AGRICULTURE GLOBAL PRACTICE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER CLIMATE INFORMATION SERVICES PROVIDERS IN KENYA WORLD BANK GROUP REPORT NUMBER 103186-KE FEBRUARY 2016 AGRICULTURE GLOBAL PRACTICE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER CLIMATE INFORMATION SERVICES PROVIDERS IN KENYA © 2016 World Bank Group 1818 H Street NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org Email: feedback@worldbank.org February 2016 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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CONTENTS Foreword v Acknowledgments vii Acronyms and Abbreviations ix Executive Summary xi Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: Conceptual Foundation 3 Definitions of Concepts and Terminologies 3 The Global Framework for Climate Services 5 Weather and Climate Services Value Chain 6 Farmers’ Decision Making under a Changing Climate 7 Chapter Three: Findings from the Surveys 9 Nature of the Organization of CIS Providers 9 Sectoral Focus 10 CIS Service Portfolio 10 Climate and Weather Data 12 Climate Information Services Dissemination Methods 14 Business Approach 16 Chapter Four: Conclusions and Recommendations 19 References 23 Appendix A: List of CIS Providers 25 Appendix B: Matrix of CIS Providers and Counties of Presence 27 BOXES Box 2.1: Climate Information Services Principles 5 Box 2.2: Agro-Weather Tools for Adapting to Climate Change for Embu 8 Box 3.1: Weather Data Collection in Kenya 13 Box 3.2: Sources of Agro-Weather Information in Embu County, Kenya 15 Box 3.3: CIS Knowledge and Sharing Workshop in Nairobi, June 23, 2015 16 FIGURES Figure 1.1: Relationship between Kenya’s GDP Growth, Agricultural Value Added Growth, and Extreme Weather Events 2 Figure 2.1: Spatial and Temporal Scales of Weather and Climate 4 Figure 2.2: The Global Framework for Climate Services 5 Figure 2.3: Weather and Climate Services Value Chain 6 Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya iii Figure 2.4: Typical Advisory Services for Crop Production and Marketing 7 Figure B2.2.1: Systematic Participatory Approach in Developing Agro-Weather Decision Support System in Embu, Kenya 8 Figure 3.1: Nature of Organizations Providing Climate Information Services 10 Figure 3.2: Sectoral Focus by the CIS Providers (%) 10 Figure 3.3.: Products/Services Offered by CIS Providers (%) 11 Figure 3.4: Agro-Weather Advisories Provided by CIS Providers (%) 11 Figure 3.5: CIS Providers’ Coverage of Kenya Counties 11 Figure 3.6: Communication Media Used by CIS Providers (%) 14 Figure 3.7: Feedback Mechanism Used by CIS Providers (%) 15 Figure 3.8: CIS Providers’ Income Sources (%) 18 Figure 4.1: Features of Fully Intervened, Pure Market-Based, and Public-Private Partnership CIS 21 TABLES Table 2.1: Time Scales for Tactical and Strategic Agricultural Management Decisions 7 Table 3.1: Number of Farmers Reached by CIS Providers 12 Table 3.2: Types of Climate Data Used by CIS Providers 12 Table 3.3: Ownership of the Data Used by CIS Providers 13 Table 3.4: Approaches Used in Data Processing 13 Table 3.5: Media Used by ADA Consortium in Reaching Farmers 14 Table B3.2.1: Sources of Agro-Weather Information in Embu, Kenya 15 Table 3.6: Operating Models of the CIS Providers 17 Table 3.7: Cost Structure for Selected Public and Private CIS Providers (%) 18 iv Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper FOREWORD More than any other sector of the economy, agriculture agronomic advisories will enable producers to improve relies directly on land and water resources that are essen- decision making and optimize farm management prac- tial elements of crop and livestock production. Agricul- tices to bolster climate resilience. ture takes up 40 percent of global land area and consumes 70 percent of global freshwater resources. Agriculture is Efforts to provide climate information services (CIS) in also the sector most vulnerable to the effects of climate Kenya have been supported by a number of international change. This is particularly true in Sub-Saharan Africa development agencies, nongovernmental organizations where agriculture is dominated by rain-fed production (NGOs), and private sector entities in recent years. These systems. Rapid and uncertain changes in rainfall and have been in addition to efforts by the Kenya Meteoro- temperature threaten food production, increase the vul- logical Department (KMD), which is nationally mandated nerability of smallholder farmers, and can result in food to provide climate information and to archive climate price shocks and increased rural poverty. Yet Sub-Saharan data. In this document, the authors highlight the dynamic farmers must do a great deal more than maintain cur- nature of CIS provision, technological developments rent levels of production; they must increase production using satellite remote-sensing techniques, and dissemina- dramatically—enough to feed some 2.5 billion people by tion of information and advisories using information and 2050. This will require a transformation of agricultural communication technologies (ICT). Although technical production on the continent. progress in the generation and provision of CIS has been promising, its application and adoption still faces serious Climate change is an additional lens through which pros- constraints. Among the most important of these con- pects for agricultural development in Africa must be viewed straints are scarce public resources and the lack of infra- in general, and agricultural risks in particular. Increased structure and systems necessary to monitor and predict uncertainty about climate and weather seriously com- weather and climate. The authors also refer to various pound other risks affecting that sector in African countries, business models currently in operation, their limitations, including poor soil fertility, limited resource endowments, and the importance of partnership in providing qualita- and inadequate institutional capacity and technical tively better services through synergies from public and capabilities that are needed to assimilate improved tech- private resources. nologies. Farmers who have traditionally survived by mas- tering the ability to adapt to varying weather and climatic Mobilizing and targeting resources to overcome these conditions are now increasingly faced with severely erratic constraints has been an important reason the World Bank, weather patterns that overwhelm indigenous knowledge Department for International Development (DFID), and and traditional coping practices. Effective climate infor- the government of Kenya became determined to make mation and advisories will be instrumental in reducing the CIS a vital component of our development work. It is our vulnerability of smallholders by enabling them to man- hope that this report moves that agenda forward, making age risk more effectively. Timely, cost-effective, and highly increased productivity and resilience a reality for African context-specific information such as weather forecasts and farmers. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report results from contributions from a wide range FICCF/DFID–funded workshop to deliberate the find- of Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya. We ings of the field surveys. thank everyone who contributed to its richness and mul- tidisciplinary outlook. The overall guidance for the work The report benefited greatly from invaluable suggestions was provided by Ademola Braimoh (World Bank), Noelle from peer reviewers. We would like to thank Makoto O’Brien (FICCF/DFID), and Peter Ambenje (KMD). Suwa, Irene Nambuye Musebe (World Bank), Maurine Ambani (CARE International), Ayub Shaka (KMD), and The report was written by Francis Ngari and Grace Gilbert Ouma (ICCA-UoN). We thank Diarietou Gaye, Obuya and edited by Xiaoyue Hou and Gunnar Lar- Gandham Ramana, Keziah Muthembwa (World Bank), son. We are grateful for the substantive contribution of Virinder Sharma (DFID), Deborah Murphy (DFID), Joab Osumba (FICCF/DFID), Bill Leathes (UK Met), Mark Cackler, Severin Kodderitzsch, Ladisy Chengula, Shem Wandiga (ICCA), Boniface Akuku (KALRO), Jim Cantrell, Beaulah Noble, Sarian Akibo-Betts, Sophie Mark Rüegg (CelsiusPro), John M. Ganthenya (JKUAT), Rabuku, Hope Nanshemeza, Srilatha Shankar, and Joyce Benjamin Njenga (Acre Africa), Elijah Mukhala (WMO), Maswai (World Bank) for assistance rendered at various Diana Kishiki (KFS), and the Climate Information Ser- stages of the project. vices Providers that provided substantive feedback to the Climate Information Services Questionnaire. We Finally, we acknowledge the financial support under the also acknowledge the input of those that attended the Bank Netherlands Partnership Program. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya vii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ACMAD African Centre of Meteorological ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Applications for Development Semi-Arid Tropics ACRE Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise Ltd. ICT Information and communications AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa technologies ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural ILRI International Livestock Research Institute Research in Eastern and Central Africa IVRS Interactive voice response services ASDSP Agricultural Sector Development Support KARLO Kenya Agricultural Research and Livestock Programme Organization AWOS Airport Weather Observing Systems KFWG Kenya Forest Working Group AWSs Automatic weather stations KMD Kenya Meteorological Department CBOs Community-based organizations K Sh Kenya shilling CCAFS Climate Change, Agriculture and Food MSG Meteosat Second Generation Security NAFIS National Farmers Information Service CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural NDMA National Drought Management Authority Research Centers NDOC National Disaster Operation Centre CHIESA Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem NGOs Nongovernmental organizations Services and Food Security in Eastern Africa NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric CIASA Climate Information and Services Program Administration for Africa PACJA Pan Africa Climate Justice Alliance CIS Climate information services PSP Participatory scenario planning CSA Climate-smart agriculture RCMRD Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources DFID Department for International Development for Development FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the SCF Seasonal climate forecasts UN) SMS Short message services FEWSNET Farming and Early Warning Network TAHMO Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological FICCF Finance Innovation for Climate Change Fund Observatory GCAP Global Climate Adaptation Partnership UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on GDP Gross domestic product Climate Change GFCS Global Framework for Climate Services UON-ICAA Institute for Climate Change and Adaptation IBLI Index-Based Livestock Insurance UoN-Met Department of Meteorology, University of ICCA Institute of Climate Change and Adaptation Nairobi (University of Nairobi) WMO World Meteorological Organization ICPAC Intergovernmental Authority on Development WRMA Water Resource Management Authority Climate Prediction and Applications Centre Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Agriculture is a major driver of the Kenyan economy, contributing 54 percent to the national gross domestic product (GDP) and accounting for 65 percent of total export earnings. Kenya’s GDP growth is highly correlated with the sector’s performance, and its performance is highly volatile. The frequency and intensity of severe weather events has increased, and will be further exacerbated as a result of climate change. The country’s overwhelming reliance on rain-fed agricultural production systems ren- ders it highly vulnerable to food supply disruptions and shortages. Climate information services (CIS) include immediate and short-term weather fore- casts and advisories and longer-term information about new seeds and technologies and market developments. CIS is especially useful in helping farmers to manage risks in what is already an exceptionally risky sector in which to operate, and in offsetting much of the uncertainty that so often constrains decision making and innovation. CIS is a relatively new area in extension service delivery. Case studies reported on in this report reveal that only a small number of Kenyan farmers currently access CIS. The World Bank, in partnership with the Finance Innovation for Climate Change Fund (FICCF) of the Department for International Development (DFID) and the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), collaborated in mapping the CIS provid- ers in Kenya. The overall goal was to review the current capabilities for providing user- centered climate information and related services, and to make recommendations for improvement accordingly. The mapping exercise was carried out in five steps: 1. Review concepts and framework, and definitions of terminologies. 2. Conduct initial stakeholder analysis to develop a preliminary list of possible climate service providers and purveyors. 3. Administer questionnaires and interview service providers to obtain further data and validate information on the nature of CIS institutions, data process- ing techniques, service portfolios, information delivery mechanisms, and busi- ness approaches. 4. Host knowledge- and information-sharing workshop to further deliberate sur- vey findings and share expertise and experience in CIS provision. 5. Prepare a report with recommendations for scaling up CIS services in Kenya. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya xi CLIMATE INFORMATION THE SURVEYS AND THEIR SERVICES PRINCIPLES FINDINGS Various challenges affect efforts to use climate-related Twenty-seven percent of the CIS providers covered in the information to improve the lives of smallholder farmers. study were private sector operators. Twenty-one percent Critical gaps in the design, delivery, and effective use of were government agencies. Together, nongovernmental climate-related information for risk management among and community-based organizations (NGOs and CBOs) smallholder farmers can be filled by paying attention to made up 21 percent of CIS providers. Seventeen percent five related principles: of the providers surveyed were in research and academia, » Salience—tailoring content, scale, format, and lead and another 14 percent were international organiza- time to farm-level decision making. tions. The Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) is » Access—providing timely access to remote rural the national meteorological agency mandated to collect communities with marginal infrastructure. and store climate data in the country, and to manage the » Legitimacy—ensuring farmers own CIS, and shape climate information provision framework. KMD’s role their design and delivery. reflects the public good nature of benefits generated by » Equity—ensuring that women and poor and socially CIS. marginalized groups are served. » Integration—providing climate information as part The CIS providers surveyed covered 11 different sectors. of a larger package of agricultural support and Eighty-three percent of them focused on agriculture and development assistance, enabling farmers to act on livestock. Approximately 80 percent of them offer early received information. warning systems as their primary services—a proportion of which also serve agricultural purposes. Seventy-two The notion of climate-related services connotes a kind percent offer agro-weather information services to sup- of permanent relationship between observers, model- port tactical and strategic decision making. Half of the ers, forecasters, disseminators, other intermediaries, CIS providers surveyed engage in weather forecasting. and end users, primarily farmers. The knowledge and Some 41 percent of the CIS providers provide climate information that pass among the members of the rela- advisories for general government policies and decision- tionship leave farmers in particular in a state of pre- making and climate projections, whereas 28 percent of paredness, of knowing what to do to adapt not only to the providers service the insurance derivatives and trans- seasonal variability in weather but also to longer-term port safety advisory sectors. trends in the climate itself. It can be useful to view the relationships between the parties who provide and The CIS providers use radar, satellite data, in situ auto- apply climate information as a kind of value chain. For mated weather observations, or some combination one thing, the providers and users are highly interde- thereof. Most providers are in direct partnership with pendent, and a weakness in any one link of the chain KMD in codeveloping climate information service/prod- will have consequences with respect to the usefulness uct or indirectly use data produced by KMD. Satellite of the information, products, and services provided. data that are freely available were the preferred source by For another, the concept of value addition applies to major consulting climate information service providers. the process of gathering and interpreting informa- Fifty-nine percent of them used in situ data from KMD. tion about weather and climate events and translating it into user-specific products that aid climate-resilient Fifty-two percent of the providers surveyed disseminate decision making. In the past, much investment in climate information services through bulletins and news- weather and climate services has been piecemeal, papers. Forty-five percent use radio broadcasts, 34 per- resulting in inefficiencies that undermine the systems’ cent use short message services (SMS), and 21 percent performance over time. use websites. Ten percent use interactive voice response system (IVRS). These figures suggest that substantial xii Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper opportunities remain to use modern information and Improving coordination of CIS provision. Coordi- communications technologies (ICT) in expanding market nation between the different providers will benefit from a penetration. publicly available database of service portfolios. This will be useful for, among other things, structured learning and Forty-one percent of the CIS providers use no communi- the dissemination of information about good practices. It cation feedback mechanism, suggesting significant absence is also likely to be instrumental in raising public awareness of two-way information exchange between providers and about the uses of climate information and spurring demand users, and of participatory approaches in which users for it. Facilitation and brokerage (intermediation) of exper- play a role in how services that affect them are designed. tise will also be needed for complex projects. Approaches The primary feedback mechanisms employed by the CIS will need to be developed for protecting data ownership providers are SMS, meetings, and call centers—each of while eliminating barriers that prevent or discourage users which were used by 21 percent of those surveyed. Fourteen from capitalizing on climate information more fully. percent of CIS providers rely on e-mails for feedback from users, and seven percent use interactive voice response Establish a CIS quality management system. A services (IVRS) for this purpose. For climate information quality management system geared toward appropriate services specifically tailored for agriculture, postseason definition of climate services, setting standards, labeling, meetings with farmers and other users are very useful. and validation will be needed. A technical peer review panel is required to carry out demand-driven reviews The diversity of services and service providers and deliv- of CIS activities, as needed and as relevant. This would ery channels in the field of CIS in Kenya reflect a rela- help enhance project capacities and quality. Indicators for tively well-developed industry, particularly in the area quality standards also need to be developed, and adher- of agriculture. Barriers to more effective CIS provision ence to the standards enforced. Effective CIS delivery will and delivery include limited technical capacity and the also entail developing two-way interaction between the absence of a framework to evaluate the quality of the service providers and the service users to properly address CIS services provided. Most of the business models used users’ needs and facilitate information that is specifically by public, international, and for-profit and not-for-profit relevant to their decision making. private CIS providers in Kenya are moreover financially too unsustainable to expand to the scale needed. Rapidly Foster codevelopment of CIS. There is greater scaling up effective CIS in Kenya will entail prioritizing need and demand for timely, relevant climate informa- the following. tion codesigned with end users, based on properly down- scaled weather forecasts at the subnational level. Given Improving technical and institutional capac- the knowledge-intensive nature of CIS provision, there is ity. The Kenya Meteorological Department will need to a need for actor-based platforms to facilitate knowledge assess new, more sustainable business models, including acquisition. Promoting the adoption of effective CIS will ones involving public-private partnerships while devot- require well-designed, inclusive, and innovative systems, ing additional resources to staff training and professional with clear quality checks and balances. The priorities development. Observation infrastructure will need to be include strengthening farmers’ knowledge of CIS ben- modernized. Meteorological and hydrological networks efits and to facilitate their use of CIS in decision making. will need to introduce more ground-based remote-sensing This will result in more robust CIS systems and user-led systems for “nowcasting” and very short-range weather approaches. Implementing colearning and comanage- forecasting to generate downscaled weather news. Capac- ment strategies that involve providers and users is one way ity to generate downscaled weather forecasts will also be to do this. Transdisciplinary, multidisciplinary research to critical if local stakeholder participation in the generation support codevelopment of weather and climate services is of climate information is to be meaningful. The depart- also needed to enhance CIS knowledge integration. CIS ment’s effectiveness can also be significantly strengthened providers and users working closely together will, in turn, with an improved legal and regulatory framework. lead to mutual accountability. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya xiii Create sustainable public-private partnership. the provision of forecasts and warnings of severe weather, The limitations of the pure government- and pure floods, and droughts, the private sector can contrib- market-based CIS provision models warrant testing ute particular competencies in the form of innovative new approaches to public-private partnerships. Public- technology, design of resilient infrastructure, improved private partnership helps to break the downward spiral information systems, and the management of complex of underinvestment, poor infrastructure, deficient ser- projects. Additionally, KMD may also consider a para- vices, low visibility, and insufficient funding that threaten digm shift into state enterprise or alternative models. Yet national meteorological services. Public-private partner- a successful transition from fully governmental to an effec- ships have the potential to provide more efficient services tive market-oriented service, on-demand agency requires through synergies and complementarities from public and a fundamental transformation in institutional culture and private strengths. Public-private partnerships may also mechanisms for staffing and business practices. This can lead to image enhancement for the current government be a significant challenge, although the benefits it can monopoly model. Although KMD retains its central role bring about in terms of developing a culture of service in climate information management, giving priority to delivery and user engagement are significant. xiv Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Agriculture is a major driver of the Kenyan economy, contributing 27 percent to the national GDP directly, a further 27 percent through manufacturing, distribution, and service sectors. It accounts for 65 percent of Kenya’s total export earnings and gener- ates roughly 60 percent of the country’s foreign exchange earnings. The sector employs more than 75 percent of Kenya’s workforce and generates most of the country’s food requirements, playing a key role in poverty reduction. Smallholder farms account for 85 percent of employment and 75 percent of total agricultural output. Kenya’s GDP growth is highly correlated with the agricultural sector’s performance, which is highly volatile (figure 1.1). Extreme weather events, largely droughts and to a lesser extent floods, have been the principal driver of agricultural volatility in Kenya. The frequency and intensity of severe weather events has increased, and will be fur- ther worsened in the future as temperatures increase with climate change. Recurring drought has profound effects on the agricultural sector, particularly in maize and live- stock production systems. Frequent drought events result in precipitous crop losses, livestock deaths, spikes in food prices, increased food insecurity and malnutrition for the poor, and rural population displacement (World Bank, 2014). Kenya’s strong reliance on rain-fed agricultural production systems has rendered the country increasingly vulnerable to food supply disruptions and shortages. Amid declining yields, productivity gains have come largely through land expansion into marginal areas that receive lower and more variable rainfall. This has contributed to a growing structural deficit in food production. Extensive livestock systems and pastoral- ism in Kenya’s northern rangelands are also particularly vulnerable to the effects of drought. Emergency food aid and other ex post responses have helped fuel growing dependency and declining resilience, particularly among the poorest and especially in arid and semi-arid lands. Meeting the challenges of the agriculture sector will require both investments in build- ing resilience to near-term shocks and in adapting to long-term climate change. In this context, providing farmers with timely and highly practical information will be crucial. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 1 FIGURE 1.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Building on the report Increasing Agricultural Production and KENYA’S GDP GROWTH, Resilience through Improved Agro-Meteorological Services, the World Bank, in partnership with the Finance Innovation AGRICULTURAL VALUE ADDED for Climate Change Fund (FICCF) of the Development GROWTH, AND EXTREME for International Development (DFID) and the Kenya WEATHER EVENTS Meteorological Department (KMD), carried out a map- 25 GDP growth (annual %) ping of the CIS providers in Kenya. The objective was to Agriculture, value added (annual % growth) 20 review the current capabilities for providing user-centered 15 climate information and related services, and to recom- mend improvements to contribute to universal access to 10 useful and useable climate information services in Kenya. 5 The mapping exercise sought to develop an understand- 0 ing of the range of services currently available and the 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 institutions providing them. –5 Drought, Drought, El Niño floods, –10 1983–84 1991–93 1997–98 Erratic rains, floods, 2002 The assignment was carried out in five steps: 1. a review of concepts and framework, and defini- La Niña drought, Prolonged drought, 1999–2000 2008–09 tions of terminologies to make the report under- Source: World Bank 2015. standable to a broad audience; 2. initial stakeholder analysis to develop a prelimi- Climate information services (CIS) include immediate nary list of possible climate service providers and and short-term weather forecasts and advisories as well as purveyors; longer-term information about new seeds and technologies 3. administering questionnaires and interviewing and market developments. CIS is especially useful in help- providers to obtain further data and validate infor- ing farmers to manage risks in what is already an excep- mation on the nature of CIS institutions, sectoral tionally risky sector in which to operate, and in reducing focus, data processing techniques, service portfo- uncertainty that so often constrains decision making. CIS is lios, information delivery mechanisms, and busi- designed to inform farmers’ decisions about what to grow, ness approaches; when to plant and harvest, how to allocate their labor, and 4. knowledge- and information-sharing workshop to where to sell their produce. Much of this information is further deliberate survey findings and share exper- specifically adapted for use in local conditions and quickly tise and experience in CIS provisions; and becomes recognized as being highly relevant to the needs 5. preparation of the report and recommendations of farmers operating in local contexts. for scaling up CIS services in Kenya. 2 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper CHAPTER TWO CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATION DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGIES Climate1 is usually defined as the average weather condition, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands of years. The World Meteo- rological Organization (WMO) often defines a period of 30 years. The influence of temporal and spatial scales on the state of the atmosphere has implications for observ- ability and predictability of weather and climate, and for the design of climate infor- mation services (CIS) (figure 2.1). Weather is the atmospheric condition in a given place, including variables such as temperature, rainfall, wind, or humidity. Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. However, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) emphasizes the anthropogenic forcing and defines climate change as a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that occurs in addition to natural cli- mate variability observed over comparable time periods. Climate prediction or forecast is the result of an attempt to produce a most likely description or estimate of the actual evolution of the climate in the future, for exam- ple, at seasonal, inter-annual, or long-term time scales. Climate projection is the response of the climate system to emission or concentra- tion scenarios of greenhouse gases and aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often 1 Unless otherwise stated, all definitions are taken from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014, http:// ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/IPCC_WG2AR5_SPM_Approved.pdf. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 3 FIGURE 2.1. SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALES OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE Characateristic space scales of weather phenomena PAST CLIMATE WEATHER FUTURE CLIMATE Global scale Medium-range weather forecasting Short-range weather forecasting Long-range weather forecasting 10,000 km Decadal climate prediction Climate change projection Seasonal to inter-annual Continental/ Regional climate prediction Current weather ‘Normal’ climate Recent weather Recent climate scale Now casting 1000 km Synoptic scale 100 km Meso/ scale 10 km Local scale 1 km Last Last Last Last Yester- To- Next Next Next Next Next Next Now decade year month week day morrow week month year decade century millennium Approximate time-scale terminology for weather and climate description and prediction based on simulations created by climate models. Climate is unknown. Uncertainty can result from lack of infor- projections are distinguished from climate predictions to mation or from disagreement about what is known or emphasize that climate projections depend on the emis- even knowable. It may have a variety of sources, from sion/concentration/radiative forcing scenario used, quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously defined which are based on assumptions, concerning, for exam- concepts or terminology or uncertain projections of ple, future socioeconomic and technological develop- human behavior. Uncertainty can therefore be repre- ments that may or may not be realized, and are therefore sented by quantitative measures (for example, a range subject to substantial uncertainty. of values calculated by various models) or by qualita- tive statements (for example, reflecting the judgment of Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state a team of experts). and other climate statistics (standard deviations, the occur- rence of extremes, and so on) on all temporal and spatial Climate services involve providing climate informa- scales beyond those of individual weather events. Variability tion in a way that assists decision making by individuals may result from natural internal processes within the climate and organizations (WMO 2014). A service requires appro- system (internal variability) or from variations in natural or priate engagement along with an effective access mecha- anthropogenic external forces (external variability). nism and must respond to user needs (WMO 2014). It is a Extreme weather event denotes an event that is rare user-driven development and provision of knowledge for within its statistical reference distribution at a particular understanding the climate, climate change and its impacts, place. Definitions of “rare” vary, but an extreme weather and guidance in its use to researchers and decision mak- event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th ers in policy and business (JPI Climate 2011, 44). Climate or 90th percentile. By definition, the characteristics of what information service principles are highlighted in box 2.1. is called extreme weather may vary from place to place. An extreme climate event is an average of a number of Climate product is a derived synthesis of climate data. weather events over a certain period of time, an average A product combines climate data with climate knowledge that is itself extreme (for example, rainfall over a season). to add value (WMO 2014). Uncertainty is an expression of the degree to which a Climate information can mean climate data, climate value (for example, the future state of the climate system) products, or climate knowledge (WMO 2014). Climate 4 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper BOX 2.1. CLIMATE INFORMATION SERVICES FIGURE 2.2. THE GLOBAL FRAMEWORK PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE SERVICES Users Various challenges confront efforts to use climate-related information to improve the lives of smallholder farmers. Critical gaps in the design, delivery, and effective use of climate-related information for risk management among User interface platform smallholder farmers can be filled by paying attention to five prerequisites (Tall et al. 2013): Climate services information system Salience Tailoring content, scale, format, and lead time to farm-level decision making. Observations and Research, modelling Access Providing timely access to remote monitoring and prediction rural communities with marginal CAPACITY infrastructure. DEVELOPMENT Legitimacy Ensuring that farmers own climate services and they shape their design and Source: WMO 2011. delivery. Equity Ensuring that women, poor, and socially marginalized groups are served. Services (GFCS) “to strengthen the production, avail- Integration Providing climate information as part of ability, delivery and application of science-based climate a larger package of agricultural support and development assistance, enabling prediction and services.” The GFCS implementation plan farmers to act on received information. targets gaps in climate services in support of key climate- sensitive sectors, including food security, water, health, and disaster risk reduction in vulnerable developing countries. information is “the transformation of climate related The GFCS implementation plan contains five pillars data together with other relevant information and data essential to the design of CIS (figure 2.2). These include into customized products such as projections, forecasts, the following: information, trends, economic analyses, assessments 1. User Interface Platform that provides a means (including technology assessments), counseling on best for users, climate researchers, and climate service practices, development and evaluation of solutions, and providers to interact, thereby maximizing the use- other services in relation to climate or responding to cli- fulness of climate services and helping develop mate change that are of use to society.”2 new and improved applications of climate infor- mation. Climate data consist of historical and real-time climate 2. Climate Services Information System used to pro- observations along with direct model outputs covering his- tect and distribute climate data and information torical and future periods. Information about how these according to the needs of users and according to observations and model outputs were generated (“meta- the procedures agreed by governments and other data”) should accompany all climate data (WMO 2014). data providers. 3. Observations and Monitoring component that ensures that the climate data necessary to meet the THE GLOBAL FRAMEWORK needs of climate services are generated. FOR CLIMATE SERVICES 4. Research, Modeling, and Prediction component At the World Climate Conference-3 in 2009, delegates of that assesses and promotes the needs of climate 155 nations endorsed a Global Framework for Climate services within research agendas. 5. Capacity Development component that sup- 2 UK Climate Service Providers series of workshops in November 2014. ports systematic development of the necessary Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 5 institutions, infrastructure, and human resources of the development of weather and climate services is a to provide effective climate services. major contributing factor that limits progress in uptake (Graham et al. 2015). The development of climate-smart The pillars are meant primarily as a conceptual model agriculture (CSA) and related programs in Kenya provides and in practice there is some overlapping of functions and opportunities to address the low uptake and strengthen responsibilities. The long-term, high-level outcomes and CIS in the agriculture and food security sector. benefits include user communities that are able to make climate-smart decisions and climate information that is WEATHER AND CLIMATE disseminated effectively and in a manner that lends itself more easily to practical action. Although many individual SERVICES VALUE CHAIN programs and projects have focused on particular ele- The notion of climate-related services connotes a kind ments of the framework, the challenge is that about 70 of permanent relationship between observers, modelers, nations currently have no or inadequate climate service.3 forecasters, disseminators, other intermediaries, and end GFCS, however, aims to improve climate services over users that leaves the users, farmers in particular, in a state the next ten years to help countries and communities of preparedness, of knowing what to do to adapt not only cope with natural variations in climate and with human- to seasonal variability in weather but also to longer-term induced climate change. These integrated approaches are trends in climate change itself. The value of the infor- more easily addressed with longer-term programs that mation is only realized at the end of the chain in which link well with other existing or planned initiatives. The decisions are made based on the information provided UN-led GFCS—along with other initiatives—are now (figures 2.3 and 2.4). providing important guidance for new programs and fostering and promoting government recognition of the There are three main reasons climate and weather ser- benefits of climate services and providing a structure for a vices must be viewed as a value chain: more coordinated approach. 1. A weakness in one aspect of this chain will have consequences with respect to the usefulness of the The integration of weather and climate information into information, products, and services provided. decision making is recognized as a transdisciplinary, mul- 2. It helps to reinforce the idea that inputs in the tidisciplinary process involving components that include form of weather and climate events must be trans- climate science and information services, translational sci- lated into user-specific products that aid climate- ence (developing appropriate communication approaches resilient decision making. and delivery channels), and issues of governance to incen- 3. In the past, much investment in weather and cli- tivize service delivery and use. Considerable work has been mate services has been piecemeal, resulting in carried out to improve capabilities in some aspects of these inefficiencies and a lack of sustainability in the individual components, including pilot projects, generally of ability of the system to perform in the medium subnational scale, to improve interaction and mutual under- and longer term. standing between climate information providers and users. There have been many initiatives to strengthen climate and FIGURE 2.3. WEATHER AND CLIMATE weather information services across Africa in the past few SERVICES VALUE CHAIN years. It is commonly observed that availability and uptake Data Processing & Management of information and services still occur at a relatively low level and that this represents a lost opportunity for social Climate and economic development. There is a growing consensus and Observations Modeling Forecasting CIS delivery Users weather that a lack of a holistic approach and long-term support Feedback Research & Development 3 WMO Geneva November 10, 2014 press release. 6 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper FIGURE 2.4. TYPICAL ADVISORY SERVICES Information assists farmers in deciding which agricultural FOR CROP PRODUCTION AND technologies and adaptation mechanisms may be most useful in responding to weather variability and climate MARKETING General weather, seasonal change (Wood et al. 2014). Pre-cultivation forecasts Crop (types, cultivars) Cultivation contract Basal fertilizer recommendations Decision making in the agricultural sector can be catego- rized into strategic and tactical decisions. Strategic deci- Crop Growing Post harvest Cycle Cultivation sions require planning across seasons to multiple seasons Quality control Soil preparation (longer-term) to enhance productivity and profitability or Sowing rates and dates Storage conditions Marketing (prices, Fertilization minimize risk and reduce environmental impacts. These locations) Irrigation Buyer-seller matching Weed control decisions include the selection of suitable varieties; setup Farmer surveys on Harvest Pest & diseases alert and production and marketing control of blocks and farm layout; size and type of equipment; experiences Yield predictions Harvest dates tillage practices; choice of irrigation equipment and tech- nology; establishment of grazing practices; purchase of fertilizers, herbicides, and other chemicals; harvesting For the information that the user needs to be effectively equipment and scheduling; and forward marketing; and delivered, investments need to be made right along the price contracts decisions. chain, from observations and data through core science, to communications, modeling, forecasting and develop- Tactical (or shorter-term) decisions in crop production ment of applications, and communications channels. Any require planning decisions within the growing season or at weak link in the chain could lead to suboptimal results or subseasonal basis. Tactical decisions are those that must be a situation in which “potential value” does not convert made much more frequently, such as weekly and monthly into “real value.” to assist the strategic objectives of the farming operations. Examples of tactical decisions in farming systems include purchase or sale of livestock, timing of planting, irriga- FARMERS’ DECISION MAKING tion scheduling, timing of fertilizer applications, chemical UNDER A CHANGING CLIMATE applications, and harvesting (table 2.1). A practical appli- Farmers adapt to climate variability and change though cation of the design of agro-weather tools to aid decision climate advisories that reduce climate impacts (figure 2.4). making in Embu County is presented in box 2.2. TABLE 2.1. TIME SCALES FOR TACTICAL AND STRATEGIC AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT DECISIONS Decision Type Climate System (Years) Logistics (for example, scheduling of planting/harvest operations) Intraseasonal (> 0.2) Tactical crop management (for example, fertilizer/pesticide use) Intraseasonal (0.2–0.5) Crop type (for example, wheat or chickpeas) Seasonal (0.5–1.0) Crop sequence (for example, long or short fallows) Interannual (0.5–2.0) Crop rotation (for example, winter or summer crop) Annual/biennial (1–2) Crop industry (for example, grain or cotton, phase farming) Decadal (~10) Agricultural industry (for example, crop or pasture) Interdecadal (10–20) Land use (for example, agriculture or natural system) Multidecadal (20+) Land use and adaptation of current systems Climate change Source: Meinke and Stone 2005. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 7 BOX 2.2. AGRO-WEATHER TOOLS FOR ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE FOR EMBU The initial project-scoping mission involved substantial consultations with stakeholders and potential collaborators. A total of 63 farming institution representatives were consulted through side meetings and workshop. The smallholder farming community was also involved in a participatory process with a mission team validation meeting held in Embu County. This was aimed at assessing the institutional capacity, community needs and readiness to try different climate change adaptation strategies in their farming operations. Development of the Agroweather Decision Support followed a systematic process as outlined in figure B2.2.1. The consultative approach involving both the public and private sector ensures that the right climate information is delivered to the farmers. CIS effectively enabled farmers to make appropriate decisions in their choice of varieties. It was highly useful in mak- ing and complementing recommendations about which farm inputs to use. It was used to good advantage by extension services and farmer organizations, resulting in higher rates of adoption of new varieties and practices. Because of the marked difference between project participants and nonparticipants, the interest that CIS stimulated among other producers generated benefits that spilled over into the entire local farming community. The impacts of a failed season in which there was insufficient water to meet crop requirements, leading to lower yields despite increased labor inputs, were more pronounced on nonbeneficiaries, who were markedly less prepared to adapt to weather variability. CIS has a remarkable impact on crop yields and income. In Embu, farmers with access to agro- weather information (beneficiaries) recorded an average maize yield of 970 kilograms (kg) per hectare compared with 210 kg per hectare for nonbeneficiaries. The average income from maize for the beneficiaries was 9,402 Kenya shil- lings (K Sh) compared with K Sh 3,918 for nonbeneficiaries (Braimoh et al. 2015). FIGURE B2.2.1. SYSTEMATIC PARTICIPATORY APPROACH IN DEVELOPING AGRO- WEATHER DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM IN EMBU, KENYA STEP 1: Project initiation meeting STEP 2: Stakeholder identification and consultation STEP 3: Data/information collection and results analysis STEP 4: Generate CSA advisory details and prepare advisory framework STEP 5: Develop web-based agro-weather tool STEP 6: Implementation and capacity building STEP 7: Evaluation of tools’ effect on productivity STEP 8: Final report 8 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper CHAPTER THREE FINDINGS FROM THE SURVEYS The results reported in this chapter are for 29 climate information services (CIS) pro- viders that completed the questionnaire and provided information through phone interviews or follow-up face-to-face meetings. NATURE OF THE ORGANIZATION OF CIS PROVIDERS Most respondents that completed the questionnaires were from private sector organi- zations, accounting for 27 percent of the service providers. Government agencies and NGOs/community-based organizations (CBOs) each accounted for 21 percent of the total; research and academia constituted 17 percent whereas international organiza- tions constituted 14 percent, as shown in the figure 3.1. CIS providers relate their organizational structure, functions, and services to a guiding mandate, vision, or mission and related goals and objectives. Apparent in the mission statements are motivations such as safety of citizens, protection of property, support for economic growth and efficiency, and core activities within climate services such as adaptation and disaster risk reduction. These objectives guide the production and delivery components of CIS, which are apparently guided by the priorities and bound- aries of the communities they are required and intended to serve. Climate information is primarily an international public good and governments have a central role in its management (Lúcio and Head 2012). Consequently, the Kenya Mete- orological Department (KMD) is the national meteorological agency mandated to col- lect and store climate data in the country. KMD is also charged with coordinating and managing the climate information provision framework. Currently, KMD undertakes data collection through its own climate observing stations and also through collabora- tion with other institutions and volunteer observers. However, in the context of CIS there are other producers, for example, the Intergovernmental Authority on Develop- ment Climate Prediction and Applications Center (ICPAC) and the African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD). Some other organizations are producers and as well as users: the Food and Agriculture Organization (of the UN) Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 9 FIGURE 3.1. NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS FIGURE 3.2. SECTORAL FOCUS BY THE CIS PROVIDING CLIMATE PROVIDERS (%) INFORMATION SERVICES Agricultural and livestock Financial/planning Water and water resources International Environmental and natural resources Organizations Research and development 14% Energy Private Sector 27% Media Health Research & Academia Disaster management 17% Construction/infrastructure Government/ Government Agencies 0 20 40 60 80 100 21% NGOs/CBOs Source: Field surveys. 21% and development also attract a relatively strong focus Source: Field surveys. from 31 percent of the CIS providers, whereas focus of the other sectors range from 10 percent for construction/ infrastructure to 21 percent for energy (figure 3.2). This (FAO), Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), result suggests the multisectoral impacts of weather con- Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in ditions and climate variability and also the multisectoral Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), Farming and response of the CIS providers in helping different sectors Early Warning Network (FEWSNET), International Live- adapt to weather variability. stock Research Institute (ILRI), Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI), Consortium of International Agricul- KMD and the National Drought Management Devel- tural Centers (CGIAR), Climate Change, Agriculture opment Authority (NDMA) provide services for all the and Food Security (CCAFS), and International Crops 11 sectors identified in the survey; Global Climate and Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). Adaptation Partnership and Geo Envigro Limited each service six sectors; Climate Change Impacts on Eco- SECTORAL FOCUS system Services and Food Security in Eastern Africa (CHIESA), Pan Africa Climate Justice Alliance (PACJA), The survey shows that the CIS providers cover diverse and the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for sectors with more than 83 percent focusing on agriculture Development (RCMRD) each service five sectors. The and livestock. This is reasonable, because agriculture is Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme one of the sectors most affected by climate change. Some (ASDSP), FEWSNET, CARE International, and NDMA 52 percent focus on financial planning including finan- each service four sectors, whereas the remaining service cial services for agricultural production, processing, and providers focus on one to three sectors. marketing. This service involves identifying, quantifying, pricing, and mitigating the financial risk associated with climate change impacts. Relevant and accurate informa- CIS SERVICE PORTFOLIO tion input is required on all parameters that are relevant Because of increased public interest in and the need for for risk management and proper decision making. climate and weather information across sectors, the CIS field in Kenya is dynamic with varying information needs The survey further reveals that 48 percent and 34 percent targeted to different sectors. Thus, the CIS providers serve of CIS providers, respectively, focus strongly on water, a diverse community of users with sector-specific climate and the environment and natural resources. Research information (figure 3.3). There is a reasonably high level 10 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper FIGURE 3.3. PRODUCTS/SERVICES FIGURE 3.5. CIS PROVIDERS’ COVERAGE OFFERED BY CIS PROVIDERS (%) OF KENYA COUNTIES Early warning system Climate predictions Agro-weather advisory Weather forecasting Government policies Climate projections Insurance/weather derivatives Transport safety advisories Airspace weather forecasting Others 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Source: Field surveys. FIGURE 3.4. AGRO-WEATHER ADVISORIES PROVIDED BY CIS PROVIDERS (%) Land preparation Planting window/varieties selection Postharvest Harvest Timing of input application Input application rate Input procurement Input stocking Market information Financing arrangement 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Source: Field surveys. Source: Field surveys. of differentiation of climate and weather products and Only 30 percent of the CIS providers addressed financing, services offered in Kenya. Early warning systems and pre- whereas half of the providers addressed land preparation. dictions stand out as the major products/services offered by 77 to 80 percent of the service providers. Next are agro- All Kenya counties are covered by at least five CIS pro- weather information services (72 percent), whereas half viders (figure 3.5). Kajiado, Narok, Nandi, and Turkana of the CIS providers work in weather forecasting. How- counties are covered by a maximum of 10 CIS providers ever, early warning systems and predictions also serve in (figure 3.5). Six CIS providers cover Bomet, Bungoma, areas such as farm operations and food security; therefore, Busia, Kakamega, Kericho, Kirinyaga, Nyandarua, and the percentages indicated for agro-weather services could Nyeri counties. Some seven to nine CIS providers cover in reality be higher than indicated. It is noteworthy that the remaining counties. Only two CIS providers (KMD some 41 percent of the CIS providers provide climate and and RCMRD) cover all the counties. Note, however, weather advisories for general government policies and that the presence of CIS providers in a county does not decision-making and climate projections, whereas 28 per- automatically imply that all farmers who are in need of cent of the providers each service the insurance deriva- services are reached or are able to access them. Also, pres- tives and transport safety advisory sectors. ence does not imply that relevant services of appropriate quality are delivered to users. With respect to agro-weather advisories, the survey indi- cates that CIS providers reasonably cover the various Most of the CIS providers do not have an effective mecha- stages of crop production and marketing (figure 3.4). nism with which to track their users. Under this condition, Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 11 TABLE 3.1. NUMBER OF FARMERS TABLE 3.2. TYPES OF CLIMATE DATA USED REACHED BY CIS PROVIDERS BY CIS PROVIDERS CIS Provider No. of Farmers Data Type Percentage CCAFS 700 Radar 7 Agricultural Sector Development 45,869 Satellite 52 Support Program In situ weather station 59 CARE International (Adaptation 293,250 Learning Program) Source: Field surveys. Agriculture and Climate Risk 461,609 Enterprise Limited Ltd. (ACRE) satellite-based weather data less precise than station-based Adaptation (ADA) Consortium 1,466,100 weather data, a factor that raises premiums for station-based weather-sourced index-based insurance cover. Two service Source: Field surveys. providers have installed ground satellite receivers for rapid access of satellite data from multiple space channels. KMD providing feedback to enhance the utility of climate infor- data are used by the majority for the following three reasons: mation is critically curtailed. Only five CIS providers pro- » Users have great confidence in ground truth data vided data on the number of users reached (table 3.1). provided by KMD. » KMD remains the referral source of climate data CLIMATE AND WEATHER in the country, given that it is mandated by law to DATA archive station-based climate data for the country. » Some providers have only limited technical capac- CIS is dependent on data, from both observations and ity in processing and analyzing satellite data. numerical modeling. The starting point in the develop- ment of credible climate information for the end user is in CIS providers use data owned by various organizations. receiving weather, climate, and other sector-specific data From the survey, 59 percent of the data used are owned of appropriate spatial and temporal resolution that, when by KMD and international organizations and CIS provid- processed and integrated with local knowledge, can prove ers each own 45 percent (table 3.3). Thus, 55 percent of vital for decision making by the end users. the CIS providers are purveyors that do not produce their own climate data, but add value to data already available The study found that the CIS providers use radar, satellite from other sources. data, and in situ manual and automated weather observa- tions or a combination of these data sources (table 3.2). Data collected undergo a variety of processing to yield Apart from one private sector player that has developed sector-specific information. Processes involved differ its own automated weather station in the areas of high depending on required outputs. CIS providers gener- agricultural potential in the country, others are either in ally use more than one source in the processing of data. direct partnership with KMD in codeveloping climate Some 79 percent of the interviewed organizations employ information services/products or are indirectly using the expert consultation,4 66 percent of the organizations con- data produced by KMD (box 3.1). By virtue of being sult with stakeholders, and 55 percent use focused discus- regional bodies, others are by default working with KMD sion groups, whereas 52 percent of the CIS providers in jointly developing climate services. use modeling. Participatory approaches involving focus group discussion, stakeholder, and expert consultations Satellite data were found to be the preferred source or starting point in the development of products by major consulting climate information service providers. The free 4 Experts are those called in to consult based on their qualifications in the par- ticular field, for example, agro-meteorologists, who can help interpret certain accessibility of these data contributes to shorter lead time information received; stakeholders are those organizations or groups that have in developing climate information products and services. interest in the same information that will be derived from the data for similar However, index-based insurance service providers consider or other uses. 12 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper BOX 3.1. WEATHER DATA COLLECTION IN KENYA KMD has the largest weather infrastructure operation and maintains 36 synoptic stations countrywide that provide data on rain- fall, minimum and maximum temperatures, wind speed and direction, air pressure, soil temperature, solar radiation, sunshine duration, relative humidity, evaporation, and cloud cover. It also has four marine tidal gauges with automatic meteorological sensors to monitor ocean tides and waves, including tsunamis. The data collected can also be used to study sea level rise associ- ated with global warming. These data are crucial in providing information to support decision making in adaptation planning for coastal zone management. There are other specialized observing stations operated by KMD that include 24 automatic weather stations (AWSs) that auto- matically record climate data and transmit them to receiving stations at KMD; 3 airport weather observing systems (AWOSs) at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Wilson Airport, and Mombasa International Airport that are able to detect and monitor hazards associated with extreme weather events; 17 hydro-meteorological automatic weather stations that have been installed in water catchments; 4 lightning and thunderstorm detection systems at Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu, and Eldoret to provide severe weather warnings, especially for aviation safety. KMD in collaboration with other international climate centers also operates 3 satellite receiving stations, 2 for Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) and 1 for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration (NOAA) satellites, that receive global data on large-scale systems such as sea surface temperatures and wind fields. Every day, massive amounts of data are collected and stored at Kenya Meteorological Department. Unfortunately, the general public for whose benefit the weather services are offered have generally remained unaware of the services. KMD has been the only national institution that has provided climate information for a long period but new initiatives have been established within the past few years owing to Kenya’s relative advantage in establishing robust and dynamic private sector–driven climate information services. This is also supported by the existence of a stable national metrological agency rich in historical climate and weather data and the presence of regional meteorological agencies whose headquarters are in Nairobi, such as the Intergovernmental Authority of Development Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) and Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development. Apart from KMD, there are observers (individuals or institutions) who make climate notations voluntarily and transmit the data to KMD for use and storage. The majority of these observers collect rainfall data only because of the simplicity of doing so. A few also take temperature measurements. At present, there are about 3,000 volunteer observers registered by KMD who are located in various parts of the country, although not all of them collect and transmit the data to KMD on a regular basis as required. These data form a very useful supplement to the normal climate observation network because they increase the coverage of rainfall data that is critical for assessment of climate risks, especially for the agriculture and water sectors. TABLE 3.3. OWNERSHIP OF THE DATA TABLE 3.4. APPROACHES USED IN DATA USED BY CIS PROVIDERS PROCESSING Owner Percentage Approach Percentage International organizations 45 Expert consultation 79 CIS providers 45 Stakeholder consultation 66 KMD 59 Focus group discussion 55 Modeling 52 Source: Field surveys. Others 17 (55 percent to 79 percent) are the most preferred methods Source: Field surveys. (table 3.4). The level of participation by the users depends on the product and scope of services from the CIS pro- The survey noted that there was no framework for the vider. Service providers who have close collaboration with evaluation of data quality used by providers and the relevant partners and those who encourage strong partici- CIS derived from the data. CIS providers do not label pation by the end users (community representatives) have their products nor do they specify the methodology used a wider geographic coverage that includes all the 47 coun- in deriving their products and services. Because farmers ties in Kenya. are not climate experts, it is therefore difficult for them to Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 13 ascertain the quality and probable value of the informa- services (SMS) are employed by 34 percent of the provid- tion used for decision making. ers, website by 21 percent and radio network and interactive voice response system (IVRS) each by 10 percent. The rela- CLIMATE INFORMATION tively low frequency of SMS, websites, and IVRS suggests significant opportunity to expand the use of modern infor- SERVICES DISSEMINATION mation and communication technologies (ICT) for higher METHODS market penetration. Brokers can then be encouraged to use The benefit of a CIS is realized when it is used effectively them as sources of the information they disseminate. for decision making. The CIS providers use several media ADA Consortium provides a breakdown of dissemina- to disseminate their services. The most common medium is tion methods to the estimated 1.5 million served by the bulletin/newspaper, used by 52 percent of the providers (fig- project in five counties: Makueni, Kitui, Isiolo, Garissa, ure 3.6). This is known to work well in project-type service and Wajir. Table 3.5 indicates that majority of the users provision but adoption may be negligible beyond the pilots. (77 percent) are reached through the radio across the five Radio is the next most common medium, used by 45 per- counties, followed by bulletin (11 percent), SMS (7 per- cent, whereas intermediaries are used by 41 percent of the cent), and public barazas (5 percent). CIS providers. Intermediaries refer to brokers between sci- entists/service providers and farmers, translating and add- Public barazas are face-to-face public community gatherings ing value to agronomic and economic information of use instigated by village officials for the purpose of attentive in agricultural management decision making. It has been discussions. The primary purpose is public awareness crea- established that this intermediary model is the most effec- tion, targeting specific groups and communities. Through tive mode of disseminating climate information. The pol- barazas, the communities become aware and informed icy implication should be to integrate “climate extension” about their vulnerability and the measures they can take into the current extension service/system. Short message to proactively adapt to climate change. Public barazas tend to increase enthusiasm and support, stimulate community FIGURE 3.6. COMMUNICATION MEDIA USED action, and mobilize local knowledge and resources. BY CIS PROVIDERS (%) The choice of the media should always be end user cen- Bulletins/Newspapers tered, taking into consideration the vulnerable groups, Radio especially women, people living with disability, the elderly, Intermediaries and nomads in remote areas. Ignoring the roles, activi- SMS ties, and relationships of the end user at all stages may Website leave potential users underserved. Channels used must be Radio network accessible and have user-friendly attributes such as timeli- Interactive voice response ness, accuracy, reliability, ease of use, depth of content, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 and language (see box 3.2). Source: Field surveys. TABLE 3.5. MEDIA USED BY ADA CONSORTIUM IN REACHING FARMERS County Radio Bulletin SMS Public Barazas Total Makueni 304,060 59,940 34,800 18,000 416,800 Kitui 85,000 96,000 69,300 24,000 274,300 Isiolo 50,000 - - 35,000 85,000 Garissa 270,000 - - - 270,000 Wajir 420,000 - - - 420,000 Total 1,129,060 155,940 104,100 77,000 1,466,100 Source: ADA Consortium. 14 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper BOX 3.2. SOURCES OF AGRO-WEATHER CARE International and the Adaptation Consortium INFORMATION IN EMBU COUNTY, employing participatory scenario planning (PSP) are the two prominent institutions building capacity to KENYA interpret seasonal forecasts and disseminate climate The pilot project enlisted the participation of 4,500 farm- information and services in a more user-friendly man- ers who were stratified into four categories according to the ner. Involvement of government agencies, such as the crop of interest—tea, coffee, sorghum, and maize and beans extension services, in dissemination of agro-weather (maize is usually intercropped with beans). Fourteen sources of agro-weather information available to the beneficiaries were information, has been found to legitimize the con- identified (see Table B.3.2.1). The farmers surveyed identified tent owing to the authority conferred on government extension agents, radio broadcasts, and mobile phones as the officers. most important. The multiple sources of information used by farmers suggested the need for a strategy that employs a com- Feedback is the part of the receiver’s response that is bination of modern and traditional ICT. The information is communicated back to the sender and takes a variety of likely to have more value if it was communicated through forms. Feedback provides the sender with a way of moni- extension agents or contacts that farmers already know and trust. The beneficiaries of CIS indicated that the information toring how the message is being decoded and received provided improved use of farm resources, changed planting by the target audience. It is the final link in the chain of and harvesting practices, and was effectively used to prevent the communication process. Service providers should be pest and disease attacks. The project results in general saw interested in the feedback from the end user so that the significant differences emerge between beneficiaries and a services can be improved. nonbeneficiary control group, with the mean score of the beneficiary group higher than the nonbeneficiary group. This study indicates that SMS, meetings, and call centers are the primary feedback mechanisms employed by the TABLE B3.2.1. SOURCES OF AGRO- CIS providers (21 percent each). CIS providers also use WEATHER INFORMATION e-mails (14 percent) and IVRS (7 percent). The fact that IN EMBU, KENYA the majority of the CIS providers (41 percent) do not use any feedback mechanism suggests the absence of bidi- Source Percent of farmers rectional information exchange between providers and Extension Officers 66 users to optimize recommendations, advisories, and alerts Input Dealers 20 (figure 3.7). A more interactive information environment University 6 can markedly influence the accuracy of recommendations NGO 9 National Agricultural 11 Research Organizations* TV 27 FIGURE 3.7. FEEDBACK MECHANISM USED Radio 71 BY CIS PROVIDERS (%) Faith Based Organizations 21 None Internet 8 Cell phone/SMS 53 Meetings Interactive Voice Response 30 Call center Newsletter/Bulletin 63 Newspaper 12 SMS Other Farmers 44 Emails *This refers to the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organiza- IVRS messages tion (KARLO). 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Source: Braimoh et al. 2015 Source: Field survey. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 15 BOX 3.3. CIS KNOWLEDGE AND SHARING private and profit oriented; and international organiza- WORKSHOP IN NAIROBI, JUNE 23, tions (table 3.6).5 2015 KMD, NDMA, and WRMA (10 percent), operating under The workshop, attended by about 70 people from various the direct control of the government ministries, are the only sectors, generated a wealth of information some of which public departmental unit in the survey. It has no autonomy are summarized here. and is primarily financed by the state budget, delivering » Mainstreaming CIS into sector and development noncommercial services to citizens or other public sector planning processes is critical to fully realize the ben- bodies. Although the public department model is straight- efits of climate services. forward to implement, there is the problem of monop- » Climate information coupled with agro-advisory ser- oly with respect to a data observation network. It is also vices offers great potential to manage climate related subject to high fiscal cost and lack of alternative sources risks and enhances adaptive capacity » Historical climate information has great value to of revenue and adequate funding to support capital and farmers and relates well to other products issued by recurrent expenditures. There is little freedom or incentive KMD and forms a basis for understanding forecasts to compete in commercial markets, and activities are based » Weak collaborations among relevant institutions is a on standard government procedures on issues such as pro- major barrier for effective climate service provision curement. Limited and unreliable public financing make » Resources are grossly insufficient for designing and long-term investment decisions difficult, and could create disseminating new ideas a downward spiral that results in reduced staffing, inabil- » Partnerships involving providers, intermediaries and users are important. ity to maintain observation networks, a limited capacity to » Opportunities abound for the private sector to play innovate, low organizational incentives, and poor service a useful role in many aspects of the climate services delivery (Rogers and Tsirkunov 2013). value chain. » Public/private sector partnership can significantly Six service providers (20 percent) operate the public body increase the level of investment for CIS model. These organizations face less political and hierar- » Systematic two-way communication channels helps chical influence and have more operational and manage- to understand and convey user needs to CIS provid- ers and meaningfully present tailored climate infor- rial freedom. They supplement state budgets with grants mation and its uncertainties to users, including the and some earn revenues from service delivery. Although most vulnerable groups. there is some autonomy compared with a public depart- » Continued engagement between multiple stake- ment, the public model is difficult to implement unless it holders is essential for interactive learning, effec- is part of a governmentwide reform. Government entities tive communication of climate information, and its translations in specific contexts. » Appropriate advocacy on climate change issues and 5 Departmental units are hierarchical units operating under direct control participatory approaches in the design of climate of the corresponding minister, who has direct political control and ministe- information products and services rial responsibility for the unit’s performance. Public bodies are entities that » Policies and regulations for CIS in Kenya need an operate at arm’s length from the central government. As a consequence, they urgent review. face less political and hierarchical influence and have more operational and managerial freedom. Privatized companies operate under private law and have their own legal personality. Not-for-profit organizations do not earn their own revenues, but use the money earned in pursuing the organization’s and hence increase the utility of CIS (see some of the objectives. For-profit organizations operate freely in the market and gener- points in box 3.3). ate their own revenues. Even though direct political control decreases through the privatization process, economic activities are controlled to a certain extent by regulations. International organizations are those set up by agreement BUSINESS APPROACH between two or more states. They possess a nonstate entity with international legal personality separate from that of the states that established them. For the The survey identifies five business-operating models in purpose of this work, international nongovernmental organizations are not order of increasing autonomy, namely, public depart- classified in this category; they are regarded as private but not profit oriented mental unit; public body; private but not profit oriented; because they are subject to the law of the country where they are incorporated. 16 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper TABLE 3.6. OPERATING MODELS OF THE CIS PROVIDERS1 Operating Models Public Private Departmental Private but not and Profit International Characteristics Unit Public Body Profit Oriented Oriented Organization Government Directly controlled Indirectly Indirectly controlled Indirectly No, Host country control controlled controlled agreements Own legal No Partially or fully Yes Yes Yes entity separate Legal basis Public law Public law Private law Private law Convention Financing State budget, State budget, Grants, own revenues Own revenues Grants grants grants, own revenues Control Direct political Statutes, laws Regulation Regulation Host country mechanism agreements Ministerial Yes Partial No No No responsibility Autonomy No Yes Yes Yes Yes CIS Providers KMD, NDMA, ASDSP, KARLO, CHIESA, KFWG, PACJA, ACRE, Upande, RCMRD, WRMA NDOC, NAFIS, ADA Consortium, UON- GCAP, Geo ICRISAT, UoN-Met, Maseno ICCA, CGA, ILRI Envigro, Airtel ICPAC University/ (IBLI), CGIAR (CCAFS), Kilimo, Esoko, University of FEWSNET, CARE aWhere Reading International, TAHMO Note: CGA = Cereal Growers Association; GCAP = Global Climate Adaptation Partnership; KARLO = Kenya Agricultural Research and Livestock Organization; KFWG = Kenya Forest Working Group; NDOC = National Disaster Operation Centre; TAHMO = Trans-African Hydro-Meterorological Observatory; UON-ICAA = Institute for Climate Change and Adaptation; UoN-Met = Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi; WRMA = Water Resource Management Authority. 1 ASDSP is a government program but it is donor funded. that are not accustomed to paying for services from other freely in the market and generate their own revenues. government departments will likely refuse to pay for mete- Even though privatized companies enjoy a high degree of orological and hydrological information, even though it autonomy, certain economic activities are controlled by may be essential for their operations. government regulations. Given the public good nature of CIS benefits, full privatization may not provide optimal The largest proportion (37 percent) of the CIS provid- solution for effective CIS delivery. Purely market-based ers are private but not profit oriented. They are essen- approaches are subject to low to moderate penetration, tially climate adaptation projects sponsored from abroad and can place a higher emphasis over commercial com- with limited life span. Some of the projects are meant to pared with technical criteria. establish proof-of-concept or are implemented at the pilot scale, targeting a limited number of beneficiaries. Service Three CIS providers (10 percent) are in the “Interna- provisions are inherently limited in scope, being specific to tional Organization” category: ICRISAT, ICPAC, and the overall goal of the project. A majority of these provid- RCMRD. Funding comes principally from subventions ers really do not provide services to users outside of their from member organizations and other grants, and they network/consortium. do not generate revenues from CIS activities. The survey reveals that 23 percent of the CIS providers Figure 3.8 indicates that grants are by far the principal are privatized companies (profit oriented). They operate funding mechanism (52 percent), whereas private funds are Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 17 FIGURE 3.8. CIS PROVIDERS’ INCOME TABLE 3.7. COST STRUCTURE FOR SOURCES (%) SELECTED PUBLIC AND Grants PRIVATE CIS PROVIDERS (%) Public Privatized Cost Items Department Company Public funding Data acquisition 10 5 Weather infrastructure 10 5 Users pay Data processing 10 50 System maintenance 20 20 Private funding CIS dissemination 50 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Total 100 100 Source: Field surveys. Source: Field surveys. the least important for the CIS providers (23 percent). Only privatized company these costs goes to data processing. 30 percent of the providers generate revenue from CIS. This suggests that although the privatized entity spends less on data acquisition and weather infrastructure, it A closer look at the cost structures reveals different priori- focuses most of its resources on adding value to its prod- ties for public and private CIS providers (table 3.7). For ucts and services. However, the reverse disconnect, in both the public department model, half of the total running cases, between processing and dissemination may need to costs are expended on CIS dissemination, whereas for the be further interrogated. 18 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study highlights development in the climate information services (CIS) field in Kenya in the past few years. There is a preponderance of private sector entities in the field relative to public institutions. The market is well differentiated with products and services targeting specific users. The diversity of data, services, and service delivery through different channels further provides evidence of a reasonable level of aware- ness of the importance of CIS for climate adaptation, not only in the agricultural sector but also in other sectors serving agriculture. It also suggests some understanding of the elements of the design and delivery of CIS products and delivery. However, an outstanding challenge is the absence of a framework to properly downscale CIS, evaluate the quality of the services, effectively deliver the downscaled services, and elicit relevant feedback from end users. There is also limited coordination in the CIS field with the implication that the much needed collaboration to enhance CIS design and delivery is missing. Sustainably scaling up CIS based on good science, improved governance, and appropriate business models is urgently required. Over the past few years since climate-smart agriculture (CSA) became a priority among development community, we are starting to see solutions emerge to each of these challenges, which taken together suggest a program for change. For the desired changes to take place there is an urgent need to address the policy, legal, and regulatory constraints that hinder innovation in CIS provision. Given the findings from the study, five recommendations are made: Recommendation 1: Improve technical and institutional capacity There is a need for institutional reform to enable the Kenya Meteorological Depart- ment (KMD) to adjust to the new demands that climate change is placing on its ser- vices. There is a need to strengthen the legal and regulatory framework for KMD operations, including extending expertise within its management to include business development capabilities. New business models will need to be introduced and public- private partnerships enhanced (see Recommendation 5). As KMD is the main pro- vider of CIS, its institutional performance can be enhanced through staff training, introducing business development experts, retraining, and professional development. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 19 Observation infrastructure can be modernized by reha- might make it difficult for users to identify high-quality bilitating and reequipping meteorological, hydrological, climate services. An accreditation and quality manage- and other networks, introducing more ground-based ment system geared toward appropriate definition of cli- remote-sensing systems for nowcasting and very short- mate services, setting standards, labeling, and validation range weather forecasting, and increasing station-based is required. A technical peer review panel is required to observation equipment sufficient to effectively generate carry out demand-driven desk reviews of CIS activities downscaled weather forecasts for subnational planning, as needed and as relevant. This would help enhance proj- and strengthening quality control of primary data by set- ect capacities and quality. Indicators for quality standards ting up calibration facilities. An effective service delivery also need to be developed and adherence to the standards strategy should be established that includes a platform enforced. Effective CIS delivery also entails developing a that provides forecasts of the weather’s impact on the two-way interaction between the services and the users to basis of information available from numerical weather properly address users’ needs and facilitate their decision predictions, observations, and risk assessments. Modern making. media equipment enables KMD to create broadcast- quality bulletins. Mobile telephone–based applications are increasingly important to exploit the advances in mobile Recommendation 4: Foster codevelopment technology in the poorest and most vulnerable communi- of CIS ties. There is also a need to develop a digital library of all There is greater need and demand for properly down- climate-relevant information from all sectors to make the scaled, relevant, timely climate information codesigned services more user oriented. with end users. Given the knowledge-intensive nature of CIS provision, there is a need for actor-based plat- forms to facilitate knowledge acquisition, application, Recommendation 2: Improve coordination of and feedback. Promoting the adoption of effective CIS CIS provision will require well-designed, inclusive, and innovative sys- There is a need for proper coordination of the various tems with clear quality checks and balances. Priorities ongoing CIS processes. A starting point is to develop a include strengthening farmers’ knowledge of CIS ben- web-based national database of climate service providers. efits and facilitating their use in decision making. This The database should provide information on organiza- will result in more robust CIS systems and user-led tion, sectorial focus, service portfolios, and other items approaches. The use of colearning and comanagement for interested users. There is a need for networking CIS strategies involving providers and users is one way to do providers and key stakeholders for structured learning, this. Transdisciplinary, multidisciplinary research to sup- including identifying and disseminating best practices; port codevelopment of weather and climate services is holding regular learning events; training; and periodic also needed to enhance CIS knowledge integration. CIS study tours. Public awareness campaigns to further high- providers and users working closely together will, in turn, light the benefits derived from climate information are lead to mutual accountability. required. Facilitation and brokerage (intermediation) of expertise will also be needed for complex projects. An approach to protect data ownership and equally eliminate Recommendation 5: Create sustainable barriers for effective exploitation of climate information public-private partnership is needed. Given the limitations of the pure governmentally inter- vened and pure market-based CIS provision models, it is important to test new approaches in a carefully designed Recommendation 3: Establish CIS quality public-private partnership (figure 4.1). Public-private management system partnerships involve long-term cooperation between at At present there is no framework for the evaluation of least one public and one private entity for the joint exe- climate services and climate information content, which cution of CIS projects in which there is an exchange of 20 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper FIGURE 4.1. FEATURES OF FULLY INTERVENED, PURE MARKET-BASED, AND PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP CIS Normally high penetration Social over technical criteria Monopoly issues with data service Government assumes full liability High fiscal cost LEVEL OF GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION High penetration Fully intervened system Well diversified CIS portfolio (public departmental Technical over commercial criteria Competition for service unit) Government adds stability to the system Private sector adds technical know how Reasonable fiscal cost Public-private Low to moderate penetration partnership Low CIS portfolio diversification Commercial over technical criteria Competition for price No fiscal cost Pure market based (privatized companies) NUMBER OF CIS PROVIDERS know-how and a sharing of risks in fulfilling public tasks. Although KMD should retain its central role in climate It helps to break the downward trend of underinvest- information management, giving priority to the provision ment, poor infrastructure, deficient services, low visibil- of forecasts and warnings of severe weather, floods, and ity, and insufficient funding that are a threat to national droughts to the private sector can contribute particular meteorological services. Public-private partnerships have competencies in the form of innovative technology, design the potential to provide more efficient services through of resilient infrastructure, development and implementa- synergies and complementarities from both public and tion of improved information systems, and the manage- private strengths. Public-private partnerships could also ment of complex projects. A legal framework that includes lead to image enhancement for the current government data policy as a key element should be established to guide monopoly models such as KMD. However, a success- public-private partnership. A clear guideline is required ful transition from fully government to effective public- on what should be provided as public goods service and private agency requires a fundamental transformation what should be cost-recoverable services. The private sec- in institutional culture and mechanisms for staffing and tor can also produce and deliver valued added weather, conducting business. This can be a significant challenge, climate, and environmental products and services, and although the benefits it can bring in terms of develop- promote their widest and most productive commercial ing a culture of service delivery and user engagement are application to enhance the efficiency of sectors that are significant. sensitive to weather and climate variability. Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 21 REFERENCES Aldrian, E., C. Oludhe, B. J. Garanganga, J. Pahalad, M. Rojas Corradi, M. S. Boula- hya, L. Dubus, J. Ebinger, and M. 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March 2014. “Small- holder farmers cropping decisions related to climate variability across multiple regions.” Global Environment Change, Vol. 25. World Bank 2015. “Kenya: Agricultural Sector Risk Assessment.” Agriculture global practice technical assistance paper. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/11/24839584/kenya -agricultural­-sector-risk-assessment. 24 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper APPENDIX A LIST OF CIS PROVIDERS Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 25 Service Provider Website Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) http://www.meteo.go.ke/ Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise Ltd. (ACRE) http://acreafrica.com/ Upande Ltd http://www.upande.com/ Global Climate Adaptation Partnership (GCAP) http://www.climateadaptation.cc/ National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) http://www.ndma.go.ke/ Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD) http://www.rcmrd.org/ Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observatory (TAHMO) http://tahmo.org/about-tahmo/ Geo Envigro Ltd http://www.geoenviagro.com/ Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWSNET) http://www.fews.net/ Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) http://ibli.ilri.org/ Cereal Growers Association (Progressive farmers) http://www.cga.co.ke/ University of Reading/Maseno University http://maseno.ac.ke/ Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi (UoN-Met) http://meteorology.uonbi.ac.ke/ Institute of Climate Change and Adaptation (UON-ICCA) http://icca.uonbi.ac.ke/ Kenya Agricultural Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) http://www.kalro.org/ Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP) http://www.asdsp.co.ke Esoko https://esoko.com/ aWhere http://www.awhere.com/ Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA) http://www.wrma.or.ke/ Kenya Forest Working Group (KFWG) http://theredddesk.org/countries/actors/ kenya-forest-working-group Airtel Kilimo http://africa.airtel.com National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC) http://www.ndoc.go.ke/ IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) http://www.icpac.net/ Adaptation (ADA) Consortium http://www.adaconsortium.org/ International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) http://www.icrisat.org/ Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services and Food Security in Eastern http://chiesa.icipe.org/ Africa (CHIESA) Pan Africa Climate Justice Alliance (PACJA) http://www.pacja.org/ National Farmers Information Service (NAFIS) http://www.nafis.go.ke/ CARE International (Adaptation Learning Programme) http://careclimatechange.org Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) of the Consultative https://ccafs.cgiar.org/ Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) 26 Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper APPENDIX B MATRIX OF CIS PROVIDERS AND COUNTIES OF PRESENCE Climate Information Services Providers in Kenya 27 County 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 Service Baringo Bomet Bungoma Busia Elgeyo Marakwet Embu Garissa Homa Bay Isiolo Kajiado Kakamega Kericho Kiambu Kilifi Kirinyaga Kisii Kisumu Kitui Kwale Laikipia Lamu Machakos Makueni Mandera Marsabit Meru Migori Mombasa Muranga Nairobi Nakuru Nandi Narok Nyamira Nyandarua Nyeri Samburu Siaya Taita Taveta Tana River Tharaka Nithi Trans Nzoia Turkana Uasin Gishu Vihiga Wajir West Pokot Total presence Provider 1 Kenya Meteorological √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 47 Department (KMD) 2 Agriculture and Climate √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 47 Risk Enterprise Ltd. (ACRE) 3 Upande Ltd √ √ √ √ 4 4 National Drought √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 33 Managemenet Authority (NDMA) 5 Regional Centre for √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 47 Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD) 6 Geo Envigro Ltd √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 7 7 Famine Early Warning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 33 Systems Network (FEWS NET) 8 International Livestock √ √ √ √ √ 5 Research Institute (ILRI) (IBLI) 9 Agricultural Sector √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 47 Development Support Programme (ASDSP) 10 Esoko √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 47 11 aWhere √ 1 12 CARE International √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 47 (Adaptation Learning Programme) No of presence 8 6 6 6 8 8 9 8 9 10 6 6 7 8 6 6 6 7 9 8 8 9 8 9 7 8 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 7 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 8 8 9 8 A G R I C U LT U R E G L O B A L P R A C T I C E T E C H N I C A L A S S I S TA N C E P A P E R W O R L D B A N K G R O U P R E P O R T N U M B E R 103186-KE 1818 H Street, NW Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/agriculture Twitter: @WBG_Agriculture