Report No. 36624-BR Brazil How to Revitalize Infrastructure Investments in Brazil Public Policies for Better Private Participation (In Two Volumes) Volume I: Main Report January 10, 2007 Finance, Private Sector and Infrastructure Management Unit Latin America and the Caribbean Region Document of the World Bank ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was prepared by Paul0 Correa, Luis Albert0 Andres, Mariam Dayoub, Katherine S. Coleman(World Bank) and RodrigoMoita (University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign), with inputs from Marianne Fay and Tito Yepes (Chapter 3); Maria Elena Pinglo (Chapter 4); Aymeric-Albin Meyer, Carlos Velez, Jayme Port0 Carreiro, Luiz Maurer, Gar0Batmanian,andRaffaellaMota(Chapter 5); underthe supervisionof Susan GoldmarkandJosC Luis Guasch. Background papers were commissioned to Caio Mario (FGV-SP); Claudio Considera (UFF); Cleveland Prates (FGV-SP); Marcel0 Neri (FGV-RJ); and Ronald0 Seroa da Motta (IPEA). Comments provided by Aymeric-Albin Meyer, Carlos Velez, Luiz Maurer,Jose GuilhermeReis,Angela Furtado, andMarianneFayto anearlier draft of the documentwere greatly appreciated. The analyticalunderpinnings of this report are based on the work done at regional level by M. Fay and M. Morrison (Chapter 1); L. Serven and C. Calderh (Chapter 3); L.A. Andres, S. Sirtaine, M.E. Pinglo, J.L. Guasch, and V. Foster (Chapter 4); andJ.L. Guasch (Chapter 6). PPIAF support to the background paper (Chapter 7) "Regulatory Governance in Infrastructure Industries-Assessment andMeasurement of Brazilian Regulators," PPIAF OccasionalPaper No. 3, preparedby P. Correa, C. Pereira(MSU), B. Muller (UNB) and M.Mello(UFPE), is alsoacknowledged. Armando CastelarPinheiro (IPEA); Clive G. Harris (SASEI, World Bank); JosC Clfiudio Linhares (IADB); and Mark Roland Thomas (World Bank, PRMED) were the peer reviewersfor the study. The report consolidatesthree years of non-lendingtechnicalassistance work providedby the World Bank to the BrazilianGovernment. Parts of the report or preliminary versions of the chapters were discussed in different occasions with country authorities, including the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Planning, the Civil Cabinet, and the Tribunal de Contasde UniLio. 3 How to Revitalize Infrastructure Investments inBrazil: Public Policies for Better Private Participation Table of Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... Acronyms and Abbreviations........................................................................................................... 3 2 Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... 5 MainReport .......................................................................................................................... I.InfrastructureandGrowthinBrazil:TakingStockoftheSituation........................................... 15 A Where DoWe Stand?........................................................................................................ . 16 B. The FallinInfrastructure Investments and its Causes....................................................... 16 17 D. PrivateParticipationinInfrastructure C. Does Brazil NeedMore InfrastructureInvestment?.......................................................... ............................................................................... 22 I1.How to Revitalize Infrastructure Investments inBrazil............................................................ -25 29 B. Contract Renegotiation ...................................................................................................... A. The Legal andPolicy Framework...................................................................................... 30 35 I11.Policy Recommendations.,....................................................................................................... C. Regulatory Governance ..................................................................................................... 40 43 List of Tables Table l a.Change ineducational performance associatedwith access to infrastructure in S2o Table lb. Results for difference in percentage for scenarios with good housing conditions in Paulo state (inpercent) .......................................................................................................... 24 relation Table 2.Brazil: summary of the effects of privatizationon the performance of utility companies percent)................................................................................................... to those with bad housing conditions in S2o Paulo state(in 27 ............................................................................................................................................... 28 Table 3. Summary of the main sector issues.................................................................................. Table 5 .Brazil: party that initiated the renegotiation for transportation and water sectors ...........37 39 List of Figures Figure 1. Brazil: share of population with infrastructure services per income deciles (%). 1991 and 2000 ................................................................................................................................ 18 Figure 2 1980-2001.............................................................................................................................. . Investments in infrastructure in Brazil: total, public, and private (percent of GDP), 19 Figure 3 Public sector investment ininfrastructure (percent of GDP), 1995-2002....................... . Figure 4. Brazil: primary surplus and public investment in infrastructure (percent of GDP),19921 21 8- Figure 5.Returns on infrastructure concessions inBrazil ............................................................ 2002....................................................................................................................................... Figure 6. Regulatory governance, effectiveness and industry performance ................................. -26 -42 List of Boxes Box 1. "Buying Credibility" through Partial RiskGuarantees(PRG) against Regulatory Risk....45 Box 2.The Quality of Public Expenditures ................................................................................... 46 4 HOW TO REVITALIZEINFRASTRUCTUREINVESTMENTS INBRAZIL:PUBLIC POLICIES FOR BETTERPRIVATE PARTICIPATION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. More than US$164 billion was invested in infrastructure projects that involved private participation in Brazil during 1994-2004.This amount corresponds to more than two-thirds of the total spending on private infrastructure projects in the East Asia and Pacific region. Despite the high level of investment, public opinion shows frustration with private provision of infrastructure services and policymakers are disillusioned with private financing of infrastructure projects. This i s not a phenomenon unique to Brazil: governments throughout Latin America and multilateral organizations that once supported privatization are discussing how to increase public investments in infrastructure. The policymaking pendulum has swung back to public provision. 2. Amid a shifting policymaking environment, this report discusses how public policies could attract more and better private investments. Given Brazil's current fiscal dilemmas and infrastructure needs, revitalizing infrastructure investments in the next coming years will require bringing back the private sector. Brazil can transform infrastructure needs into private opportunities essentially by reducing the cost of capital and raising long-term returns of concessions, translating infrastructure opportunities into projects with competitive rates of return. This requires curbing regulatory risk and raising projects' revenues, two tasks for which the role o f the public sector is central: governments are ultimately responsible for regulatory risks, and through tariff policies, subsidies and related mechanisms can, directly or indirectly, influence projects' revenues. 3. In attracting back private capital, this report argues that Brazil needs to (a) eliminate remaining regulatory bottlenecks and policy uncertainties in selected sectors, (b) design infrastructure concessions to avoid "excessive" renegotiations, simultaneously guaranteeing an adequate rate o f return for investors and protecting consumers' welfare, and (c) strengthen the quality of the regulators for technically sound and coherent decision-making processes. In addition, Brazil should improve the process through which public investments ininfrastructure are selected, implemented and evaluated. In a nutshell, Brazil should avoid the simplistic solution of swinging the pendulum back to public financing and forge public policies to attract more and better private participation. The main messages and policy recommendations o f this report are detailed below. Main Messages 4. Infrastructure investments fell mainly due to the collapse of the institutional framework of the 1970s and not due to sector reforms. Infrastructure investments in Brazil plungeddramatically inthe 1980s and 199Os, a decline twice as large as that of the 5 Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) region. Most o f this fall occurred during 1986- 95, when the institutional framework for public investments in infrastructure completely deteriorated, and rising federal current expenditures further crowded-out capital expenditures. Public financing for infrastructure investment, a central piece o f that institutional framework, collapsed with a sequence of events that included the impact of the 1982 Mexican default on indebtedness levels of state-owned enterprises; the undervaluation o f tariffs for inflation control purposes; the elimination of sector-specific federal taxes by the 1988 Constitution; and, new priorities for public spending established by the same Constitution. Infrastructure reforms and fiscal adjustment followed these events and had relatively little impact on the overall decline. 5. On the other hand, the 1990s rise of private financing for infrastructure was not enough to compensate for the public decline. Private investments in Brazil during the 1990s were basically directed to asset transfer (asset divestiture) and not to the expansion of infrastructure stock. Other countries applied private funds mainly to new (green-field) projects as illustrated by the case of Indonesia. In Chile, private financing more than compensated for the fall inpublic expenditures since 1989, with a net positive impact on total investments. InColombia, a rise inprivate financing combined with sustained public investment avoided a major decline in infrastructure investments as in most L A C countries duringthe 1990s. 6. Infrastructure investment needs to increase if Brazil wants to further improve its economic and social performance. Brazil's infrastructure stock compares well with the LAC region, but poorly with international peers from East Asia, for example. Access to infrastructure improved during the last decade, but major gaps in rural areas and in access by the poor still exist. Water coverage, inparticular, declined by almost 4 percent inthe two lowest deciles between 1991and 2000, which may reflect the lack of appropriate subsidy mechanisms to compensate for affordability problems. Small and medium firms in labor-intensive industries are the most affected by inappropriate infrastructure services. Although it is not possible to claim that infrastructure i s a bidding highcurrent expenditures andhighlevels and incidenceof taxation -evidence shows that constraint to higher sustainable growth rates in Brazil - especially when compared to higher infrastructure investments may lead to higher growth rates and better social indicators. 7. Growth accounting exercises show that low capital deepening i s the main "cause" of low growth rates. Estimates of long-run elasticity of GDP to infrastructure investments vary between 0.5 and 0.6 while estimates for the elasticity of output to expenditures in maintenance are much higher (2.52). In addition, infrastructure has important social effects. For an afro-descendant female child in the S i 0 Paul0 state, this report estimated that access to infrastructure services i s associated with a decrease of 20 percent in the probability of 6 or more absence days per year, and proficiency results improve by 11-13 percent.' Impacts vary inversely with the state's infrastructure endowments and family 1Good conditions are associated with 4 residents in the house, non-precarious neighborhood, and house built in an owned and paid terrain. Bad conditions are defined as 8 residents in the house, precarious neighborhood, and house built in a terrain provided by employer or other means. Estimated for an afro- 6 income. The impact o f housing conditions was tested, with similar results: for instance, access to good housing conditions i s associated with performance 7.1 and 4.6 percent higher inthe 4th and 8th grades, respectively, in2001. 8. Private participation may not only provide additional finance but also improve the provision of services. This report concluded that the impact o f privatization on former state-owned enterprises was overall positive even though limited in time and in the type o f effect. Privatized companies presented important gains in technical efficiency, as shown by indicators o f distribution losses and labor productivity; as well as in quality and coverage. However, most of the gains from private participation were reached during the pre-privatization period; with the pace of improvements reducing after privatization was concluded. Moreover, gains were not always passed-though consumers, particularly when prices are taken into account. Conceived essentially as a mechanism to improve technical efficiency, improve management, and reduce budgetary pressures, privatization seems to have reached most of its objectives. 9. In revitalizinginfrastructureinvestmentsin Brazil, the primary objectiveof public authorities should be to enable more and better private investments in infrastructure. Given the magnitude of infrastructure needs, the constraints on reallocation of public expenditures and the impacts of the expansion of public debt on long-term solvency, the revitalization of infrastructure investments in Brazil will need to rely on private financing in the next coming years. Creating fiscal space for public investments is, naturally very important, but the use of public funds should be restricted to those circumstances where social returns tend to be superior to private investments. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) allows a better use of public resources but it does not circumvent Brazil's fiscal constraints or its inadequate regulatory environment for infrastructure concessions. 10. The report estimates annual expenditures of 3.2 percent o f GDP per annum as a lower bound scenario for Brazil in 2010 (a cumulative figure that includes responding to increased demand, universal coverage, and maintenance). A much higher amount (up to 9.0 percent of GDP) would be required to bring Brazil to the current levels of coverage in Korea. While ambitious, this effort, which would add more than 4 percentage points to the Brazil's GDP growth, i s not unrealistic. Similar increases were achieved by Indonesia, Korea, and Malaysia from the late 1970s to the late 1990s. Indeed, Korea's infrastructure endowments 25 years ago were substantially worse than Brazil's at that time. Overall, regardless the scenario taken into consideration, the numbers are fairly incompatible with the additional funds that can be obtained by either reallocating public expenditures or reducing the primary surplus inthe short- to the medium-term. 11. Moreover, opportunities for private investments seem far from exhausted, even though private transactions have collapsed to less than a quarter of the peak level in the mid-1990s due to investors' disaffection with emerging markets. Private participation in infrastructure in Brazil i s low in comparison with countries outside or within the L A C ~~ ~ descendent girl living in an urban area, whose parent's education i s inferior to 4th grade and attending a public school. 7 region. For example, private participation in infrastructure per capita in Brazil i s lower than half of the value for Malaysia. Private participation in electricity generation inChile i s almost three times larger than in Brazil; at least additional 6,700km of federal highways can be concessioned after the second round concessions, according to the sector regulator; and, private provision of water and sanitation i s limited to roughly 5 percent o f Brazilian consumers (in roughly 70 out of more than 5,000 municipalities). The central question for Brazilian policymakers, therefore, i s how to better manage private participation in infrastructure such that private finance i s mobilized towards these infrastructure opportunities, 12. Yet, private concessionsare only adequately profitable in the long-run, when the full concession period is taken into account. This report estimates that the average internal rate of return with terminal value for projects in 1997-2003 was negative for telecommunications (-26 percent) and energy (-5 percent), indicating returns below their opportunity cost of capital, and positive for water (16 percent). The average return-on- equity for infrastructure services varied between 3 percent (in water) and 5 percent (in telecommunications). These estimates for short-term returns in Brazil do not differ substantially from those for the L A C region, except for the relatively worse performance for telecommunications (which can be explained, at least in part, by relatively higher investment requirements in the early years in Brazil) and the better performance for water. Thus, infrastructure concessions have not been adequately profitable, inthe short- run. 13. Concession returns are also volatile, indicating that infrastructure investment is a risky business in Brazil. The level of risk of infrastructure investments in Brazil is consistent with other L A C countries but it i s at odds with the OECD countries, where infrastructure investments are long-term, low-risk/low-return alternatives for conservative investors. The level o f risk becomes a particularly important issue in attracting equity capital, given the higher exposure to risk of this type of investment (incomparison with the debt). It explains, in part, the difficulties in attracting institutional investors, particularly pension funds, for infrastructure investments inBrazil. 14. Enabling more and better private investments in infrastructure requires, therefore, enforcing a stable and credible regulatory environment, allowing investors to collect adequate dividends in the long-run. Turning infrastructure concessions in Brazil into a low-risk/low return business i s the core o f the strategy to transform infrastructure needs into private opportunities and revitalize infrastructure investments in Brazil. B y curbing regulatory risk and improving cost recovery, Brazil would reduce the .cost of private capital and raise long-term returns o f infrastructure concessions, expanding the volume of infrastructure projects that could be privately financed. 15. A stable and credible regulatory environment should be complemented by the design of cost-effectiveprograms that increases the access of the poor and by a regulatory enforcement that fully protects consumers and the economy from abuse of dominance by incumbent firms. Without efficient regulation, benefits o f private participation are unlikely to be fully appropriated by consumers and will be time-limited. Effective 8 regulation contributes to encourage further productivity gains and their transfer, at least inpart, to consumers. The designof cost-effective programs to expandthe access of the poor to infrastructure services i s not only an important tool to improve social indicators, as discussed in this report. It also helps to prevent the emergence of poorly designed contracts that eventually fail to generate enough returns to attract the private sector or lead to opportunistic renegotiations. Policy Recommendations 16. The first step to attract back the private sector entails eliminating the remaining legal and policy bottlenecks for private participation. This goal should be seen in the broader context of improving the overall investment climate. In the power sector, private investment is often hindered by unsolved legal loopholes, incentives embedded in the design of energy auctions, and stranded costs generated by recurrent changes in sector legislation. The current legal framework for natural gas is unable to generate supply contracts suitable for thermal plant operation in a predominantly hydropower system and it was ineffective in curbing anticompetitive behavior - two needed steps to unleash opportunities for private investments in the sector. Bolivia's recent approachto the natural gas sector represents an additional challenge interms of the sustainability of the gas supply inBrazil. 17. Inlogistics, factors deterring private investment inthe sector include the five-year delay of the second phase of the federal road concessionprogram, a paralysis of the non- truck highways decentralization process, and an interruption of the port reform. Inwater and sanitation, regardless of the solution for the allocation of awarding rights inthe sector (ie., the "poder concedente" problem), a well-known limitation factor for private investment inthis sector, Brazil will have to address the issues of economies of scale and agglomeration, appropriate regulatory design and the adequate level of tariffs if a larger number of municipalities i s to be efficiently served by the private sector. Improving corporate governance of state-owned enterprise, improving access to information and transparency are also important goals. 18. Despite recent progress, the remaining obstacles in environmental licensing should be further reduced; the impact of courts' revision of regulatory decisions on regulatory risk should be mitigated; and, collaboration among public institutions involved in the concessioninghegulatory process should be improved, especially the roles of Ministe`rioPu'blicoand Tribunal de Contasda Unilio. 19. As a second step, Brazil needs to improve contract design to avoid "excessive" concession renegotiations and unnecessary increases in regulatory risk and, thus, the cost of capital. Recent history of contract renegotiation of infrastructure concessions in Brazil shows evidence of "excessive" government-generated renegotiations. Brazil had a greater proportion of concession contracts renegotiated (41 percent) than the LAC region (30 percent). Roughly three-fourths of the renegotiations were initiated by the government, compared to one-quarter in LAC. The average time until the first renegotiation occurs is also lower in Brazil than in LAC. Renegotiations 9 were initiated because of tariff revisions and changes in investment plans or needs, as opposedto the rest of the region. 20. Contributing factors for renegotiations in Brazil included the lack of an independent regulator,the fact that the regulatoryframework was embeddedina contract and not in a sector law, the use of price-cap as the tariff policy, and the use of the lowest tariff as the concession awarding criterion. Although contract renegotiations cannot be considered negative per se, the phenomenon in Brazil may be a symptom of poorly designed concession contracts and a cause of inadequate risk-premium rates for infrastructure projects. The design of concession contracts i s further complicated by the definition of concessionobjectives andrisk allocation. 21. The 1999exchangerate devaluationcontributedto lower returns on infrastructure services in 1998-2003 as prices of telecommunications, energy, and water services in Brazil declined in real terms (when measured in U.S. dollars), contrary to most LAC countries. A second factor was weak enforcement of tariff policies caused by an incomplete regulatory framework or political interference. A third factor may be the persistence of non-technical losses, particularly in the electricity and water sectors. Another important cause of the low profitability of infrastructure concessions was the high investment levels inthe initial years. 22. Appropriate definitions of coverage objectives and allocation of risk, particularly exchange rate andregulatoryrisks, are likely to continue to be a centralissue inattracting private capital to infrastructure investments. Coverage objectives should be consistency with adequate rates of return and cost-effective subsidies should be usedto cover more ambitious social objectives. The new Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Law provides for guarantees against the federal government's failure to comply with the financial obligations established by any PPP contract but not against regulatory risk. In2005, the federal administration considered the possibility of replacing the IGP-M with sector- specific cost-related indexes. This may eliminate the implicit and imperfect hedging mechanismthat existed in the contracts indexed by the IGP-Mbut does not fully solve the exchange rate risk problem. The second phase of highway concessions will probably include awarding mechanisms that discourage strategic bidding by opportunistic operators but will not protect serious investors against regulatory risk and opportunistic behavior by the public sector. 23. As a third step, Brazil needs to enhance the effectiveness of its infrastructure regulators, improving regulatory governance. Without adequate regulatory governance, good sector laws and well-designed contracts will be poorly enforced, increasing regulatory risk and the cost of capital. A survey of 21 regulatory agencies in Brazil in early 2005 showed that most of the general elements for good governance transferable by law seem to have been put in place. The challenge, then, is how to develop the more detailed attributes that could not be covered by law, and how to effectively enforcethem. 24. For instance, despitethe fact that regulatory independencyis grantedby almost all sector laws, more thanhalf of the regulators reportedthat the Executivebranch interfered 10 at least once in their final decision. Also, the majority o f regulators (eighteen) were formally required to document their decision-making process but few (seven) were required to cite jurisprudence in support of their decisions, which affects the consistency o f their decisions over time. Few agencies provided for legal sanctions against informal meetings between directors and stakeholders, which may also affect the fairness of the decision-making process. Only one-fifth of the agencies' personnel, on average, were admitted by public exams. Salaries offered by agencies for top technical and managerial positions were considered to be much lower (at least 25 percent) than the salary of the attorney-general or the state finance secretary (used as benchmarks) by 12 of the 21 surveyed agencies. 25. Initiatives to improve the state o f regulatory governance include the Bill concerning regulatory agencies (Lei dus Ag8ncius) and the Career Development law. The Lei dus Agzncius includes some important achievements, such as the transfer of the power to award concessions and the reassignment o f planning policies to sector Ministries. The proposed introduction of management contracts between agencies and the Executive branch may threaten regulators' autonomy and no major change has been proposed in terms o f improving the detailed attributes of regulators. The approval o f a career development law has allowed the application of public exams by some regulatory agencies but the existing salary structure and benefits seem to be inferior to other comparable careers within the public sector. 26. As in many other countries, infrastructure regulators were created in Brazil with the objective of increasing the credibility of the government's long-term commitment to honor concession rights. However, to fully accomplish this objective, regulatory governance has to be in place. Weak regulatory governance leads to inadequate implementation o f regulatory rules and concession contracts, thereby influencing the return-risk ratio of infrastructure projects. 27. In sum, Brazilneeds to forge a coherentset of public policiesto enable more andbetter privateinvestmentsin infrastructure.Given the magnitude of the needs, as well as the constraints on reallocation of public expenditures and expansion of the public debt, the private sector must play a critical role. This does not mean that the role of the government should decrease, but rather that the country should avoid swinging the pendulum back to the pure public financing option. The challenge Brazil currently faces i s how to bring back the private sector - how to translate infrastructure opportunities into projects with competitive rates o f return. This requires curbing regulatory risk and raising projects' revenues, two tasks for which the role of the public sector i s central: governments are ultimately responsible for regulatory risks and, through tariff policies, subsidies and related mechanisms, can, directly or indirectly, influence projects' revenues. A second challenge i s to make sure that the benefits of private participation are transferred to consumers and the economy as a whole. 28. The strategy to reinvigorate the infrastructure sector in Brazil should encompass three mainpillars, as summarizedby the Tablebelow: 11 0 Further strengthening the fundamentals for infrastructure concessions. This involves: (a) completing the regulatory reforms and eliminating policy uncertainties in the port, natural gas and water and sanitationsectors, (b) raising regulators' effectiveness by building into their decision-making processes the incentives to enforce technically sound and coherent decisions andthe tools requiredto do so, such as well-motivated and trained staff, particularly at the state-level, and (c) improving contract design to avoid excessive contract renegotiations that eliminate the economic benefits achieved through competitive biddings and augment the perceivedregulatory risk. As a basic step, Brazil should fully explore existing opportunities for private participation by advancing the second phase of highway concession program (2,700 km and an expected flow of resources estimated in US$ 9.3 billion); aligning the incentives of the energy auctions with possibilities of private participation; and, streamlining the awarding process in railways, given that most of the fundamentals for private participation seems to be in place inthat sector. Investing in regulatory credibility. Even when the regulatory environment has been correctly reformed, it will take time to establish a reputation for stability and good regulation. Partial risk guarantees against regulatory risk may be a way of buying regulatory credibility - particularly regarding the aspects of the regulatory environment over which the government has reasonable control. Because infrastructure investments are sunk and projects have long-term maturities, the stability and credibility of the institutional environment for infrastructure is at the heart of private participation. The expectation that governments may have strong incentives to fail to honor concession rights or that sector rules could change may discourage investments in the first place. It may elevate the premium required for investing in a given project, thus augmenting the costs of capital and tariffs to be charged to consumers. The Brazilian government may consider this option, building on the experienceof the guarantee facility supportedby the World Bank inPeru. Improving institutions for decision-making by the public sector, First, Brazil needs to recover its capacity to plan according to standard principles of cost-benefit analysis, which, in turn, may impose unduly large information demands. Even though financial and economic rates of return are expected to diverge in several cases, projects with low financial returns should be subject to careful additional scrutiny before receiving public support in order to avoid the emergenceof "white elephants." Second, given the possibility that PPP contracts crowd-out pure concessions, a sound institutional framework for the use of public resources in infrastructure projects should be consolidated and made public. One possibility is to build on the existing initiatives of PPP units in different Ministries and within the Pilot Infrastructure Program (Programa Piloto de Infruestrutura, PPI), Third, Brazil could generate some additional savings by improvingthe quality of its public expenditureininfrastructure. Improving the quality of public expenditures. More funding i s requiredfor maintenance. Over the last six years, annual averages of about RS$ 600 million for rehabilitation and RS$ 150 million for maintenancehave been spent on the paved federal road network in Brazil, a level that is supposedto be enoughto avoid further deteriorationof the network. But in order to increase the share of road in good conditions from the current 25 percent 12 to 63 percent, and avoid wasteful expenditures on reconstruction inthe future, the World Bank estimates that roughly RS$ 1.2 billion a year will be required over the next six years, at least. Moreover, the quality of public expenditures can be further improved through better planning and the stability of funds. In road maintenance, for instance, the adoption of output-based contracts and the provision of a stable flow of resources could avoid contract renegotiations and cost increases due to delays in startup, interruption in implementation and non-payment by the government, and could bring significant cost- savings. A World Bank analysis showed that the unit costs o f output-based contracts are 30 percent less than those of traditional contracts - while contract renegotiations have increased contract costs by at least 50 percent. The approval o f a multi-year highway expenditure program would be an important instrument. These issues are further discussed inthe forthcoming report on fiscal spending. e Developing the institutional foundations for an efficient infrastructure policy. First, Brazil needs an infrastructure strategy to coherently and systematically address its long-term infrastructure needs. This requires consolidating a planning process that i s still fragmented and embryonic either among Ministries or among different federal entities. It should involve a rationalizationof programs aimed at improving access to the poor, better leveraging the impacts of infrastructure on poverty alleviation. It ought to identify potential sources of financing, both private and public, including expected contributions by different levels of government and potential bottlenecks for private participation. Ideally, it would cover other strategic issues as well, such as the active use of competition as a tool to promote private sector participation and economic efficiency. Second, the infrastructure strategy should be fully incorporated in Brazil's budgetary process. The infrastructure strategy could be part of the government's multi-year plan (Plano Pluri- Anual) formulation and subsequently mapped into the multi-annual budgetary program (Lei de Diretrizes Orgarnentdrias) and the annual budget (Lei do Orgumento Anual). Third, the infrastructure strategy should be fully monitored and evaluated, with lessons learned included inits periodic revisions. Broader issues. Increasing public expenditures in infrastructure will inevitably involve a redefinition of public priorities, a reallocation of revenues and a more flexible use of "earmarked" expenditures. Several intermediate solutions - as for instance conditioning flexibilization of earmarking to the achievement o f pre-defined social indicators - but as consensus building seems to be still required, bringing in objective measurement and evaluation of the impacts of access to infrastructure on poverty alleviation may ease the debate. Lastly, defining an appropriate infrastructure strategy at federal level will require addressing an institutional inadequate set-up for budget formulation. Infrastructure expenditures suffer from the same free-riding and coordination problems as the provision of pure public goods but these problems are exacerbated, in the case of Brazil, by the decentralization of public revenues to states and municipalities and by a political setting that favors short-term local objectives to the detriment of long-term national ones in the process of budget formulation and approval by Congress. Improving coordination among the three-tiers o f the government and redesigning the institutional framework to facilitate the adoption o f national infrastructure projects are, therefore, critical long-term challenges. These issues are further discussed in the forthcoming report on fiscal spending. 0 . . HOW TO REVITALIZEINFRASTRUCTUREINVESTMENTS INBRAZIL:PUBLICPOLICIESFORBETTERPRIVATE PARTICIPATION MAIN REPORT 1. More than US$164 billion was invested in infrastructure projects that involved private participation in Brazil during 1994-2004. This amount corresponds to more than two-thirds of the total spending in private infrastructure projects in the East Asia and Pacific region. The surge of private participation resulted, at least in part, from the implementation of ambitious infrastructure reforms: while privatization received most of the attention, the reforms also involved a radical transformation of the regulatory environment, the breaking up of formerly vertically integrated monopolies and, when feasible, the introduction of competition. 2. Despite starting later inthe reform process, Brazil was a fast and eager reformer. In1998, telecommunications services were fully privatized after the Telebra'ssystemwas broken into three regional providers and one international carrier. Three large energy generation companies and 17 distribution companies were sold between 1997 and 2000, enabling competition to play an increasingly central role in the power sector. The entire railway network was privatized in 1995-99, as were most port terminals; and concessions were granted for about 5,000 km of federal roads. Laws governing various infrastructure sectors were reformed and the management of concession contracts was delegated to independentregulators. 3. Although privatization produced some positive results, opinion polls show frustration with infrastructure services in Brazil. This frustration serves to shift policy makers' opinion against private participation in infrastructure. From 1998 to 2004, the proportion of the population that was dissatisfied with privatization increased from 40 to 60 percent. Yet, this is not a phenomenon unique to Brazil: according to Latinobardmetro, support for privatization fell by half (from 56 to 25 percent) in 1998- 2002 in Latin America.2 Public authorities and multilateral institutions that once supported privatization now are discussing how to increase public investments in infrastructure without jeopardizing sound fiscal management. The policymaking pendulumhas swung back to public investments. Some caveats on the data collected by Latinobardmetro should be introduced. I t only shows the preferences of key decision-makers of the parties regarding more or less state control of the economy, and does not include some o f the other dimensions of the orientation such as religion, regional, and rural characteristics. Although the measure shows the difference between left and right, it does not show the relative position of the center. Surveys of reported well-being can contribute to such measures, but alone they are insufficient. Their potential contribution increases markedly when they can be matched with objective income data for the same respondents. 15 4. This report addresses the question of how policymakers can facilitate effective investment in infrastructure in Brazil. Part Itakes stock of the situation and argues that more infrastructure i s needed and, as current fiscal constraints limit major public investment, the levels of future investment in infrastructure will depend in large part on private sector participation. Part I1looks ahead and discusses how to revitalize private investments in infrastructure in Brazil. It assesses the profitability o f infrastructure concessions and the performance of privatized firms in Brazil, addresses the main challenges for private financing o f infrastructure in Brazil, and suggests policies to help overcome these challenges. I. InfrastructureandGrowthinBrazil:TakingStockoftheSituation 5. This section explains why more infrastructure is needed and why private infrastructure financing will eventually play a major role in revitalizing infrastructure investments inBrazil. A. Where Do We Stand? 6. International benchmarking indicates that Brazil's infrastructure stock compareswell within Latin America and the Caribbean(LAC) countriesbut less so with international peers from East Asia. This is particularly the case of the transport sector. In telecommunications, indicators show that figures for Brazil are much better than those for LAC and, in general, surpass those for other regions. In electricity, indicators show that Brazil ranks better than or near its peers inthe L A C region. Brazil's paved roads network, however, lags behind the average for L A C and other regions. Brazil's coverage i s less than a third o f the L A C average and less than one-tenth the coverage of South Asia, the best performing region. The length of paved road per 1,000 inhabitants shows that Brazil's coverage i s less than one-third that of LAC but is not as bad in comparison with East-Asia and Pacific, highly populated regions encompassing Bangladesh, China, and India. 7. Access to infrastructure services in Brazil improved in the last decade, but with major gaps in rural areas and in access by the poor. There is also a large variance among states. According to the 2000 Census, approximately 92 percent of the population had access to electricity services; 75 percent had access to potable water; 50 percent to sewerage services; and 37 percent to telecommunications services (fixed telephones) with much greater access to mobile services. States with lower per capita income show lower coverage rates, but there i s evidence of some "catching up" effect: states with lower coverage levels in 1991, such as Cearh, Piaui, RondGnia, and Tocantins, presented relatively highercoverage growth rates. With the exception of electricity, there i s a significant gap between urban and rural areas in terms of coverage. Regression analyses indicate that for people living inrural areas, the probability o f having access to infrastructure services i s 95 percent lower than for those who live in metropolitan regions. Perhaps more important, it seems that the poorest benefited less from improvements in infrastructure. Between 1991 and 2000, coverage rates for electricity, sewerage, and water improved in all but the lowest two deciles of income distribution, with the gains being proportionally higher for the highest deciles. Water coverage, in 16 particular, declined by almost 4 percent in the two lowest deciles, which may reflect the lack of appropriate subsidy mechanisms to compensate for affordability problems (see Figure l).3 8. The lack of appropriate infrastructure services also exists at the enterprise level. This i s particularly evident in labor intensive industries and in the states of Amazonas and Goifis. Accumulated losses caused by inadequate infrastructure services varied from 1.15 percent in Rio Grande do Sul to 9.22 percent in Amazonas. The footwear industry, which lost more than 10 percent of the value of 2003 sales due to infrastructure outages, seems to have been the most affected, followed by garments, textiles, and furniture industries. Electricity outages and transport damages or delays are the main causes of infrastructure outages, responsible for three-fourths of outages in Amazonas and two-thirds o f outages in the footwear industry. The largest losses in the transport sector were reported by the auto-parts industry (4.7 1 percent). Infrastructure losses are caused b y both the frequency and the duration o f service interruptions, indicating reliability problems. Power interruptions were the most frequent and transport interruptions were the longest. To mitigate the risks of power outages, almost 60 percent o f Brazilian large firms in the manufacturing industry report owning power generators. This percentage declines according to firm size and reveals the regressive nature of inadequate infrastructure service^.^ B. TheFallinInfrastructureInvestmentsand itsCauses 9. Infrastructureinvestmentsfell during the last two decades. As in many other L A C countries, infrastructure investments in Brazil fell dramatically from 1980 to 2002, with the largest decline occurring in the 1980s. Investments in infrastructure plunged from an average of 5.22 percent of GDPduring 1981-85 to 2.35 percent o f GDP in 1996- 2000. In2001, levels o f infrastructure investment corresponded to half o f what they were in 1981. The drop of 2.87 percentage points between the two periods is much larger than the regional average of 1.2 percentage point, reflecting Brazil's higher initial investment levels in the early 1980s. Most important, this fall was concentrated during 1981-1996, when levels dropped 2.61 percentage points (or 93 percent of the total). Despite partial recovery in subsequent years, the steepest decline in infrastructure investment in Brazil occurred in 1987-89, when it droppedby roughly 50 percent (see Figure 2). For further details, see Volume 11, Chapter 1, Section 1.2. Based on "Acesso a ServiGos de Infra- Estrutura," background paper prepared by M.Neri for this report. For further details, see Volume 11, Chapter 1, Section 1.3. Based on World Bank (2005) "Chapter 8: Infrastructure Services and Firm Performance in Brazil: The Need for Creative and Efficient Partnerships between the Public and Private Sectors." In: World Bank, "Brazil Investment Climate Assessment - Volume 11:Background Documents." Mimeo. 17 \ i, $ s k i i k 4 Pd G ' I 9 I I 10. The fall in in ~ ~ ~of pubtic ~ t ~ ~ ~ j # ~ LAC r e ~ at the~ti ~ ~ o percent of GDP, on average, in 1 ~ ~ 6This ~ ~ ~ ~ . - c ~ n s ~ ~ tit~drop sof 2.6 per ~ t e rcent of the overall d e c ~ ~(2.87~ pcrccnt). More than half of this decrease occtirred between the: periods n 1 9 8 6 - arid 1991-95, prior to riiost of the p r ~ ~ ~ aint infr~ ~UCCUTC {oI~~ 9s ~and 9 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - the fiscal a d j ~ ~ sf 1~ ~9 e~~ ~~-The rest ~f the)decline in public l n ~ ~ ~could~bee ~ ~ t i ~ ~ o ~ . t split, os^ all^^ between die r e ~ ~IWQi periods~(before~ 1986 arid after 1995). n ~ ~ Public i ~ ~ ~ e s ~in~LACefell~2.1 percent bctwecn I981-85 and ~ ~ 9 ~~ ~- r 2~ e~~ i~~ i~n ~, , ~ i n s Chile and Mexico are a ~ ~ thcgcountries with red~ct~ons public ~ n ~ e s ~ ~ e ~ ~ s n in ~ o ~ p a r tobthateof Brazil, while ~ ~ ~ o ~ managed to~sustain larger public:funds for o ~ ~ a i n f r a s t ~ u c t ~C~ .o ~ iin~other~regions,~such as the P h ~ ~ ~ and~~~h n~ ei ls~~ ~n d~ ~~ a i ~ ~ e d r ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ r olevels of~public ~i ~~ ~ e ~ ~ d ~ ~ ~ ~ r e . ~ ~ 12. The gradualdeteriorationof the institutionalframework for the provisionof infrastructure led to the eventual decline in infrastructure investments. First, the centralization o f most of the planning, regulatory, and operational attributions of the state-owned enterprises had failed to improve corporate governance and performance of public companies. By the late 1980s, Brazilian state-owned utilities provided highly inefficient services and contributed to the public sector's deficit, accounting for approximately half of the overall debt during 1983-88. Second, the financial strategy based on external borrowing and self-financing through the tariff structure was undermined by two external crises, particularly in 1982 (with the Mexican default) and the undervaluation of the infrastructure tariff for inflation control purposes. This had a direct effect on electricity companies, as they had tapped international financial markets during the 1970s for increasing amounts of debt. As a result, investments from the Eletrobrds system, which in 1980-82 reached 0.84 percent of GDP on average, were reduced to 0.72 percent in 1984-86 and 0.48 percent in 1988-91 - a fall o f 43 percent in ten years. The overall deterioration of the fiscal situation indirectly affected sectors dependent on the federal budget, such as transport. 13. The 1988 Constitutioncontributedto weakeningthe institutionalframework for infrastructure.Public sector financing - a centralpart of the institutional framework for the infrastructure sector - collapsed with the 1988 Constitution. First, the 1988 Constitution replaced sector-specific federal taxes - available for energy, transport, and telecommunications - with non-specific state-level ones. For instance, the road tax, which contributed to federal road investments, was transferred to the states, while the electricity tax from the electricity sector was incorporated into the states' VAT system. Second, the Constitution raised transfers o f federal funds to sub-national governments, particularly municipalities: the municipal share of the federal income and industrial tax revenues, for example, increased from 17.0 to 22.5 percent. This reduced the amount of federal funds available for capital expenditures and introduced potential coordination problems among the three tiers of the administration when sub-national governments are needed to co-finance federal infrastructure projects. Lastly, the 1988 Constitution increased and earmarked certain current public expenditures - particularly on health and education - while capital expenditures, in general, and infrastructure investments, in particular, were left to the discretion of policymakers. 14. Over time, federal public investments were further crowded out by rising current expenditures. Central governments' primary expenditures rose from 13.7 percent of GDP in 1991to 21.6 percent in2002 while federal public investments declined from 1.45 percent to 0.75 percent of GDP. Roughly three-fourths of the increase in primary expenditures (6.9 percent out of 8.9 percent of GDP) was due to pension benefits, public employees' salaries and transfers to states and municipalities. On the one hand, this allocation of public expenditures was established by the 1988 Constitution: beyond the decentralization of revenues, it established higher social benefits for the whole population. These benefits were extended to rural workers, and the generous public employment regime was expanded to all the public sector employees. On the other hand, the increase in these expenditures over time can be explained by different institutional factors, such as the change in the minimum wage (affecting two-thirds of the social security benefits) and the increase in income tax revenues (of which almost half were 20 transferred to the municipal fund). Different institutional devices may have operated to guarantee an inter-temporal flow of budgetary resources for selected areas. 15. The contribution of the 1995-98 privatizations to the decline ininfrastructure investments is relatively minor. A common criticism of the privatization process in Brazil i s that it transferred control over a large share o f the country's infrastructure investments to the private sector, as the option for "golden shares" (which gives the government some control over strategic decisions o f privatized companies) was rarely adopted. Investments of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in 1995-98, the period when most privatizations occurred, declined to 0.89 percent of GDP, but investments in telecommunications alone accounted for 0.93 percent of GDP. These figures suggest that the reduced investments of SOEs should have been restricted to the telecommunications sector, in which concession contracts provided enough incentives for additional investments and sector expansion. It is possible, therefore, that the effect of the 1995-98 privatizations was not only restricted to telecommunications, but also its "pass-through" effect on total infrastructure investments was low, as private investments may have partially compensated for the decline inpublic investments (see Figure 3). 16. The effect of the 1999-2002 fiscal adjustment on federal public investments was less severe than is commonly acknowledged. During 1998-2002, public sector investment in infrastructure declined by 0.75 percentage points of GDP, with a drop of 0.18 point from SOEs and 0.57 point from the public administration. These are rather small numbers as compared to the fiscal policies implemented during this period. In addition, most of the decline in infrastructure investments, roughly two-thirds of the overall drop (0.5 percentage points), came from states and municipalities. This i s not surprising, since the largest share of infrastructure investment was concentrated in these tiers of the public administration. Overall, an increase in current expenditures coupled with a highlevel of rigidity inthe public budget made capital expenditures a major target for cuts. Political economy factors and well-known incentive problems with the provision of public goods further complicated the challenge o f fiscal adjustment. The impact of the fiscal adjustment may have increased during 2003-05, given higher primary surplus targets set by the current administration (see Figure 4). Figure3. Public sector investmentininfrastructure Figure4. Brazil: primary surplus andpublicinvestmentin (percent of GDP), 1995-2002 infrastructure (percent of GDP),1998-2002 14.5I I 3.5% ++ \ Public 3.0% ++Adrninpratim 2.5% Public Companies 2.0% 4 +Total PuMic 1.5% 2 0 1 5 1.0% 1 0 0.5% 0 5 0.0% 00 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2OGZ 1998 1999 Zoo0 2001 2 m uPublicInvestmentinInfrastructure+-PrimarySurplus Source: Own elaboration basedon Afonso et al. (2005). Source: Own elaboration basedon Afonso et al. (2005). 21 C. Does BrazilNeedMore InfrastructureInvestment? 17. Low growthratesin Brazilare closely relatedto low investmentratiosin the last decades. Growth accounting analysis indicates that the capital's contribution to growth duringthe 1990s was very low, as compared to its contributions to labor and total factor productivity. Brazil's endowment of productive infrastructureper worker i s usually inferior to countries that have shown better growth performances, such as Chile and Malaysia. Evidence suggests that Brazil experienced a decline inboth private investments in manufacturing industries and public investments in infrastructure sectors. This is related to a poor investment climate (primarily a high and cumbersome taxation regime) that reduces the private sector's returns; a high level of public debt that crowds-out the private sector; and elevated current expenditures that, given the tight conditions for fiscal solvency in Brazil, reduce fiscal resources available for public investments. When asked about the main obstacles to growth, Brazilian businessmen ranked other factors, notably tax rates and the cost of financing, much higher than the problems related to infrastructure services. 18. It is possible to argue that higher levels of infrastructureinvestmentswould lead to higher growth. Using an overlapping generation model, Glomm and Rioja (2003) found that infrastructure investments in Brazil would have to reach about 5 percent of GDP to maximize impact on economic growth. Calderon and Serven (2004) found that the infrastructure compression of the 1990s reduced Brazil's long-term growth by 3 percentage points per year. Confirming previous results, Ferreira and Araujo (2004) concluded that long-run elasticities are close to or above one for most cases in infrastructure sectors, with stronger results holding for energy and transportation. Poor infrastructure services (transportation and energy) seem also to have a large and negative effect on firm's probability to export and productivity. Using I C A database for several LAC countries, the assessment of the impact of infrastructureon competitiveness, carried out by Escribano et al. (2005), shows that infrastructure services are major determinants o f total factor productivity (TFP) inBrazil and other LAC selected c~untries.~ 19. Perhaps more important, an expansion of infrastructure stock may contribute to improved economic opportunities for the poor and greater income distribution. In poor rural areas, infrastructure expands job opportunities for the less advantaged by reducing the costs of accessing product and factor markets (Smith et al., 2001). It may also generate capital gains for poor farmers, as asset value in poor farm areas increases with the higher net present value o f the profits generated by crops (Jacoby, 2000). Azzoni et al. (2003) generalized that access to infrastructure, together with human capital, were the main factors behind the differences in growth rates among Brazil states. Using a large panel data set encompassing over 100countries during 1960- 2000, Calderon and Serven (2004) found that bringing the stock and quality of Brazil's infrastructure to the median level of the East Asian tigers would reduce the Gini index by 9 percent. In a paper examining whether growth has been pro-poor in Brazil, Menezes- Filho and Vasconcellos (2004) show that poverty i s associated with poor access to infrastructure, lower levels of education, having children, being non-white, being For further details, see Volume II, 3, Section 3.1. Chapter 22 unemployed or working in an informal agricultural job. The paper concluded that a 10 percent rise in income reduces extreme poverty by about 8 percent, on average, with the growth-elasticity of poverty depending positively on the initial level of income and negatively on initial inequality. While it found a positive effect of inequality on growth, it also showed that the trade-offs between growth and pro-poor growth strategies would not exist inthe case o f infrastructure investments. 20. A growing body of empirical research confirms that improved access to infrastructure contributes to better social indicators. Energy has a positive effect on education by making nighttime study possible and reducing the amount of time spent collecting traditional fuels, thus freeing up a child's time for education. Access to water and sanitation curbs water-related diseases, reduces child mortality and contributes to higher educational performance as well. For instance, it i s estimated that the presence of sewerage systems cuts the probability o f child mortality by half in Nicaragua and that lack of access to water reduced school attendance by 2-17 percent in Africa. Transport- related impacts occur mainly through reduced travel time to schools, easier establishment of schools, and reduced environmental hazards that affect educational performance. In Peru, for example, 56 percent of children within one-hour's travel time attend school, as compared to 29 percent for those who musttravel 2-4 hours. 21. Preliminary evidence linking infrastructure and social indicators is also available for Brazil. For an afro-descendant female child in the SZo Paulo state, access to infrastructure services i s associated with a decrease of 20 percent in the probability of 6 or more absence days per year, and proficiency results improve by 11-13 percent (see Table la).6 Impacts vary inversely with the state's infrastructure endowments and family income. The impact o f housing conditions was tested, with similar results: for instance, access to good housing conditions i s associated with a performance 7.1 and 4.6 percent higher in the 4" and 8* grades, respectively, in 2001 (see Table lb).7 A recent IPEA study also found that an increase of 1percent inthe access to water and sewage services may reduce infant mortality by 108 and 216 per year, respectively, or 9.9 percent o f total infant deaths (Seroa da Motta and Moreira, 2004). While alternative, less expensive solutions may seem preferable at first glance, further analysis shows that the benefits do not always match those o f improved infrastructure. For example, the IPEA study found that increasing the mother's educational level was not the best approach to reducing child mortality, once environmental and wealth effects (through the value o f property o f the poor) were factored in. 22. Far-reaching goals to meet Brazil's infrastructure needs are still attainable. How much i s needed for infrastructure depends on the chosen objective. This report estimates that annual expenditures o f 3.2 percent o f GDP per annum as a lower bound scenario for Brazil in 2010. This is a cumulative figure that includes responding to increased demand (1.55 percent in 2010, based on a 2 percent annual growth rate), the The report considers access to infrastructure services as access to electricity, water, sanitation, and telecommunications services. Good housing conditions are associated with 4 residents in the house, non-precarious neighborhood, and house built in an owned and paid terrain. For further details, see Volume 11, Chapter 3, Section 3.2. Based on "Infrastructure and Educational Progression," background paper prepared by M.Neri and R.Moura. 23 estimated cost of universal coverage (0.2 percent) and maintenance costs (1.5 percent). A much higher amount (4.7-9.0 percent of GDP) would be required to bring Brazil to the current levels o f coverage in Korea (universal coverage including maintenance costs). While ambitious, this goal - which would add more than 4 percentage points to the Brazil's GDP growth - i s not unrealistic. Similar increases were achieved by Korea, Indonesia, and Malaysia from the late 1970s to the late 1990s. Indeed, Korea's infrastructure endowments 25 years ago were substantially worse than Brazil's at that time.8 Table la. Change in educational performance associated with access to infrastructure in SHo Paulo state (inpercent) Attribute First Year Last Year A B A B Proficiency 4" grade 11.4 12.3 10.9 11.8 8" grade 12.3 12.9 11.8 12.4 31dyear of high school 13.1 13.8 12.8 13.5 Attendance Never absent 49.9 44.7 -- -- 6+ days absent -20.8 -23.5 -- -- Enrollment 38.1 36.2 29.0 31.9 Notes: For proficiency: first year (1999) last year (2003). For attendance: only one year, consideredfirst year, i s available (2001). For enrollment: first year (2001) and last year (2004). "A" is associatedwith ahousehold of four residents inthe house. "B" is associated with a household with eight residents in the house. For attendance and enrollment, the household is located in a precarious neighborhood, built ina terrain provided by employer or other means. Estimated for an afro-descendentgirl living in an urban area, whose parent's educationis inferior to 4" grade and attendingapublic school. Source: Neri and Moura (2005). Table lb. Results for difference in percentage for scenarios with good housing conditions in relation to those with bad housing conditions inSZo Paulo state (inpercent) Attribute First Year Last Year Proficiency 4" grade 7.1 6.8 8" grade 4.6 4.4 31dyear of high school 4.6 4.5 Enrollment 3.9 3.5 Notes: For proficiency: first year (1999) last year (2003). For enrollment: f i s t year (2001) and last year (2004). Good conditions are associated with 4 residents inthe house, non-precariousneighborhood, and housebuilt in an owned and paidterrain. Bad conditions are defined as 8 residents in the house, precarious neighborhood, and house built in a terrain provided by employer or other means. Estimatedfor an afro-descendentgirl living inan urban area, whose parent's education is inferior to 4th grade and attending a public school. Source: NeriandMoura (2005). 23. Given its current fiscal situation and infrastructure needs, Brazil will eventually require larger and better participation of the private sector to revitalize its infrastructure sector. Willingness to invest in infrastructure diminished in recent years, but Brazil's potential has not been fully explored yet: the share of private provision o f energy in Brazil i s at least half that of Colombia; private provision of water and sanitation is negligible compared to Chile's; and contracts for more than 2,000 km of * For further details, see Volume 11,Chapter 3, Section 3.3. Based on estimates prepared by M. Fay and T. Yepes for this report. 24 federal roads will be awarded soon, while an additional 6,700 km are considered "concessionable." Overall, the amount o f private projects for infrastructure in Brazil remained small relative to the size of its economy. Private participation as a share o f GDP inBrazil in 1996-2000, for example, was inferior to the LAC average; approximately half the size reached in Colombia and far from the levels it reached in East-Asian countries such as the Philippines and Thailand. Inthe next section, we address the issue o f whether private investors earned adequate returns in infrastructure concessions in Brazil and the performance o f privatized firms. D. PrivateParticipationinInfrastructure 24. Contrary to public perception, private concessions were not excessively profitable when the full cost of capitalis considered.The misperception is created by operational profit indicators that adjust neither for investment requirements nor for risk premiums. The estimated average internal rate o f return for projects with terminal value in 1997-2003 is negative for telecommunications (-26 percent) and energy (-5 percent) - indicating returns below their opportunity cost of capital - and positive for water (16 percent). The average return-on-equity for infrastructure services varied between 3 percent (in water) to 5 percent (in telecommunications). High investment levels in the initial concession years, induced by the concession contracts, explain, in part, the low profitability levels in telecommunications. For electricity, the 2001 energy crisis and the induced consumption contraction contributed to lower returns. The weighted average cost of capital (WACC) varied between 14 percent and 16 percent, with the estimated cost of equity (CE) between 19 percent and 24 percent - figures that are, on average, at least twice as large as inthe U S and Chile. 25. More important, perhaps, returns volatility indicates that infrastructure investment in Brazil is a relatively risky business. The level of risk of infrastructure investments in Brazil i s consistent with other L A C countries but it i s at odds with the OECD countries. Infrastructure services are normally monopolistic services, posing low commercial risks to investors as compared to other businesses. Demand for infrastructure services tends to be relatively price-inelastic and linked to underlying economic or demographic growth. Monopoly-type market environments may imply predictable returns through regulation or long-term contracts. Ongoing operational-maintenance expenditures may be relatively low and stable, once an infrastructure asset i s developed, potentially increasing free cash flow. In OECD countries, therefore, infrastructure investments are long-term, low-risWlow-return alternative for conservative investors. 26. The level of risk becomes a particularly important issue if Brazil intends to attract equity capital. Brazil was found to have had the fourth highest average cost of capital and the fifth highest cost of equity among a group of ten Latin American countries, according to 2004 data. More important, the difference between Brazil's average CE (6 percent) and WACC (3 percent) reflects the additional premium required by equity investors as a result of them undertaking more risk than debt holders. These results illustrate the difficulties associated with attracting institutional investors, particularly pension funds. Given expected commercial returns, higher levels o f risk will tend to further restrict the availability of equity capital for infrastructure concessions. 25 27. Despite these negative short-term prospects5 ~ o n c ~ s arei o~ ~~~p a of l e - ~ ~ generating ~ d e ~ returns in the Bong-term, For that, however, s ~ ~ a r e ~must~ ~ e r s ~ a ~ e ~ ~ rely 'both on various sources of r e ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~~r ai ~~i o~ndivi~ends~~~ ~d ~~ nfees~ ande ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i e n capital gains) and on ~ o n s i ~~~uet ~~ ~ e r~f~o ~y~ ~~ ~j ns g~market jgrowth lover the entire ~ r ~ ~ length of their c o ~ ~ ~ While ~the~ i~~ ~~.e rate~ofa return (IRR) is negative - and e s i r ~ ~ ~ h e ~ elowerr than the WACC - for all countries in the sample, thc IRR with TV is ~ ~ e above the average WACC when future growth is at least equal to each country's average ~ ~ ie ~s o ~~growth~~and ~the residual value addcd is taken into account. These i ~o ~ ~ ~ ~ l results suggest that ~ o n ~ e s s i # noperate~with long-term ~ ~ r s ~ e cand ~ e a ~ r ~ ~ i rely son the entire concession period inorder to build ;uladequate return ~ ~ ~ r ~etaal.,n2005). i e 18 ,- 14 12 i 10 P 8 et ctl 28, ~ n a d returns~to~i n ~~r ~ s ~ r u ~ ~ u ~ as compared to the e ~ ~ ~ fined in recent ilhas one of the 26 analyzed remainedstable from 1996to 2001 and started to decline after 2001. A positive factor favoring the decline of the opportunity cost of capital for infrastructure concessions i s the reduction of the country risk premium. The country risk premium i s the main discriminating factor for the CEandthe WACC. There is a noticeablecorrelationbetween the CEand the country risk premium. Not surprisingly, the CEin Brazilian infrastructure sectors has been falling since 2001. The cost of capital, estimated by the WACC, follows the same pattern as the CE. In particular, the decrease in the CE after 2002 can be explained by the mitigation of the political uncertainty associated with the 2002 presidentialelections. 30. The reductionin country risk is a reasonfor optimism, as the country may find it easier to attract privatecapitalto its infrastructureprojects. As country risk reduces, Brazil can obtain significant gains by creating a credible and stable regulatory environmentfor infrastructureinvestments.Stability is essential so that the adequate level of returns can be achieved in the long run. Ideally, such stability should be credible as well. Inturn, this will require: (a) strengtheningthe legal and policy sector frameworks, (b) improving contract design, then avoiding excessiverenegotiations, and (c) improving the quality of regulators (regulatory governance), so that laws and contracts are more appropriately enforced.' 31. In terms of the performance of privatized firms, the best outcomes were related to improvements in the firms' technical efficiency. In electricity, labor productivity (amount of energy distributed per employee) doubled; in water, distributional losses fell by 40 percent; and, in telecommunications, the total number of lines per employee rose almost five times while the number of uncompletedcalls fell by 33 percent. Both output expansion and employment reduction led to productivity gains. Most of these gains occurredduring the "transition" period, when the privatizations were beingpreparedandimplemented.The paceof improvementsfell significantly after that. 32. Improvementsin technicalperformanceand coverage are noticeableas well. The frequency of interruptions in electricity distribution dropped 48 percent while the digital portion of the telecommunications network grew by 116 percent. With the exceptionof water, the pace of improvements in quality indicators diminishedinthe post- privatization period. The coverage of services provided by privatized companies improved. Coverage grew 109 percent in telecommunications, 22 percent in water, and 15 percent inelectricity distribution, with these last two slightly lower than the results for the region as a whole. In part, this i s due to higher coverage levels in Brazil prior to privatization, which made further expansions of the system more costly and reduced margins for expansion of the networks. Growth in coverage ratios accelerated in the "post-privatization" period, possibly as a consequenceof coverage targets establishedin the concessioncontracts. 33. Utility tariffs declined when calculated in US dollar terms but increased when measuredin local currency.An exception is the charge for the installation of the residential telephone line, which was reduced after privatization regardless of the For further details, see Volume 11,Chapter 4, Section 4.2. 27 currency used. One interpretation for this result i s that the tariff policy provided an imperfect indexation to the US dollar: sufficient to keep utilities' prices above average consumer prices but insufficient to guarantee their full parity with U S currency. By comparison, utility prices in the L A C region increased both in real local currency terms as well as in U S dollar terms. Most o f the tariff rise was concentrated during the post- privatization period, most likely because of the use of IGP-M (a price index that closely follows the US dollar) as the reference for tariff readjustment by most concession contracts. .... Table 2. Brazil: summary of the effects of privatization on the performance of utility companies ..... Sector Labor Distributional Coverage Prices Productivity Losses (inReal) Electricity distribution 000 - 0 Fixed telecommunications 0000 - 3-minute call: 0. monthly charges: 0.0 installation fee: 000 Water distribution 0.. 00 - N.A. Notes: 0 = increase. o = decrease. N.A. = not available. Price results for the water sector were not robust (sample size = 1). See Volume 11,Chapter 4, Section 4.2 for details. Source: Own elaboration. 34. Although privatization produced some impressive results, public opinion shows frustration with infrastructure services. Opposition to private participation in infrastructure in Brazil has many causes. First, some observers question the actual success o f the reforms - whether privatization improved the provision o f infrastructure services interms of price, quality, and access. The quality of infrastructure services i s one of the major sources of formal complaints to consumer protection authorities. Second, questions have arisen regarding whether reforms led to the neglect o f infrastructure investments and, thereby, constrained recent economic growth. Low infrastructure investment in recent years i s often attributed to the conservative fiscal strategy that was adopted in 1999, thereby implying that the recovery of infrastructure investments in Brazil would require an increase in spending by the federal government. However, the government may not be willing or able to significantly increase its spending on infrastructure. 35. Negative perceptions of privatization may be due to economic downturns. Public discontent may be linked to disappointment that outcomes have not matched expectations. Also, the perceived transparency o f the privatization process i s likely crucial in shaping public perceptions. In particular, privatizations have often been perceived as unfair, rightly or wrongly. Game theory shows that people would rather gain nothing than agree to a deal in which they feel they gain less than their fair share. This seemingly irrational result, combined with a common perception that concessionaires or governments may have benefited disproportionately, may be a key part of the privatization paradox. The implication for governments is that perceptions of fairness must be carefully managed. That means not only that transactions must be transparent 28 and above board, but that the proceeds of privatization be used in a way that offsets any possible sense of injustice." 11. How to Revitalize Infrastructure Investments inBrazil 36. Given the magnitude of the needs, the constraints on reallocation of public expenditures and the impacts of the expansion of public debt on long-term solvency, the revitalization of infrastructure investments in Brazil will need to largely rely on private financing. Creating fiscal space for public investments is, naturally, very important but, nowadays, the expansionof public investments is limited by taxation and current expenditure levels inthe context of budgetaryrigidity and historically high public indebtedness. As shown by Ferreira and Araujo (2006), public indebtedness is so high that an expansion of infrastructure expenditures, if entirely financed by additional debt, would lead to an increase in the short to medium run debt-to-GDP ratio, putting public sector solvency at risk and triggering interest rate rises that would offset future revenue gains. The country, thus, should avoid swingingthe pendulumback to public financing. 37. Moreover, opportunities for private investments seem far from exhausted, even though private transactions have collapsed to less than a quarter of the peak level in mid-1990s given investors' disaffection with emerging markets. Private participation in infrastructure inBrazil is low in comparisonwith other countries outside or within the LAC region. For example, private participation in infrastructureper capita in Brazil is lower than half of the value for Malaysia, while private participation in electricity generation in Chile is almost three times larger than in Brazil. Private provision of water and sanitationis limited to 5 percentof consumers inroughly 70 out of more than 5,000 municipalities. According to the regulator, the second phase of the highway concession program will award approximately 2,60Okm, generating approximately US$9.3 billion, with an additional 6,700km in conditions of being awarded later on. A central question for Brazilian policymakers, therefore, is how to better manage private participation ininfrastructure suchthat private finance is mobilized towards the efficient provision of infrastructure services. 38. Infrastructure concessions in Brazil are capable of generating adequate returns only when the full concessionperiod is taken into account. Enablingmore and better private investmentsininfrastructure requires, therefore, allowing investor to collect adequate dividends in the long-run. This implies, in turn, enforcing a stable and credible regulatory environment, turning private infrastructure concessions into a low-risk / low returnbusiness.With this goal inmind, Brazil will needto completethe legal and policy framework in selected sectors; improve contract design to avoid "excessive" contract renegotiations; andenhance the quality of regulators (regulatorygovernance). loSee Fay and Morison (2005). 29 A. The LegalandPolicy Framework 39. A stable and efficient legal framework reduces incentives for opportunistic behavior from the state and protects consumers from abuse of dominance from incumbent firms. This leads to reduced regulatory risk and appropriate provision of infrastructure services. Clear and stable policies are also important, as they affect profitability o f infrastructure investment. The provision of infrastructure services shares several of the problems attributed to the provision of pure public goods: economies o f scale and scope and externalities distort price signals and competition, making some planningfutile. The bulleted paragraphs below review the regulatory environment for each sector and discuss challenges to overcome to improve the legal and policy framework. Table 2 summarizes the main legal and policy bottlenecks.l1 40. Telecommunications. The regulatory environment for telecommunications in Brazil i s probably the most complete. The challenge remains in developing a strategy to dismantle cross-subsidization without jeopardizing present coverage levels. The expansion and universalization of telecom services were achieved in large part through allowing some level of cross-subsidization among services. Due to the goal o f universal service, portions of the fixed telephony concession companies' plants are not profitable. Concession companies are concerned by the possible adoption o f measures to promote competition with no revision of the universal service goals. Incumbents believe that competitors will adopt cream-skimming strategies, "stealing away" lucrative customers. As a result, operators maintain that universal service goals are not feasible, and suggest revision or substitution by another set o f goals. From the policy side, there has been no decision on how to use the resources from the Universalization Fund o f Telecommunication Services (Fundo de UniversaZizagCo para os ServiCos de Telecomunicagclbes,FUST) created in 1998. 41. Electricity. Over the last three years, Brazil has used a new conceptual model for the power sector with the aims of increasing and securing the supply of energy, and applying tariff threshold.l2 The model adopted in 2004 centralizes distribution companies' purchase o f energy through unified auctions to increase stability o f supply and the bargaining power of the distributors in order to reduce energy prices for consumers. It does not create a single buyer, but one important characteristic of the new framework is that the progressive role o f the price mechanism and competition that was envisaged in the pre-crisis model has been virtually abandoned. However, the transition to the new model also generated "stranded costs," as the model imposes a differentiated treatment between "new" and "old" (existing or amortized) generation acquisitions. The issue i s that market expansion will take place via new investments, thereby excluding the old generation of investments. This creates a sustainability problem for the model, as new investors will make their decisions based on their appraisal o f current conditions, l1For further details, see Volume 11,Chapter 5. l2In2003, the Braziliangovernment decidedto reformulate the power sector model. InMarch 2004, Laws No. 10,847 and 10,848 were approved with the goals of securing energy supply, and applying tariff threshold. The new model focuses on the long term planning with the creation of the Energy Research Company (EPE), which works as a pool in a market of regulated and free energy acquisition, considering that distributors must forecast and acquireenoughpower to supply 100percentof their demands. 30 government reputation, and past behavior. If the current rules penalize old investments, potential investors mightbe discouraged from entering the market. 42. One important regulatory bottleneck is the lack of incentives to incorporate demand response into the industry's decision-making process. Auctions will be based on Discos' projections of future demand. Moreover, the success of the single buyer model is somewhat compromisedby the fact that the government still controls 75 percent of power generation (hydro and "old energy"). On the positive side, the reform preserved institutions created by the old model and created the Brazilian Energy Enterprise (Empresa de Pesquisa Energe`tica, EPE) with the mission of developing long term planning for the energy sector in Brazil. The first "new energy" auction took place on December 2005 and achieved mixed results. The objective was to contract electricity to supply the demand increase forecast for 2008, 2009 and 2010. The auction did not succeed in meeting the entire anticipated load for 2008 and 2009 and most private investors refrained from participating, while state enterprises played a big role. Also, results did not minimize the cost o f expansion because the auction involved the purchase of thermal electricity at a higher cost than that established for hydroelectricity. Overall, results suggest that the auction structure and rules should be reviewed so that they approach a least-cost expansion and all forecast demand i s met. 43. Finally, Brazil has a poor record regarding contract enforcement in the energy sector.13 Contract design and enforcement are relatively new to the power sector. Only with the 1998 reform did contracts become the "glue" that binds together the multiple pieces o f a vertically disintegrated system. Despite some progress since then, there have been many contract disputes. For instance, a large debt of the state-owned generators owed to the wholesale energy market (MAE)reduced the liquidity o f the market b y late 2000. During the discussions about gains and losses prompted by the 2001 crisis, there were multiple regulations and contractual clauses being challenged, involving large sums of resources. Post-rationing, there were additional unilateral attempts to breach contracts of thermal power plants and energy imports, involving substantial amounts. Investors also feel that the enforcement mechanisms are weak, since courts are slow and not prepared to deal with the nuances o f the power industry. A recent suggestion was made to create a special tribunal to deal with matters pertainingto the electric sector.14 44. Natural gas. The institutional environment for private investments innatural gas i s characterized by inappropriate contract design and inadequate access to pipelines. The risk takenby Petrobris' contracts with BolivianYPFB - which accounts for a large share o f the supply of natural gas in Brazil - i s transferred to local distributors and from these to Independent Power Providers (IPPs). The result i s gas supply contracts that are unsuitable for thermal plant operation in a predominantly hydro system. In addition, l3 Prior to the late 1990s reforms, there was not a tradition to establish purchase power agreements between buyers and sellers, since they were all state owned companies. Furthermore, any issues on the allocation of property rights were resolved by an administrative forum based on collaborative rules and coordinated by Eletrobrds. These functions have been absorbed by the Operador Nacional do Sistema and Mercado Atacadista de Energia. However, those new entities have no role inaddressing contract disputes, except the ones emerging from the interpretation of Grid Code and Market Rules. l4 See Table 5.2.1, For further details see Volume 11, Section 5.2. 31 contracts for the supply of natural gas for thermal generation do not favor the development of secondary markets for gas. Finally, natural gas pipelines - the relevant transportation means for the largest sources of natural gas to Brazil - are controlled by Petrobris through a subsidiary (Trunspetro). Open-access is established by law and further regulated by the sector regulator. However, enforcement o f these rules has been extremely cumbersome and costly, with potential entrants issuing successive legal complaints or simply voicing them publicly. Currently, a new draft law i s being debated in Congress to reform the system and generate much-needed access to the pipelines. Overall, the sector lacks a long-term strategy based on a policy decision on the role of natural gas inBrazil's energy generation matrix. 45. Overall, the natural gas sector still lacks a long term strategy based on a policy decision regarding the composition of energy generation in Brazil. This involves developing a source of energy that does not depend on climate conditions, as is the case o f hydro-based power generation. It i s also related to the environmental (and social) costs of a strategy to expand the system, given the areas where hydro plants would be installed. As a result, Congress has started to debate a new legal framework for the natural gas sector (PLS No. 226/2005).15 46. Ports. Reforms have stalled in recent years after significant improvements. Although the dock companies have been included in the privatization program since 1996, there i s no clear consensus yet on proceeding with their decentralization and/or privatization. As a result, twenty ports - including Santos and Rio de Janeiro - remain under federal control through eight dock companies. The dock companies are heavily indebted and face numerous judicial actions linked to labor disputes and restrictions resulting from their inclusion in the privatization program. Because of these difficulties, dock companies continue to be unable to effectively carry out their new Port Authority responsibilities, including maintenance and upgrade investments. Port labor i s still responsible for a large portion of the high costs of cargo handling in Brazil's ports and has not yet been fully adjusted to account for the mechanization o f the ports. 47. On the regulatory side, although the Port Modernization Law and the Transport Sector Restructuring Law provide guidance for the new organization o f the industry, doubts remain regarding the responsibilities o f a myriad o f institutions (e. port authorities and their councils, dock companies, ANTAQ, the federal regulator). `"Inter- port competition issues were neglected as each public dock company leased terminals independently, on somewhat differing terms. Regulatory and competition issues are also pending: cross ownership among terminals inthe Santos and Rio de Janeiro Ports affects incentives for inter-port competition; and intra-port competition has been limited by the reduced number o f private operators, verticalization and anti-competitive behavior by dominant firms. In2004, the "AgendaPortos" identified the critical physical bottlenecks inthe port system, and defined key investment priorities in 11major ports. The private sector has been investing heavily in terminal facilities and equipment, but progress has been slow in undertaking major public investments. Given the weakness of the "Agenda l5See Box 2. For further details see Volume 11,Section5.2. l6Laws No. 8,630/1993 and No. 10,233/2001, respectively. 32 Portos," Brazil needs to establish a comprehensive strategy to deal with the main regulatory and policy obstacles for private participation inits port system. 48. Roads. A broad policy and institutional reform was initiated during the 1990s in the roads sector. The objectives of this reform included: (i)the transfer of highway sections with sufficient traffic to private concessionaires, and the recovery of all or part of the costs of operation, maintenance, and upgrading directly from road users through tolls; (ii)the reclassification of the highway network, with a view toward maintaining only the main interregional and interstate highways of national interest under federal jurisdiction and transferring to state jurisdictions highways o f mainly local interest; and (iii) contract out combinedrehabilitationworks andmaintenanceservices onentire to routes o f the remaining network through long-term output based contracts (Contrutos de Munutenpio e Reubilitupio de Rodovius, CREMA), with the contractors responsible for achieving specified levels of service. 49. Some progress has been achieved, but the pace of reforms has slowed during the last few years. A total o f 5,000 kmo f highways, corresponding to 8 percent of the federal paved roads, i s under concession. However, the second phase of the federal concession program, involving about 2,500 kmo f roads, has been postponed for more than five years due to bureaucratic and legal conflicts. Agreements for road transfers have been signed with 14 states to transfer up to 14,000 km of federal roads by 2006, but these agreements have not been fully implemented. In an attempt to advance the decentralization, the federal government reopened negotiations with the states in 2005 over the amount of federal funds needed for road maintenance and the conditions o f roads to be transferred. Furthermore, the law that would reclassify the highway network and provide the legal basis for the decentralization agreements has stalled in Congress for years. The recently approved Law of National Transportation System was a step forward in this transferring pro~ess.'~ It stated that, inorder to support this transferring process, DNIT is authorized to provide federal financial resources for construction work to maintain, fix, build, and signalize transferred roads, as well as supervise and develop essential studies and engineering works. 50. Railways. Most of the regulatory and operational bottlenecks inherited from the railway privatization process were addressed in recent years. The sector's reorganization started with ownership restructuring. Since no effective restrictions had been imposed on the acquisition of shares by major users or suppliers, or on the participation of different operators, several governance problems were created that affected sector's performance. For instance, the sometimes vertically integrated business structure that emerged from this ownership composition favored abuse o f dominance (through price discrimination, blocking access and service rationing) and inhibited connectivity, jeopardizing the economic feasibility o f concessions andthe availability of new funds for investments. 51. The ownership restructuring process was complemented by operational restructuring that was consolidated by several resolutions from the sector regulator. The Brazilian rail network was historically fragmented and the privatization process l7Law No. 11,314/2006. 33 consolidated it by breaking up the federal railway network (Rede Ferrovia`ria Federal S.A., RFFSA) into six geographically dispersed monopolies. The operational fragmentation had limited the extension of the hauls undertaken by the railways and reduced the sector's competitiveness in relation to other modes o f transport, thus affecting its financial sustainability. With the implementation o f this reform, financial and operational results for the Brazilian railway sector improved: total shipment increased by 9.6 percent and investments rose 66.2 percent in2003-04. 52. Water and sanitation.The important legal bottleneck for private participation in water and sanitation relates to the uncertainty as to who has the power to award concessions - the "poder concedente" issue. The Brazilian Constitution (article 175) specifies that water and sanitation services are to be provided by a public authority either directly or via concessions or permits. The Constitution also attributes the responsibility for the provision of public services of "local interest" (article 30) to municipalities and transfers the jurisdiction over the provision of services o f "common interest" in metropolitan areas to states. The controversy i s related to the difference in the legal definitions of "local" and "commony' interests.l8The "poder concedente" problem i s amplified by changes in relative income caused by the ownership transfer of concession rights. Intheory, its impact should be restrictedto areas served by integrated systems and should not completely obstruct private investment in other regions. Regardless of the solution for the "poder concedente" problem for metropolitan regions, Brazil will have to address the issue of size - and of creating mechanisms to induce optimal scale through agglomeration - if smaller municipalities are to be serviced. Because smaller municipalities are generally poorer, it will be necessary to address issues related to the appropriate levels of tariffs (affordability) and subsidies. The recently approved Consortium Law provides an adequate legal framework for the association of municipalities seeking economies o f scale.l9 However, municipal consortiums are not a sufficient condition to achieve efficiency in the provision of water and sanitation services. There is a need to provide service providers with the appropriate incentives, which are closely related to regulation, such that they take full advantage o f these potential economies of scale.20 53. Attracting private capital for the water and sanitation sector in Brazil will also require a better definition of the regulatory framework. Several state companies operate under precarious concession contracts; key economic factors - such as investment levels l8"Local interest" has been most commonly characterized as an isolated water and sanitation system. On this basis, a municipality that has its own source of bulk water, its own storage reservoirs and treatment plants, its own distribution means, and its own collection and disposal facilities within its territory would have the right to award a concession for water and sanitation services. Municipalities within metropolitan regions, for the opposite reason, could not hold concession rights, which should belong to the corresponding state. This assumption has beenrecently challenged inthe courts without success. l9Law No. 11,107/2005. The Consortium Law is an important means for municipalities to provide water and sanitation services more efficiently - but it was not sufficient to align the incentives for the establishment and sustainability of municipal consortiums. This Law will certainly permit municipalities with budget surpluses to improve the provision of water and sanitation services through consortiums. Thus, mechanisms to penalize municipalities that do not comply with either the consortium or loan payments for credit used to acquire equipment and machinery are essential to stimulate these municipal associations. 34 and tariffs - are controlled by state governments; and political interference is frequent and endorsedby the courts, as illustratedby the well-known Limeira case. Two draft laws are currently being reviewed by Congress, one of which i s sponsored by the current administration.*l Although severalregulatory aspects are being addressed by both, neither draft clearly assigns concession rights in areas serviced by integrated systems. More important, by allowing municipalities to directly assign concession rights to state companies, the Consortium Law will tend to discourage private participation. 54. Significant progress was also achieved inthe field of environmentallicensing. Brazil's environmental licensing system i s probably the most consolidated of the developing economies, but it can also be bureaucratic and impede infrastructure projects. Untilrecently, government procedurestreated environmental issues outside the planning process - a situation that encouraged subsequent litigation and introduced additional regulatory risk. In 2005, the government managed to move the environmental scrutiny "upstream" in the awarding process, establishing that new concessions can only be awarded with a valid "prior" license. This license i s the one required by environmental regulators for the start-up of new projects. While there i s still ground to cover with respect to a more comprehensive environmental compliance process, this innovation tends to reducethe environmental riskto private investors. 55. Another issue affecting the risk of infrastructure projects is the revision of regulatory decisions by the courts. Disputes between private operators and regulators must be heard by judicial courts, as illustratedby several cases in which regular judges were asked to decide on the appropriate rate of tariff readjustment for electricity distributions, road concessions, and water and sanitation services. This may not be appropriate because the courts lack the technical expertise and have an historical bias towards social justice to the detriment of contract enforcement. Gradually, however, jurisprudence i s being formed in which the courts avoid changing the substance of the decision taken by the regulator. While court revision of administrative decisions i s needed to guarantee the appropriate accountability of regulatory decision, alternative mechanismsmay be less burdensome and risky for all the parties involved. B. Contract Renegotiation 56. A complete regulatory framework (legal and policy) may not be enough to reduce regulatory risk and facilitate private investments if concession contracts are poorly designed and favor opportunistic behavior by the private and the public sectors. Investments ininfrastructure havehigh sunk costs, which cannot easily be recoupedif the economic environment deteriorates. These sunk costs may tempt governments to behave opportunistically, taking regulatory actions that expropriate available quasi-rents once costs are sunk. That possibility i s one important source of regulatory risk, which has an impact on levels of investment, costs of capital and tariffs and public subsidies, since additional premiums are required to cover the risk. It is not only the government that may 21PLS No. 155/2005 and PL No. 5,296/2005. For a comparison between the two draft Laws, see Table 5.4.1 inVolume 11,Section5.3. 35 behave opportunistically.22In order to obtain some insights on the dynamics and effects of concession re-negotiations inBrazil, the recent experience was analyzed.23 57. Renegotiations. Brazil had a greater proportion of concession contracts renegotiated (41 percent) than the L A C region (30 percent), with higher frequencies in water and sanitation (100 percent) and transport (57 percent) - a pattern also found inthe region. Most of the renegotiations (roughly three-fourths) were initiated by the government (federal or state), compared to one quarter in LAC, which suggests that the election cycles had an impact on contract stability in Brazil. The average time until the first renegotiation occurs is lower in Brazil than in the LAC. Renegotiations were initiated due to tariff revisions and change in investment plansheeds, as opposed to the L A C region, where macroeconomic crises played a bigger role thanthe other two factors. As a consequence, all of the renegotiations in Brazil resulted in a change in investment plans or tariffs and no case of cancellation or of a government's take-over was registered. In LAC, almost one-third of the renegotiations resulted in a government takeover, cancellation or awarding of a new concession. It seems, therefore, that Brazil had a higher incidence of renegotiations in a shorter period of time than L A C as a whole. Although contract renegotiations cannot be considered bad per se, the phenomenon in Brazil may be a symptom of poorly designed concession contracts and a cause of inadequate risk-premium rates for infrastructure projects (see Table 3). What are the possible underlying causes? 58. The regulatory regime. Renegotiation seems to be less likely to occur when an independent regulatory body i s inplace, as the existence of a technically sound arbitrator reduces the expected return of opportunistic strategies. In Brazil, all the contracts in sectors for which no regulatory body existed were renegotiated, in comparison to one- fifth of the contracts in sectors where there existed a regulatory body. (In LAC, these figures were 61 percent and 17 percent, respectively.) Also, renegotiation seemed to be more likely when the regulatory framework was embedded inthe contract rather than ina law, as a stronger legal grounding lessens the probability o f a successful outcome in terms o f rent-extraction. In Brazil, no cases o f contracts with regulation established by law were renegotiated, compared to 41 percent of the cases in which the regulation i s embedded in the contract. Finally, the rate-of-return regulation seems to lower the probability o f renegotiationbecause the costs o f potential adverse events are borne by the consumer. With price cap regulation, the risk i s borne by the operator, and eventually a renegotiation process i s triggered so as to restore the financial equilibrium of the concession. Brazil used more price cap regulation than the rest of the L A C region. The riskier nature of price-cap regulation may in part explain the higher incidence of renegotiation in Brazil than in LAC. Since price caps are also the dominant mode o f regulation inLAC, other factors may explain this discrepancy. 22 Once an enterprise has been granted a concession or franchise in an infrastructure sector, that enterprise may correspondingly be able to take actions that "hold up" the government, for example through insisting on renegotiating the regulatory contract ex post, or through regulatory capture to extract supernormal rents from the users, indetriment o f efficiency. 23 The results are based on a sample of more than 80 concession contracts, distributed among telecommunications, energy, transport and water and sanitation. They are a special tabulation prepared for t h i s report from the dataset used by Guasch (2004). 36 !i c 1 ff I i ff < i i! d 7c c 59. The awarding criteria and concession design. In addition to regulatory issues, renegotiation seemed more likely when concession awards were based on the lowest tariff rather than the highest concession fee. This i s partly because the minimum tariff imposes little "sunk" commitment on the concessionaire, thus reducing the costs of opportunistic behavior. InBrazil, 95 percent of the contracts awardedby the lowest tariff were renegotiated (60 percent in LAC). By comparison, 5 percent of the concessions awarded by the highest transfer fee in Brazil were renegotiated (11 percent in LAC). Concession designs may induce contract renegotiations when affordability and expansiodcoverage issues are not addressed in a consistent way, as indicated by the frequency of renegotiations motivated by changes in tariff or investment plans inBrazil. For instance, large investment might have contributed to an increase in tolls on state roads in ParanA, triggering a contract renegotiation by the newly elected government. Although other factors such as cost-plus regulation may have exacerbated this outcome, the fact is that a less ambitious investment planwould have resulted inlower toll charges, reducing the incentives for political interventions. The difficult trade-off between coverage and tariffs i s critical in water and sanitation and may be mitigated by targeted output-basedmechanisms. 60. Concession contracts must be better designed to avoid "excessive" renegotiations. Renegotiations can be a good instrument to address the incomplete nature of concession contracts but the characteristics of renegotiation activity in Brazil suggests that it was "excessive," motivated more by opportunistic behavior than win-win opportunities. Ideally, renegotiation should occur only when justifiedby initial contract's built-in contingencies or by major unexpected events. The object should be to improve the design of concessions to secure long term sector efficiency, fostering compliance with the terms agreedto by boththe government and the operator. 61. The design of concession contracts is additionally complicated by the definition of concession objectives and risk allocation. For instance, the objective to secure increasedcoverage, particularly of the poor, often reduces the cost recovery of the project and involves the use of public subsidies, adding to the regulatory risk and cost of capital. While investors indeveloping country infrastructure projects have been willing to accept greater risks in order to achieve higher returns, there are some forms of risk that private investors have been reluctant to bear, as they cannot manage them well and significant potential losses may be involved. Exchange rate fluctuations and regulatory risks are examples of risks normally required to be managed by host governments; however, governments must be careful to neither take on too much risk nor to over- compensatefor it.24 62. One contributing factor for lower returns ,oninfrastructure services in 1998- 2003 may have been the 1999 exchange rate devaluation. Contrary to most LAC countries, prices of telecommunications, energy, and water services declined inreal terms when measured in U.S. dollars. Prices increased substantially in real terms, however, when measuredin local currency. This dichotomy may be explained, at least in part, by an incomplete indexation to the U.S. currency provided by the General Market Price 24See Mas (1997) for a discussionon whether governmentsshouldtake this riskor not. 38 Index (IGP-M), used in almost all concession contracts. It reveals that the index was imperfect substitutes for traditional financial-hedging, underlining the need for future concession contracts to appropriately address the issue of exchange rate risk.25InJanuary 2006, tariffs of telecommunications services began to be indexed by the Telecommunications Services Index (IST), discounting the productivity factor calculated based on the rules set b regulatory agency (ANATEL), and price increases were effective in July 2006. zv6,27The IST's methodology was designed to reflect the telecommunications sector-specific cost-related structure, being monthly published by ANATEL and its composition should berevised inevery two-year period. 63. A second factor contributing to low returns on infrastructure investments is poor enforcement of tariff policies. This can be due to weaknesses in sector laws or concession contracts. For example, telecommunications present better returns than the other sectors. This i s not surprising because telecommunications i s the sector with the most stable and consolidated regulatory environment - indeed, it was established before privatizationoccurred. Inthe water sector, an extreme case, the regulatory environment i s incomplete and contracts are subject to systematic political interference (see Chapter on Regulation and Contract Renegotiations). Table 4. Brazil: party that initiated the renegotiation for transportation and water sectors Sector Concessionaire Government Total Transport 0 32 32 Water 22 28 50 Total 22 60 82 Source: Own elaboration basedon Guasch (2004). 64. A third factor may be the persistence of non-technical losses, particularly in the electricity and water sectors. Light, the electricity distribution company that operates in the city of Rio de Janeiro, reports that 30 percent of the energy that it distributes is stolen through clandestine connections. The state-owned company of water and sanitation in Siio Paulo state (SABESP) had economic losses due to illegal network connections that reachedRS$48 million in 2003 just for the metropolitan region of Siio Paulo city. This accountedfor 1.2 percent of the company's profits or 45.7 percent of the investments madeby the company in2004. 65. Another important cause of the low profitability of infrastructure concessions is the high investment levels in the initial years. Also, as network expansion reaches more remote areas, the profitability of the privatized distribution companies tends to be further reduced. The local telecommunications companies in 25For further details, see Volume 11,Chapter 4, Sections 4.1 and 4.2. 26The IST is a bundle composed of the Consumer Price Index (IPCA), the Wholesale Price Index-Global SupplyDndustrial Machinery and Equipment (PA-OG), and the IGP-Min the proportions of 46 percent, 34 percent and 6 percent, respectively. The reminder 14 percent is composed by several price indexes calculated by IBGEand FGV. "Price increasesof telecommunications services for 2006willbebasedonthe General PriceIndex- Domestic Availability (IGP-DI)for the period June-December 2005 and on the IST for the period January- May 2006. 39 Brazil had ambitious expansion targets inthe first years after privatization: the number of fixed lines per 100habitants increased from 8.5 in 1994 to 27.8 in2003. Universalization targets also existed in the energy and water sectors but on a much lower scale.** Inthe case of the L A C region, average investment levels as a share of total revenues inthe first initial years varied from 21 percent in energy to 32 percent in water. As the investment levels stabilize over time, concession returns tend to increase. 66. Appropriate definitions of coverage objectives and allocation of risk, particularly exchange rate and regulatory, are likely to continue to be central issues in attracting private capital to infrastructure investments, despite some recent important steps. Inparticular, the new Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Law provides for guarantees against the federal government's failure to comply with the financial obligations established by any PPP contract but not against regulatory risk. Preliminary discussions within the federal administration in 2005, considering the possibility of replacing the IGP-M by sector-specific cost-related indexes may be a good strategy to eliminate the implicit and imperfect hedging mechanism that existed in the contracts but does not solve the exchange rate risks problem. The second phase of highway concessions will probably include awarding mechanisms that discourage strategic bidding by possible operators but will not protect investors against regulatory risk and opportunistic behavior by the public sector. C. Regulatory Governance 67. As in many other countries, infrastructure regulators were created in Brazil with the objective of increasing the credibility of the government's long term commitment to respect concession rights. However, this objective can be fully accomplished only when the appropriate regulatory governance i s inplace. Namely, there must be (a) autonomy to exercise effectively the powers that are granted by statute, (b) a decision-making process that guarantees consistency and avoids arbitrariness, (c) access to adequate means and regulatory tools to make and enforce decisions, and (d) accountability. Weak regulatory governance leads to inadequate implementation of regulatory rules and concession contracts, thereby influencing the return-risk ratio of infrastructure projects (see Figure 6). The current state of regulatory governance in Brazil was assessed for a background paper prepared for this report, based on the results of a surve of 21 federal and state regulatory agencies. The relevant results are summarized below.19 68. Autonomy. In almost all cases, infrastructure regulators have the power to regulate tariffs and most o f the formal attributes for political autonomy are in place. Autonomy is provided by law to almost all regulators. With the exception of 6 state level agencies, there are legal restrictions on the dismissal of directors. Inthe majority of cases, directors have fixed-term tenures that do not coincide with the government's tenure. Yet formal attributes do not always translate into effective outcomes. Among the directors, one-third did not complete their terms. Thirteen agencies reported that ministries or state governments have interfered in their decision-making process, with a higher incidence 28For the case of LAC see Sirtaine et al. (2005). 29Based on Correa et al. (2006). 40 among state agencies. Regarding financial autonomy, the majority o f the regulators report having had their revenues impounded (contingenciados) by the Executive. This caused "very high" (46.2 percent) or "high" (30.8 percent) negative impacts on the agencies' operations. 69. Decision-making.Most of the regulators (18 out of 21) are legally required to formally document the decision-making process, detailing the actions of each actor involved. However, only 8 agencies are required to cite jurisprudence in support of their decisions. This weakens regulatory consistency over time. Formal documentation of the decision-making process i s legally required and must contain every action of actors directly involved in the process. Nevertheless, only in a few cases i s the informal exchange of information among board members prior to the decision meeting ("decision- rigging") formally prohibited and subject to sanction. Ina lower number of cases, a legal apparatus prohibits informal meetings between directors and stakeholders ("cheap-talk"). In 17 agencies, external actors and those affected by the agencies' decisions are entitled to take part in the decision-making process. This has created substantial participation, especially since such participationhas ledto changes indecisions in 15 agencies. 70. Decisiontools and means.Almost all surveyed agencies considered themselves to have the legal means to secure compliance with their decisions. Standard regulatory tools were available for the majority of regulators, but a surprisinglyhigh number (8 out of 21) did not answer or did not have access to such tools. More sophisticated instruments related to economic regulation (as opposed to technical regulation) were less available. Only one-fifth of the agencies' personnel, on average, were admitted by public exams (26 percent and 18 percent among federal and state agencies, respectively). Salaries offered by agencies for top technical and managerial positions were considered to be much lower (at least 25 percent) than the salary of the attorney general or the state finance secretary (used as benchmarks) by 12 of the 21 surveyed agencies. 71. Accountability. Congress and state legislatures exert some control over 17 agencies, which includes (a) requiring public hearings, (b) summoning the directors, and (c) making official requests for explanations. Public hearings do affect agencies' decisions, as they have caused changes indecisions at least once in 15 agencies, while in one-forth of the agencies, at least one case has been settled by the Supreme Court. 72. In sum, most of the general elements for good governance transferable by law were put in place and the challengeis relatedto the development of those more detailedattributesthat could not be transferredby law, as well as to their effective enforcement. For instance, while regulators are formally required to document their decision-making process, few agencies are required to cite jurisprudence in support of their decisions or provide for legal sanctions against informal meetings between directors and stakeholders. Moreover, there are no legal impediments for board members to rig decisions prior to decision meetings inmost o f the cases, and nothing precludes directors from participating in informal meetings or engaging in undocumented exchanges o f information with stakeholders. Most of the agencies reported salary levels that may be interpreted as non-competitive, entrance through public exams for permanent positions was rather rare; and the share of staff with graduate studies was reported to be very low. 41 More sophisticated regulatory instruments, especially those related to economic regulation - such as benchmarking instruments and methodologies for the establishment of interconnection tariffs - are available only for a small number o f regulators (normally federal agencies). 73. Initiatives to improve the state of regulatory governance include the draft Bill concerning regulatory agencies (Lei dus Agencius) and the Career Development law. The draft Lei dus Ag8ncius includes some important achievements, such as the transfer of the power to award concessions and the reassignment of planning policies to sector Mini~tries.~'The proposed introduction of management contracts between the agencies and the executive power may threaten regulators' autonomy and no major change was proposed in terms of improving the detailed attributes o f regulator^.^^ The approval of a career development law has enabled some public exams for new hiringbut the existing salary structure and benefits seem to be inferior to other comparable careers within the public sector. Figure 6. Regulatory governance, effectiveness and industry performance InstitutionalEndowments Formof government (democratic vs. dictatorship; presidential vs. parliamentary), executive-legislative relations, independenceof the judiciary, bureaucratic capabilities, electoral rules 1 I I LegalFramework Concession I Sector laws and RegulatoryGovernance Contracts legalenvironment I I I I I L Delegated Powers -4 RegulatoryOutputs IndustryPerformance Investment, innovation, prices, and quality 30The draft Bill concerning regulatory agencies (Lei dus Agencias) was submitted to the House o f Representatives inApril 2004 and has not been voted yet. 31For further details see Volume 11, Section 5.5. For a comprehensive review of the draft Lei dus Agencius see Correa and Pereira Net0 (2005). 42 111. PolicyRecommendations 74. Amid a shifting policymaking environment, this report addressed the question of how policymakers can revitalize infrastructure investment in Brazil. More infrastructure inis needed and given Brazil's current fiscal dilemmas, the report focused on how public policies may attract more and better private investment by reducing the cost of capital for infrastructure investments and raising long-term returns o f infrastructure concessions. This does not mean that the role of the government should necessarily decrease, but rather that the country should avoid swinging the pendulum back to the pure public financing option. 75. The challenge Brazil currently faces i s how to bringback the private sector - how to translate infrastructure opportunities into projects with competitive rates of return. This requires curbing regulatory risk and raising projects' revenues, two tasks for which the role of the public sector is central: governments are ultimately responsible for regulatory risks, and through tariff policies, subsidies and related mechanisms can, directly or indirectly, influence projects' revenue. A second challenge i s to make sure that the benefits of private participation are transferred to consumers andthe economy as a whole. 76. This report argues that inorder to ensure the needed private sector participation in infrastructure, the government should go "back to basics" and strengthen its fundamentals, including stable and comprehensive regulation, adequate risk assessment and clear and unchanging rules of the game. A long-term strategy and commitment to reform would restore the government's credibility and encourage greater private investment in infrastructure. Maintaining a high quality of public sector investment will leverage this private investment to maximize Brazil's growth potential. The remainder of this section summarizes some of the possible elements o f new public policies. 77. A first component of a strategy to reinvigorate the infrastructuresector in Brazil should be to further strengthen the fundamentalsfor private participation. This involves: (i) completing the regulatory reforms inthe port, natural gas and water and sanitation sectors; (ii) raising regulators' effectiveness by building into their decision- makingprocesses the incentives to enforce technically sound and coherent decisions and the tools required to do so, such as well-motivated and trained staff, particularly at state- level; and (iii) improving contract design to avoid excessive contract renegotiations that eliminate the economic benefits achieved through competitive biddings and augment perceived regulatory risk. Inthis respect, a central issue is how to manage and allocate risk, particularly exchange rate risk: while some risk protection instrument may be needed to make risk-return ratios of projects attractive, the government must be careful to neither take on too much risk nor over-compensate for it. 78. The importance of stable and credible regulation in making infrastructure investmentsin Brazila low-riskhow returnlong-terminvestment,as in most OECD countries,shouldbe recognized.Fromthe 2001energy crisis and the delay inlaunching the last batch o f road concessions, to the high incidence o f contract renegotiations in water and sanitation, to the change in the energy model and the long-lasting debate over the role of regulators, the picture that emerges i s not one that favors the recovery of 43 private investments in infrastructure. Thus, even though it will be impossible to address all of the regulatory issues simultaneously, Brazil must address a significant number of them at once inorder to re-createmomentumfor a new wave of private participation in infrastructure. The start of a new administrationalways has a certain amount of natural momentum, and is a good opportunity to promote a new initiative. Effective public communications, perhaps including the creation of a "white-paper" on infrastructure strategy, would reinforce such an initiative's chances of success. 79. Second, providing partial guarantees against regulatory risk - particularly regarding the aspects of the regulatory environment over which the government has reasonable control. This may be an effective way of leveraging public resources as illustrated by the partial risk guarantee offered by the World Bank in Peru. Because infrastructure investments are sunk and projects have long maturities, the stability and credibility of the institutional environment for infrastructure is at the heart of private participation. The expectation that governments may have strong incentives to fail to honor concessionrights - or that sector rules may change- may discourageinvestmentin the first place or elevate the premium required for investing in a given project, thus augmenting the costs of capital and tariffs to be charged to consumers. Even when the regulatory environment has been correctly reformed, it will take time to establish a reputationfor stability and goodregulation. Partial risk guarantees against regulatoryrisk may be a way of buying regulatorycredibility. 80. A third component of such a strategy is improving the quality of public expenditure in infrastructure.As an elementary goal, Brazil needs to invest more and efficiently on road maintenance and rehabilitation by defining a stable source of funds and expanding the use of output-basedcontracts. The approval of a multi-year highway expenditure program, under preparation, would be an important instrument. In addition, given the possibility that PPP contracts crowd out pure concession options, a sound institutional framework for the use of public resourcesininfrastructure projects shouldbe consolidated and made public. One possibility is to build on the existing initiatives of PPP units in different ministries and within the Pilot Infrastructure Program (Progrurnu Piloto de Infra-Estruturu). The Box below discusses in more details some of these initiatives. Inaddition, sector policies shouldbe better defined, providing the appropriate information for both private and public sector planning. This is relevant in the road sector, where the decentralizationstrategyhas stalled; and inenergy, where the long term system expansion plan was recently released but major issues remain, particularly in terms of the role of the natural gas industry. 81. Fourth, a systematic assessment should be undertaken of the direct and indirect impacts of access to infrastructure on income distribution and social indicators. This would address the crucial issue of how to protect federal public infrastructure investments, given the incentives embedded in the current institutional environment. Infrastructure expenditures suffer similar free-riding and coordination problems as the provision of pure public goods. These problems are exacerbated by a political institutionalism that favors short-term local objectives to the detriment of the long-termnational ones. Inaddition, the decentralization of public revenuesto states and municipalities makes coordination and free-riding issues even more pressing. Finally, 44 given the current budgetary rigidity, the level of current expenditures, the high taxation and the costs of additional debt, any substantial increase in public investments in infrastructure will inevitably require a reallocation of revenues and a more flexible use of "earmarked" expenditures. These are politically sensitive issues, as they touch upon powerful vested interests and affect strong social preferences. This sensitivity may be reduced, however, through the proposed systematic measurement. Such an assessment should occur within the broader context of a long-term growth strategy for Brazil. Box 1."Buying Credibility" throughPartialRiskGuarantees(PRG) against RegulatoryRisk Delegating regulatory functions to an independent institution addresses only partially the problem of creating the "credibility" that concession contracts will be enforced in the long-term and that the government will refrain from act opportunistically once investments are sunk. The problem is that regulators have to be credible themselves which may takes time to occur. The credibility of regulators depend essentially on the state of regulatory governance - the degree of independence, adoption of appropriate decision-making rules; access to regulatory tools and staff; and accountability. In addition, incomplete legal and policy frameworks and poorly designed concession contracts may also affect the reputation of the regulator. One way governments could "buy credibility" inthe context of stimulating private investments in infrastructure is offering a guarantee of risks under the control of government. On example of this class of public support to private investment i s the PPP provision of guarantees for non-payment of federal government's financial obligations under this type of contract. But even under pure concessionable projects, there are risks under the control of the government, broadly speaking: from a change in sector law; to the disrespect of a contractual clause or a change in sector regulation that clearly affects the returns to the investment, In order to cover for regulatory risk, all needed is a set of incentives in which who ultimately absorbers the risk of regulatory failure is capable o f sufficiently punish who causes it. B y definition, the riskis limited to acertainamount of well-known statesof nature and is therefore "partial." This structure of incentives may or may not involve an international institution such as the World Bank. Consider a potential role for the federal government in a hypothetical PPP by a Brazilian municipality. The private investor faces at least three risks: (i) the commercial risk of the project; (ii) the risk of non-payment from the municipality; and (iii)the regulatory risk, associated with the poder concedente issue and other explicitly expressed in the concession contract (such as tariff re-adjustment, revision rules; quality targets, investment plans, etc). One alternative to reduce the regulatory risk in this case is by federal guarantee for the contractually agreed regulatory commitments - which are fully controlled by the municipality (and not for the poder concedente issue, which still requires further consolidation by the judiciary). The guarantee would be issued against the right to suspend federal funds once its use is triggered by the private investor. The fact that the municipality volunteers itself to such a deal would be, therefore, a powerful sign of regulatory commitment. Note that what is needed is a hierarchical financial relation between the institutions which takes the risk the institution that may affect it. A similar Droduct is offered bv the World Bank. 82. Finally, more planning is need to help Brazil determine how to address its long-term infrastructure needs. This requires defining and periodically reviewing a comprehensive infrastructure strategy, consolidating a planning process that i s still fragmented either among ministries or between federal entities. It should involve a rationale o f the programs aimed at improving access for the poor through better leveraging the impacts of infrastructure on income distribution and poverty alleviation. It ought to identify potential sources of financing, both private and public, including expected contributions by different levels of government and potential bottlenecks for private participation. Ideally, it would cover other strategic issues as well, such as the active use of competition as a tool to promote private sector participation and economic efficiency. The infrastructure strategy could be part o f the government's multi-year plan 45 (Plano Pluri-Annual) formulation and subsequently mapped into the multi-annual budgetary program (Lei de Diretrizes Orprnentdrias) and the annual budget (Lei do OrgzmentoAnual). Box 2. The Quality of Public Expenditures Supporting the right project, one of the conditions for efficient public expenditures, requires appropriate project selection and design. Adequate project selection involves identifying and ranking by economic return all alternative uses of available resources. This approach, although theoretically feasible, imposes unduly large information demands. Even when new investments represent the right choice, faulty engineering design may lead to project failures. Another challenge o f infrastructure projects is financial sustainability. Even though financial and economic rates of return are expected to diverge in several cases, reliable financial projections at the project appraisal stage are essential to avoid inadequate financial rates of return. Such an outcome would undermine the sustainability o f infrastructure projects and, in extreme cases, produce "white elephants." Therefore, projects with low financial returns should be subject to careful additional scrutiny before receiving public support. More funding is required for maintenance. Ensuring availability of funds to pay for maintenance of non- revenue earning infrastructure projects poses a different challenge. The full cost o f the project rarely incorporates the expected cost of maintenance. Either because political reasons disfavor the allocation of budgetary resources for maintenance in comparison with new investment, or because maintenance i s more cost-effective than re-construction and less risky than new projects, countries usually benefit from reallocating resources to the activity. Over the last six years, annual averages of about RS$ 600 million for rehabilitation and RS$ 150 million for maintenance have been spent on the paved federal road network in Brazil, a level that is supposed to be enough to avoid further deterioration of the network. But in order to increase the share of road in good conditions from the current 25 percent to 63 percent, the World Bank estimates that roughly RS$ 1.2billion a year will be required over the next six years, at least. The quality of public expenditures can be further improved through better planning and the stability of funds. Inroad maintenance, for instance, the adoption of output-based contracts and the provision of a stable flow o f resources could avoid contract renegotiations and cost increases due to delays in startup, interruption in implementation and non-payment by the government, and could bring significant cost- savings. Bank analysis show that the unit costs of output-based contracts are 30 percent less than of traditional contracts, while contract renegotiations have increased contract costs by at least 50 percent. More broadly, the type of support provided to infrastructure (e.g., output-based cash subsidies, in-kind grants, tax-breaks, guarantees, or even non-fiscal support) must be evaluated carefully because each instrument poses different costs and offers different levels of accuracy depending on the situation. The approval of Law No. 11,079/2004 -- the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) law - is a major contribution to better public expenditures ininfrastructure but there are important risks as well. The PPP law will introduce more flexibility to public procurement rules and allow for public funds to complement private resources when pure concessions are not feasible. Despite its potential benefits, one concern is that "PPP contracts" will crowd-out pure concession projects. The problem is that, given asymmetries o f information, PPP contracts may end up compensating for regulatory risk instead of simply equalizing social and private returns, thereby artificially raising private returns. This would be a waste of public resources and create a perverse incentive against improvements in the regulatory framework. 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