Forest Policy Note FINANCING & GLOBAL KNOWLEDGE: BRINGING THE BEST TO TURKEY AND SHARING THE BEST OF TURKEY WITH THE WORLD Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7 1. INTRODUCTION 19 1.1 General 19 1.2 Related Sectors 20 1.3 International Forestry and Forest Policy Context 21 1.4 UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 23 1.5 EU 23 1.5.1 EU Forest Strategy 23 1.5.2 EU 2020 Strategy 25 2. THE FOREST SECTOR 27 2.1 Forest Resources 27 2.2 The Legislative, Policy and Institutional Framework 29 2.2.1 Forest Policy and Strategy 29 2.2.2 Legislation 30 2.2.3 Forest Institutions 34 2.2.4 Stakeholders 39 2.2.5 Forest Cadaster 40 2.3 Forest Monitoring, Evaluation and Research 40 2.3.1 Forest Management 40 2.3.2 National Forest Inventory 42 2.3.3 Forest Research, Evaluation and Technology 42 2.4 Forest Management Activities 43 2.4.1 General 43 2.4.2 Forest Protection 43 2.4.2 Afforestation 46 2.4.3 Forest Roads 47 2.4.4 Wood Production and Sales 48 2.4.5 Wood Energy 49 2.4.6 Hunting and Game Management 49 2.4.7 Non-wood Forest Products and Ecosystem Services 50 a) Non-wood Forest Products (NWFPs) 50 b) Ecosystem Services 53 c) Economic Value of Ecosystem Services 53 2.5 Socio-economic and Environmental Functions and Services 55 2.5.1 State Forestry Sector and Forest Villages 55 2.5.2 Historical Background and Trends of Support to Forest Villages 56 2.5.3 Current Forestry Sector Support and Future Needs 57 2.5.4 Socio-economic Survey of Forest Villagers 58 a) Demographics of Forest Villages 59 b) Income Sources 59 c) Income Diversification and Forest Dependency 63 d) Outside Support (GDF/ORKOY/Cooperatives) 65 e) Migration 65 2 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note 2.5.5 Conclusions 70 2.6 Climate Change and Biodiversity 71 2.6.1 Climate Change 71 2.6.2 Forestry’s Contribution to the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC 73 2.6.3 Biodiversity 76 2.7 Role of Private Sector Wood Industry / SMEs 77 2.8 Public Involvement and Participation 79 2.9 Forest Certification, FOREST EUROPE and Impact of the EU Timber Regulation and the US Lacey Act 79 2.9.1 Forest Certification 79 2.9.2 FOREST EUROPE 80 2.9.3 Rovaniemi Action Plan 82 2.9.4 EU Timber Regulation and US Lacey Act 82 2.10 Forests and Integrated Water Basin Management (multi-sectoral approach) 83 2.11 Fiscal Issues (financing forest management) 83 2.11.1 General Revenues and Costs 85 2.12 Linkages of the Forestry Sector to the Rest of the Economy 87 3. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVED SFM 89 3.1 General 89 3.2 Forest Resource Information 89 3.3 Forest Legislation 90 3.4 Improving Competitiveness 91 3.5 Enhanced Wood Supply 92 3.6 Sustainability of Forest Resources 93 3.7 Role of GDF 94 Appendix 1: International Conventions, Agreements and Initiatives Relevant to Forests 97 Appendix 2: Legislation 100 Appendix 3: Determinants of Migration 101 Appendix 4: Turkey’s Intended National Determined Contribution (INDC) 102 Appendix 5: SFM Criteria and Indicators 106 Appendix 6: Share of Direct and Indirect Impacts of Growth in the Forestry Sector, 2002 107 List of Figures Figure 1 Forest related bodies and agreements in the UN 22 Figure 2 Outline of forest related bodies within the EU 24 Figure 3 Forest Cover of Turkey 28 Figure 4 Species percentage of Total Forest Area 29 Figure 5 Forest Regulatory Framework 32 Figure 6 Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs 34 Figure 7 Organization Structure - General Directorate of Forestry 35 Figure 8 Best Practice Forest Institutions 38 Figure 9 Forest Management Planning Process 41 Figure 10 Forest Fires – Area Burned by Year 43 Figure 11 Forest Area Treated Against Pests 44 Figure 12 Illegal Harvesting (m3) by year, 2000 – 2016 45 Figure 13 Observation area installation points in ICP Forest member countries 46 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 3 Figure 14 Active management of NWFPs in 13 European regions 52 Figure 15 Randomized Sample of Forest Villages Surveyed 58 Figure 16 Percentage of Households Collecting Forest Products 61 Figure 17 Income Diversification 63 Figure 18 Most Popular Combination of Income Sources ( percent of households) 63 Figure 19 Estimated Net Emissions / Removals (‘000t) 72 Figure 20 Turkey’s GHG Emissions Target under the INDC 74 Figure 21 Turkey’s Forestry INDC Committment 75 Figure 22 Turkey Timber Prices ($/m3) 77 Figure 23 Panel Industry Production Capacity by Year 78 Figure 24 FOREST EUROPE Resolutions 81 Figure 25 Impact of Forestry Sector on the Rest of the Economy 86 Figure 26 Comparison of the Definitions of Forest In Europe 90 Figure 27 Organisation Operating Environment 95 List of Tables Table 1 Forest Area and Growing Stock 27 Table 2 Annual Increment 28 Table 3 Average Annual Increment per hectare 28 Table 4 Example of Strategic Plan Targets - Road Infrastructure 30 Table 5 Historical Development of Forest Legal and Regulatory Framework 31 Table 6 Employment in GDF 36 Table 7 Benchmarking 39 Table 8 Forest Cadastre Coverage 40 Table 9 Functional Forest Management Plans 42 Table 10 Volume of Timber Sold by GDF (‘000 m3) 48 Table 11 GD Nature Conservation and National Park Revenue from Hunting (‘000 US$) 50 Table 12 Total Economic Value of Forest Goods and Services in Bolu 2013 54 Table 13 Support to Forest Villages (FTE = Fulltime Equivalent) 58 Table 14 Survey Sample 59 Table 15 Household Demographic Status by Stratum 59 Table 16 Household Income Sources, Productivity and Participation Rates 60 Table 17 Average Annual Household Sales of Products (TL) 62 Table 18 Income Earning Strategies and Forest Dependency ( percent) 64 Table 19 The Distribution of Household Migration Status by Stratum (percent) 65 Table 20 Village Out-migration Rate (per 1000 persons) 66 Table 21 Reasons for Migration ( percent) 67 Table 22 Household Socio-demographic Profile by Migration Status 67 Table 23 Average Income by Household Migration Status (TL) 68 Table 24 Estimated Probability of Migration and Policy Simulation 70 Table 25 Climate Change Activities 2009-2016 (ha) 72 Table 26 Amount and Share of Forests in INDC 76 Table 27 Forest Area Certified 80 Table 28 Revenues and Costs GDF (‘000 US$) 84 Table 29 Top 15 Sectors with Linkages to the Forestry Sector (percent) 86 4 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AAC Annual Allowable Cut AEG Active Energy Group Plc AGTF Association of Green Turkey Foresters CFP Certified forest products CHP Combined heat and power CO2 Carbon Dioxide CoC Chain of Custody COP Conference of the Parties CPI Corruption Perception Index CPS Country Partnership Strategy CW Controlled Wood C&I Criteria and Indicators (for sustainable forest management) DHKV Foundation for Protection of Natural Life EBIT Earnings Before Interest and Tax EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMEA Eastern Europe, Middle East and Africa (region) ENFIN European National Forest Inventory Network EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations FPN Forest Policy Note FTE Full Time Equivalent FVDF Forest Village Development Fund FRMP Forest Research Master Plan FSC Forest Stewardship Council GCC General Coordinating Committee (FOREST EUROPE) GDCDE General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion GDF General Directorate of Forestry GDFVR General Directorate of Forest-Village Relations GDCNP General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks GDP Gross Domestic Product GDWM General Directorate of Water Management GHG Greenhouse Gas IDHYKK Climate Change and Weather Management Coordination Committee IFF Intergovernmental Forum on Forests INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contribution IPF Intergovernmental Panel on Forests JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Food MDF Medium Density Fibreboard MDG Millennium Development Goal Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 5 MFAL Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock MFWA Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs MIGEM General Directorate of Mining Affairs MOF Ministry of Forestry NDP National Development Plan NFI National Forest Inventory NFP National Forestry Program NFPS National Forest Policy and Strategy NGO Non-Governmental Organization NPC Nature Protection Centre NWFP Non-wood Forest Products ORKOOP Forest Villagers Cooperative PEFC Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes ROI percent Return on Investment SDG Sustainable Development Goal SFM Sustainable Forest Management SGS Société Générale de Surveillance TCP Technical Cooperation Project TEV Total Economic Value TL Turkish Lira TOD Turkey Foresters Community TORID Forest Products Exporters, Importers and Manufacturers Association TTKD Foundation for Turkey’s Nature Protection TUBITAK Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey UN United Nations UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNCED United nations Conference on Environment and Development - Earth Summit UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNGA United Nations General Assembly WB World Bank WFC World Forestry Congress YDZT Fire Stop Zone YOAT Segregation of Residential Areas and Forest Areas Exchange Rate 1TL = 0.37 US$ 6 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Acknowledgement This note was prepared by a combined team1 of World Bank staff and FAO, and Turkish consultants working in close collaboration with local stakeholders. The team is grateful for the contributions and support provided by the FAO under the FAO/CP programme. The team also acknowledges the cooperation of the General Directorate of Forestry, and all other local stakeholders that provided information and contributed with feedback to the draft report. The note also builds on the work of a separate Socio- economic Analysis of Forest Villagers in Turkey undertaken by the World Bank in 2016 and funded by the Program for Forests (PROFOR). This draft report was revised following peer review by World Bank staff. 1. The Team comprised: Craig Meisner (World Bank, Task Team Leader and Sr Environmental Economist), Andrew Mitchell (World Bank, Sr Forestry Specialist), Esra Arikan (World Bank, Sr Environmental Specialist), Henry Phillips (FAO, Sr Forestry Consultant) and Mevlut Düzgün (Sr Forestry Consultant). Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction: This Forest Policy Note, prepared by compares with a European (excluding Russia the World Bank, offers an outside view of the Turkish Federation) average of 5.4 m3 per ha. The annual Forestry Sector, provides some strategic guidance to allowable cut (AAC) is 18 - 20 million m3 or help define sector goals, and identifies opportunities approximately 44 percent of the increment. This for consideration in the continued development compares with a European Union average of 73 of the sector and for the implementation of the percent for fellings as a percentage of increment. Turkish/World Bank Country Partnership Strategy In Turkey, extraordinary allowable cuts including which recognizes that the sustainable management additional fellings e.g., windblow, fire, disease of natural resources and nature protection are typically average 4-5 million m3. growing in importance as long-term challenges, along with climate change adaptation. Forest Policy and Strategy: The general policy in Turkey is defined by the Ministry of Development International Context: National forest policy through the National Development Plan. The main needs to consider both international and regional policy documents are the Tenth Development Plan forest policy frameworks together with relevant (2014-2018), the National Forestry Program (2004- international conventions, agreements and 2023), the Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Forestry initiatives that impact or have the potential to and Water Affairs (2013-2017) and the General impact on the sector. International forest policy Directorate of Forestry’s Strategic Plan (2013- has become part of the broader “global policy 2017)3. The Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs for sustainable development” package. Forest (MFWA) is responsible for preparation of plans for issues at global level are linked to overriding combating desertification and erosion and carrying concerns such as global north-south relations, out activities concerning protected areas, national anti-poverty programs, global environmental parks and hunting. The General Directorate of change, indigenous people’s rights and overall Forestry (GDF), within the MFWA, is responsible goals such as the UN’s Millennium Development for integration of the policy and supervision of the Goals, MDGs. With a broader agenda for forests, implementation. The GDF’s strategic plan sets out enhanced stakeholder role and a trend towards the overall vision and four main objectives i.e. (1) decentralization of decisions, there is an increasing protect the forests and biodiversity against biotic shift from government to governance. and abiotic pests, (2) develop and expand the existing forests, increase their efficiency, (3) meet Forest Resource: Turkey has 22.34 million ha of the developing and changing expectations of the forest2 or 28.6 percent of the land area. Forests are public for the forest goods and services and (4) 99.9 percent owned by the State. The forest area ensure the institutional development for providing has increased by 2.14 million ha since 1973 due to sustainable forest management. Overall the policy afforestation and forest in-growth on abandoned and strategy are well defined, there are procedures lands. The definition of forest in Turkey, which is in place to monitor performance. The strategic at variance with FAO definition, results in the area planning process has opportunities for stakeholder of private forest being significantly understated. participation. The average annual increment of 2.05 m3 per ha 2. This area of forest is according to the Turkish definition of forest. However, if the Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN definition of forest is applied, approximately 40 percent of this area would be classed as ‘other wooded land’ and not forest. 3. The General Directorate of Forestry's Strategic Plan (2013-2017) was updated to cover the period 2017-2021 and was put into implementation on 01 January 2017. 8 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Legislation: The Forest Law, adopted in 1956, Management Chiefs (1,419) and Offices (156) dealing is wide ranging and addresses forest definition, with forestation and soil preservation and Offices categories of forest, forest management and (310) of other types of chiefs. protection, forest improvement, development of forest villages, forest fires, in-forest pastures and The MFWA also includes the General Directorate of penalties. It does not address the harvesting of or Combating Desertification and Erosion (GDCDE), rights to non-wood forest products (NWFPs) and the General Directorate of Nature Conservation and lacks specific provisions around the national forest National Parks (GDNCNP), the General Directorate inventory and sustainable forest management. The of Water Management (GDWM) and the General Constitution is a significant source of substantive Directorate of Meteorology (GDM). The GDCDE Forestry Law and Article 169 states that (a) works mainly in forestry related fields and supports irrespective of ownership, all forests are under the sustainable development, expansion of forests control of the State, (b) ownership of the State and rehabilitation of degraded forest and other Forests cannot be transferred and these forests are lands throughout the country. It has no budget for run by the State and (c) forest borders cannot be remedial works apart from specific projects financed reduced except in special circumstances. The GDF by exceptional sources other than MWFA. Thus the enforces the Forest Law and its officers may call on rehabilitation of degraded forest lands and other police, gendarmes, village headmen and other law remedial works are paid and implemented by GDF. enforcement bodies for assistance. The World Bank (WB) review4 of state forest The main forest legislation was framed over half institutions drew attention to the wide range of a century ago and although subject to many organizational models including integrated state amendments suffers from a number of deficiencies forest and management administrations like the including (a) lack of uniformity in the text due GDF and noted the increase in the establishment to repeated changes, (b) definition of forests of separate forest administration and forest at variance with FAO, (c) private sector largely management organizations. The GDF is a centrally- ignored, (d) insufficient importance given to controlled organization that essentially sets its own NWFPs, and (f) overlap and conflict with other targets, monitors itself in terms of performance, legislation. Other areas where the law can be audits itself through an internal audit and reports improved relate to the incorporation of SFM, user on itself to Government and the public. A simple rights for NWFPs, methods of sale for wood-based benchmarking exercise comparing the GDF 2014 forest products and support for initiatives within the outturn with state owned forest organizations in sector. Framework legislation on nature protection, Ireland, Poland and Romania shows that it is the the national biodiversity strategy and action plan only loss making (loss is equivalent to the special still have to be adopted. The draft Nature Protection budget) entity and the only entity not paying the Law is not in line with the EU acquis. state a dividend for the use of the forest asset. Forest Institutions: The GDF is the main institution Stakeholders: The settlements and communities, in the sector and is established as a corporate body in and/or near the forest areas, where circa 7.09 with responsibility for almost all sustainable forest million forest dependent people (forest villagers) management activities. It is a large organization live are the most affected beneficiary stakeholders. employing 39,028 staff in 2016 and is organized along The Central Union of Forest Villagers Cooperative classic forestry lines with a headquarters comprising (ORKOOP) has 2,493 affiliated cooperatives and service, consultative / supervisory and auxiliary 318,005 members throughout the country of which units and Regional Directorates (28) and Research 1,448 and 193,255 are forestry based respectively. Institutes (12) all reporting to the headquarters. Under There are also unions of civil servants and the Unions the Regional Directorates there are Management of Forest Workers, representative organizations Directorates (245) and below these Offices of Forest and a number of NGOs active in the sector 4. World Bank (2005). Forest Institutions in Transition: Experiences and Lessons from Eastern Europe. Washington, DC. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 9 Forest Management Planning and Inventory: of serious outbreaks. Since 2002, the emphasis has Management plans covering national forests were been on the more widespread use of biological completed between 1963 and 1972 and from then disease control measures. onwards have been updated periodically. While the focus of the earlier management plans was Forest Management: The majority (98 percent) on wood production, current management plans of state owned forests are managed based on are a balance of ecological, economic, social and an age class forest management method. The cultural functions of forests. Management planning current annual Program includes 50,000 ha of is undertaken by the forest management chief afforestation, 80,000 ha of erosion control, 10,000 engineer’s offices in GDF. The process is well ha of rehabilitation of meadows and 105,000 ha of documented and there are opportunities for public forest rehabilitation. There is increased emphasis on consultation. Turkey does not have a National Forest watershed-based activities and on trying to support Inventory (NFI) and relies on the amalgamation the development of rural communities through the of information from forest management plans planting of suitable (revenue earning) tree species to provide data on forest resources at a national e.g. walnut, almond, olive and pistachio. Of the 5 level for policy, planning and for data to comply million ha potentially available for forestation, only a with its international reporting commitments. small proportion is suitable for industrial plantations National forest policy requires accurate, timely and to supply the wood panels sector. comprehensive information. A pilot NFI project in 2009 focused on the initial inventory design and At the end of 2014 a total of 2.4 million ha of forest methodology and this study could be used as the has been certified to Forest Stewardship Council starting point for any future NFI. (FSC). The GDF plans to expand the area under certification to 5,000,000 ha by the end of 2019. Forest Research: Forestry research activities are There is no national forest standard for either carried out by the 12 forestry research institutes, the FSC or PEFC. The GDF is collaborating with the forestry faculties, other universities and NGOs. All Turkish national standard authority towards the forestry related research studies are funded by the development of a PEFC standard for Turkey. GDF with limited funds for specific research projects allocated by the Scientific and Technological Forest road density averages 11.2 m/ha, which Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) and the compares with 15 to 17 m/ha in Scandinavian Ministry of Development. The GDF strategic plan countries. While there is awareness of the recognizes that there is inadequate information environmental impact of road construction and ongoing research on the effects of climate there is no EIA requirement and no best practice change and air pollution on forests. environmental guidance. The general perception in the sector is that road standards are appropriate but Forest Protection: Approximately 12.5 million ha of there is a need to improve construction techniques. forest is located in regions highly sensitive to wild fires. Very successful results have been achieved Wood Production and Sales: The GDF is the in combating fires in recent years through the dominant producer of roundwood and sells 18-21 implementation of GDF’s fire combat strategy, million m3 annually. Some 36 percent of fuelwood which reduced the first response time to 15 minutes and 0.5 percent of industrial wood is supplied to in areas vulnerable to fire. 9,156 ha of forest burned the villagers at a discounted price. GDF sells its in 2016. Forests are subject to attack by circa 50 roundwood by auction, standing sale (20 percent) harmful insects. Pest infestations vary depending or under guaranteed supply contracts to those on prevailing soil, climatic and environmental enterprises with an annual roundwood intake of conditions and can lead to substantial losses. 25,000 m3 or greater, and allocated sales to fiber- Extraordinary (sanitary) fellings due to biotic chip sector and paper sector (30-35 percent). The factors average between 300-400,000 m3 private sector produces circa 3.5 million m3, which annually but can be in excess of 1 million m3 in cases is predominantly pulp wood to the wood panels 10 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note sector. The majority (95 percent) of harvesting exported unprocessed. NWFPs have traditionally operations in GDF forests are undertaken by forest been collected by forest villagers at low prices villagers and there is a legal obligation to offer (tariff price). Permission and amount to be collected this work to villages. The technology used is basic. is decided by the GDF. A NWFP and services Average harvesting costs are considered high in department was established in GDF headquarters comparison with many European countries. This in 2011 and under the current Strategic Plan there stems from the technology and methods used. There are targets for an inventory of NWFPs by 2017 and is no well-developed contracting infrastructure and measures for their sustainable utilization. no plans to facilitate the development of one. The recent World Bank assessment of forest Wood Energy: Wood is widely used in rural areas ecosystem services estimated the value of NWFPs for heating. Consumption (10‑11.5  million  m3 per for Turkey as 2.3 USD per hectare per year, year) is decreasing due to migration from the forest compared with an average for Europe of 20.7 USD villages to urban areas, increasing use of natural gas indicating a significant potential for growth in the and solar water heating systems in forest villages. future.6 This is reinforced by the findings from the There is limited use of forest residues for energy EU StarTree project which show that Turkey has and the sector is largely undeveloped. The GDF not as yet fully exploited the potential for cultivated estimates the potential residue market as being 5 forms of NWFPs.7 to 7 million tons annually.5 The guaranteed feed- in tariff for electricity generated from renewable Ecosystem Services: The revised World Bank sources has had little impact on the use of woody estimates of the total non-wood forest wealth biomass. The increasing raw material demand from for Turkey was $133 per hectare per year the wood panels sector is limiting the material comprising water $98.40, NWFPs $2.40, habitat available for energy. $1.30 and recreation $31.20. A pilot study8 in the Bolu region estimated the total economic value Hunting: The GDNCNP is responsible for the (TEV) of forestry value as US$ 666.3 million. management of the game and wildlife resources. The largest portion of the TEV were the indirect Hunting is organized locally through local hunting use values arising from ecosystem services. The associations which are affiliated to Regional study showed that the economic value of various Hunting Federations which in turn are represented forest products and services, which is normally nationally by the Hunting Confederation. The right unaccounted for or accounted implicitly in non- to hunt follows the ownership of the land and forest sectors, is seven times the value currently hunting associations can purchase hunting rights accounted as the forest sector’s contribution. to permitted hunting grounds either from private While the study provides some insight into the owners or through the GDNCNP for state lands. TEV of Turkey’s forests, the results will need to There is potential to increase hunting revenues be validated before they could be considered through the development of quality hunting tourism. sufficiently robust to be applied nationally. Non-wood Forest Products: Turkey is considered Socio-economic: Some 7,096,483 people live in rich in terms of NWFPs. To date there has been 22,343 forest villages, constituting approximately 9.6 no systematic management planning or inventory percent of the national population and 40 percent of / status for these resources, mainly because the the rural population. Thirty-five years ago there were necessary institutional capacity still needs to be some 18 million forest villagers but increased out- built. Only 20 percent of NWFPs receive any form migration has reduced the population dramatically. of processing or added value and the majority are Forest villages are given preferential treatment under 5. National initiative and strategy development for strengthening utilization of wood energy in Turkey. Presentation by Ismail Belen to Workshop on Policy options for wood energy. 1-4 June 2010 Minsk, Belarus. 6. Siikamäki, J., Santiago-Ávila, F. and Vail, P. (2015) Global Assessment of Nonwood Forest Ecosystem Services. PROFOR. 7. Wong JLG & Prokofieva I (Eds) (2014) “State of the European NWFP”. StarTree deliverable D1.3. 96 pp. 8. Valuing Forest Products and Services in Turkey: A Pilot Study of Bolu Forest Area, World Bank, 2015. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 11 the Forest Law and have a right to employment in The aim of the Forest and Village Relations harvesting, thinning, afforestation, maintenance and Department (ORKOY) in the GDF is to contribute transportation activities undertaken by GDF. They to the protection, development and attainment are the GDF’s key source of labor and village income of the production targets of forests through is inextricably linked to the sustainability of forests. supporting the socio-economic development of Despite this co-dependence – forests are playing forest villagers. It operates a grant-loan program for a smaller role in the livelihoods of forest villagers. individuals and cooperatives. Forest cooperatives In a recent survey of 2,000 forest villagers it was are intended to create employment opportunities found that income per capita is 3 times less than for cooperative members in the forest. Almost the national average and although 61 percent of 60 percent of the total roundwood production of households generated income from either selling Turkey is carried out through cooperatives every or consuming forest products, the highest earnings year. Forest villagers generate revenues of circa were from non-forest related activities, pensions, US$ 350 million annually. agriculture and livestock income. As a coping strategy, forest villagers typically diversify among Results from the socioeconomic survey suggest several income-generating activities, with the most that ORKOY’s support to forest villages focuses common being agriculture or livestock sales. Over mainly on providing credit and firewood to time, forest wages are playing a smaller contribution households. Among 108 villages (out of 203 to overall income. These findings are also consistent surveyed) that reported support, 34 percent across different areas of Turkey - which can be received a benefit directly to the household over characterized by high/low poverty and high/low the past 12  months, 6 percent received a village- migration rates. level development project, and 14 percent received 12 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note both household and village level program benefits. Climate Change: Although Turkey became a party Forty-six percent of villages did not receive any to the UNFCCC in 2004, it maintains an expectation benefits (in cash or in kind), but it should be noted that the Annexes will be re-categorized on the that this was only in the past 12 months. basis of state social and economic levels. Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, but Despite the long history of government support is not yet subject to emission reduction or limitation through establishing forest dependent cooperatives obligations.9 Turkey submitted its Intended and associations in forest villages, the survey data Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in shows the coverage of membership is relatively September 2015 and set the target of reducing low. While about 6 percent of households surveyed Green House Gas (GHG) emissions by 21 percent were members of forest dependent cooperatives from the Business-As-Usual (BAU) by 2030. The and associations, over 18 percent were members of GDF is the national coordinator of Land Use Land other cooperatives. Among the members of forest Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) and prepares dependent cooperatives (119 households), about 16 annual GHG inventories. Its climate change working percent of households reported to have received group has responsibility for policy and strategy employment from the cooperative, which is higher formulation in relation to climate change. than members of other cooperatives (about 13 percent of households received employment). Turkey is located in the Mediterranean Basin that Support to villages included training and technical is especially vulnerable to the adverse impacts assistance, and free seedlings from GDF and other of climate change. The Climate Change Strategy public institutions. (2010-2020) sets out short, medium and long term measures for GHG emissions control across The limited opportunities available to forest the various sectors including forestry. The forestry villagers is resulting in increased out-migration. measures focus on combating deforestation The current rate of out-migration over the past and forest degradation together with studies on year was 15 per 1000 persons, but if a longer time climate change impacts on forest ecosystems and horizon is evaluated, over 10 years, this rate rises to identifying and planting more drought resistant tree over 100 per 1000. Half of the households surveyed species. The Climate Change Action Plan, adopted indicated they already had a member migrate (38 in 2011, built on this strategy and set out ambitious percent) or intend to migrate (14 percent). This targets for afforestation and rehabilitation of was consistent in areas characterized by high/low degraded forests. Targets in the main have been poverty and high/low migration rates. Among those met including afforestation, erosion control and who have already migrated the most common rehabilitation. The forestry sector’s contribution to reason was looking for a job (52 percent), but in low Turkey achieving its INDC is significant. Mitigation migration areas it was for marriage (55 percent). activities are projected to reduce CO2 emissions by The unemployment rate in villages was about 11 over 68.7 million equivalent tons representing 12 percent - but there is a lot of underemployment as percent of the 21 percent reduction commitment. well. Households who have more limited income- generating activities have a higher propensity to Biodiversity: Forests are home to a wide range migrate. Econometric results suggest that the more of flora and fauna and house significant portions forest dependent households are, the more likely of Turkey’s rich natural biodiversity resource. In they are to have had a migrant, and households recent years forest ecosystems have come under belonging to forest cooperatives and associations, increasing pressure through (a) the excessive are more likely to stay in forest villages. This latter use of forests in mountain ecosystems without result only holds for the past five years (2010-2015) considering their bearing capacity, (b) the impacts which may suggest that forest village support of atmospheric pollution and global climate change, schemes may have changed and are viewed as less (c) pressures from communities living in and around attractive than before. forests, (d) increasing construction due to tourism 9. Kayhan, A.K. Country Report Turkey: Turkey’s Climate Change Dilemma. 5 IUCNAEL EJournal 270-276. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 13 incentives, uplands tourism, (e) alien species, (f) Taking the wood processing sector overall and at over gathering of plants having an economical current harvesting levels, an estimated 77 percent value, (g) incorrect mining activities and (h) of domestic demand is met by sales of roundwood improper afforestation.10 The Law on National Parks from GDF, 15 percent by the private sector with the outlines the legal framework, defines the status and balance of 8 percent coming from imports. regulations for the designation and management of protected areas. The total protected area was Rovaniemi Action Plan: The Rovaniemi Action 6,782,628 ha at the end of 2015 or 8.7 percent of Plan for the Forest Sector in a Green Economy, the land area. This compares with an EU average of describes how the forest sector in the United 18.1 percent land designated as Natura 2000 sites.11 Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) region could lead the way towards the emerging Role of Private Sector Wood Industry / SMEs: green economy at the global level. The first draft Turkey has a large wood processing sector. Primary of the National Action Plan for Forest Sector in a processing is undertaken by an estimated 7,013 Green Economy was prepared by the MFWA in sawmills which have been slow to invest and improve 2014 with the GDF as the overall coordinator. The technology. There are around 30,000 furniture plan includes targets for each of the five pillars manufacturers again mainly small scale with only 150 ((1) Sustainable production and consumption of employing more than 100 staff.12 Total employment forest products; (2) A low-carbon forest sector; is estimated at 150,000. The furniture industry has (3) Decent green jobs in the forest sector; (4) seen significant growth over the past decade driven Long term provision of Forest Ecosystem Services; by demand from a growing population, migration to and (5) Policy development and monitoring of the cities and rising incomes. the forest sector in relation to a green economy) and identifies the body (department / general Timber prices are considered by the wood industry directorate) responsible. sector to be relatively high when compared with Europe. This is due in part to the strong demand EU Timber Regulations: EU Regulation 995/2010 and rapid growth over the past decade but also also known as the (Illegal) Timber Regulation to the inefficiencies along the various elements of counters the trade in illegally harvested timber and the timber supply chain. The GDF strategic plan timber products covers a wide range of timber recognizes this prerequisite for future development products and came into force on 3rd March 2013. and has set targets for reducing the ratio of Illegal harvesting is at a very low level and shows a production costs to timber sales revenue from decreasing trend over time. According to current 33 percent in 2013 to 21 percent by 2017 through statistics about 20,000 m3 are illegally harvested mainly increasing the proportion of standing sales annually, mainly fuelwood at a local level. to 55 percent by 2017. Transparency International corruption perception Turkey’s wood based panels sector has experienced index (CPI) saw Turkey’s score decrease from 50 rapid growth due to a boom in the construction to 45 in 2014.14 The CPI is an integral part of the industry and rising incomes and is now in the top FSC Controlled Wood (CW) system and a score five panel producer worldwide. There are circa 40 below 50 places a country in the “unspecified risk” panel mills. The resulting shortfall in raw material, category for legal timber harvesting (indicator is met through imports and in 2013 Turkey was the 1.4 in the Controlled Wood category 1 – Illegally second largest chip importer in Europe.13 Security Harvested Wood). Field verification of legal of raw material supply is an issue but despite this harvesting is therefore mandatory for companies there are plans for further expansion. sourcing CW from such countries. 10. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2007. 11. Natura 2000 Nature and Biodiversity Newsletter Number 38 June 2015. European Commission. 12. USDA Foreign Agricultural Services Gain Report (2010). Forest Products Report for Turkey. 13. Forest products annual market review 2013-2014. UNECE 14. http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/publication/cpi2014 14 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Forests and Integrated Water Basin Management: circa 54 percent of total revenues. The revolving Forest management is an essential component of budget is almost totally reliant on roundwood sales integrated basin management. Turkey has gained which account for 90 percent of revenues and the broad experience in watershed management trend is for this dependency to increase rather practices through World Bank financed watershed than decrease over time. The trend in recent years rehabilitation projects and an FAO technical is for the contribution from the revolving budget co-operation project (TCP) as well nationally to decrease. The Treasury contribution to total funded initiatives. The Coruh River Watershed revenues varies year on year and was 26.1 percent Rehabilitation project (2012-2019), funded by in 2012, 30.6 percent in 2014 24.6 percent in 2015, the Japan International Cooperation Agency and 21.4 percent in 2016. The reliance on Treasury’s (JICA) and the national budget, is addressing contribution and forest product revenues leaves the integrated watershed rehabilitation with GDF GDF overly exposed to fluctuations in the national as the coordinating agency. The Murat River economy and timber markets. The development Watershed Rehabilitation project (2013-2019), of other sources of revenue based around the funded by the International Fund for Agricultural sustainable management of the forest resource will Development (IFAD) and national budget, has be necessary to provide more stable revenue flows three components; (a) natural resources and into the future. environmental management, (b) investments in natural resources and environmental assets and (c) Challenges and Opportunities for Improved SFM: investments in small-scale agriculture. GDF is the To ensure that the forest resource can continue coordinating agency. to provide valuable functions and support both forest villages and the wood processing sector in a Fiscal Issues (Financing Forest Management): sustainable and cost efficient manner into the future The general expectation from Treasury is that requires that Turkey and the GDF in particular will the activities of the GDF would be self-financing. have to address a number of challenges around (1) However, the funding of expenses for afforestation, forest resource information, (b) forest legislation, erosion control, fire management (control, (c) improving competitiveness, (d) enhanced wood prevention and extinguishing), soil protection and supply, (e) sustainability of forest resources and (f) cadastral works is covered from a special budget the role of the State in forestry. provided by the Treasury. The revolving budget comprises mainly revenues from roundwood sales, 1. Forest Resource Information: The development and is used to offset the major forest management of society and the increasing awareness of expenses. Thus the revenues coming from the the need to sustainably manage forests, and forest resource are in the main returned to forests. the reality of climate change, has led to the As of end-2016, circa 40 percent of revolving increasing need for reliable multi-resource fund budget goes towards general administration information on the status of forests. Reliable, expenses, 37 percent towards production expenses current and consistent information is required to and costs and the balance 23 percent towards inform domestic forest policy, to support forest capital investments e.g. forest roads. There is a research and fulfil national and international well-defined budget preparation process. Budgets reporting commitments. This is currently lacking are monitored monthly at all levels within GDF and as there is no National Forest Inventory (NFI) where necessary corrective actions are taken. which would record and assess the extent and nature of Turkey’s forests, both public and Over the period 2012 to 2015, the GDF operated private, in a timely, accurate and reproducible at an annual loss of US$ 411.28 million with the manner to enable the sustainable development deficit being balanced by matching funds from of the country’s forest resource. The need now is the Treasury’s contribution to the special budget. for an NFI design and methodology to be finalised Revenues from the revolving budget (wood together with the supporting logistics. Once product sales, sales of NWFPs etc.) comprise this is finalised the implementation of the NFI Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 15 can be planned and resources allocated. A pre- The contents of forestry legislation should requisite to the NFI is a change in the definition be in line with such a process. Participation in of forests to align it with FAO which is important this context requires a true commitment to especially in terms of common reporting and for listen and understand the needs, objectives comparison / benchmarking between different and capacities of the intended users of the law countries. The changed definition however and the forest resource and to finding ways to could have legal ramifications. This could be accommodate the multiple interests at stake. overcome by including two categories of forest One way to promote greater transparency - one for farm forests with a reduced minimum while at the same time to involve stakeholders area and including non-native species, and one would be to establish a forest advisory body for natural / semi-natural forests. representative of the sector as a permanent officially recognised forum for discussion. Closely aligned with improvement in forest resource information is improved information 3. Improve Competitiveness: Timber and timber on the economic contribution of the forest products are globally traded commodities. If the resource to Turkey. The pilot study in the Bolu wood processing sector in Turkey is to remain region highlighted the importance of including competitive and compete with imports, then the values for NWFPs and forestry ecosystem GDF, which will remain the dominant supplier services in any economic analysis of forestry of roundwood into the foreseeable future, will contribution to the economy. Better information have to mobilize its annual production in a more on the extent and value of ecosystem services is cost-efficient and sustainable fashion, thereby required if policy and decision makers are to be facilitating the development of a competitive properly informed when making decisions and domestic roundwood processing sector or allocating resources within the forestry sector through reducing costs and reconfiguring the and to enable forest managers to enhance / roundwood supply chain. maximise the economic contribution of forestry to the economy. An analysis of the component processes of the roundwood supply chain is required to provide 2. Legislation: There is now an opportunity to an up-to-date overview of the current industry redraft the main Forest Code and in so doing cost of timber supply and procurement while to (a) redress the identified deficiencies, (b) identifying a range of efficiency issues relating support the competitiveness of the sector to the supply chain and the resultant interaction through changes in methods for roundwood of supplier (principally GDF), purchaser and sales, and (c) incorporate the lessons learned harvesting entities including villagers and from other countries who have recently redrafted cooperatives. Continued reliance on forest their forest legislation. This would provide the villages for harvesting services is potentially opportunity to fully incorporate the principles of non-viable in the medium to long term in view of SFM and for integrated management planning their aging and declining population. Changes covering whole ecosystems, social aspects, to increased standing sales and or concessions environmental and biodiversity values, impacts would only make sense if the contracting on climate change and risks of desertification. infrastructure resource is incentivised to expand It also offers the opportunity to incorporate and become more efficient. usufruct rights for forest villages for NWFPs and for their sustainable management. Such rights The GDF is a large centrally controlled and provisions for sustainable management organisation that essentially sets its own would facilitate the development of NWFPs. targets and monitors itself. Competitiveness in It is important to have an effective, participatory any organisation is underpinned by having in land use planning process in place to facilitate place best practice, processes and procedures. consensus among concerned sectors of society. While the restructuring of the supply chain will 16 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note bring improvements to the competitiveness of In the longer term, additional volume can only the wood industry, the GDF itself will need to be sourced through an expansion of the forest provide a more efficient and quality service to resource with a focus on fast growing industrial the forest sector as a whole. As a first step in plantations with species like Brutia pine and this process the GDF should benchmark itself Maritime pine. The GDF action plan for these two against similar state forest organisations across species foresees the establishment of 140,000 a range of parameters including (a) financial, ha of Brutia pine and 20,000 ha of Maritime pine (b) environmental and (c) social. This analysis over the next twenty years or a rate of 8,000 will provide insights as to where identifiable ha per year. There is a shortfall between what improvements can be made and lead to is available and what is planned to be planted focussed business process review of these by the GDF of the order of 240,000 ha. The aspects of how it does business. challenge therefore is how to increase the scale of planting through involving the private sector 4. Enhanced Wood Supply: In the short to medium and thereby not only enhancing future wood term the challenge for GDF is to leverage more supply but also facilitating the development of volume from the existing forest resource in a the private forest sector. sustainable and cost efficient manner, building on improvements in the overall model of the supply 5. Sustainability of Forest Resources: Forest chain. Increased volumes would help replace resources worldwide and in Turkey are under imports and improve security of supply so continued threat from forest pests and diseases, necessary for confidence and investment in the fire, land use change and degradation and sector. Current levels of harvest are significantly over exploitation. The most significant threat below the AAC and to increase will require however is that of climate change. Measures a combination of enhanced forest resource in place like afforestation and rehabilitation of information, investment in forest roads and degraded forests and enhanced fire warning development of the harvesting infrastructure. systems are already making an impact. In the A planned and phased approach in partnership medium term however it will be important for with the wood industry is required. The increased Turkey to fully address the potential impacts investment in forest roads could also serve as of climate change in future afforestation and an opportunity to define best practice in forest forest rehabilitation works through planting or road construction incorporating environmental more drought resistant species. There should guidelines and / or EIA. be further studies to more fully understand the Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 17 impacts at an ecosystem level so that mitigating NWFPs. The challenge into the future is how measures can be developed and put in place the forest can support the livelihood and well- thereby ensuring the ongoing provision of the being of forest villagers. The current model of complete range of environmental services from villagers undertaking the majority of harvesting forests. This will be especially true given the and forest works is unsustainable in the medium forestry sector’s contribution to Turkey’s INDC. to long term. Alternatives recognising the limitations of an aging population will need Sustainability of forest resources is linked to be developed. Any new model will need to with the maintenance and sustainability of focus on alternative income opportunities and biodiversity. There is the potential to improve a changed role for villagers in relation to the forest biodiversity, by expanding protected forest resource. This new model could increase areas, where necessary, and by expanding the focus on the harvesting and processing the use of integrated management in forests of NWFPs while engaging villagers in a more outside protected areas. The NFI will help in collaborative approach to forest management the monitoring and reporting of biodiversity at a local level where their role would not within forests. merely be suppliers of labour for harvesting and planting but also as caretakers and protectors There is general agreement that the area of of the forest, a role less dependent on physical NWFPs is underdeveloped but has significant attributes but more on local knowledge and potential as a source of local employment and culture. This changed role would have benefits export to European countries. The challenge is for the sustainability of forest resources while how to sustainably exploit this valuable resource also benefitting rural populations. for the benefit of rural dwellers and society as a whole. The first steps to ensure the sustainable 6. Role of the State: The GDF has changed development of the NWFPs are to (a) identify parent Ministries and undergone some internal the resource and its status, (b) identify those changes in recent years. The challenge for NWFPs that offer the best opportunity for the organisation into the future is to match its harvesting, processing, marketing and export role and how it does business with a rapidly and (c) amend the Forest Law to transfer changing operating environment and increasing user rights to forest villages and incorporate public scrutiny. As a first step in assessing how provisions for sustainable management. This the organisation fits with its current operating alongside the development of codes of practice environment and what changes are required for harvesting and the provision of technical as to how it might fit into the future, given advice on the processing and marketing of the planned changes in the forest sector and NWFPs and increased investment / provision of broader operating environment, the GDF should finance for added value would provide the basis undertake an initial business process review at a for future development. high level. The initial diagnosis is both crucial and necessary. This together with the benchmarking The survival and well-being of forest villages is and re-configuration of the supply chain will inextricably linked with the sustainability of forest provide direction for future change and the resources owing to their dependence on forests delivery of improved services. to provide grazing, fuelwood, employment and 18 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 19 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General sector production of primary (roundwood) and secondary forest products (non-wood) is This Forest Policy Note, prepared by the World estimated to contribute between 0.2 - 0.3 percent Bank, offers an outside view of the Turkish Forestry to GDP16, reflecting in part the quality of the Sector, provides some strategic guidance to help resource with 10.1 million ha classed as degraded define sector goals, and identifies opportunities for forest but also the missed opportunities for added consideration in the continued development of the value particularly in relation to the processing of sector and for the implementation of the Turkey- non-wood forest products. World Bank Country Partnership Framework (CPF). The note aims to offer guidance on how the forest Turkey’s forests are an extremely important asset: resource can continue to provide environmental they provide multiple environmental services goods and services while supporting both forest including watershed protection and erosion villages and the wood processing sector in a control, raw material for a world scale wood panels sustainable and cost efficient manner into the future. industry, a rich and diverse source of non-wood forest products, employment in rural areas but The World Bank (WB) Country Partnership especially forest villages and fuelwood for large Framework (CPF) for Turkey recognizes that the numbers or rural dwellers who have limited access sustainable management of natural resources to conventional energy sources. and nature protection are growing in importance as long-term challenges for Turkey, along with The development of the sector is guided by the climate change adaptation. Turkey’s natural Tenth Development Plan (2014-2018), the National resources face increasing pressures from growth Forestry Program (2004-2023), the Strategic Plan in energy use, industry, transport, tourism, and of the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (2013- agriculture resulting in water stress, soil erosion 2017) and the General Directorate of Forestry’s and pollution. Turkey is already addressing a Strategic Plan (2013-2017). range of regulatory and institutional reforms in the environment and forestry sectors and prioritizing The General Directorate of Forestry, under the Ministry investment programs in infrastructure, pollution of Forestry and Water Affairs, is responsible for mitigation, and afforestation. Measures to address almost all sustainable forest management activities these challenges are now becoming a priority for from forest planning through the establishment, the Government. growth and maintenance to harvesting. It is a large organization with both administrative, regulatory The forest resource, which is 99.9 percent owned and management functions. by the State, extends to 22.34 million ha15 or 28.6 percent of the land area of the country is home to This Forest Policy Note (FPN) builds on previous a declining and ageing population of 7.09 million work within the forestry sector. It aims to inform rural dwellers spread across 22,343 forest villages the World Bank project formulation process and who rely heavily on the resource for their livelihood. the forestry sector by reviewing the sector and Despite the level of forest cover, the forest highlighting the main policy issues and identifying 15. This area of forest is according to the Turkish definition of forest. However, if the Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN definition of forest is applied, approximately 40 percent of this area would be classed as ‘other wooded land’ and not forest. 16. World Bank (2015) Valuing Forest Products and Services in Turkey: A Pilot Study of Bolu Forest Area. Washington: DC 20 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note possible actions. This study will assist in identifying Turkey’s ambitious vision for 2023 envisages a and designing investment opportunities within the gross agricultural domestic output of US$ 150 billion sector. It is not a forest policy per se, although of which US$ 40 billion will comprise exports and it could serve as an input to a forest policy an increase in the irrigation area from 5.4 million formulation process. ha to 8.5 million ha. The country offers significant investment opportunities in the agribusiness 1.2 Related Sectors subsectors such as fruit and vegetable processing, animal feed, livestock, poultry, dairy and functional The agriculture and mining sectors impact on food, aquaculture, and enablers (in particular cold forestry through the use of land and resources. The chain, greenhouse, irrigation, and fertilizer). climatic and geographical conditions across the country allow for a wide range of farming activities. Turkey has significant reserves of precious and Arable farming dominates the agricultural sector base metals, which coupled with improvements accounting for circa 75 percent of value output with in government mining policy, underpin a growing the share of fruit and vegetables at circa 44 percent. mining sector. There are approximately 60 Arable crops account for 55 percent of agricultural different types of minerals currently being mined area while 35 percent is pastures and permanent within the country and it ranks 10th in the world in meadows and 8 percent is under perennial crops. terms of mineral diversity. The west of the country The main crops are cereals, other crops such as is generally rich in lignite (brown coal) and the west sugar beet, potatoes, and cotton, vegetables and Black Sea is rich in coal. Several areas are rich in fruits and other perennial crops. The restructuring iron. The east is less developed but rich in minerals. efforts that began in the early 1980s, alongside a Mining can impact on forestry when located in series of reforms including privatizations and the forest areas and with the expansion of the sector reduction of trade barriers in the agriculture sector, the impact is expected to increase over time. has resulted in a domestic market that is now an Under the current mining application procedure, integral part of the world economy. the Directorate General of Forestry requires the preparation of rehabilitation projects for the area Turkey’s food industry has registered steady during the term of any permits issued in forest growth in recent years, with domestic consumers areas. Rehabilitation projects are implemented becoming increasingly demanding, driven by the once the mining activity has been completed. multitude of choices offered by mass grocery retail outlets. The industry is much better developed Mining exports account for a significant amount of than that of neighboring countries and is one the country’s GDP. Copper, chrome, coal, marble of the largest exporters of agricultural products and boron are the key minerals in the market. in the Eastern Europe, Middle East and North Turkey owns 75 percent of the world’s boron Africa (EMEA) region, while its trade balance is reserves and the large and diverse mineral resource significantly positive. With growing exports, the base includes coal, gold, iron and lead, mercury, Turkish agri-food industry recorded US$ 5.6 billion silver, tin and other precious metals. of trade surplus in 2014. The main regulator is the General Directorate of Mining Affairs (MIGEM) a division of the Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, and it is the authorized body which regulates mining activities and issues mining licenses. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 21 1.3 International Forestry and forest-related organizations’ agendas, which have Forest Policy Context17 become ever broader. The concept of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM), has become embedded In today’s world, national forest policy must consider in international forest policy. More effort is being both international and regional forest policy made internationally to operationalize the SFM frameworks together with relevant international concept and what, in practice, is meant by conventions, agreements and initiatives that impact economically, ecologically and socially sustainable or have the potential to impact on the forest sector. management of forests. Since the beginning of the 1990s, international forest policy has become part of the broader “global Forest issues are handled by a number of policy for sustainable development” package. international bodies at global level, both within Forest issues at global level are linked to overriding and outside the UN system. Figure 1 shows how concerns such as global north-south relations, anti- these bodies are inter-related organizationally. The poverty programs, global environmental change, bodies that handle forest issues report to the UN indigenous people’s rights and overall goals such General Assembly (UNGA) or the UN’s Economic as the UN’s Millennium Development Goals, MDGs. and Social Council (ECOSOC), two of the UN’s six This is reflected in the content of international main bodies in its central organization. 17. Based on International forest policy – an overview. Report from the Secretariat for International Forestry Issues, SIFI. Number 6, 2010. 22 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 1 FOREST RELATED BODIES AND AGREEMENTS IN THE UN 18 UNFCC X Forest Principles CDB X UN General Assembly Economic and Social (UNGA) Council (ECOSOC) UNCCD X Programmes and Funds Functional Commissions Specialised Agencies ITTA UNCTAD CSD FAO IPF/IFF PfA’s ITTO X UNECE/FAO Regional Commissions Forest Programme CLRTAP ILO ILO no. 160 UNEP UNECE CITES Timber Committee Other Bodies UNDP WB UNFF CPF NLBI on Forests (members marked with X) World heritage conv PFII UNESCO Ramsar convention With a broader agenda for forests, stakeholders Dialogue and the International Family Forest other than states have acquired a larger role, hand Alliance aim to promote the greater involvement in hand with a trend towards decentralization of of local stakeholders in decisions related to forest decisions related to forest management. There is an management. We have also seen the emergence and increasing shift “from government to governance” establishment of non-state governance in the form resulting in government to a greater extent is being of international forest certification systems. The exercised via a network of political stakeholders way in which better coordination and synergies are who exert influence in different ways, at different created between various conventions, organizations political levels and by varying means. The number of and initiatives, as well as the links between global, organizations, political initiatives and various forms regional and local level, has also been a standing of partnership between the public sector, the private item on many agendas. At global level, the UNFF’s sector and civil society has grown considerably Collaborative Partnership on Forests is an initiative in recent years. International partnerships such to foster coordination of the work of international as Growing Forest Partnerships, The Forests organizations. 18. Organisations included in the UN Forum of Forest’s (UNFF’s) Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF) are marked with an X. A summary description of each agreement is provided in Appendix 1. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 23 In summary how the utilization of forest resources is 1.5 EU governed is becoming increasingly more complex, involving more stakeholders with decisions making 1.5.1 EU Forest Strategy becoming more decentralized and increasing emphasis on the full range of forest services. The EU currently contains 5 percent of the world’s forests and EU forests have continuously expanded 1.4 UN 2030 Agenda for for over 60 years, although recently at a lower rate. Sustainable Development EU Forests and other wooded land now cover 155 million ha and 21 million ha respectively accounting On 1 January 2016, the 17 Sustainable Development for more than 42 percent of EU land area. Forests Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable are one of Europe’s most important renewable Development— adopted by world leaders in resources and provide multiple benefits to society September 2015 at an historic UN Summit — and the economy. They are a key resource for officially came into force. Over the next fifteen improving the quality of life and job creation, in years, with these new Goals that universally apply particular in rural areas, and protect and provide to all, countries will mobilize efforts to end all forms ecosystem services to all citizens. of poverty, fight inequalities and tackle climate change, while ensuring that no one is left behind. The EU has no forest policy and each Member The SDGs build on the success of the Millennium State is free to formulate their own forest policy Development Goals (MDGs) and aim to go further to in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity in end all forms of poverty. The new Goals are unique the EU Treaty. Notwithstanding this, the EU has a in that they call for action by all countries, poor, rich long history of contributing through its policies to and middle-income to promote prosperity while implementing sustainable forest management and protecting the planet. They recognize that ending to Member States’ decisions on forests. Important poverty must go hand-in-hand with strategies that developments include: (a) the Europe 2020 build economic growth and addresses a range of strategy for growth and jobs, (b) the Resource social needs including education, health, social Efficiency Roadmap, (c) Rural Development Policy, protection, and job opportunities, while tackling (d) Industrial Policy, (e) the EU Climate and Energy climate change and environmental protection. Package with its 2020 targets, (f) the Plant Health and Reproductive Materials Strategy and (g) the While the SDGs are not legally binding, governments Biodiversity and Bio-economy Strategies. are expected to take ownership and establish national frameworks for the achievement of the In 2013 the Commission adopted a new Forest 17 Goals. Countries have the primary responsibility Strategy which gives a new framework in response for follow-up and review of the progress made in to the increasing demands put on forests and to implementing the Goals, which will require quality, significant societal and political changes that have accessible and timely data collection. Regional affected forests over the last 15 years. follow-up and review will be based on national-level analyses and contribute to follow-up and review at Following a new approach, the Strategy “goes out the global level. of the forest”, addressing aspects of the value chain i.e. the way forest resources are used to generate goods and services, which strongly influence forest management. The Strategy highlights that forests are not only important for rural development, but also for the environment - especially for biodiversity; for forest-based industries; bioenergy; and in the fight against climate change. Stressing the need of a holistic approach, it also emphasizes that impacts of other policies on forests as well as developments 24 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 2 OUTLINE OF FOREST RELATED BODIES WITHIN THE EU Council of European European Commission the EU Parliament Agriculture & Fisheries Council Standing Forestry Com. Environment Council EP Committees AGRI, ENVI, INTA, FLEGT Com. ITRE etc. Other Councils DG AGRI Standing Com. Plants & Seeds DG Enterprise Inter-group Sust. Dev. COREPER I & II – sub-group Forestry DG ENVI Adv. Com. FB-Industries Council Working Party DG DEV On Forestry Adv. Com. Other Council Forestry & Cork DG SANCO Working Parties Interservice Other DGs Group Forests Forests & Expert Group Climate Forest Fires AD HOC WORKING GROUPS GPP Other expert/ Ad hoc groups Communications Strategy Others Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 25 taking place beyond forest boundaries should be 1.5.2 EU 2020 Strategy taken into account. In addition, the new strategy underlines that forest-linked EU policies should fully In 2010 the EU faced a moment of transformation. be taken into account in national forest policies. The economic crisis has wiped out years of Finally, it calls for a Forest Information System economic and social progress and exposed to be set up and for Europe-wide harmonized structural weaknesses in its economy. Concurrently, information on forests to be collected. the world was moving fast and long-term challenges – globalization, pressure on resources, The strategy, and its implementation, will build ageing – continued to intensify. The EU needed on existing legislation and international initiatives, to act decisively and to take charge of its future including work carried out under FOREST EUROPE, and in this regard developed a strategy to help it consider the special situation of small forest come out stronger from the crisis and turn the EU owners, and address market-based private-sector in to a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy tools such as certification. To deliver on common delivering high levels of employment, productivity objectives and improve coherence and synergies, and social cohesion. coordination with and between Member States will be important. Member States are asked to consider Europe 2020 sets out a ten-year growth strategy the principles and goals of this strategy when and puts forward three mutually reinforcing setting up and implementing their action plans and priorities: (a) Smart growth: developing an national forest programs. economy based on knowledge and innovation; (b) Sustainable growth: promoting a more In practice, responsibility for issues that touch on resource efficient, greener and more competitive various aspects of forestry and the forest sector economy; and (c) Inclusive growth: fostering a is shared among at least 10 of the Commission’s high-employment economy delivering social and directorates general (DG). The most affected DGs territorial cohesion. are those for Agriculture and Rural Development (AGRI), Environment (ENVI), Enterprise & Industry, The EU 2020 defines a number of key headline Energy and Climate Action. targets with those relating to climate change and energy sustainability (greenhouse gas emissions Forest issues are largely the concern of the Standing 20 percent or even 30 percent, if the conditions Forestry Committee, which was established in are right lower than 1990; 20 percent of energy 1988 within DG AGRI. An Inter-service Group on from renewables; and 20 percent increase in Forestry was created in 2002 under DG AGRI energy efficiency) impacting on forests and the for the purpose of coordinating more effectively forestry sector. To ensure that each Member State forestry issues that affect several DGs. There is tailors the Europe 2020 strategy to its particular also a corresponding unit for co-ordination of situation, the Commission proposed that EU goals international forestry issues (Inter-service Group are translated into national targets and trajectories. on International Forestry Issues). 26 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 27 THE FOREST SECTOR 2.1 Forest Resources Approximately 50 percent of forests are classed as having an economic function including the Turkey with a land area of 77.8 million ha has a production of roundwood, fire-wood and non- forest area of 22.34 million ha or 28.6 percent. wood forest products, 42 percent an ecological Forests are 99.9 percent owned by the State, function including watershed and erosion control reflecting the nationalization of forests in 1945 and the remaining 8 percent as social and cultural.19 (Law of Nationalization, Law 4785) in an attempt to safeguard resources and combat over-exploitation. Forests in Turkey are divided into two categories, The forest area has increased by 2.14 million ha since i.e. high forests and coppice20 forests, in terms 1973 due to afforestation and forest in-growth on of the way they are managed. High forest, with abandoned lands. The definition of forest in Turkey 19.62 million ha, is the predominant forest type excludes areas of forest less than 3 ha and areas with with coppice forests accounting for the remaining species not found in natural forests. Forest areas with 12.18 percent of the forest area. The proportion of a canopy cover of 10 percent or more are classed coppice forests has decreased over time due to the as “productive” forest and are required to have an policy of conversion to high forest. Some 43 percent allowable cut identified in the forest management of forests are classed as degraded and in need of plan. Forest cover is shown in Figure 3. rehabilitation works. The total growing stock is 1.49 billion m3 with degraded forests accounting The area of forests owned by private persons and for 71.95 million m3 or 4.4 percent of the growing public entities having a status as a legal entity is stock. The average growing stock is 72.14  m3 per approximately 22,000 ha. However due to the ha varying from less than 5 m3 per ha in degraded definition of forest and the fact that some private land forest to 123 m3 per ha in productive high forest. planted with trees is still classed as agricultural land, This compares with European and world averages the area of private forest is significantly understated of 105 m3 per ha and 130 m3 per ha.21 and it includes an estimated 160,000 - 200,000 ha of high yielding mainly poplar plantations. TABLE 1 FOREST AREA AND GROWING STOCK Area (million ha) Growing Stock (million m3) Forest Type Productive Degraded Total Productive Degraded Total Forest Forest Forest Forest High forest 11.92 7.70 19.62 1,506.13 33.69 1,539.82 Coppice forest 0.79 1.94 2.72 60.00 11.95 71.95 Total 12.70 9.64 22.34 1,566.13 45.65 1,611.77 19. Forest Inventory Results 2015. Forest management and Planning Department, General Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, Ankara. 20. High forest refers to forests which originate from seed and are managed on a long rotation to produce sawlogs. Coppice is where the forest is regenerated from shoots arising from the cut stumps of harvested trees. Coppicing usually produces many stems per stump, and is usually managed on shorter rotations for firewood or other lower quality products. 21. State of Europe’s Forests 2011. Status and Trends in Sustainable Forest Management in Europe. FOREST EUROPE Liaison Unit Oslo. 28 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 3 FOREST COVER OF TURKEY TABLE 2 ANNUAL INCREMENT TABLE 3 AVERAGE ANNUAL Annual Increment (million m3) INCREMENT PER HECTARE Forest Type Productive Degraded Total Annual Increment (million m3) Forest Forest Forest Type Productive Degraded Total High forest 42.32 1.48 43.81 Forest Forest Coppice forest 1.51 0.59 2.10 High forest 3.55 0.19 2.23 Total 43.83 2.07 45.90 Coppice forest 1.93 0.30 0.77 Conifers 29.43 1.05 30.48 Total 3.45 0.21 2.05 Broadleaves 14.40 1.02 15.42 Total 43.83 2.07 45.90 The total annual volume increment is estimated as (excluding Russia Federation) of 5.4 m3 per ha. 45.90 million m3, with high forest accounting for Where there are favorable growing conditions, fast- 43.81 million m3 or 95 percent (Table 2). Conifers, growing plantations can achieve annual growth both in productive and degraded forests, have by rates up to 20 m3 per ha. The annual average far the greatest increment totaling 40.02 million increment has shown an increasing trend from 1.39 m3. The average annual increment is 2.05 m3 per ha m3 per ha in 1973 to today’s value of 2.05 m3 per (Table 3). This compares with a European average ha. The annual allowable cut (AAC) is circa 18 - Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 29 20 million m3 or approximately 44 percent of the 2.2 The Legislative, Policy and increment. This compares with a European Union Institutional Framework average of 73 percent for fellings as a percentage of increment. The AAC does not include fellings in 2.2.1 Forest Policy and Strategy young stands or extraordinary fellings (windblow, fire, disease outbreak etc.) which typically average The general economic and social development 4-5 million m3. Total fellings represent circa 54 policy in Turkey is defined by the Ministry of percent of annual increment. Development which, following broad stakeholder consultations, develops the country policy for the Broadleaf forests are prevalent along northern most important sectors of the economy including Turkey. Coniferous forests, depending on the forestry through the National Development Plan. species and locations, are found at varying altitudes from sea level to the timber line. Forest formations The main forestry policy documents are the Tenth of the country include species belonging to Development Plan (2014-2018), the National different floristic regions, namely Irano-Turanion, Forestry Program (2004-2023), the Strategic Plan Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian. Conifers of the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (2013- represent 67 percent of the total forest area . 2017) and the General Directorate of Forestry’s The main species are oaks (Quercus spp) (26.3 Strategic Plan (2013-2017). These documents percent), Brutia pine (25.1 percent), Pinus nigra address numerous issues ranging from forest (19.0 percent), beech (8.5 percent), Scots pine (6.8 protection, to sustainable production of industrial percent), juniper (4.3 percent), firs (2.6 percent), wood and fuel wood to meet domestic demand, and cedar (2.2 percent) as shown in Figure 4. non-wood forest products, rehabilitation and reclamation of degraded forest areas, national parks and protected areas, the protection of FIGURE 4 SPECIES PERCENTAGE OF wildlife, supply of ecosystem and social services, TOTAL FOREST AREA and rural development. 0.4% The Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs 2.2% 1.6% 0.2% 2.6% (MFWA) is responsible for preparation of plans for 4.3% combating desertification and erosion and carrying 1.5% 26.3% 6.8% out activities concerning protected areas, national parks and hunting. The General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) within the MFWA is responsible for integration of the policy and supervision of the 8.5% implementation. The objectives of the National Forestry Program (NFP) are to contribute to: (1) The establishment of 25.1% appropriate institutional capacities and mechanisms 19.0% to deal with forestry subjects in a broader perspective through sustainable development; (2) The improvement of adaptation and linkages between forestry and other sectors; (3) The Oaks Brutia pine Pinus nigra improvement of awareness, interest, participation, Beech Scots pine Juniper support and contributions of community and Fir Cedar Other species stakeholders regarding the importance of stable Spruce Chestnut Alder and sustainable development of the country; (4) Strengthen the support for the rehabilitation of multiple-use forests by improving the multi- 30 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 4 EXAMPLE OF STRATEGIC PLAN TARGETS - ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE Planned Indicator 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Road Density (m/ha) 10.76 10.87 11.10 11.20 11.23 11.34 11.46 Standard Forest Roads (km) 231,825 240,836 240,878 243,000 241,825 244,325 246,825 functional and participative forest resources the availability of suitable infrastructure while the management, and improvement of the living delivery of services requires that forest roads meet standards in the forest villages in or in the vicinity specific standards for their utilization. of the forests where poverty and dependency on the forests are the reality; and (5) Strengthen For each specific target the unit or department financial support (National and International) for within GDF which is responsible is clearly identified. forestry activities. There are procedures in place for monitoring performance and progress against the targets The GDF’s strategic plan (2013-2017) sets out together with identified annual costs associated the overall mission which is “To protect forests with each target and performance indicator. The and forest resources against any type of risks, costs for the targets are met by GDF Special develop them under an environmentally friendly Budget (Treasury assistance and own revenues) understanding and manage them as part of the and the Revolving Fund Budget (sales of forest ecosystem integrity and in such a manner which products and other revenue sources). They do not will provide the public with multi-directional include staff costs and statutory payments which sustainable benefits”. are included in the general management costs of the GDF. The total cost is 25,784 million TL over the The four strategic objectives are to (1) protect the period of the plan of which 12,442 million TL will be forests and areas qualifying as forests as well as their financed by the Special Budget and the remaining biodiversity against any kind of biotic and abiotic 13,343 million TL from Revolving funds. pests, (2) develop the existing forests, increase their efficiency and expand their area, (3) meet Overall the policy and strategy are well defined and the developing and changing expectations of the based on an analysis of the national and international public for the goods and services produced by the context, there are procedures in place to monitor forests optimally and (4) ensure the institutional performance against plan and funding sources are development for providing the sustainable forest identified. The strategic planning process includes management, offering faster and higher quality specific measures for participation of stakeholders, services and attaining the designated strategic both external and internal, in line with the provisions objectives. of the “General Principles” indicated in Article 5 of the Regulation on the procedures and principles Under each strategic objective, the plan sets out for Strategic Planning. in detail the basic strategies to be undertaken together with specific targets and performance 2.2.2 Legislation indicators for each year. Thus under the strategic objective to protect forests there is a target to Table 5 shows the chronology (starting with the improve the existing forestry infrastructure and most recent) of the passing of various acts and to standardize the road network as effective legal arrangements. protection and management is dependent upon Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 31 TABLE 5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK Laws and legal arrangements (national, Year regional, global) Topic and issues addressed 1995- present UNCED, IPF/IFF, CBD, CCD, • Taking part in regional and global processes related to forestry Pan-European Process, dialogue for sustainable development of society; Near East process, C&I for • Seeking ways to involve more public interest in forestry, forest SFM etc. management and nature protection; Law No 4122 • Amendments and/or additions to existing legislation through Law No 3800 incorporating increased public needs and multi-functional benefits of forest resources. 1983-1988 Amendments/additions and • Increases in forest-based subsidies as in kind and credit basis; changes of forest and forest • New arrangements for encouragement of village co-operatives related legislation mainly on in private afforestation and private forest establishment; Forest Law No 6831 • Co-operation Programs with agencies other than forestry and village co-operatives on development efforts for forest villages. 1983 National Parks Law No 2873 • Considering the environmental and landscape dimensions of forests; • Establishing more natural parks and protected forest areas, particularly in mountain ecosystems. 1969-1973 Forest Village Development • The first Ministry of Forestry established; Fund • The Forest Village Affairs General Directorate established; Law No 1744 • Special fund for village development developed; • District level development plans provided for forest villages; • Mechanisms for more credit and grants to forest villages and village co-operatives. 1956 Forest Law 6831 • Establishing the foundation for today’s forestry concept; • Efficient protection and production mechanisms; • Multiple management of forest resources; • Concessions for forest dependent villages and village co- operatives. 1937 Forest Law 3116 • First comprehensive forestry regulation; • Recognition of the importance/influence of forest dependent people on good forest management; • Timber- based forest production and oriented forest practices; • Setting up scientific and technical based forestry approach. 1921-1924 Wood cutting Law • Only fuelwood production considered; Usufruct Law • Forestry organization began to grow and develop; • Regulation on fuelwood utilization. 1862-1869 Forest Status • Primitive forest regulation, decisions and commands mainly on fuelwood utilization from forests; • Sultanates’ wood-based needs; • Foundation of the first directorate of forestry. The country’s first forestry decree was enacted in national parks (1983). A major amendment to forest 1920 under the Ottoman Empire and adopted by the management regulations was adopted in 2008, Republic of Turkey (1923) which later developed the and various other pieces of subsidiary legislation first Forest Code in 1937. The current main Forest are in place, such as those concerning afforestation Law was adopted in 1956 and has been amended (2003) and forest cadaster (2004). A more several times. Provisions concerning forestry are complete list of relevant legislation, regulations also found in other pieces of principal legislation, and international conventions and processes is such as the laws on nationalization of forests (1945), provided in Appendices 1 and 2. on maquis (1950), on forest village development (1983), on ranges (1998), on improvement of wild The 1982 Constitution of Turkey is a significant olive trees (1939) on afforestation (1995)22 and on source of substantive forestry law. Articles 169 22. Cirelli, M.T. (2013) Forestry Legislation in Azerbaijan, Central Asian Countries and Turkey - Common issues and guidelines for reform. FAO, Rome. 32 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note of the Constitution states that (a) irrespective overlapping institutional roles. The Ministry of Food, of ownership, all forests are under control of the Agriculture and Livestock claims that the internal and State, (b) ownership of the State Forests cannot be external quarantine services are under its mandate. transferred and these forests are run by the State, (c) However, Articles 2 and 7 of Decree-Law No. 645 general and/or special amnesty for Forest Offences provide that the Directorate General of Forestry cannot be arranged, (d) forest borders cannot be is responsible for establishing the principles for reduced except in special circumstances and (e) the protecting the health of forest plants, for issuing of State, in order to protect and improve the forests health certificates and executing forest quarantine takes necessary precautions and legislates. services. Protection of the health of forests should be the responsibility of Directorate General of Forestry. An Environment Law was adopted in 1983 and extensively revised in 2006, while a law on bio- The principal elements of modern the modern forest safety was adopted in 2010. A law on national legislative framework are presented in Figure 5. parks has been in place since 1983. The Terrestrial Hunting Law was adopted in 2003. The law on land reform was adopted in 2005. There are also laws on tourism encouragement (1982) and on the FIGURE 5 FOREST REGULATORY protection of cultural and natural assets (1983). FRAMEWORK The GDF enforces the Forest Law and its officers may call on police, gendarmes, village headmen and other PROTECTION REGULATIONS law enforcement bodies to assist in the enforcement of forestry legislation. There is no regime of forest Environment and Local Resources guards as is the case in some European countries. Only Biodiversity Utilisation GDF forest officers may undertake the prosecution of forest offences by writing official reports. Powers Nature and Cultutal and granted to them are extensive, including that of Landscape Spiritual Values entering households without a warrant, if it not possible to immediately obtain one. The Forest Code is wide ranging and addresses the definition of forests, categories of forest, forest LAND USE REGULATIONS management and protection, forest improvement, development of forest villages, extinguishing of forest fires, forest pastures, penalties and a reforestation Zoning of Establishment of Forest Land New Forests fund. It does not address the harvesting of or rights to non-wood forest products and lacks specific provisions around a national forest inventory and Protection of Control of Felling sustainable forest management. Forests Estate Within the framework of Articles 16, 17 and 18 of the Forest Law, the use of forest land for other purposes (transportation, energy, communication, etc.) is UTILISATION REGULATIONS allowed. There have been minor changes in Articles 31 and 32 reflecting changes in forest villages and Wood Protection of Soil changes to Article 34 to reflect the changed status of Production & Water Resources some villages following the 2014 Municipal Law. The GDF together with representatives from Ministry of Agriculture and Food and Ministry of Environment Non-Wood Recreational Products Uses have recently initiated work to identify and redress Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 33 The regulatory framework for forestry in Europe the environment or nature, rural or mountain area and worldwide is becoming increasingly complex development, subsidies or other forms of support due to a variety of reasons but principally a to economic activities.23 combination of: The main Turkish legislation in forestry was framed • Global, regional and international agreements over half a century ago and although subject to many that impact on forestry; amendments in the intervening years suffers from a • Increased recognition in national forest policies number of deficiencies. Many of these were recognized and strategies (NFPSs) of the multiple functions in the National Forestry Program (NFP) adopted in of forests; 2004 including: (a) lack of uniformity in the text of the • Interaction between forestry and related Forest Law due to repeated changes and amendments; sectors; and (b) imprecise definition of forests; (c) private sector • Changes in how society perceives and values largely ignored; (d) insufficient importance given to forests. Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs); and, (f) overlap and conflict with other legislation. Other areas where In countries where the principal forestry the law can be improved relate to the incorporation legislation has not been replaced or amended, of SFM, user rights for NWFPs, methods of sale for new developments have come from laws adopted wood-based forest products and support for initiatives separately, such as legislation on the protection of within the sector. 23. Cirelli, M.T., and Schmithüsen, F., 2000: Trends in Forestry Legislation: Western Europe. FAO Papers online #10, FAO Development Law Service. (http://www.fao.org). 34 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 6 MINISTRY OF FORESTRY AND WATER AFFAIRS Minister Head of Inspection and Guidance Deputy Minister Undersecretary Head Internal Audit Turkish Water Institute (SUEN) Deputy Deputy Deputy Deputy Undersecretary Undersecretary Undersecretary Undersecretary Gen Dir Nature Gen Dir Combating Department of Legal Services Protection and Desertification Strategy National Parks and Erosion Dept Press and Department of EU Gen Dir Water Gen Directorate Public Relations & Foreign Relations Management Forestry Dept Training and Department of Publications Support Services Gen Dir State Hydraulic Works Gen Directorate Department of Meteorology Personnel Regional Directorates Department of IT Framework legislation on nature protection, Figure 6. The GDF is established as a corporate the national biodiversity strategy and action body and is in responsible for almost all sustainable plan still have to be adopted. The draft Nature forest management activities, including forest Protection Law is not in line with the EU acquis. management planning, production and marketing If adopted without implementing legislation, the of forest products, the management of forest law would repeal the National Parks Law, causing fires, insects and diseases, forest regeneration and a legal vacuum.24 The recent FAO report on forest rehabilitation, road construction and maintenance, legislation25 notes that identifying lands to be made forest cadaster, urban forests, recreation areas, perpetually subject to the forestry regime by law ecosystem services, reforestation/afforestation, may be very difficult, as the evolution of society erosion control, watershed management, range inevitably brings about needs for other (possibly improvement and support to forest communities conflicting) land uses. and enforcement. 2.2.3 Forest Institutions The structure of the GDF is shown schematically as Figure 7, and the functions and role in Box 1. The General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) under the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (MFWA) is the main institution in the sector, as shown in 24. European Commission Turkey Progress Report October 2014. 25. Cirelli, M.T. (2013) Forestry Legislation in Azerbaijan, Central Asian Countries and Turkey - Common issues and guidelines for reform. FAO, Rome. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 35 FIGURE 7 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE - GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF FORESTRY Deputy General Directors (5) General Director CENTRAL UNITS REGIONAL UNITS SERVICE CONSULTATIVE AUXILLARY Regional Research UNITS & SUPERVISORY UNITS Directorates (27) Institutes (12) Pest Control Inspection Human Board Resources Management Nursery Office Chief Wild Fires Directorates Directorates Engineers Admin + (243) (28) (86) Internal Audit Finance Cadastre For Mgmt Nursery Office Chief Admin Ext Relat Chiefs (1376) Chiefs (9) Research Legal Office Planning Training Engineers Research Nursery (10) Chief Marketing Strategy Chiefs (9) Engineers Development Inform. (292) Silviculture Systems Forestation Soil Chiefs Forestation (188) Directorates (4) Soil + Basin Other Office Improvement Chiefs (132) Nurseries Rural Affairs Civil Works The GDF is a large organization and in 2016 the Research Institutes address national issues (a) employed 39,028 staff including 17,843 civil poplars and fast growing species, (b) tree and seed servants, 11,954 permanent workers, 8,325 improvement and (c) forest soil and ecology. The temporary workers with the balance comprising remaining nine operate at the regional level. Under contracted and temporary staff. Some 970 are the Regional Directorates there are a total of 245 employed in the headquarters in Ankara. Staff Management Directorates or Forest Districts and numbers have increased by 18.3 percent since below these 1,419 Offices of Forest Management 2007 or at an annual rate of 2.6 percent. The GDF Chiefs or Forests and 156 Offices dealing with is organized along classic forestry organizational forestation and soil preservation and 310 Offices lines with a headquarters comprising service, of other types of chiefs connected to the Forest consultative / supervisory and auxiliary units and Districts. Nurseries are regionally based within the Regional Directorates (28) and Research Institutes Regional Directorates. (12) all reporting to the headquarters. Three of 36 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note BOX 1: ROLE OF GDF To manage forest resources together with their flora and fauna in an ecologically integrated fashion by taking into account their ecological (climate change, water, recreational etc.), economic, social and cultural values; To plan forest resources in a participatory and multi-purpose approach, to protect them against any illegal interventions, natural disasters and fires; to combat invasive pests, To carry out and develop forestry quarantine services; to increase forest area and services provided from forests; to restore and rehabilitate forests and to ensure silvicultural maintenance and regeneration of forests, To designate recreational areas, urban forests, research forests and arboretum, protective areas for biological diversity, model and protective forests and to conserve and sustainably manage these areas, To carry out activities such as afforestation and erosion control, rehabilitation of rangelands, combating desertification, floods and avalanche control in any area within forests and outside forests; to develop and implement integrated watershed projects, To grow seeds, seedlings, shrubs and forest plants, undertake plant health activities, establish and manage permanent and/or temporary nurseries, To carry out research and development, inventory, projects related to its services, implement relevant projects and disseminate the outcomes nationally and internationally, To define technical and administrative principles related to issues within its authority and establish laboratories regarding its field of activities. TABLE 6 EMPLOYMENT IN GDF Year Civil Contracted Permanenet Temporary Temporary Total Servants Staff Workers Workers Staff 2007 15,014 873 14,117 2,980 - 32,984 2009 14,910 868 13,862 3,201 - 32,841 2011 17,499 164 15,584 5,292 528 39,067 2013 18,525 168 14,270 7,214 481 40,658 2014 18,132 164 14,279 8,445 658 41,678 2015 18,073 161 13,413 8,537 733 40,917 2016 17,843 165 11,954 8,325 741 39,028 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 37 The MFWA also includes the General Directorate of Specific institutional arrangements for private Combating Desertification and Erosion (GDCDE), afforestation includes the “Division for Private the General Directorate of Nature Conservation Afforestation”, “Division for Private Afforestation and National Parks (GDNCNP), the General Permits” “Credits and Supervision Division” under Directorate of Water Management (GDWM) and the Afforestation Department of the GDF. These the General Directorate of Meteorology (GDM). units are in charge of central level planning, The GDCDE prior to the reorganization in 2011 was coordination, monitoring, assessment and reporting called the General Directorate of Afforestation and of the private afforestation implementation and Erosion and undertook afforestation and erosion achievements. control activities. Now the GDCDE is responsible for creating and monitoring plans and projects to State Forest Institutions Role and Organization combat desertification and erosion; controlling The functions of the state in relation to forestry fall avalanche, landslide and flood; integrated basin under four main headings: rehabilitation as well as making national and regional plans, and determining policies and 1. Regulatory – formulating forest policy and strategies for improving water basins on the basis drafting the related legal acts necessary for its of basin integrity in order to conserve soil and to implementation (preferably in an open process improve natural resources. The GDCDE works involving stakeholders and interest groups); mainly in forestry related fields and supports the 2. Supervisory – enforcement and control over sustainable development, expansion of forests and compliance with the law and the related rehabilitation of degraded forest and other lands statutory acts in all forests irrespective of the throughout the country. It has a headquarters with form of ownership; four main departments and 20 branch divisions. 3. Support – actions undertaken by the state and The GDCDE has no budget for remedial works apart its institutions and, or with the financial support from specific projects financed by exceptional from the state to ensure maintenance of the sources other than MWFA. Thus the rehabilitation forest’s long-term functions and promote the of degraded forest lands and other remedial works development of the private sector; and are paid and implemented by GDF. 4. Ownership – management of the state-owned forest property in a manner to retain and The GDNCNP has responsibility for the planning, increase its value and yield profit to its owner, arrangement and improvement of national parks, i.e. the state, while providing for the realization natural parks, natural monuments and, protected of the forest’s ecological and social functions as wildlife reserves as well as preservation of approved by society. plant and animal species of the country. It has a headquarters with seven departments and 41 The World Bank review26 of state forest branch divisions responsible for national parks, institutions drew attention to the wide range of nature protection, fragile areas, wildlife, hunting organizational models including integrated state management and biodiversity and ten regionally forest and management administrations, such based National Park Directorates. Countrywide the as in Turkey, which retain responsibilities for all MFWA has 15 regional Directorates, 81 provincial functions, including the establishment of policy branch directorates, 10 national park directorates and legislation, forest management, roundwood and 105 District offices. It has a staff of 1,784 of sales, and forest inspection with funding from the which 233 are administrative, 578 technical and state budget. Revenues from roundwood sales 973 classed as support staff dealing with the and from other services are transferred back to duties of the GDNCNP. A significant proportion of the state. However, increasingly common is the GDNCNP activities takes place on forested land establishment of separate forest administration and it interacts closely with the GDF. and forest management organizations. The forest administration has responsibility for policy, 26. World Bank (2005). Forest Institutions in Transition: Experiences and Lessons from Eastern Europe. Washington, DC. 38 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 8 BEST PRACTICE FOREST INSTITUTIONS Ministry of Agriculture / Environment / Natural Resources ADVISORY Board Forest Consultative Forum Forest Administration State Forest Enterprise Auditor CONTROL OF FOREST MANAGEMENT FINANCIAL CONTROL legislation, regulation and some public goods Elements identified as being part of best practice functions, which are all financed by the state successful institutional reforms in forest sector budget. A separate state forest management include27: organization is responsible for timber sales and forest management activities and may depend on 1. Remove direct links (administrative, financial) sales revenues for its funding. In other countries, between entities responsible for public functions a state forest administration retains responsibility and state forest management in order to: primarily for planning, guiding and monitoring a. Eliminate potential conflicts of interest; and forest management in state and private forests as b. Ensure independence, transparency and well as for other public functions such as extension neutrality of public forest administration. services and research, while harvesting and/or forest management is carried out by the private 2. Increase productivity and efficiency through: sector under concession arrangements. a. Establishing an independent budget for the entity managing state forests with well-defined Institutional arrangements that have proved obligations towards state budget; and successful in one country can create both b. Development of salary schemes which positive and negative impacts for other countries. are based on staff performance to reduce Understanding the country context (political, incentive for corruption. economic, cultural, social and forests) is vitally important. The separation of supervisory and 3. Ensure effective operational control over State ownership is seen as a safeguard against over- Forest Enterprise: exploitation of the forest resource and its misuse. a. Require transparent budget procedures and However merely separating the functions does not accounting systems matching corporate of itself guarantee an improved result. standards; 27. Institutional Changes in Forest Management in Countries with Transition Economies: Problems and Solutions. Moscow, Russia 25 February 2003 Workshop Proceedings, PROFOR, World Bank. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 39 b. Assign responsibility for controlling forest and is used by some state forest enterprises to harvesting and management to state forest establish performance based on financial statistics administration; and – turnover, profit, earnings before interest and tax c. Arrange financial auditing through accredited (EBIT), return on investment (ROI). third party auditors. A simple benchmarking exercise comparing the GDF 4. Ensure strategic control over state forest 2014 outturn with state owned forest organizations management: in Ireland, Poland and Romania shows that the GDF a. Establish a management board to supervise is the only loss making (loss is equivalent to the the activities of the entity managing state Special budget contribution) entity and the only forests, including representatives from organization not paying the state a dividend for the government, as well as professionals with use of the forest asset. While the business ethos qualifications in forestry, environmental across these four organizations differ with the conservation and corporate management GDF having a more social remit, the benchmarking does show that the GDF forest increment, growing A simplified organogram showing the split between stock and harvested volume per employee are on supervisory and ownership functions is provided in average less than their counterparts. In contrast Figure 8. GDF has the highest forest area per employee. State Forest Institutions - Benchmarking 2.2.4 Stakeholders The GDF is a large centrally controlled organization that essentially sets its own targets, monitors itself The inhabitants of the settlements and communities, in terms of performance, audits itself through an in and/or near the forest areas, which are generally internal audit and reports on itself to Government called “forest villages” (approx. population of 7.08 and the public. It does not benchmark itself million forest dependent people) are the most against other state forest organizations. The World affected beneficiary stakeholders in the forestry Bank report noted that benchmarking based sector in Turkey. on financial data is relatively straightforward, TABLE 7 BENCHMARKING Description Coillte Ireland Lasy Panstwowe RomSilva GDF Turkey 2014 Poland 2013 Romania 2013 2014 Turnover per employee (US$) 354,888 80,894 19,404 27,299 Timber revenue per employee (US$) 68,944 71,172 14,958 19,362 Timber revenue per hectare (US$) 161 243 110 37 Profit/loss per employee (US$) 45,641 8,985 1,361 -12,056 Profit/loss per hectare (US$) 106 31 8 -23 Forest tax/dividend (US$) 4,320,000 45,191,175 3,969,095 Forest tax/dividend per hectare (US$) 11.10 6.21 1.23 Forest area per employee (ha) 429 293 177 520 Harvested volume per employee (m3) 2,775 1,421 526 528 Growing stock per employee (m3) 67,512 72,321 77,164 35,857 Increment per employee (m3) 5,184 3,730 992 1,012 Protected are per employee (ha) 176 113 57 48 40 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 8 FOREST CADASTRE COVERAGE Target Indicator 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Cumulative area where cadaste 18,860 19,117 19,592 20,775 21,850 23,000 - concluded ('000ha) Cumulative area where registration 12,281 16,250 16,750 16,950 17,800 18,860 20,100 concluded ('000ha) The largest stakeholder in the forest sector is the are excluded from the forest area or where the Central Union of Forest Villagers Cooperative borders are finalized, under Article 2 of the Forestry (ORKOOP) with 2,493 affiliated cooperatives Law.28 Once the forest cadaster and physical and 318,005 members throughout the country application are completed, problems arising from of which 1,448 and 193,255 are forestry based both the registration of Land Registry and Cadaster respectively. The Chamber of Forest Engineers Directorate General and immovable properties with 13 regional branches and over 14,000 remaining within forest boundaries are resolved. members is a representative body focusing on the problems and issues facing the forestry profession Disputes between DGF and citizens concerning the and its members. The Chamber provides facilities ownership and use of areas restricted as forest as for occupational training of foresters and makes a result of forest cadaster have decreased. While recommendations on forestry practices of the the forest cadaster has been going on for many state forestry service. years, the introduction and use of satellite imagery, aerial photography and geographical information There are also unions of civil servants and the systems has both helped in defining boundaries in Unions of Forest Workers as affiliated branches in a fast and sound manner as well as in the resolution the forestry sector under the related country level of disputes. At the end of 2016 the forest cadaster unions and confederations. The worker’s unions has been completed for circa 23 million ha and the represent the rights of permanent and temporary registration for circa 18.86 million ha. forest workers of which there are an estimated 25,000. The Forest Products Exporters, Importers 2.3 Forest Monitoring, and Manufacturers Association (TORiD) represents the interests of the forest industry. There are a Evaluation and Research number of NGOs active in the sector including the TEMA Foundation, Foundation for Protection 2.3.1 Forest Management of Natural Life (DHKV), Foundation for Turkey’s Nature Protection (TTKD), Turkey Foresters Management planning dates back to 1917 when Community (TOD), Association of Green Turkey the first management plan was prepared by Foresters (AGTF) and the Nature Protection a team of Turkish and Australian engineers. Centre (NPC). Management plans covering the entire national forests were completed between 1963 and 1972 2.2.5 Forest Cadaster and from then onwards management plans have been updated periodically. While the focus of the Forestry cadaster covers operations and procedures earlier management plans was primarily on timber to establish sound forest borders, taking on board production, current management plans are a any forest restrictions or cadastral procedures balance of ecological, economic, social and cultural previously imposed or through newly enacted laws functions of forests subject to the understanding and to procure registration for those areas that of ecosystem based functional planning. Each 28. Article 2b defines those areas which may be removed from the forest cadastre. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 41 FIGURE 9 FOREST MANAGEMENT PLANNING PROCESS Satellite and aerial Bordering forest sub-district Drafting the stand map Locating the sample plots photo interpretation (planning unit) on the map Drawing the compartments Field work: forest inventory Preparing the stand map Data entry and evaluation Creating the final report and tables Thematic Maps plan identifies the growing stock in forest areas, now regionally based, and specialized private volumes and areas for roundwood and Non management teams. This planning process is Wood Forest Product (NWFP) harvesting, water well documented including procedures for plot resources protection, erosion control, rehabilitation, sampling and their layout. afforestation and pasture. Functional forestry management plans were initiated in 2005 and are A significant portion of Turkey’s very rich gradually being rolled out across the GDF forest biodiversity enjoying global significance is estate. Figure 9 describes the current management located in forest areas and the preservation and planning process. improvement of this biodiversity constitutes one of the fundamental conditions for sustainable According to Articles 26, 46 and 51 of the Forest management of the forests. The Forest Law, all forests are required to have management Management and Planning Department within GDF plans. Forest management plans are prepared and has recently started to integrate biological diversity implemented in GDF at the level of the individual into forest management plans. In collaboration Forestry Management Chief Office, which is the with universities, research institutes and NGOs, smallest management unit, for a term of 10 - 20 model plans had been completed on an estimated years. Management planning is undertaken by 909,557 ha to the end of 2016. Forestry Management Chief Offices, which are 42 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 9 FUNCTIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT PLANS Target Indicator 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Functional Forest Management Plans ('000 ha) 9,873 10,779 13.780 16.644 19,658 21,420 22,500 Related public institutions, NGOs, educational commitments. National forest policy requires institutions, municipalities, forest-related trade accurate, timely and comprehensive information. organizations and co-operatives are notified officially Turkey started national forest inventory work in a year in advance before the commencement of 2016 and intends to complete forest inventory management planning in the particular forest area. within the next three years. Information is provided on the general objectives of the management plan to be made in the district The GDF did undertake a pilot NFI project in 2009 and also includes questions on the expectations and which focused on the initial inventory design and demands, investment programs, if any, and how to methodology and this could be used as the starting interact them with the forests. There is opportunity point for any future NFI. The purpose of the NFI for stakeholder involvement during the data field would be to record and assess the extent and inventory collection phase. Management plans are nature of Turkey’s forests, both public and private, not subject to any period of public consultation in a timely, accurate and reproducible manner to before they are approved internally at headquarter enable the sustainable development of the country’s level within GDF. The related unit within the forest resource. Reliable, current and consistent headquarters supervises the preparation of forest information is required to inform domestic forest management plans. policy, to support forest research and fulfil national and international reporting commitments. The management plans for private forests can either be prepared by the GDF or by forest engineers in the 2.3.3 Forest Research, Evaluation private sector approved by the Chamber of Forest and Technology Engineers. The private FMPs are approved by GDF. The Forestry Research Master Plan (FRMP) is the 2.3.2 National Forest Inventory basic instrument for the organization and planning of forest research projects / studies. The first National forest inventories based on statistical (FRMP) for 1995-1998 was revised in 1999 for the sampling methods began in the early part of the period 2000-2005. twentieth century but are now the norm with the majority of European countries undertaking sample- Research proposals for the various disciplines/ based National Forest Inventories (NFIs). While the branches and field units of the GDF are collated primary purpose of the original NFIs was to provide and evaluated on an annual basis through specific accurate information on growing stock and wood meetings as for example Technical Council, Expert volumes for industry and investment planning, Working Groups from related branches of the in more recent times the scope of NFIs has been forestry sector and representatives from the extended to include information on biodiversity, Ministry of Development, Scientific and Technology environmental services, forest carbon, forest health, Research Foundation of Turkey (TUBITAK) etc. naturalness and non-timber attributes. Forestry research activities are carried out by the Turkey does not have a National Forest Inventory 12 forestry research institute directorates, of which and relies on the amalgamation of information from three serve on a nationwide basis and nine serve on forest management plans to provide data on forest a regional basis as well as by the forestry faculties, resources at a national level for policy, planning and other universities and NGOs. for data to comply with its international reporting Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 43 As of end-2016, there were 230 ongoing research It will be important to update the FRMP to address projects including 33 new projects. While interim climate change and to undertake appropriate results have been obtained from 5 of these, 42 research and studies if suitable strategies and projects have been completed and 25 projects measures are to be developed. were started to be implemented. 2.4 Forest Management Activities All forestry related research studies are funded by the annual budget of the GDF with limited funds for 2.4.1 General specific research projects allocated by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey Forests are divided into compartments along (TUBITAK) and the Ministry of Development. natural lines, and are regulated and managed by the forest operation chief’s offices. The majority Areas of recent research include protection, (98 percent) of state owned forests are managed development and expansion of natural forests, based on the age class forest management system. development of forestation, wood and non- There are also some uneven-aged forests which wood forest products, pasture improvement, are managed according to “diameter class” forest improvement of agro-forestry and silva-pastoral management method and which consist mainly of systems. Under the Strategic Plan, research firs (Abies spp). The existing practice is to convert projects are being implemented in the areas coppice forests (12 percent) to high forests. of tree improvement, erosion control, pasture improvement, bio-diversity and social forestry as 2.4.2 Forest Protection well as in other subjects. Approximately 12.5 million ha of the 22.34 million The GDF Strategic Plan recognizes that there is ha national forest estate is located in regions highly inadequate information and ongoing research on sensitive to wild fires. Over the period 2000-2013 the effects of climate change and air pollution on inclusive, some 139,296 ha were burned with an forests and that the adverse effects of climate average of 4.5 ha damaged per fire. The factors change in particular in the future is likely to increase. affecting fire behavior include meteorology, tree FIGURE 10 FOREST FIRES – AREA BURNED BY YEAR 30,000 25,000 Area Burned (ha) 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year 44 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note species, fuel load, density, stacking method and (b) extinguishing (early warning, rapid and topography. Very successful results have been effective intervention) and (c) rehabilitation (rapid achieved in combating fires in recent years with reforestation of burnt areas). only 3,218 ha of forest burned in 2,150 fires in 2015 and 3,117 ha of forest burned in 2,149 fires in 2014. The GDF undertake a range of preventative Despite the extreme weather conditions in 2016, measures including public awareness campaigns, 9,156 ha of forest area was affected from 3,188 fires. preparation of fire action plans, enhancement In 2016, some 10 percent of fires were due to natural of early warning and decision support systems, causes, 5 percent were intentional, 31 percent were controlled burning to mitigate risk, development due to negligence and the cause of the remaining of fire risk models, construction of fire prevention 54 percent is unknown. facilities and regular training delivery. Pursuant to Article 69 of Forest Law, men aged Turkey’s forests are subject to attack by circa 50 between 18 and 50 must participate in fire control harmful insects. The most important of these are and extinguishing efforts in the surrounding villages bark-cambium and wood beetles (Ips sexdentatus, and towns. The administration (GDF) must provide Ips typographus and Dendroctonus micans) transport or reimburse the cost of such acts and pay (Tomicus piniperda, Tomicus minor, Orthotomicus compensation in case of injury or death. Except in tridentatus, Orthotomicus erasus) pests attacking specified areas, starting fires in forests, or burning leaves (Diprion pini, Thaumetopoea pityocampa, any vegetation within 4 km of the boundaries of Lymantria dispar, Acleris undulana) and insects forests is prohibited. During times of very high risk attacking sprouts and shoots (Rhyacionia of fire, the highest civilian authorities in the region buoliana, Dryocosmus kuriphilus). Pest infestations may restrict or suspend access to forests or any vary depending on prevailing soil, climatic and activities in forests upon request of the forestry environmental conditions and can lead to substantial administration (GDF). losses. Extraordinary (sanitary) fellings average between 300-400,000 m3 annually but can be in There are three elements to GDF’s fire strategy: excess of 1 million m3 in cases of serious outbreaks. (a) prevention (education, awareness raising), FIGURE 11 FOREST AREA TREATED AGAINST PESTS 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 Chemical Bio-technical 100,000 Mechanical Biological 0 2002-06 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Year Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 45 FIGURE 12 ILLEGAL HARVESTING (M3) BY YEAR, 2000 – 2016 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 Volume m3 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year Between 500,000 to 600,000 ha of forests alien invasive organisms in national forests. In this are treated against pests each year using a framework, through the Forest Plants, Seeds and combination of chemical, mechanical, bio-technical Forest Plant Products imported during the last 1 0 (pheromones) and biological control measures years, pests such as Ips typographus (spruce bark (Figure 11). Since 2002 the emphasis has been on beetle), Cylindracladium buxicola (boxwood blight the more widespread use of biological control disease), Dryocosmus kuriphilis (chestnut gall wasp- measures and a reduction in chemical treatments. 2014), Pristiphora abietina (small  spruce  sawfly), Currently about 500,000 beneficial/predator Leptoglosus occidentalis (conifer seed bug) insects are grown under laboratory conditions and Anoplophora chinensis (citrus long-horned for use as biological control agents. In addition, beetle) have entered the country. A phytosanitary some 50,000 birds’ nests are erected and 150 certificate is required for timber not treated in the ants’ nests relocated annually. The aim is to reduce country, but not for reconstituted wood products, dependence on chemical control measures to 1.25 plywood, laminated veneer lumber or veneer. percent by 2017. Imported softwood logs must be debarked and hardwood logs fumigated. While measures against pests are well organized and a positive balance has been ensured in the Illegal harvesting is at a very low level and shows a health condition of forests, forests are increasingly decreasing trend over time (Figure 12). According coming under threat from pests coming in with to current official statistics about 20,000 m3 are imported products. These can occur on either illegally harvested annually with the number of imported packaging material or imported wood and incidents (crimes) varying between 3,000 to 4,000 wood products. The Ministry of Food, Agriculture averaging 5m3 per incident. The majority of this and Livestock (MFAL) is responsible for preventing volume is fuelwood at a local level and there is no the entry of alien invasive organisms and setting evidence to suggest organized illegal harvesting. up appropriate quarantine measures. However, the The illegal volume equates to less than 0.1 percent insufficiency of quarantine inspections conducted of the annual allowable cut or approximately 0.05 by agricultural engineers on forest plants and percent of annual increment. plant products has led to the detection of new 2016 TECHNICAL REPORT OF ICP FORESTS 46 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TREE CROWN CONDITION AND DAMAGE CAUSES In 2015, 44.9% of the plots were dominated by broadleaved and 55.1% by coniferous trees (Figure 3-1). This distribution illustrates the natural predominance of coniferous species in boreal and mountainous FIGURE 13 OBSERVATION AREA INSTALLATION POINTS IN ICP FOREST MEMBER regions as well as the preference of forest management for coniferous species outside their natural COUNTRIES distribution range. Figure 3-1. Distribution of Level I plots assessed in 2015 across the ICP Forests region and according to prevailing tree classification (broadleaves vs. conifers). In order to monitor the health and vitality of of forest rehabilitation. There is increased emphasis forests in Turkey, efforts were initiated within the on watershed-based activities and on trying to framework of International Cooperation Program support the development of rural communities for Monitoring and Evaluating the Impacts of through the planting of suitable (revenue earning) Air Pollution on Forests (ICP), and level -1 and tree species e.g. walnut, almond, olive and pistachio. level-2 programs based on intensive monitoring have been commissioned. Monitoring continues Included under afforestation is the establishment in a total of 6,000 level-1 observation areas in of industrial plantations, mainly of Brutia pine (P. 41 countries, including 850 in Turkey, and a total brutia) and Maritime | 25 pine (P. pinaster and formerly of 500 level-2 observation areas in 42 countries, P. maritima). The GDF has an action plan for these including 52 in Turkey. two species which foresees the establishment of 140,000 ha of Brutia pine and 20,000 ha of 2.4.2 Afforestation Maritime pine over the next twenty years. To date (at the end of the fourth year) a total of 19,338 ha Starting in 2002 some 4 million ha have been of industrial plantains have been established. These subject to some form of forestation intervention. two tree species are relatively high yielding and the The current annual program of approximately aim is to achieve yields of 15 to 18m3 per ha per year 250,000 ha includes 50,000 ha of afforestation, over the planned rotation lengths. Planting is on 80,000 ha of erosion control, 10,000 ha of sites with either productivity class I or II (bonitet) rehabilitation of alpine meadows and 105,000 ha and with a slope of less than 30 percent which Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 47 facilitates the use of machinery in cultivation. On maximum of 1 percent of forest area for roads and sites with no planned intermediate yields, planting this sets a limit of 20m per ha based on the current is 3m x 2m, otherwise planting is normally 3m x technical specification. However, when the volume 1.5m. Costs for establishment range from US$ 1,665 is greater than 250m3 per ha then the distance - 1,850 per ha (4,500 - 5,000 TL per ha) and the between roads can be 500m and this increases to machinery cultivation is outsourced. 1,000m when this volume threshold is not reached. Afforested areas are considered to be capable of The site requirements limit the extent to which reaching the 250m3 per ha threshold. Road density industrial plantations can be expanded in the is a significant factor in the accessibility of forest future to meet increasing demand from the wood stands and in the environmental impact of forest processing sector and especially the wood panels harvesting. A low density forest road network may sector. Of the 5 million ha potentially available for lead to higher than optimal harvesting levels near forestation works including degraded forests, only a roads, long and frequently very erodible extraction small proportion is suitable and the estimate varies tracks within the forest and areas of production from 400,000 ha to a maximum of 1 million ha. forest that are not harvested. Thus even if the 20-year action plan is completed, there is still significant potential to increase the Each forest operational unit has a forest road plan area under industrial plantations. which is based on existing infrastructure and future requirements not only for timber production but 2.4.3 Forest Roads also fire control, conservation and other activities. Planned roads require approval at both regional There are 246,491 km of forests roads equivalent and headquarters before construction can be to an average density of 11.3 m per ha of forest. To undertaken, the GDF has some road construction place this in perspective, average road density in capacity but outsources circa 70 percent of road Scandinavian countries is of the order of 15 to 17 construction through competitive tenders. In this m/ha29 while in Austria due to the mountainous instance they prepare a technical specification (TS) terrain the density is 45 m/ha30, in Romania it including implementing arrangement and health is circa 7-8 m/ha and France 26 m/ha.31 Roads and safety requirements. Local units monitor road are classed as primary or secondary (types A or construction activities and when completed are B) with type B secondary roads predominating. subject to a commission inspection which provides The main regulation for forest road planning and provisional approval with final approval a year later construction is Communication 292. This sets a if no difficulties have arisen in the interim. 29. Gerasimov Y, Senko S and Karjalainen T (2013) Prospects of forest road infrastructure development in northwest Russia with proven Nordic solutions. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research Volume 28, Issue 8, 2013 30. Ghaffariyan R, Stampfer K, Sessions J, Durston T, M. Kuehmaier M and Kanzian CH (2010). Road network optimization using heuristic and linear programming. Journal of Forest Science Vol 56, 2010 (3): 137–145 31. World Bank 2011. Functional Review of Forest Sector (Romania) unpublished 48 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 10 VOLUME OF TIMBER SOLD BY GDF (‘000 M3) Year Industrial Wood Fuel Wood Volume Villagers Volume Villagers Total Villagers 2012 14,424 74 4,825 2,504 19,249 2,578 2013 13,668 64 4,486 2,441 18,154 2,505 2014 14,923 80 3,943 2,265 18,866 2,345 2015 16,638 80 4,612 2,184 21,250 2,264 Note: Units are ‘000 m3 Dozers were used for slopes up to 50 percent with sales process. A recent initiative is the provision excavators on slopes greater than this or where a of a supply allocation to those enterprises with an large proportion of rocks. More recently contractors annual roundwood intake of 25,000 m3 or greater use excavators across all site types. During road in the fiber and chipboard and paper sectors which planning local stakeholders are consulted regarding collectively account for circa 30-35 percent of sales. the most appropriate route. Typically, the road Prices cannot be less than current market prices for survey is undertaken in year one with formation in the particular assortment / log mix. Standing sales year two and completion in year three. Construction are currently 20 percent of roundwood sales. costs vary with the terrain and typically range from US$ 7,400 to US$ 18,500 per km (20,000 The majority (95 percent) of harvesting operations to 50,000TL per km). While there is awareness of in GDF forests are undertaken by forest villagers the environmental impact of road construction e.g. and there is a legal obligation to offer this work to locating the road further up slope, there is no EIA villages. The technology used is basic with manual requirement and no best practice environmental felling / cross-cutting in the wood and extraction guidance. The general perception in the sector is to roadside using tractors (MB Trac or similar). The that road standards are appropriate but there is a harvesting price is set locally based on a combination need to improve construction techniques. of tree size, slope and distance according to a central approved methodology. The average harvesting 2.4.4 Wood Production and Sales cost for the GDF is circa US$  25.9 per m3 (70 TL per m3). This is considered high in comparison with The GDF is the dominant supplier of roundwood many European countries and this stems from the in Turkey and sells 18-21 million m3 annually. Of this technology and methods used. Haulage uses rigid approximately 6-7 million m3 is fuel-wood and 13-16 lorries and self-propelled loaders. In the event that million m3 industrial wood comprising 7 million m3 there is insufficient village labor capacity or if villagers wood used for fiber and chipboard sector, 5 million refuse to undertake the harvesting then the work can m3 sawlogs (mainly coniferous) and the balance is be offered to contractors. This practice, while having made up of other assortments e.g. poles, pit props a strong social objective, militates against the use of etc. Some 36 percent of fuelwood and 0.5 percent improved technology and greater efficiency. There of industrial wood is supplied to the villagers at a is no well-developed contracting infrastructure and discounted price. one will not develop until such time as current work practices, including methods of sale change. GDF sells its roundwood by auction, standing sale or allocation (under guaranteed supply contracts). The GDF operate a protocol with the Ministry Auctions are organized at the Forest District level of Education regarding training and all forest with volumes based on the management plans. villages have received an eight-day training course The frequency of auctions varies depending on the on harvesting, safety and personal protection forest resources in the district. On average there are equipment (PPE). Attendees receive a certificate 350 auctions per month for the 245 Forest Districts. on completion of the course and this is seen as a Auction commissions in each district oversee the transition stage to a qualified village workforce. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 49 The private sector produces circa 3.5 million m3 The GDF established a Bioenergy Commission which of roundwood, predominantly pulp wood for the reported in 2008. Following on from this, it has wood panels sector. initiated projects using forest residues for heating in administrative buildings. The GDF is also planning 2.4.5 Wood Energy small scale electricity production (250 kW) through wood gasification suitable for rural areas and villages. Wood is a major source of renewable energy but the increasingly widespread use of solar heating Law 5346 on Utilization of Renewable Energy and water heating systems, natural gas and heat Resources for Generating Electricity provides a insulation in rural areas has led to a decrease in guaranteed feed-in tariff for electricity generated the production and consumption of fuelwood from renewable sources. To date this has had little particularly since 2000. Under the Forest Law, impact on the use of woody biomass and there are forest villagers have a right to collect fuelwood no combined heat and power (CHP) plants. The for domestic purposes and to receive fuelwood at strong raw material demand from the wood panels subsidized prices from GDF. sector and its continuing expansion is limiting the material available for wood energy and acting Annual average firewood consumption in Turkey is as a deterrent to investment. The expectation is estimated as being of the order of 10-11.5 million m3. however that the legislation together with other Firewood production is 6-7 million m3 (4.5-5 million initiatives e.g. Climate Change Strategy, will result m3 from state forests and 1.5-2.0 million m3 from in the wider use of woody biomass over time. private afforestation) in recent years. The shortfall of 4-4.5 million m3 comprises harvesting waste 2.4.6 Hunting and Game utilization, cutting trees from own gardens and Management other sources. Migration from the forest villages to cities, expansion of central home and water Up until 2003, hunting was managed according to heating systems, increasing use of solar energy the provisions of the Land Hunting Law enacted and natural gas and heat insulation has resulted in 1937. To strengthen the legal framework for in decreasing consumption and production of the protection, improvement and sustainable firewood, especially from 2000 onwards. management of game and wildlife resources a new Hunting Law was introduced complying The use of and demand for wood charcoal has with relevant EU legislation and international grown in recent years but is still small in comparison conventions to which Turkey is a signatory. The new with firewood use. It is still widely produced by law authorizes the Ministry of Forestry and Water migrant charcoal producers using traditional earth Affairs (MFWA) for the regulation, organization and mound kilns. The total annual income of charcoal control of hunting. The GDNCNP is responsible for producers in Turkey is calculated as 140 million the management of the game and wildlife resources. US$ and is based on a price of 0.70 US$/kg.32 This It has worked with hunting associations and NGOs is equivalent to 200,000 tons. to establish a country-wide warden network to facilitate inspection of hunters and to control illegal There is only limited use of forest residues for hunting. Wardens operate on a voluntary basis. The energy. The sector is largely undeveloped with a GDNCNP is also responsible for the designation and small number of briquette producers and limited management of protected areas. It has seven game use of wood chips for energy by industry. The GDF breeding stations - four for partridge and three for estimates the potential residue market as being of pheasant - the purpose of which is to support the the order of 5 to 7 million tons annually.33 existing game bird populations and also for hunting. 32. Kayhan Menemencioglu (2013) Traditional wood charcoal production labour in Turkish forestry (Çankırı sample) Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.11 (2): 1136-1142. 2013. 33. National initiative and strategy development for strengthening utilization of wood energy in Turkey. Presentation by Ismail Belen to Workshop on Policy options for wood energy. 1-4 June 2010 Minsk, Belarus. 50 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note The Central Hunting Commission established under Large game such as wild goat, Anatolian mouflon, the law comprises 21 members selected from red deer, roe deer, pheasant, wolf, brown bear and MFWA, MFAL, NGOs, academia, private hunting wild boar are allowed to be hunted in the light ground owners and hunting organizations. It sets of game management plans within the scope of annual figures for bag limits, permitted hunting hunting tourism by the permission of the MFWA. methods, hunting days, permitted and prohibited Foreign hunters can either avail of the services of hunting grounds, species to be protected and registered hunting companies or apply direct to not hunted and open seasons for species groups GDNCNP for the required hunting permit. There is according to region. potential to increase hunting revenues through the development of quality hunting tourism. Hunting is organized locally through local hunting associations which are affiliated to Regional The DGNCNP prepares game management Hunting Federations which in turn are represented plans for the main game species. Unlike game nationally by the Hunting Confederation. The right management in Europe, predator species are not to hunt follows the ownership of the land and interfered with. Based on a combination of returns hunting associations can purchase hunting rights from hunters and the observations and monitoring to permitted hunting grounds either from private of DGNNP staff the recent trend is for the large owners or through the GDNCNP for state lands. game populations to increase. The range of these species is also increasing. TABLE 11 GD NATURE CONSERVATION 2.4.7 Non-wood Forest Products and AND NATIONAL PARK REVENUE FROM Ecosystem Services HUNTING (‘000 US$) Year Agencies Private Hunters Total a) Non-wood Forest Products (NWFPs) 2012 4,161 1,480 5,641 The international trade of selected NWFP 2013 4,369 1,554 5,923 commodity groups reached US$ 12 billion in 2011 2014 4,586 1,632 6,217 and trade has shown steady growth over the previous years.34 Increasing demand and increasing range of products has typified the sector over the According to the Wildlife Management Department past decade and the overall outlook for growth of the DG Nature Conservation and National Parks, is considered good, despite the recent economic there are two types of revenue from the hunting/ recession. The EU has a strategic role in the game in Turkey. The first is from hunting and / international NWFP market accounting for the 44.8 tourism agencies which are officially registered percent of the total export value of commodities (get permission) each year during the hunting based on raw or processed NWFP. season and pay for hunter’s groups especially foreign and the second one is private hunters who Turkey is considered rich in terms of non-wood also apply individually for permission and pay in a forest products (NWFPs). Due to the different similar way. In 2015 scope revenues of 25,828,287 climatic and geographic conditions, it is home to TL or 9,556,466 USD were generated as the share a wide variety of tree, shrub and herbaceous plant allocated to DG Nature Conservation and National species. Of the estimated 12,500 plant species in Parks from sales of hunting permits, training of Europe, Turkey has circa 11,707 plant species of hunters, hunting tourism, contributions from hunter which 3,649 are endemic35, of which 3,900. About offices and hunting charges. 138 different NWFPs are obtained from Turkey’s 34. Wong JLG & Prokofieva I (Eds) (2014) Report presenting synthesis of regional sectoral reviews to describe the “State of the European NWFP”. StarTree deliverable D1.3. 96 pp, references and 3 Annexes 35. Turkey Biological Diversity Monitoring and Evaluation Report 2012 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 51 forests, but so far there has been no systematic there is insufficient added value and many NWFPs management planning for these resources, mainly are exported in an unprocessed state. However, because the necessary institutional capacity still there is an increasing volume processed in Turkey needs to be built. The majority of the NWFPs are in recent years. The amount of non-wood forest found in forests, principally along the coast line with products reached 429,000 tons as of end-2016, canopy cover less than 11 percent (degraded forest). up from 31,000 tons in 2002. The GDF organized two workshops with the participation of specialists Turkey is one of the top three producers worldwide and private sector representatives: Medical and for laurel leaves, thyme, sage and pine nuts and Aromatic Plants Center Strategy and Target is ranked 21st in the world in terms of exports of Setting Workshop organized in Afyonkarahisar on NWFPs. The major exports in 2010 were pine nuts 28 February-01 March 2015, and Second Medical (US$ 68.3 million), thyme (US$ 28.1 million), laurel and Aromatic Plants Workshop organized on leaves (US$ 25.6 million), plants for weaving (US$ 12-13 March 2016, the concluding reports for of 23.3 million) and mushrooms (US$ 11.8 million).36 which have been published as a bulletin. Forest The principal importer of NWFPs in 2010 was the managers believe that the area of NWFPs, while USA, followed by Germany, Japan, France, and currently of only moderate importance, will Hong Kong. become increasingly important into the future and on a par with biological diversity.37 A NWFP Only 20 percent of NWFPs receive any form of and services department was established in the processing or added value in Turkey. The majority GDF headquarters in 2011 and under the current are exported unprocessed. There are no imports Strategic Plan there are targets for an inventory of of NWFPs and all raw materials are supplied NWFPs by 2017 and measures for their sustainable domestically using local labor. Despite increases in utilization. exports (up 21 percent in 2011 compared with 2010) and domestic processing of NWFPs, Turkey’s rich The 2013-2017 Strategic Plan requires the new floral diversity is still largely untapped. About 1000 inventory to ascertain the full potential of NWFPs species of plants are consumed in households for as a priority area, including the identification of remedial purposes.  their current state in terms of natural habitats and sustainability. The focus is on higher economic Herbs and spices classified as NWFPs are widely value products and preparing plans for their available, particularly in the cosmetics, medicine, sustainable use. The integration of biodiversity and food, dye and chemical industries. Plants are the inventory data into forest management plans will natural and biological raw materials for many support planning for the sustainable development sectors starting with the pharmaceutical industry of NWFPs. Since 2012 efforts have been made and it is estimated that up to 500 plants are used to identify and assess the status of non-wood for medical purposes in Turkey. forest products and their potential. Inventory and planning studies have been undertaken on an area NWFPs have traditionally been collected by forest of 1.4 million ha, covering a total of 210 different villagers at low prices (Tariff price). Permission and species. The 2017-2021 Strategic Plan envisages the amount to be collected is decided by the GDF, studies to be conducted on an area of 1,9 million ha and endangered plant species are protected to by 2021. In addition, inventory and planning work is sustain the biological and genetic diversity. Despite envisaged to involve specialization training as well efforts by the GDF in the early 2000s, including as appropriate employment policies. The low level conducting workshops and organizing panels to of active management of NWFPs is a common improve sustainable management of NWFPs and feature across Europe as shown in Figure 14. increasing their contribution to the rural economy, 36. Turkish Export Assembly. http://www.tim.org.tr/en/news-recent-news-a-curative-source-of-income.html 37. Kuvon et al (2011). Forest manager perceptions of the foremost forestry issues and functions in Turkey. Polish J. Environ. Stud. Vol 20, No. 2 (2011), 393-403. 52 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 14 ACTIVE MANAGEMENT OF NWFPS IN 13 EUROPEAN REGIONS Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 53 The recent World Bank assessment of nonwood Their purpose is to provide for the health, sport, forest ecosystem services estimated the value of aesthetic, cultural and social needs of the public NWFPs for Turkey as US$ 2.3 per hectare per year, while increasing awareness of flora and fauna. compared with an average for Europe of US$ 20.7 indicating a significant potential for growth in the At the end of 2016, a total of 1,304 forest areas future.38 This is reinforced by the findings from the amounting to 16,266 ha have been developed as in- EU StarTree project which show that Turkey has forest recreational sites in order to meet the daily not as yet fully exploited the potential for cultivated recreational and picnic requirements of the public. In forms of NWFPs or undertaken management of recent years there has been a rapid development in these resources at an intensity as practiced in some nature tours of varying duration organized by both countries (Figure 14).39 private sector companies and NGOs for recreational and training / educational purposes in forest areas. Non-wood forest products are a major opportunity and potential source of income and employment c) Economic Value of Ecosystem Services for those who live in rural areas. The diversity of The World Bank estimates of the total nonwood products, the potential for in-country processing forest wealth are 2.7 times greater, on average, and added value represent a significant opportunity than those derived previously. The previous for rural communities. The emphasis should be on estimates are about 39 percent of the revised the development on processing products with high estimates, on average, globally ($26 per hectare added value as opposed to simply harvesting and per year versus $67 per hectare per year, in 2013 export of unprocessed NWFPs. U.S. dollars). Adding NWFPs and considering the revised measure of accessible forest area increases b) Ecosystem Services the revised estimate to $84 per hectare per year. There is growing recognition that forests can provide The estimate for Turkey is $133 per hectare per many benefits, identified as ecosystem services. year - water $98.4, NWFPs $2.4, habitat $1.3 and Some of these, such as recreation, relaxation, or recreation $31.2.41 shelter are well appreciated by the general public while others are less understood, or simply taken for A pilot study42 in the Bolu region on the total granted. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of economic value (TEV) of forestry was completed in 200540 defined ecosystem services as provisioning 2015. The direct use, option, indirect use, and non- (food, water, wood, genetic resources), regulating use values of forest products and services were (climate, floods, disease, water quality), cultural estimated through the use of various valuation (recreation, spiritual benefits) and supporting (soil methods. The estimated total net economic value formation, primary production). (TEV) was US$ 666.3 million in 2013 (Table 12). The largest portion of the TEV were the indirect use Under Law No 3234 on the Organization and values arising from ecosystem services, including Tasks of the General Directorate of Forestry, it has watershed protection, carbon sequestration and responsibility for the provision of recreation areas soil erosion control, which amounted to US$ 341.4 in forests for public use. An Urban Forests Project million or 50.0 percent of the TEV. In traditional was launched in 2003 by GDF and is ongoing. A national accounting, these values are largely total of 145 urban forests have been developed unaccounted for or partially included in the value- encompassing 10,550 ha adjacent to or in the added of other sectors, such as cost reduction of vicinity of cities and towns as of the end of 2016. water supply. 38. Siikamäki, J., Santiago-Ávila, F. and Vail, P. (2015) Global Assessment of Nonwood Forest Ecosystem Services. PROFOR Working Paper. 39. Wong JLG & Prokofieva I (Eds) (2014) Report presenting synthesis of regional sectoral reviews to describe the “State of the European NWFP”. StarTree deliverable D1.3. 96 pp, references and 3 Annexes 40. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. 41. Siikamäki, J., Santiago-Ávila, F. and Vail, P. (2015) Global Assessment of Nonwood Forest Ecosystem Services. PROFOR Working Paper. 42. World Bank (2015) Valuing Forest Products and Services in Turkey: A Pilot Study of Bolu Forest Area. Washington: DC. 54 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 12 TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE OF FOREST GOODS AND SERVICES IN BOLU 2013 Value Type TEV TEV Products and Services (million $) ($/ha/year) Valuation Method % DIRECT USE Timber 75.0 145.9 Market price 11.0 VALUE Firewood 10.4 20.2 Market price 1.5 NTFP-Plants 0.5 1.0 Market price 0.1 Honey 5.3 10.4 Market price 0.8 Recreation 12.0 23.4 Unit value number 1.8 Fodder for grazing 212.8 413.9 Market price 31.1 Hunting 0.5 0.9 Cost-based 0.1 valuation Total direct use value 316.6 615.6 46.3 OPTION VALUE Pharmaceutical 6.1 11.8 Unit value transfer 0.9 Total option value 6.1 11.8 0.9 INDIRECT USE Watershed protection (water supply) 125.4 243.9 Adjusted value 18.4 VALUE transfer Carbon sequestration 112.2 218.2 Standard value 16.4 transfer Soil erosion control 103.7 201.7 Unit value transfer 15.2 Total indirect use value 341.4 663.8 50.0 NONUSE VALUE Biodiversity 19.2 37.4 Unit value transfer 2.8 Total non-use value 19.2 37.4 2.8 Total value 683.4 100.0 GENERAL COSTS Expenditure on soil conservation, 3.1 Actual expenses 18.2 AND NEGATIVE afforestation, range management EXTERNALITIES and rehabilitation of degraded forests Soil erosion for degraded forests 14.0 Value transfer 81.8 Total costs 17.1 100.0 The pilot study showed that the economic value forest protection and a more sustainable use of of various forest products and services, which forest resources; for instance, the justification for is normally unaccounted for or accounted and prioritization of public expenditure in the forest implicitly in non-forest sectors, is seven times the sector to provide public goods and externalities to value currently accounted as the forest sector’s the national and regional economy. contribution. In terms of GDP, the known and accounted value (US$ 86.4 million) of forest The value attributed to fodder, accounting for 32 products was about 0.50 percent of the regional percent of TEV, appears relatively high. However, GDP in 2013. The pilot study showed that the TEV of it is not without precedent and TEV analysis in forest products and services was US$ 666.3 million Tunisia43 and Algeria44 provided values of 55 percent equivalent to 3.9 percent of regional GDP. The TEV and 33 percent respectively. Notwithstanding this, is a truer reflection of the value and contribution the estimated value of US$ 414 per ha is considered of forests to the regional economy, and could help high. In contrast, the value attributed to NTFPs guide development programs and policies towards (plants) at 0.1 percent of TEV is extremely low in 43. TEEBcase (2013) Economic valuation of forest goods and services, Tunisia, by Hamed Daly-Hassen, available at: TEEBweb.org 44. Valuation of FES, Implementation of the Valuation: Serbian experience. Stamatović Saša 2014. Downloadable from http://www. foresteurope.org/sites/default/files/3_3_Sasa_Stamatovic.pdf Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 55 comparison with other studies20, 21 and especially migration is moderately skewed towards males in view of the richness of plant flora in Turkey. leaving (60:40), but in poorer villages the gender Similarly, the contribution from timber at 11 percent ratio is the same (52 percent male). The average of TEV is at variance with other studies.45 Thus age in poorer villages tends to be about 4 years while the pilot study does provide some insight into younger than the survey population, while richer the TEV of Turkey’s forests, the results will need villages are 2 years older. to be validated before they could be considered sufficiently robust to be applied nationally. The migration from villages to urban areas is expected to continue. Low levels of welfare 2.5 Socio-economic and and poverty due to a lack of income sources, infrastructure and social services which have been Environmental Functions some of the main reasons for out-migration in the and Services past.48 The rate of unemployment in forest villages, calculated from the survey described below, is 2.5.1 State Forestry Sector and estimated to be about 11 percent49 The income Forest Villages generated by forests to the livelihoods of forest villagers is at an inadequate level.50 This observation Turkey’s rural inhabitants can be classified into was confirmed from survey findings where the share two groups, namely forest villagers and the other of income from forest-related activities is only 14 villages. Forest villages are also divided into villages percent (including forest collection, employment, located inside forests or those near/adjoining and payment for forest services). This is resulting forests. They are also classified on the basis of in lower expectations by forest villagers about the whether or not production is performed in forests potential for forest resource income, and is one of within village boundaries, under Articles 31 and 32 the main reasons driving the migration trends from of the Forest Law No. 6831. This classification also forest villages.50 plays a determining role in terms of the products generated from forests and subsidies provided. A growing source of income for forest villagers is Thirty-five years ago there were approximately from non-forest related jobs and a heavier reliance 18 million forest villagers and according to data on agriculture. The average agricultural holding for 2014, 7,096,483 people live in 22,343 forest of 2.4 ha is mostly used for subsistence farming villages, constituting approximately 9.6 percent so it affords a limited opportunity for additional of the national population and 40 percent of the income. Forestry work is seasonal and lasts for rural population. Forest villages are included in the approximately five months, mostly in winter and group claiming the least share of national income is done under very harsh working conditions. The per capita. Agricultural land in the forest villages changing demographic profile is limiting the ability is frequently inadequate and is highly fragmented, of forest villages to undertake the hard physical rugged and low in fertility.46 forest work (e.g. harvesting, is reducing over time). To meet their needs, households collect forest The population in forest villages is declining products for subsistence as well as for sale. due to out-migration to urban areas in search of From the survey, it was found that 61 percent of employment and better opportunities. According households in forest villages collect forest products to a recent socio-economic survey of forest and 16 percent who sell these products. Villagers villagers (described below) approximately 37 most often collect firewood for subsistence percent of village members leave.47 This out- and mushrooms, herbs, and nuts. Both men and 45. Bogdan, P. et al (2015) Forest Ecosystem Services Valuation under Different Management Scenarios: A Case Study of Maramures Mountains. In press 46. Forestry Directorate General Strategic Plan. 47. World Bank, 2016. Socio-economic Analysis of the Forest Villagers in Turkey. Funded by the Program for Forests (PROFOR). 48. Forestry Directorate General Strategic Plan 2013-2017. 49. Calculated as: Prime Age Unemployed / Prime Age Labour Force 50. Forestry Directorate General Strategic Plan 2013-2017. 56 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note women are engaged in forest product collection, 169 focuses on the protection of state forests and with approximately a 40 percent of the households Article 170 mandates the necessity of effective co- using only men for collection.51 operation between the state and the inhabitants of forest villages through appropriate measures to 2.5.2 Historical Background and be introduced by law for the purpose of improving Trends of Support to Forest Villages their living conditions. The approach is based on the understanding that if the livelihood of the Responding to the fundamental changes in villagers can be supported and more income forestry approaches, the forestry sector has opportunities provided, then relations between the launched assistance programs to the forest sector and villagers would allow for more efficient villages to sustain forest resources and forest- protection of forests and better living standards of village communities as well. forest dependent communities. Several initiatives and measures for the improvement The General Directorate of Forest-Village Relations in rural living conditions have broadly been (GDFVR) was established under the Ministry implemented under the provisions of the Forest of Forestry (MOF) in 1970 with the mandate to Law 6831 since the late 1950s. This Law provides the contribute to the social and economic development legal definition of forest and introduced the first set in forest areas. Accordingly, over time, assistance of forest policies and strategies. for village development initiatives and measures has increased in quantity and diversity. The Two articles (169 and 170) in the Constitution are GDFVR developed its activities through alternative directly related to the overall management and employment opportunities and income generating development of Turkey’s forest resource. Article facilities for forest villagers and cooperatives. 51. In deriving this percentage, only forest products collected by more than 10 households was considered. All households reported collecting over 70 different products (forest and agricultural) – but only 16 of which can be considered as forest products. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 57 In 1974, the General Directorate established the 2.5.3 Current Forestry Sector “Forest Village Development Fund” (FVDF) in Support and Future Needs accordance with the related articles of the Forest Law. The Law Nr. 1744 regulated the implementation Forest villages are given preferential treatment structures of the Fund. It was financed by various under the Forest Law. Villagers under Article 40 sources including a certain portion of forest product have a right to employment in harvesting, thinning, sales, the profit of timber processing facilities and afforestation, maintenance and transportation the general budget. activities undertaken by the GDF. The GDF, through ORKOY, provides employment opportunities In addition to the FVDF, the state through the through various channels – including loans to GDF has created subsidies / support for the forest individuals and cooperatives and this support has villages in other ways such as employment rights in been increasing over time (Table 13). forest operations, sales of construction timber and fuel wood at highly discounted prices for their own ORKOY operates a grant/soft-loan program for needs, provision of forest planting materials such individuals and cooperatives. The social credit as seed, etc. support aims to improve the life quality of forest villagers and conserve forest resources through The aim of these subsidies and support can be reduction of wood use as fuel and preventing summarized as: the misuse of wood. Examples of social credit projects include: (a) roof covering materials, (b) a. Promoting the sustainability of rural central heating systems for households and energy community development and enhancing efficient stoves with ovens, (c) solar water heating rural well-being; systems and (d) exterior thermal insulation. b. Improving forest-people relations through Economic-purpose credits are used for revenue increased participation and involvement in generating and business projects and examples forest management practices; and include: (a) animal husbandry support, (b) c. Reducing people’s dependency on forest beekeeping, mushroom cultivation, medicinal and resources by the introduction of alternative aromatic plant production support, (c) micro credit income generating activities. programs for housewives and (d) greenhouse, viniculture and fisheries. In 2011, the General Directorate of Forest-Village Relations (GDFVR) was closed. Its role and Forest cooperatives play several roles, but responsibilities were transferred to the GDF as an important one is to create employment a department. In this scope, since 2012, GDFVR opportunities for its members in forest villages revenues are being transferred completely to the (Table 13). Almost 60 percent of the total wood Special Budget of General Directorate of Forestry. production of Turkey is carried out through The aim of the Forest and Village Relations cooperatives every year. Forest villagers generate Department (ORKOY) is to contribute to the production labor revenues of approximately US$ protection, development and attainment of the 350 million annually – and some of this is retained production targets of forests through supporting within the villages through wages and income. socio-economic development of forest villagers. In the past, this income was very important to 58 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 13 SUPPORT TO FOREST VILLAGES (FTE = FULLTIME EQUIVALENT) Planned Indicator Unit Average 2015 2016 2017 2011 - 2014 Employment created through loans to individuals FTE 2,098.0 4,892.0 6,158.0 7,570.0 Employment created through loans to cooperatives FTE 24,285.0 24,695.0 24,875.0 26,060.0 Ratio of people to whom loan support is to be % 30.9 35.1 36.7 38.4 extended to the total forest village population Wood savings provided through social loans 000 658.0 902.0 1,002.0 1,102.0 Stere Source: GDF Note: Not possible to give data for individual years due to changes in how information collected / collated (Mevlut) FIGURE 15 RANDOMIZED SAMPLE OF FOREST VILLAGES SURVEYED Source: World Bank (2016) Socio-economic Survey of Forest Villagers support and maintain their living conditions in the selected households in 203 representative forest forest. However, with declining village population villages were surveyed across Turkey. The sample and more limited forest income opportunities – the was stratified into four regions according to sustainability of this previous forest villager model poverty and net migration rates as well as by forest appears to be in question. cover (Figure 15). 2.5.4 Socio-economic Survey of The survey’s aim was to better understand Forest Villagers the relationship between out-migration from forest villages, economic opportunities in forest To understand the current economic and social communities, and the dependencies of household situation of forest villages - a socio-economic members on forest and forest resources. Villages survey of forest villagers was recently undertaken from the survey are henceforth referred to in terms (between February to August 2016) to support of their strata – that is high/low out-migration and this forest policy note.52 Two thousand randomly- high/low poverty (Table 14).53 52. World Bank, 2016. Socio-economic Analysis of the Forest Villagers in Turkey. Funded by the Program for Forests (PROFOR). 53. Only 6 villages (60 households) were surveyed as part of Strata 2 (low out-migration/high poverty). The reason is that there are very few areas characterized by low migration and high poverty in Turkey – hence the lower number in the sample. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 59 TABLE 14 SURVEY SAMPLE b) Income Sources POVERTY The income source analysis provided below LOW HIGH OUT-MIGRATION summarizes the mean and median income received Low-Low Low-High by those who participated in the activity (Table LOW Strata 1 Strata 2 62 villages 6 villages 16). It shows the relative productivity among the High-Low High-High activities. Also indicated is the percentage of HIGH Strata 3 Strata 4 households who received income from that specific 77 villages 57 villages source. Both the mean and median are useful when comparing income across activities (productivity) and in different parts of the country. But when a) Demographics of Forest Villages the mean is highly skewed by several large values Table 15 summarizes some key household (which is the case here), the median is a more demographics by stratum. Low poverty and low appropriate measure of the value most commonly migration regions have a higher male share as a reported by forest villagers. It is also important to household head (90 percent) than high migration note that villagers typically receive income from areas (84 percent). Households in high migration more than one source – but not all of the ones listed and high poverty regions, on average, have a larger below as this list is comprehensive. Therefore, one household size (4.1), and more prime working age should not simply add up all the mean values to members (2.7), compared with households in arrive at total income. Total income is listed as a other strata. High migration villages tend to have separate row at the bottom of the table. younger populations and high poverty villages have the youngest average age (39 years as Forest-related income covers both income from opposed to 42 years). forest product collection and forest wage income (items 1 and 2). Gross forest income (1a) consists of On average, about 50 percent of working age sales of forest product collection and subsistence adults participated in the labor force, the majority value (the imputed income from household of whom are men. The village level employment consumption of collected forest products). Net rate is 89 percent, yet many still claim to be forest income (1b) is estimated by subtracting ‘underemployed’ or not working to their full gross income from the cost associated with capacity. About 60 percent of those not in the collecting forest products both for sale and own labor force are housewives, 20 percent are retired consumption (or subsistence value). The ranking and 19 percent are students. The survey shows of the importance of income sources is carried out that about 9 percent of adults reported to have both by the rate of participation and income level. never been to school, 94 percent graduated from primary school, 33 percent from middle school, 17 percent from high school and less than 4 percent from tertiary or higher schooling. TABLE 15 HOUSEHOLD DEMOGRAPHIC STATUS BY STRATUM All Low Migration – Low Migration – High Migration High Migration villages Low Poverty High Poverty – Low Poverty – High Poverty Male head (percent) 95.0 97.0 93.0 94.0 93.0 Household size (number) 4.1 3.8 3.3 4.1 5.1 Number of age <16 (percent) 50.0 40.0 20.0 50.0 70.0 Number of age >65 (percent) 50.0 50.0 70.0 50.0 60.0 Number age 16-65 (number) 2.3 2.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 Number of households 1,828.0 431.0 60.0 725.0 545.0 TABLE 16 HOUSEHOLD INCOME SOURCES, PRODUCTIVITY AND PARTICIPATION RATES (ALL VALUES ARE IN TL, UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED) Income source All Low Migration – Low Migration – High Migration – High Migration – Low Poverty High Poverty Low Poverty High Poverty   Mean Median percent Mean Median percent Mean Median percent Mean Median percent Mean Median percent HHs HHs HHs HHs HHs 1a. Gross forest 2,158 400 61.2 2,924 600 68.9 295 254 58.3 2,104 463 69.7 1,689 240 66.4 collection income Forest product sale 6,491 600 13.2 6,370 600 24.1 390 180 8.3 6,126 700 13.9 8,397 250 7.9 value Own consumption 840 360 55.2 874 600 54.8 239 193 58.3 966 360 63.6 709 240 64.8 value (subsistence) 60 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note 1b. Net forest 1,940 300 61.0 2,577 480 68.9 226 155 58.3 1,903 310 69.4 1,551 176 66.1 collection income (gross income – collection cost) 2. Forest wage 13,456 3,600 3.7 6,739 3,175 6.8 13,000 13,000 3.3 17,558 4,200 3.6 22,892 4,000 2.4 income 3. Non-forest wage 16,210 15,600 16.3 18,859 15,600 17.1 17,634 15,360 26.7 17,627 15,600 15.4 12,794 12,000 21.8 income 4. Retirement income 15,564 14,400 38.0 16,155 14,730 44.2 13,836 14,400 48.3 16,121 15,000 47.9 14,009 12,000 32.3 5. Capital/interest 19,157 10,000 1.8 31,008 12,000 2.4 30,750 30,750 3.3 11,915 5,000 2.9 12,500 12,500 0.4 income 6. Agriculture income 28,824 10,000 25.0 21,991 12,000 24.5 27,560 9,665 56.7 48,564 10,000 26.2 11,300 6,500 30.1 7. Livestock income 11,149 7,000 24.8 14,143 8,200 29.7 15,238 11,000 21.7 10,735 9,000 28.0 8,202 6,000 25.7 8. Other income 8,720 5,000 11.1 8,841 6,000 14.7 6,368 2,000 18.3 10,125 6,000 13.9 5,749 3,600 7.7 Total gross income 26,371 16,020 82.2 26,716 17,540 91.6 33,106 18,731 100.0 32,908 18,000 91.2 16,495 12,435 90.8 (participants only) Total gross 23,790 15,180 100.0 income (incl. non- participants) Per capita gross 9,330 5,631 82.2 9,706 7,202 91.6 13,753 7,420 100.0 11,833 6,940 91.2 5,102 3,230 90.8 income (participants only) Per capita gross 8,401 5,000 100.0 income (incl. non- participants) Note: Both gross and net forest product collection income are presented to facilitate the comparison between different income sources. In particular, income from agriculture and livestock sales which is gross income (the cost for agriculture and livestock production is not collected in the survey) is directly comparable with forest collection gross income. Among the 1,336 households who reported collected forest products, there were 89 HH (4.7 percent) reported losses, i.e. negative net collection income over the past 12 months. Total income is the summation of the 8 income items from 1.a Gross forest collection income to 8. Other income, but not including 1b. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 61 Across all regions, and based on the household Table 16 also shows that the average per capita participation rate, forest collection is the most income of participant forest village households important income source, as about 61 percent of (9,330 TL per capita) is significantly lower than households generated income from either selling the national per capita income in 2016 (29,800 forest products, consumed forest products or TL per capita). The average earnings of Turkish a combination of both; although only 4 percent citizens is more than 3.2 times the average forest of households had forest wage income. The villager. Among all households surveyed, about 84 next important income source was pensions (38 percent lived below the national poverty line (1,115 percent), followed by income from agriculture TL /per head per month (Türkİş, 2016)), confirming (25 percent), the sale of livestock and livestock an extremely high incidence of poverty across all products (25 percent), and non-forest wage forest villages. income (16 percent). This pattern of participation rates is fairly consistent across the four strata as Figure 16 shows that households collected a well – with the exception of agriculture or livestock diverse range of forest products. About 54 income switching ranks in some instances. percent of households collected firewood, but only 1 percent engaged in industrial wood operations. Ranking income sources by the level of income is Households reported collecting some 70 different more complicated due to the fact that households products, with mushrooms, herbs, thyme, rosehips engaged in different income generation activities and pinecones being the more popular non-wood and many extreme income values are reported products collected in the forest. across income sources (i.e. outliers). The income level by source is therefore measured using both average and median income in order to FIGURE 16 PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS mitigate the influence of outliers. These outliers COLLECTING FOREST PRODUCTS substantially skew the average forest collection income as illustrated in the large differences 1% 5% between mean and median forest related income 6% reported in Table 16. 7% The ranking of income sources based on median income shows that non-forest wage income and 7% retirement income are the most important sources, followed by agriculture or livestock, and capital/ 54% interest income (covering income from real estate and interest earnings). Capital or interest income 10% was only reported by about 2 percent of all households. If we use the mean to rank income, agriculture is the most important source, followed 11% by capital/interest income, non-forest wages and retirement income. It is interesting to note that households, on average, earn about the same Firewood Mushroom Other level of income from non-forest wage income and Herbs Thyme Rosehip retirement income and this remains so across the 4 different poverty-migration strata. One exception Pine cone Industrial wood is in high migration-high poverty areas where mean NOTE: Households collected 70 different types of products. forest wage income is much higher – likely due to For this chart - only products collected in the forest, and a few individuals receiving much more since the collected by at least 10 households were used. ‘Other’ products include: Sage, Hazlenut, Linden, Stingnettle, Walnut, Chestnut, median value is much lower than in any other region. Blackberry, Trefoil, and Opium. 62 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Table 17 presents the summary of sale value TABLE 17 AVERAGE ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD of individual products, including both forest SALES OF PRODUCTS (TL) wood products, NWFP, and agricultural and Mean Median No of HH horticultural products. The reported sale values Non-wood forest products (NWFP) are also featured with extreme values. Using the Mushroom 100 48 229 median sale measure, the industrial wood appears Herbs 2,398 50 125 extremely profitable, although only 16 households Thyme 45 12 132 engaged in industrial wood sale. Among the non- Rosehip 128 90 115 forest products, tobaccos is the most profitable, Pinecone 3,231 250 94 followed by tea, olives and apricot. About 16 Total (NWFP) 6,491 600 269 percent of households in the sample villages obtained income from selling forest products, of which 150 also collected NWFPs for sale. Wood forest product Firewood 447 250 1,085 The median gross sale of NWFP sale at 600 TL Industrial wood 36,032 34,200 16 (per household over past 12 months), although higher than forest collection sale (400 TL), is much Agricultural and horticultural product (AHP) lower than other income sources. Given Turkey is Olive oil 13,874 3,300 141 considered well-endowed in NWFPs, this suggests Wheat 8,957 1,125 79 that there exists enormous potential to improve Barley 2,874 700 56 the income sources from NWFPs. Returns from Olive 5,728 3,450 50 NWFPs can be increased by both improving the Tea 10,676 6,800 44 productivity of NWFP harvesting and increasing value added through developing local small-scale Apricot 8,126 3,700 35 processing industries. Currently, only 20 percent Fig 6,787 1,250 29 of NWFPs are processed before exporting. Thus, Beetroot 198,161 15 27 targeting ORKOY programs to help forest villages Cherry 3,218 1,500 27 to develop the local capacity to process NWFPs, Bean 222 163 26 particularly related to olive oil production and Potato 6,246 150 25 the sale of different herbs, may potentially boost Tomato 5,638 25 23 income and employment. Medlar 50 30 21 Apple 433 163 20 Tobacco 31,534 24,000 16 Corn 4,962 800 14 Total (AHP) 21,087 2,400 492 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 63 c) Income Diversification and Forest Dependency What are the household income-earning strategies? How do forest villagers diversify their income Figure 18 presents household’s choices of income sources and to what extent do their livelihoods combinations based on the seven most popular depend on forest-related activities? Income income sources. The analysis focuses on single diversification captures an important aspect income source to capture vulnerability (or lack of of household welfare and poverty, because it diversification) as well as the combination between reveals household’s resilience to shocks as well forest-related income and other income sources as their capability to expand opportunities to to highlight forest dependency. These include (1) improve their livelihood beyond the forest. Such income source only from forest-related activities information is valuable for guiding policies that aim (2) only from non-forest wage (3) only from to effectively target poor households and support agriculture or livestock (4) only from pensions their movements out of poverty by enhancing (5) combination of forest income with either productivity and income diversification. agriculture/livestock, (6) combination of forest income with agriculture/livestock and pension and The analysis of income source diversification is (7) the rest of permutation excluded in (1)-(6)).54 based on the seven principle income sources listed in Table 16. Figure 17 presents the distribution of FIGURE 18 MOST POPULAR COMBINATION the number of income sources which captures OF INCOME SOURCES ( PERCENT OF the degree of income diversification in forest HOUSEHOLDS) villages. The results show that about 40 percent of forest-village households participated only 4% in one income activity, while 55 percent and 30 9% percent of households engaged in two and three activities, respectively. Cumulatively, about 98 11% percent of households participated between one to four activities. FIGURE 17 INCOME DIVERSIFICATION 48% 11% 30% 25% Share of total households 12% 20% 15% 17% 10% Non-forest related employment only Pension only 5% Forest related activities, Pension, and Agriculture and/or Livestock Forest related activities only 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Forest related activities and Number of activties household Agriculture and/or Livestock engaged in past 12 months Rosehip Other combinations Note: Households can receive income from 7 potential activities, including: forest product collection, forest employment, non- forest employment, livestock sales, capital interest, pension, and other non-forest related sources. 54. The combinations of income sources are numerous, but also include such combinations as: forest income + non forest wage; non- forest wage + agriculture / livestock; non forest wage + pension; and agriculture / livestock + pension + non forest wage. 64 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note The distribution of the income source combination policies should focus on developing SMEs both presented in Figure 18 shows that forest households for NWFPs such as processing and packaging concentrated somewhat equally in agriculture and for export, and wood products such as furniture livestock production than forest-related activities. manufacturing. More importantly, supporting local On average, about 16 percent households engaged communities to connect to the supply value chain solely in agriculture or livestock for income is critical. generation, 14 percent households depend only on forest income, while 6 percent households Table 18 presents the distribution of household’s only on pension income. Overall, about 12 percent choice of income sources for all villages, and of households supplemented forest income by separately for villages in the four strata. The analysis engaging in agriculture/livestock activities, and of the income portfolio by stratum also confirms 10 percent by both agriculture/livestock sales the above findings. Households in high migration, and pensions. The majority of households in high poverty villages are more dependent on the forest villages (43 percent) depend on a highly forest, with about 18 percent households deriving diversified portfolio of income sources – with the income only from forest-related activities, in most common combinations being from forests, comparison with the low poverty strata (about 11 agriculture, livestock, pensions and non-forest percent for HM-LP, and 13 percent for the LM-LP wage income. strata). This finding may indicate a correlation between poverty, forest dependency and limited The analysis of households’ choices of income options for economic diversification, i.e. a poverty sources provides strong evidence that non-forest trap. Therefore, development programs should wage jobs are very limited across forest villages, aim to break the poverty trap through targeted with less than 4 percent of households depend their interventions, such as enhancing the productivity livelihoods solely on non-forest wage income. Non- of forest related jobs through investment in forest wage income is 3-4 times higher than forest forest management equipment, skill training, and wage income (median in Table 16), this may suggest expanding employment opportunities through that programs focus on improving the productivity connecting the local economies to production of forest wage jobs as well as expanding non- supply value chain. forest employment opportunities. In particular, the TABLE 18 INCOME EARNING STRATEGIES AND FOREST DEPENDENCY ( PERCENT) Income choice All villages LM-LP LM-HP HM-LP HM-HP Forest income only 11.1 12.9 1.7 9.8 15.2 Non-forest wage only 3.8 2.6 10.0 1.4 5.1 Agriculture or livestock 16.9 17.3 8.3 15.9 19.6 Pension income only 8.8 7.9 6.7 7.9 5.3 Forest + (ag or livestock) 12.3 14.5 5.0 13.1 13.3 Forest + (ag or livestock) + pension 10.5 11.0 21.7 10.9 11.3 Other combinations * 48.1 47.6 51.7 53.2 42.4 All combined 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 No of Households 1818.0 456.0 60.0 662.0 495.0 Note: * Such as those in footnote 54. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 65 d) Outside Support (GDF/ORKOY/Cooperatives) (45 percent), technical assistance for forestry Despite the long history of government support practices (37 percent), training in forest product through establishing forest dependent cooperatives processing (27 percent) and free seedlings (25 and associations in forest villages, the survey data percent). shows the coverage of membership is relatively low. While about 6 percent of households surveyed e) Migration were members of forest dependent cooperatives The high migration rate among forest households and associations, over 18 percent were members of poses a major problem in forest communities, other cooperatives. The average tenure of forest leading to a labor shortage. The on-going out- dependent and other cooperatives was about 14 migration makes it difficult to sustain the level and 12 years, respectively. of local labor force required to maintain forest management and support the livelihoods of the Among the members of forest dependent local population through more diverse economic cooperatives (total 119 households), about 16 activities. This section focus on three issues percent of households reported to have received associated to migration, including (1) the reasons for employment from the cooperative, which is higher migration, (2) how household socio-demographic than members of other cooperatives (about 13 characteristics and income diversification strategies percent of households received employment). vary by migration status and (3) which factors Only 11 households reported receiving a loan in affect the probability of migration. The analysis 2016, ranging from 1,000 TL to 50,000 TL, with an examines possible linkages between migration, average of 16,800 TL ($6,216), and 18 households economic diversification and poverty, with the reported employment. objective of providing evidence to guide policies that can effectively enhance household income Among the 108 villages (out of 203 total villages generation capacity while balancing migration surveyed), about 34 percent of villages reported and promoting economic diversification in forest a benefit directly to the household over the past communities. 12 months, 6 percent received a village level development project, and 14 percent received Forest village households can be classified into three both household and village level program benefits, groups based on their migration status, including while about 46 percent villages did not receive any households with at least one permanent migrant, benefits (in cash or in kind). those who intend to migrate (or potential migrant households) and those with no migrants. Table Among those villages who did receive support, it 19 presents a summary of household distribution was mostly in the form of training and technical by migration status for all villages as well as by assistance, and free seedlings from GDF and stratum. Over half of households surveyed had other public institutions. Among the 59 villages permanent migrant members or those who intend that collected this information, they received to migrate. Even in low migration, low poverty information and education about forest policies and areas, only half of households (51 percent) have no laws (72 percent), training in forest management permanent migrants and do not intend to migrate. TABLE 19 THE DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLD MIGRATION STATUS BY STRATUM (PERCENT) Household migrant status All villages LM-LP LM-HP HM-LP HM-HP With permanent migrants 37.6 35.0 43.9 39.6 40.6 With members who intend to migrate 14.1 13.3 12.0 14.9 13.5 No migrants 48.4 51.7 44.1 45.5 45.9 All HH 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 66 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 20 VILLAGE OUT-MIGRATION RATE (PER 1000 PERSONS) Village Migration Rate, per 1000 people All Villages Low migration, Low migration, High migration, High migration, low poverty high poverty low poverty high poverty Total for all reported years 223.77 176.87 223.61 276.31 204.17 In the past 1 year 15.77 15.87 33.01 16.45 12.98 In the past 3 years 33.06 32.75 53.75 36.88 26.18 In the past 5 years 54.16 50.30 65.72 56.05 54.55 In the past 10 years 105.16 104.94 108.36 105.35 104.82 Total Villages 203.00 62.00 6.00 77.00 58.00 Source: World Bank, 2016 Note: Interpretation: rate of out-migration per village per 1000. Plutocratic ratio = total migrants per village/village pop. Rates of migration vary across Turkey depending often leave for marriage (55 percent), whereas on the economic and social conditions in each in high migration areas, most often, people leave forest village. In the survey’s sample design, the for work (56-67 percent). Permanent migrants, official rates of migration from TUIK were used whether they left for work or marriage, have been to stratify (divide) different regions of Turkey to away for an average of 11 years. look for patterns among forest villages. Rates of migration also vary across time largely for the Households who indicated they would like to same reasons, so in the reporting we account for migrate state that it is the inability to subsist rather this by looking at the rates of out-migration over than a lack of jobs that motivate them. These different periods of time. potential migrant households make up almost a fifth of households in poor/high migration areas. The The rate of out-migration among forest villages difference in motivations for migration between in the past year was 15 per 1000 persons which high and low migration areas is further supported appears to be low, however if one lengthens the by a remarkable variation in the belief that the analysis to 10 years this rate increases exponentially current state of forest resources can meet their to over 100 per 1000 (Table 20). This rate is much living needs; only 32 percent of households in poor, higher than the average rate of out-migration high-migration areas are satisfied, as opposed to (46.2/1000) from 2014-2015 across all provinces of ~78 percent in low-migration areas. Roughly 17 Turkey (TUIK, 2016). Within high migration areas, percent of migrants remit small amounts back to richer areas have more permanent migrants and their homes. On average, migrants send below poorer areas have more households who indicated 500 TL ($170) back home. they may migrate in the future. At the time of the survey, the net unemployment i) Reasons for Migration rate among forest villages was around 11 percent. Among households with members who have While higher numbers have been reported in other already migrated, referred to as permanent or documents, this is likely more of a reflection of long-term migrant households, finding a job is the the “underemployment” felt in these areas.55 The most common reason for migrating (Table 21). But official unemployment rate in Turkey is 9.3 percent when looking at each stratum separately, we find (TUIK, April 2016). that there are differences between low and high migration villages. In the former, individuals more 55. While only 5 percent of respondents stated they were unemployed, the actual unemployment rate was 14 percent when the labour force was defined as the sum of those employed and unemployed. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 67 TABLE 21 REASONS FOR MIGRATION ( PERCENT) All Villages Low migration, Low migration, High migration, High migration, low poverty high poverty low poverty high poverty Permanent Migrants (Reasons for migrating) Job search 52 33 30 56 67 Marriage 36 55 55 31 24 Education 4 4 12 4 3 Observations 1259 331 33 588 307 Potential Migrants (Reasons for migrating) Difficult to subsist 58 54 50 55 66 No jobs 23 26 17 24 19 Education 7 8 0 13 2 Observations 310 76 6 103 111 Can current state of forest resources meet your living needs? Yes 62 80 78 66 33 Observations 2033 646 60 775 549 TABLE 22 HOUSEHOLD SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE BY MIGRATION STATUS Household head Household No-prime age Age Education attainment (percent) members Age dep ratio Household migrant status Dropout Never in school Mid and above (percent) (percent) have permanent migrants 55 12 75 13 19 35 - within 10 years 55 10 76 14 12 29 - 10 years ago 56 15 72 13 31 46 Intend to migrate 45 8 61 31 2 54 No migrants 49 7 69 24 11 46 All HH 51 9 70 22 13 43 II) Differences in Socio-demographic Characteristics among those who permanently migrated within and Income Sources by Migration Status past 10 years. Thus migration is a serious issue Table 22 presents the summary of the age and leading to a labor shortage in forest communities. education attainment of the household head, as well as household demographic structure by Given that the majority of migrants (97 percent) are migration status. The latter is summarized by the sons or daughters, the age gap between household proportion of households with no working age heads suggests there could be a cohort effect members left at home and the age dependency since the average age is 45 for those intending to ratio. The results show that the head of household, migrate, 49 for no migrants and 55 with migrants. among those who stated they intend to migrate, That is, households with no permanent migrants are much younger, and more educated than those may be due to the fact that they are younger with permanent migrants. About one third of households with children too young to work outside households with permanent migrants who left 10 villages. Thus, migration might be an inevitable years ago have no prime working age members consequence with children leaving villages when living in the household, compared with 12 percent they reach the prime working age. It is also striking 68 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note to observe that about one fifth of households (19 agriculture and livestock income. This may suggest percent) with permanent migrants have no prime- a negative association between household’s working age members left at home. This suggests income generation capacity outside forest and the that migration is the major cause of labor shortages propensity to migrate, i.e. households who are more in these villages. capable of generating income from agriculture and livestock, are less likely to send members seeking The survey reveals that the lack of job opportunities, jobs outside.56 and thus income, is one of the most important reasons for migration. Table 23 presents average III) Identification of Key Factors Affecting Household income by source across migration status. Migration Households with permanent migrants have a much higher level of per capita income (12,028 TL) than Identifying factors that determine household no-migrant (8,030 TL) and potential migrant migration would be important to know from households (5,749 TL). This is likely a reflection of a policy perspective. Household’s migration household size and indeed, the average household decisions are closely related to household income size among migrant households is smaller (2.9) than as well as their income diversification strategies, non-migrant households (3.6) and those intended which are, in turn, influenced by many key factors to migrate (4.4), which contributes to higher per both at the household and village level. In addition, capita income. forest development programs and cooperatives supported by ORKOY can also have an impact While there is little variation in forest income on household’s economic opportunities, their among households of different migration status, livelihood strategies, including the migration households with permanent migrants have lower decision. While it is challenging to identify all of income from livestock sales, but higher agriculture the pathways through which these variables may income compared to no-migrant households. affect the migration decision, the household survey No-migrant households have a significantly presents an opportunity to explore the potential higher income from non-forest related activities key factors using an econometric model. - the average non-forest wage, pension income, The econometric model aims to estimate the effect TABLE 23 AVERAGE INCOME BY HOUSEHOLD MIGRATION STATUS (TL) Household migration status Income source Permanent migrants Potential migrants No migrants All households Forest collection Mean 2,111 2,098 2,229 2,158 Median 480 435 360 400 Forest wage 13,287 14,158 13,813 13,762 Non-forest wage 16,320 16,005 17,064 16,709 Retirement pension 14,961 14,755 16,049 15,446 Agriculture 37,049 14,411 24,770 28,798 Livestock 9,473 11,510 13,928 11,959 Other income 9,135 9,219 7,932 8,656 Total income 29,635 19,916 25,301 26,250 Per capita income 12,028 5,749 8,030 9,259 No of households 757 259 1,021 2,037 56. Indeed, through personal communication during survey implementation - several households indicated that they had purchased livestock as an incentive to keep the young from leaving home. In some cases, it worked. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 69 of key variables on the probability to migrate, socio-economic programs. However, it remains controlling for household- and village-level unclear whether the impact on migration is due characteristics (e.g. infrastructure, access to basic to an improvement of program implementation or services and government supported programs).57 other macro-level factors such as the improvement Of further interest is the potential effectiveness in employment opportunities in forest village of development programs in forest villages on communities over time. It would be important migration. Thus the model also includes three to further explore the underlying reasons of the policy-related variables, including membership beneficial impact of membership, although this in forest-related cooperatives and associations, would involve a more detailed assessment of forest income dependency (measured by forest programs implemented by forest associations and income share) and income diversification strategies cooperatives. (measured by non-forest wage income share). With regard to the forest dependency variable It is also important examine how the impact (share of forest income), the results show that of policies on migration varies over time by households who are more dependent on forests for distinguishing between recent migrant households income are more likely to have permanent migrants (within 5 years of at the time of survey, 2011-2016) in the family. The result remains consistent over and those with migrants who left long time ago (say, the past 10 years. This finding is consistent with the between 2005-2010). The household survey shows stated reasons for migration in Table 21, confirming that about 13 percent households had at least one that forest income is insufficient to support permanent migrant during the past 5 years, and household’s livelihood and, hence, households with 11 percent during the early 5-year period (2005- limited options other than forest resources have 2010), indicating an upward trend to migration. to resort to sending family members to seek jobs outside as a coping strategy. The empirical results (presented in Appendix 4) show that two variables, membership of While there exists ample scope to further modify forest cooperatives and associations and forest the model’s specification, the empirical findings dependency have a statistically significant impact are robust. The estimated coefficients from the on the probability of migration, after controlling econometric model could be used to perform for other factors. Households that belong to forest policy simulations to illustrate the impact of various cooperatives and associations are more likely to policy proposals on migration. stay in forest villages. For example, Table 24 presents an illustration This migration ‘reduction effect’ of membership is of a policy simulation on the migration impact only significant within the past five years (i.e. there is of a hypothetical policy proposal that aims to no effect on migration in the five-year period 2005- expand membership of forest cooperatives to 2010). This may indicate that some of the benefits cover all forest villagers. The survey data shows received by households from forest cooperatives that currently only about 6 percent of households and associations, either in the form of credit or belonged to forest cooperatives and associations, employment, has made an impact on the migration and the estimated probability of households with decision only in recent years. Coincidently, the permanent migrants within a 10-year period is timing also aligns with the restructuring of FDGVR 36 percent. If membership were expanded to all in 2011 when it was replaced by ORKOY, as part forest village households, the migration probability of GDF, with the objective to contribute to the falls to 29 percent, while the no migration case development and attainment of production targets increases to 57 percent, i.e. a potential reduction of forests through implementing a variety of of 17 percent out-flow of population. Using the 57. Probability (migration) = f( Xhh, Wvillage, Policy variables), where Xhh are household variables including age, education of household head, household income; Wvillage are village-level characteristics including village infrastructure; and Policy variables including membership of forest cooperative, membership of other cooperatives, and forest dependency (measured by the share of forest- related income). 70 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note official 2014 population data, this simulation shows 2.5.5 Conclusions that about 500,000 people (or 7 percent of forest village population in 2014) could have stayed in The findings from the household survey provides the villages. While the results should only be used important insights into livelihood strategies as for illustrative purposes, this simulation shows well as linkages between income generation the potential impact of policy reform in forest opportunities, forest dependency and migration development programs on household migration decisions among forest village households. While decisions. the income sources among households in forest communities are relatively diverse, the majority TABLE 24 ESTIMATED PROBABILITY OF of households engaged in low productivity, low MIGRATION AND POLICY SIMULATION paid activities, such as sale of forest products, and Sample Simulated supplementing forest income through agricultural mean mean and livestock activities with returns significantly (if all hh lower that non-forest wage jobs. As a result, become about 80 percent forest households live below member) the national poverty line in 2016. The household Percent HH being member 5.8 100 of forest associations survey presents some evidence of a poverty trap, Probability (percent) i.e. majority households are trapped in vicious links between poverty, forest dependency and limited Perm migration 36 29 options for economic diversification into higher, Intent to migrate 16 15 more productive non-forest wage jobs. Not migrate 49 57 Number of people leaving 2,554,734 2,057,980 The high poverty incidence among village within 5 years communities is one of the driving forces underlying Note: The official data shows that in 2014, there were 7,096,483 people living in forest villages. the rising trend of migration. On the other hand, migration has posed a major challenge to sustain the livelihood of forest communities: among Understanding the interlinkages between forest households with permanent migrants, about one- dependency, income diversification and migration fifth have no prime working age members left in decisions warrants further investigation and the household. The serious labor shortage has needs to take into account economic factors at become a major obstacle for meeting the demand the household and community level as well as the for sustaining forest management and diversifying role of forest development programs. In particular, local economies. However, the findings from the information on how public programs supported by survey presents some encouraging evidence, ORKOY could be targeted to effectively support indicating that targeted forest development households in improving productivity and income programs such as those implemented by ORKOY diversification. These policies would also need to can have a significant impact on reducing migration be consistent with those under other Ministries as propensity. The program impact became significant well, namely policies that address high poverty since 2011 when ORKOY was established as a GDF incidence and migration. department to resume the role and responsibilities of GDFVR. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 71 The evidence from the survey analysis also 2.6 Climate Change and suggests that public policies and development Biodiversity programs should aim to break the poverty trap while addressing migration issues through 2.6.1 Climate Change targeted interventions. Two key components of the policy intervention should be highlighted. Turkey has a special position in the global climate First, enhancing the productivity of forest related change regime, which in turn influences its climate jobs through investment in forest management change law and policy. When the United Nations equipment, skill training, and infrastructure Framework Convention on Climate Change development. This should be complemented by an (UNFCCC) was established, Turkey was included increase of the compensation of forest wage jobs in Annex I (developed countries) and Annex through a greater budget allocation by the GDF. II (developing countries). Turkey objected to Secondly, expanding non-forest wage employment being listed as an Annex I or II party. It refused opportunities through connecting the local to sign the treaty and failed in its attempts to be economies to production supply value chains. In removed from both Annexes. One of Turkey’s particular, policies should focus on developing main arguments in relation to the listings was SMEs for NWFPs such as processing and packaging that it was neither a fully developed country nor for export, while supporting local communities a country in economic transition. In 2000, Turkey to connect to the market. In the internet era, changed its policy and sought to be removed from connecting supply chain trade through e-commerce Annex II while remaining on Annex I (with special has transformed the marketplace across the globe, circumstances). The Conference of the Parties and become the new engine for growth and job (COP) accepted this approach in 2001 but the creation. The success stories from other countries term ‘special circumstances’ remains undefined. can be replicated in Turkey in order to realize the Although Turkey became a party to the UNFCCC in huge potential presented in the forest sector as 2004, it maintains an expectation that the Annexes pathway to promote sustainable employment and will be re-categorized on the basis of state social improve the welfare of local communities. and economic levels. Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, but is not yet subject to While the analysis provides some evidence of emission reduction or limitation obligations.58 the impact of forest dependent cooperatives and associations on migration, further analysis is The GDF has been the national coordinator of Land warranted to delve deeper into the significance of Use Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) the relationships between these issues. It would since 2008 and prepares annual GHG inventories. be important to identify policies and programs that The climate change working group (CC WG) in would be most effective in increasing the value- GDF has responsibility for policy and strategy added from forest-related income activities while formulation in relation to climate change. balancing migration and promoting economic diversification among forest communities. In 2010 Turkey prepared its Climate Change Strategies may vary by different strata as the issues Strategy (2010-2020) which sets out short, medium may be different. But inherently the long-term goal and long term measures for GHG emissions control is to achieve a win-win outcomes that ensure forest across the various sectors including forestry. resource sustainability, biodiversity conservation, The forestry measures in the forestry focus on and improving the living standards of the forest combating deforestation and forest degradation dependent population. together with studies on climate change impacts on forest ecosystems and identifying and planting more drought resistant tree species. The area of climate change related activities undertaken between 2011 and 2016 are presented in Table 25. 58. Kayhan, A.K. Country Report Turkey: Turkey’s Climate Change Dilemma. 5 IUCNAEL EJournal 270-276. 72 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 25 CLIMATE CHANGE ACTIVITIES 2009-2016 (HA) 59 Up to and Activity including 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Total Afforestation (from 1946) 2,121,867 42,009 46,656 40,325 38,986 48,230 2,338,073 Rehabilitation (from 1998) 2,144,964 347,719 106,182 100,432 94,411 106,268 2,899,976 Erosion control (from 1962) 938,432 83,131 83,964 80,517 75,009 96,876 1,357,929 Avalanche control 340 130 180 650 Range Improvement (from 1962) 142,199 9,635 9,920 16,383 23,843 12,778 214,758 Special Afforestation (from 1986) 116,638 4,944 1,975 3,984 3,012 3,245 133,798 Artificial Regeneration (from 1973) 789,633 12,958 8,921 10,794 9,197 8,885 840,388 Energy Forest 622,878 - - - - - 622,878 Total 6,876,611 500,396 257,958 252,435 244,588 276,462 8,408,450 FIGURE 19 ESTIMATED NET EMISSIONS / REMOVALS (‘000T) 65,000 With Measures 63,000 No Measures 61,000 59,000 CO2e 57,000 55,000 53,000 51,000 49,000 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Year The Climate Change Action Plan, adopted in 2011, been met including afforestation, erosion control built on this strategy. This set out ambitious targets and rehabilitation. Success is measured through for afforestation and rehabilitation of degraded seedling survival and this averages 85 percent for forests: 2.429 million ha afforestation, erosion afforestation while for erosion control the success control and rehabilitation within the scope of the can be measured through reduced erosion and a National Afforestation Campaign started in 2008 reduction in the area subject to erosion. Seedling and completed in 2012. As part of these activities, survival rates are lower than for afforestation. 2 billion seedlings were planted. The afforestation mobilization has rapidly afforested open areas, Figure 19 shows the predicted additionality of the highway banks, schools, hospitals, local health Climate Change Action plan on the net removal of centers and cemeteries. Targets in the main have emissions. 59. Climate Change Activities in GDF in Turkey (Mitigation and Adaptation). Caglar Bassullu 20th Session of Near East Forestry and Range Commission, 2012 Kemer/Antalya. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 73 The GEF project - Integrated Approach altitudinal gradient. Species at the lower altitudes to Management of Forests in Turkey, with of mountains in Europe are already suffering Demonstration in High Conservation Value Forests from decreased precipitation and increased in the Mediterranean Region - which started in 2014 temperature.60 Therefore, the immediate effect and ends 2018 will help to demonstrate a model for that climate change signals is the shift in the range integration of carbon emission avoidance / carbon of suitability for forest tree species across Europe. sequestration measures and protected areas in These changes will certainly lead to an increase of forest landscape management over a total area of biotic damages, as tree species become increasingly 450,000 ha. It will promote policy, regulatory and susceptible to attack from pests. Forests will also institutional changes to enable both the success of become more susceptible to abiotic damages the demonstration efforts as well as that of a larger- produced by more frequent windstorms, droughts scale replication across Turkey’s Mediterranean and forest fires. forests. The project will support the preparation of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) 2.6.2 Forestry’s Contribution to the for the forestry sector. Demonstration projects Intended Nationally Determined to avoid emissions and enhance stocks will be Contribution (INDC implemented and registered to carbon markets. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions According to the Fourth Assessment Report of (INDCs) is a term used under the United Nations the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (IPCC), Turkey is located in the Mediterranean for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all Basin that is especially vulnerable to the adverse countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to impacts of climate change. The impact of climate publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations change, which will have a clear latitudinal effect Climate Change Conference held in Paris, France through the increase of temperatures and drought in December 2015. The INDC is a mechanism to in southern Europe, is already noticeable in the set the contribution of signatory countries to keep 60. Source: MOTIVE and Trees4Future FP7 projects. 74 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 20 TURKEY’S GHG EMISSIONS TARGET UNDER THE INDC 1,400 Reduction Scenario 1,175 1,200 Reference Scenario (BAU) 21% 934 (246 Mt) 1,000 843 929 800 673 790 572 717 600 477 430 599 535 400 430 449 200 0 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 the impact of human-caused climate change on To achieve the INDC target, specific sectors have global warming below 2°C under the United Nations to undertake their own set of plans and actions Framework Convention on Climate Change. The to reduce their contribution to the country’s total INDC is a document that contains the commitments GHG emissions. This includes initiatives in such and projections of countries based on reductions of sectors as energy, industry, transport, buildings national greenhouse gas emissions, similar to the and urban transformation, agriculture, waste and Kyoto Protocol. INDCs or national contributions cover forestry. Specific plans and policies for each sector the period after 2020, when Kyoto Protocol expires. are listed in Appendix 4. As a country, Turkey has committed to a 21 percent reduction in GHG The Ministry of Environment and Urbanization emissions from the Business-As-Usual (BAU) level and TÜBİTAK executed a joint Project to present by 2030 (Figure 20). Turkey’s INDC. Under the Project, projections based on best and worst case scenarios were received from The forestry sector is viewed as an important all sectors in the national greenhouse gas inventory contributor to achieving the INDC target – but for all years through 2030, and these projections mainly through its carbon sequestration potential were consolidated by TÜBİTAK. The studies were (i.e. the ability of the forest to absorb carbon conducted under the supervision of Climate Change dioxide). The INDC includes carbon sequestration and Weather Management Coordination Committee projections for the forest sector, which is the (IDHYKK), and finalized in the UN summit with the most important carbon ‘sink’ area. The specific contributions of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The assumptions by the forestry sector to the two INDC was submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat on scenarios (i.e. BAU and Reduction) are: September 30, 2015 and accepted as the 133rd INDC by all submitting countries. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 75 FIGURE 21 TURKEY’S FORESTRY INDC COMMITTMENT 80,000,000 72,229,347 68,710,382 70,000,000 CO2 reduction (tons/year) 60,000,000 29,512,257 50,000,000 40,000,000 39,198,125 Reduction Scenario (blue) 30,000,000 (CO2 equivalent tons/year) BAU Scenario (red) (CO2 equivalent tons/year) 20,000,000 1995 2000 2005 2010 2012 2014 2017 2018 2020 2025 2030 1. Reduction Scenario Under the BAU Scenario, emissions would fall by 39 million equivalent tons per year, representing • GDF 2013-2017 Strategic Plan, National Forestry approximately 3.23 percent of all emissions, and if Program (2004-2023) taken into consideration; targets are met under the Reduction Scenario, CO2 • GDF achieves the 2023 target (forest area 30 emissions would fall by 68.7 million equivalent tons percent = 23.4 million ha of the national territory); per year - an additional 29.5 million equivalent tons • Productive forest area assumed to reach by 2030 (Figure 21). If targets under the Reduction 12,000,000 ha by 2030. Scenario are realized this would represent a reduction of 6.89 percent of all emissions from 2. Reference Scenario all sectors and would constitute 12 percent of the 21 percent reduction target (Table 26). Thus the • Afforestation figures before 1996 (20,000 ha/ forestry sector would be one of the most important year) remain constant; sectors in reducing carbon emissions in Turkey. • Insufficient forest rehabilitation; • Increased population and settlement pressure; • Afforestation potential assumed to decline. 76 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 26 AMOUNT AND SHARE OF FORESTS IN INDC Forest Areas and Total GHG Share of Forest Areas and Processed Forest Processed Forest Products Products CO2 in Total Emissions equivalent (ton) Reduction, percent Emissions Emissions (all sectors) (excl. Forest Areas CO2 equivalent and Processed (ton) Forest Products) CO2 equivalent (ton) Reference Scenario -39,198,125 1,175,000,000 1,214,198,125 3.23 (Business-As-Usual) 2030 Reduction Scenario 2030 -68,710,382 929,000,000 997,710,382 6.89 Reduction / Sink amount -29,512,257 246,000,000 216,487,743 (Difference) Reduction / (Sink Increment) 75 percent 21 percent 18 percent Amount (percent) Share of Forest Areas and 12 percent Processed Forest Products in reduction commitment (percent) 2.6.3 Biodiversity Forests are home to a wide range of flora and fauna and house significant portions of Turkey’s natural Turkey consists of three different bio-geographic biodiversity resource. In recent years forest ecosystems regions, each with its own endemic species and have come under increasing pressure and many natural ecosystems. These are (i) the Caucasian species and ecosystems are in danger through (a) mountain forests with the temperate deciduous the excessive use of forests in mountain ecosystems forest including alpine meadows, (ii) Central and without considering their bearing capacity both Eastern Anatolian Steppe Grassland and (iii) the at ecosystem and species levels (hunting, grazing, Mediterranean region. Climate and topography harvesting, tourism, in-forest construction activities, play an important role in maintaining the country’s etc.), (b) the impacts of atmospheric pollution and rich biodiversity. global climate change, (c) pressures from communities living in and around forests on agricultural and Turkey has circa 11,707 plant species of which forestry products (livestock, uncontrolled use, gaining 3,649 are endemic61, some 161 species of mammals, farmlands and forest fires), (d) increasing construction 460 bird species, 716 fish species, and 141 reptile due to tourism incentives, uplands tourism, the high species.62 In addition, it has two of the three major number of visitors in the archaeological sites, (e) flyways for migratory birds between the Western alien species, (f) over gathering of plants having Palaearctic and Africa. an economical value, (g) mining activities and (h) improper afforestation.64 Biodiversity is the basis for all ecosystem services. The role of forests in maintaining diversity of habitats as well as species and genetic diversity is indisputable: of all environments, forests have the richest biodiversity provision.63 61. Turkey Biological Diversity Monitoring and Evaluation Report 2012 62. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 63. Bastrup-Birk EEA’s contribution to biodiversity maintenance. European Forest Week Engelberg 2015 64. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2007. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 77 FIGURE 22 TURKEY TIMBER PRICES ($/M3)   clas 3rd   pine sawlog  3rd   clas   beech   sawlog   sawlog Small Chipswood Pulpwood 160 158 140     (TL/$:2,02) 120 109 116 100 104   prices: 2011 80 81 77   70 67   Constant 60 43 40 35 20 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013sep Source: Bali 2013 The Law on National Parks outlines the legal 2.7 Role of Private Sector Wood framework, defines the status and regulations for Industry / SMEs the designation and management of protected areas. There are 40 National Parks (828,614 ha), Turkey has a large wood processing sector. Primary 204 Nature Parks (99,394 ha), 31 Nature Protection processing (sawmills) is undertaken by an estimated Areas (64,224 ha) and 112 Nature Monuments (6,993 7,013 sawmills. The traditional sawnwood mills ha). A further 1,192,794 ha is set aside in 81 wildlife have been slow to invest and improve technology. conservation areas for the protection of rare and There is however on-going rationalization within endangered species under the Hunting Law. The the sector with smaller mills closing. The pallet and total land protected area was 6,782,628 ha at the end packaging mills (estimated at 637) have invested of 2015 or 8.7 percent of the land area. According in new technology and are considered efficient. to another calculation, the combined single surface There are around 30,000 furniture manufacturers area of protected areas, both land and sea, is again mainly small scale with only 150 employing 5,964,099 ha or 7.65 of the country’s surface area. more than 100 staff and only 40 with more than This compares with an EU average of 18.14 percent 250 employees.66 Total employment is estimated land designated as Natura 2000 sites.65 at 150,000. The furniture industry has seen significant growth over the past decade driven 65. Natura 2000 Nature and Biodiversity Newsletter Number 38 June 2015. European Commission. 66. USDA Foreign Agricultural Services Gain Report (2010). Forest Products Report for Turkey. 78 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note by demand from a growing population, migration to 21 percent by 2017 through mainly increasing to the cities and rising incomes. The furniture the proportion of standing sales to 55 percent by sector is concentrated in Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, 2017. This strategy assumes that the necessary Kayseri, Adana and Bursa-Inegol. Turkey imports supply chain infrastructure including professional circa 1 million m3 of sawnwood of which circa 0.9 harvesting contractors will more than double over million m3 is coniferous, Black sea countries such a four-year period and will develop expertise using as Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Romania and Bulgaria more modern equipment and yield efficiencies. supply more than 90 percent of these imports. In the absence of a more planned and phased approach this is unlikely to happen. Timber prices are considered by the wood industry sector to be relatively high when compared with Taking the industrial wood sector overall an estimated Europe. This is due in part to the strong demand and 77 percent of domestic demand is met by sales of rapid growth over the past decade but also to the roundwood from GDF, 15 percent by the private relatively high cost of harvesting and inefficiencies sector with the balance coming from imports.67 along the various elements of the supply chain. Notwithstanding the high timber prices, in real Turkey’s wood based panels sector has experienced terms prices have remained relatively flat over the rapid growth in recent years due to a boom in the past decade (Figure 22). However, if the sector construction industry and rising incomes. Turkey’s is to continue to develop it will be necessary to board production was 100,000 m3 in the early improve its competiveness and this in part can 2000s, increased to 5.5 million m3 by 2010 and only be achieved through more efficiencies in how with additional capacity added in 2012-2014 Turkey timber is harvested and supplied across the sector. is now in the top five panel producer worldwide. The GDF Strategic Plan 2013-2017 recognizes this There are circa 40 facilities, 22 of which produce prerequisite for future development and has set chip board while 18 produce fiber board. According targets for reducing the ratio of production costs to the Chip Board Industrialists Association (2012) to timber sales revenue from 33 percent in 2013 chip board plants had an established capacity of FIGURE 23 PANEL INDUSTRY PRODUCTION CAPACITY BY YEAR 6,900 6,600 Particle board Fibre board 6,300 5741 6,000 5,700 5,400 5,100 4,800 5189 1000 m³/year 4,500 4,200 3,900 3,600 3,300 3,000 2,384 2,700 2,400 2,100 1,800 1,500 1,200 900 792 600 300 0 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Source: Bali 2013 67. Bali, R. (2013) Market Developments in Turkey. Metsa2013 Joint session of ECE committee on forests and forest industry. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 79 17,427 m3/day and an actual daily production of progressively involved in the forest sector and 14,437  m3/day (5,269,505 m3 per year) while the have a significant role in major forest management capacity of established and active fiberboard activities.71 mills was 13,645 m3/day (4,980,425 m3/year). Due to expansion this increased further in 2012- Unfortunately, the forestry legislation makes no 2014 (Figure 23). The yearly wood requirement specific reference to a right of access to information for active capacities (as opposed to that of the and decision making processes of the interested established capacities) is 10.4 million m3 of wood stakeholders other than the state forest service for chip board. Likewise, wood needed for fiber and related public institutions. board is 15 million m3.68 The shortfall in raw material, mainly for the medium density fiberboard (MDF) panels, is met through imports and in 2013 Turkey The mandate of the GDF to achieve enhanced imported 3.28 million m3 of chips principally from public involvement and participation in sustainable the USA and Canada and was the second largest management of forest resources can only be achieved chip importer in Europe.69 Security of raw material through the introduction of innovative arrangements supply is an issue going forward but despite this for exchanging information, consultation, co- there are plans for further expansion. operation and participation in forestry activities, with external groups and organizations especially NGOs, Taking the wood processing sector overall and at and the general public. current harvesting levels, an estimated 64 percent of domestic demand is met by sales of roundwood 2.9 Forest Certification, FOREST from GDF, 17 percent by the private sector with the balance of 17 percent coming from imports. EUROPE and Impact of the EU Timber Regulation and the US 2.8 Public Involvement Lacey Act and Participation 2.9.1 Forest Certification The best public participatory management is based on mutual trust, enhanced communication and Forest certification provides an independent co-operation among all stakeholders involved in assurance that the quality of management practiced process. This may contribute to sustainable forest by an enterprise conforms to specified standards. management by; increasing public awareness In the case of forests, the management of the among the public, maximizing the total benefits of forest is compared to a standard of good forestry forests, ensuring the sharing of costs and benefits practice. There are a number of forest certification in an equitable way and, enhancing the social schemes worldwide, but in Europe the two most acceptance of sustainable forest management.70 active schemes are the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Program for the Endorsement of Various provisions of the Forest Law envisage Forest Certification Schemes (PEFC). some benefits for rural populations living in or near forests without aiming at an effective involvement The main state-owned forest enterprises in of the public in decision making. Nonetheless, Europe have become certified for a combination in recent years, some private actors, such as of reasons, not least being the recognition that forest village cooperatives, forestry industry and markets for timber and timber related products non-governmental organizations, have become are increasingly demanding that products are 68. Yıldırım et al (2014) Wood-based panels industry in Turkey: Future raw material challenge and suggestions. Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología 16(2): 175-186, 2014. 69. Forest products annual market review 2013-2014. UNECE 70. The Ministerial Conference for Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE), 2002. 71. Workshop for the Review and Validation of the Draft Study on Forestry Legislation of FAO SEC countries, Istanbul, 16-18 July 2012. 80 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 27 FOREST AREA CERTIFIED Planned Indicator 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Certified Forest ('000 ha) 93 1,425 1,796 2,367 3,250 3,600 4,000 Note: Definition for forest has impact on area classed as certified certified. Secondly, certification demonstrates mainly from export markets. However, it has also to the public, to the forest sector stakeholders been assisted by the fact that most of the forest and to the environmental community that forests products imported especially from European are being responsibly managed. It also provides countries are already certified. The first chain of greater transparency as to how forest resources custody (CoC) certificate was issued in 2008 and are managed and an opportunity for stakeholders as of the end of 2014 there were 257 valid CoC to engage with forest owners including the state. certificates under FSC. A recent survey showed that the majority of companies within the sector The GDF has elaborated sustainable forest were aware of certification and believed it would management (SFM) National Criteria and Indicators have positive impact on sales although this varied comprising 6 criteria and 28 indicators and their use with particular market segment being lowest in the and understanding has been supported through an solid wood products sector and highest in wood extensive series of workshops countrywide. These are panels and paper manufacturers.72 based on FOREST EUROPE criteria with adaptation of the indicators to suit the Turkish situation. 2.9.2 FOREST EUROPE The process of state forests becoming certified FOREST EUROPE is the Pan-European policy began in 2010 with a pilot project in Bolu. By the end process for the sustainable management of the of 2014 a total area of 2.4 million ha has been certified continent’s forests founded in 1990. It develops to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) (Table 27). The common strategies for its 46 participating countries certified forest area produces circa 3.5 million m3 and the European Union (EU) on how to protect annually. The GDF plans to expand the area under and sustainably manage forests. certification to 5,000,000 ha by the end of 2019. Since its foundation, twenty-one resolutions have There is no national Turkey forest standard for been adopted at seven Ministerial Conferences73 either FSC or PEFC and the forests were certified (Strasbourg 1990, Helsinki 1993, Lisbon 1998, under either the generic Woodmark standard Vienna 2003, Warsaw 2007, Oslo 2011 and Madrid of the Soil Association or Qualifor standard of 2015). Through these commitments, the concept Société Générale de Surveillance (SGS). The GDF of sustainable forest management (SFM) has been is collaborating with the Turkish national standard defined and continuously developed at the Pan- authority towards the development of a PEFC European level. standard for Turkey. Turkey has been a member of FOREST EUROPE The forest products sector has made significant since its inception and is currently a member of the progress in terms of the trade in imports and General Coordinating Committee (GCC coordinates exports of wood and wood based products. the FOREST EUROPE work and advises the Liaison Concurrent with this market development, the Unit on implementation of FOREST EUROPE market for certified forest products (CFPs) has decisions and on strategic developments). begun to emerge. The demand for CFPs has come 72. Ahmet Tolunay, A and Türkoğlu T. Perspectives and Attitudes of Forest Products Industry Companies on the Chain of Custody Certification: A Case Study from Turkey. Sustainability 2014, 6, 857-871. 73. http://www.foresteurope.org/ministerial_conferences Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 81 FIGURE 24 FOREST EUROPE RESOLUTIONS SFM ECOLOGICAL ECONOMIC SOCIO-CULTURAL W1 Forests, Wood and Energy W2 Forests and Water V1 Cross-sectoral Cooperation and National Forest Programmes V4 Forests Biological Diversity V2 Economic Viability of SFM V3 Social & Cultural Dimensions of SFM V5 Climate Change and SFM L1 Socio Economic Aspects of SFM L2 Pan European Criteria , Indicators and PEOLG for SFM H1 Sustainable Management of Forests in Europe H2 Conservation of Biodiversity H3 Cooperation with Countries in Transition H4 Adaption of Forest to Climate Change S1 Monitoring of Ecosystems S2 Genetic Resources S3 Data Bank on Forest Fires S4 Adapting the Management of Mountain Forests S5 Research Tree Physiology S6 Research Forest Ecosystems M1 Forest Sector in Green Economy M2 Protecting Forests in Changing Environment 82 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note In addition to quantitative Criteria and Indicators, 2.9.4 EU Timber Regulation and US qualitative indicators have been elaborated and Lacey Act endorsed at the Pan-European level to address forest policies, institutions and instruments for SFM EU Regulation 995/2010 also known as the (Illegal) in general, as well as more specific policy areas. Timber Regulation counters the trade in illegally The assessment of these indicators helps monitor harvested timber and timber products through the status and changes in policies, institutions three key obligations: (1) It prohibits the placing and instruments, enhance accountability and on the EU market for the first time of illegally transparency of policy making, and allow a better harvested timber and products derived from understanding of the interplay between the state such timber; (2) It requires EU traders who place of forest and policy making. They also support the timber products on the EU market for the first strategic orientation of policies and, over time, help time to exercise ‘due diligence’; and (3) It requires create more efficient and effective policies and EU traders to keep records of their suppliers and institutional arrangements to govern SFM. customers (traceability). The Regulation covers a wide range of timber products and came into force 2.9.3 Rovaniemi Action Plan on 3rd March 2013. The Rovaniemi Action Plan for the Forest Sector in It is also worth noting that in 2008 the USA a Green Economy, adopted in 2013, describes how amended the 100-year old Lacey Act to include the the forest sector in the United Nations Economic banning of commerce in illegally sourced plants Commission for Europe (UNECE) region could lead and their products, which includes logs, sawn the way towards the emerging green economy wood, furniture, pulp and paper. This means that at the global level. It provides an overall vision, all wood products must be harvested, transported, objectives and specific activities, and identifies processed and exported in accordance with the potential actors, who might contribute to achieving relevant local legislation. The Lacey Act is a fact- the stated objectives. It is not a binding plan, nor based rather than document based statute in that does it contain prescriptive recommendations no document is a 100 percent guarantee of legality. to Governments, international organizations or It is up to the US importers and traders to exercise stakeholders, who are free to adopt, adapt, in full or ‘due care’, to ensure that all imports are produced in part, or not to implement the Action Plan as they in accordance with all relevant legislation. wish. The implementation of the Action Plan is being monitored by the UNECE/FAO Forestry and Timber Transparency International corruption perception Section which will also explore ways and means to index (CPI) saw Turkey’s score decrease from 50 to measure the contribution and the progress of the 45 in 2014.74 Although based on perceptions only, forest sector towards a Green Economy. the CPI is widely regarded as a key indicator of the level of corruption in a country. It is an integral part The first draft of the National Action Plan for of the FSC Controlled Wood (CW) system, and is Forest Sector in a Green Economy was prepared often used in due diligence systems for legal timber by the MFWA in 2014 with the GDF as the overall sourcing. In the FSC CW system, a CPI below 50 coordinator. The plan includes targets for each places a country in the “unspecified risk” category of the five pillars ((1) Sustainable production for legal timber harvesting (indicator 1.4 in the and consumption of forest products; (2) A low- Controlled Wood category 1 – Illegally Harvested carbon forest sector; (3) Decent green jobs in the Wood). Field verification of legal harvesting is forest sector; (4) Long term provision of Forest therefore required for companies sourcing CW Ecosystem Services; and (5) Policy development from such countries. and monitoring of the forest sector in relation to a green economy) and identifies the body (department / general directorate) responsible. 74. http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/publication/cpi2014 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 83 2.10 Forests and Integrated including rural people and NGOs over the period Water Basin Management 2008-2010. The objectives of the project were; to contribute to implement sustainable mountain (multi-sectoral approach) development in Turkey, to improve the livelihoods of rural mountain people through the establishment of Turkey is also a mountainous country that viable and area-specific income-generating activities. exhibits great diversity in geographical structure, topography, climate and plant cover. It is divided The Japan International Cooperation Agency into 26 hydrological watersheds in terms of the (JICA) co-funded (together with national budget) overall topography. Mean annual water flow of Coruh River Watershed Rehabilitation project these watersheds is circa 186 billion cubic meters. (2012-2019) is addressing the integrated watershed The average rainfall is about 650 mm, but ranges rehabilitation including vegetation, soil and water from 250 mm to 2,500 mm depending on locality. resources, enhancing the living standards of rural As a result of the combined effects of the harsh populations, protection of the soil, rehabilitation of topographical conditions and inappropriate land degraded forests, prevention of natural disasters use practices, over 80 percent of the country soils and other rehabilitation and prevention activities suffer from moderate to severe erosion. in the selected 13 micro catchments. GDF is the coordinating agency of the project. Forest management is an essential component of integrated land management. An Integrated The International Fund for Agricultural Development Landscape Management (LM) approach was also (IFAD) co-funded (together with national budget) suggested by the National Forestry Program (NFP) Murat River Watershed Rehabilitation project (2013- as a key target to be achieved in the medium to 2019) has three components; (a) natural resources long term. and environmental management, (b) investments in natural resources and environmental assets and Two World Bank co-financed (together with national (c) investments in small-scale agriculture. GDF is budget) watershed rehabilitation projects and an the coordinating agency of the project FAO technical co-operation project (TCP) have been implemented so that Turkey has already gained broad 2.11 Fiscal Issues (financing experience in watershed management practices. The Eastern Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation forest management) project was implemented in 11 provinces (in 66 catchments) over a ten-year period (1993-2003). The GDF, established by Law Nr. 3234 for The Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation project was the protection, development and sustainable implemented in 6 provinces. The project outcomes management of the country’s forests, is a public included the rehabilitation of degraded natural organization having legal personality. In order to resources, particularly degraded forests and pastures fulfil its mandate, the GDF has two different budgets in uplands, soil protection and erosion control in i.e. a special budget and a revolving budget. mountainous micro catchments as well improvement of the livelihood of rural communities, introducing of The general expectation from Treasury is that innovative income generating interventions. the activities of the GDF would be self-financing. However, the funding of expenses for afforestation, As a response to the global initiatives particularly erosion control, fire control, prevention and to the mandate of Chapter 13 of Agenda 21, a two- extinguishing, soil protection and cadastral works year project, “Development of public participation is covered from a special budget. In accordance and improvement of socio- economic prosperity with the Turkish public budgeting system, when in mountain communities; Yuntdagi Model” (TCP/ public institutions with a special budget, like the TUR/3102) was implemented through active GDF, encounter a budget deficit, the Treasury participation of a great number of stakeholders contributes to those institutions to make up the 84 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note TABLE 28 REVENUES AND COSTS GDF (‘000 US$) 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 (targets) SPECIAL BUDGET 1-Treasury’s contribution 386,072 436,489 502,466 494,222 652,318 (government 2-Own revenues 277,402 336,777 251,600 518,346 407,000 budget) REVENUES Subtotal 663,474 773,265 754,066 1,012,568 1,059,318 REVOLVING 1-Wood selling revenue 730,371 776,630 806,970 992,455 1,016,760 BUDGET 2-Other revenues 83,629 81,400 79,180 46,082 49,950 Subtotal 814,000 858,030 886,150 1,038,537 1,066,710 TOTAL REVENUES 1,477,474 1,631,295 1,640,216 2,051,105 2,126,028 SPECIAL BUDGET 1-Personel expenses 328,840 348,901 383,956 443,130 474,065 (government 2-Social insurance 72,529 77,444 85,440 97,938 106,593 budget) 3-Purchases (goods and 56,870 69,381 53,037 71,640 63,082 services) 4-Current transfers 6,864 14,133 10,349 17,381 18,380 5-Capital costs 180,040 169,641 179,524 354,297 342,620 COSTS 6-Capital transfers 694 11,138 6,946 8,022 9,196 7-Lending 27,040 44,412 35,184 39,400 45,381 Subtotal 672,877 735,050 754,436 1,031,808 1,059,317 REVOLVING 1- Investment costs 55,130 69,005 71,040 59,334 78,588 BUDGET 2-Current expenses 758,870 789,025 815,110 947,812 988,122 Subtotal 814,000 858,030 886,150 1,007,146 1,066,710 TOTAL COSTS 1,486,877 1,593,080 1,640,586 2,038,954 2,126,027 deficit. The recipient must provide an element investments e.g. forest roads. The operation of the of marching funds, which in the case of the GDF revolving budget is more flexible then the special comes from permits for mining, tourism and budget and, depending on circumstances and the recreation (Articles 16-18 of the Forest Law). The operating environment during the year, the funds special budget requires approval by Parliament. and activities can be changed to reflect changing The basis for investments under the special budget market needs and changed operating environment. is the GDF Strategic Plan which is in line with the requirements of the 10th National Development There is a well-defined budget preparation process Plan. Monies allocated under the special budget are which starts in July/August each year. The Forest ring fenced and cannot be used for other purposes. Districts prepare their proposals and these are reviewed at Regional Directorate level before being The revolving budget comprises mainly revenues submitted to the relevant units in the headquarters from roundwood sales, and is used to offset for further review and analysis. Following this, a the major forest management expenses such draft budget is prepared and goes to the budget as protection, maintenance, improvement, commission which assesses past performance and regeneration, rehabilitation, production works compliance with the strategic plan and objectives. for roundwood and NWFPs. Thus the revenues A revised draft is prepared and forms the basis of coming from the forest resource are in the main discussions with the Regional Directorates and also returned to forests to improve, regenerate and input from GDF headquarters until a final budget expand forests. The revolving budget requires is agreed. Once the budget is agreed then each approval by the Minister. As of the end-2016, Forest District finalizes their program in line with circa 40 percent of the revolving fund budget the new budget. Budgets are monitored monthly goes towards general administration expenses, 37 at all levels within GDF and where necessary percent towards production expenses and costs corrective actions are taken. Both budgets operate and the balance of 23 percent, towards capital as three year rolling budgets. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 85 The costs of afforestation and ORKOY were million or 8,286,305 TL in 2015. Due the practice of covered by special funds namely the “ORKOY applying tariff prices, the contribution of NWFPs Fund” and the “Afforestation Fund” separately up is understated. The focus is on providing low cost to 2006. Both of these were closed by the Law No raw material to villages and facilitating them to add 5018, put into effect in 2006. These funds were value and earn alternative income rather than on replaced with the “Special Budget” fund of GDF. profit. This practice operates as an indirect support The revenues of the special budget come from the to the villages. same resources as the funds it replaced. Current transfers (item 4) includes the hire of 2.11.1 General Revenues and Costs airplanes and helicopters for fire control, capital transfers (item 6) refers to grants to villages and Over the period 2012 to 2015, the GDF operated lending (item 7) is loans to villages. at an annual loss of US$ 411.28 million with the deficit being balanced by matching funds from the Currently (2016) there is a more or less even Treasury’s contribution to the special budget (Table contribution to the overall budget from the special 28). Revenues from the revolving budget (sales of and revolving budgets. The trend in recent years wood products, sales of NWFPs etc.) comprise is for the contribution from the revolving budget circa 54 percent of total revenues. The revolving to decrease. The Treasury contribution to total budget is almost totally reliant on roundwood sales revenues was 21.4 percent in 2016. The Treasury which account for 90 percent of revenues and the contribution to total revenues varies year on year trend is for this dependency to increase rather than and was 26.1 percent in 2012, 30.6 percent in 2014 decrease over time. Sales of NWFPs are included and 24.6 percent in 2015. The reliance on Treasury’s under timber sales and contributed US$ 3.03 contribution and wood product sales revenues 86 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 25 IMPACT OF FORESTRY SECTOR ON THE REST OF THE ECONOMY 0.040 Total Indirect 0.035 Direct 0.030 % GDP 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 1973 1979 1985 1990 1998 2002 Year Source: Turkstat (data for 1973-2002); Analysis by World Bank (2016) TABLE 29 TOP 15 SECTORS WITH LINKAGES TO THE FORESTRY SECTOR (PERCENT) Product sector Direct Indirect 02 Products of forestry, logging and related services 65,276 64,605 20 Wood and products of wood and cork (except furniture); articles of straw and 9,432 1,680 plaiting materials 21 Pulp, paper and paper products 3,058 974 37 Secondary raw materials 1,023 1,023 36 Furniture; other manufactured goods n.e.c. 862 726 22 Printed matter and recorded media 846 794 10 Coal and lignite; peat 746 63 73 Research and development services 403 191 16 Tobacco products 367 367 13 Metal ores 333 79 55 Hotel and restaurant services 287 90 45 Construction work 275 272 74 Other business services 231 222 27 Basic metals 210 201 26 Other non-metallic mineral products 203 182 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 87 leaves the GDF overly exposed to fluctuations in Sectors purchase forest products and use them the national economy and timber markets. The as inputs to produce other goods. Likewise, the development of other sources of revenue based forestry sector buys inputs from other sectors. The around the sustainable management of the forest economy-wide demand for forest products grows resource will be necessary to provide more stable as other sectors grow – so it is important to know revenue flows into the future. which sectors have the highest demand for forest products. Listed in Table 29 are the top 15 sectors 2.12 Linkages of the in terms of how forest products are used in other sectors (see Appendix 6 for full results). The largest Forestry Sector to the share is internal to the forest sector with 74 percent Rest of the Economy and 85 percent of direct and indirect benefits – then pulp and paper, raw materials (recycling), furniture, The forestry sector has important linkages to other mining, construction and other specific products. sectors in the economy. From the first planning Together these top 15 comprise over 94 percent of period around 1939, the sector has had important direct and indirect output. forward and backward linkages mainly through industrial forestry.75 Since that time – the sector The forestry sector is exposed to demand has diversified and linked itself to numerous other fluctuations in other sectors and thus needs to sectors in the economy. However, the sector’s understand other product markets. It should also growth trend has been on the decline mostly as develop different options to help mitigate the a result of large growth in other sectors such as impacts of variability in other product markets. cement IT and manufacturing (e.g. white goods). One natural mechanism would be to diversify its Using input-output tables from Turkstat, it can product range to other sectors (more of them), or be seen in Figure 25 that the total direct and to those with stronger market demand (deepening). indirect impacts of forestry activities on the rest Another strategy could involve a diversified of the economy has been declining since the early portfolio of forest products that minimize either 1970’s until 2002. While input-output tables from seasonal or economic fluctuations. For example, 2002 to the present are not available – this period produce a range of products that meet high-end experienced tremendous growth until around needs during good economic times (higher value- 2007 – and widely variable growth thereafter to added products), and another range of products the present – largely as a combination of political, that could weather less favorable economic institutional and economic reasons such as the conditions (lower value-added, but higher volume- response to the financial crisis.76 based, products). 75. Danchev, A. et al., 2005. Turkey. Acta Silva Lignaria Hungarica, Special Edition, 779-811. 76. Acemoglu and Ucer, 2015. The Ups and Downs of Turkish Growth, 2002-2015: Political Dynamics, the European Union and the Institutional Slide. NBER Working Paper 21608. 88 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 89 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVED SFM 3.1 General inform domestic forest policy, to support forest The 22.3 million ha of forest, 99.9 percent of which research and fulfil national and international is owned and managed by the State, represents reporting commitments. This is currently lacking as a valuable resource not only in terms of its there is no National Forest Inventory. impact on soil erosion, watershed management, carbon sequestration, biodiversity but also in The purpose of the National Forest Inventory supporting the livelihood of vulnerable forest (NFI) would be to record and assess the extent village communities and providing the raw material and nature of Turkey’s forests, both public and supply for a world class wood panels industry and private, in a timely, accurate and reproducible wood processing sector. To ensure that the forest manner to enable the sustainable development of resource can continue to provide these valuable the country’s forest resource. It is an essential pre- functions and support both forest villages and the requisite to the future sustainable management wood processing sector in a sustainable and cost of forest resources. While some initial work was efficient manner into the future requires that Turkey undertaken in 2009, the need now is for an NFI and the GDF in particular will have to address a design and methodology to be finalized together number of challenges around the following topics: with the supporting logistics e.g. recording, analysis and reporting software, training and technology. a. Forest Resource Information; Once this is finalized the implementation of the NFI b. Forest Legislation; can be planned and resources allocated. c. Improving Competitiveness; d. Enhanced Wood Supply; A pre-requisite to the NFI is the definition of forests e. Sustainability of Forest Resources; and which is important especially in terms of common f. Role of the State. reporting to international commitments and for comparison / benchmarking between different 3.2 Forest Resource Information countries. While there are many national definitions of forest throughout Europe (Figure 26), in terms The development of society and the increasing of international reporting where current FAO awareness of the need to sustainably manage the definitions apply,77 Turkey’s definition of forest world’s natural resources, including forests, and the overstates the forest resource in comparison with reality of climate change, has led to the increasing European countries. Under the FAO definition, need for reliable multi-resource information and perhaps as much as 40 percent of Turkeys forest, reporting requirement on the status of forests under mainly the degraded forests, would be classed as a number of international conventions. Reliable, other wooded land i.e. land not defined as “Forest”, current and consistent information is required to spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees higher 77. FAO (2012) FRA 2015 Terms and Definitions. 90 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note FIGURE 26 COMPARISON OF THE to improved management to enhance the total DEFINITIONS OF FOREST IN EUROPE economic contributions of forests. Indeed, the effective absence of information on the value of such benefits from forests has meant an overemphasis in forest governance systems on managing forests for products that are highly visible, formally recognized, and with cash market value. Better information on the extent and value of ecosystem services is required if policy and decision makers are to be properly informed when making decisions and or allocating resources within the forestry sector and to enable forest managers to enhance / maximize the economic contribution of forestry to the economy. 3.3 Forest Legislation than 5 meters and a canopy cover of 5-10 percent, with some areas failing to meet this criteria and The main forest legislation was framed over half being classed as other land. However, to align Turkey a century ago and although subject to many with most other European countries by reducing the amendments in the intervening years suffers from minimum area requirement and to include the highly a number of identified deficiencies, many of these productive private sector plantations (currently not were recognized in the NFP adopted in 2004, such excluded from the Turkish definition of forests) as the Forest Law largely ignores the private sector, would result in an increase in the forest area. and that the draft Nature Protection Law (which is not in line with the EU acquis) that if adopted The change in the definition of forest could have without implementing legislation, would repeal the legal ramifications, however this could be overcome National Parks Law, causing a legal vacuum. by including two categories of forest - one for farm forests with a reduced minimum area and including There is now an opportunity to redraft the non-native species, and one for natural / semi- main Forest Code and in so doing to (a) redress natural forests. the identified deficiencies, (b) support the competitiveness of the sector through changes in Closely aligned with improvement in forest resource methods for timber sales, and (c) take on board information through the roll out of a NFI is improved the lessons learned from other countries who have information on the economic contribution of the redrafted their forest legislation over the past two forest resource to Turkey. The pilot study in the decades which include: Bolu region highlighted the importance of including values for NWFPs and forestry ecosystem services a. Avoid legislative over-reaching; in any economic analysis of forestry contribution to b. Use clear and concise legislative drafting style; the economy. The absence of aggregated data on c. Avoid unnecessary, superfluous or the economic contributions related to non-wood cumbersome licensing and approval forest products (NWFPs) and their value, and the requirements / procedures; lack of information systems that can incorporate d. Include provisions that enhance the such data systematically are major bottlenecks in a transparency and accountability of forest better understanding of forest sector contributions.78 decision-making process; and They also represent a deficiency when it comes e. Use a participatory process in drafting the Law. 78. Background Paper 1 Economic Contributions of Forests.(Agrawal et al)., Background paper prepared for the United Nations Forum on Forests 20 March, 2013, Istanbul, Turkey. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 91 The recent FAO report on forest legislation79 notes 3.4 Improving Competitiveness that identifying lands to be made perpetually subject to the forestry regime by law may be very difficult, Timber and timber products are globally traded as the evolution of society inevitably brings about commodities. If the wood processing sector in needs for other (possibly conflicting) land uses. Turkey is to remain competitive and compete It is important to have an effective, participatory with imports, then the GDF, which will remain land use planning process in place in order to the dominant supplier of roundwood into the facilitate consensus among concerned sectors of foreseeable future, has an important and strategic society. The contents of forestry legislation should role to play. The challenge for the GDF is to how be in line with such a process. Participation in this mobilize its annual timber harvest in a cost-efficient context requires a true commitment to listen and and sustainable fashion, thereby facilitating the understand the needs, objectives and capacities development of a competitive domestic timber of the intended users of the law and the forest processing sector through reducing costs and resource and to finding ways to accommodate the reconfiguring the timber supply chain. Any new multiple interests at stake. supply and procurement chain structures should : One way to promote greater transparency while a. Minimize harvesting and haulage inefficiencies; at the same time to involve stakeholders would be b. Allow for the presentation of contracted to establish a forest advisory body representative harvesting work packages in a more of the sector as a permanent officially recognized logistically efficient manner; forum for discussion. c. Allocate the timber resource to the processing sector as efficiently as possible The drafting of new legislation would provide the while optimizing its inherent / potential value; opportunity to fully incorporate the principles of d. Optimize the benefits of Information SFM and for integrated management planning Technology systems applicable to the timber covering not only forest produce yield but also industry; whole ecosystems, social aspects, environmental e. Minimize the requirement for and / or and biodiversity values, impacts on climate incidence of process duplication; and change and risks of desertification. The new law f. Maintain competition within all sectors would facilitate the inclusion of new definitions of involved. forest to harmonize with international reporting requirements and to include other useful categories An analysis of the component processes of the such as farm forests and semi-natural forests. timber supply chain is required to provide an up- to-date overview of the current industry cost of NWFPs and their sustainable exploitation, including timber supply and procurement while identifying adding value domestically, represent a significant a range of efficiency issues relating to the current opportunity to enhance the livelihood of forest configuration of the supply chain and the resultant villagers and the wider rural communities. The interaction of supplier (principally GDF), purchaser drafting of new legislation would also allow for the and harvesting entities including villages and incorporation of usufruct rights for forest villages for cooperatives. Continued reliance on forest villages NWFPs and for their sustainable management. Such for harvesting services is potentially non-viable in rights and provisions for sustainable management the medium to long term in view of their aging and would facilitate the development of NWFPs. declining population. 79. Cirelli, M.T. (2013) Forestry Legislation in Azerbaijan, Central Asian Countries and Turkey - Common issues and guidelines for reform. FAO, Rome. 92 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note This analysis would explore as part of its remit the existing forest resource in a sustainable and cost the possibility of changing the main timber sales efficient manner, building on improvements in the methods and the timing and frequency of timber overall model of the supply chain. Increased volumes sales. One possibility could be the extension of would help replace imported material for the wood standing sales from the current level of 30 percent panels sector and also provide much needed as envisaged in the Strategic Plan 2013-2017. security of supply so necessary for confidence and However, this only makes sense if the contracting investment in the sector and in wood energy. The infrastructure resource is incentivized to expand current levels of harvest are significantly below and become more efficient than current practices the annual allowable cut (AAC) and to increase and thereby reduce costs. Another possibility is the will require a combination of enhanced forest introduction of a concession80 system for part of resource information, investment in forest roads the timber sales volume. Concessions could form and development of the necessary expansion in the important instruments of the national forest policy harvesting infrastructure. A planned and phased and should be consistent with the broad national approach in partnership with the wood industry is goals of sustainability, building on obtaining the required. The increased investment in forest roads best mix of economic, social and environmental could also serve as an opportunity to define best benefits from the forests, and contributing to the practice in forest road construction incorporating restoration of degraded forests. environmental guidelines and / or EIA. The GDF is a large centrally controlled In the longer term, additional volume can only organization that essentially sets its own targets, be sourced through an expansion of the forest monitors itself in terms of performance, audits resource with a focus on fast growing industrial itself through an internal audit and reports on plantations with species like Brutia pine and itself to Government and the public. It does not Maritime pine. The GDF action plan for these two benchmark or compare itself against other state species foresees the establishment of 140,000 ha forest organizations. Competitiveness in any of Brutia pine and 20,000 ha of Maritime pine over organization is underpinned by having in place the next twenty years or a rate of 8,000 ha per best practice, processes and procedures. While year. The potential area available which meets the the restructuring of the supply chain will bring requirements for industrial plantations in terms improvements to the competitiveness of the of productivity, slope etc. is estimated as being wood industry, the GDF itself will need to provide of the order of 1 million ha and this reduces to an a more efficient and quality service to the forest estimated 400,000 ha suitable for using current sector as a whole. As a first step in this process the machine technology. There is a shortfall between GDF should benchmark itself against similar state what is available and what is planned to be planted forest organizations across a range of parameters by the GDF of the order of 240,000 ha. The including (a) financial, (b) environmental and (c) challenge therefore is how to increase the scale of social. This analysis will provide insights as to where planting through involving the private sector and identifiable improvements can be made and lead to thereby not only enhancing future wood supply focused business process review of these aspects but also facilitating the development of the private of how it does business. forest sector. Private afforestation refers to any plantation established by private persons and/ 3.5 Enhanced Wood Supply or legal entities on private land, degraded forest land or treasury land. Thus private forests can be There are two aspects to enhancing the wood on private land or state owned land. The current supply form state forests i.e. short to medium term scheme of incentives has not resulted in levels of and long term. In the short to medium term the planting that match the requirements for industrial challenge for GDF is to leverage more volume from plantations and will need to be re-examined. 80. Concessions are a form of contract that identifies specific rights, responsibilities and obligations for both the owner of the land (the State) and the concessionaire in regards to forest planning, harvesting, road building, silviculture, and protection. Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 93 3.6 Sustainability of Forest improve forest biodiversity, by expanding protected Resources areas, where necessary, and by expanding the use of integrated management in forests outside Forest resources worldwide and in Turkey are protected areas. The NFI will help in the monitoring under continued threat from forest pests and and reporting of biodiversity within forests. diseases, fire, land use change and degradation and over exploitation. The most significant threat The FAO defines NWFPs as being  “goods of however is that of climate change. The impact of biological origin other than wood derived from climate change, which will have a clear latitudinal forests, other wooded land and trees outside effect. Species at the lower altitudes of mountains forests”. NWFPs have attracted considerable in Europe are already suffering from decreased global interest in recent years due to the increasing precipitation and increased temperature.81 Thus, recognition of their contribution to environmental the immediate effect that climate change signals objectives, including the conservation of biological is the shift in the range of suitability for forest tree diversity and as a source of income for rural dwellers. species across Europe. These changes will lead There is general agreement in Turkey that the area to an increase of biotic damages, as tree species of NWFPs is underdeveloped but has significant become increasingly susceptible to attack from potential as a source of local employment and pests. Forests will also become more susceptible to export to European countries. The challenge is abiotic damages from more frequent windstorms, therefore how to sustainably exploit this valuable droughts and forest fires. resource for the benefit of rural dwellers and society as a whole. Measures in place like afforestation and rehabilitation of degraded forests and enhanced The first steps to ensure the sustainable fire warning systems are already making an impact. development of the NWFPs are to (a) identify the In the medium term however it will be important resource and its status, (b) identify those NWFPs for Turkey to fully address the potential impacts of that offer the best opportunity for harvesting, climate change in future afforestation and forest processing, marketing and export and (c) amend rehabilitation works through the planting or more the forest law to transfer user rights to forest drought resistant species and the undertaking of villages and incorporate provisions for sustainable studies to more fully understand the impacts at an management. This should be undertaken alongside ecosystem level so that mitigating measures can the development of codes of practice for harvesting be developed and put in place thereby ensuring of NWFPs to avoid over-exploitation, incorrect the ongoing provision of the complete range of timing, poor storage etc. This includes the provision environmental services from forests. of technical advice on the processing and marketing of NWFPs and increased investment/provision of Sustainability of forest resources is linked with finance for added value would provide the basis for the maintenance and sustainability of biodiversity. future development. This is of strategic importance The challenge for Turkey is firstly how to protect to the long term well-being of forest villages as an and ensure the sustainability of its unique and rich income alternative for their aging population. biodiversity against a scenario of increasing forest utilization and societal expectations on what services Cultivation might be an option for some products forests should provide e.g. leisure, recreation and could increase the total production and relieve and secondly how to ensure that international the pressure on the wild material. Irrespective of the commitments, notably the Aichi targets, are met, source, sustainable management of the resource that all forest ecosystem types are properly covered along agreed guidelines and provision of additional in protected area networks, There is the potential to investment funding will be necessary. 81. Source: MOTIVE and Trees4Future FP7 projects. 94 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note The survival and well-being of forest villages is economy of the country, political and legal influences. inextricably linked with the sustainability of forest The third is the internal environment (Figure 27) resources owing to their dependence on forests where there are typically two sub-systems. The first to provide grazing, fuelwood, employment and is the formal which can be described as the “official” NWFPs. Forest villages are experiencing out- way the organization functions. The second is the migration and are now home to an aging and informal sub-system which can best be defined as declining population. The challenge into the future “the way we do business around here”. This reflects is how the forest can support the livelihood and the culture, the local and organizational politics, and well-being of forest villages. The current model of the style of leadership and the motivation of staff. villagers undertaking the majority of harvesting and The key task for any organization including GDF is forest works is unsustainable in the medium to long to manage these environments. Simply changing term. Alternatives recognizing the limitations of an the organizational structure will not necessarily aging population will need to be developed. Any improve efficiency of operations or the quality of new model will need to focus on alternative income the service(s) being provided if the sub-culture is opportunities and a changed role for villagers in opposed to change or to implement new operating relation to the forest resource. This new model procedures. could increase the focus on the harvesting and processing of NWFPs while engaging villagers in a As a first step in assessing how the organization fits more collaborative approach to forest management with its current operating environment and what at a local level where their role would not merely be changes are required as to how it might fit into suppliers of labor for harvesting and planting but the future, given the planned changes in the forest also as caretakers and protectors of the forest, a sector and broader operating environment, the role less dependent on physical attributes but more GDF should undertake an initial business process on local knowledge and culture. This changed role review at a high level. The initial diagnosis is both would have benefits for the sustainability of forest crucial and necessary. This together with the resources while also benefitting rural populations. benchmarking and re-configuration of the supply Some of these supporting actions already appear chain will provide direction for future change and in GDF’s Strategic Plan (2013-2017) – but will take the delivery of improved services. time to implement. The new strategy could look into ways of accelerating this process. Elements identified as being part of best practice successful institutional reforms in forest sector include: 3.7 Role of GDF 1. Remove direct links (administrative, financial) The GDF is a large organization covering all of between entities responsible for public functions Turkey. It has changed parent Ministries and and state forest management in order to: undergone some internal changes in recent years. a. Eliminate potential conflicts of interest; and The challenge for the organization into the future b. Ensure independence, transparency and is to match its role and how it does business with neutrality of public forest administration. a rapidly changing operating environment and increasing public scrutiny. 2. Increase productivity and efficiency through: Organizations operate in at least three different types a. Establishing an independent budget for the of environment. The first consists of the historical entity managing state forests with well-defined developments bringing changes over time. It is key obligations towards state budget; and in helping to understand / explain an organization’s b. Development of salary schemes which strategy, structure, culture, politics and leadership are based on staff performance to reduce style. The second is the external environment incentive for corruption. which includes socio-economic factors, the general Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 95 FIGURE 27 ORGANISATION OPERATING ENVIRONMENT Political - Legal Influences The Organisation Socio-cultural Formal Sub-system Influences Strategy Management Strategy Structure Goals Technology Culture Leadership Politics Technological Influences Informal Sub-system Economic Influences EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 3. Ensure effective operational control over the 4. Ensure strategic control over state forest State Forest Enterprise: management: a. Require transparent budget procedures and a. Establish a management board to supervise accounting systems matching corporate the activities of the entity managing state standards; forests, including representatives from b. Assign responsibility for controlling forest government, as well as professionals with harvesting and management to state forest qualifications in forestry, environmental administration; and conservation and corporate management. c. Arrange financial auditing through accredited third party auditors. 96 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 97 APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS, AGREEMENTS AND INITIATIVES RELEVANT TO FORESTS UNFCCC: The overriding goal of the Convention is It is estimated that 70 per cent of the world’s to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the terrestrial plant and animal species are found in atmosphere at levels that prevent dangerous, human- forest ecosystems. Forest issues are, therefore, an induced warming of the climate. The Convention important aspect of CBD. More recently, the issue establishes a number of overarching principles of illegal logging and the trade in illegally harvested for the international climate effort, including that wood has become a major topic for CBD. Also, as the parties are to protect the climate system for a result of the Cartagena Protocol, discussions on present and future generations in accordance with genetically modified trees (GMT) have intensified their common but differentiated responsibilities and in recent years with several parties calling for a capabilities. Further, that industrialised countries moratorium for the use of GMT. have a special responsibility to take the lead in the work to prevent climate change. UNCCD: The Convention’s purpose is to prevent the degradation of lands, mitigate the effects of The importance of forests in the context of climate drought and contribute to sustainable development change has attracted much political attention at a and better living condition for people living in global level. The UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol dry areas. Arid areas account for one third of the require that the parties are to protect and strengthen earth’s land surface and ultimately UNCCD is about “sinks” for greenhouse gases and carbon storage the living conditions of close to 1 billion people who in biomass and soil, for example by reducing live in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. deforestation and encouraging sustainable forestry UNCCD is implemented by means of national and reforestation. According to the Kyoto Protocol, action Programs whose purpose is to address the the parties are to report greenhouse gas emissions underlying causes of deforestation and to find and uptake within the Land-use, Land-use change ways to prevent this. and Forestry (LULUCF) sector. Forests provide important ecological benefits CBD: The goal of the Convention on Biological which reduce the vulnerability of dry ecosystems. Diversity is to promote the conservation and One of UNCCD’s objectives, therefore, is to protect sustainable use of the world’s biological diversity. forests. Wood and forest products are also of great The Convention has three overriding goals: 1) the socio-economic importance to the people living in conservation of biological diversity, 2) the sustainable these areas. use of the components of biological diversity and 3) the fair division of profit from the use of genetic ITTA: The International Tropical Timber Agreement resources. A central concept in CBD is the Ecosystem is one of a number of commodity agreements that Approach. In general terms, this means that biological have been negotiated within the framework of the diversity should be seen in a landscape perspective United Nations Conference on Trade. Unlike other that includes economic and social factors. commodity agreements, the ITTA does not contain any direct trade regulations. The overriding goal is to promote the expansion and diversification of international trade in tropical forestry. 98 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note The International Tropical Timber Organization sites and other properties that are deemed to be (ITTO) oversees the implementation of the part of a universal world heritage. The Convention agreement. Members of ITTO are countries that maintains a list – the UNESCO World Heritage list – produce and consume tropical timber. of sites of universal value that are to be preserved. The World Heritage Committee makes decisions CITES: The purpose of the Convention is to as to whether a property should be inscribed on ensure that no species of wild fauna or wild flora the World Heritage list. Once a property has been is subject to unsustainable exploitation because inscribed on this list it is guaranteed care and of international trade. This is done via regulation protection for all time. The Convention requires of trade through a system of import and export affiliated states to have a suitable organization and permits. Some 5,000 animal species and 28,000 legislation to ensure the protection and upkeep of plant species are protected to varying degrees by world heritage sites on their territory. the Convention. They are listed on one of CITES’ three lists (Appendix I, II and III), which group Under the Convention, forests can be regarded species on the basis of how threatened they are as part of our natural heritage. In 2001, the World considered to be by international trade. Heritage Committee agreed that forests eligible for conservation required special attention, and it A large number of the species listed in CITES have therefore launched a Program for forests known forests as their habitat. In recent years a number of as the World Heritage Forest Program (http:// commercial tree species have been added to the lists. whc.unesco.org/en/forests). In 2013 there were 97 forests having a total area of 76 million hectares on ILO: The International Labour Organization is the the World Heritage List. UN’s specialised body for employment and work- related issues. Its overriding purpose is to alleviate Wetlands Convention: The purpose of the poverty and promote social justice. More than Convention, or Ramsar, as it is also known, is to 180 conventions on different aspects of social preserve wetlands of international importance. rights have been adopted over the years. For There are 2,241 wetland areas, having a total area many years, the organization has been monitoring of more than 215 million hectares that are inscribed the working and living conditions of indigenous on the Ramsar list of Wetlands of International peoples. The purpose of ILO’s Convention No. Importance. 169 is to strengthen indigenous peoples’ socio- Wetlands in the sense used in the Convention economic and cultural rights. The main principle include marshy forests, mangroves and certain is that indigenous peoples shall be consulted and coastal forest areas. participate in decision-making in matters that affect their lives and communities. Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP): The purpose of the Convention Many indigenous and tribal peoples are dependent is to reduce damage to natural resources caused on forests and what the forests can provide for their by acidification due to sulphur dioxide, nitrogen livelihood. The Convention has established that the dioxide and other pollutants created by the rights of indigenous peoples to natural resources combustion of fossil fuels. The Convention is a pertaining to their land shall be safeguarded. This framework convention and, as such, it is formulated also includes their right to participate in the use, in general terms. management and conservation of these resources. The Convention includes, as one among a number Convention Concerning the Protection of the of other joint Programs, a Program for monitoring World Cultural and Natural Heritage: The purpose the effect of air pollution on forests; it is known as of the Convention is to establish an effective ICP Forests. system for the protection of natural and cultural Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 99 UNFF: The United Nations Forum on Forests aims to promote the sustainable management of the world’s forests and strengthen long-term political commitment amongst the member states to this end. A Collaborative Partnership on Forests is affiliated to the forum. The partnership consists of 14 international organizations that are involved in various ways with forest related policy, among them the FAO, the World Bank and ITTO as well as the secretariats for the conventions on climate, biological diversity, and desertification. The purpose of the partnership is to support the work of the UNFF and to foster closer cooperation and coordination on international forest-related issues. The United Nations forest instrument adopted in 2007, formally known as Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests, or NLBI, provides countries with a framework for promoting sustainable forest management. The Instrument articulates a series of agreed policies and measures at the international and national levels to strengthen forest governance, technical and institutional capacity, policy and legal frameworks, forest sector investment and stakeholder participation. 100 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note APPENDIX 2: LEGISLATION FOREST AND RELATED LAWS Forest Law Nr. 6831 (Official Gazette Date/Nr.: Mar 16th 2007 / 26464) Forestry Law No 3116 and Laws No’s 4785, 5653 and 5658 amending this law Environmental Law Nr. 2872 National Parks law Nr. 2873 National Afforestation and Erosion Control Law Nr. 4122 Hunting Law Nr. 4915 Soil Protection and Land Use Law Nr. 5403 Protection of Cultural nad National Heritage Law Nr. 2863 Law Amending and Adopting Decree Law No 3234 on the Organization and Tasks of the Forestry General Directorate Cadastral Law Nr. 3402 Amended by Law Nr. 5304 (official gazette 17th June 1987 / 1952) Law No 645 on the Organization and Tasks of the Ministry Of Forestry And Hydraulic Works Village Law: Law Number: 442, accepted date: 18/3/1924, official gazette: 7/4/1924, volume:5, issue : 68 Mining Law: Law Number: 3213, published official gazette: date : 15/6/1985, issue : 18785, Rangeland Law Nr. 4342 Law on Water Nr. 831 Law on Village Drinking Water Nr. 7478 Forest Engineering, Forest Industry Engineering and Woodworking Industry Engineering, Nr. 5531 (Official gazette: 8/07/2006, issue 26222) REGULATIONS Regulations of Environmental Impact Assessment official gazette: 17/6/2008, issue : 26939 Regulations of afforestation official gazette : 09/10/2003, issue : 25254 Regulations of controlling earth masses, debris and ruined wastes official gazette: 18/3/2004, issue : 25406 Regulations of enhancement of degraded lands due to mining: official gazette : 14/12/2007, issue : 26730 Regulations of transportation license of carrying wood products: official gazette : 04/06/2004, issue : 25482, Regulations of enhancing forest road plans: official gazette: 01/07/2007, issue : 26569 Regulations of controlling waste oil: official gazette: 30/07/2008, issue : 26952 Regulations of Forest management:official gazette : 05/02/2008, issue : 26778 Regulation on transport certificates for forest products: official gazette: 04/04/2004, issue: 25482 Regulation on Working Conditions of employees in works in agriculture and forestry: official gazette: 04/042004, issue 25425 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROCESSES Intergovernmental Forestry Panel (IPF) Intergovernmental Forestry Forum (IFF) United Nations (UN) Forestry Forum (UNFF) United Nations (UN) Convention on Control of Desertification United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations (UN) Bio-Diversity Convention Convention on the Preservation of Wetlands of International Significance Especially As the Habitat of Water Birds (RAMSAR Convention) “Convention on the Protection of Wildlife and Habitats in Europe” (BERN CONVENTION) Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Animals and Plants (CITES) International Convention on the Protection of Birds Convention on the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution (BARCELONA) European Landscaping Convention, EU Nature Protection Directives Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 101 APPENDIX 3: DETERMINANTS OF MIGRATION The econometric analysis is based on three different level. For the ordered logit, the impact of household models that have alternative specifications of and village covariates can be estimated using the migration. The first is a probit model with the following equation: dependent variable defined as households with migrants within the past five years (2011-2016 =1) Log ( Pi ) = ∂ + β1 Xhh + β2 Wvillage + u 1— Pi and no migrants (=0). The second model is a probit model with the dependent variable defined where Pi is the probability of being in migration status as having migrants 5-10 years ago - between 2005- I, i=1 (permanent migration), =2 (potential migration) 2010 (=1) and no migrants (=0). The third model is and =3 (no migration). Xhh are household variables an ordered logit model that defines the dependent including age, education of household head, log variable as households with permanent migrants household income, membership of forest cooperative, (=1); with a member who intends to migrate (=2) membership in other cooperatives, and household and households with no migrants (=3). Each model asset indices. Wvillage are village level characteristics includes covariates at the household and village such as living in a village with water network.   Within 5 years Col-1 Between 5-10 years Col-2 Ordered logit Col-3 Education of household head   Never in school 0.012 0.113 0.065 Primary school 0.073 0.301 -0.058 Mid-high school -0.254 -0.063 0.150 Age of household head 0.156* -0.046 0.023 (Age of household head)^2 -0.001* 0.001 -0.001 Male household head -0.072 -0.050 0.250 Household size -0.119*** -0.149*** 0.125*** log (total income) 0.086* 0.095* -0.097* Share of forest income 0.491** 0.393* -0.526** Share of non-forest wage income -0.078 -0.225 0.325 HH is member of forest coop -0.498* -0.188 0.333 HH is member of other coops 0.086 0.060 -0.133 HH has internet access -0.329 0.006 0.476* HH is owner of livestock 0.267* 0.285* -0.229 HH has tractor 0.033 -0.116 0.153 Living in village with water network 0.010 0.026 -0.003 Asset index principle component-1 0.044 0.005 -0.050 Asset index principle component-2 0.003 0.083 -0.042 Asset index principle component-3 0.002 -0.012 -0.004 Constant -5.595*** -1.206   * significant at the 10 percent level of significance; ** 5 percent level of significance; *** 1 percent level of significance Note: There are over 30 items listed as household assets (i.e. durables, production equipment and all items). In the analysis to avoid multi collinearity, all asset items, except internet connection and tractor, are constructed as asset indices captured as the first 3 principle components and which contribute to 98 percent of the total variation. 102 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note APPENDIX 4: TURKEY’S INTENDED NATIONAL DETERMINED CONTRIBUTION (INDC) In accordance with decisions 1/CP.19 and 1/ Turkey aims to contribute to the collective efforts CP.20, the Republic of Turkey hereby presents to combat climate change in line with its national its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution circumstances and capabilities. (INDC) towards achieving the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on With this perspective, National Strategy on Climate Climate Change which is set out in its Article 2 and Change and National Climate Change Action Plan clarifying information. were adopted in 2010 and 2011 respectively. National Circumstances National Climate Change Action Plan consists of emission control and adaptation policies and Turkey achieved 230 per cent increase in GDP measures which are being implemented in all between 1990 and 2012. Its population has increased relevant sectors. more than 30 per cent since 1990. Turkey’s energy demand increases by 6-7 percent every year. The greenhouse gas inventory of the year 2012 revealed that the total emissions in 2012 expressed Turkey is an upper-middle income developing in CO2 equivalent were 440 million tons in Turkey. country according to the World Bank classification. The energy sector had the largest share with 70.2 Turkey remains eligible to official development percent. Industrial processes with 14.3 percent, assistance (ODA). waste sector with 8.2 percent and agriculture with 7.3 percent followed the energy sector. Turkey’s Turkey is listed in Annex I to the UNFCCC. per capita greenhouse gas (GHG) emission for the However, Decision 1/CP.16 recognized the special same year was 5.9 ton CO2 equivalent, which is circumstances of Turkey and placed Turkey in a much lower than the EU and OECD average. different situation than the other Parties included in Annex I. INFORMATION ON INDC INDC Up to 21 percent reduction in GHG emissions from the Business as Usual (BAU) level by 2030. Period for Implementation 2021-2030 or Contribution Scope and Coverage Economy-wide. Energy, industrial processes and products use, agriculture, land use land-use change and forestry, and waste sectors. GHGs All greenhouse gases included in the national inventory: • Carbon dioxide (CO2); • Methane (CH4); • Nitrous oxide (N2O); • Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); • Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); • Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6); • Nitrous trifluoride (NF3). Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 103 Methodological Methodological approaches are based on using the IPCC 2006 Guidelines and IPCC approaches 2013 KP Supplement. Global warming potential on a 100 year timescale in accordance with the IPCC’s 4th Assessment Report. Use of International Turkey aims to use carbon credits from international market mechanisms to achieve its Market Mechanisms 2030 mitigation target in a cost effective manner and in accordance with the relevant rules and standards. Consideration of fairness Turkey has to continue its sustainable development process. and ambition based on national conditions Rapid industrialization and urbanization have been taking place in Turkey over the last 30 years. Turkey is responsible for only 0.7 percent of the global emissions since the industrial revolution. Energy imports have a significant share in Turkey’s account deficit. Turkey has to use its limited energy resources. Turkey experiences financial and technological constraints in combating climate change. This INDC provides additional policies, plans and measures in many sectors. How the INDC contributes Up to 21 percent reduction in GHG emissions from the BAU level by 2030 will enable to achieving the Turkey to step on low-carbon development pathways compatible with the long-term ultimate objective of the objective of limiting the increase in global temperature below 2oC. Convention (Article 2) Planning Process Turkey may revise this INDC in accordance with changing circumstances. Turkey supports its INDC through a national climate change policy which includes; • 10th National Development Plan • National Strategy on Climate Change • National Climate Change Action Plan • National Strategy on Industry • Strategy on Energy Efficiency • National Strategy and Action Plan on Recycling • National Legislation on Monitoring, Reporting and Verification of GHG emissions • National Smart Transportation Systems Strategy Document (2014-2023) and its Action Plan (2014-2016) Turkey’s INDC was prepared in a participatory approach through multiple stakeholder meetings and by analytical studies conducted for 1 year. Times-MACRO model is used for energy related modelling and other national models and studies are used for non-energy sectors. Financial Needs Recalling the decisions 26/CP.7, 1/CP.16, 2/CP.17, 1/CP.18 and 21/CP.20, in view of successfully implementing this INDC, Turkey will use domestic sources and receive international financial, technological, technical and capacity building support, including finance from the Green Climate Fund. Plans and policies to be implemented for the INDC, by sector: Energy • Reducing electricity transmission and • Increasing capacity of production of electricity distribution losses to 15 percent at 2030 from solar power to 10 GW until 2030 • Rehabilitation of public electricity generation • Increasing capacity of production of electricity power plants from wind power to 16 GW until 2030 • Establishment of micro-generation, co-generation • Tapping the full hydroelectric potential systems and production on site at electricity • Commissioning of a nuclear power plant until 2030 production 104 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Industry • Dissemination of Green Building, passive • Reducing emission intensity with the energy, zero-energy house design in order to implementation of National Strategy and Action minimize the energy demand and to ensure Plan on Energy Efficiency local production of energy • Increasing energy efficiency in industrial installations and providing financial support to Agriculture energy efficiency projects • Fuel savings by land consolidation in agricultural • Making studies to increase use of waste as an areas alternative fuel at the appropriate sectors • Rehabilitation of grazing lands • Controlling the use of fertilizers and Transport implementing modern agricultural practices • Ensuring balanced utilization of transport modes • Supporting the minimum tillage methods in freight and passenger transport by reducing the share of road transport and increasing the Waste share of maritime and rail transport • Sending solid wastes to managed landfill sites • Enhancing combined transport • Reuse, recycle and use of other processes to • Implementing sustainable transport approaches recover secondary raw materials, to utilize as in urban areas energy source or to remove wastes • Promoting alternative fuels and clean vehicles • Recovering energy from waste by using • Reducing fuel consumption and emissions processes such as material recycling of wastes, of road transport with National Intelligent bio-drying, bio-methanization, composting, Transport Systems Strategy Document (2014- advanced thermal processes or incineration 2023) and its Action Plan (2014-2016) • Recovery of methane gas from landfill gas from • Realizing high speed railway projects managed and unmanaged landfill sites • Increasing urban railway systems • Utilization of industrial wastes as an alternative • Achieving fuel savings by tunnel projects raw material or alternative fuel in other industrial • Scrapping of old vehicles from traffic sectors, through industrial symbiosis approach • Implementing green port and green airport • Conducting relevant studies to utilize wastes projects to ensure energy efficiency generated from breeding farms and poultry • Implementing special consumption tax farms exemptions for maritime transport • Rehabilitation of unmanaged waste sites and ensuring wastes to be deposited at managed Buildings and Urban Transformation landfill sites • Constructing new residential buildings and service buildings as energy efficient in Forestry accordance with the Energy Performance of • Increasing sink areas and preventing land Buildings Regulations degradation • Creating Energy Performance Certificates for • Implementing Action Plan on Forestry new and existing buildings so as to control Rehabilitation and National Afforestation energy consumption and greenhouse gas Campaign emissions and to reduce energy consumption per square meter The emission reductions to be achieved by these • Reducing the consumption of primary energy policies and plans compared to the business-as- sources of new and existing buildings by means usual scenario are presented in the figure below. of design, technological equipment, building materials, development of channels that promote the use of renewable energy sources (loans, tax reduction, etc.) Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 105 INDC Forestry Scenarios: 1. Reduction Scenario 2. Reference Scenario • GDF 2013-2017 Strategic Plan, National Forestry • Afforestation figures before 1996 (20,000 ha/ Program (2004-2023) taken into consideration, year) remained constant, • GDF achieved the 2023 target (forest area 30 • Insufficient rehabilitation, percent=23.4 million ha of national territories) • Increased population and settlement pressure, • Productive forest area assumed to reach • Afforestation potential assumed to decline. 12,000,000 ha by 2030 TURKEY’S INDC 1,400 Reduction Scenario 1,175 1,200 Reference Scenario (BAU) 21% 934 (246 Mt) 1,000 843 929 800 673 790 572 717 600 477 430 599 535 400 430 449 200 0 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 TURKEY’S FORESTRY INDC COMMITMENT 80,000,000 72,229,347 68,710,382 70,000,000 CO2 reduction (tons/year) 60,000,000 29,512,257 50,000,000 40,000,000 39,198,125 Reduction Scenario (blue) 30,000,000 (CO2 equivalent tons/year) BAU Scenario (red) (CO2 equivalent tons/year) 20,000,000 1995 2000 2005 2010 2012 2014 2017 2018 2020 2025 2030 106 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note APPENDIX 5: SFM CRITERIA AND INDICATORS Criterion 1. Forest resources Criterion 4. Production capacity and functions of 1.1. Forests and other wooded areas forests 1.2. Growing stock, biomass and carbon stock 4.1. Forest area which is being managed by 1.3. Increment integrated management plans 1.4. Forested area which under management plan 4.2. Wood production 1.5. Forested land of which cadastre is finalized 4.3. Balance between production and increment (legally registered) 4.4. Production of NWFPs Criterion 2. Biologic Diversity Criterion 5. Protective and Environmental 2.1. Fragmentation of forests functions of forests 2.2. Silvicultural treatments (maintenance) 5.1. Conservation forests 2.3. Regeneration reliability 5.2. Forests for protection of water reservoirs 2.4. Seed resources 5.3. Soil protection forests Criterion 3. Health & Vitality of forests Criterion 6. Socio-economic functions 3.1. Forests affected by natural factors 6.1. Value of wood produced 3.2. Successfully regenerated forest area 6.2. Value of NWFPs 3.3. Forest area cleared (forest cover is disappeared/ 6.3. Employment created by forestry implementation shifted) and settlement set 6.4. Forest communities and NGOs 3.4. Consumption of fuel wood 6.5. Forestry related offences 3.5. Forest fires 3.6. Damages made by grazing 3.7. Using permission and easement Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 107 APPENDIX 6: SHARE OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT IMPACTS OF GROWTH IN THE FORESTRY SECTOR, 2002 Product sector Direct Indirect 02 Products of forestry, logging and related services 65,276 64,605 20 Wood and products of wood and cork (except furniture); articles of straw and plaiting materials 9,432 1,680 21 Pulp, paper and paper products 3,058 974 37 Secondary raw materials 1,023 1,023 36 Furniture; other manufactured goods n.e.c. 862 726 22 Printed matter and recorded media 846 794 10 Coal and lignite; peat 746 63 73 Research and development services 403 191 16 Tobacco products 367 367 13 Metal ores 333 79 55 Hotel and restaurant services 287 90 45 Construction work 275 272 74 Other business services 231 222 27 Basic metals 210 201 26 Other non-metallic mineral products 203 182 28 Fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment 196 178 32 Radio, television and communication equipment and apparatus 196 194 25 Rubber and plastic products 189 164 24 Chemicals, chemical products and man-made fibres 179 158 67 Services auxiliary to financial intermediation 171 171 29 Machinery and equipment n.e.c. 170 154 15 Food products and beverages 163 116 33 Medical, precision and optical instruments, watches and clocks 156 153 14 Other mining and quarrying products 155 75 85 Health and social work services 154 107 31 Electrical machinery and apparatus n.e.c. 154 152 91 Membership organisation services n.e.c. 152 147 35 Other transport equipment 152 150 19 Leather and leather products 149 143 30 Office machinery and computers 139 131 34 Motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers 135 133 52 Retail trade services, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles; repair services of personal 130 60 and household goods 92 Recreational, cultural and sporting services 124 108 72 Computer and related services 119 102 93 Other services 114 83 17 Textiles 112 107 50 Trade, maintenance and repair services of motor vehicles and motorcycles; retail sale of 111 73 automotive fuel 108 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note Product sector Direct Indirect 18 Wearing apparel; furs 109 108 51 Wholesale trade and commission trade services, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles 108 88 66 Insurance and pension funding services, except compulsory social security services 108 108 80 Education services 97 73 40 Electrical energy, gas, steam and hot water 87 82 71 Renting services of machinery and equipment without operator and of personal and 87 79 household goods 75 Public administration and defence services; compulsory social security services 86 86 65 Financial intermediation services, except insurance and pension funding services 82 82 64 Post and telecommunication services 81 80 63 Supporting and auxiliary transport services; travel agency services 77 72 60 Land transport; transport via pipeline services 69 69 90 Sewage and refuse disposal services, sanitation and similar services 69 67 11 Crude petroleum and natural gas; services incidental to oil and gas extraction excluding 68 68 surveying 62 Air transport services 68 67 23 Coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuels 67 67 05 Fish and other fishing products; services incidental of fishing 65 40 70 Real estate services 65 45 01 Products of agriculture, hunting and related services 41 38 61 Water transport services 37 36 41 Collected and purified water, distribution services of water 35 35 95 Private households with employed persons 0 0 Turkey: Forest Policy Note | 109 110 | Turkey: Forest Policy Note