ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION DISCUSSION PAPER Going, Going, Gone... The Illegal Trade in Wildlife in East and Southeast Asia THE WORLD BANK Going, Going, Gone: The Illegal Trade in Wildlife in East and Southeast Asia July 2005 Environment and Social Development East Asia and Pacific Region Discussion Paper This publication was developed and produced by the Environment and Social Development Unit (EASES), of the East Asia and Pacific Region of the World Bank. The Environment, Rural and Social Development Units are part of the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Network. Environmental and social development issues are integral part of the development challenge in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region. The recently completed Environment and Social Development Strategies for the World Bank in the region have provided the conceptual framework for setting priorities, strengthening the policy and institutional framework for sustainable development, and addressing key environmental and social development challenges through projects, programs, policy dialogue, and partnerships. The EASES Discussion Paper Series provides a forum for discussion on good practices and policy issues within the development community and with client countries. This publication is available online at <>, and at <>. Front cover photos, from left to right: Kathy MacKinnon, The World Bank; and Chris R. Shepherd, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia. Environment and Social Development Department East Asia and Pacific Region The World Bank Washington, D.C. July 2005 ____________________________________________________________________________________ This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org. TABLE OF CONTENTS ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ FOREWORD ii ACRONYMS iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv EXECUTIVESUMMARY v CHAPTER1. THE WILDLIFETRADE­ STILLGOING 1 A Multi-Million Dollar Business 1 What Is Driving the Trade? 4 CHAPTER2. CASESTUDIES 6 Case Study 1. Trading as a Subsistence Activity in the Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area, Lao PDR 6 Case Study 2. From Subsistence to Professionalism at Pu Mat National Park, Vietnam 6 Case Study 3. Diversification at Tam Dao National Park, Vietnam 9 Case Study 4. No Different in the North: The Mammal Trade in Mongolia 11 CHAPTER3. CURBINGTHE TRADE 13 Action to Date 13 Engaging Effective Partners 15 CHAPTER4. RECOMMENDATIONS 16 Key Areas of Focus 16 Why Should the World Bank Care? 17 Next Steps 18 SOURCESOF INFORMATION 19 ANNEX 1 22 i FOREWORD ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ In the last five years, the World Bank has approved entry points for actions by the World Bank, nearly 50 projects directly or indirectly related to governments and other stakeholders to reduce the biodiversity conservation in East and Southeast threats to wildlife and human welfare posed by the Asia, accounting for some $310 million of Bank illegal trade in wildlife. The paper's financing. However, there is a growing realization recommendations focus on scaling up the that these investments are being seriously effectiveness of current interventions, and suggest compromised by the illegal wildlife trade, and that others that have not yet been tried or tested. as a result the region's forests are increasingly silent, empty of the wildlife that makes them so unique. This report aims to stimulate discussion, share knowledge, and contribute to learning from The region is a center for the consumption of experience. It is a means to guide future thinking wildlife derivatives, ranging from tiger bone about the engagement of the World Bank on issues medicines to shark fin cuisine. The region is also a of wildlife trade, and is part of a larger effort in the key supplier to the international wildlife market, World Bank to implement a coherent strategy in both legal and illegal. Wildlife is traded as food, support of placing the fight against the illegal trade traditional medicine, pets, for zoos and other live in wildlife squarely on the development agenda. animal collections, and as trophies and decorations. If a species has a marketable value, and a market As governments and civil society alike become more exists for it, it is traded. aware of the importance of biodiversity for economic growth and poverty alleviation, and of the This paper provides a glimpse into the world of threats posed to this biodiversity by the illegal trade illegal wildlife trade, as well as a snapshot of how in wildlife, there is hope that the rich forests, fauna the World Bank, through its lending and non- and flora of East and Southeast Asia will remain a lending activities, can leverage its many major asset for improving the quality of people's investments to safeguard biodiversity and the lives and providing opportunities for future livelihoods that depend on it. It seeks to identify key generations. Magda Lovei Sector Manager Environment and Social Development Unit East Asia and the Pacific ii ACRONYMS ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ADB Asian Development Bank ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations CBD Conference on Biological Diversity CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CoP13 The Thirteenth Conference of the Parties (CITES) GDP Gross Domestic Product GMS Greater Mekong Sub-Region GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency IUCN The World ConservationUnion NGO Non-Governmental Organization NNT NPA Nakai Nam Theun National Protected Area (in Lao PDR) PMNP Pu Mat National Park (in Vietnam) PRSC Poverty-Reduction Support Credit SFNC Social Forestry and Nature Conservation Project (in Vietnam) TDNP Tam Dao National Park (in Vietnam) TCM Traditional Chinese Medicine UNDP United Nations Development Program WCS Wildlife Conservation Society iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ This publication is based on a report prepared for Amgalanbaatar, and B. Lhagvasuren (Mongolian the East Asia and Pacific Region of the World Bank Academy of Sciences), as well as by Dan Biller, by Andrew Grieser-Johns of FRR Limited (East Charles di Leva, Mona Haddad, Valerie Hickey, Asia) in Hanoi, and Julie Thomson of the Indochina Julien Labonne, Magda Lovei, Kathy MacKinnon, Office (Hanoi) of TRAFFIC Southeast Asia. It was and Muthukumara Mani (World Bank). Tony reviewed by Teresa Mulliken (TRAFFIC Whitten managed the publication process with International), Craig Kirkpatrick (TRAFFIC East considerable help from Valerie Hickey. The Asia), and James Compton (TRAFFIC Southeast publication was edited by Sylvia Howe, Robert Asia. Additional input has been provided by Peter Livernash, and William Nicholas Bowden, and Zahler (WCS Mongolia), Rich Reading (Denver desktopped by Cristy Tumale-Habib. Zoo), James Wingard (ICInternational, Inc.), and S. iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ East and Southeast Asia account for a remarkable economic growth, consumer demands, and proportion of the world's biodiversity. The region, biodiversity conservation. which spans the Palearctic, Oriental, and Australasian biogeographical regions, has a As a result of rapid economic growth, the demand richness and diversity of species that is found in for natural resources such as land, timber and non- few other regions of the world. It encompasses the timber forest resources has exploded across Asia. centers of origin for many important and Moreover, the East and Southeast Asia region is a widespread crops including rice, sugar cane, citrus, center for the consumption of wildlife derivatives, and soybeans. People rely on biodiversity for food, ranging from tiger bone medicines to shark fin shelter, and other inputs to their livelihoods. cuisine. The region is also a key supplier to the Biodiversity also boosts economic growth by international wildlife market, both legal and illegal. contributing to trade and foreign exchange Much of the demand arises from the practice of earnings. The region's charismatic fauna, stunning Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which uses forests, coral reefs, and rich coastal areas offer natural plant, mineral, and animal-based recreation and inspiration for millions of people. ingredients. TCM dates back at least 3,000 years and is an indispensable part of China's cultural People have occupied much of the land surface of heritage. For many centuries, tiger bone was a East and Southeast Asia for thousands of years. preferred treatment for joint ailments like arthritis, The region's biodiversity is the product of a long while rhino horn has been used to treat fever, history of interaction between mankind and nature. convulsions, and delirium. Bile from bear gall However, as the region's population exploded in bladders is used to treat a variety of ailments, from the twentieth century, agricultural expansion inflammation to bacterial infections. Although converted forests and grasslands into cultivated alternatives are available, and many species used in land; deforestation and forest fires reduced the TCM are now protected by national and forest area and left remaining forests more international laws, illegal trade and poaching have fragmented and degraded; pollution, over-fishing, increased to crisis levels as TCM's popularity has and draining of wetlands irrevocably altered expanded, in part supported by the rise in personal freshwater and marine landscapes; and wealth and the status gained by consuming rare unsustainable resource use, generated by a strong and exotic species. demand for wildlife products, emptied the forests and seas of their riches. As a result, the rich In addition to their purported curative properties, biodiversity of the region is under serious threat. wildlife and plant derivatives are in demand for exotic cuisine, clothing, trophies, and accessories. Perhaps one of the most pernicious of threats is This has led to unsustainable levels of exploitation from the illegal trade in wildlife - animals and for many of the region's most charismatic and plants ­ which is occurring throughout the region. endangered1 species. The region's forests are The region's recent economic performance has increasingly silent, empty of the wildlife that been strong, with regional growth in GDP makes them so unique. exceeding six percent in 2004; growth prospects continue to look good for the future. The region's Combating the Illegal Trade dynamism is creating more personal wealth and Various efforts have been made by different higher standards of living than ever before. stakeholders to sustainably manage the wildlife However, economic growth has, as elsewhere, trade. One initiative is the Convention on brought changing patterns of consumption, and some of these have led to heightened environmental degradation. Consequently, the 1Throughout this report, `endangered' is used in the region is failing to strike a balance between colloquial sense, and not in the narrower sense of one particular IUCN threat category. v International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Solving the Problem Fauna and Flora (CITES), which came into force in Illegal wildlife trade has many complex causes, July 1975. which are rooted in social, economic, cultural, and political structures. Any solution needs to address CITES is an international agreement that relies on these different factors and must include (a) a better voluntary adherence by states. Because the trade in understanding of the dynamics of the trade; (b) wild animals and plants does not stop at state regulatory controls at the national and regional borders, the effort to manage it and curb illegal levels coupled with incentives to change bad activities requires international cooperation to behaviors; (c) incentives for better management of safeguard certain species from over-exploitation. the species most under threat; (d) improved CITES was born out of the need for such awareness of the threats from the trade; and (e) cooperation. Currently, 167 nations have ratified engagement of stakeholders at many levels and in CITES. For these states, CITES provides a different places. framework in which to manage the trade in wildlife and plants, which is supplemented and It is not enough to tell people what to do; they made operational by domestic legislation. Today, must be convinced that it is in their own best CITES accords varying degrees of protection to interests. The wildlife trade in East and Southeast more than 30,000 species of wild animals and Asia involves many different groups: hunters, the plants, whether they are traded as live specimens rural poor, government officials, consumers, and for the pet trade, as bit-parts for trophies and decision-makers. All of these stakeholders need to ornamental use, medicine, or as food. Many know why they should change their behavior, and wildlife species in trade are not endangered, but how they may do so without having to incur major the existence of CITES safeguards these resources losses. for the future. Engaging the World Bank and Others Differentiating Between the Legal and Illegal Trade The World Bank and other international agencies have the experience and the capacity to be catalysts All trade in species categorized as endangered is in the fight against the illegal wildlife trade. To illegal, both under international environment protect its considerable investments in biodiversity treaties such as CITES and under implementing conservation, to leverage its environmental policy legislation enacted by national legislatures. Many dialogue, and to scale-up its work against the other species, though not endangered, are traded illegal trade in wildlife and plants, the World Bank through permits, many of which are provided is well positioned to engage in several additional using quotas to limit harvests. Trading wildlife activities in which it has a comparative advantage. without permits, and exploiting wildlife beyond These include awareness-raising, brokering stated quotas, is adding additional stress on cooperation and information sharing, working with wildlife numbers. Consequently, because of limited governments to better implement their safeguards baseline data, weak capacity and poor policies, and supporting monitoring systems and enforcement, much of the nominally legal trade personnel. contributes to the demise of wildlife throughout the region. In time--with coordinated efforts, information- sharing, collaboration, and support--it is entirely possible that we may witness a renaissance in wildlife populations rather than their inexorable decline. vi CHAPTER 1 THE WILDLIFE TRADE ­ STILL GOING ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Trade in wildlife in East and Southeast Asia has a animals for trade (both legal and illegal) is long history. In Cambodia, wild plants and animals considered to be the single greatest threat to many have been a major source of foreign exchange species, even more than habitat loss and between the first and 20th Centuries (Martin and degradation (e.g. Davis et al, 1995; Nooren and Phipps, 1996); until the 10th Century, Vietnamese Claridge, 2001; Oldfield, 2003) Today, wildlife kings presented live animals and wildlife products eradication happens even more quickly than to their Chinese leaders (Nash, 1997). In the 1860s, deforestation (Bennett et al., 2002). in Lao PDR the French explorer Garnier observed a thriving trade in wildlife conducted by Chinese In East and Southeast Asia, the illegal trade in wild and Thai nationals. It included elephant ivory, animals and plants (including timber, which is rhinoceros horn, peafowl feathers, and animal bone undermining attempts at sustainable forest (Garnier, 1869-85). By the 1960s, foreign businesses management) is estimated to be worth many were trafficking Lao wildlife into Thailand (Mills millions of dollars (Compton et al., 1999; Nooren and Servheen, 1990), and by the late 1970s, and Claridge, 2001; Vietnam Ministry of Cambodia's Khmer Rouge had traded $25 million- Agriculture and Rural Development, in press). In worth of wild animal parts to the Chinese for the early 1990s, the illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam weapons and supplies (Nooren and Claridge, was conservatively estimated at $24 million 2001). annually (Donovan, 1998). In 2002, it was estimated at $66.5 million (Van Song, 2003). In 1999 and 2000, All trade in species categorized as endangered is approximately 25 tons of wild freshwater turtles illegal, both under international environmental and tortoises were caught and exported each week treaties -- most noticeably CITES -- and under from northern Sumatra to China (Shepherd, 2000). implementing legislation enacted by national Despite continued demand, as turtles become legislatures. CITES, the Convention on harder to find, this trade has dropped to seven to International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild ten tons per week (C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC Fauna and Flora, came into force in 1975 and Southeast Asia, in litt. to WCS/TRAFFIC, August provides a broad framework in which to manage 2004). This is the maximum amount of turtles trade in wildlife and plants. It is supplemented and available, and is a likely indicator of their demise in made operational by domestic legislation. Today, a matter of two years. In Thailand in 2003, a one- CITES accords varying degrees of protection to day raid on Bangkok's Chatuchak market seized more than 30,000 species of wild animals and 1,000 protected species worth $1.25 million. In early plants (both dead and alive) that are traded. Many 2004, Chinese law enforcement seized the skins of of these species, though not endangered, are traded 31 tigers--today there are only 50 tigers estimated under strict permits to limit harvests and reduce to be left in the wild in China--worth more than the stresses on wildlife numbers. $1.2 million (Gray, 2004). A Multi-Million Dollar Business If a species has a marketable value that is greater Notwithstanding this bleak history, over the past than the marginal cost of harvesting that species, it two decades the wildlife trade in East and is traded. This value can be for "wild meat" or Southeast Asia has been at its most intensive. In the food; traditional medicines; building materials; Mekong riparian states of Cambodia, Lao PDR, pets (including aquaria); zoos and other live animal Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and southern China, collections; or trophies and decorations (e.g., which make up the greater Mekong sub-region jewelry, reptile skins, ivory, and ornaments). (GMS), over-exploitation of wild plants and Today, as the number of large animals has dwindled almost to nothing, the most visible trade 1 flows are in smaller mammals, reptiles, fish, and Freshwater turtles. Over 50 percent of Asia's plants. While information on the exact numbers of freshwater turtles (45 species) are now considered these species is difficult to obtain, available in danger of extinction in the immediate or near evidence suggests that even these relatively future as a direct result of over-exploitation for abundant species are beginning to be seriously trade (van Dijk et al., 2000; Stuart and affected by the trade. Thorbjanrarson, in press). In 2000, it was estimated that 10 million freshwater turtles (or 10,000 tons) Tigers. In Sumatra, approximately 51 tigers were were traded annually in East Asia for use in food killed each year between 1998 and 2002 (Shepherd and traditional medicine (TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, and Magnus, 2004)--out of a total population of unpublished data). Six tons of wild-caught around 800 individuals before 1998. The majority freshwater turtles were seized in Hanoi, Vietnam in were to satisfy demand elsewhere in Asia. Between March 2003. They had been exported by air using June 2003 and April 2004, seven tigers were killed false permits from Malaysia (C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC in northeastern Lao PDR; their bones reportedly Southeast Asia, in litt. to J. Thomson, September were traded for over $50,000 (A. Johnson, WCS Lao 2004). Program in litt. to WCS/TRAFFIC, August 2004). Marine turtles. Almost 30,000 items made from the Antelope. The translucent, waxy horns of the critically endangered Hawksbill Turtle were found droop-nosed and severely-threatened saiga on sale in Vietnam in 2002 (TRAFFIC Southeast antelope, which used to be found across Asia Indochina, 2004), signaling the death of Kazakhstan and Mongolia, constitute an ingredient thousands of these marine creatures. in more than 30 types of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), including a medicine prescribed Water snakes. From 1999 to 2000, over 8,500 water to counteract the SARS virus. Between 2000 and snakes (comprising five species) were estimated 2003 in China, 15 cases were reported of smuggling harvested per day from Cambodia's Tonle Sap, male saiga horns. Together the horns weighed 5 primarily for local subsistence and trade, possibly tons and represented more than 15,000 animals, or representing the greatest exploitation of any single about one-third of the total world population. snake assemblage in the world (Stuart et al., 2000). Mongolia has a disjunct population which now numbers only some 800 animals. These unique Seahorses. An estimated 20 million seahorses are antelopes are under increasing pressure of taken annually from the South China Sea and Gulf extirpation throughout their range. of Thailand, of which 95 percent are destined for China for use in the traditional medicine industry, Pangolins. According to CITES trade data, between according to Project Seahorse (Gray, 2004). 1993 and 2003 over 80,000 pangolin skins were illegally exported from Lao PDR to international Timber. Vietnam's Forest Protection Department markets, primarily in the United States and Mexico. reportedly seized 63,000 m3 of illegal timber in Over 15,000 pangolins were confiscated in 2003. While thought to represent only a fraction of Thailand in 2002, brought from Indonesia to Lao Vietnam's total illegal trade in timber, this is PDR and eventually China. Pangolin skins nonetheless equivalent to logging ten soccer pitches continue to be seized regularly in Malaysia, of forest a day over the course of one year (T. Thailand, Lao PDR, and Vietnam. Arriving by air Dawson, WWF Indochina, in litt. to TRAFFIC from Malaysia, more than four tons of wildlife, Southeast Asia, September 2004). including water monitor lizards and over 600 pangolins, were seized in Hanoi, Vietnam, from Characteristics of the Trade March to April 2003 alone (C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC Illegal domestic and international wildlife trade is a Southeast Asia, in litt. to J. Thomson, September commodity business driven by a wide variety of 2004). All available evidence suggests that they are socioeconomic and cultural forces. Patterns and disappearing throughout their natural range in trends in illegal wildlife trade are affected by the Asia--largely as a result of the trade. usual commercial factors: improved transport infrastructure and development, especially in 2 frontier areas; increased market access; and · Targeting new species within a commodity group. accelerated national and regional economic The scarcity of langur (leaf monkey) bones for development. The structure of the trade--and the the medicinal trade has led to a rise in the relationships between collectors, middlemen, collection and sale of macaque bones; although traders and wholesalers--can be extremely · the latter are considered less effective in complex, and the character of these relationships traditional remedies (SFNC, 2003), the shifts over time and place (Broad et al., 2003). For similarities between the bones are enough to example, traders rapidly adapt to changing either at best deceive or at least satisfy circumstances to maintain their substantial income. customers and in so doing, maintain the When supplies become depleted or access market. restrictions are imposed, they respond by: As wildlife law enforcement efforts increase, the · Targeting new source areas or countries for a illegal trade moves underground. It becomes more particular species or group of species. Depletion of difficult to monitor activity, or determine the Chinese Pangolin across its range in southern quantities, value, or number of species involved. China, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Myanmar has shifted harvesting and trade Role playing. Countries of East and Southeast Asia southward (TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, 2004). play one or more of three roles in the international wildlife trade: · Developing new smuggling methods and routes to · As source / exporter avoid detection. During the boom in prices of · As conduit / re-exporter bear bile and bear parts in Vietnam in the early · As consumer / importer. 2000s, smuggling of bears was accomplished by fake army vehicles, fake funerals, and even Box 1 illustrates the connections between source fake ambulances complete with the bear and destination countries. dressed as a patient and surrounded by concerned relatives (SFNC, 2003). China is the GMS region's largest consumer, particularly of animal and plant products used as · Exploiting weak wildlife law enforcement. Often food and ingredients in traditional Chinese traders will re-label wildlife to convince medicine. customs officials that rare species are actually common species that are legal to trade, and Cambodia is primarily a source country, particularly then only when they are actually caught in for reptiles, primates, and plants, and formerly for possession of wildlife. Even when caught, fines timber. Vietnam is unique in that it remains a and other penalties are generally much less source country, as well as a growing consumer and than the risk premiums gained from the trade, an important trade conduit to China. negating their effectiveness as disincentives. Box 1. Role Playing in the Wildlife Trade in Southeast Asia Export Re-export Source Conduit Consumer Cambodia Vietnam China Vietnam Thailand Vietnam Lao PDR Lao PDR Thailand Myanmar Myanmar 3 Thailand, formerly a major source of wild species, is Political changes and economic development have now chiefly a consumer, particularly of high-value also had an impact on wild species. For example: pets, trophies, and food products, while also playing an important role as a regional and global · The opening up of country economies to trade conduit (box 2). international market-based policies through trade facilitating measures, particularly in Lao PDR and Myanmar are probably the most Vietnam and China, has enhanced important source countries for a wide range of wild international trade connections. animal and plant species (box 3). Both countries are · Infrastructure development has linked also conduits; Myanmar for wildlife products previously isolated regions to outside markets coming into GMS countries from the Indian and has opened up new wilderness areas to subcontinent, and Lao PDR to international markets exploitation. in neighboring nations (China, Vietnam, and Thailand). · Commercial logging has opened up remote forest areas to people from other regions, Other important source countries for the trade into and altering local economies and patterns of through Southeast Asia's GMS include Indonesia and resource consumption (Robinson et al., 1999). Malaysia. Increased road access and infrastructure to support logging in Lao PDR, for example, has What Is Driving the Trade? greatly improved access to hunting grounds and wildlife trade with Vietnam (Compton et The predominant driver of the Asian trade in many al. 1999). plants and animals is demand for wild animal products as food and medicine in China. But China is Box 3. Lao PDR and Empty Forests not alone. The trade in wild plants and animals all over East and Southeast Asia appears to have been The "land of a million elephants" shares its borders exacerbated by the regions' rising living standards with China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and and rapidly growing population. Experience Vietnam. It is essentially providing its resources to neighboring countries with much greater population throughout Asia has shown that as income increases, and purchasing power (Donovan, 1998). so does the demand for wildlife--as suggested by the expanding wildlife markets in towns and cities from International trade in wildlife is illegal in Lao PDR. Bangkok to Jakarta and Shanghai (Robinson and Nevertheless, many species are traded on the Bennett, 2002). international market, including reptiles, wild orchids and wildlife products to be ingredients in TCM, trophies from wild cattle, reptiles, pets, and food animals to Thailand, and macaques, freshwater Box 2. Thailand's Changing Role turtles, monitor lizards, and pangolins to Vietnam. Thailand has a growing urban middle class who can The greatest threat to Lao's wild species is the afford to be among significant consumers and re- country's over-harvesting for international and exporters of Southeast Asia's wild resources. The domestic trade and consumption (WCS Lao Program, reduction of its own wild species causes its traders to 2003). At the current rate, Lao PDR is in danger of the look elsewhere. Wildlife trade surveys conducted "empty forest syndrome"--all trees and no animals along the border areas between Thailand and (Nooren and Claridge, 2001). The international trade Myanmar, Lao PDR, and Cambodia since 1990, for in Lao's wildlife was documented in the mid­1800s example, identified Thai nationals as among the (Garnier, 1869-85) and probably occurred as early as principal consumers of those countries' wildlife the 6th Century (Nooren and Claridge, 2001). The products (Martin, 1992; Srikosamatara et al., 1992; economy of Lao PDR is resource-based. In the early Nash, 1997; Nooren and Claridge, 2001). In 1991, 1990s, a significant portion of rural peoples' incomes Thailand was considered by international was derived from hunting and selling threatened conservation organizations as the center of Southeast wildlife at local markets. The volume of illegally Asia's illegal wildlife trade (Srikosamatara et al., traded wildlife is also high; the value of wildlife 1992); its consumption of trophies is one of the main smuggled into Vietnam from Lao PDR along one forces driving the trade in wild cattle in the sub- route alone was estimated at $11.8 million in 1999 region (Broad, 1994). (Nooren and Claridge, 2001). 4 · Porous and lengthy land borders have made Wildlife is not traded in isolation. It is often part of things easier for illicit traders in Southeast a larger network of organized crime that involves Asia. For example, the river border between drugs, guns, and people-smuggling. Organized Thailand and Lao PDR has been described as crime networks often supplement income from Lao PDR's greatest law enforcement problem trading in other contraband by trading in wildlife, (Nash, 1997). using existing networks of supply chains that are often beyond the law. 5 CHAPTER 2 CASE STUDIES ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ The following four case studies are examples of wildlife for food, or that sales were opportunistic if stages of sophistication and diversification of the a buyer came to the village (some villages said wildlife trade, from subsistence through traders came one or two times per month) or if the commercialization and professionalism to direct household needed cash. marketing and export. The majority of villages reported that overall Case Study 1. Trading as a Subsistence abundance of most terrestrial wildlife had declined Activity in the Nakai-Nam Theun National considerably over the last decade following over- Protected Area, Lao PDR. exploitation for subsistence and trade. Several large-bodied and frequently sold species were the The Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area most frequently reported as exhibiting the most (NNT NPA) lies almost entirely within the severe declines--up to 75 percent in some areas. watershed of the middle and upper reaches of the Most villages also reported that commercially Nam Theun River, extending from high in the valuable plant species (especially agarwood, many Annamite Mountains down to the Nakai Plateau. species of rattan, and damar resin) had also The NNT NPA is not only the largest protected declined widely and were increasingly scarce or area in the Lao PDR, but is also one of the most extirpated from most areas, and some reported a important for biodiversity conservation in East or shift to marketing orchids. Southeast Asia. It is also of global significance for biodiversity. Studies of resource use in 54 villages Cross-border trade. The majority of village were conducted in 2004. The results highlight the residents thought that the depletion of wildlife and changes in species and trends, as well as in cross- plant products was due to an enormous influx of border trade. Vietnamese nationals, which reached a peak around 2000 (some villages reported annual totals Species and trends. Much hunting and trapping of more than 4,000 people working in their area). was directed toward acquisition of food, This influx was associated with massive harvest particularly rodents (rats, squirrels, or porcupines), and trade of Aquilaria, pangolins, rattans and other pigs, or small-bodied animals with relatively high valuable forest products. Most--but not all ­ natural densities or rates of reproduction (common villages report that this number has declined songbirds, jungle-fowl, common civets, etc). recently due to the disappearance of many species. Monitor lizards, muntjac, and sambar deer were also periodically reported as important food items, Case Study 2. From Subsistence to but in many villages were too rare to harvest frequently. Professionalism at Pu Mat National Park, Vietnam. Some 59 percent of villages indicated that Wildlife trade is responsive to market forces, and terrestrial wildlife had been an important source of markets for wildlife appear to be ever expanding. cash income in their village over the last decade. In the GMS region, the wildlife trade at the Pu Mat Pangolins were most frequently reported as National Park (PMNP) is perhaps the best studied, important for cash income (45 percent of villages), and provides the best example of developmental followed by turtles (35 percent), primates (22 and legislative approaches to address the issue. The percent), and monitor lizards (12 percent). PMNP is in the north Annamite Mountains in To a lesser degree, pythons and bears were also central Vietnam. It has a core area of 90,000 ha and reported important for sale. Many villages reported a nominal buffer zone of around 87,500 ha. It is an that the sale of wildlife was secondary to the use of extremely important site for the conservation of 6 plant and animal taxa endemic to the Annamites. Species and sources. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Over 2,600 vascular plant species have been the focus was on turtles and some valuable identified within the PMNP and its buffer zone; it mammals such as gaur and tiger. A State Forest is critical for the conservation of many large Enterprise employee reported that in the mid-1980s mammals and birds (SFNC, 2000a). Between 1997 he was buying around 2 tons of turtles per year and 2004, the Government of Vietnam and the from hunters (SFNC, 2000c). European Union co-funded a $22 million project to reduce the loss of forest and biodiversity from this In the early 1990s, the number of species collected area. The PMNP has thus had the financial broadened to include a variety of primates and resources to both study the trade and to devise and smaller mammals, including a variety of snakes implement a series of measures to address it. and monitor lizards. Hunters report that they did not collect geckos and snakes because they did not Background to the trade in plants and wildlife know of a market for these species until 1996, when from the PMNP. The Pu Mat forests have been a traders began ordering these species as well. source of wildlife for decades, but the market for wildlife began to expand rapidly from about 1985, By the late 1990s, wild populations of traditionally at which time many large animals could be freely targeted species had crashed. Many wildlife traders traded. Many wildlife traders established were looking for new commodities to trade, and themselves in district towns around the PMNP. thus reptiles had become the mainstay of the The quantities of wildlife removed from the PMNP wildlife trade, particularly turtles and snakes, were so vast that many of these traders which still survived in relatively large numbers in subsequently went out of business in the mid- remote areas. By 1999, hunters were already 1990s: wild stocks were so reduced and efforts to beginning to report that hunting these species was extract them so increased that profit margins becoming much more difficult too became much narrower. In the early 2000s, the (SFNC/TRAFFIC, 1999). volume of wildlife traded was reduced by around 70 to 80 percent of its early 1990s level following As a result, cross-border trade greatly increased in noted scarcity, and only about eight large traders the mid- to late-1990s. Traders in district towns remained in business in the district towns. forged relationships with suppliers in Lao PDR as a means of maintaining supply chains and keeping Pu Mat was established as a protected area in 1995. profit margins high. In 1999, up to 100 bears (40 As a result, the agricultural land available to the percent of the annual total traded) and around 1 growing population in the buffer zone of Pu Mat ton of pangolins (90 percent of total traded) was fixed, and so the income necessary to supplant originated from Lao PDR. Only 20 percent of bears, their food-generating potential grew following the but almost all pangolins and large but undefined park's gazettement. However, income quantities of turtles, were transported through the opportunities shrunk. Thus it was estimated in official border crossing at Muong Xen, indicating a 1997 that the population faced an income gap of degree of selectivity on the part of customs officials more than $1 million per year (the gap between the (and the relative difficulty of concealing bears from food they produced and the amount they needed to view). survive). Difficult terrain made illegal logging hard work: nonetheless, it was estimated that the value By 2003, the main species traded had shifted again. of the illegal timber trade was around $260,000 per The cross-border trade from Lao PDR now focused year (SFNC, 2000b). Moreover, as wildlife became almost entirely on pangolins, and numbers traded scarce throughout Indochina, the value of wildlife had gone up by at least 100 percent and perhaps in Pu Mat increased considerably. Consequently, considerably more (SFNC, 2003c). Most still came the wildlife trade was valued at around $1.25 through the border crossing at Muong Xen. million per year. This effectively closed the income Numbers of reptiles in the wild had been gap; despite the increasing scarcity of wildlife, 75 drastically reduced by this time. Hunters operating percent of the buffer zone households were in the PMNP had changed their focus from China involved in the trade. to concentrate on smaller mammals (especially 7 civets and porcupines) for the booming market for in their approach. To these people, wildlife wildlife meat in the provincial capital of Vinh and remains a vital income source. in Hanoi. By 2003, this was the main outlet for the wildlife trade from the PMNP itself. · The increasing scarcity of wildlife, which made casual hunting and trapping more time- Developmental interventions and effects. Legal consuming and less rewarding, and the logging of the Pu Mat forests ceased in 1995 when provision of economic alternatives has caused the protected area was gazetted. Illegal logging has most non-professional hunters to stop hunting continued, but is restricted to the more accessible activities. Hunting and trading in wildlife has areas of the NP. According to satellite image effectively ceased to be a subsistence activity. analysis, logging had affected about 30 percent of the Pu Mat forests by 1992, but the affected area · Involvement in the wildlife trade is now a grew only slightly between 1992 and 1998, and not career decision. By 2003, even professional at all after that time. Most of the remaining primary hunters had realized that the only way to stay forest area cannot be logged due to the inaccessible in business was to become more focused, terrain. The illegal logging trade is now focusing acquire new skills or equipment (such as on secondary growth in areas already logged, and tranquilizing drugs), and spend longer periods is believed to be becoming less profitable. searching and trapping in remote areas, including traveling over the border into Lao The wildlife trade involved 75 percent of buffer PDR. In 1999, there were around 1,000 zone households during the 1990s, and the capture professional hunters in the buffer zone; by and sale of wildlife was a major subsistence 2003, there were only some 250 professional activity. The illegal extraction of forest products hunters remaining. During a campaign to was the only activity available to generate the confiscate hunting guns implemented in 2004, income necessary to buy rice. more than 700 hunters voluntarily gave up their guns. The effects of project interventions were as follows: As the number of non-professional hunters in the · Accelerated socioeconomic development has buffer zone has dropped, local traders have begun led to wildlife becoming less important to the to sponsor professional hunters from elsewhere to overall rural economy. Due to the new supply high-value species, as well as to strengthen livelihoods and the increased effort necessary links with traders operating from Lao PDR. As the to make the trade profitable, the number of hunting profession has become increasingly people involved in the trade has contracted to specialized and professional, there is a trend for the relatively few households who specialize in this area and have become highly professional Figure 1. Monthly trends in hunting incidents Figure 2. Forest patrol encounter rates with selected in the core zone of the PMNP large mammals (corrected by patrolling days) 0.160 E n c o u n t e r r a t e s w i t h s e l e c t e d l a r g e m a m m a l s , c o r r e c t e d b y p a t r o l l i n g d a y s 9.00 0.140 8.00 days 0.120 7.00 days White-cheeked gibbon patrol 0.100 6.00 Sambar deer patrol 100/ 0.080 5.00 Muntjacs 100/ 4.00 Serow 0.060 Wild pig incidents 3.00 0.040 encounters Elephant No. 2.00 No. 0.020 1.00 0.000 0.00 Jan-June July-Dec Jan-June July-Dec Jan-June July-Dec Jan-June July-Dec Jan-June 00 00 01 01 02 02 03 03 04 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Time 8 professionals to travel long distances to preferred Tam Dao National Park (TDNP) illustrates a rather areas. By about 2002, the presence in the PMNP of grim future. It covers 36,000 ha and is located on a professional hunters from as far away as Thua Tien 40-km long mountain range about 60 km north of Hue began to be reported Hanoi. The massif forms an ecological island surrounded by intensifying rice and plantation Quantification of the hunters' perceptions of trends agriculture and rapid urbanization, as light in abundance is based on a comparative ranking of industry spreads north from Hanoi to take the availability of animals in the forest over the advantage of cheap local labor. The nominal buffer years--meaning the numbers that were obtainable zone contains 140,000 people. for trade purposes. (It should be noted that the prevalent attitude in the buffer zone ­ that wildlife Proximity to high population density areas with is a resource to be harvested ­ has not changed high demands for wood fuels and water, significantly over the project lifetime, despite a commercial extraction of a range of plant and large and well-funded environmental education animal species to supply urban and export program.). markets, and easy access for mass tourism have all had considerable impacts on wildlife numbers. The main conclusions of this study were that extremely valuable animals sought after by the As part of a GTZ-financed project to support China trade were now almost extirpated (tigers, for institutional capacity and buffer zone example), or had decreased drastically (langurs development, a detailed study has been and turtles both dropped a total of eleven ranks undertaken of the importance of the trade in plant between 1999 and 2003, gibbons dropped ten and animal products to the rural economy (TDMP, ranks). Popular meat animals such as serow also 2004). dropped in abundance (six ranks). By 2003, the most popular animals for hunters were wild pigs, The TDNP is an example of the "empty forest muntjac, civets, and porcupines, the availability of syndrome." Although the large animal fauna that which had increased in relation to the other formerly supplied the market for medicines and species. Most significant in conservation terms is wildlife meat is mostly gone, the trade has not. that hunters reported a decrease in all species listed Traders have looked outwards (for supplies from in the IUCN and Vietnam Red Data Books, with the other areas) and downwards (to the smaller plants exception of elephants. and animals). A large number of targeted research projects Supply diversification. As the TDNP is a major carried out by the project report the same trend. tourism area for the urban population of Hanoi, the For example, between 1999 and 2004, primate populations decreased by 52 percent (SFNC, most important commercial activity involving 2004b). The population of saola, one of the world's wildlife is the sale of meat in restaurants. Valuable rarest and least-known mammals, crashed from animals had largely gone from the area by the mid- around 26 to 12 individuals (SFNC/WWF, 2004). 1990s, so there are no longer any professional hunters in the buffer zone of the TDNP; most Case Study 3. Diversification at Tam Dao wildlife (particularly civets, muntjac, wild pig, National Park, Vietnam. civets, turtles, and snakes) comes from other provinces. Small wildlife such as turtles (and If there is a demand for wildlife, traders will find a formerly the endemic Tam Dao salamander) is way to supply it. The more difficult a sought-after collected opportunistically, mostly by women species is to find (as local populations are collecting firewood. exhausted), the higher the price that can be fetched for it on the market, and the more profitable it Wildlife is no longer hunted in TDNP but it is still becomes for traders. As large wildlife supplies are traded, by means of a sophisticated network, exhausted, traders supply the other markets that centered on the provincial centre of Vinh Yen. are identified--in this case, an export market for Dealers now collect and process animals insects. 9 throughout the northern provinces of Tuyen focusing particularly on live specimens of giant Quang, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Bac Kan. Meat beetles, which are sold to dealers at $20 per pair. animals are sold to restaurants in the tourist sites These beetles are available through international around TDNP, or transported through Vinh Yen dealers on the internet at $200 or more per pair, and Dai Tu to Thai Nguyen and Hanoi. Particularly representing a considerable profit to the urban valuable species of turtles and snakes are sorted traders. and exported to China for medicine through Mong Cai border station. After 2000, in response to the decline in the commercial insect populations in TDNP, traders in Another important commercial activity is the sale Tam Dao town established links with suppliers in of orchids. Among 84 orchid species recorded in Lao Cai (particularly Sa Pa), Cao Bang, Ha Giang, Tam Dao NP, 28 species were found in trade in Tuyen Quang, Lang Son, and Lam Dong (Da Lat) 2004, including six listed in Government Decree No provinces to keep up with the demand. There is 48, two listed in the Red Data Book of Vietnam. increasing evidence that some insects may now be One traded species was the endemic Tam Dao sourced from neighboring GMS countries. In effect, orchid Paphiopedilum grantrixianum, listed on Tam Dao town has become a center for the insect Appendix I of CITES2; only one small population is trade in northern Vietnam. Almost all insects are now known, at high altitude in Dai Tu District exported through contacts in Hanoi and Ho Chi (Thai Nguyen Province). Minh City; very few insects are bought directly by tourists. Trade diversification. The insect trade (particularly of large and showy butterflies and beetles) began in Socioeconomic value of the trade. As elsewhere in the mid-1990s, as economic returns from other Vietnam, the wildlife trade at TDNP has become wildlife were declining, and it peaked in the late increasingly commercialized in recent years. A 1990s. Many local people and people from Vinh medium-sized trader operating in Vinh Yen and Yen were involved in insect-collecting activities. By processing wildlife from a wide area can make 2004, the populations of key species had declined more than $15,000 a year. Restaurant owners in drastically at the main, easily accessible collecting Tam Dao town with good inter-provincial sites. Surveys in 2004 indicated that the density of connections can make $1,000 to $1,500 annually all traded butterflies was reduced by 55-58 percent from selling wildlife meat to tourists. There are no in collected sites compared to remote forest sites. longer professional hunters or orchid collectors; The most valuable butterflies, Teinopalpus sp., a instead, insects are collected by most of the female that can be sold to a dealer in Tam Dao population of the TDNP and buffer zone. Many town for more than $100, had been extirpated from poor households in Tam Dao town, who have little easily accessible areas. Species diversity of beetles land or forest resources, can earn more than 80 also showed a statistically significant decrease in percent of their household income in this way. The collected areas: only one specimen of a insect collectors are becoming more professional commercially valuable species was collected in 25 and are being sponsored by urban traders. About nights of light trapping in the Tam Dao town and 60 percent of households use high wattage lamps Tay Thien areas. to attract night-flying species, and many have professional collecting equipment and chemicals. Despite the drop in wild populations, many people in the buffer zone, particularly in Vinh Phuc Controls on the wildlife trade at TDNP, especially province, still collect insects, some professionally. Tam Dao town, are very weak due to conflicting Collectors report that they can still earn $10 per jurisdictions of the TDNP Authority and Vinh Phuc man per day supplying local dealers, which province. From January 2000 to June 2004 there compares favorably with jobs in agriculture and were 24 administrative cases brought by TDNP forestry, or even in the expanding light industry Authority related to the illegal wildlife and plant around Hanoi. By 2004, collectors at TDNP were trade. There were no cases involving orchids and only one relating to a seizure of insect specimens. 2All orchids are on Appendix II unless they are specifically The latter occurred in 2001, when a collection of included in Appendix I. 10 854 specimens was confiscated by the TDNP · Mongolian gazelles still number around one Authority from a foreigner (after it had been sold million animals in Mongolia. However, a to him by local dealers). This had the effect of recent hunting survey found that as many as moving main transactions to Vinh Yen town. 200,000 gazelles are taken annually by local herders in the eastern steppe region alone. Case Study 4. No different in the North: The Meanwhile, urban dwellers in just one city in Mammal Trade in Mongolia.3 eastern Mongolia were estimated to consume approximately 16,000 gazelles a year, while in Mongolia's changeover from a relatively strong 2001 the Chinese customs office approved Soviet-dominated economy with strict controls permits for 100 tons of gazelle meat, equal to over hunting and trade to a struggling free-market almost 3,000 gazelles. Given that harvest economy in the early 1990s has resulted in a models suggest a total sustainable off-take of 6 dramatic increase in illegal hunting and trade. A percent, or 60,000 gazelles a year, Mongolian faltering economy, increased reliance on trade with gazelles may be in the process of experiencing China, porous borders, and little budget capacity a decline similar to that of the Kazakhstan or will for enforcement has led to rapid declines in saiga antelope. This could be exacerbated if a range of wildlife. Much of this hunting is for local there is a commercial switch from saiga to trade or consumption, but there are a number of gazelle horns, and evidence for this ominous species in Mongolia threatened by illegal trend has been found in the recent increase in international trade, and evidence suggests that this price for gazelle horns. threat is growing and beginning to spread to new species. · Red deer have also declined catastrophically across Mongolia. According to a 1986 Unsustainable trade pressures. The trade in government assessment, the population size Mongolia is directed at mammals. Red deer, musk was approximately 130,000 (inhabiting 115,000 deer, Mongolian gazelle, saiga antelope, brown square km). The most recent population bear, and a host of furbearers are the main assessment in 2004 showed that only about components of the illegal trade market. As these 8,000­10,000 red deer now inhabit 15 aimags species decrease in number, hunters and traders (provinces) of Mongolia. Threats are are already switching to other species such as numerous, but are mainly directed toward moose, roe deer and even red squirrel. Five international medicinal markets, and include examples illustrate the currently unsustainable harvesting for antlers (1 kg $60 to $100), male illegal hunting and trade pressure in Mongolia: genital organs ($70 to $80), fetuses ($20 to $50), · A catastrophic decline in the Mongolian and female's tails ($50 to $80). subspecies of the Saiga antelope has resulted in a population collapse from over 5,000 to less · For Siberian marmots, a recent hunting study than 800 within the last five years. The driver found that in eastern Mongolia the observed in this decline is the lucrative Chinese trade volume alone was almost three times the medicinal market for saiga horn, and it follows actual hunting quota. Although the shortly after a similar collapse in the major government only issues about 100,000 marmot populations of saiga in Kazakhstan and Russia, licenses a year, 88,000 marmot skins were where populations have crashed from over 1 found in the markets of just three towns in million in the early 1990s to perhaps as low as Mongolia in 2001, while in that same year 175,000 in recent years. The decline is 200,000 skins were officially imported to China exacerbated by skewed sex ratios due to from Mongolia. This is likely only a fraction of focused hunting on the horned males, which the number of marmot skins that cross the has negatively affected the populations' border--for example, in 2003 just two seizures breeding system and its ability to recover. of illegal shipments into China totaled 37,332 marmot skins. 3Contributed by P. Zahler and B. Lhagvasuren, the Box by R. P. Reading, J. R. Wingard, and S. Amgalanbaatar. 11 · Musk deer males are hunted for their valuable as did the number of musk pods traded. As a scent glands, or pods, for which there is a result it is reasonable to assume that the heavy demand in China and Southeast Asia. number of deer poached increased also. Although no recent surveys have been Mongolian scientists believe that musk deer performed for musk deer in Mongolia, there is populations peaked at 44,000 in the 1980s due evidence of an unsustainable increase in to strict state control of hunting and trade; over hunting of this species. Over a five-year period the last 11 years, market-based estimates of off- from 1995­2001, the number of musk deer take are as high as 33,000, with a minimum traders increased by a factor of four; moreover, estimate of 2,000 males taken every year. the price of a musk deer pod increased six-fold, Box 4. Trophy Hunting of Argali: An Example of Unsustainable Legal and Illegal Hunting and Trade Mongolia is home to the world's largest mountain sheep, the argali. These animals are greatly sought by foreign hunters because of their impressive size and long, spiraling horns. Argali are declining in Mongolia primarily due to an increase in poaching for meat and horns (to trade with China), predation by domestic guard dogs, and competition with domestic livestock. Government figures estimated 50,000 argali in Mongolia in 1975 and 60,000 animals in 1985, but only 13,000­15,000 in 2001. Despite being listed as a threatened species both in Mongolia and internationally, argali trophy hunting remains legal in Mongolia and the number of licenses has been increasing, with 80 licenses offered in 2004. This is a lucrative business, and trophy hunting companies offer hunts for $25,000 to $50,000. Controversy surrounds this program, as manifested by growing local opposition, accusations of corruption by the media, and a U.S. lawsuit To be sustainable, hunting programs must be well-managed and have the support of local communities. Neither currently occurs in Mongolia. Although legally required, no management plan for argali presently exists. Population surveys are too infrequent and localized to inform managers about specific areas in a timely manner. Critically undermining management capacity are legal mandates that rely heavily upon local governments without providing the necessary funding, tools, or training. Finally, despite laws for investment of trophy hunting fees in conservation of the resource, current practices deny local communities and conservation efforts the benefit of revenues. As a result, some local officials are working to eliminate trophy hunting from their territories. Still, trophy hunting licenses are increasing even as poaching also continues to increase. Redressing these problems requires reforming argali trophy hunting and population management to ensure (a) openness and transparency, including external review and oversight; (b) a mix of top-down and bottom-up authority that enjoys local support; and (c) active and adaptive argali conservation and management, including anti-poaching enforcement, using funds generated by trophy hunters. 12 CHAPTER 3 CURBING THE TRADE ___________________________________________________________________________ Curbing the wildlife trade requires information with neighboring countries; country delegations to and action in four areas: (1) policy; (2) the Conference of the Parties to CITES have enforcement; (3) economics of supply; and (4) become increasingly better-informed; strategic consumer demand. Action to tackle the trade plans and appropriate legislation are now being began in the early- to mid-1990s, when it was drawn up; and much of the information on which sporadic, chiefly driven by nongovernmental to base the development of appropriate actions has organizations (NGOs), and aimed at monitoring been made available. However, CITES relies on the trade and advocating accession to CITES by internal partnerships in countries between the region's non-party nations. agencies responsible for its implementation, and in their absence the trade continues to flourish, Although there have been attempts to stem the irrespective of existing laws and legislation. trade over the last decade or so, only in the past two years has there been a concerted effort to Political support through the Association of tackle the problems on a broad front. There have Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Prior to 2000, been some limited successes, and crucially, the governments of the region's countries had done wildlife trade is now on the political agenda; very little to address the illegal wildlife trade. Since however, actions remain fragmented, short-term, 2000, national governments and regional lacking a strategic clarity or framework, and associations have shown increasing recognition of usually under-resourced. Communication the trade and willingness to act, in order to comply between the relevant government departments with various international treaties to which they are responsible for enforcing wildlife trade controls party (for example, CITES, CBD, CMS, and has been poor, as has communication between the Ramsar). NGOs working on the trade. As a result, interventions have often been undertaken in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations isolation, frequently resulting in missed (ASEAN) has become increasingly active in opportunities and lack of information -sharing. The addressing environmental issues in the region. limited funds available have been used primarily ASEAN's Yangon Resolution on Sustainable to strengthen wildlife law enforcement. This is a Development (2003) states: "effective environmental priority for curtailing the trade, but this focus has and natural resources management, and sustainable resulted in a lack of investment into other key utilization of these resources are critical to alleviate areas, such as tackling the demand that drives it. poverty, promote healthy living, reduce the incidence of diseases, and enhance economic growth in the ASEAN Action to Date region." By the end of the 1990s, a group of NGOs had The 2005 to 2010 ASEAN Action Plan on Forestry begun to set up awareness campaigns and confirmed that enhanced CITES compliance and investigate the trade. Government buy-in was wildlife trade controls are key objectives. At the minimal; few governments had even begun to thirteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties acknowledge that the trade was a threat to to CITES (CoP13) in October 2004, the ASEAN resource security or long-term economic well- Secretariat released a "Statement on CITES"-- being. Activities to strengthen enforcement signed by all of the ASEAN member countries-- capacity did not commence until post-2000. calling for regional collaboration in critical areas, such as wildlife law enforcement along key border Since 2002, NGOs have begun forming regions and information sharing among relevant partnerships; governments have begun engaging agencies, to alleviate the illegal exploitation and 13 trade in wild fauna and flora. The statement is to be much more needs to be done if the trade is to be followed by an ASEAN Regional Action Plan on curbed effectively. Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora expected before the end of 2005. In 2003, Thailand established a special Wildlife Task Force to combat the illegal trade. Thailand is National compliance with CITES. With the also considering the use of the death penalty for accession of Lao PDR to CITES in 2004, all of the illegal wildlife trafficking, and in coordination with countries in ASEAN are now Parties to the the Royal Thai Army and the Anti-Money Convention. As stipulated in the text of the Laundering Office (AMLO), invoking anti-money Convention (Article VIII), each Party is required to laundering laws to seize the profits of illegal implement the provisions through its domestic wildlife traffickers (Anon, 2003). legislation. Not surprisingly, there is a range in the effectiveness of the laws by which CITES is In Vietnam, newspaper coverage of the wildlife implemented across the GMS. For example, both trade increased four-fold from 2002 to 2003 Thailand and Vietnam have developed specific (Education for Nature Vietnam ­ ENV, in litt. to CITES-enabling legislation. In Cambodia, CITES as TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, 2004). The government well as domestic wildlife trade controls is issued Directive 12 in May 2003 calling for an implemented through its Forestry Law and minor urgent need to strengthen controls on forest legislative instruments. As such, all countries in resources. In September 2004, the Vice Prime Southeast Asia have either adequate domestic Minister approved a national action plan to legislation on the books to implement CITES or are strengthen control on trade in wild fauna and flora, in the process of doing so (see Annex 1). the first of its kind in East or Southeast Asia. Again however, implementation of plans and directives is However, promulgating legislation alone is not the missing link. sufficient to guarantee the implementation of CITES, nor the conservation of threatened species. Regional cooperation. In October 2004, Thailand Notwithstanding, the motivation to ensure that hosted CITES CoP13, the first country in Southeast adequate domestic legislation has been enacted is Asia to hold a CITES Conference of the Parties. The high, as those countries ignoring this obligation face meeting opened with the Prime Minister of the threat of trade sanctions in CITES-listed species. Thailand and Thailand's Minister of Natural This actually occurred in Vietnam (briefly) and Resources and Environment calling for regional Thailand. In Thailand, it resulted in the loss of cooperation to implement and enforce CITES, millions of dollars to the Thai economy. including the establishment of a Southeast Asian law enforcement network to combat the illegal Additional measures to implement and enforce wildlife trade. CoP13 considered 50 proposals to CITES and national wildlife trade controls . Since amend the CITES Appendices. Of particular coming under pronounced international scrutiny in relevance to Southeast Asia were the approvals 2002, primarily for the size of its domestic ivory given to include in Appendix II the highly valued market, China has put some effort into addressing scented agarwood-producing species, ramin, the its role as the region's largest consumer of wildlife commercially important tropical wood found through wildlife law enforcement and throughout East Asia, four species of freshwater collaboration with neighbors in Southeast Asia and turtle harvested for international and/or domestic South Asia. food markets, and humphead wrasse, an endangered coral reef fish of the Indo-Pacific Political will in Lao PDR to address the trade has caught for restaurants in East Asia. improved. For example, regulations on wildlife trade were amended in December 2003, and efforts Specific regional measures taken include: to confiscate illicit wildlife cargoes by the Vientiane Forestry Department have increased. The Governor · In December 2003 the CITES Management of Vientiane has ordered a cessation of the trade in Authorities of Vietnam and China signed an city markets, driving it underground. However, agreement to cooperate on strengthening CITES controls along the shared border. 14 · In June 2004, at a meeting convened by the the implementation and enforcement of CITES Secretariat, the countries of the GMS wildlife trade controls, such as CITES. identified priority actions to strengthen CITES trade controls in the sub-region, which · Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), an included agreement to collaborate on a range international organization conducting site- of issues. based efforts and national training focused on hunting and wildlife trade in Cambodia, Engaging Effective Partners China, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Myanmar. Several international and national NGOs, as well · as private individuals, have focused their attention WWF, an international organization working on various aspects of the illegal wildlife trade in in East and Southeast Asia on raising East and Southeast Asia. The better-known among awareness of the illegality of the trade in endangered species and strengthening wildlife these include: law enforcement on the ground. · Conservation International (CI), an international organization supporting on -the- · WildAid, an international organization ground wildlife law enforcement in Cambodia working in Cambodia, China, and Thailand to and China. change attitudes on the consumption of threatened wildlife, and strengthening site- · Education for Nature in Vietnam (ENV), a based wildlife law enforcement, including national conservation organization in Vietnam national training. working to change attitudes toward the consumption of threatened wildlife. In addition to working with NGOs, effective · efforts to curb the trade in illegal wildlife must Flora and Fauna International (FFI), an include government partners. As wildlife is traded international organization addressing the in concert with other contraband by existing illegal trade in crocodiles, primates, and organized crime, combating the growing trade in elephants in Indochina. illegal wildlife requires efforts to improve · TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade program of WWF governance more broadly by working with the (known in the United States as the World security and police forces, customs, and border Wildlife Fund) and IUCN-The World police to integrate attempts to curb the trade in Conservation Union, identifying trade routes illegal wildlife with the trade in other contraband. and destinations, and working on the ground and at national and regional levels to strengthen policy and government capacity in 15 CHAPTER 4 RECOMMENDATIONS ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Trade in wildlife - animals and plants ­ has many Implementing regulatory controls for the legal and complex causes rooted in social, economic, cultural, illegal trade. Developing much greater and political structures. Any solution needs to enforcement capacity and more strategic targeting address these different factors. Any real, practical of key wholesalers, importers, and exporters is and workable solution must include (a) a better very important. At the regional and national levels, understanding of the dynamics of the trade; (b) enforcement officials (police, customs, border regulatory controls at the national and regional guards) require training in a number of key areas, levels; (c) incentives for better management of the including in CITES, national legislation and their species most under threat; (d) improved awareness application, trade investigation and species of the threats from the trade; and (e) engagement of identification techniques, collection and storage of stakeholders at many levels and in different places. evidence, reporting, handling, and disposal and release of wildlife and products. In addition, It is not enough to tell people what to do; they collaboration between enforcement personnel in must be convinced that it is in their own best neighboring countries should be encouraged interests. The wildlife trade involves many through more regional training. different groups: hunters, rural communities, government officials, urban consumers, medical Incentives for better managing the legal trade. The professionals, and decision-makers. All of these establishment of robust management frameworks groups need to know why they should change for legal, and more importantly sustainable, trade their behavior, and how they can do this without regimes for non-endangered species may alleviate incurring huge losses in cash income. pressure on wild populations of these and other species. Increasingly efficient operations of the Key Areas of Focus CITES management and scientific authorities are needed in all East and Southeast Asian countries to Learning how the illegal trade works. Improving our understanding of the complex dynamics of the ensure that penalties are sufficient to deter illegal trade and put in place appropriate incentives for trade requires action at two levels. First, a database--integrated at the regional level among legal, well-managed trade and production systems which do not lead to declining populations of governments, implementing agencies for CITES, wildlife. and engaged NGOs--must be established to collate, manage, and monitor trade data. The Improving awareness. Awareness needs to be database can be used to investigate and monitor trends in individual species and groups of species raised both among suppliers and consumers. Changes in consumer attitudes are especially in trade; understand their sources, routes, and destinations; and survey market demand and essential to reduce demand for wild products. This will require prolonged, persistent advocacy investigate what factors drive each product's targeting the key consumer markets. Campaigns consumption. Second, analysis is needed to tease that can target key audiences need to focus on apart the data and better understand the several aspects of the trade, such as explaining the underlying dynamics that both drive and supply the trade. Doing this requires faster and more long-term impacts of trading in threatened species, including their disappearance and with them the regular reporting from the field to test hypotheses and potential responses on the supply side, as well end of alternative livelihoods based on their sustainable use and non-consumption. Myths as behavioral and social analyses to better about the consumption of wildlife parts for understand and curb the demand side. medicinal purposes should be debunked and alternatives designed, and sustainable consumer 16 behavior should be encouraged (e.g. through biodiversity-related initiatives globally has reached product certification). $2.5 billion, leveraging a similar amount of co- financing. World Bank Group financing include Strengthening collaboration and partnerships with loans, credits, and grants through the International key stakeholders. The establishment of a Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); permanent regional wildlife trade working group the International Development Association (IDA); can ensure a regionally strategic approach and the Global Environment Facility (GEF); and the improve dialogue between countries and agencies. International Finance Corporation (IFC). The CITES Experts Group at the ASEAN level is the only example of an existing regional group In the period 1999­2004, the World Bank's active dedicated to the discussion of CITES and biodiversity portfolio in East Asia and the Pacific associated wildlife trade issues at a regional level. amounted to $300 million, with another $120 However, it has met only three times since 1999 million leveraged through co-financing (World (always in the months immediately prior to the Bank, 2004). In East and Southeast Asia, the World Conference of the Parties to CITES). The potential Bank has supported biodiversity through the for this group to be far more active in dealing with establishment and strengthening of protected areas wildlife trade issues and the implementation of and the provision of support to activities such as priority activities is clear, and could focus on taxonomy that establish a scientific basis for doing providing scientific and technical advice, law conservation. The World Bank's investments have enforcement cooperation, and coordinating also targeted mainstreaming biodiversity bilateral and multilateral partnerships with key conservation in local production landscapes and in stakeholders within the region, including other World Bank investments, and reducing consumer countries and donors (e.g. ADB, World illegal activities that are undermining conservation Bank, UNDP, and others). success. Finally, investments have been used strategically to build constituencies for The primary need at the provincial and district conservation both at the local and regional level, by levels is for provincial authorities to address the raising awareness among the general public, transportation and outlet ends of the wildlife trade. working with partners, and finding non-traditional The increased professionalism and sophistication of allies whose message and ours coincide. the hunters and local trade network, especially those related to organized crime, has made it In addition to project support, the World Bank has extremely difficult and dangerous to address the been able to mobilize millions of dollars in trust source end. The support of the provincial media, to funds from donor governments to support research reach as many people as possible, is also required as and other non-lending services for biodiversity part of a nationally coordinated campaign. conservation. As a result, the Bank has produced Implementation at the provincial level needs to be several pioneering reports, including, for example, effectively monitored at the national level, on limestone and freshwater biodiversity, the use preferably with an independent assessor, to ensure of biological indicators in the monitoring of water that funds are appropriately directed and action quality, and the assessment of competition between taken. It is comparatively easy to identify actions to wild and ungulate grazers. address weak links (main traders in district towns, main outlets for wildlife products in provincial Building on the stated objectives of its corporate towns). Environment Strategy and Environment Strategy for East Asia and the Pacific, as well as its Why Should the World Bank Care? commitment to the Millennium Development Biodiversity conservation is an important element Goals, the World Bank continues to seek new ways of the Bank's corporate and regional Environment to help protect global biodiversity. Strategy (World Bank, 2001; 2005). The World Bank Notwithstanding its focus on protected areas, the Group is the largest single international funding World Bank recognizes the interdependencies that source for biodiversity projects globally. Since connect conservation with development that go 1988, the total World Bank Group financing for beyond the boundaries of gazetted protected areas. 17 As a result, the World Bank is increasingly focusing among policy- and decision-makers within on mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in its national governments and regional development projects and priorities, to leverage associations (e.g. ASEAN). In this way, the biodiversity results in the broader landscape. Bank can become a regional broker for However, attempts by the World Bank to protect establishing cooperation and information- biodiversity are often undermined by a general sharing among countries and for the existing lack of political and public commitment to ASEAN Experts Group on CITES. conservation, reflected in the large-scale occurrence of illegal wildlife trade. As a result, the World Bank · Technical assistance. The Bank can support the is seeking to engage governments, civil society, and development of a monitoring system and train local communities to combat this trade, in order to: personnel to monitor national and provincial- · Assist countries with their obligations under level implementation of government legislation global environment treaties, especially CITES relating to the wildlife trade. To do this, the and CBD Bank can continue to support standard national wildlife trade enforcement manuals. · Assist countries with the success of GEF and The Bank can also provide a qualified expert other investments in protected areas and representative to be present at regional biodiversity conservation meetings and provide assistance at the national · Protect Bank investments in NRM, sustainable level where appropriate. forest management, and biodiversity · Project investments. The Bank can work with · Enable the safeguards process to better protect client countries and partners to improve vulnerable resources that are endangered by standard applications of safeguard conditions Bank investments in infrastructure, pertaining to wildlife trade and natural hydropower development, etc. habitats among multilateral and bilateral aid · Facilitate improved governance of natural donors (particularly in infrastructure resources and forestry. development and forest conservation projects). For example, the Bank could work with In addition, as the trade in wildlife depletes governments to more effectively implement its resources that are used as sources of local safeguards and manage the potential negative livelihoods, their disappearance is threatening the consequences of the increased opening up of lives and livelihoods of the millions of people at previously remote areas through roads, leading the rural frontier who supplement protein sources, to the premature decline of wildlife resources. maintain livelihoods, and sustain cultural In this regard, poverty-reduction support cosmologies based on consumptive and non- credits (PRSCs) and other lending instruments consumptive use of these resources. As such, the could be designed to promote an enabling Bank is working to ensure that local communities framework to underscore investments in can sustainably access wildlife resources over the biodiversity conservation, and limit the long term as it fights to alleviate poverty globally. negative impacts of investments in infrastructure and other projects. Next Steps The World Bank and other international agencies To protect its existing investments in biodiversity have the experience and the capacity to be catalysts conservation, and to scale up its fight against the in this process of change. Coordinated efforts, illegal trade in wildlife and plants, the World Bank information-sharing, collaboration, and support is well positioned to engage in several additional makes it entirely possible that in time we may not activities in which it has a comparative advantage: witness the inexorable decline of wildlife populations, but their renaissance. · Policy dialogue. 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Asian turtle trade: proceedings of a workshop on conservation and trade of freshwater turtles and tortoises in Asia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 1-4 December 1999. 21 ANNEX 1 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Main legislative instruments in the protection of wild species and implementation of CITES and wildlife trade controls in the countries of East and Southeast Asia. Category under CITES National Legislation Project4 Current Legal Development Country Name of Legal Instrument (as of 30 April 2004) Brunei Wildlife Protection Act 1981 Category 3 A draft CITES law has been Darussalam developed and is under review by the CITES Secretariat Cambodia Forestry Law 2002; Sub-decree No 17 on the Category 3 A draft CITES law has been Rules and Functions of the Ministry of developed and is under review Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries 2000; Sub- by the CITES Secretariat decree on Sanitary Inspection of Animal and Animal Products 2003 China Wild Animal Protection Law 1989 Category 2 A CITES legislative plan has been submitted to the CITES i) Hong Kong i) Animals and Plants (Protection of i) Category 1 Secretariat Endangered Species) Ordinance 1976 ii) Macao ii) Decree-Law No. 45/86/M 1986 ii) Category pending review by the CITES Secretariat iii) Taiwan iii) Wildlife Conservation Law 1989; Foreign iii) Not applicable Trade Act Indonesia Act of the Republic of Indonesia on Category 1 Conservation of Living Resources and Ecosystem 1990, commonly referred to as Act No. 5, 1990 Japan Basic Environment Law 1993; Foreign Category 1 Exchange and Foreign Trade Law; Customs Law Lao PDR Forestry Law 1996; Decree No. 169/PM on Category pending submission of the Management and Use of Forests and its legislative instruments to the Forest Lands 1994; Penal Code of Lao 1989 CITES Secretariat Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia: Wildlife Protection Act Category 2 Revised CITES implementing 1972 (amend. 1991), Malaysian Timber legislation has been developed Industry Board Act (1973) and is under review by the Sarawak: Sarawak Wildlife Protection CITES Secretariat Ordinance 1998 Sabah Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 Mongolia Law of Fauna 2000 Category 3 CITES implementing legislation has been enacted and under review by the CITES Secretariat Myanmar Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Category 3 CITES implementing legislation Conservation of Natural Areas Law, 1994 has been enacted and is under review by the CITES Secretariat North Korea Unknown Not Applicable (not a CITES Party) 4The National Legislation Project reviews and evaluates CITES Parties' legislation, determining the degree to which it meets the four minimum requirements set out in Resolution Conf. 8.4, and as adopted at the ninth, 10th, and 11th meetings of the Conference of the Parties. Category 1 means legislation that is believed to generally meet the requirements for implementation of CITES. Category2 means legislation that is believed to generally not meet all requirements for the implementation of CITES. Category 3 means legislation that is believed generally not to meet the requirements for implementation of CITES. 22 Category under CITES National Legislation Project5 Current Legal Development Country Name of Legal Instrument (as of 30 April 2004) Philippines The Wildlife Resources Conservation and Category 2 Revised CITES implementing Protection Act 2001; The Philippine Fisheries legislation has been developed Code of 1998 and is under review by the CITES Secretariat Republic of Nature Environment Protection Law 1991 Category 1 Korea Singapore Endangered Species (Import & Export) Act Category 1 (Chapter 92A) Thailand Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act Category 1 B.E. 2535 (1992) Vietnam Decree 11/2002/ND-CP, Management of Category 1 Export, Import and Transit of Wild Animals and Plants; Decree 48/2002/ND -CP ­ amending and supplementing the list of precious and rare wild plants and animals; Decree 18/HDBT Stipulating the categories of rare and precious forest fauna and flora, and their management and protection (1992) 5The National Legislation Project reviews and evaluates CITES Parties' legislation, determining the degree to which it meets the four minimum requirements set out in Resolution Conf. 8.4, and as adopted at the ninth, 10th, and 11th meetings of the Conference of the Parties. Category 1 means legislation that is believed to generally meet the requirements for implementation of CITES. Category 2 means legislation that is believed to generally not meet all requirements for the implementation of CITES. Category 3 means legislation that is believed generally not to meet the requirements for implementation of CITES. 23