pursue all avenues to upgrade its staff in post through in-service training courses, while simultaneously attracting and training new technical teachers. 58. The Government will not be able to fully finance the development and recurrent costs of its national TVET system. For the development costs, assistance will be requested from international funding agencies and to a lesser extent from beneficiaries. For the recurrent costs, 112 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 the Government will provide the major share, but co-financing through training-fees, charges for boarding, training-levies from employers and employees, and from other sources will be introduced in consultation with the parties concerned. 59. The TVET Division of the Department of Technical and Adult Education of the MOE will be strengthened in order to deal with the additional responsibilities. An extension wing will be created to the department in order to enable the department to create the enabling environment to support various initiates and to ensure co-operation with other government and non- government agencies involved in TVET. 60. A national agency will be established to set standards for examination and certification of all TVET activities. Co-ordination of the overall TVET activities will be ensured through a National TVET Advisory Board. This Board will include representatives of all relevant Government departments, of Federations of Employees and Employers and of the University of Asmara, national Non Governmental Organizations (NGO), and all other parties regarded as important for advising the Government. Based on the existing TVET situation and the aforementioned national framework vision, the following strategies could be set for the next five years (2002-2006). * Increase the enrolment of female participants in TVET program to 30% by the end of the academic year 2006. * All gender stereotyped skills training courses will be integrated by the year 2006. * All training courses will be opened to females. * Two vocational and gender counseling and guidance officers will be recruited and trained by the year 2006 at the central level for the purpose of orientating schools and communities for maximum female and minority participation in TVET. * Formulation of and legalization of the National TVETAct. * Establishing curriculum panels at central level with the active involvement of the stakeholders. * Establish 3 working groups from the main stakeholders dealing with the overall assessment of the training system, organizational setup and financing of the national TVET. * Empower and build the planning, regulatory, inspection, curriculum development, and research capacity of the TVET sub-sector of the Education system. * Establish and implement a Labor Market Information system for the purpose of matching the demand and supply of skills training. * Collection and procurement of relevant TVET books and materials for curriculum development and teaching-learning purposes. * Recruit three local and two expatriate curriculum specialists. * Develop school-based, modular and dual curricula and syllabi for the existing trades and new ones based on the demand of the current economy and technology. * Plan and implement the decentralization scheme of the TVET management and administration. * Establish a semi-autonomous body dealing with a National Examination, Standardization and Certification System. * Produce a working document and implement the national examination, standardization and certification system for all types and modes of skills training. * Design and implement in-service and pre-service technical teacher training programs in selected schools and institutes (e.g. Mai Habar Technical School, Pavoni Technical 113 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 Institute, Dombosco Technical School) and abroad. All schools of TVET are targeted for instructor and manager trainings. * Recruit new and potential graduates from engineering, science, agriculture and commerce faculties of Asmara University and provide them with relevant training to be instructors. * Form linkages with the University of Asmara, TVET and engineering institutions in different African and other countries for the purpose of instructor -exchange programs. * Upgrade all existing skill development centers and establish two new ones by the year 2006 aiming for each political zones to have at least two basic level centers. * Based demand, establish 4 new intermediate level technical schools by the year 2006 in the remaining zobas. * Establish 3 fully-fledged community colleges at the advanced level (Pavoni Technical Institute, Asmara Business and Commerce Institute and a Technical Teacher Training College). 61. From these strategies, the MOE has selected the following as priority issues. Formulate and legalize a National TVET Act. To attain the goal of producing a National TVET Act, the following tasks need to be undertaken. Establish 3 working groups from the main stakeholders dealing with the overall assessment of the training system, organizational setup and financing of the national TVET. Conduct research such as tracer and reverse tracer studies, diagnostic studies, enterprises surveys, national household surveys, etc., aiming to assess the various skill modes available in the country, investigate a means of diversifying the financing of technical education and vocational training for cost-sharing and cost-recovery purposes. Produce a working document on national examination, standardization and certification system based on the aforementioned studies. 62. Curriculum Development Until the approval of the National TVET Act, a modest expansion based on the outcome of the studies is required. One of the expansion and development components is development of responsive and dynamic curriculum of all levels. Thus, establishment of trade committees with active involvement of the main stakeholders is mandatory to effectively undertake the curriculum development work. DANIDA is actively involved in the development of curricula for nine trades at Massawa Technical and Commercial School. The experience acquired in this process will be essential input for the National TVET curriculum development. 63. Upgrade the existing TVET schools and establish new ones. A modest expansion and development of TVET is needed to satisfy the immediate and medium term human resource demand that the war ravaged economy is requiring. Furthermore, it is one of the priorities of the Ministry of Education to reduce regional disparities in the provision of education and training opportunities. Thus, training centers and schools could be refurbished to improve the quality of the provision and establish new ones in the under-represented regions of the country. In the expansion and development process, meticulous planning is needed to identify the strategically significant trades. Thus, to successfully undertake this task, the following activities need to be carried out. 64. Empower and build the planning, regulatory, inspection, curriculum development, research and project implementation capacity of the TVET sub-sector in the coming two years (2002-2003). 114 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 Empower the management and teaching capacity of each school as a quality control and quality assurance measures. Conduct training.needs assessment aiming to construct schools in the marginalized and disadvantaged areas. The establishment of the school needs to be synchronized with the social and economic demand for skills training in the country. Demobilization and Reintegration Project 65. In addition to the above-mentioned new policies, a Demobilization and Reintegration Box A2.2 World Bank EDRP Project (DRP) has been designed specifically to In May 2002, The World Bank's Board of Executive Directors approved a assist demobilized soldiers $60 million credit for the Demobilization and Reintegration Project in Eritrea. as they transition from the The credit will help 60,000 soldiers demobilize and retrieve their livelihoods, armed forces into society reverse the economic and social slowdown due to the conflict, and reallocate and the labor market. public resources to s6cial and economic investments. The EDRP credit will support a comprehensive Eritrean government program Demobilized soldiers will to demobilize and reintegrate 200,000 of the approximately 350,000 soldiers have significant difficulty under arms over a 2-year period, in several phases, and provide economic and entering the shattered social integration support for both ex-soldiers and non-combatant war-affected econ hih h littl people. The removal of troops from the defense payroll will reduce the burden e omy whIC as lie on the budget by an estimated $60 million a year, relinquish valuable manpower absorptive capacity, into the economy and liberate desperately needed public funds for economic particularly in the medium development and social investments. The total cost of the program is estimated and large-scale formal at $197 million, of which this credit forms part. The World Food Program is sector contributing in-kind food support for demobilized soldiers, and the Dutch government is contributing to an initial pilot operation via a Multi-Donor Trust Fund set up to gather planned grant support from Eritrea's other donors. The 66. The interventions of World Bank's Post-Conflict Fund provided a $700,000 grant to support the the DRP will immediately government's preparation of the EDRP Project. A semi-autonomous entity, the begin increasing the National Commission for the Demobilization and Reintegration Program capacity of the TVET (NCDRP) is established by law to coordinate the program: implementation will be delegated to line Ministries and other competent organizations (i.e. NGOs) system to provide and eventually handed over to regular govemment programs. There are three appropriate market phases of the project, demobilization, reinsertion & reintegration. responsive training that concentrates on the basic Source: World Bank levels of the training system to stimulate entry to the micro and small sector, as well as on-the-job training within the private sector, to regenerate the formal large-scale sector. 67. Thus, the interventions of the DRP will take place concurrently with the phased demobilization and: * Increase the ability of the demobilized soldiers to enter training programs by increasing their basic education levels and recognizing the skills they have acquired during military service. * Provide demobilized soldiers with appropriate training programs to enable them to access opportunities in all economic sectors by quantitatively and qualitatively increasing TVET provision; and increasing the market relevance of TVET provision. * Accommodate the special needs of women and disabled persons. * Match the regeneration needs of the economy. 68. To ensure that the interventions will be market responsive and generate economic activity, implementation will be organized within a partnership between all stakeholders through the following: 115 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 * The DRP regional structures will work in partnership with all regional stakeholders to ensure the access and participation of DS. The DRP will ensure that partnership and participation structures are developed and implemented at national and regional level * The policy and design of the training interventions will be carried out by the MOE in partnership with relevant stakeholders such as the Chamber of Commerce, Employers Association, National Union of Eritrean Women, National Union of Eritrean Youth, Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare, other Line ministries and National Union of Eritrean Workers. * Implementation of training interventions will be carried out by training providers in all sectors in partnership with regional authorities and stakeholder structures. * Assessment and quality of training will be monitored by the MOE who has the responsibility of ensuring that all training providers deliver according to the defined outcomes. Where necessary, external monitoring and evaluation should be carried out. 69. The overall budget for this Table A2.7. DRP Overall Budget by Component project is estimated to be US$19.8 Su-opntU$ million. Table A2.7 shows the Sub-component US$ budget broken down by Increasing demobilized soldier entry into TVET 3,690,000 components. Thirty percent, the Increasing provision of TVET 5,900,000 largest single amount of the budget, Developing systems for on-the-job training 130,000 is dedicated to increasing TVET Developing training provider capacity to provide training 670,000 provision. This is greatly needed m view of the previous discussion Training costs 9,400,000 regarding the limited facilities Total 19,790,000 throughout the country. 70. The DRP consists of the following five components. Promoting DS entry to technical and-vocational education and training: * The DRP will enhance and support the current basic education programs being run within the MOD. * Increasing the provision of TVET by enhancing the technical and vocational education and training system * The DRP will provide support to enhance the capacity of the TVET system to accommodate the influx of demobilized soldiers into the system by concentrating its resources in the following centers: * Skills Development Centers These centers will be regenerated and expanded on a regional level to ensure that there is an adequate spread of state institutional basic training facilities. The six existing SDC's will be immediately regenerated and refocused towards the real skills needs of self-employment and the micro/small enterprise sector. * Private propriety providers of basic training The sector is closer to the employment sector than larger and more centralized providers. The demobilization process provides a rare opportunity to develop their capacity and relevance. It could assist in providing niche sector training with a closer link to entrepreneurship and enterprise. Assistance will be provided to increase the quantity, range, scope and relevance of their training. 116 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 71. Mobile basic training capacity To serve community development and economic projects, mobile basic training capacity will be developed by the MOE and implemented at the regional level using the capacity of SDCs and technical schools. Private propriety providers will also be encouraged to engage in mobile training. The participation of the Ministry of Agriculture will be ensured so that food production can be stimulated. These mobile units will be phased in with the increase in capacity of the SDC's. 72. Intermediate and advanced level training With a predicted increased demand for this level of training by demobilized soldiers graduating through the basic training system, the capacity of the MOE will be increased. Provided their capacity is increased, the existing six technical schools will provide intermediate level training and the three advanced training institutions could provide short courses. 73. Developing systems for and providing on-the-job trainingj opportunities The DRP will identify and facilitate apprenticeship, on-the-job and Public Works training opportunities and job placement and experience for graduates. 74. Developing and enhancing training provider capacity The DRP will: * Fund the development of training providers so that they are able to service the DRP training needs * Develop an entrepreneurship orientation to basic training * Develop systems for labor market responsivity * Develop appropriate learning materials (based on existing materials) Providing training costs: Based on current costs within the MOE, the DRP will fund the training costs of demobilized soldiers according to defined appraisal criteria for: * Basic education programs * Sawa basic training programs * Skills development centers basic training programs * Private training programs * Mobile training programs * Intermediate and advanced training programs * On-the-job training/apprenticeships programs * Entrepreneurship training (in basic training) * Public works on-the-job training programs * Job placement and experience programs Teleconmmunication and ICT Training Institute in Eritrea 75. As Eritrea moves towards a knowledge economy, it is apparent that improved communication technology is needed. Telecommunications and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is currently limited in Eritrea, thus impeding the flow of information and consequently development. To address this situation, the Government has proposed to establish a Telecommunications and ICT Training Institute of Eritrea (TICT]), and to provide adequate resources to build and maintain strong competence in the field of telecommunications and ICT. 117 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 In order to accomplish this, a 5-year Telecommunications Development Plan has been established. 76. The aim of the Five-year Development Plan (2001-2005) is to raise the overall tele- density of the country from 0.98% to 3.34% and to raise the rural tele-density from 0.17% to 1.1%. The main focus of the plan is two fold: * To give automatic Voice and Data Services to rural areas by linking 52 sub-zone capitals and other important towns. * To introduce Data, Mobile and Internet services into the network. 77. In order to achieve these goals, deregulation, liberalization and privatization processes need to be introduced. Estimated costs for the 5-year plan are around US$ 142 million (Nakfa 1,378 million). Various partners in Eritrea from the public sector will be involved in the establishment of the TICTI. The Government also aims to mobilize donor support. 78. For successful completion of the Five-year Development Plan, qualified technicians must be trained. A modest projection of 900 people per year will need training in telecommunications and ICT skills. Currently there are no training centers in telecommunications. The Telecommunication Services of Eritrea (TSE) relies solely on sending employees abroad to gain skills or on-the-job training. There are three internet service providers in Eritrea which offer ICT training, including distance learning through the internet. In Asmara, there is a number of small computer companies offering computer courses. 79. Consequently, there is a great need to establish a TICTI. Through consultation with ICT industry players and others such as USAID and UNDP, a plan has been developed to establish Eritrea's first ICT institution. The mission of this facility is to support the Public and Private ICT industry in Eritrea with training and other competent development related services. As a principle, it should start with a modest capacity and be constructed in a way that could be easily expanded. After three years of operation the TICTI should be self-financing. Its main components are: * the core business is delivery of job-oriented training according to the needs of the ICT industry, including teleconmmunications. * be organized as an independent institution run on commercial principles focusing on core business. * be equipped with state of the art distance learning facilities. * be arranged to accommodate disabled individuals, evening students and single parents who need to bring their children to campus. * co-operate with national and international institutions, organizations and companies such as University of Asmara or CISCO in order to share resources and deliver cost effective high quality training. * be built in a way that facilitates a flexible of classrooms as workshop and conference areas as well. * the whole campus should be "wired" (by using well known technology such as Ethernet) and be a showcase for what state of the art ICT can provide. * focused on high quality and service, considering capacity as second priority. 80. The initial targeted capacity is 100 students; with 10 full time trainers including 2 chief instructors; additional part time trainers; and 9 administrative staff including management. When 118 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 this program is well established, the TICTI would like to consider competing for market shares regionally. Conclusions and Recommendations 81. Extend Access. Currently, access is highly unequal. Females constitute only 19% of TVET enrolment, ethnic groups in remote regions are greatly under represented and youth from the poorest households will have especially weak chances of attaining the level of schooling required for entrance into TVET programs. 82. Increase external effectiveness through modifying entry criteria. All stakeholders agree that there is a large unmet demand for all kinds of skilled labor. At present construction, which has picked up in response to reconstruction efforts, and manufacturing are estimated to have unmet demand for semi-skilled and skilled workers. Computer and technology skills are also gaining popularity. But many trainees now use their strong technical training in order to secure places in the university. Although there is nothing undesirable with the trainees pursuing university entrance, especially if they pursue technical professions, the economy's need for their training is not met. Allowing in students with a wider pool of aptitude, rather than just the top students into TVET programs may be one approach. 83. Make informal training more effective. The Skill Development Centers are not very effective. Those who have participated in SDC programs do not tend to have greater success at obtaining employment than those who receive no training. Although the government plans to increase access in more rural areas by establishing a SDC in each region of the country, if effective training programs are not created, inequality will only be perpetuated. It may be necessary to extend the training beyond the 6 to 9 months generally allotted for these programs. 84. Improve quality and quantity of instructors. The current TVET faculty is insufficient and many tend to be inadequately trained in pedagogy and lack experience in the skills they are teaching. Continued in-service training is necessary for improvement of current staff. Good technical and vocational training requires instructors who have industrial experience and technical as well as pedagogical skills. 85. Generate Certification and Qualification Criteria. At the moment, there are no national criteria for successful completion of training courses. Public and private institutions are able to determine for themselves the levels of proficiency acceptable for certification, creating disparity among skill 'trained' workers in the labor market. As TVET improves the quality of training, a national standard must be established to secure equal training quality through out the country. The absence of a national system of assessment and certification reduces the information-value that certificates have in the labor market. Institutions could also use the testing standards to experiment with ways to reduce training time and costs while maintaining a constant level of quality. 86. Connect training to labor market. Currently, the connection is weak between skills taught and abilities needed on the job. The chairman of the Employers Federation of Eritrea believes that TVET graduates lack the familiarity with modern technology required for the modern economic sector of Eritrea. In order for the training received to remain relevant and applicable to current market needs, TVET institutions must create partnerships with employers. As technology rapidly changes, the industry is a key informant of new trends and areas of focus which will need to be accommodated for. Also, institutions need to practice strong outreach towards industry in order to provide strong industrial attachments for the trainees. Internships at 119 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 2 local industries would not only provide relevant work experience, but may also compensate for the lack of resources at the training schools. 120 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 ANNEx 3: COST AND FINANCING OF EDUCAIION IN ERITREA Macroeconomic Context1 1. Real economic progress was made in Eritrea between 1992 and 1997, when broad-based macroeconomic reforms ushered 7% average annual growth rates in GDP. But this promising start came to a halt in 1998 when a border conflict with Ethiopia escalated into a full-fledged war by May of 2000. During the war years and the immediate aftennath, macroeconomic conditions deteriorated rapidly. Output barely grew in 1999 and shrunk by 8% in 2000. Shrinking foreign reserves, depreciation of the local currency, and increased money supply brought back inflationary pressures, which jumped to 27% in 2000. 2. The boarder conflict also put a strain on govemment budget. Total government spending, which has been traditionally high, rose to 100% of GDP by 2000. Prior to the conflict outbreak in 1998, govemment spending as a share of GDP averaged 64%. By comparison, countries like Uganda, Rwanda, and Ethiopia ranged from 16% to 25% during times of peace. Even at the height of war, Ethiopia's total government spending as a share of GDP did not exceed 33%. Fiscal deficits, which had been reduced to 6% of GDP by 1997, rose quickly to 42% in 1998 and 48% in 2000. Defense expenditures rose from 13% of GDP in '1997 to an average of 38% of GDP during 1998-2000. As a consequence, education spending stayed stagnant and was sustained largely by the largesse of external donors. 3. Since Junle 2000, the peace agreement between Eritrea and Ethiopia has held. In the backdrop of this emerging peace, the challenge for Eritrea is to rebuild the economy and restore fiscal and macroeconomic stability. Achieving the latter is crucial to return output growth to its pre-war rates. In addition to macro-economic stability, a well-educated work force would be an important component sustaining growth into the future, and for this to be realized a broad education reform and adequate financing of it is unavoidable. 4. Given this background, there are several questions that this annex seeks to answer. The first refers to spending. How much is spent on education, who spends it, what is it spent on, and how efficiently is it spent? In particular, in light of the national objective, how adequate is the financing for education? The second set of questions concerns sources of revenue. What financing instruments are used, what are the levels of subsidies, cost recovery, and private sector provision? Related to this, how much does education cost parents? Finally, the annex takes on a number of scenarios. These scenarios2 explore how much would it cost to expand the system and improve quality of basic and secondary education. An examination of these questions provides the basis for looking at common, but complex priorities and trade-offs in the education sector. Education Expenditure Norms 5. The budget process is not an integral part of strategic policy making. The MOF currently requires separate units such as the regional education offices, departments in the central ministry and individual schools to report their planned and projected expenditures separately. The discussion on macroeconomic conditions relies on material from Government of Eritrea. "Transitional Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy: 2001-2002," and The World Bank. Revitalizing Eritrea's Development Strategy, Country Department 6, Africa Region, April 2002. Basic education in Eritrea refers to primary cycle, which comprises grades I to 5, and middle level, grades 6 and 7. Within the secondary education cycle, general secondary education refers to grades 8 to I1, while technical secondary refers to Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). In this annex, the term education is used broadly to include education and training. 121 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Approval of requests is then done per line item by a committee MOF and the Office of the President. There is no official budget presentation to define the spending priorities of the government. This process's strength is that it has laid the foundation for a strong monitoring mechanism. However, this prevents discretion and flexibility within line mrinistries. It does not allow line ministry managers the autonomy to set priorities and execute their strategic programs, nor does it hold them accountable for setting priorities. As a result, this process adds to existing operational inefficiency. Table A3.1. Government and Donor Contribution to Education and Training Expenditure in Eritrea, 1993- 2000 (million, US$) Spending on Basic and Seondary Education University of Asmara Donors' Contribution Total Capital Donors' % of total % of capital Total Donors' % Donors' Year Spending spending contribution spending spending spending contribution contribution 1993 10.8 2.5 2.5 23.1 100.0 0.9 0.3 32 1994 13.6 3.8 2.8 20.6 73.7 1.1 0.1 12 1995 18.1 5.1 2.4 13.3 47.1 1.3 0.3 19 1996 15.9 5.0 2.5 15.7 50.0 3.1 0.9 29 1997 25.5 8.1 5.8 22.7 71.6 7.2 1.5 21 1998 33.9 9.3 7.1 20.9 76.3 3.6 1.7 46 1999 34.9 13.4 9.7 27.8 72.4 4.2 2.3 56 2000 26.8 8.3 7.1 26.5 85.5 3.5 1.8 51 Source: Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance Notes: Total spending for basic and secondary education includes spending by the MOE and all other line ministries who are involved in education activities. Total spending by the University of Asmara includes funds from the general funds ftat come from central government allocations and special funds, obtained from numerous external linkages that the university maintains. 6. Decentralization and the budget process. The war and inadequate capacity at the local level have slowed the decentralization process. However, the government still plans to decentralize the responsibility of delivery of all basic services, education included, to the zobas (regions). But multiple services which the zobas are expected to deliver are planned and budgeted for in separate line ministries. This lack of budget consolidation at the zoba level prevents broad strategic planning by the zobas. The tight control that the MOF has over line item expenditures of each ministry prevents the zobas from shifting resources across sectors. Consequently, existing budgeting norms are not conducive to the emergence of effective zobas. Therefore, future efforts to streamline the efficiency of government services should consider building the capacity of zobas to undertake rational financial planning and expenditure management. 7. Expenditure accounting norms. The accounting system is improving, but remains weak. The weaknesses manifest themselves in three ways. First, there is inadequate classification of expenditures. For example, a look at the MOE budget shows that Eritrea spent about 16% of recurrent budget on materials and supplies in 2000. However, 80% of this expenditure.went into school feeding programs, rather than pedagogical materials, which are the items traditionally reported under this budget heading (Table A7). Furthermore, there was also no distinction of spending between levels of education prior to 1999. The central ministry procured for schools at all levels and for all zobas, thus, specific budget allocations between basic and other levels of education is unknown. 8. Second, there is program fragmentation. In addition to the MOE, other line ministries and several donor agencies are involved in the education sector (see Tables A1-A3). Poor 122 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 coordination of such diverse actors, each with their own goals and preferences, clearly leads to budget volatility. Table A3. 1 shows that capital spending in basic and secondary education sector from year to year has been erratic. 9. Finally, there are inconsistencies between records kept at the Treasury Department, the MOF and line ministries. For example, the University of Asmara maintains linkages with several external universities. The university receives substantial assistance through these external linkages, which are reported under a Special Fund. But because there was no requirement that the university do so, the funds in the Special Fund were not reported to the Treasury Department of the MOF prior to 2002. Table A3. 1 shows that these special funds have been a significant source of program development at the university; and their role has increased in recent years. 10. To get a complete picture of expenditures in education, it is important to account for all sources of funding. To monitor the efficiency and equity of resource allocation within the sector, there is a need to monitor where the funds are spent. The MOE began keeping track of spending across levels and zobas in 1999. However, it is still not possible to distinguish how much of the non-salary recurrent spending went to primary or secondary. In subsequent analyses within this annex, it is assumed that the proportion of teacher salaries assigned to each level prevailed over non-teacher salary recurrent expenditures. At the zoba level, it was not possible to break down spending between primary, middle and secondary levels. Therefore, there is a need to simplify the reporting mechanisms and coordinate and integrate program execution. External Funding of Education and Training 11. External funding plays a crucial role in overall spending on education and training in Eritrea. Table A3.2 shows the donors and their level of commitment in 2000. As the table makes clear, there were several donors with widely varying commitments in 2000. The majority of the funding came from 10 donors. Among the top donors, 73% of the commitments came from 5 donors. DANIDA, the single largest donor, accounted for one-third of total external funding for that year. Table A3.2. External Funding for Basic and Secondary Education and Training in Eritrea in Nakfa and US$, 2000 Name of Donor Amount (Nakfa) Amount (US$) Share of Total Donor Contribution (%) DANIDA 21,771,450 2,419,050 33.1 ECDF 4,417,270 490,808 6.7 Govemment and SIDA 6,182,840 686,982 9.4 KFW 5,737,820 637,536 8.7 NORAD 4,940,340 548,927 7.5 UNCDF 1,622,930 180,326 2.5 UNDP 3,225,780 358,420 4.9 UNHCR 1,020,560 113,396 1.5 UNICEF 6,553,900 728,211 10.0 World Bank 8,058,940 895,438 12.2 Total Contribution 63,560,470 7,062,270 96.5 Other Donors* 2,305,300 256,149 3.5 Grand Total 65,865,770 7,318,419 100.0 Source: Ministry of Education, Budget and Accounts Division Note: Other donors* not listed include Alliance France, British Council, China Embassy, CRS, DED, Dutch I.C.A., Eritrean Red Cross, EU, HBF, MargeretG, NCA, Netherlands, Nuff, OBS, ODE Sweden, Radda Barna, SIDA, and UNESCO. 123 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 12. There are two important observations regarding external funding for basic and secondary education and training in Eritrea. The first is that nearly all of it is used to support capital spending. This pattern is one where the government funds all recurrent spending and some capital expenditure, while donor funding is diverted to capital spending. Furthermnore, the share of external funding in capital spending has increased in recent years (Table A2), from 50% in 1996 to 86% in 2000. The second is that donor involvement in the education sector is concentrates on basic education and TVET. There is very little involvement with general secondary education (Table A3). Such a high level of reliance on a few major donors and the sensitivity of donor funding to developments in the latter's domestic politics has drawbacks. It leads to unbalanced and fragmented development within the sector. For example, the neglect of general secondary education has affected quality at this level. In addition, there is bound to be volatility of funding, which creates problems for long-term strategic sector development. Because Eritrea would continue to need external funding to achieve its development objectives in the medium term, there is a need to create a mechanism to coordinate long-term donor funding. 13. In 2000, Eritrea and Denmark signed a new agreement amounting to US$18 million (DKK 153 million) to be invested in (i) curriculum review and education material development, (ii) physical infrastructure through new construction and rehabilitation of primary and middle schools, (iii) capacity building through teacher education and scholarships, and (iv) TVET through constructing and establishing Massawa Technical and Commercial School (See Annex 5 for more details). There was to be an initial advance payment in 2001, however due to the war, it did not materialize. Therefore, funds were not released until 2002. The current yearly budget allocations are set out in Table A3.3. The Danish Government has decided to phase out all monetary assistance to the education sector after 2005. Considering that DANI)A is the largest external donor to the education system, it will be challenging for Ministry of Education to compensate for this discontinuation of funding. Table A3.3. DANIDA Funds in US$ for 2002-2005 Components 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total Curriculum Review and Education 367,000 710,000 1,539,000 474,000 3,090,000 Matlerial Developmenit Physical Infrastructure 1,065,000 1,125,000 1,125,000 236,000 3,551,000 Capacity Building 1,302,000 1,492,000 1,657,000 521,000 4,972,00 TVET 1,847,000 2,770,000 1,231,000 474,000 6,322,000 Exchange Difference 36,000 48,000 48,000 48,000 180,000 Grand Total 4,618,000 6,145,000 5,600,000 1,752,000 18,115,000 I Danish Krone = 0.11840 US Dollar exchange rate Source: Correspondence to Danish Embassy from Chief Adviser to MOE Public Spending on Education and Training Since 1993, public spending on education in Eritrea has risen dramatically, as seen in Table A3.3. Basic and secondary education spending more than doubled between 1993 and 2000, which implies that spending rose on average by more than 12%. per year (see Table A4). While the recurrent budget more than doubled during this period, the capital budget increased four times. Spending on basic and secondary education increased by 148% over this period, or 18% per year. This rapid increase of spending extended to tertiary education. Most of the spending in tertiary education is allocated to the University of Asmara and the scholarship programs abroad. Most of the funds for the university and the scholarship fund have come from donor agencies. 124 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A3.3. Level and Trend in Public Spending on Education In Eritrea (Million, US$), 1993-2000 Basic and Secondary Education University of Asmara Total (% of Total Other line Total Basic University Spending on education Recurrent Capital Sub-Total ministries and Secondary Of Asmara Education spending) 1993 8.2 2.5 10.8 0.0 10.8 0.9 11.7 7.7 1994 9.9 3.8 13.6 0.0 13.6 1.1 14.7 6.8 1995 13.0 5.1 18.1 0.0 18.1 1.3 19.4 5.7 1996 10.1 5.0 15.0 0.9 15.9 3.1 19.0 16.3 1997 16.6 8.1 . 24.7 0.8 25.5 7.2 32.7 22.0 1998 20.1 9.3 29.4 4.5 33.9 3.6 37.5 9.6 1999 19.7 13.4 33.1 1.8 34.9 4.2 39.1 10.7 2000 17.0 8.3 25.3 1.8 26.8 3.5 30.3 11.5 Note: Other line ministries which spend on education activities, but whose expenditures are not recorded in the Ministry of Educadon (MOE) budget, include Ministry of Labor (MOL), Ministry of Local Government (MOLG), through Eritrea Community Development Fund (ECDF), Ministry of Health (MOH) and Ministry of Tourism (MOT). In addition, The German Development Cooperation (KFW) funds school construction but pays contractors directly and so its contribution is not included in the MOE budget. This table does not yet include spending by MOL. Spending for University of Asmara includes both the government allocations and special funds that the university generates from numerous external linkages it maintains with institutions in Europe and North America. 14. Total public education expenditure as a percent of GDP rose from 2.2% in 1993 to 4.9% in 2000 (see Table A3.4), or an average of 3.9% for the whole period. Spending on basic and secondary education increased from 2.0% to 4.3% of GDP, an average of 3.4%. Recurrent spending in basic and secondary education also increased from 1.5% to 2.7% of GDP, or 2.2% for the period. It must be noted that these average shares decrease when only pre-war years are considered. The share of total spending decreases from 3.9% to 3.0%, while total and recurrent spending shares for basic and secondary education decreased from 3.4% and 2.2% to 2.6% and 1.8% respectively. 15. Similarly, the share of education spending in total government expenditures increased from 3.9% in 1993 to 4.9% in 2000 (Table A3.4), or an average of 5.6% over the whole period. The rise in spending was most impressive between 1993 and 1997. It reached an all-time high of 9.1% in 1997, but then declined over the next three years. The basic and secondary education share of total government expenditures also increased in a similar pattern. Table A3.4. Spending on Education and Training in Eritrea As Percent of GDP and Total Government Spendi (million US$), 1993-2000 Education Spending Education Spending (% of (% of GDP) Total Govemment Spending) Total Total Govt. Basic + Basic + Govt. Spending (% Total Seconclary Total Secondary Year GDP Spending of GDP) education Total Recurr education Total Recuff 1993 536.9 296.3 55.2 2.2 2.0 1.5 3.9 3.6 2.8 1994 597.0 258.4 43.3 2.5 2.3 1.7 5.7 5.3 3.8 1995 650.4 425.4 65.4 3.0 2.8 2.0 4.6 4.3 3.1 1996 736.7 428.7 58.2 2.6 2.2 1.4 4.4 3.7 2.4 1997 649.5 359.8 55.4 5.0 3.9 2.6 9.1 7.1 4.6 1998 713.9 583.9 81.8 5.3 4.7 2.8 6.4 5.8 3.4 1999 690.8 663.3 96.0 5.7 5.1 2.9 5.9 5.3 3.0 2000 622.6 617.9 99.2 4.9 4.3 2.7 4.9 4.3 2.8 Annual Average 69.3 3.9 3.4 2.2 5.6 4.9 3.2 Pre-1998 annual average 55.5 3.0 2.6 1.8 5.5 4.8 3.3 Source: The GDP and Total Govemment spending data are from the CEM, 2002 Notes: Total education spending includes all spending on basic education, general and technical secondary education by MOE and all line ministries and donor agencies and spending by the University of Asmara. 125 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 16. Historically, average spending on education as a share of GDP in Eritrea is around the Sub-Sahara African average of 3%. As seen in Figure A3. 1, spending on education as a share of GDP is lower than Lesotho, which is a high EFA achiever, but about the same as Uganda (another high EFA country) and Rwanda. In 2000, Eritrea's 4.9% share of GDP spending on education was significantly higher than the Sub-Sahara Africa average. Table A3.4 shows that there has been a steep rise in the share of education spending of GDP in the most recent years (1997-2000). This reflects the unusual circumstances of Eritrea, where there was a large infusion of external funding into education and at the same time the shrinking economy due to the war with Ethiopia. Therefore, there is a need to exercise caution when looking at these international comparisons when using the most recent Eritrea data. Figure A3.1. Spending on Education as % of GDP Eritrea !-_ i Uganda Education *Primaiyeducation| Rwanda ___ _____, Mali Malawi Lesotho Guinea Ethiopia _ Burundi Burkina Fas. Benin 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 % of GDP Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2002 17. Public spending on education as a share of total government spending is significantly lower than the average in comparable countries (Table A3.5). Historically, this share has been around 5.6% per year (Table A3.4), which is much less than the average of 15% for comparable countries. In 2000, Eritrea spent about 4.9% of total government spending on education compared to 32.6% in Rwanda, 30% in Uganda and 18% in Guinea. The low share of education spending in total government expenditure reflects comparatively higher government expenditure in Eritrea. It averaged 69% of the GDP between 1993 and 2000, and reached a peak of 100% in 2000. Even excluding the war years of 1998-2000, spending averaged 55% of the GDP (Table A3.3). A key question is how public education expenditure will be affected as the goverrunent scales down future spending. 126 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A3.5. Spending on Primary. Education Among Select Low Income Countries Average Non- Govt. Education Primary education annual teacher spen Govt. expenditure spending teacher salary spend Govt. . % of total Unit costs salaries spending Year . revenue % of total government (% per (as (% of (% of (% of government % of spending on % of capita multiple recurrent Country data GER GDP) GDP) spend. GDP education GDP GDP) of GDP) spending) Benin 1998 86.4 15.3 16.5 2.5 62.6 1.6 11.6 4.6 26.4 Burkina 1998 45.2 14.7 17.1 2.5 64.0 1.6 23.6 8.0 30.7 Faso Burundi 1998 59.7 24.9 17.4 20.4 3.6 35.5 1.3 12.4 5.3 22.1 Etiopfa 1999 54.6 31.0 17.8 15.0 2.7 46.2 1.2 14.0 6.8 20.5 Guinea 2000 62.2 16.9 11.1 18.1 2.0 37.2 0.8 8.4 2.7 34.7 Lesotho 2000 102.7 50.3 35.9 22.2 8.0 40.2 3.2 20.8 6.6 29.9 Malawi 1999 117.0 18.1 19.8 3.6 49.2 1.8 8.8 4.0 14.0 Mali 1998 48.9 16.8 13.7 2.3 42.1 1.0 14.3 6.1 31.1 'Rwanda 2000 101.1 9.8 32.6 3.2 44.7 1.4 9.1 4.0 8.6 Uganda 2000 102.0 10.8 30.1 3.2 53.2 1.7 9.8 2.9 26.2 Eritrea 2000 58.0 100.0 34.0 4.9 4.9 64.0 2.1 34.0 9.8 36.0 Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators, 2002 18. Public spending on basic education has been high. A commendable 72% of total and recurrent spending on education was allocated to basic education in 1999. The share of primary education was 61% (Table A3.6). Secondary education received 14% of the total spending and 11% of the recurrent expenditures. Tertiary education received 14% of the total and 19% of the recurrent spending in 1999. From these expenditure patterns, it is reasonable to conclude that primary education is fairly funded. It receives funding proportional to its share of the total student population, which was about 68% in 1999. The share of spending received by secondary education also seems to be within the range of its share of the total student population of 13%. However, as we shall see later, there is significant under-funding of the middle level and over - funding of tertiary level, relative to their shares of student populations. Table A3.6 shows that the 1999 pattern is likely to have been repeated in 2000. The spending patterns offer some support to the government's often-held position that it has been promoting non-tertiary education. 19. Eritrea's primary education share of GDP is higher than many comparable countries (see Figure Figure A3.2. Comparative Public Recurrent Spending on Primary Education A3.1 and Table Eritrea- A3.5). Uganda Moreover, Mali compared Lesotho to low- ~~~Guinea to low- Ethiopia income Burkina" Fas Sub- Benan Sahara African 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 countries, As % of total recurrent spending on education Eritrea' I Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators, 2002 spending on primary and basic education as a share of the recurrernt budget is also high (see Figure A3.2). Eritrea's 64% share of the recurrent budget on primary education in 2000 is among the highest of all the countries shown in the chart. 127 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Distribution of Public Expenditure 20. Spending within the sector lacks balance. Among the four major education cycles- primary, middle, general secondary and the University of Asmara-the middle level receives the lowest share of spending. Only 6% of recurrent spending on basic and secondary education is spent on the mniddle level. Although the spending ratio for primary and middle is 10: 1, the student ratio is only 4:1 in favor of the primary level (see Table A3.6). Further, the share of recurrent spending in the rniddle level is significantly less than the share for the University of Asmara, even though the student ratio is 17:1 in favor of the rniddle. It is not possible to show whether this pattern has improved or worsened over time as the breakdown of spending by level is not available prior to 1999. Table A3.6. Total, Recurrent and Unit Spending by Level of Education in Eritrea, 1999- 2000 (in US$) Sending on Educaton (million US$) Spending per student (US$) Students Total Recurrent Total Recurrent Level of enrolment spending spending spending Spending Education 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 Basic 23 19.8 16.1 .14.5 70 54 49 39 (71.7%) (72.8%) (70.3%) (71.4%) Primary 261,960 295,940 19.7 17.5 14.6 13.2 75 59 55 44 (68.6%) (67.9%) (61.4%) (64.3%) (63.8%) (65.0%) Middle 67,020 74,320 3.3 2.3 1.5 1.3 49 31 22 17 (17.5%) (17.1%) (10.3%) (8.5%) (6.6%) (6.4%) - Secondary . 4.7 3.7 2.5 2.2 (14.6%) (13.6%) (10.9%) (10.8%) General 47,530 59,630 3.9 3.1 2.2 2 82 52 46 33 (12.4%) (13.7%) (12.1%) (11.4%) (9.6%) (9.9%) Technical 9,10 1,020 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.2 879 588 329 196 (0.2%) (0.2%) (2.5%) (2.2%) (1.3%) (1.0%) Tertiary 4.4 3.7 4.3 3.6 (13.7%) (13.6%) (18.8%) (17.7%) University of 4,090 4,140 4.2 3.5 4.1 3.4 1,027 845 1,002 821 Asmara (1.1%) (0.9%) (13.1%) (12.9%) (17.9%) (16.7%) ATTI 470 480 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 425 408 425 408 (0.1%) (0.1%) (0.6%) (0.7%) (0.9%) (1.0%) Total 381,980 435,540 32.1 27.2 22.9 20.3 Note: Total spending includes recurrent and capital expenditures by MOE and other line ministries and agencies (MOLG and KFW). Total spending across levels differs from Table A3.1 because spending on non-formal education; summer programs and scholarships abroad awarded by MOE are not included. It is not clear which level these expenditures should be assigned. The total number of students does not include the number of students in the School of Nursing and Health Technology and Students in the School of Catering managed by the MOT. The total of students left out are less than a thousand, and would have minimal impact on the shares. 21. An analysis of unit costs reinforces this picture of unbalanced spending. The structure of unit spending in Table A3.6 differs from the usual pattern where unit costs rise with levels of education in one respect: per pupil spending in secondary education in Eritrea is lower than unit costs in primary education. Recurrent cost per student at the middle level was less than half the cost per student at the primary level in 1999 and 40% in 2000. Unit recurrent spending in general secondary education was 18% and 25% less than in primary in 1999 and 2000 respectively. 128 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 22. Lower unit costs in middle and secondary education reflect a lower quality of operations. The secondary schools lack basic learning materials that typically drive costs of secondary education upwards. Many secondary schools have no laboratories, libraries, sufficient textbooks, or enough qualified teachers. The latter is especially acute at the middle level. In addition, they have larger class sizes. The average student to teacher ratio in secondary education is about 60 and is higher in some urban schools, while in middle level, the student to teacher ratio is about 58. By comparison, it is about 48 in primary education. 23. Beyond secondary education, the structure of spending rises with the level of education. Table A3.6 indicates that recurrent unit costs in technical education and at the University of Asmara were 6 and 19 times more than those in primary education in 1999 and in 2000. It must be kept in mind though that in these two years almost 50% of the recurrent funding reported by the University of Asmara came from external sources. 24. Teacher salaries in recurrent spending. As in most countries, teacher salaries dominate recurrent spending. Teacher salaries are fixed, on par with civil service pay, and the MOE has no discretion. Salary-related spending levels are determined by the number of teachers and distribution of their qualifications. As Table A3.7 shows, the share of teacher salaries in recurrent spending on basic and secondary education has averaged 68% between 1993 and 2000, while that of non-teacher salaries averaged 32%. In the latter two years, this share has declined to about 65%. Table A3.7. Allocation of Recurrent Expenditures Between Teacher Salaries and Non-teacher Salaries in Basic and Secondary Education in Eritrea, 1993-2000. Total non- Non-teacher salary Total teacher teacher Recurrent Teacher salaries expenditure salaries salaries Spending (% of (% of (million Other recurrent recurrent Year US$) Primary Middle Secondary TVET Admin. recurrent spending) spending) 1993 8.2 57% 11% 9% 1% 8% 14% 78% 22% 1994 9.9 50% 8% 8% 1% 7% 27% 67% 33% 1995 13.0 39% 6% 7% 0% 16% 32% 52% 48% 1996 10.1 48% 8% 9% 1% 16% 19% 66% 34% 1997 16.6 55% 8% 10% 1% 11% 15% 74% 26% 1998 20.1 58% 6% 9% 1% 10% 16% 74% 26% 1999 19.7 52% 5% 8% 1% 9% 25% 66% 34% 2000 17.0 50% 5% 8% 1% 11% 26% 64% 36% =____________ 51% 7% 9% 1% 11% 22% 68% 32% Source: Ministry of Education, Asmara, Eritrea 25. Erirean teacher salaries relative to GDP per capita are high in comparison to other countries. Table A3.7 suggests that the share of teacher salaries in recurrent spending appear reasonable compared to many countries where they approach 95% of recurrent spending. However, it is very likely that these shares underestimate the true share of teacher salaries in recurrent expenditures in the most recent years since many teachers are under the national service and consequently not receiving their full pay. It is hard to determiine the difference between the true and the reported share of teacher salaries in recurrent spending because no information was available from the government on how many teachers were under national service and how much less they were paid. 129 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 26. By contrast, teacher salaries relative to GDP per capita are very high. Table A3.5 shows that average primary teacher salaries in Eritrea were 9.8 times the per capita GDP in 2000. Average teacher salaries in the middle level were 4.5 times per capita GDP. This means that average teacher salaries in basic education would still be 8 times per capita GDP. This is much higher than comparable countries such as Guinea, Malawi and Uganda as in Figure A3.3. Figure A3.3. Comparative Average Annual Teacher Salaries - Eritrea Uganda Rwanda Mali Malawi Lesotho _a Guinea_ Ethiopia - Burundi I Burkina Faso Benin 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Multiple of per capita GDP Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2002 27. High teacher. salaries are desirable if they reflect improved motivation and quality of learning outcomes. Unfortunately, the quality of schooling is poor at all levels and there is no indication that teacher morale is high. To the contrary, teachers, like most civil servants are unhappy that they do not have pensions. They also complain about the flat salary structure where more experienced teachers without added responsibilities (such as being a school principal) earn the same salary as newly hired teachers. 28. It is difficult to envision how expanded coverage and improved quality would be achieved with such levels of teacher salary structure, especially given the challenging fiscal outlook. The projected difficult fiscal envelope calls for significant savings through improved efficiency in existing service delivery. In this regard two suggestions are made: one would be to design affordable compensation packages for teachers, which are tied to the development and institutionalisation of teacher assessment and performance mechanisms. One such innovative system involves hiring teachers on contract of certain duration and renewing these contracts on the basis of performance and need. This would enable the government to have control over the size of teacher salaries in the overall education budget. Another option would be for the government to encourage and actively promote the emergence of private sector providers of education, especially at the secondary level. This may mean that the current practice where only government schools receive any financial support must change to include the private schools. Such a strategy would increase access 'and ease the financial burden on the government. 29. Non-teacher salary recurrent spending is high. Non-teacher salary recurrent spending averaged 32% of total recurrent spending on education between 1993 and 2000. Over the period, one third of this spending was allocated to administrative costs. Staff breakdown for the year 2001 shows that administration staff at central and regional offices comprised 7% of total staff (the sum of administrative and teaching staff), while their salaries were 12% of total staff salaries (See Table A5). The latter is consistent with the share of administration salaries in 2000 shown 130 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 above in Table A3.7. There is no indication, therefore, that significant wastage of resources occurs in administrative costs. 30. Pedagogical material allocations are low. Although Eritrea's spending on non-teacher salaries is higher than many comparable countries such as Burkina Faso and Guinea (see Table A3.5 and Figure A3.4), little of this spending goes to pedagogical inputs. A breakdown of the line item spending shows that the largest share (80%) of the 16% of recurrent spending on materials and supplies in 1999 and 2000 was spent on school feeding programs. Only 16% was spent on pedagogical materials (see Table A7). It is agreed that operations and maintenance are inadequate and that very little is provided for books and other instructional materials. Figure A3.4. Comparative Share of Spending on Non-teacher Inputs Eritrea _ = Uganda U Rwanda Mali _ Malawi 1 Lesotho i Guinea - _ Ethiopia . . Burundi =_ Burkina Faso I G Benin _ _ im 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2002 31. Unit costs are internationally high. As illustrated in Figure A3.4, Recurrent costs per student are higher in Eritrea than those in many comparable countries. Spending per student as a percent of GDP per capita was 26% in 2000 compared to 24% in Burkina Faso, 21% in Lesotho and 8% in Guinea. This implies that the cost of delivering education services at the primary level are three times higher in Eritrea than in Guinea. Figure A3.5. Comparative Spending per Pupil in Publicly-Funded Schools Eritrea I VD Uganda Rwanda Mali Malawi Lesotho _ Guinea Ethiopia Burundi _ Burkina Faso m_ Benin - 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 As % of per capita GDP Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2002 131 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 32. The inefficiency of operations is systemic. Since there is significant wastage through high grade repetition at primary, middle and secondary levels, the actual total unit costs per graduate are higher at basic and general secondary education. For example, it takes 9 years to produce a primary level graduate. This means that recurrent cost of producing a graduate would be US$415 if the cost per graduate at the primary level in 2000 were to prevail throughout the grade progression of such a graduate. Under perfect efficiency, i.e. no grade repetition, the cost per graduate would be US$223, which means that the current system is 86% more costly than the desired. Put differently, for every 1 US$ (Nakfa) spent, an additional 0.86 US$ (Nakfa) is wasted. Under the current levels of inefficiency, the extra cost per graduate is almost enough to produce an additional graduate. Moreover, unit costs are likely to be higher than reported in 1999 and 2000, since many teachers under national service are not paid fully. 33. The foregoing discussion identifies two sources of high service delivery costs in Eritrea's basic education. The first is the prevalence of grade repetition. The second is the high cost of primary level teacher salaries. The cost of high grade repetition rates and its solution is well understood by the government. As stated in the MOE's recent human resource development document, the government "needs to discourage or even consider abolishing class repetition in order to maximize the use of space in primary schools."3 Cost savings can be realized by a more rational use of teaching staff. In addition to considering the introduction of multi-grade teaching in schools with small class sizes in remote areas, the government needs to consider integrating the curriculums of primary and middle levels and developing more systematic and balanced teacher training and allocation strategies for both cycles. Equity in the Distribution of Public Resources for Education 34. Table A3.8 uses average spending per student in basic and secondary education to estimate average unit spending per zoba. Except for the two Red Sea Zobas, differences in average unit spending across zobas are not significant. The costs are higher for relatively poor regions along the Red Sea (DK-Bahri and SK-Bahri), due to the difficulty of reaching underserved children. Table A3.8. Public Spending per Pupil in Basic and Secondary Education, by Zoba, in Eritrea (1999) Unit Spending Population, Relative Spending age7-11 Zoba Nakfa US$ Ratio % out of school Anseba 240.8 26.8 0.9 48 Debub 210.2 23.4 0.8 30 DK-Bahri 704.5 78.3 2.6 89 Gash Barka 287.9 32.0 1.0 63 Maekel 310.9 34.5 1.1 22 SK-Bahri 374.2 41.6 1.4 71 National 274.3 30.5 1.0 47 Source: Ministry of Education, Eritrea, Asmara Notes: To obtain the proportion of school age students out of school, the 1998 population and enrollment ratios were used. The estimates of unit costs use the 1999 spending and enrollment rates. In general, there was not a substantial improvement in enrollment rates in 1999 to change the out of school ratio estimates. 3 GOE. 2001. Our People Are Our Future: A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. Ministry of Education, Asmara, Eritrea. Draft. Page 120. 132 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 35. Unit costs and enrollment rates together determine the distribution of public spending. The major source of inequity in recurrent public spending would come through differences in enrollment rates between socio-economic groups. As shown in Table A3.6, per pupil spending at the tertiary level was US$1000 in 1999, or 520% of GDP per capita, compared to primary and general secondary education where per pupil spending was only US$55 (28% of GDP per capita) and US$46 (or 24% of GDP per capita) respectively. Since most poor students do not make it to the university level, these spending patterns suggest that children of families who are better off would receive significantly larger subsidies than children from poor families. Private Expenditures in Education 36. In the latest human resource development policy document of the MOE4, the government identifies three ways to involve private households to share in the cost of education investments. The first involves cost sharing, which in Eritrean context includes nominal fees and parental contribution towards construction of schools and school facilities. 37. Currently, nominal fees in primary education range from US$1 to 4 (10 to 40 Nakfa), while middle and secondary students pay a bit more. In addition, parents pay for school uniforms, transportation to and from school, essential learning materials such as pens, erasers, exercise books, copiers in schools, typewriters, electricity, telephone and water, as well as school guards and janitors. School uniforms cost about US$6 to7 (60 to7O Nakfa). Textbooks at primary and middle levels are free, but secondary students pay US$3 to 4 (30 to 40 Nakfa). And although rare, extra contributions may be asked from parents by parent-teacher associations, especially in urban areas, whenever the revenues from nominal fees fail to meet the costs of the non-salary recurrent costs. 38. It must be noted that many parents do not necessarily incur each one of these costs. Uniforms are not required outside of major urban areas and many students do walk to school, in part to avoid transport costs. Moreover, many schools do not have telephone and electricity services. However, where these costs are called for, they fall on parents. 39. The school fees paid by students in non-government schools vary by grade, but range between US$3 to 5 (30 to 50 Nakfa) per month. Teacher salaries in private and public or community schools are financed entirely by student fees. 40. Cost sharing in capital spending requires that communities contribute 5 to 10% of the costs of new schools to encourage responsibility and ownership of the schools. The contribution can be in-kind or cash, with majority of communities choosing in-kind contributions. 41. The government's position is that no child should be denied a place in school due to lack of school fees. Therefore, poor students are exempted from paying nominal fees. Whenever private groups found it difficult to continue to fund schools, the government had usually stepped in to finance, and in the process acquired control of such schools. In 2000, 12 such schools (11 Protestant missions and I Islamic) were acquired by the government. 42. A possible alternative to nomninal fees is a loan scheme for higher education at lower interest. Such schemes are practiced in many countries, but are characterized by low recovery rates and substantial administrative costs. So for now, higher education remains free in Eritrea. 4GOE. 2001. Our People Are Our Future: A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. Ministry of Education, Asmara, Eritrea. Page 117-120. 133 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Another proposal is to recover costs through income generation from industrial and enterprise attachment programs. This is particularly applied in technical and vocational education and training, and would include direct costs of training provision. The third strategy is to promote initiative from schools to diversify their sources of funding through fundraising from NGOs and alumni. The government can encourage giving by private individuals through tax incentives. 43. Eritrea faces a challenging fiscal environment in the future. The government has consistently stated that education is and will remain a priority. In the past it has supported this position by committing significant resources to the sector. But the current levels of government spending, as a share of GDP may not be sustainable. The government is aware that widespread poverty constrains how much it can expect from private contributions. But households are already believed to contribute a substantial amount to the education of their children. Efforts to deepen and expand their participation would ease the government's fiscal burden, without slowing education development in the country. Developing a Sustainable Strategy for Education Financing 44. At present, numerous challenges face the education sector. These challenges need to be tackled in the next few years, otherwise current achievements face reversal. The most pressing of these challenges are expanding access, and improving quality and the management capacity of the MOE. Improving on all three will require significant infusion of resources into the sector. But mobilizing required resources will have significant implications on the entire budget. Therefore, a dynamic and sustainable strategy for financing improvements in education, which is long term and involves all the stakeholders, is needed. 45. This section looks at the fiscal impact of expanding the education system, based on a model of education finance. The key question addressed by the fiscal impact analysis is whether any given reform is financially feasible. Such an analysis is crucial because reforms will fail if adequate financing has not been secured. 46. The process for estimating the costs of reforms follows three steps. First, a set of quality and expansion targets is set. Second, a model of education finance is used to determine the additional resources required and costs of the expected targets. Third, and finally, the impact of additional costs on the government budget is estimated, and the financing gap is identified. 47. Overview of the simulation model. The simulation is made only for primary, middle and general secondary education. The TVET share in secondary education is still small. The government has plans to expand the sector, but the targets are still being developed. The simulation model makes projections to year 2010, starting from a base year in 2000 when most of the data for input variables are available. Intermediate outputs are also obtained for 2001, 2005, and 2000 by linear projections between 2000 and 2010. 48. Figure A3.6 shows two sets of calculations. One block tracks the available public resources (i.e. the budget envelope) for given assumptions of GDP growth, tax revenues, and annual budget allocations to education. The other pertains to the resources required to finance the reforms, taking into account variables that affect enrollment and costs in public schools. Enrollment pattems will be affected by survival rates within cycles, transition rates between cycles and the prevalence of grade repetition. Cost variables include teacher salaries and non- salary spending on materials and overheads. Furthermore, the implied costs of reforms can be compared to the budget envelope in order to obtain the financing gap. 134 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Figure A3.6. Basic Structure of the Education Finance Simulation Model 0 Budget envelope __ Projected govt. spending X { for basic education on basic education GDP growth Enrollment flows a Tax revenues Teacher salary levels i X Budget share of basic education System's operational characteristics A Construction costs Source: World Bank, 2001 Key variables and Assumptions 49. Macroeconomic environment and Budget envelope for education: The simulations that follow assume an optimistic macroeconomic environment in which the annual economic growth rate will rise to 7%, which was the average growth rate prior to the war. It is further assumed that the government budget as a percent of GDP will decline from 100% in 2000 to 55% in 2010, the latter being the pre-war share. The primary education share in total basic and secondary education is assumed to remain at its current level of 79%. The budget envelope is then predicted for two scenarios: one where the current share of education in the total government budget is maintained at 4.3%, and another where it rises steadily to 9% by 2010. Table A3.9 shows base and target values for the macroeconomic and education spending variables. Table A3.9. Assumptions for Simulating the Budget Envelope Initial value in 2000 Target in Year 2010 GDP growth rate (% per year) -- 7% Govemment budget (% of GDP) Spending on basic and secondary education (% of total spending): Scenario 1 4.3% 4.3% Scenario 2 3.7% 9% Primary education share of spending on basic and 79% 79% secondary education (%) Note: The rate of growth of GDP is assumed constant at 7% per annum. 50. Studentflow targets. The model makes explicit the targets for education reform in terms of coverage and quality. It sets these targets for three possible scenarios (see Table A3. 10). In the low case, the status quo is maintained. In this case, enrollment will grow from the natural increase in the school age population. Recent estimates put the yearly population growth rate for Eritrea at 2.7%. Assuming that the school age population grows at this rate, enrollment in the primary cycle will increase by 14% by 2005, relative to the number in 2000. It will rise by 24% and 31% in 2008 and 2010. In the middle cycle, enrollment would rise by 14%, 21%, and 31% by 2005, 2008, and 2010 respectively. In the general secondary cycle, the corresponding increase 135 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 would be 14%, 21%, and 21%. These rates of expansion are below the historical rates achieved between 1993 and 2000, and would seem feasible to attain. 51. The medium case scenario sets the expansion targets at more ambitious rates: it projects the entry rate to grade 1 at 85% of the relevant age cohort by 2010. Survival to the end of the cycle would improve from the current 55% to 85%. Consistent with increased survival rates, grade repetition would decline from 19% to 10%. Under these assumptions, enrollments relative to 2000 would be 44% higher in 2005, 75% higher in 2008 and 97% higher in 2010. For the whole cycle, the enrollment ratio will increase from 57% to 86%. These expansion rates are higher than the rates achieved for this level in the last 8 years. However, they are feasible compared to the historical achievements in the middle cycle. Moreover, they will bring Eritrea quite close to achieving universal primary education by 2015. With these rates of growth in the primary cycle, current transition and survival into the middle cycle would pose organizational challenges that would be impossible to meet. It is assumed that transition rates from primary to middle will decline from 97% to 85%, while survival rates will decrease slightly, going from 87% to 85%. Grade repetition too would decline from 21% to 10% and would help maintain survival at what would still be relatively high levels. These assumptions imply enrollments that would be 50%, 86% and 112% higher in 2005, 2008 and 2010 respectively, or an overall average enrollment ratio of 61%. Given the 160% increase in enrollment in the past 8 years, these rates are feasible. In the general secondary cycle, a stagnant student flow would still mean explosive growth because of the changes in student growth at lower levels. Assumptions leave survival and grade repetition rates unchanged, but lower the transition rate from 88% to 75%. This implies enrollment for each level would be 40%, 60% and 90% higher than 2000. By 2010, the overall average enrollment rate would have increased to 32%. 52. In the high case, universalizing the entry rate to grade 1 would seem to be the appropriate place to start the simulation given the Government of Eritrea's expressed intention to accelerate Education for All (EFA) goals. To make this pledge meaningful, in addition to a 100% entry to grade 1, survival rate to the end of the cycle is assumed to improve from 55% to 90%, and grade repetition to decrease to 5%. The share of students in the private sector remains the same. Under these assumptions, enrollments relative to 2000 would be 57%, 97%, and 128% higher. Furthermore, overall enrollment increases to 100%. In the middle cycle, we assume a near universal transition rate of 95%. The survival rate improves to 85% while grade repetition decreases to 5%. The student population would increase by 84%, 144% and 190% in 2005, 2008, and 2010. Overall enrollment would rise to 83% of the age cohort. Although higher than the 160% increase achieved in the last 8 years for this cycle, they are within reach. Finally, in the general secondary cycle, we assume thai transition and survival rates remain as in the medium case, but grade repetition rates decrease from 13% to 10%. This stagnant student flow assumptions lead, nevertheless, to explosive growth at this level. It would mean 94%, 160%, and 210% higher enrollments relative to 2000, or an overall enrollment ratio of 46%. 136 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A3.10. Summary of Major Targets of the Simulation Model Simulation targets in 2010 | Simulation results Number of public school % of student as a multiple of Overall Overall Student flow indicators students number in 2000 enrollme enrollme Access to Survival Average in nt in last nt in the Student flow first grade to end of grade private grade of cycle scenarios in cycle cycle repetition school 2005 2008 2010 cycle (GER?) Primary Status quo 62 55 19 10 1:14 1.24 1.31 34 57 Medium 85 85 10 10 1.44 1.75 1.97 72 86 High 100 90 5 10 1.57 1.97 2.29 90 100 Middle Status quo 97 87 21 7 1.14 1.24 1.31 29 37 Medium 85 80 10 7 1.50 1.86 2.12 49 61 High 95 85 5 7 1.84 2.44 2.90 73 83 Secondary Status quo 88 52 13 4 1.14 1.24 1.31 13 22 Medium 75 52 13 4 1.40 1.69 1.90 19 32 High - 75 52 10 4 1.94 2.60 3.10 32 46 Note: The access rate for primary level is the entry rate to grade 1. For the middle and secondary cycles, it is the rate of transition from the last grade of previous cycle to the first grade of the cycle. Secondary refers only to general secondary, and does not include technical and vocational. 53. Changes in operational characteristics. In order to reach these targets, the systems operational characteristics are expected to change. We assume that the pupil to teacher ratio would fall from their initial levels of 49 and 58 for primary and middle respectively to 42, in the medium and high case scenarios as shown in Table A3.1 1. At the secondary level5, the projections lower class sizes from their current levels of 60 to 40 in the medium and 35 in the high case scenarios. 54. Teacher salaries and spending on pedagogical materials and administration are also crucial for effective service delivery. Eritrea's teacher salaries, in multiples of GDP per capita, are already among the highest in low-income countries. Therefore, in the simulation they are left unchanged. On the other hand, current spending on pedagogical materials is too low, since it is only 4% of teacher salaries, or 2.7% of the recurrent budget for education. Therefore, for both primary and middle levels, it is expected to rise to 8% and 16% of teacher salaries in the medium and high case scenarios. This corresponds to 5% and 10% of recurrent spending on education. At the secondary level the same assumptions are made. 55. Current spending on administration (salaries and operations and management) is about 18% of the recurrent budget, or 29% of teacher salaries. This leaves little room for further increases as the share is already within the range observed in low-income countries. In the simulations, it assumes a modest increase of administrative costs in the high case scenario to accommodate increasing demands for program execution and planning. The assumption is for them to rise from 18% to 20% of recurrent costs, or 29% to 32% of teacher salaries. At the secondary level, average weekly workload for teachers is 20 hours, and is believed to reach 28 hours for teachers of history. Class sizes are also very high. To provide a better learning environment, the projections lower class sizes, but maintain contact hours at 20. 137 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A3;11. Teacher Salaries and the Public System's Operational Characteristics in 2000 and 2010 Simulation variables Status quo Target for 2010 values (2000) Medium Case High Case Primary level Average teacher salaries (multiple of GDP per capita) 9.8 9.8 9.8 Pupil-teacher ratios 49 42 42 Pedagogical inputs (% of teacher salaries) 4 8 16 Administrative costs (% of teacher salaries) 29 29 32 Middle level Average teacher salaries (multiple of GDP per capita) 4.5 4.5 4.5 Pupil-teacher ratios 52 42 42 Pedagogical inputs (% of teacher salaries) 4 8 . 16 Administrative costs (% of teacher salaries) 29 29 32 General secondary Average teacher salaries (multiple of GDP per capita) 8 8 8 Pupil-teacher ratios 60 40 35 Pedagogical inputs (% of teacher salaries) 4 8 16 Admninistrative costs (% of teacher salaries) 29 29 32 56. Capital costs. Even a modest expansion of the system would call for a significant space requirement. The unit cost of constructing a furnished primary and middle level classroom is based on actual data from on-going MOE projects. The cost of constructing a furnished secondary level classroom is obtained by assuming a premium of 20% over the primary and middle level costs. Turning to the space required, at the primary and middle level, classrooms needed would correspond to the number of teachers, plus a small adjustment for administration, libraries, and space for non-teaching staff. At the secondary level, subject specialization and relatively higher demand for laboratories, libraries and meeting rooms would imply higher allowance for non-classroom space. These costs and space parameters are assumed to remain constant throughout the simulation period. Table A3. 12 shows these assumptions. Table A3.12. Assumptions for Simulating Capital Costs Variable Assumption Construction cost per furnished classroom Primary and middle (millions of 2000 US$) 0.01 General secondary education premium 1.20 Space requirement indices Classroom per teacher, primary and middle 1.05 Classroom per class, general secondary 1.10 Simulation Results 57. Table A3. 13 shows the cost of meeting the menu of the reforms elaborated above. More detailed results for each scenario are shown in Tables A9-A14. Maintaining the current system is the least costly. More ambitious reforms require significantly more resources. With medium case targets, an average of US$22 million would be needed annually if the current shares of spending on education were maintained. If the share of total government spending on education increases to 9%, external financing would still be needed but at much lower levels of US$3 million per year. 58. The costs of achieving universal primary education, in the high case scenario, and close to universal middle education, would be even higher. Without an increase in the share of public spending, the financing gap would grow from US$48 million in 2005 to US$74 million in 2010. 138 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 This implies an average annual gap of US$37 million between 2000 and 2010. An increase in the share of the government budget to education will narrow the gap to US$19 million annually. Table A3.13. Financing Gap Under Different Reform Scenarios (Million US$) Average Projected budget envelope and financing gap 2005 2008 2010 Annual Gap Projected budget envelope (million US$) Maintain current financing level (4.3% of govemment spending) 29 29 29 Increase education spending to 9% of total govemment spending 45 55 61 Projected Financing Gap (million US$) 1. Maintaining the status quo Maintain current financing level (4.3% of Total Spending) 4 -I -5 Surplus Increase education spending to 9% of total spending by 2010 19 24 25 Surplus 2. Medium Case Maintain current financing level (4.3% of govemment -13 -30 -46 -22 spending) Increase education spending to 9% of total govemment 3 5 -15 -3 spending by 2010 3. High Case Maintain current financing level (4.3% of govemment -22 -48 -74 -37 spending) Increase education spending to 9% of total govemment 7 -23 -43 -19 spending by 2010 59. Table A3. 14 shows that both coverage and quality cannot be expanded at the same time without a significant increase in the share of education expenditures as a percentage of GDP. The medium and high case scenarios call for substantially more resources than the current shares. To meet the high case targets, the share of basic and secondary education spending in GDP would have to increase from its current rate of 3% to 6%, 7% and 8% in 2005, 2008, and 2010. The corresponding share in total government spending would be 7%, 11% and 15%. Table A3.14. Resource Requirement for Expanding Coverage and Improving Quality of Basic and Secondary Education (% of GDP and Total Budget) Required Resources 2005 2008 2010 Required Resources (% GDP) 1. Maintaining the status quo 3 3 3 2. Medium Case 5 5 6 3. HighCase 6 7 8 Required Resources (% of Total Govemment Spending) 1. Maintaining the status quo 4 4 5 2.Medium Case 6 8 11 3.High Case 7 11 15 60. These results need to be seen as minimum estimates. They do not take into account the costs of expanding and improving the quality of technical and vocational education or grants to private schools. They also assume that teacher salaries as a proportion of GDP per capita will remain the same throughout the projected reform period. Reforms in these areas will increase required resources. 139 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions 61. The budgeting process does not allow for flexibility and waste reduction. Cash budgeting is an inappropriate tool to undertake long term planning. Separate unit budgets create duplication and operational inefficiency. The current process reduces budgeting to account keeping and not a mechanism for setting priorities. 62. There has been a significant increase in public expenditure on education. Total public education expenditure as a percent of GDP rose from 2.2% in 1993 to 4.9% in 2000, or an average of 3.9% for the whole period. The share of education spending in total government expenditures increased from 3.9% in 1993 to 4.9% in 2000, or an average of 5.6% over the period. Historical spending on education as a share of GDP is around the Sub-Saharan African average of 3%. Recurrent spending on education is about the same as Uganda, a high EFA country, and Rwanda. 63. A significant share of spending has gone to basic education. Data for 1999 and 2000 show that significantly higher shares of education spending go to basic education. A commendable 72% of the total and recurrent spending on education was allocated to basic education in 1999. In 2000 Eritrea spent 64% of the recurrent education budget on primary education, which is higher than many comparable low-income Sub-Sahara African countries. This supports the government's often-held position that it has been promoting non-tertiary education. 64. Spending within the sector is unbalanced. Among the four major education cycles- primary, middle, general secondary and the University of Asmara-the middle level receives the lowest share of spending. Basic education is a priority while the middle level is neglected. Only 6% of the 72% share of the recurrent expenditure for basic education is spent on the middle level. The recurrent cost per middle level student was less than half the cost per student in the primary level in 1999 and 40% in 2000. Unit costs of recurrent spending in general secondary education were 18% and 25% less than in primary in 1999 and 2000 respectively. Lower unit costs in middle and secondary education reflect the lower quality of operations. The secondary schools lack basic learning materials that typically drive costs of secondary education upwards. Many secondary schools have no laboratories, libraries, sufficient textbooks, or enough qualified teachers. The latter is especially acute at the mniddle level. In addition, they have larger class sizes. 65. Spending devoted to pedagogical materials is low. All recurrent spending excluding teacher salaries averaged 32% of the recurrent budget between 1993 and 2000. Eritrea's spending on non-teacher salaries is higher than many comparable countries such as Burkina Faso and Guinea, but little of this spending goes to pedagogical inputs. A breakdown of line item spending shows that only 16% of expenditure on materials and supplies, or 4% of recurrent spending, is spent on pedagogical materials.. 66. The cost of service delivery is high and quality outcomes poor. Recurrent costs per student are higher in Eritrea than those in many comparable countries. Spending per student as a percent of GDP per capita was 26% in 2000 compared to 24% in Burkina Faso, 21% in Lesotho and 8% in Guinea. This implies that the cost of delivering education services at the primary level is three times higher in Eritrea than in Guinea. Primary teacher salaries were 9.8 times the per 140 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 capita GDP in 2000. If middle level teacher salaries, which are 4.5 times per capita GDP are added, the share would decline. However, basic education teacher salaries would still be 8 times per capita GDP, which is much higher than the average teacher salaries in countries such as Guinea, Malawi and Uganda. Because of the recent conflict, many teachers are under national service and do not receive full pay. If the full cost of teacher salaries is added, the unit costs would be higher. Despite these internationally high costs, the system is characterized by low quality outcomes. For example, repetition rates average 14% at the primary level; consequently, it takes 9 instead of 5 years to produce a graduate. 67. EFA goals cannot be reached without substantial increase in resources to education. The government has set ambitious targets to accelerate EFA goals. According to its EFA framework for action, the goal is to universalize basic (primary and middle school) education by 2015, and have 85% of basic cycle completers proceed to the secondary cycle. In recent discussions, the government seems to be working on plans to reach these targets earlier than 2015. At the same time, Eritrea faces a difficult fiscal outlook. IHistorically, government spending as a share of GDP has been high. It averaged 69% between 1993 and 2000, and reached a peak of 100% in 2000. Even excluding the war years, spending averaged 55% of GDP. These rates cannot be sustained in the future. To achieve universal education by the year 2010, significant financial resources are required which cannot be met from current levels of funding. Simulations suggest that, under fairly optimistic macroeconomic conditions, the government would have to increase spending on education to levels above 9% of the total government spending to achieve these goals. Recommendations * Use the budget process as a tool for strategic policy making. The immediate effect will be priority setting and rationalization of fragmented programs. Waste reduction will follow. Granting autonomy to managers of line ministries also makes them accountable for results. Simplification and integration of reporting processes would improve the effective monitoring of the expenditures and improve operational efficiency. * Improve the efficiency of the system, by reducing or eliminating repetition. The cost of service delivery in Eritrea, measured in unit costs per pupil, is already high by international standards. The current unit costs and wastage together mean that for every one US$ (10 Nakfa) spent, 0.86 US$ (9 Nakfa) is wasted. Eliminating or substantially reducing grade repetition can lead to savings that can be used to reach more children. The extra cost per graduate is almost enough to produce an additional graduate. * Judicious management of teacher deployment and salaries can achieve further savings. Teacher salaries as a share of GDP per capita are significantly higher in Eritrea than comparable low-income countries. They are 8 times the GDP per capita in basic education, and this could be higher if all the costs of teachers under national service are accounted for. It would be a challenge to expand coverage and quality while maintaining the existing remuneration structures. It is suggested that the government explore reforms with a compensation scheme for teachers as part of its overall civil service reform program. One suggestion would be to hire teachers on contracts of given duration and monetary value, whose renewal would be based on past performance. Another alternative would be to cap teacher salaries in the medium term while more resources flow to the sector. Finally, the government could consider lowering teacher salaries as a multiple of GDP per capita. For instance, assuming that the current funding conditions to the sector persist into the future and the government proceeds with the ambitious EFA 141 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 goals for 2010, the simulation model shows that lowering primary teacher salaries from 9.8 to 8 times the GDP per capita and secondary teacher salaries from 8 to 7 times GDP per capita by 2010, would reduce the financing gap from US$37 million a year to US$32 million. More radical reforms such as reducing primary teacher salaries from 8 to 5 times GDP per capita and secondary teacher salaries from 8 to 6 times GDP per capita by 2010, would lower the financing gap from US$37 million to US$23 million per year. Additional savings can be achieved if multi-grade teaching is introduced in remote communities where smaller classes predominate. * Increase spending on learning materials. Past spending has focused on expanding the system, at the neglect of quality. Inproving the latter will be important in the future. For this, adequate funding of pedagogical and learning materials would be needed. A reasonable goal would be to increase the share of spending on learning materials in recurrent expenditure from 4% currently to 15%. This would move Eritrea to the median of international patterns within comparable countries. * Redress imbalances across levels. Relative under-funding of middle and secondary levels have led to the low quality of operations. The share of basic education is already high and further re-allocation from other levels is unlikely. Therefore, redressing the imbalance will have to look at teacher allocation policy and donor program funding within this level. * Diversify sources of funding for education. Education is a priority sector. To the government's credit, there has been a significant increase in public spending on education. The government has recently pledged to meet EFA by 2015, which will require significant resources. But Eritrea faces a challenging fiscal environment and many competing priorities. Expanding the private contribution of households will ease the fiscal burden on the government. Financial contribution by parents can also serve as a catalyst for involving them in the broader efforts to improve local school management and operational efficiency. Another way of involving parents in the funding of the education sector is to encourage expansion of the private education sector which will rely on user fees, and a bit of public finance, to support its operations. This option could be the way to expand post-basic levels of education. Eritrea is fortunate in that it has a large and well-educated diaspora who can be a major source of private finance in this sector. Again, assuming that the current pattern of sector finance continues into the future and the government pursues ambitious EFA goals for 2010, the simulation results show that increasing the current share of private enrolments in primary, middle and secondary education from 10%, 7% and 4% to 15% in all three by 2010 would narrow the financing gap from US$37 million a year to US$33 million per year. This does not include savings that can be realized by expanding user fees in the tertiary sector. We believe these levels to be modest and achievable. Quicker and deeper success at expanding the private sector at all levels could entail much larger savings. 142 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Tables Table Al. Spending on Education by Other Line Ministries and Development Agencies (in US$), 1996- 2000 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Ministry of Local Government Primary 353,146 285,002 690,707 96,581 615,622 Middle 537,077 209,914 3,167,100 Secondary Training Center 79,251 Sub-Total 890,223 574,168 3,857,807 96,581 615,622 Ministry of Health Personal services 150,971 178,637 162,854 173,802 Non-personal contractual services 13,309 83,613 61,069 75,477 Consumable goods 30,273 95,864 87,394 86,666 Contribution grants and gifts 81,518 74,315 73,696 Equipment and other fixed assets 22,877 20,855 20,682 USAID Funding Earmarked for Grant to UNICEF 435,553 Sub-total 149,553 462,509 406,488 865,875 Ministry of Tourism Recurrent expenditure Salaries 5,458 7,336 10,667 8,588 Non-salaries 2,942 4,675 11,206 14,946 Capital Expenditures 6,931 36,141 25,726 517 Sub-total 15,330 48,153 47,598 24,051 KFW- German Development Cooperation Primary 1,258,853 289,166 Middle Secondary Sub-total 1,258,853 289,166 Grand Total 890,223 784,051 4,368,470 1,809,520 1,794,714 MOE Spending (in million US$) 15 24.7 29.4 33.1 25.3 University of Asmara (in million US$) 2.5 6.1 2.3 1.6 21.6 Note: Compiled from information provided by Efrem (ECDF), Human Resource Divisions of the Ministries of Health and Tourism, and MOE (for KFW). 143 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A2. Capital Spending in Basic and Secondary Education by Source (Million US$), 1993-2000 Share By Year Domestic Donor contribution Total Donors (%) 1993 0.0 2.5 2.5 100.0 1994 1.0 2.8 3.8 74.5 1995 2.7 2.4 5.1 47.5 1996 2.5 2.5 5.0 50.2 1997 2.3 5.8 8.1 71.6 1998 2.2 7.1 9.3 76.3 1999 3.8 9.7 13.4 72.0 2000 1.2 7.1 8.3 85.5 Source: MOE, Budget and Accounts Division Table A3. ExternaDy Funded Past and On-going Projects in the Education Sector (US$) Name of Donor / Agency 1997 1998 1999 2000 UNDP Primary 310,150 Middle 131,220 UNCDF Middle 221,520 Teacher Recruitment UNHCR Primary 100,820 UNICEF Primary 1,286,260 1,467,320 497,400 154,340 Middle 311,570 223,530 PEQ / PROFEM DANIDA Primary 46,550 885,630 535,110 Other 300,370 61,280 ODE Schweden Primary 86,250 82,260 KFW Primary 1,258,850 289,170 EU Primary 90,860 Netherlands TVET and textbooks NORAD Teacher Training Italy University of Asmara World University 299,440 Primary SIDA (Sweden) Adult Education Total 2,214,140 2,125,810 3,017,550 1,282,400 Source: Ministry of Education, Budget and Accounts Division. 144 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A4. Growth in Education Spending Relative to 1993 and 1997 Basic and Secondary Education University of Asmara (% of Other line Total Basic and University of Total Spending Total education Year Recurrent Capital Sub-Total ministries Secondary Asmara on Education spending) 1993=100 1993 100 100 100 N/A 100 100 100 100 1994 121 152 126 N/A 126 122 126 97 1995 159 204 168 N/A 168 144 166 87 1996 123 200 139 N/A 147 344 162 212 1997 202 324 229 N/A 236 800 279 286 1998 245 372 272 N/A 314 400 321 125 1999 240 536 306 N/A 323 467 334 140 2000 207 332 234 N/A 248 389 259 150 1997=100 1997 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1998 121 115 119 563 133 58 115 44 1999 119 165 134 225 137 58 120 49 2000 102 102 102 225 105 49 93 52 Note: Other line ministries which spend on education activities, but whose expenditures are not recorded in the Ministry of Education (MOE) budget, include Ministry of Labor (MOL), Ministry of Local Government (MOLG), through Eritrea Community Development Fund (ECDF), Ministry of Health (MOH) and Ministry of Tourism (MOT). In addition, The German Development Cooperation (KFW) funds school construction but pays contractors directly and so its contribution is not included in the MOE budget. This table does not yet include spending by MOL Table AS. Distribution of Teaching and Administration Staff Admnin. Teaching Salary Salaries Admnin. Admin. (Annual, (Annual, Staff as % Salaries as Admin. Teaching Million Million of Total % of Total Department / Unit Staff Staff US$) US$) Staff Salaries Central Administration Minister's Office 128 0.1 DGE 39 0.1 DTAE 47 0.1 DRHRD 27 0.1 Sub-Total 241 0.3 TTI* 73 0.1 TVET* 197 0.2 Boarding Schools* 167 0.1 Sub-Total 437 0.4 Regional Administrations 470 9,679 0.7 7.1 Sub-Total 470 9,679 0.7 7.1 5 9 Grand-Total* 711 9,679 1.0 7.1 7 12 Source: Ministry of Education. Note: The total staff for TVET, TTI and Boarding schools may include both teaching and non-teaching staff. Until the exact breakdown is obtained, they are excluded in the calculation of Grand total. 145 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A5. Distribution of MOE Recurrent Expenditures by Line Item (million US$), 1993-2000 Shares of expenditure items (o) Benefits, Materials and Contributions, and Purchase of Vehicles Year Salaries Non-staff Services Supplies Grants and Equipment 1993 88.3 2.0 1.5 7.1 1.0 1994 74.3 7.5 7.0 7.5 3.6 1995 69.1 9.0 8.9 10.8 2.2 1996 81.6 6:7 7.8 2.8 1.1 1997 85.7 5.3 7.0 0.6 1.4 1998 85.0 6.0 8.1 0.4 0.6 1999 76.0 7.7 16.0 0.1 0.3 2000 75.1 7.8 15.9 0.3 0.8 Source: Ministry of Education Notes: Non-staff services include repairs and maintenance, public utilities services, and traveling, subsistence and transportation; Materials and supplies include food-stuff, uniforms, educational supplies, office supplies, etc.; Benefits, Contributions and Transfers include grants to individuals, institutions, and international organizations; and Purchase of Equipment include purchase of motor vehicles and equipment. Table A6. Ministry of Education Recurrent Expenditure for the Year 1993-2000 (in 000 US$) Category of expenditure 1997 1998 1999 2000 Personal services 14,271 86% 17,124 85% 14,931 76% 12,784 75% Salaries of civilian employees 13,856 97% 16,403 96% 14,230 95% 11,064 87% Allowance of civilian employees 416 3% 721 4% 701 5% 1,720 13% Allowance of military and police personnel - 0% - 0% - 0% - 0% Non-personal and contractual services 872 5% 1,214 6% 1,389 7% 1,332 8% Public utilities services 101 12% 112 9% 102 7% 145 11% Traveling, subsistence and transportation 348 40% 704 58% 913 66% 378 28% Printing and advertising 25 3% 69 6% 49 4% 28 2% Repairs and maintenance of premises and equipment 40 5% 46 4% 58 2% 82 4% Repairs and maintenance of motor vehicles 128 15% 76 6% 80 6% 131 10% Rentals 22 3% 40 3% 46 3% 141 11% 6207 (no description given) 93 11% 57 5% 39 3% 325 24% Miscellaneous contractual services 115 13% 111 9% 102 7% 101 8% Material and Supplies 1,170 7% 1,626 8% 3,153 16% 2,703 16% Food-stuffs 899 77% 1,154 71% 2,425 77% 2,110 78% Medical supplies 23 2% 25 2% 14 0% 11 0% Educational supplies 61 5% 82 5% 413 13% 60 2% Uniform, clothing, bedding 52 4% 84 5% 83 3% 56 2% Petrol and lubricants 64 5% 53 3% 57 2% 75 3% Office supplies 50 4% 168 10% 153 5% 383 14% Other material and supplies 20 2% 61 4% 8 0% 7 0% Grants, contributions and other current transfers 101 1% 73 OA% 13 0.1% 57 0.3% 146 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Grants, contributions and other Grants to individuals 15 15% , 53 73% 12 95% 13 23% Grants to institutions 4 4% 1 1% 1 5% - 0% Contributions to international organizations 82 81% 19 25% - 0% 44 77% PurchaseofMotorVehiclesandEquipment 231 1% 115 1% 57 0.3% 146 1% Purchase of motor vehicles - 0% - 0% - 0% 73 50% Purchase of equipment 231 100% 115 100% 57 100% 73 50% Grand Total 16,646 20,152 19,543 17,021 Exchange rates used: 1997: 1US$ = 7.2 Nakfa; 1998: 1US$ =7.38 Nakfa; 1999: 1US$ = 8.5 Nakfa; 2000: 1US$ = 9 Nakfa Source: Ministry of Education, Budget and Accounts Division. Table A7. Maintaining the Status Quo Under Current Financing (43% of Government Budget) Required Resources (million US$) 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Level Recurrent Budget 12 13 17 21 24 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 2 2 2 Middle Level Recurrent Budget 1 1 2 2 2 Incremental Capital Budget 0 0 0 0 0 Secondary Level Recuffent Budget 2 2 3 3 4 Incremental Capital Budget 0 0 0 0 0 Total Cost of the Reforms Recurrent Budget 15 16 22 26 30 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 3 3 3 Total Cost Budget 15 19 24 29 33 FinancingGap 11 8 4 -I -5 Annual average gap I Targets of the simulation model 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Education Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 57% 57% 57% 57% 57% Quality Repetition 19% 19% 19% 19% 19% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 49 49 49 49 49 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 Middle Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 37% 37% 37% 37% 37% Quality Repetition 21% 21% 21% 21% 21% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 52 52 52 52 52 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Secondary Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 22% 22% 22% 22% 22% Quality Repetition 13% 13% 13%b 13% 13% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 61 60 60 60 60 147 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 8 8 8 8 8 Table A7. Maintaining the Status Quo Under Improved Finandng (9 % of Government Budget by 2010) Required Resources (million US$) 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Level Recurrent Budget 12 13 17 .21 24 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 2 2 2 Middle Level Recurrent Budget I 1 2 2 2 Incremental Capital Budget 0 0 0 0 0 Secondary Level Recurrent Budget 2 2 3 3 4 Incremental Capital Budget 0 0 0 0 0 Total Cost of the Reforms Recurrent Budget 15 16 22 26 30 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 3 3 3 Total Cost Budget 15 19 24 29 33 Financing Gap 11 11 19 24 25 Annual average gap 20 Targets of the simulation model 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Education Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 57% 57% 57% 57% 57% Quality Repetition 19% 19% 19% 19% 19% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 49 49 49 49 49 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 Middle Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 37% 37% 37% 37% 37% Quality Repetition 21% 21% 21% 21% 21% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 52 52 52 52 52 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Secondary Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 22% 22% 22% 22% 22% Quality Repetition 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 60 60 60 60 60 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 8 8 8 8 8 148 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A8. Medium Case Scenario Under Current Flnancing (4.3 % of Government Budget) Required Resources (million US$) 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Level Recurrent Budget 12 14 24 34 44 Incremental Capital Budget 0 6 7 9 10 Middle Level Recurrent Budget I 1 2 4 5 Incremental Capital Budget 0 1 2 2 3 Secondary Level Recurrent Budget 2 2 4 6 8 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 2 3 4 Total Cost of the Reforms Recurrent Budget 15 18 30 44 57 Incremental Capital Budget 0 9 11 14 17 Total Cost Budget 15 27 41 58 74 Financing Gap 11 0 -13 -30 -46 Annual average gap -22 Targets for the simulation model 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Education Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 57% 60% 72% 81% 86% Quality Repetition 19% 18% 15% 12% 10% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 49 48 45 43 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 Middle Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 37% 40% 49% 56% 61% Quality Repetition 21% 20% 16% 12% 10% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 52 51 47 44 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Secondary Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 22% 23% 27% 30% 32% Quality Repetition 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 61 58 50 44 40 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 8 8 8 8 8 149 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A9. Medium Case Scenario Under Improved Financing (9% of Government Budget) Required Resources (million US$) 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Level Recurrent Budget 12 14 24 34 44 Incremental Capital Budget 0 6 7 9 10 Middle Level Recurrent Budget I 1 2 4 5 Incremental Capital Budget 0 1 2 2 3 Secondary Level Recurrent Budget 2 2 4 6 8 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 2 3 4 Total Cost of the Reform Recurrent Budget 15 18 30 44 57 Incremental Capital Budget 0 9 11 14 17 Total Cost Budget 15 27 41 58 74 Financing Gap 11 3 3 -5 -15 Annual average gap -3 Targets for the simulation model 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Education Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 57% 60% 72% 81% 86% Quality Repetition 19% 18% 15% 12% 10% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 49 48 45 43 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 Middle Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 37% 40% 49% 56% 61% Quality Repetition 21% 20% 16% 12% 10% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 52 51 47 44 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Secondary Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 22% 23% 27% 30% 32% Quality Repetition 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 61 58 50 44 40 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 8 8 8 8 8 150 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table AIO. High Case Scenario Under Current Finandng (4.3% of Government Budget) Required Resources (million US$) 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Level Recurrent Budget 12 15 27 41 54 Incremental Capital Budget 0 7 9 11 13 Middle Level Recurrent Budget 1 1 3 5 7 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 3 4 5 Secondary Level Recurrent Budget 2 2 5 9 14 Incremental Capital Budget 0 3 4 6 9 Total Cost of the Reforms Recurrent Budget 15 18 35 56 75 Incremental Capital Budget 0 12 15 21 26 Total Cost Budget 15 31 51 77 102 Financing Gap 11 -4 -22 -48 -74 Annual average gap -37 Targets for the simulation model 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Education Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 57% 61% 78% 91% 100% Quality Repetition 19% 18% 12% 8% 5% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 49 48 45 43 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 10% 14% 16% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 Middle Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 37% 42% 60% 74% 83% Quality Repetition 21% 19% 13% 8% 5% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 52 51 47 44 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 10% 14% 16% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Secondary Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 22% 24% 34% 41% 46% Quality Repetition 13% 13% 12% 11% 10% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 61 58 48 40 35 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 10% 14% 16% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 8 8 8 8 8 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Annex 3 Table A10. High Case Scenario Under Improved Financing (9% of Government Budget) Required Resources (million US$) 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Level Recurrent Budget 12 15 27 41 54 Incremental Capital Budget 0 7 9 11 13 Middle Level Recurrent Budget 1 1 3 5 7 Incremental Capital Budget 0 2 3 4 5 Secondary Level Recurrent Budget 2 2 5 9 14 Incremental Capital Budget 0 3 4 6 9 Total Cost of the Reform Recurrent Budget 15 18 35 56 75 Incremental Capital Budget 0 12 15 21 26 Total Cost Budget 15 31 51 77 102 Financing Gap 11 -1 -7 -23 -43 Annual average gap -19 Targets for the simulation model 2000 2001 2005 2008 2010 Primary Education Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 57% 61% 78% 91% 100% Quality Repetition 19% 18% 12% 8% 5% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 49 48 45 43 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 10% 14% 16% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 Middle Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 37% 42% 60% 74% 83% Quality Repetition 21% 19% 13% 8% 5% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 52 51 47 44 42 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 10% 14% 16% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Secondary Level Coverage (Average Enrollment Rate) 22% 24% 34% 41% 46% Quality Repetition 13% 13% 12% 11% 10% Pupil/Teacher Ratio 61 58 48 40 35 Spending on Materials (as % of Teacher Salaries) 4% 5% 10% 14% 16% Teacher Salaries (multiple of GDP) 8 8 8 8 8 1S2 Eritrea Education Sector Note: Documents Consulted Documents Consulted Brixiova, Zuzana, Alex Bulir, and Joshua Comentz (May 2001). "The Gender Gap in Education in Eritrea." IMF Working Paper. Government of Eritrea (1997). School Organization Regulation. Ministry of Education. Government of Eritrea (2000). Eritrea: Basic Education Statistics 1999/2000. Ministry of Education. Government of Eritrea (2000). Eritrea: Essential Education Indicators 1999/2000. Ministry of Education. Government of Eritrea (March 2000). "1999-2000 Academic Year First Semester Student Performance Analysis & Addressing the Issue of Planning the Quality of Education in the State of Eritrea." Ministry of Education, EMIS. Government of Eritrea (October 2000). Ministry of Education's Five Year (2001-2005) Sectoral Development Plan and Budget. Government of Eritrea (May 2001). "Reintegration of Demobilized Soldiers: Labor Market Trends 200" First Draft. Eritrea Demobilization and Reintegration Program (ER-DRP). Government of Eritrea (November 2001). Our People and Our Future: A Framework for the Development of Human Resources in the Education Sector. Ministry of Education. Government of Eritrea (November 2001). Technical Education and Vocational Training Sub- sector Achievements (1991-2001); Policies. Strategies and Priorities: Medium Term Projections. Forecasts and Scenarios (2002-2006). Ministry of Education; Department of Technical and Adult Education. Habtai, Araya (February 1994). "Curriculum Conceptions and Practices in Eritrea within the Context of Comparative Issues and Trends in Global Education." CDI Ministry of Education. Tekie, Tesfamariam, (April 2000). "Technical and Vocational Education and Training for Employment Creation." Prepared for the Ministry of Labour and Human Welfare and ILO. World Bank, (June 2001). Aide-Memoire, Eritrea Mission. World Bank, (June 2001). IDA Education and Training Mission Report for Eritrea. World Bank, (July 2001). Back to Office Report by Harry Faulkner. World Bank, (December 2001). Establishment of a Telecommunication and ICT Training Institute for Eritrea. Mission Report by Kjell Ivar Tangen and Pancras Eroku. World Bank, (March 2002). Project Status Report: Eritrea Integrated Early Childhood Project. 153 -18' 380 39 45 dl' ~ '~~3 'BD 16 SAUDI ARABIA SUDAN M.rooTedoi ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ERITREA ~~~~' K~~~~~~~~~~~~~' K - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~MAJOR ROADS ~~~~ TMl.oA 1. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SECONDARY ROADS IS' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~RAILROADS K~~~~~~~~~~- (Solo ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~RIVERS '0 , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IN'TERMITTRENT STREAMS F.Ih,, ' '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' 0 ~~~~~~~~~SELECTED TOWNS F ~~~~~~~~~~REGION CAPITALS A~S '~ ~ NATIONAL CAPITAL N olboh -- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~REGION BOUNDARIES ~~~~ AoogEoR 505 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 16-S /16 ( G06f A-h0 100 15 -2 R.-f~~~~"'R ~ -. Ro , T. 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