35999 2007 2007 2007 « » 2007 33+2007+(37.032) 60.54 63 - / . , - , . , . - , , , , - , - - - . : .. , .. , .. , .. , .. , .. , .. , .. : .. , .. . 2006 World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation. « », . - . . - / . / - . - , Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA.; : 978-750-4470, :978-750-4470, : www.copyright.com. , , - : Office of the Publisher, World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW., Washington, DC 20433, USA; : 202-522-2422; - : pubrights@worldbank.org. : . -- 19- , . (). : , ; , ; . , , . , « - , ». , /. -- , -- , . ISBN 978­5­7777­0372­9 2006 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, D.C. 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org -- « », 2007 xi xiii xv xvi 1 2 «» 6 , , « » 11 , 13 , 18 : « » 23 26 I ? ? 29 1 , 30 32 , 35 ? 38 42 ? ? «» 45 . 49 2 ,,: 51 53 60 67 . 73 i II «» 75 3 76 77 : 79 81 92 « » 102 . : 108 4 110 110 ? 117 121 127 «» 131 . , «-» ? 138 5 140 , 141 143 148 155 , ? 157 . 164 6 165 166 168 173 176 , 180 7 183 : , ? 185 188 191 197 ii « » 204 . - 213 III«»-- 215 8 216 217 230 . 239 9 241 242 245 : 247 : 252 : 254 . , , 259 261 263 277 305 317 319 319 320 320 333 341 iii 1 : 3.6 . 90 5 3.7 , 97 2 3.8 7 101 3 : 3.9 103 17 4.1 113 4 , : 4.2 114 20 4.3 5 - 115 - 28 4.4 1.1 ? 31 123 1.2 , , 4.5 , () 126 ? , ! 33 4.6 1.3 132 -- / 34 4.7 Joven 1.4 135 43 5.1 146 1.5 5.2 149 2.1 5.3 150 53 5.4 -- 2.2 « » 155 . 2004 5.5 . 57 157 2.3 . 5.6 : SMS- 157 58 6.1 2.4 166 () 60 6.2 169 2.5 , . 6.3 : , «» 169 ? 62 6.4 : 171 2.6 6.5 « » «» ? 65 177 2.7 ( 6.6 , )? 66 , 2.8 , , 179 68 7.1 ? 184 2.9 : 7.2 70 ? , 3.1 -- 190 , 7.3 «» 191 80 7.4 -- 3.2 193 7.5 3.3 85 198 3.4 : 7.6 « » 206 88 7.7 3.5 . 208 89 7.8 210 8.1 , 218 ix 8.2 9.4 ? 228 250 8.3 : 9.5 . 234 251 8.4 « »: 9.6 : 235 9.1 246 252 9.2 ? 9.7 Vozes Jovens: 248 253 9.3 : 9.8 ? 255 249 9.9 -- ( Oportunidades) 258 1 2.1 «» «» 3 51 2 2.2 -- 55 « » 5 2.3 3 7 56 4 2.4 ? 8 5 , , 61 , 9 3.1 -- 6 , 9 77 7 10 3.2 8 11 78 9 «» «» 3.3 , 12 78 10 , 3.4 ( 1­5 ) 93 (13­18 ) 14 3.5 , 11 ? , 98 (15­24 ), , 3.6 98 «», 18 4.1 -- 111 12 22 4.2 , 114 1.1 , , 4.3 , 36 , , 1.2 36 115 1.2b 4.4 117 36 4.5 1.3 , 118 4.6 37 119 1.4 , 4.7 (1992­2001 .) 38 , 1.5 122 39 5.1 1.6 40 , 141 41 5.2 1.7 , 43 144 1.8 «» 12­24 46 5.3 1.9 «» 12­24 47 15­19 145 x 5.4 , , 6.7 146 5.5 179 147 7.1 5.6 18­24 186 147 7.2 5.7 - 186 15 24 148 7.3 , , 5.8 «» 151 190 5.9 , , 7.4 152 193 5.10 , , 7.5 , , , 205 152 8.1 5.11 217 , , 8.2 158 220 6.1 -- 8.3 «» 167 , 221 6.2 8.4 , , 225 167 8.5 . 6.3 226 170 8.6 6.4 , , 171 231 6.5 8.7 , 172 232 6.6 8.8 , , 172 , 232 1 , , 27 7.2 ? 187 3.1 7.3 ( 18­29 ) , , 106 188 4.1 7.4 ( 16­30 ) 130 2005 . 196 4.2 7.5 211 136 8.1 5.1 , 219 153 8.2 , 5.2 229 161 8.3 : 230 6.1 8.4 231 191 8.5 ? 233 7.1 8.6 238 ? 186 , , - -- , 29- , - . 12­24 1,3 . , , , . -- , , , , , , . - , - . , , . , . - . , : , , , - . - , , . - , : , . - , . - -- , . , - , - , , , -- , , , . xi . , : , K.A. , , , -, . , , -- - , -- , . . , , . - . ( ) , , , . , (. ). « ». - « " "». , , , . , - , , , , , . - , 26 - , , . , , , , - , , , . « », -- , -. . -- , -- . - -- . -- -. , - - , , . xiii , . , , .,- , , , - -: www.worldbank.org/wdr2007. , . - , , , - , «, - «» , . » , , - - «». , . ; , , . - . , - (.: - MangiaterraandVollmer(2006)www.worldbank.org/consultations) , , , - 3 000 , - 26 2005 . , - , , : , , , - , . , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , -- , , , - , , -, , - . . , - , - - , , - «» 2005 . . 2006 . , , , , - 2005 . 2006 . - , . , «» - , . ; «». 97 , - - , , - . , 21 . - , , - , , , - , - . , , 1990- 2000- . - - , (ORC Macro) . . xv « » () () () , , «, » , () , , , / xi xvii ABC (Abstain-Be faithful-use Condoms) « -- -- » AGETIP (Agence d'Exécution des Travaux d'Intérêt Public) CDCA (Centro de Defesa da Criança e do Adolescente) () CORFO (Corporación de Fomento de la Producción) () DHS (Demographic and Health Surveys) DPT (Diptheria, pertussis, tetanus) , , PIRLS (Progress in International Reading and " » Literacy Study) PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) SMS-c TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) , - - , « » , « ». . ; , - . , , , . , ( ). , - 1000 , 1000 - , ( . ). - , , , - - 2006 ., , - . - . . , , ( , 20 , ) 23 , , . 15 , , . . , , « , . (). » , , . , --, . : . , , . , , : , , , . . , ; , ; , , . , ... ! . , , , , . ICQ SMS. , , , . , . , , , . . , . , , , , . ! . , . . , , , , , , . , . -- , , , . . , . , , . 2007 , ? . , ·. ? , , ? , , , , , « . , ? , · « ». , . . , , , , , ». . . , . , (), , , 2006 «»: , , , . ( 1 ). , «», , « ». , . «» , , , , , , , 12 24 , -- , , , 1. . , , , , . , « . , », : . · . «» ; ; , . , , , 4. . , 2. . , «... , , , ... . , ,­ . , , -- . , () ( 3). , 50 , 1970 . 88% 2000 . , ». 40 , . 51 65 3. , (), . 2005 . . (.1). . 80% . , , . 5. , , 20% , . , , , , , , : . . . 2007 « » 6. , , , , , -- . , . . , 1,5 . 12­24 , , 1,3 -- . «» , . 2005 . , 5 , , , , 15 24 , -- ( . , 1 5 ). , , . / , 20%. . , 15­29 , . «». . , . , , . , . , , . , , , 10 . , , , , , . , , . , 20 . , , . , , , . , , . , , . , , . . « » 7. , . , , «» , , , 8. , . : United Nations (2005b), . . , , -- -- . , 1 . : , , ,«» 7% , - ,, , 2040 . . - « », , - - - 2­3,5 , : « - , 40 , . - . , . , , , - , , «» ,- »11. (. 2). , «» , . , - , , , , 1990- , . , , , , - . 1990- . 2030 . - , - 30- - - , - 1965­1990 . 40% c 0,9% 2000 . - . 1,8% 2020 ., : Bell, Bruhns and Gerbasch (2006). 9. . , , , « » , (. 2). 2007 , , , , , . . , . , , . , , , , , , , , . , . , , , , 12 85% 10. , , , , , (. 3). ( . 3, 4, 6, 7, , 8 1, . .) , , , , . . , , , ( 1). . -- «» , , , , , . , , , . . , , , . . , «», , , , . . , «» . . , , , «»12. -- . · , . , 13. , . : . · , « . ? . , · · ». . . 20% (), , 15­29 . 2005 , 19 , ( 2 3). , ( 2). , · , , . 2 (. ). , . , - - , , , , , . 2010 . 36%, , 8%14. , . , , , - .- 15 24 - ( 3), -- (. ). , ( 7­9- ), . . , ; , - , , , /. , - : . . /. 2007 . 12­24 (. 4). . . , , : . . , -- , , , . , ·. , ( 4). -- , , . , , , , , , (. 5). . -- , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . «» 15. : · ·- . . , , , , . , . . , , . , , : , Fares, Montenegro Orazem (2006a). . . , . , « , , . . ( : ) 10 25 , 97%. , . ó , , , ». . , 24 -- , , , , () , , , . , , , . . , , . 60% 15 24 . , 15 , ( 5). . : . 0 2007 . , , . ; (. 6). , . 15 , , , . 15 , , , . , , . , -- , 12 ( 6). , . , , 15 24 , . , , , . 25 . 60% (. 7). , , 25­29 . , . , , , . . , , . -- , (. 8). «», . , , ( ), ( ). , : . . 8 . : , , , . , «», «». , : . , 18 . . , , , , , , ( 7). , . , , , , . . . , , «» . 16. , , , . , , , , ( . 2 ). , , -- . , , , « » , . «» (. . 8). , , 2007 9 «» «» , . (. 9). « «» , , , , , . ». , , . · «» -- . (), , 2006 , ,, . , . , , , · «» -- , . , , , , , . . . · «» ­ «» , ? , ? , . , 17. «», , 12 , . , «», , . , . : . . «» , . , , 1980 1990 ., : , . , , , «» «» . , 80% . , , 20% . ( 3). ; , . , . , , , , 18 . , , , . . ? , , . 9. . , , , . , , , . , 19. , , , . , , , , . , 2007 , , , . , , , . , 20, , , . , , , (. 10). , : , , . , . « , , , , - , , ...» , 15­24 . , . -- (), ( 3). , 2006 , , 0 , ( 4). ( ­ ) (­8 ) , . , . , , . , , : Walker and others (2005) and Kagitcibasi, Sunar, and Bekman (2001). . - 3­9 - , . , - 13­15 . 1­2 -- , - 17­18 . ( 3). . , , « , , 22. , . ». . , . (), 2005 , . . . , ( 3). , , , , : ( 3). , . , 23. -- 80% . , , , -- , . « »24. , , , , 20% , 21, , , , «» ( 4). (, ), . , . , (), ., 20­30 , , . , , . , . 60% , 2007 , , . . « » . , , . ? , , , , . , , , « , , ». , . , -- , , , ( 4). « » ( 4). , , . . , , -- . . , , , . . , , , , , , . , , ( 4). . 118 , , , , , ; , . , , . . , , , . , , . , , , , , . . , , , . , ( 8). , , , . -- . . , ? , ( 3). : , , , . , ,, () , , , 4H . , . - -- , 200425 () -- « », 3 : - 16­25 , - (. ), - . - , - - . . - 12 24 ­ - - 12­29.- , : · , , - - , . - , - - , , , 50 ; 90% , · ( , ), - . , - - : . , . - , . ; 12­24 . · - , - · , - - , - , - , . , . - , ; : . 8 2007 «, . , . . , , . ( 7). , ... , ». . , () . , 25 . , (), , 2006 . 15­24 , , : , , (. 11). «, , , . , , . , ., : , , , ». . , . , ( ). «» , (), 2006 ( 2). , . , , ; , . , , , . . . ? (-- ), , «», : WDR 2007 InterMedia surveys. . 15­24 , « » (, , , - ) : «, , [ , , ]?» 9 , 2003 . , . 14­25 , , 60% , , 27. , . 15­19 , , 70% , , . , « », . , 26. . ? , , , , , . . : - . , -- . , . , , ,«». . ? , . 28. . -- «, -- ( 5). , . , ..., ,, . . . () , («»)... -- , ( 8). . ... , , , , , ... . , . ». , 21 . , , (), , 2006 (. 2). , ( 4). 0 2007 , 4 , : ? . . - 2001 . , , , , , , - - , , « -- ». , , - - ( 30. ) . , - - . , ( - . ) , , - . , -- 1,3 . - ( 200 . ), 10 , , (140 ; 21 . , ) (. ). . : Jensen (2006). , - , - . , - , . , - , 2005 ., , 12%. , 1998­2000 . ( 8). , - . , , . , ? , / , , . 29. - , - , . , , . . « » (Better Life Options) . ( 12­20 ), , , . , , , . , , , ( 3). , , 30 100% 31. «» , . . , , . . , , , , , ( 5). , , , , 32. , . , . « » . , , , , , « -- » . , /. , , , , . , , , , , « . ,« , , . », , , , , , . . . , , , , , , (, ) , . , . , , -- , , . , ». , 20 . ( 3). (), . 2006 : 2007 , 33. . , , , , . , , FSSAP . . Oportunidades . , , ( . ). , . , , (. 12). , , , 12 , , -- , . , , , , , . . (FSSAP), , 11­14 , , , ( 6). , ( 6). , , . , , ­ , . , . , , , , , . , . «» (Endeavor) : Parker (2003). ( 4). , , , . , , , , , , . 35. , . ( ), , . «». , , , , , , , , , 36. , , , ( 2). , «» , , , . . , . « » , , , , , , , , , . . , , , , . 19 , ( 3). 9 ? , ­ ? , , 23 . , , , , , , , , ? , , ? , , , ? , 34. , ; -- , . 2007 / ( , ) 25 , . ( 5). , , , 18­25 , . 10% 37. , , , , , , , , 38, . . , , , , , , . , « », , ( 5). , . « » , , , , , . , , « ». , , , , , . , , , , . . , : . ( , ) . , («» , ). , , . . 100 , , , . (), . « » () . 10­16 , . ( 7). , , . , , , 2002 . 36 . , . ( 7) , ( 20 . ). . , ,,« , » , « » , , , . « » 80 : /4 , , 3 . , , , . . 10 . , « », , . . 18 , : 300 . , 18 , , , 500 . 40. ( , ), , 39. , , . , , , ; , , , . , , . -- , , , . , , , , . . , 10 . , . , , 2007 , , « », . 1. , . . , , , . , . , , , «» 41. , , « », , , . . , . , , . , . , , . , , , , . . , . , . , , , , . , , , . , Jovenes , 16­29 . , , . . , . ( 4). , , , . «» , , 1 ,, «» , , , , ( , ( , , , ) ) / , (, ) (, «» ) , , , , , () (, « , « ( ) » ) , » () (, ) , , , (, Oportunidades ) (, , .) (, ) , ( 9): ( · ), . , , , , , ( 5). . . ·. , , . , . , 8 2007 , 5 - , - , . , - , - , , , , - , 5, . . , - - , , -- (. ). , . , - - , / . . , - . 1 . , , , , . : Duflo (2006). . . . , . , . ( -- ). , . . . , , , , . , , , , . , , · . . - 1997 . , . 4 . , - 2 156 , - . 2004 . Un Techo Para Chile 24 . , 18 . . - , , , , - . Un Techo Para mi País, Un Techo Para Chile - (. http://www. untechoparachile.cl/). ? ? , - ; , -, I , . , ( ) -- , - , , . , , , . . . « », . , - , , - . , , , /, 12 24 , - - 1 1,3 ., -- - , . , , - . - , - . , - , -- , - , - , , , -- - . . -- - - , , - - , , - ( - . ) - , - . , , . , . . , - , , , . , , ( - . ), , - , - - . - . - , - - , , - - . , . ( , ), - , - , - 30 , 31 , , -- , - . « . , , , ». , - -- , , ? «», (), . . , 2005 - , - . - - «» . , , , - . , - . , - - , - . , - . , , -- , , «», -- , , - , - , , , - -- - , - , . 1 . 1 ? -- , , 12 () , 18 (). , , 20 . . , , -- 0 14 , -- . , , 15 26 . ,.,, , 24 () 35 , . 40 ( ). ; « , », , , , , , «» 15 . , . 24 , , () . , «» , 10 19 . , «» -- , 15 24 , . « » -- , , 11 16 10 24 . , . , (), , 10 24 , , , , , , 10 16 . 16 . , , 15 . , , 18 (), ., , , , . ; 18 . , , , , 12 24 , , 15--18 . . , . , , «» « ». 18--21 , , , , 25 . : Fussell (2006). . , . 32 2007 . 1 . 1 , - , -- « » , - , , 20 -- . , . - , - , ( , - . ) ( , , ). - . , . , , - - : , . . - «» , , , (), - , . - (. , . 1). , - , , , 1. , , - -- . «» ? , , , , , « . «» », , - - ,, , . , , 2. - -- - . , . - . . : , - ( 3). - - « , ? , , , - ( 4) , , ( 7). 250 -- 12 24 ( 1.1). -- 13 , -- , - , ». , , - ( 1.1). . (), , - , - 2006 , - , . -- , 4. - - , 3. - , . - - , - . , , , , , 33 1 . 2 ,, ,? ,! , , () , . , 1. , ( 2), , 2. 8. 15­24 ( 3) /, 3. 9. , : , , 10. -- 15 24 / ( 6). 4. , , 5. . 6. /, 18. - 20­30% - 50% 15 24 ( 6). 19. , 15 24 , , / 20. -, 4 , 5 . , 10­14 8. 45. - -- 15­24 , , , -- : . , 1 -- , : http://www.un.org/russian/ . goals/. , , ( 1.2). , , , - 5. . , , - . - . - - , , , - , - /, . . 6. - - , . -- - « -- - . - , ». , - - , , , 7. (), , - - 2006 . «» : , , , 34 2007 « , ... -- , , , «- , » -- . , , - -- , , - ». , , , - (), . , - 2006 -- , , , , - ( 3). , ­ - - , . . ( 5 6). , , , - , . - , , - , , , ( 7). , . - , - -- - . , 1 . 3 --/ , . 2040 . , . ? 15% , . . , , , , , , 2010 . , , , . , , , , . , /. . , , , , , , / , , 2040 . , . (. .) , , , 1980 . . 2040 . (Bell, Bruhns and Gersbach 2006) 1990 . / , . , . / , . , , / . , , . . : Bell, Bruhns, and Gersbach (2006) , 35 - , , , 14. 8. - - , - . -- - , , , -- . 9. - - 50%, - -- 40%. - . , - , , - , - - 10. 0,3­2,7% - 15. . - . / - - . , - , , / 15­24 , . - 17­29 . , , - 16. , 20% 1% - , 0,8­1,5 11. , 40 (1 . , ) 4%17. , 40 , , 1990 . , ( 1.3). , , , 2020 . 10%, , - 12. ; - , - . 13. , - ( - ) - , . , , , - , . , -- - . , 36 2007 1.2 , - 1.1 , , , , , , . , - (. 1.1). - , , -- , - . : Behrman, Birsdall and Szekely (2003) «» - . , 30­55 , , . . , 71 18 , - - 7 . . , - : World Bank, UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), and OECD (2006) ( - , ); World Bank (2006h). . , - ( , , - 1.2b ),- . . - - (. 1.2b). , - - - , - , - , 19. . , - . - . - 20 , , , . . , , - , - - , , 18. , , - : Gian and others (2006) Schultz , - (2003). 20. . - 35­54 , - , , - . , . - (. 1.2). - 18­65 , - . , , 37 , - . 1.3 . , - , - - 23, - , , - - . , - , - 24. - . . - - : Freedom House (2006). . , -- , - . - , , . . . 1 ( - ) 7 ( ). . , , http://www.freedomhouse.org , -. - , . , , , - - , , - . , - . . - - . -- 21. , - - , -- - , - . , , , , 22. . , , , . 40% - , . 1% 50% - (. 1.4). . 1975 . - 4 10, 2005 . -- 1 4 - (. 1.3). . - , . - , - , , - 38 2007 1.4 , ? - , - - , . : WDR 2007 InterMedia surveys. . « » . ,- , . -- , - -- 1,3 . 26 , - , 2035 . , , 12 24 - . -- 1,5 , - . , , . . - -- - - - - , . , (. « » - ). , - - , - - . (. 1,5). - - ( ) , . - , . - - . 1950 . , - . , - 27. , , . - . - , . - (- , , ), ( , - )25. 25 . , 39 1.5 , - -- . , , , ( ), . , , , , , : UN (2005b), . 50 , 28. , , ( 29. ), . , - , . 1.6 - - - : , , . - - . , -, - - (), , 1970- . 1970- 1980- . - (. « » , 25­50%. 4). ( , -) , - -- . . - , - , -, - , , , -- , , , , - «» -- - . - ., , , . 30 - - , - , - . - , , , - , ( 4). - , . - , , - , , , , - - , - -- 40 2007 , - - - 31. . , , - - , «» - 34. - «, , - , , . 35. , ( , - ) - , - , , , - , . , ( , , . , 15 , -- , 65.) - . - ». , , , , 19 , (), , - 2006 . , , , - «» - . , , , (. 1.6). , (- , , ( ) - ) , , - 32. - - - . : , , - (), , , - 25 40% . - 1965­1990 .33 , - , , . -- - , . , - - , - ( - 25%, ), - , , , . , 33%- - , , . -, . , - , - (- . , - ), - . - . , 41 1.6 , : UN (2005b), . . 2005 . , . - -- , , , 36. , . , , - . , , - - - . - , , , . . , - 42 2007 - . , . , , , - ( 8). 2010 . - - - - . , , , , - . - , , - , , - . ( - ) . , - «» , , . , . , ­ ? , . , ? - . - , . - 130 . 15 24 - . . , . , , (. 1.7). , . , - , . : -- , «- ( 1.4). » -- . - / - , . - - , , , 37. . , , . () , , 2000.84 . 12­14 38. - - , - , , . . , - . , , , - - ( 6). , 43 , 1.7 , , - - / - . ( 1.4). - - , - , . - . , - . - : 15% 15 19 2001 . , - , - : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a). , - . -- - . , , , ( - - ), . , - - , , , - , - , - . , , . ( 3). - 1 . 4 2006 -- , . , . , , , , 15--24 . , , , 20% , (. « » , 2), . ( ). , , . 20% , , , , , . , , , 15 (. 3), , . , . , . , 15 24 . . . , , -- -- -- , (. 2). . . , , , (. 1). , 44 2007 1.4 : . 1 2: Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a); . 3: . . ; -- , . ( ). , 45 - , , « - - , . / ; , , - , . , . , ( 5). - - . , - : . , 15 24 -- , . (44%), (58%), - , , , (29%) (55%) .39 - ». - -- - , 21 (), , - «» (transitions). 2006 «» , - , -- , ( 7). -- , -- , , . -- - , , ( 3 7). , , , , . - - , , . ,- , «», , 5­7 ( 4). «» , , , - - - 40. . «» - , - , «» . . , - 12 14 , . - , 15­18 15­20 , ? , - «» . , , , , - . , - - , - - . - , , . . - 18­24 - - . , , , - , . . , - - , 46 2007 1.8 «»12--24 : Enqu te sur les Conditions de Vie en Haiti (2001). 12 14 , - (. 1.8). 14 , , , . - 12 24 , , , - 15­16 , 12 , - - , . , - . - , 12­24- , . - - , , , . . : 30% 50% , , 47 1.9 «»12­24 : Encuesta de Caracterización Socioeconómica Nacional (2003) Encuesta Nacional de Juventud (2000). 16 . 25-- . , , , , -- - «» , . - ( 1.9). - 14 -- 24 , - , , 18 . 24 , , . 19% . 15 , - -- 18 . 12 , , - 48 2007 . , 1 . 5 , /3 16 2 - . - ,, () , , . , . 1960 . , - 15 , , . -- 20% 40% 2000 . -- 4,5 . , 16 - , . . - 1,5 6 . 1970 ., , . - . , 20­24 . -- . , 12 24 , . , «» . . , , , , , . . - , : National Research Council and , , , Institute of Medicine (2005); Mensch, Singh, . and Casterline (2006). , ( 18 , - , ) . - 15-16 . , , ( 1.5). , . , - «», - - . , , , - , . , -- , , -- . , 1,3 ., , , , - , . , 1970-, 1982 . - ? 1960- ., - , - - 2% . -- . -- - , - -- 1950- . , . - . - -- , , . . - (. 1)1. . - , , . 1950 ., - 1960-, , - 15 1 . , - . , . 1,3 45 . - 12--24 ; - , 2,8% , - , 2035 . 1,5 ., ( ) - . . . 1950- XIX -- XX ., ., , - - . 1960­1965 . 3%. , - - , - . (. 3). 1% . , - 1950- . , . (. 2), - . - . 1. 1950- 1960- ., 1960- - - 1970- ., 4% . ,1960-. 1 2 1982. 1960­1965. : United Nations (2005b), . : Lam (2006). 50 2007 .3 , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , . - . , - , - , - . - , - . - , . , , , - . , - : United Nations (2005b), . . - (, ). 3. - , - : , , , - - . , , . - - 2. 2010 2030 . - (), . ()3. - , - (2000­2010). , , , - , , . - (), , . , , , , 4. - , -- 20­30 - , , - . - ()2. , - , . - . , , -, , , -, , , - . , , , - , , : , , - «» , . - 2 - ? ( - ? ) , - . - - - . (. 2.1): - · , , - ; , , , - · - . ; ? · - - , - , , : - , - , , , - . 2.1 «»«» : 51 51 52 2007 - , , . , -- , . , - , - , . . - , , - , . - , - - . . - , , , . - ; , - . , , . - . , - - , , , - . , ( ) , . , « - ( » (. 2.1), ). . - , - -- ,- . , , . . , - , , - . () . , - . , -, , . . , - ( 2.1). - . , , : 53 2 . 1 . ... , - . , ... - , . , , , - ... . ? , - . ? - ? , , ? . , , , - . , . ? - - (Gary Becker 1964) , , - - , - 20041. , , , , . - , - , , . . -- ( 2.2). , , , - , -- , ? . . , - - , , - . - . , , , . . 12 24 -- - . , , , , , . , . , . ? - 2.7 2.9, - , , -- , - , , : , -- , , ? - 3. , - , - , - , . 2. , - , - - ? -; . - , , . . , : . «» - . , , - , (. « » , . ). - , , , , , - , - , - . , , - . - - , - , 54 2007 , , .. - , . , ? « » ? , , - , , , . , - , - : . · - , - , , , , - , , - , - , . - -- - . - · , - -- - 6- 4. , - , « » (), - : « , - . , .... · - , - - , , , - »5. . , · . 2.2, - 4­6 , ; - 65%. . - - - . ( - 40% ) . 10­14 , , 6. , , , , , . - , , . 1% - 2,0­2,4%7. , , : 55 2.2 -- , , - , , 10. - , 6­9 (.. ). - , , -- - . -- - 12­15 . : UNESCO (2004b). , 11. . - - -- ( - , , ), , - . - : - , , , 5- . 5 -- . - SACMEQ (Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for , Monitoring Education -- - ). 4 - PIRLS (Progress in International Literacy Study -- ), , - 25- , , . PASEC (Programme d'Analyse des Systemes Educatifs de la Confemen -- - 12. CONFEMEN) , « », - . «» , - , - , , , . - «- 6 » , , , - - , , , - , , - . - 8. , , , , ( 1). , , , , - ,, ? 11 9. . - : -- 56 2007 2.3 - , , . , . , - -- , -- - . . - , - , . , : UNESCO (2005). - . - , ( - ). , «... , 200413, , , . -- ( 2.2). , . , , -, , , . , - . , ( , ... , -', ), ». , - . , , - . (. 2.3). , (), , , - 2006 - - , 2.2 -- . . , . , -' 60% , - , - , , 5% , . . - , - , - -- , - -- - . , - , , , , , : 57 2 . 2 . 2004 2004: ; - - , , , - , , . - (. 2.3 7). ; , · -- - « -- » , , - . - . , - -- -- - . . - , 2004. , . , , - , , - . - , - , - , -- . - , , - , . , . « » , (. 3, 5, 6). - , - , . - , 2004 2004 . « - : , » -- - . , -- · -- - - . , , , - , . . , - - , 2004 - - , (. 3 5). . : , - · -- - , - : . . - . , , , « , - . -- , , - - 14. . - 1­3-, 4­6- 15. , , , . ». - , , 20 (), - 2005 , , - - , . , - , . , - . - . - 1997­1998 . ( , -- ) - . : , , , , , - , , - 58 2007 . 15­29 - , , - , 16. - , , - . - - . ? - , , - : 17. - . - . - , . - , - , , , , - , . - -- - 15­24 - , - « »18. - , - -- - ( 4). - , - , - ( 2.3). . , , , , 2 . 3 . 1970-1980-, , - 1980-1990- . - , - . , . , - - 19. . . , , , , - . , - , - . - , , 90% - - . - - , 57% - - , - , . . , -- , 90% - -- -- - , . . - . 43% - , «», . 1995 . , 80% . , : 93% - - , - /3 - 2 , . . - . , , -, , - - : Ackerman (1996); Amin and others - , , - (1998); Chaudhuri and Paul-Majumder (1995); Kibria , , . (1995); Ong (1987); Paul-Majumder and Begum . . (2000); Rahman (1995). , , - , , , : 59 , - , , . , . - , ( , ), - , , - , . , , , . 20. - ( 4), , , . , - , - , . -- 15 . , 28 -- - - , - () , - . , - , 21. - . -- , - . , - , - . -', , - 1990- . XXI , , - --,, 22. - 7­8 , 23. - , - , -- , 200524. . - , , (. . , « . -- » , - , ). ( 8). , - . , , ,,- , , , - . -- , - , . , - , - 60 2007 2 . 4 () (. 2.2)25. , , - 2002 . - ( , - -- Centro de Defesa da Crianca e do . ; - Adolescente) , - . 2 . « -- ; » (- . , , - - ). . 50 - - , , , . , . - - - , , , . - : , - , , - . -- , , , , , 33 - . - , - 2004 . . - . , , -- . , , . - , - ,. - 400 . . - , 2004 . 760 . . 2005 . . , - . - , , - , - , , , , . - . 2003 . 33 - : Swedish International - 2004 ., - Development Agency (SIDA) (2005). -- 18-- , . . - . , . ( 2.4). , , . - - - - ; - ( 7). , -- - («» -- . - , - , -- . -- ). - 2004 , -- - -- , ? -- -- - ? , - , - , , : 61 , -- - « , , . - «» . - 2005­2006 . , , , , 15­24 , - - -- , ». , , -- «» - (), , 2005 , - (. 2.4). - , - 26. -- , , . - . , «- 28. ». ? , , . . , : · , - , , , (. 2.5). , ; · , - , - , 2.4 ? , - . · , - - . , - , , , , . , 24 , , , 12 ; : WDR 2007 InterMedia. . 15-24 , « / » ( «- 27. », «» .) : « - -- : ; ; ?». 62 2007 , - . , , - 29. , , - , . , - , , , , - - , . ? . , - - , - . -- , - , ( - ) . . - , , . 21 , , - 1998 . , , , 100 , -- , -- , , 12% 15­24 75% 59% 10 14 - 35­44 .30 . , - « », , - , 2 . 5 , . , , , - , ? - , . . - ? , - , , , « - , - , . 75% «» . - », , ( 20-24 ) , (Kohlberg 1973), - 12 - 1 31 , /3 . , . 50% . - , , , -- ( 1 8). 11% , . , - . - : , - ( 15-24 ) . , - , - , , « », , 32. , . (. 2.7). , - - ? . - 1917­1919 ., - , . - - - . , . . - : Moehling (2005); Sathar and -- others (2002). 2003 . - - , , : 63 , , . 14­25 , , « 60% - . -- , . . , . , - -- -- , " " 15­19 , - ». 70% - , 22 . , /4 --1 , - (), - , - 2005 33. , , , , , - - , - , . - . , , 20- , - , : « - , , . - ( , ). , - , - , []». -- , /. , , -- 34. , - , . - , , . . - , - , , - , - - . , , , , - - ( - « »). - , 35. ? 37. . -- , , - - - . . , - , - - 2001 ., , - , . ( 5 6). , - , - , , - . 36. , - 64 2007 , , , (, - , - , 41. ). - nijer paye darano, . - « ». - , 2005 ., -- - , , , 12% 42. , , , - 38. , , - . , . - , . - , , - , , , 2004, - - , - . , - . - . 20­24 , , , , - , 56% 1986 . 62% 1994 .; , - , 50% 66% 39. 25­29 43. -- , , -- (, ) , , - . , , , , - -- - . «», , . , - , - - 40. , (. . 2.3). - -- «», , , , -- , , 30% 100% , 44. , - , /- , , -- - . - , , : 65 , . , - , , -- - . , , . - , , , , 45. - ( 2.6). , , . , . , -- -- ? , - - , , -- , , . , , . , , , , . , «» - . , - - , 46. , , - , - - , - . , , , - , . , , - , 2 . 6 . ? - . ( 12-24 , , , , . ) - . - ( , - (. , - 33% . - ). 3.6 3). , , - (73%). , , 1999 ., 17% , , - . 25- . - . , , , , , . - , . - , - - . , . , - , - , - , . ? - , , - , , . ? . , , , - : . - Handker (2005). - 66 2007 - . - . , , , - - . , - - - . , - , , . , - . - - , , , , - . - - , - , 47. . , , , - , - , , - , , 2 . 7 ( )? , , - . . . - -, - (Galpern-Felsher and Cauffman -- , - 2001) , - - , , , . - - . , . , , - , , , . , , - ; - , - , , . . , , , ( , , 6­8 ) . . , - , - -, . , . . , , , , - -- -- - , , , . , , - - . , , - , , , , , . , , - - (Steinberg and Cauffman 1996) - . , - . , , - . U- . - ,, Gruber (2001) - , , . - , , 14- , , - - - . , , . . - , . . - , , - , , , , , . . -, . , . - -- - - . / , , : Basu, Ku, and Zarghamee (2006). , , : 67 , , -- , 48. -- , -- - , - . - . « , », - . - 11­14 , «» - , , , , - - . , , , , , - 49. - (. 3 6). - - , . , , , , - , - - . - , , , - ( 2.7). , , - . - - , , - , 85%, -- ( . -- 55%), - , , ( 2.8)52. , - , , (, , - ), (. - « » - , - 7). . - 50. . - 1% - - /3 51. 1 , - , - 53. , -- - , - , - ; - ( 5). , , , , - 75­150 . - - 10­24 54. 68 2007 2 . 8 , , ? , () - (. .). 75% : - 15- , - 70% , - . - . , . 5% . , - . , . , - - , 19-, - . , . - - . - , ,- , , - , , , ? : , , 19-, , , , - . 2004 (. 2.2)57. . , - . - , . : Demographic and Health Journey ( -- 2002, -- 2000). , , - , , . « ... , , - , - . . , , - «» -- - , . . - (. 2.6). ; / 25 . , , [ ] , 15­19 -- 7% -- -- , , 1/5 - , ». -- , 58. , 21 (-), 55. - , 2005 , - . , , , , , - - , , , ( 2.9). , 17 25 56. , , , , : 69 . , - « , . - - , . . , . , , . , , , 19- 61. , . : , 29-59. - . ...» - , , 16 (), , - 2006 , , - . , , , - , - . , , ( , - ), , . , - , . , , - , (- , -- - (, ) - ( , , - ). ). - - , - . , - , -, :- , , - « » 60. ( ? ). . - , , , - , ? «» - - , . , , - , . . - , , - , , - , - . . , - , , 70 2007 2 . 9 : , , - - , , , - , . , . - . ( 10 19 ), , , , · (. . ). - , - - - , , , . , , , - , . - , - , - , - . , - , . . . , - -- , , , , -- - . - ? . : , · , , , , , , - -- - . - 10 , -- , - : -- . · , , , , - , - , ; , -, - , . - , -- - , , « ». , . . , - . - , , , , - - . , - . . , - , , , .-- · - , -- , , - ( , . , , , - ). , . 8­14 . , . - : Blum (2006). - , , . , , . -- , , . -- - . «». , , - . : . . , . , . : Andersen (2003). , , : 71 , , , - , - . , . , - , , - , 62. , ( - . ), - 64. , , - - , . , , - , , , - , , -- . .- , - , - ( 5), . , . , ? « ». - , , - , - () . , , ( 9). , , , - , , , . , 3 700 - . « , - »65. , - -- - - . , - -- , . , , - , - , , ( 3). -- -- 7, .- «», «- » . , - - -- (. « » , - - 7). , 63. , , , - -- ., - . - , 72 2007 - , . 57% 52% - , - - . , . - 1,03 , -- «» ( 5). , - , . , - , , . - , . - - 67. , - , , , . , , - - , , - 62%. , «» -- , - 1,68 -- -- . «», , , - 1. - - , - , . . , - - , . , -- . . , , - . - ( , - ), 69%. , . , - 2,15 -- .. . - - , . , - . . - , « » . - . , - - : - , - , , 66. , . , , - . -- - «», 2. , - . , « » . -- , . , - , , . , , 4, -- , . - - , -- -- - -- - . - -- - 9. , , , - 10. . - - , . , - - , , - , . : . - 15­19 20­24 5. - - - . , - : 14 , . - , - , 6% - . , - 44% 11. - - , , 1. , , 6. 2. - - - - - - , . . , - () ( ), - - () , . - , -- , . , , , , - , 15­29 - 7. , /, - , , - , -- - , - , . , 15­29 5­16% - . ? - , 8. , 3. , . , - - , - . 74 2007 , , - , . - . . - - 13. , - , 14. , , . - . - , - - - Joven , , - - - , , . , - -- - - . ,,- - . - . 65% , - 70% , . , - - - , - . , Opportunidades -- . , , , - . , , , , , - 15. Pro Joven , - (. .). 1997 . - . - - 16­24 , (- , , , ) - - . , - , . 12. 54% . . 45% , , , . , . 33% - 2,7%16. Grupo Cultu ral Afro Reggae, , () , , . , , , . (.: http://www.afroreggae.org.br/). «» «». . , II « » -- . , , , «»: · . · . · . · . «» . , . 12 . 24 . , . , -- , , , , -- . , . , . , , «»; : , « ». , , 3 , ; . , -- , , -- , ; . . , , , , . , , . , , . , . , . , , , , . : , , , , , . , ; , , , . -- « . » . () , ( , ) . , «» . 76 77 . ? -- , , , , . , (. 3.1). ( 1). , , 40% , . ; , , , , ( ). , . , , , 3.1 -- : http://econ.worldbank.org/projects/edattain. - 10 19 . . 20% 40% . , , 7 . 78 2007 3.2 : PISA. . () 2003 . . . (PISA), 15 , , . 20% (), 500 (. 3.2) 3.3 , . , , , . , , , . , , -- , , -- . 60% 15 . , . . , . , , : http://econ.worldbank.org/projects/edattain, - . 79 . 20% : 15 19 3 . 1 -- 60% - (. 3.3). 15­19 -- , : , ( ), - , , 1. (, , -- , - 30%, ; , - , ), 60%. , ( - ) (- . , - , ). : - - · . , -- , , , - ; , , , (. . - , 3.1 « »). , . , ( - , . , , ( - - ) : ), , - , , . (, ), (, , , -- ) ( ( 3.1)2. , ). , · , , , , , . . , , , , ( ) , . (, ). , · 3. , , « , » , , . , , , . , Head Start (, ). (« ») 80 2007 3 . 1 -- , IQ (- , , - , ) , - - , . . , - - IQ - . , Lions Quest, . , - , , - , , , , - - . (. 3.2). - . - - «- - » - , , . - , - , - , . , ; , - ,, « , » , , - , , - -- , 10. , - « - , - ». , - , , , - , . 25 , , , , . . - . , , , - « », - , , . - 13 - , ( - , ). - - , - , , - , - - , «» - - . . . - - , . , - - - , . - - , , - , - . , . : Bowles and Gintis , - (1976); Carneiro and Heckman (2003); Cunha and others (2005); . , - Hahn (1999); Hahn, Lanspery, and , , - , Leavitt (2005); Heckman, Stixrud, 14 24 and Urzua (2006); Schweinhart, , . Barnes, and Weikart (1993); Sternberg (1985); Zins and - others (2004). , , , 4. 81 . , , , , , , , , , , , 5. , , , . , (. « »). , , 6. , , , , , , , , , . , : 7. · ( ) , , . , , . · , . , , , . , , . , 34% , 28% 27% 8. . , · . , . · . , 6 , -- , 9. . 82 2007 ; 1960 1970 . , . . , , ( ) . , 21 , . , , 15. -- 11. , , . . . . , , , , -- , 12. . , , (22% ). 13. , , , , , . , (), , , 14. , ( )16. , , ( , ) (. , , ). , , , , , 83 . , , . 17. . «» , . « , . ». , . . , (), 2005 (33%) , (25%)18. . , , . -- , . . , . , , , , ( ), ( . ) , , ( )20. , , , , , , . , . , -- , . , 5% 13% , , 19. 21. , , , ( ). , , ( ), , ( ) , ( ) , . , , 84 2007 23. () . . , , , , , . , . 1985 2000 . , 24. , , 25. , , , 22. . , , , . 1970 . , , , . , , . , , , , , , ; , 26. ; . , 27. , , . , , , , . , , . , . , , . , . 85 , 33. , 28 , , 34. ( 3.2). , . , , . , . . , , -- , . , , 29. (, ) , , (, , ) . 3 . 2 , , 30. , - ( 5), , - , - . ( 8). . , - . , () - « » , , - - , - , 2007 . . - ( - 31, , , - ) - , () . . . - . - , , , - , () , - ( 32. ) ( 7). - , . - : UZ-UCSF(http://www/uz-ucsf/co/ , . zw/research/researchprojects/current/rds/html). , , 86 2007 . , , , (.4). . -- , . , . , 35. ( ) . . -- («», «») 38. . (areer academies) « . ... , , , , , . . , , ». -- , . (), , 2006 . 39. , (24% ), , 36. , () , 40. , , , . , , ( 3.3). , 37. , . , . ( . 4). . . . 41, 87 3 . 3 ... 10 24 - , , « ». , . , , , . . - ()46 - . -, - ( , , . ), . . , - , - - , , , . - . , - , - , - , , - . , , - , - , , . : , 6% , , 10 24 . : Dreze and Gazdar (1997); Human - , - Rights Watch (2001b); Interagency Gender Working . , . Group (2005); Lloyd, Mensch, and Clark (2000); , - , - Lloyd (2003); World Bank (2005s); World Bank . , , 25% - -- (2003a). , . , . . , , . , , , , , . ( , , , ) , ( , 42. )44. , -- , , , , ( ). , , , . . 1990 . , , , , , , , , 43. , -- , , , -- , 45. 88 2007 , , , ( , , , . ). -- . (ASER) -- 2004 , , , . « , , , -- , . (. 2.2)47. , -- ». -- . 2005 . . , 48: 31% (), . 11­14 2006 -- ( , ; ), 47% . , ( ), 23% , ( . ) 8% . , , . , 3 . 4: , , , , . , - - , , . « , . , . - , - », -- , , , . , . . - 2005 . , , - - ( 3.4). - . , , - . , 2005 . - - . - , - - . -. : National Assessment and . , - Examination Center (2005). , 89 ( ), , , , . 49. . , . . , , . , , , , , -- . . , . ( 3.5). . , , , , ( 3.6). , 6%. 3 . 5 . , - , - , , . . , - - - , . . 2006 . - , - 42% , . 18­24 , , - - . 7% , - - - . , - - . . , , , - - . - , , . , , , - . : . - : Bernasconi and Rojas (2004) Thorn, - - , Holm-Nielsen, and Jeppesen (2004). , - . 90 2007 3 . 6 . 1950­1960- ., - . , - , , . . . - 90%. - , , - , PISA TIMSS. . , , . : « » - 2,4% , 1/3 - , . , ? -, - . - 1968 . . - 1950- . - , , - - , , , . - - . -, , . 1999 . - - , - , - , , 2003 . - . - . -, - ( 7%. - ) . - , - 1971 . , . , , . - , . - . - , ( , - . ). - - , . . - 40% -- , - . . - - - «- . - »; , , . . : Gill and Chon-Sun (2000) Kim (2002). ( . ). . ( , , ) , 51. , . , , , , ( , ) 50. ( )52. (), , , , , 91 , , -- 55. . [] . ( ), , , . . , , , ' , . . , ()56, . , , . , , ( )57. 53. . Colegios ( en Concesión ( ) ). . , , , , , . . . -- , , . 58. , , ( . , ) (PISA) , . , , ( , ) , . , 54. , . 92 2007 . . , -- , , , , -- , . , . , , . , , , . , , -- , . . , , -- , , , . , , . , , , . , , ( , ), . ( ) 59. . . , , , , , 60. (. . 2.4). , . ( -- , , , , ) . . , , 93 61; , , , , , , . , , 67. , , , , ( , , ) , « -- 62. 68. , , , , , ». , (), . 2006 , 63. , , , , , , . . , , , , . , . , , , (. 3.4). 64. , , , . , 3.4 65. , 69. , , , 66. , , , , , -- , , . , , , ? , , , , ( : Kremer, Miguel, and Thornton (2004). . - , ). 40 - ( ) , - . «» . 94 2007 70, , -- , 73. 71. , , ? . , , , , , , 74. , 72. ( 75. ). . , , : , 76, · , , . , , . · , . · , ( )77. . · , . ( ) , -- . , . , 78. , , , , (), , . , , , , -- , . , , , , 79. (. 3.1). ( . , 95 , . , . ). , , , ( 80. , ). ( , ( , ). ) , , . , , . , , , . 75 ( ) , , . 2004 , « , » , , , 81. , . , , ( 2). . , , , . . ( )82. . , , , . 30% . . , , 96 2007 81. , . , , , 85. , , , , . . , , . . , . , , . . , 11% . -- 13% 10% . , , . . , . . «» (« ») , 13­19 , . , . , , . , 12%86. , , -- , , 84. , , -- (, ), , 87. , , -- , , ( , , 3.7). , , 97 , 88. , , -- , . , . , , , (. 3.5). . ? . , , , , , . , , , . 3 . 7, , - . : , , , : . · - , - , ( - , . . ); · - - . ( ), , . ; , · ( -- , , , , - , . ); · ( - - . , - -- . , , - ). , . , , , (, , , ), - , - , , -- - ; . , , , - - , , -- . - . , , . , . , 1989 . . , - , , - , - , . . 2006 . , . - , - , ; , . - . , , -- . . , , - . , . , . , - , , : Barr (2004) Chapman (forthcoming). 98 2007 3.5 ,, , , 89. . , , , . : http://econ.worldbank.org/projects/edattain. , . . , , 90, , , , . . , . , , 3.6 : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a). 99 , , , « [ ] 91. , 97. , , . , 10 . 20% 98. - (. 3.6). : ». , , (), . , 2006 , 99. . -- 43% 10­12 . , , , , , . , , . , -- 13­15 62% 92. (needsbased grants) ( , , ), , . . , , , ( , . 3.6, , )93. . , . , , , , 8­13 . , , 5 94. -- . , , Oportuni dades Bolsa Familia , -- , . , 95. 11 . , , 96. ( ( ), . 4). 100 2007 ( ). 90 ., (. , 6.5), , , 18 . 100. Oportunidades , 107. , 8%, . 20%, 10%, , , 101. . 102. Oportunidades -- , , 103. . 104. , . , . , , , , -- , , . , , , , , . . Oportunidades . , , 108. , , , , . Oportunidades . , , , ( -- ). 105. , , , ( , ) , , , . 106. . , , , ( ) , , . . , 101 , 3 . 8 , -- , - , , - , , - , ; , . - , , Upper Bound, . . , Aimhigher, - . - , . - 109. , . , . , , - , , . - - , . -, ,- , , - . . - , , --, ( 3.7). ,- ( - ( ), 500 ., 800); - , - . , - , . : Johnson (1996); Mayers and , . Schirm (1999); Watts and Fretwell (2004). , , -- Poupança Escola110. Oportunidades . Jovenes con Oportunidades, , , . , . . -- , -- , . , , 22 . , , , , , . , . , , . , , Bolsa Escola ( 3.8). 102 2007 « » . , . , « , , . . , . , , ( . )-- , . , , -- ». . . , -- . (), 2006 . . , , , Job Corps (« . ») 111. , , , : -- , , . , , , . . . , . -- , . . , , , , , , . . , . . . , . , , «» ( ), , . , , 112. , , , , , 103 , . , , , , . () . , . , 113. , . -- , , : , . , · 1999 . . , , , . , . 10­12 , , , , . ( 3.9). 22%114. 3 . 9 · - , - -- , () - 115. () -- . . , , - , . . , , - Hard-to-Reach, 8­10 - , , : . . , , , - . . , - - . , - 10 16 . . - ( - ), - , , ( -- - ) , - - . , . , , . , - , . - : Eusuf and Associates and Center , on Social Research and Human Development , , - (2002). , 104 2007 ( , ) 116. , , , . , , , -- . , , , , , Telesecundaria , ( 3.9). , , , . , . , (INEA) , 15 , , , . , . , , -- . , . , -- , , , -- . , , . , , , , . , . (137 ), , , , , -- . , , , -- , « ». ( ) -- , , , , . 60­80 . . 105 . , , , . , , , , 50% . 118. , , , . , , , , . 1990 119. , , , . 117. . , , , . 120. , Jovenes Entra 21 , ( , . 4). , . , , . , , . . , -- . , , -- 300 ( 1821 . ) 24 . ( 43 . ), . ( , . ). , , , . , , 121. , , (. 3.1): 106 2007 3.1 , - (. . ) () ( ) - ( ) () () () ( . ) ( ) (, ) () , () - (, ) () () ( , ) () ( « / » ( ) () « » () ( ) () ( ) (, Aimhigher) ( ) , ( ) (Oportunidades, ) () () «» , , « , » () (, () , ) ( Upward Bound ) , () , « () » () () () ( ) () ( ) « » ( Jovenes Entra 21 ) 107 · ( ). · ( ) . , , , , . , , , , . , · . , · , ; , , , , ; , , -- , . . , , , , « » . 108 2007 : . - , , , - . : , , - , 1. 1986., , . 1990 . . 58 1993 . , 120 , 20% 2004 . -- 45% , . . 83 . . , 25 , 27% , /, , 12­24 . , . , , , . -- , . , 25 1992 . 62% 2002 . (. .). , -- 10% 1994 . 40% . /. -- 60% 10 , , -- 3 , , 45% , , 13 . . . -- , 2003 . ( 15% 15­24 . 7 584 ), 14­25 , , ( 25% , , ). , , . : 75% , 2. , . . . « », /, . , . , / . , , . 1994 1999 . 4 . , . 53% 109 . Stops International . 25 , 20­24 . . . : 2004 . 420 . , , . , 30% . , , 7 24 . 1,4 . : . , , , « », . . , . , . , , , , , 7­20 . . ( ). , , . , 40% , 1992 2002 . . (11­14 ) . , , 15% , 2002­2004 . , , , , , . , . , . : 80% , 53% . , 34% , . (, ), . , , , , , . . 50% , , , . . . , . 60% -- . . , , , ( ) , . . , . , . Action Aid 80­90% . . , 2010 . , , , , . . ( ) . Marie . , , - - 4 . , , , - . - - . - « » ,, . - «» . «» - : , . - - , «» - , - . , , . , - - . , - , , . . - , - , , , ,« » -- «» . - - . - - . - 24 - , , : , , - , - , « , » , . 30 . , , - - , 1. - , , - 110 111 , , . 3. , - -- - 35%. 29 . - 7 14 :- (. 4.1). ; ; - . , , 182 - . - . . . . - , 29 , 52% , . 14% 19 10­30 82 - 78% . . 70% - , - , ,. . (), 10% - , 2000­2004 . - 4. 11%, 218 . . , - 2. 65 21% , , 15 17% - (. 4.1). -, 22% . , , , 4.1 -- : Fares and Raju (2006). . ( ) ( ) (7­14 ). 112 2007 , , - , 5. , - 11. 6. , - ( 3). . , - . - : ( 4.1). - - , , - , . , . - , - , - . 7. - , . - ., - 12 , . 20% , --8%,- , 12 8. . 60 - , , . , - - 1,4 , .61,,- - 12. 7,3% 9,8% - - 9. - , ,, . , , , , - - , , . 13. - , - - ,. - , , - , . , - , , - , , . ( 25% ), - 47% . - ; , 11,7%1993.14,4%2003. - : 10. 7,0% 13,4% - - 25,0% 113 4 . 1 : , , - , , . , - , , - , , ( ). . - , - . (. - . . ). · - . 91 - , . - . - . - - , - , - , . . , , , - . ,. . -- , - · «, , : » -- - , -- · -- , . , , - -- - . . - . - , , , . · , - , - . , , - . · - . : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a). 14. . - - , - , , (. 4.2). - . , - - 20­24- , . - 40, , , 40% 60% 25% - 15. 17. , , - , , , , , . - 16. ,,,10 - , - , , , ,. 114 2007 4.2 , -- , . - - . , - , . ( 4.2), () , ., , . , (.4.3).- , -- , : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a). , - .1:1,- . 2:1 ( 3:1) , ,. (),.- . , - , 4 . 2 . - , , , . , -- - - ,, .- (--) , - , - , , - ; (..) . · . . - , - , 2000 . , - , . · . - , - - 60%18. - , 45º, - , - , , , . .. ,, 19. - ; :Fares,Montenegro,andOrazem(2006a). - . . , (4.3). , 45°, , - ,,-- , , . . . . , (. : , -- -- , - , - 4.2). , , - , . - , - , , , . - , , «» 115 4.3 , , « . , , - . , - , - -- , , , . -- - ». . , - (), 2005 , , 21. . - , : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a). , , . - , 22. , -, 4 . 3 , . 15­24 , 2001­2002 ., 1990- ., - 2001 ., 77% , 58% . (.. , , 2001 ., ) 2004 . - 2002 ., , . 2004 . 2004 .20 , 62% 15­19 11%, 37% 20­24 (, , -- 30%. 22% . , ), - . - - , , , - , . ,2001--2004(%) 2002. 2004. 2001 . 73 12 14 63 15 21 32 34 34 30 27 43 13 07 81 13 08 79 15­24 71 17 12 53 21 26 36 41 23 26 32 42 22 12 66 11 15 74 : Fares and Tiongson (2006). . «» -- . 116 2007 , , , - - . , - , - , . , - ; , 1987­1991 ., ; 40 - 60 . .23 , - «» , 24. . - 1993 . 90% 15 19 , - , , : 80%. - . . 1993 . 80% 15 19,, . , - 40%. , , . - , , . , - , , , , - ? , - ,- , , , - , . - . - - , , -, , - . 74 , 26. , , 25% - ,, , , , , , - 27. 57% 74% - . , , , - . , - , . -- 74 , , 2­4 . , ( 1). , «» - - , - - . 117 , - - , . , . - - 28. , - - . (. 4.4). 20- , ,, 6% . , . , 40- , 3%. - , , , - . . /5 4 40 ; . 47 . , « » 2,5 - , - ., - ; - . . , - , - - . 4.4 . ? , , - . - ; . , - (. 4.1). , , , - - . - , : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006b). , , . 118 2007 4.5 , , - ,. ,- , , , - 29. - ,, ( ) , - : Fares and Montenegro (2006). . . - . . · . - - , - - . · - 30.1980­1990-. , - , . , 31. - . (.« - , , , », - , 1). 15 24 , , , - , - - - - . , . - . 1974, 1982 1998 . , - - (. ,,, « » 4 «» ,(.4.5). ). 1980 2000 . 32 - ? : · 10%- , , - , , 6%32. - , . , · - - , - , 33. - , . 119 - 4.6 . , - - , - , 34. - - . , : Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006b). . « » -- 9,9%; « » -- 6,4%. - - « » « » . , - Heritage Foundation. . - Heritage Foundation, , -- - , , 35. ( ) 36. 9,9% , - - , , 6,4% (. 4.6). , ,- ( 3). - . , , « , , . - .,- , , -, , ». - , , . - . - () , - , , , . ,, , -- . - - . , - . , -- , - , , -- . - , . - 120 2007 , - , . . - , -, - , , , - , , 42. , - , - , ,- . - 43. 37. - . . , , - , - , - , - 38. ( 2005, ) 2006 , , - . - , , - . , , , - , , , 39. , - , . . - - - 42,5 , 44. - . , , . - . 18%, , - , 40. - 45. 15 28 - () - 46. 1980­1990- . , - 25­55 41. , . - - 39 , - 25 - , , 26%, () . , , . - , , - 47. - 121 . - , . - . - 48. , - , - . , , - - . , ,- - . , , , . - . , - . - 128 , /3 - 1 , . , 49. - , , , - 51. . , - , - , , - , . . 2005 , - 1988 1998 . - , , ; , - . . , - , «- , » , - , . 50. . - , - - . , , , , , -- , - . , , . - , , , 122 2007 : 47% 50- . 11% - 1996.- . - 40­49-, 20% 8%, 2001 . - -- 41%, 15%. . , , - ,-,- , - -, 74% . ,- 46­50% . , - , - . - . - - 30% , , , - 20% , - , , . . - - 54. 52. - , , , - , - , , . 55. , - 53. - . , 48 - (.4.7).1990-. , - . , . 18­29- 70% - 4.7 (1992­2001.) , :: Vodopivec (2005). . 50 , 100%. 123 , , 20­25%56. . , , - - 2006 - ; , - , - ( 4.4). - - . , - , . - . - , , - . 1990 . (. « » , 4, «» ). - , p - . , - - -- , , - , , , , - 58. - , - . - 57. 4 . 4 , - - - 24%). 1997 . . , . - , . , - , (Contrat . á Duree Determinee, CDD) , 1979 . CDD . 3% 1983 . 17% 2000 . - . 40% 1995 . - 20% 2000 . . : , . 1990- . 20%. 2006 . - 1990- ., - 1990- . , (Contrat Premiére , - - Embauche, CPE), , . , . 26 , . , , , -, - , -- , - , , , , - . - . . - , - : Blanchard (2006); Blanchard and Land- - - ier(2001); Cahuc and Carcillo (2006); Kugler (2004); . 30% . Kugler, Jimeno, and Henanz (2003). 124 2007 -- , - , , - . ( 4.4). - - , , , - , , - - 59. , - - . , - , . - - ,- - , - . . - . ( ) , , -, , , , , - 1980 2000 . 50% . - - 26­40 60. - - - . - . - . , . 2002 . - 30% , 64. , , , - 38%, 2003 . -- 35%, , 1998 . -- 52%61. - - , , . . . - «( ) , 65. , , 62. - , - - . 63. - ». - , , , - , (), 2005 , , - . , , - . , - , , , 125 - - , 69. , - , , - , . 30­50% . -- , 70. - , - - 66. . - ,- , , , , -- , , . - , - . , - . « » - . 25% , - 7% - , . , - . , - 15­24 65% . - 25­34 , . . 15 - - « -- , , . - - 71. , , - - 67. 22 , 33 72. ». - , - , 24 () , , - - (. 8). . , . « , », - 73. , - 40% , 20% , 68. - - ,- , , . () . - , 126 2007 4 . 5 () - , . . 1980- . - , , - , 70 , 250 , - . , ? ( - . ), 1990- . 2005 . - ( ) , ( «- . »). - - , - - . - . - , . : Lanjouw and Stern (2006) ,- ­ , ­ . - , - - - . 74. , : 66% - ; , - . 40%. , - , 75. , - , . ( 4.5). - - , . , , , . , . , , , . 29 , , 40% , ; , - 2003 . 13% . . , , - - , - . - -- - , - 76. -- , - 77. - , , 35 . , 127 . . - , - « » « . , - , , , , - 35%78. , , , - - , , , - . , ». , , , 16 () 79. - - , , , . 80. ,- , , - . . , - - - . , . - - () 81. , - , , - . . , - - , - , - 8. . - : . , - , : ? - 82. ? ? - - , - . . - - ? , -, -- - ­ - , - . , - , , , 83. . 128 2007 , . ( 1995 . - ),,, --, . - , , , , - . , « «» , 88. [ , - - «» - ], - , «» 84. , - [ , - - ]». . «-» (- () ) . - , , - , . « 89. » , -- - . , , - , - - ; . . « » , - , - . - 500 . , ( 3); 85. . . - - ,, , ,- . , 37 - . 18 217 - 80­90% - , , , 5­10% -- 90. 60% 10­15% -- 86. , , , , - 20%. 87. , - , , , , . - . , - , , - 129 - . , . , - , - . - (, Servicio , , , Nacional de Aprendizaje, SENA) - () - 93. , 91. , , - , , - - 151 ., , , . 51 150 ., - 10 , - - 10 . , . , - ; , - 92. - - . . - . - - (, , (Servicio Nacional de Capacitacion y Empleo, ) SENCE), . , - -- . - . - - , , , . , , « , - 94. , , - , . , -- . , , , - -- - . , - , , , - - ( 30). - , , , , - , , , , - ». , - , 23 () , . - -- , , , . - , 130 2007 1998 . - . 2001 ., . : , , - , , - , . , , - 95. - , -- - , - 96. 13% 16­24 - , , , , 97. (12%) -- - 1% -- . , - , - , , , . . ¼ . - 18% , 1998 . - . , , 2001 . ; - , -- 6% (. 4.1). , - - . , 60% - - , , 6% . , 98. 1998 . , . - 9% : , , -- 1%. , , - 4.1 (16­30) 2001. 1998. (%) (%) (%) (%) 33 24 18 2 (%) (%) 7 28 13 1 (%) 13 25 52 1 (%) 9 9 55 27 60 18 7 0 (%) (%) 25 59 23 17 (%) 11 23 45 9 (%) 3 17 40 31 : Llisteri (2006). . , . 131 . , « - , - » , . - . (Corporacion de Fomento - de la Produccion) , , - . - - - , - , . - . , , , , - - , . «- 1», - , -- « 2». , «» , - . - , -- , , . - , - , -- , ,,« . - ». - , -, , - --, -, , -- - . , -- , -, , . , - . , , , - , «» , - , - ( - . , , ) . , - , . . - «» -- , « , » , - 35 . - « - «» » - , - . (Meager and Evans 1998) 132 2007 , « - 100. , , , , - - , , ». 19 , ( 4.6). , - , - - 99. - « » «- . ». « » - - ( 3). , «- - » « . » - , 8,4 . « » ( , ) - , - , ? . , - 10­12% - -- , , - - , 101. 4 . 6 , - , . - - , - « » . , . - , : - , , . , , 55% . - 18­19-, , - 29% - (Independent Living 24% - Centers). . « » 1996 . - - - . 70% : -- 13% . - · - 80%-- , . . , - · - , - - . , , · - . - . : Bercovich (2004); World Bank (2004c); - Stapleton and Burkhauser (2003); Tudawe(2001); www.salvavita.hu. 133 , , , - , - , , , , . - , , , - . , - - . , - , , . . , , - - , , , , , - , , - 35 . -. , - . 104. - , - , , , , , , - , . , - . - , , - , - , - . - . 1998­2002 . Proempleo Trabajar, - 102. Trabajar , . - . , , - - - , . - , -- , - , -- 103. 9 - (Agence d'Execution des Travaux d'Interet Publique) 30 105. - - , , , 13 . , , - , - . . , - , . 134 2007 , - -- - 106. -- - «- . - », - , - - . , , . 5,8% , - , «-21», , -, , , - - , , - - . - . 70% , - « », ) - . , 90% , - , , - ( ). - - - « . », , , - -107. Joven - - ( 4.7). . - , - , - - , , - . , . « 21» -- -- - 19 . - , - , - , - . 18 , -- - 40% . , - , - . , - , Joven, - . - , , , , - «-21», , 2 890 , . - , - Joven 108. 15% 54% 6­12 . - - 135 4 . 7 Joven Joven - - . 83% , 57% - . 16 29 . . , -- - ­8,8%, . , , . , - , , , ( 40%). 26%, , , , , 16­24-, 70% 21 . - . - 109. - , - - , (. ). - , , . , . - , . (21 - ) 10 . 60% -- . - . 21 () ( , , , 5%). , -- . 21 . , , - , - , ( Chile , , Joven -- 50%). - - . , , , , - . 10% - , , - . , -- , . , , , , Joven ChileJoven , , , , -- (..) 116000 165000 . (.) 2000 730­930 : Aedo and Nunez (2001); Aedo and- Pizarro Valdivia (2004); de Moura Castro (1999);Elias and others (2004); Inter-American Development () 10 21 Bank (2005); and Santiago ConsultoresAsociados () 10 26 (1999). , - , . - (. 4.2). - . , - - , , - . - , . - , - - 136 2007 4.2 -, : , , ( ) (, , - (, - ) ( ) ) , () ( , ) , (, () , ) ( ) , ( ) , ( , () ) , (, ) : « » , , ( ) ) ( ) « », ( « » ) (-). (, () , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , , , ) - «» , , «- 1» 2» (). ( ) « (), «-21», , » , , (18 , ) .. ( , «» , , (, ) « » ) ( , (), . ) Colectivo integral de Desarrollo «» (, , ) 137 - · «» : · - - - - , . , - . « » - , - - . . , «-» ? « », , . ? ? , , ? « » - . -- , . - , « , » . , - 1. - , - 20 : , «« »» , - , 40%, . . - . 1960- - 1980- . , - . , , 1967­1973.(..1).- . , , . , - « » ? , . , - 1990-.,- , : - « » 7 . , « ». - , - - « » - : 46% 2 . ? . . , - 1 - , - « » 4 , « » . 14%; , - . . , - - 8,5% . - . 7 ( - - , -- 2 )2. - , , -, ; , - . , - . , - , . 3. , - ,«- . ». , , - , : - . . 80% . . - 18 30 - , « ». , - 25% . , «» ? 139 139 - 2 2003 ., ). «» , - - . , , «». , , , - , «- ». , . . - , - 4. - , - - 5. - . , - , , , : OECD (2004). . -- « » . , 15--24 ; -- 25--54 . - , - 0,32 . 0,27 . . - - , - - , 6. , , -, . - , , , (. 2). - 11. - , - , , , , , . , - - , , . , -, - . - , -- , , - , , 2% 7. , - - . , , - . - 1/10 , , - , , «» - . -, - , - , . « » . , - . , (), 15 (, , , , . , , ) - - , . - . , - - . - - , - , - , - , , 10. 12. 8. - , - , - - , , - - , , , , . . - , - 9. , -, - , - . , , «» ( , - -), - . -- «» (, - 13. , -- 50%. 5 , . , , - , . 60 20%2. - . 3%, , , 20 , , , 1. . - , , , , - , , . , , - . , , , , - - , , , , - , , . - - . - - - . , - . - . , : - , , . . . . - 10 , , - . , . , - - 15 , , 60 90%, . 140 141 5.1 - 40 - , - . - . - , - - . - , : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1993). . 100 . . , 1970 . . , , , - , - - . 4. , -- , , , -- - . . - . «- », - . , - 3. - 1945 ., , . - , - , , 20 (. 5.1). . , , 20­30 - . , - , 5. - 18­25 , , 12­24 3% , , . , , , - , - - . - . - 142 2007 , - , . , - - 4,1%, . 0,4% . 6 , , - - , 7. , . - , , - , . - . . - , - - , , 13. 8. - , - - . -- - . 65 . , 1­1,5% 9. , , , - , - - - 14. , .- , , - . - 2001 . , - . - - 15. , . - - 10. 80% - , - 16, - , - 11. - 200 . 17. - , 0,03 , 0,40% , -- , , , - - 18. . , 2000 , - . 1993 ., , - . 12. , - - 19, 143 20. 1988 1992 . . - , , , 18%, , . 21. , - . , , , 10­19 - - 38 , -- 35,8 . - - 22. , , 49,7 , -- 53,1. - 12 , - -- 17 23. - , -- - , , - , - , , , - - . , -- - . - - , , , - - . - , . . - , - . , . , - , , . - - - (. . 2.7 , 2.9). - - - , , . , , . . -- , , , - , , . - . , - - , . 144 2007 , , , 1990- 2004 ., , . - - , , , 15 , 24. - 20%, -- 50%. - -- -- , . , 50% . - - , () , , - 3% . , , - , 25. , - , 27 , . -, - - , 26. - -- , - 27. - . - , , - , - . (. 5.2). , , , , - . 28. , - . , , - - , -, 20 - , 5.2 , (20 6%)29. . . - , . -30. , 31. 20% , (), - 32. DHS : 1997­2004 . . 15­24 , , 13% - 15 19 145 - 5.3 , 33. 15­19. - « ». 45 , - , , -34. , , - 35. , - , - . -- , : Hibbell and others (2000) u - Bloomfield and others (2003) . « » , - . , - . , -- -- , , . 60% , - . , , 10­30% - . - (. 5.3)37. , , - 16 24 , . 38. - - , - . , , . , , , , - , - ( ) , . , , , . - , . , . -- . - : , 61% - 15 - 36. - . , 74% , 54% - - 30% 146 2007 5.4 ,, , , 3,4%, - 43. , - (. 5.4). - - , , - , , - 15 19 32% 1993 . 43% 2000 .44. : : 15 24 Indonesia Adolescent and Youth Survey (2002­2003); : 14 22 ; : 14 25 , Viet- , , nam Ministry of Health and General Statistics Office, UNICEF, and WHO (2005); : , ( ) ( 15 24 ). MEASURE , 45. 2000 2004 . ( 15 24 ). . , , , . , 39. , - , . , - 40. 960 , , , , 22% . - , , , 41. - . - , , - , , , , . 1970 - 1990 . 42 . , 5 . 1 . - ( 5.1). - , 7% () , , , - 18% -- . - . - , , , . , - ( 15­16 ) - , , 90% - . , - -- , - 46. ( (150 . . 2001 .). , . - , - , 97% . , . .) , , , . , , 13 - , . , 78% , , . : Refaat (2004); United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004); UNODCCP . , (2002); WHO (1999). 47. , 147 5.5 5.6 : ; International Food Policy Research Institute, 2005 ( - INCAP, , 1987­2004 IFPRI) : - 2000 2003 . . 49. , . , , , 15­24 , , ( 85- ) ( 5- ) , 50. - - . - , . - - , 51. , , , , 60% , , 50% 52. - , , - - . , (. 5.5). - : , - , . - , , - 48. 53. , - - - , - - . . - , 18 , - 12% 1991 . 19% 2002 ., 2 -- 4,6 6,1%. 148 2007 5.7 - , 1524 - . - . , , - , 55. : , / . , , - «,, . 10% 54. , . - , , 56. - ». , , . . , (), - ( - 2006 - ) - (. 5.6). . - - , - . , , , - . , - . - , - (. 5.7) , - . . , - , . , , , - , . , , - , ( 5.2)57. - . , , , - . 3 4 - . - . , . - -- - , - 58. 149 5 . 2 - , , - , , , . . , - , , ? - -- - , , . - , , , , - . . - . - , , , , , . , , - , . , . . - , . , - « - - , - . » - , . , . , . . « »: . - . , - : Blum and Nelson-Mmari (2004); . De Walque (2004); Dupas (2006); Gertler and others (2006); Gruber (2001); Kaufman and , . Stavrou (2004); Kenkel (2000); Strauss and . - , , , Thomas - , . , 15 - , - «,, , 61. - 59. , - -». . (), . ( 5.3). 21 2006 - , - - , 60. , - 62. , , , - ( , . , , ). , - , , - - 11­14 . - , , - . , , , . , 150 2007 . « - 5 . 3 », , - - 12 , , « , 63. « -- » , » () « - « », , , 9­15 , ( ), » () - . . 14 . - , 12 - /, , - : , . , , 9­11 . , , (15­18 ) 10 - . . . - Sexto Sentido 70% , 80% - / , . , - , 13 17 64. . , SoulCity . , - SoulBuddyz , , - , , . 13 16 - : Fitzgerald and others (1999) -, - . . Stanton and others (1999) SoulCity , - . , , . , - - - - . . - - , . «, 65. . , - ( 3) « » » - . - . - -, 18 - (), 2005 - , , - . , . - - , , . , , , - . , - - - . , . - - - , «, - , », . 151 5.8 . , «» , - . - . , - . «- » , « - » - 67. -- . , - , , «- , , - », 1990- . , . : / (MEASURE DNS) 2000­2004 . . 68. . - , , , , «- . ...» (. 5.8). , , , . 66. , , « » , , . - , , . , - . , , , , : - , - , - . - , , - 152 2007 5.9 ,, 0,1%, 69. - - - . - , . , , . , , - : , 1997­2003 . . , , , . 5.10 ,, - , 70. - , . - , , . - : : (2003) , , (2002). . «, » , , - , . « » -- , , . . , - , (. 5.10), . . , . , - - - . - - , - . , , , - , , . , , - . , , , , . - , , - 153 5.1 ,(%) / / - () () () () 93 86 46 54 79 7 28 ( ) 0 100 75 75 75 25 4 13 100 13 13 100 13 8 . . 83 100 100 83 100 50 6 . . 0 100 85 62 85 46 13 . 33 67 0 0 67 33 3 : Partnership for Child Development (2006). . :; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; , ; ; , ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; - ; ; ; . :; -; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; -'; - ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; -; ; ; ; ; ; :; ; -; : , , , , , , ; :; ; : ; ; ; - ; ; ; : ; , ; ; ; ; ; ; ; - ; ; ; ; . . 74. , . , - . - - , , 71. - ( 3). - , , , -- - (. 5.1). - 75. - , , . . - - , . . , , / - , - , , 72. - , - . «, - , , - . - - , -- , , , 73. . » - 2001 . - , , , (), . - 2006 . - 76. - , , , 154 2007 , , - , , , , - , , - 82. , , - 77. ( 5.4). Regae , Dzivi Shiri , « - . - », , «- , , - !» 83. , . - , , - - , 78. - . , - , - . - ,79.- , , - « «» - , 84, , - - , - . ( 7)80. - 5.2, , , , . , (Alford, , - Cheetham, and Hauser 2005) . -, 200 , - - , , -, - 10 . 10 . - - (. 2.7). . Kirby, Lepore, and Ryan (2005) Kirby, Laris, and Rolleri (2005) - , - 81. - - . 83 , - , -- , - - « ». . 83 , , , - - . - . « » - , , - , 155 , , . - . - -- , , , , , , - . - , , - 85. - 88. - - , , , , . - , , -- , , - - - . , , - . , . , - - ( ), - . - ( , - . ). , , . , , , - , - , . . - - . , , - , - - . - , , 86. 5 . 4 -- « , » . - « » -- - . « », , - , - 12­22 , - - , , , - «» - . -. . « » - «»: . , - , - , , - , - 58 76%, - - 53 50%. (. . - 5.4)87.- -, : Alford, Cheetham, and Hauser « », - (2005). , 156 2007 « », , « », - , - . - , - , - - 89. 1975­2003 .94 , . , - , 10% - , 6­10%, . 4%95. - , , ( , , ) - , - . , 90. - , - , 96. , , , - . , Oportunidades - - , - . - , (. 3). - , 97. , , - 91. 98. - 100 , - , . , - , . 92. , , - , , , , , . , - , , 15­24 - , 99. , 93. - :, . , 10% . 4­%, - , - -- 20%. : : , - 10% - , - 5%. - . 157 - , , 5 . 5 , - . . , - , 1985 . .C. - , , . , 100. , . - , 21 . , . - , - 26%, 63%. 1992­1994 ., - . 1985 . - , - . - , . : World Bank (2005). . , , - . - ( 5.5). , , ? . - - . ( 5.6)102. - , , - . , : 103. - - 101. - - , , , - 5 . 6 ; , : . - SMS- , - , , , -- - , SMS- . . - . - , , , - 19 ­30 . , 28% , - . - . . , - . - , , , , - - , . - . , . . , : Rodgers and others (2005) , Internet Safety Group (2005). , 158 2007 5.11 , - , , , - 104. -- -- . , , 105. - , - , 106. , , 25 100 - , - (. 5.11)107. . : Bankole and others (2004). , -, , - . -- , - , , , - , 111. 108. - , - , , , , , . , - - , 112. , - : - - , - - , , 109. , , . - - . . - , - - 110. 113. 159 -- - - - , . - - -- . , . , , , . , - , . , - , , , , , - . - - - , . , - 60% , , 114. - 15­24 . - , 43%122. , , - - - , 115. - , - , , - - 123. , , 116. - - , . - 2010 . ( 1,7 860 . ). 117. , - , , , - - . - 124. , - , 125. 1996 2002 . 358 . - 2,2 .118. - , , , - , . , - - , 119, - - , - . 120. - , - - - 121. 126. , 160 2007 , - 129. - . 4% - - , , - - 130. . , - -- , - , 131. - 127. - , . , , , - , , 132. - , . , «» , - - . , - 133. , , ? ? , - , - , ? , - - - - , - , «» , . ? . 5.2 , - , « , , - », - . . , - , - , . , . , - (, - - - ). , , , , 128. , - -- -- . . , , - , -- -- , , 161 . , . - , - - . , , , , - . - . - , - . , - - , . -, - , : . - , - 5.2 , , ( ) ( ) , ( ) , ( , (« -- » ) ) , ( ) ( , ) « » -- , . ( , ) «» / , ( , -- ) ( ( ) , ). ( ) « » -- , 162 2007 . -, , , . - , -- , , . . - , - , , 134. - « » -- , , . , . ., . ,. -- 4. , . . 2001 . - -- , , - , 2004 . - , , . Bolsa Famlia ( ), . «Bolsa Escola» 7. - «Bolsa , Famlia» , , , - 2005 ., , , - , - 1. «- · (15­24 » . - 11,5%. ) , , 4%, Bolsa Famlia /, , , : () , . ; () 1 /10 - . , - , ( - - ); () 50%, - . 16­18 , 2. , - · , ; . - - 14%, Bolsa Familia, ProJovem, ProJovem ( 12 Abrindo Espaos , - . , , - ). - - Bolsa Familia . , 20% - 0,3%. , 8. - · 14 -, - Educao de Jovens e Adultos - - , -- - ( , - . - - , , . , - 17- )3. , - ProJovem. , 5. ( 18­24 ), , , - , , , , - - , , . , , . Bolsa Escola - , /5 1 ( ) - . . - : , - 7­14 , , 6. - . 164 2007 «Abrindo Espaços» , , - /. - , - . : , « », - 2000 . - , , - , - : - . , . - - . . , · - , - , . , «H», . , , - , «Vozes Jovens» , 60%9. , , . . - Abrindo Espaos (« , - »), () --, , - 12. - ---, . 10. , , - --, · - , , - . . - , , - 11. , . - , , , , ( , - ), , 13. - , - ,«H», . , - - - . 2003 . - 14. - - , , , - . , 2004 . FUNDEB (Fundo de Desenvolvimento e 205 , - Manutenço do Ensino Básico e Valorizaço - do Magisterio). / . - , - · : - - · , - (Secretaria da Juventude) . - 25% - , . , - , , 900 , Secretaria Geral, ( ) . - - , . - - - . ,,- - -- . 6 ,- , ,- . .- . - ,- - - . , . , , , , .- - ,- , , , . - - . ,, . , - , , - . ,- ,- , . , - . - , . - , - , . . « - » - - , - - . . . - , 165 166 2007 , 6 . 1 ,- ( 6.1). - , ( - . ) , ,- - , . - : - -- . , . , , 3. 30% , . - , , . . , - , , , / . 1997­1998 . - , - ,, . 48­65% , , , , - . -- . - . , - , - . - - , - , - / , . . ,,- , - - , . , . , 18 , 20% . 60% , : Bruce and Clark (2004); Buvinic . (1998); Clark (2004); Eltigani (2000); Jensen and , 15 , - Thornton (2003); Lesthaeghe and Moors (2000); , . , Singh and Samara (1996); Upchurch, Lillard, , , , 4. 36% and Panis (2002); Willis and Haaga (1996). 15 . ,- , - , . - , , . , - . ,- - , . 60% . - , , 25 . , , - 25­29 1. 5. 2. - 167 .6.1 -- .6.2 : ORC Macro (2005) MEASURE DHS STAT Compiler (, 2000 2004 .) ,- , - 6. - 15­29. ,, , , 15­20% ,- . . : ORC Macro (2005); MEASURE DHS STAT Compiler (, 2000­2004 .). ,, ,- , - ,---- (6.1).10% ,- , . , 15­19 , (.6.1). , , 30%15­19 7. , . - , - 8. , , , . , - , , ., 20,, - 15­24.- 168 2007 - , : - , . , ., ,- , , 9, - , . . , - ,. (2). 1990- , - ,30,2(- . 45­49 ) 28,7 ( 40­44)10. ,- - , ,- - (. 6.2). - 15­2430­50% ,- . . , - , - 15­2450% ., ( ) , . - - 60%. ,- - - . - : , - ,- . - ,- - 12.,- , , - - (1). . ,,- , , 11. - ( 6.2). - - - , 169 . , , 6 . 2 , , - , - , , . 1990- .- , - -, - . - , 13. 16 26%., - , ,, . - , . - , - : , . - . , - 14. - 35 , , - , - . - . , - , - . , - . - , . - - , - - (6.3).- . 0,52­0,87 . - - ( - 18 ) 14­23%. . 1990- : Behrman and others (2006); .- Mensch, Singh, and Casterline (2005); and - Nationa Research Council and Institute of , Medicine (2005). - . - 17. - , . - . - , , ,-- . , - . / , - 6 . 3 : 15. «» , , : «» ,,-, , . - «» , - . «» -, - - . . , , , - . : , « -- , , , , - ; -- , 510 . - -- ( , , ». ), - , . - : Ali and others (2006); - 16. , 23 - : « ( 10­27 ) , - -- , , . , - . , - 2006 . ». () .- 170 2007 6.3 - , . , , . .- : - , 1998 2003 . 19. . , -, , ; , , /18. - (140­150 ). / , 15­24 145 - , 3% . , ,,,- - (5). ,-,, 16% 20­24 -, 13%(.6.3). , , . , ,- ,14% - 15­24145. 15­24 . 3%,, , , - . , -,- (5). . - , , - - , . - . , - ,- , ,. ( 6.4). - , , .- . - , , - .,, ., , - 171 6.4 6 . 4: , - , - . , ( B9), . B12 . , , - , , - . , - : , - . . , - : DeMaeyer (1989); International , Nutritional Anemia Consultative Group (1979); . International Nutritional Anemia Consultative - Group (1989); Li and others (1994); and Yip , (1994). , : - , 1998 2004 . , .- (Hb) 12 / ( , - , ). - .- , 1000 , -; - ( - (1998). - - . 5% 15­24 . , 20. - , - - , 15­24,, . (. 6.4) 21. 50% - , ,,- 50%. , 26. 30% - 11­1922.- ,- , 7­12%. , « , (. 6.5). , 64%30­34 , , , , 15­19;,- . ». . , , , - (), ,- 2005 23, (,),, , , ,- . , , , -,, ,- ,- , 24. . 15­2425,21%- - 28%- . , ., - 172 2007 6.5 6.6 , : ORC Macro (2006) MEASURE DHS STAT Compiler (, 2000 2005 .). . - ,- - 27. , , - : - , (1998­2003 .) . . , - - . - ,28. .- - , , - - - . ., ,, - - , , .- , , (.6.6).,- 29. , . , , , - , , ,--80­100%30. 31. - ,, - 173 . ,- , - ,.- «», , . . - - (), , 33.- , - -- , .- - - - 80%25­29 . , 34. - - 100%,85%- ,- .40%- ( , 15­24 60% ). 32. - - « ,- , . , , , , - , , , 35. ». ,- .(), , ( ) - 2006 . - - , , 36.«- - »,, .- , 37. - - . - - - , ()- (. « » . ).,- , , - , ,- , . ,- - - , 174 2007 - , . - . - (- - , A, ), - ,, . . - , ,- - . , - , , - 38. , - 42. -, « , , - - , , 39. « .,- . »,«- , » , 2645,..- - , , ». , , 26­45.43 40. , 5, , , , - , - (-), . 2006 . , , - , , , , , .- . - , - , , . ,. , , - , . - , ,- , , , - , - ,- 44. - 41. «» - ,- - , , , , 50%- 175 (.6.4), 45. 48. - - . , - , - . , , - - . , , ,46. 49. , - , - . - 5081, .- , - - - A, , , 18 ,- 50, 32 - , . . - -- - , ; , - . ., , ,- , - . - .- - , - ,, , , - ,,- . .- - - ,- - . , Apni . Beti,ApnaDhan(«--- Oportunidades, , »),1994. ,- ,- - . - - . 30­60%, 5,, (500,16.), 47. - ReddeProteccinSocial , 176 2007 15 . - , - , 2500 . (80 . ) - , , - , , ( 5). , 5, 18- .1995. , , . - (25 . , 800 . -- 30 000 , ,960.), - ., . - , - 51. , 52. - - «: » - - 53. ,- ,, - , - . , . - - , , 53. ,, ·, , - , - . ,- . - --- - - . - . - , . ·«- . », ,- - . - - ,,,, 177 - . - . - · , . - , , - - - 56. - ,, , . . - . - , - ,( . - ), . , - - ( 6.5). (5).- Suami siaga (« , »), - (),, , - - - , . 57. SuamisiagaDesasiaga(« . »)- - , - , , , - . . - 19982002.Suamisiaga , 15­45 , ,- - , - 58. - - , ,- 6 . 5 - « » .Desasiaga- «» - , ; , , ,, . - , - ( - .- . - , - ). , , -- «16 » -- , «». . , - , - -- Siaga-- , - - . ,, - . . , , - - - : Pitt and others (1999). 55. , - 178 2007 -- , - ., ,41%- , , , ( - - ), 46% , 63.- 24, .- - , . ,59. - ,64. - - . -- , , , - . , - , . - ; , . , - ; - . .- - ( ,- ) 65. , ,- , , , - , - 60.- . - « . » , 1987 . - 66 . - ,. 12­20 - , :- 61. ; - - - . - ., Hogares , Comunitarios , - - , ,- 62. ,- 179 6.7 (.6.7). ,- ,,- , 14­21, - , , , - . , , , - - . , - , 67. « », - : Center for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA) (2001). , , - 12­18, . 6 . 6 , . - , , - ,,- 1977 . - - .- - - - , - , . 68. , , , . , . 1994 . - , , - . 1999 . -- , - , (FSSAP), 460 - 10- , . -- , . - : , , - , , - ,--,- · -- 75% - . ; , · , ,--- -- 45% . , , - ; FSSAP . · - , - . (6.6) , . , , FSSAP ( . - 2002 .) - . .- , . : Bhatnagar and others (2003); Khandker; Pitt, Fuwa (2003); World Bank ., , (2003c). , , 180 2007 69. , - - , . - - , « », - 70. -- , , , . «» - , - , . , . - , - -, , , - , - . , - , . ,, - - - 73. . - , - « » ,- . (- , , , ). - 1990-,- . . , - ,- 71, 74. - , -,, - - . 1977.- - - - , , 75.- , - - , , - , . .- . ,- - 72. 1960- 1970- ., - 12­16, 181 6.1 , , ( ) ( ) · · ( ) ( ) · (Profamilia ) · - · ( ) , ; (, « -- » , ) , , , : (, «: ») · (, , , ) : a) ; · ( , ( b) ; , ) ( ; « », ) ; -- ) · (« », ) , , - ( ) ( ) ( , ) ( « », ) «» , - «» ( ) 182 2007 - (- - ),, . - . , - . . , , , , - .- . - ,- , 18­24 . . ,- ,,- , ,-- ,- . - , : - ,-- (..6.6).- . - -- - 76. . , - , (.6.1). - , - - (.6.1).- . - (.6.1).-, - . , .-- - , , , . ,- , -- , ; -- . - .-, , , , - - ,- ,., , , , . ,. . , 7 2005., , - , ,- , - , , . .24- :-- , - , . ,- 1822 2. , - , . 3,5.,- , , - . -- ,- , , 200,- ,- ,, 32.. . - 1. , , . , , , , , , ,- . ,- .- - ,. , . . , - , , - , . , ( . ). , ,- , , , - , . ,, ., , -- , , 183 184 2007 «», - (7.1). , : «», , - , « ». , - ,. - - , . . - , - , - - , , , , ,- - .- - . , , - . . ,- - - - . - ,.- :- , .- - , , . ,- 7 . 1 ? - , ), : , , , , 3. , , . . - , , , , , - - . , - 5. - , , , -- , , . - . - - -- ? - , . ?6 . , - , , , - «»4. , - - , -- -- 7. . , - , - , - - , - , -- ( - , -- , , , . 185 . 60.- : 220..1972.50. 1993.- - . - - ,- , 30408. , . , « - , ,- ,--, - - 9. , , - , , - , , - . , - ,-- , , -; - - 10. ». , - ,20(), -- ,- 2006 . ,- . : - , ? - - - 11. .VIII. - : « , ?,,, ,, .- ,,». «»- 1782 ., , - ,- , . ,- ,, ., (.7.1). ,, . « ?» « - ?- ?» ,- . ,?- ,- , .- .- - - ,, , ,- . 1980- . - , . , ,, 186 2007 7.1 7.2 18­24 : World Values Survey 1990- 2000 (Inglehart and others 2004). . , - . : World Values Survey 1990­ 2000 (Inglehart and others (2004)). * < 5% ,- (.7.1).- 7.1 ? , 18­29 30­44 45­64 65+ . - 46,3 45,3 43,5 40,5 . 53,3 41,7 28,4 18,9 54,9 50,3 47,5 53,9 , - 45,7 54,4 58,5 -- ,,,- 76,9 79,4 82,0 80,7 .- 31,6 30,3 33,7 25,3 , 26,1 44,3 47,6 44,0 , 13,0 19,4 19,9 25,8 , - 29,3 39,7 44,6 51,7 (.7.2).- 74,7 65,3 74,8 83,3 , . 61,9 57,4 45,5 32,1 , 38,5 47,2 60,3 71,4 , 30,6 37,4 53,2 41,5 . , - 28,8 37,8 47,8 39,8 , , , . 22,2 25,3 27,6 24,2 ,,,, 34,9 46,2 56,7 55,5 ,- 22,1 21,5 35,1 32,8 , 27,2 34,7 40,5 42,6 ,(.7.2).- 36,8 53,3 53,4 62,9 2000 . 43,7 48,9 75,7 84,1 , 58,5 59,3 71,6 83,5 : World Values Survey 2000 (Inglehart and other (2004)). ,- : -- . , , , , . . 187 - , ,-,,- - . ; («- ;«- ?») », (7.3). - (), .14 - ,- ( , )., , - . , ,- ., - - . - . , ,,, , - - , (.«» 7.2 ? - 7). - -- 18­29 30­44 45­64 65+ , , 19,3 18,2 19,4 16,5 - 4,9 8,0 13,3 18,0 ( ), 39,4 40,1 41,5 -- 12. 15,0 14,3 11,6 10,0 33,8 34,9 43,2 30,0 - 21,0 22,4 18,7 19,8 ,,- 13,4 15,2 20,9 19,9 , .,- 19,8 15,3 15,2 13,6 - 10,5 8,1 4,8 -- ,,- , . 8,6 10,3 8,0 3,7 , , 7,0 9,4 14,3 11,1 ,- 12,1 9,1 9,6 4,6 , 14,9 8,4 6,0 5,6 , , 17,0 21,0 25,0 23,0 - . , - 14,3 18,8 17,1 25,1 , - 5,7 8,2 11,9 13,2 , , - 14,7 17,4 21,9 25,2 .13 13,5 18,4 19,9 21,4 , - 4,9 6,5 8,3 17,5 24,8 24,3 26,4 34,2 , , : World Values Survey 2000 (Inglehart and others (2004)). . . -- . , . 188 2007 7,3 (18­29),, 60,3 76,0 40,4* 82,4 88,0 77,0** :- 74,7 82,9 66,0* , 73,0 73,6 72,4 15. - 75,8 82,1 69,9* 44,0 58,6 30,9* , , - - 70,5 81,9 60,9* , 46,3 49,2 43,3 . , - 60,8 69,2 53,0* -- 82,4 87,7 78,3 16. - , 76,7 79,7 73,5* : , , 70,4 69,9 70,8 , 72,0 72,6 71,4 ,,- 70,3 74,0 66,4 ,- , 53,6 57,1 49,6 .,,- , - 57,9 64,4 51,0* . 62,7 64,2 60,8 52,0 62,9 42,5* , 66,3 60,9 72,5 . «» - - 45,0 58,5 34,6* , 65,1 67,1 61,9 . - 64,4 69,7 59,2* - , : World Values Survey 2000 (Inglehart and others (2004)), . , , (- , * , -- 5%, )17. ** , -- 10%, , , , . , . , , XX.,,- - - , 1920., ,- ,, ,- , 18. ,, , «»,«- () - - , ?» ,,- 189 21. - - . - ,- , ,- - ,,,, , , .22 - , - , , , , . , Cc, - -- - , . ,. (9). - - ? ., ! ! - - (2.4). - ... , .19 ,, , ? -- , , , .,- - - - - . ,- ,, .27 .- , . , , - ,- ,,- , - , .,- , - - . , , , , . 23.-,- , - - - . 24. - - -- (), ,,- 20. , - . - -- - , , , - ,- 190 2007 - 7.3 , . , ,- - 8­22- , . , - , .- , ,25. , ,, . 1984­1996 . - - : World Values Survey ,,,- 1990-2000 (Inglehart and other (2004)). * -- < 5%. 1,6­2,8.,13­23%- . .- ,,- , , - - ., , , - - ( 7.2). , --- . , , - ,-- : - 26. . , , «- - , - ;, 7 . 2 ? , . . - 32. - , - , , 29. , , -- - - -- - . : , »34. , - , , , - / - 30. 33. , , (Urdal 2004) , - , - . , , , , . - , 35. 31. , , - , - , , , , . , , , , «- . 191 ,- ». , - - 37. , , , - ,, - .- (. 7.3). - , - ,- , 4 1919 .; - ,- 1942 .; - 1976.;- . , - «» , 1998­2000.(7.3). , U28. , - - - , , - ,, ,,,- , . ,, , . --: - - . , , 7 . 3 , «» - . - , , , , - - . « » , - , , - -- . , - «» , ,«- . . . - ,,, , , - «» -»36. . - ,- «», , - , . - - , - , - . - - . «» - , 2000 ., «» - - , - , .40 . ,, .39 - : La Cava and others (2005). 192 2007 ,, . ()- ,,,- ,,,- . , , 42. ,--- - . .,, ,- ,,,- , , . - , - ,- . , ,- , , ., ;;- - ,- , ,- ;- , ,. - , - 30- , -- , - (),- . --. - .- , , - , , - . , .,,- ,, - ,- ,- 1988., . , , , --, ,- , - . 38. - , , - ,-,, , « »,-- , .60% (7.4). - (121193),- , 1974.(41150)41. , - ,- - . 193 - , 7 . 4 . - -- , - ( ), « », , - -- -- , - - , 16 . , , . 19 , . . - , , , . - , - , , --,- , . . - - , , - , - . - --, . , . 1968 . , - ., , «» . , - - , , , , . , 2004 ., , - , , . -- . 18(107121- , - - ), 15 , -- , ().-- (verea- . dores). - (). - - . - . , 1984­1985 ., -- - , , -- « . - . », . , . , ,, , - : Perlman and Antony (2006). , . 43. 7.4 19972003.(.7.4). ,,- - ,, . . -- , , ,- ,., : , Chilean National Youth Sur- veys 1997-2003. . - 18. , , 19651999., , , ,, , , 194 2007 44. - , 45. , , - ,- - ,-- .,- - ,40 ., , 35-- ,, ,25--- - ( , - , 18- ). ;, , - . , ,, - - 16,- , . «»- - 46.- ,- , , - ,- ,- (9), 47. . - «», , , , - .,, ,- 5- ,«»--8,5- . . ,- 12 20 .48 ,. ,,,- - - ., (). - (. --, ), :7583- 9­15- - . -, 15­21. - 49. , - , , (- )- ,- , 50. . --,- 195 . - ,- - - . ,- ,- , , - , , .- - , - ,- , 51. , , , . « »52. ,- , ,, . , , - , - , ,- (15­24) . - , , , - ,- (. 7.4). ,- , . - , , ,55. , , - 53. - , ( , ) 450 ,- ,- - ,«,,- . , ,- , , - - , , 56. »54. - - , , - ,2005. 15% 25% . . , - - ; - - - , , . ,- 196 2007 7.4 2005. ( ,%) , a 25 77 84 54 38 76 75 90 15­24 51 84 44 46 69 59 84 43 86 44 44 67 55 79 60 82 43 48 72 64 89 53 88 43 46 70 60 83 50 82 44 46 69 58 92 - 57 79 ­ 21 93 54 86 - 48 86 ­ 39 70 60 82 -- a 25 89 86 54 43 88 81 90 15­24 70 90 46 54 84 69 85 60 91 43 48 85 61 79 81 90 49 60 83 78 91 71 94 42 56 85 63 91 70 89 49 52 84 70 84 - 81 89 ­ 60 93 61 89 - 65 92 ­ 80 87 72 78 : WDR 2007 InterMedia surveys. ­ a. ­ - . .- , : , , , , -- - 15%. - , , , .,- , , ,, ,- 57. . , , , , , - : ,- ,, ,- - 58. , , .- - (ServicioPais), (). - - ( ). , ,- (),- - «- .59 », 197 . - ( ; , «»),. ,, , - ,- , , 61. , , ., , , , -- . . - : « - - . - ,[]- AmeriCorps ,, National Civilian Community Corps , , - »62. - - , - , ,. . ,- ,, (- , « », ). - ,«»,- « , - ,». - ,?, -- , , . -- - , , , , , . : , ,,. «», , , - 60. - - , ,, , .- - , , ( ),, . - .- ,, ., - ,- (7.5)., , - , -- , , , - , 198 2007 ,- () 1970- , . , ,: , «, ., ». « - , , , , - «,»,- ... - 64. - »63. . , ,,- ,,- , (kafoolu), , - - ,4-H,- , . . , , - - - , , , , , - . , - . - - ,, ,- ,- banlieue , ()- :- 7 . 5 , , - . - . , - , , - ,- , , - . . , - , , - « » - , « », ., , - , .65 - . - , , -- . , - - , ', , , , , - .66 , - , . ( ) , - , . , ( , ), - , . , . - : , 199 ,, - « .- (3). , , .67 ,- , ,- ,,- , -» . ,- , (), 2001.,,, , , 2006 ,8% «,,- -, ».- ---, - , 68. , - , - ( 4). , 70. - (8). ,,- , - - («- .- »),- , - - , ,- , - ,- . (.« , » 3)69. , - - - 14- 28 , , , - - . ,- , 71., ,, , - , -- 72. ,--- , , - , - .:- - 73. , . , , , . , - 200 2007 , , , , 74. . Mujahid madrassas - ,,- - , - ,- .77 , , - , , - ; - - .- . - , , , , - - - . ,- « »75. , ,- ,,, . , , ,- - - . - (6). , - go itirela « - . - »., , - . ,,- .- ,- , , , - - . ,- , , - ,,78. , , -- - , ,- 76. , - .- - - , - - , - .Fé y Alegria 201 (4)., - , - , , , - .(.« ,, » 9). 79. ,- ,- . , , , , .- , , ,- ,- , , , - . ,82. ,, , - - . , , , - , , - , - . , . , , « , » , - - , - - ,,- - . 80. - , , , ,, ,, - . - - .83,- , , 81. , - , ,- , 84. . , . - . , - - , . --- . ,- 202 2007 , «»- . , - . ,,- «»1998.- - - 85. - . - «- », , . (- . ,- ), (- , - ,- .2002.«» ),- (, ,- ,, 89. , )86. , , ,,10% , ,- , - . - (6­7%) 88%- . -- , - ,--92%., ,- ,37% , - -, - ,, --47%87. .90- , - , - 91. .1980-.- - - - ,- , , , 2004. , ,- .- , - . - . , - , , ,,- ,, - . - - ,- 88. , , . , - , - - , - . - . , , 92. 203 - , - 94. . - ,- - , , 95. - . - . . 1970-1980-- - 96., , , . , , , , - . - - 93. , . ,- - ,- , - . - - . , ., , , - . - ,- .1995.- , 13. ,, 10­29 , 84 - 100. . - . ,,- , - (- ), , , - , . - , - . , , - - ,,- ;- - ; - .- ; ,- ; ,, ; -- - ,; 97. 204 2007 , -, - - , .- , , - , . ,- --,- .- ,,. - «» (- : «») - , - .- , ,, - «»., , ,- . - - ,, . . « , , « - , 25,,- »100. , . , ». . (), , «» 2006., , ,- -, ,- . , ,- 98. 250- , , ,, , , . - 14. , --- - .- - :«- . - , , , , , - , . , - , , ,- , - - , 99. - , -- . »101. 205 -- «».- . ,, «- ,«- » » «- -- », - -.- 7.5 , , . . - ,, ,, ,-- - . , - ,- ,, .--- , ,- . () , , - ,,- . - . 70­80%,- ,,,- , .- , , .- , - . Human Rights Watch, 1997 ., 1 800 « : International Center for Prison Studies (2003). . , , ,«500--, , , . 206 2007 « , - , 102. 105.- ». , 103. ,- (), , 60% - - 2006 ,«- 19,82%25104.- ». , , , , : (. 7.5). - , - , , , , - ,- ,- - .- ,. , , . . - . , 1996 2001 . - . 11 , , 18 , , --.(2005. ,- 18 .) . , - , , , ,- . - 7 . 6« » . - 626 . ., , . - , - . . . «- , - , », . , . - 160 . . -- - , , . . , . «» 70 . 13 23- «- , , ; 120 - » , - - . -- , « », . . «» , , « - «- - », - » « - « ». , , - , . 10% , ?» , « - «», , 36 , . , . 74% - - - - , - , «», . , . - ». , , (. . - : 2.9 ). , «»: 40 Hubner (2005). 207 ,- . , ,- 109. - . - , - ., , «- ,, »- ,- 106 . ,, . ,. , - , - , , , - , -- , ,- « - », - , . , , , -- 10 . . - . ,- - , « », - , , , , ,- - -,- ,, .,- --- 110. ,,- - , , . --,, - «»107. . - «Scaredstraight»,- . , , . , , -- ,- , , . - - ,- ,,,,- , , , . 111. , , «» , - 108. - 112. , ( , ) , --, , 208 2007 ,- ( - 7.6). 30 , - , . ,,, ,- ,80- , 113. , - ,- , --,- . - - - . , « . », ,,- - ,, 1990- .114 . - - , () - -,- :,- , AlvarAlice (). 115.- , , - . , , - - - (7.7). . - , - , - , , - . , , -- 300. 7 . 7 2003 . - , . , . , « », ?» : «, , . ; « » ». . , , (CARST)», - , 50 . , -, , . 23 - , . , ? , . 23 »116. . . - -- , «CARST», 34- , , - . , : , 100 - « , - . . , , , , - 35%; . , , 22 - 2004 ., - . : «, - . . , , ...» « ». , . «». -- , . - , (- : Brandt (2005); de (2004); : «, ), - Gonzalez and Marquez (2005). 209 18,10% .( ,.,- , ,, 24 , - , , .) (7.8). 30­50 . - - - - «» , 30% , - .100. (). - - , , , . - 100. . . 75.-, , , - . - . - 70­80% ,50% - , 25% 25. . 50 70­80%-60%- 500.117. , . -, - , ; .- -,- , - - 119. : - , , - -- , , 10% , , - - ,., . - -,,, - , 60% , ; , . - . - . - , :15%- , - , , . 118. , - ,- -- -- , , , : , -, ,,- - , , 120. , . - - , , , 210 2007 ,- - - - . - . , -, - - - . ,,- - - . . , , ,- - , , 122.- 121. - , -- , ,- , - , -- , , - .-, . , 7 . 8 , 1 2 , , , , - . , , , . , , 750 - , , , ( ). (LRA) . 1,5 . ; , ; - - - . , LRA 66 . . 13 18 , . - - 10 . , - , . , , . , 10% . , , - , , - , . - . , - 17 ( , - . ) - . . - - - , , - , , , - , -, . . , , 18 . - , . , -, - , - , . . . - (. 1); , - , (. 2) -- , : Annan, Blattman, and Horton (2006), , , - www.sway-uganda.org. 211 - , - , - - ,- ,- . - , 123. ,,, . ,: - - « - , ; ? . , , - ,- . . , - , . »124. ,- . «»-- ; - . , - ( 9). , - - , , - ,,- (7.5). 7.5 , 15 16 (); () ( ) ( ) , (, , ) ( ), () ( ) , ( ), () () () , , () ( , , ) « » , , (- ) ( , , ) 212 2007 ,- - . ,- , ,- . - ,- . - (3,4,5),- - , - -- , , ,-- ,- - ., . - - ,- ( 3) , - . - , . - . - . - , -, ,- . ,- - , .- .,- ,- ,- - ,- , . , , . - - . , . « » ; - ; . - ; , , . - - 34% . - , , - - ; , , , ,- 12­24 22%, 26%,25­35--16%. - ,- . . 39%,- . , - 5. : ,- - 2001., , - - - , 1,5, 150%. .- : - 13 , ,- , , - ,- - . . - . , ,- - . , - - 176177,70%- : . - . - 2015 . 2002 . . 34,1990. - 2001. 421.- , , 7. ; - - , ,- , . , - - , . «»,- , (1,5%), , ,. -- . , ,- (CREPS) - - : , , ,2004. ,- 110 . . ;- 2.40% 2001 . - 12­2463%25­35 . .20% , , , 25­35 - ,- 3. 6. . , , , - , - ,,, , - :3%- 4. , ,2% - - . 15 35 , , . , - 214 214 2007 2007 .- ,- ,- , . . - , - - - , , ,- « , »11. , - - 13. ,, «- . , - », - , , - . , - . - , , « - , - »14. . - : , , - . ,,- - , ,- .,- . , - , - , , . .- - , - , - . , - ., ; , - , 28% ; , 8.- . , , - 15. (.). - «».- , - , , - , - , - , - : . 9. 35,--5012. , - - : - . 16. ?- ,2004. , , , -- - , , . , , -, , , «»- . , , . , -, - 10. ,- , «» - , , , . - 17. - . , , - , - . , . (.: http:// www.studentitezasebe.org.mk/) «» -- «» - . , , , III - . , - . ? , , . , «» - , - - . , , - , ; . , - « » . , - - 8 , , , , ,. - , , - : - . - (). . , - , , . . «- » , «» - , - , . - , , , - . - , . , , - , - . - . - , - , , , , , . - , . - - , , , . , - , - .- . -- , - . . - 216 217 , - 8.1 , , , - , . 2005 . 190 , 49,6% , 50,4% -- 1. 82% , , , , , - 2. ( 8.1). , , - , , , (. 8.1), - 13 19 , 20- . - , , , . - : McKenzie (2006a). : 12­24 . . , , , . 12­14- - , - . , , 25­29 . . - 32­39 , . . , « - , , , . ? ». - , 17­20% , -- - (), , -- 2005 50% , - 4. -, , -'. - , - . , , , 3. - , -- , , 20­25% - , 218 2007 8 . 1 , - 1 , , , -- . % % - (,,) (,,) 1,5 , - 30% (. 1). - 470 18,7 210 1,0 - 600 3,2 96 2,4 . - 1761 .; 1 222 6,9 53 13,0 5 328 , , . - 1997 2001 . - 157 8,5 20 20,2 , 28% 15 24 . 84 8,7 178 35,1 , , - 457 0,5 , . - 79 28,9 102 31,1 - , 71 32,0 125 12,2 , - . 106 23,8 835 13,5 . - 47 38,5 , 2005 . , - 161 17,5 293 0,8 , ( ) - 109 31,1 , - 1 313 18,8 18­45 (. 2). , , - : McKenzie (2006b), - , - 2 (), . , 82% , %, %, . - 71 25 ; , , , , , 68 21 . , , 100% , 43 50 ; . , 43 39 11 64 -- , , . 7 25 . 7 7 - - , , : 31% , 12% 11% . , - 100 0 , 22 17 . - 22 11 17 39 - . : Pacific-Island New Zealand Migration Survey, Tonga. . , , 18­24 , : McKenzie (2006b) World Bank (2005i) , , 18­30 . 219 8.1 - - a 12­24 31,7 41,9 8,4 9,6 65,3 57,3 10­24 20,7 29,8 5,8 6,7 56,8 50,3 12­24 19,7 20,0 15,9 14,3 51,1 49,2 10­24 32,9 31,6 31,5 29,9 51,4 50,9 - 10­24 50,1 49,4 34,6 34,5 53,6 50,0 -' 12­24 34,2 50,2 17,2 27,1 48,3 46,4 10­24 -- -- 9,5 19,7 -- 42,4 14­24 18,7 16,7 -- -- 33,5 -- 12­24 46,0 44,8 20,4 23,3 38,8 41,4 12­24 26,7 26,9 46,7 45,5 47,9 48,1 12­24 30,9 34,5 14,7 14,4 55,1 50,2 12­24 36,7 31,1 19,5 16,6 41,6 45,4 : McKenzie (2006a), . «--» ; -- ; -- . . «» . «» . . - - , . , , , - - , , . , - . , - , , - , - , . . , , ( - . ), - , , . 17% . , 12­24 , 40% - , , , , . 5. , - . . - , , , - , , , , , , , - 220 2007 . - , - (. 8.2), , , - , 6. , . , -- 24 , - ? 3 , - , - 25 , . . - , - - 25 , , - . - . 7, - , , . - Global Economic , , Prospects 2006 (« - . 2006»), - , , 3% 2025 . 356 . - . -- 1,8% 9. , . - ,- . 1960- 1970- , , . . , - , , , , - 70% -- , 10 8. , , - , - . , - 8.2 , . 2005 . , - , 167 . 10, - . - , , , , , 11. , , - , , - . : McKenzie (2006a). : . . 221 , « 8.3 «» » . - , , - . , 2002 . , 11 . , - , 12. - , - . « » ,- . , - , , , , - . , - , , , , . «» ? , : McKenzie (2006a). : 12­14 ; - -- -- , . «» . , , - , - , . - , . . , , - - - . - - , , . - , , - . . , -- . - , , . . - - , , «» , . , - (. 8.3). , - , , . , - - 222 2007 2,7 , , - -- 3,4 , - , 25 50 . - , - , ,. - . , - , , « » . 10% . , , , , , , , - . , , - - , , , . - . 35% , 10%- - -- , 5% . 25% - 4%16. , , - 7% , 13. - , - , . , . , - . , - . , , , , . - - 14. , , 87% , - , , , , . ; , 76%, - 17. , - . - . , 18% , . 18. - - , , , , , - - , . 15. 223 16­18-, «, , - , , 23. , , . - -- , - , , /, - , , 2000 2002 . 59%19. , . , ». , 20 , , , - / 2005 . - - , . .,2004. , , - 41% , / ,32%-- , 25% -- -24. - . - , , , 20% , . 20. - - - . . , 90% - « », - , 25. , . , - - . - , , - . - /. - ., . , , , - , 21. - . . , - , , , - - , . . - . - , , . , , , - , - , - 22. , , , , - . - 224 2007 27. , . - , , , , - . - 26. , , - « -- , , , , - . . , - 28. , . , - , , - , , , - , . - , . , , , - , , , , , . ». - - , 18 (), 2006 . , . - . - - - « », . , . - . - - , - , . , 1998 . , 43 - - , , . - 29. , - , , - . . , - - , . - , . , , , - - - . - ; , , , - - , 30. - -, - , , . 225 , ,- ? - . , - , : 91% , 88% , 80% - , , 78% , 76% , 60% (. 8.4). 57% , - , , 23% - . , (. 8.5). , , , . 2005 . - , , 31. - 10 , , 2005 . 36. . , - . , . 2005 . 460 (. , 75% « » - , 35% - . 1) 12­24 32. 8.4 , , 33. . , , - ,- , , , 600 800 . 2005 2025 . 34. -- , 43 , - . 19 , , -- 77 , - , -- , , 2001 82 , 2005 . 81% , -- 71% 14­25 . - 93 , , - , , -- 211 , - -- 292 37. - , . . -, - , - , , . . , - -, , - 35. , : Mexican Encuesta Nacional de la Dinámica Demográfica 1997 the Albanian Living Standards Measure- (. 4). ment Survey 2005. 226 2007 8.5 . , , 2025 . 1,5­2,1 39. , - , , - , - . - , - . - , , , , - . , , , , : 2007, InterMedia. 15­24 : « , ?» . , - - - - . . -, 344 , , , , ; 1% - . 0,11%40. , « - . . . 1820­ , 1913 . - - 41. , . . - , ... , - , XX . . - , - , , , , 1971 1998 . , , ». , (), 15­29 - , , , 2006 , - 42. 11% 38. , , () - 227 . 15 12 . - -- - , , . , - (Working Holidaymaker Scheme) - 17­30 . - 12 - , , - « . : 83% 45. , . 18­34 , , 18­30-, ». 44% -- 18­24 43. - - , 20 ()53 . - , - , , 44. - «», - , - , . . , , - , . , , - , . - -- - , - - . , , - - . , - - - 46. 15 123 , (. 3). 2004 ., 1,5% , , - . , - - , . - , 5­10% . (. . 8.5), , . , ... - . - (Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme) - , . 18 , - - , , , - 228 2007 , . - , 48. - , : , , - . 31% , - 18­24 - , , 65% 28%49. 25­50 47. , - - . - , ( ), - . , ( - - ) - ( 8.2). , - , . 8 . 2 , - 9 , , , , - , - , 50. - . «- . « , - 2000­2005 ., - », -- », -- , -, -, , . -, - - «- . , , , ». , - -, - , , - --, 51. , , : « . . , - , , , , . , , : « , , , , - ?» , , . , . , , , , , . . , . , -- , « , , - . . , 60 000 - « , - - ( 6 550 .) . , 20­30 . ... , , , ». 70% - ». - 52. - 18 24 -- , - , , ... , - 54. - ... . - . « , , . , , . , . « - », -- - », -- 55. -. -. : Narayan and Petesch (2006). , , -- 229 ... , (. 7). - , - 127 , . - - 10% - , -, - . 1% , . - - 0,75%. , - (. 4), - , , , - - . - . - ; -- - , (. 8.2). . -, 5­6% , - - , - , , . - , - , , , . -, , - . -- - - , , - . . / - , 2005 . , - 1 . . - 18­24 31% - 15% - 56. , , 8.2 , 56 - . , , - . ( ) ( 21 ) , - . - , ( 30 ) - , , - , ( 21 ) . : McKenzie (2005). 230 2007 / 8 . 1 . . , , « - »() /, - , , , , , - . , - (, - , - . 2000 2003 . - , , ), , . - , - , , . , - - , , , , , - , - . -- , , - . - : Neto and others (2005). , ( 8.1 . 8.3). , . ,1.- , , , - - , . 8.3 : - , . 1.. «» 60 -- 61 -- 59 12 44 55 -- 287 447 410 273 112 198 137 344 425 - 161 228 170 133 39 11 32 177 393 , 314 408 290 205 81 63 78 319 362 , - , , «» , 68 161 106 46 10 20 16 117 279 (). 195 301 246 85 23 51 23 224 785 , - 26 73 67 31 7 12 7 42 284 2001­2005 . (. 8.6). 2000(%) 2005., 43% 41 59 38 39 20 32 63 46 13 15 , 50% -- , 53% -- , 60% -- , 61% -- 51 48 27 52 87 42 83 43 17 70% -- - . , 28 18 17 9 27 11 24 20 12 2002 2003 ., , - 21 1 5 15 12 3 14 12 0 130­160 269 - 2000­2003 . 10 -- -- 5 5 10 4 5 0 15­24 . , : World Bank (2006h). . 2002­2003 ., (2000) (1997); , - -- ; -- . -- ; -- . -- ; -- ; , - -- ; -- . . , 2005 . 231 ,15­24-, « - , - - , 1% 12% - , - ,13--,15--,29-- . , . 53% -- . , , (. 8.4). , , , - . ». , , (), , 2006 - , , , , . 59% , - - , 95% , 5% , 8.6 ,, . - , . - (. 8.7). . , - ; 75% . , , - , 1% 58. - : , InterMedia. , . - 8.4 - , , - SMS- . (%) (%) (%) (%) 1524 12 5 26 24 , - 15­24 (. 8.7). - 16 5 22 22 16,5% -- 8 5 31 27 , (6,6%). 16 7 28 27 - 6 2 21 18 - 3 1 9 5 7 4 19 19 . 20 8 37 35 . 59 28 96 95 - , , 1 250 . 29 19 57 55 59. , 600 . 1 250 . 10 3 33 22 , , , 600 . 5 0 7 7 , - : , InterMedia. -- . . ­ ; 1 250 . = 128 . ; 600 . = 61 . . 232 2007 8.7 - . 2005 . , 1 60. , - 166 , , « - » (six degrees of separation) : , - , , 61. , , 25­50- , (. 8.8). , 44% 74% - : , InterMedia. , - . , 8.8 ,,, - . «» - , , , : , (. 8.5), -- «» . - , - , , . - - : 2007, InterMedia. : . - , . , , , - . - . - - , : . - , - , . «» - - , . 233 - . « » - 8.5 ? , Kazi560, - % . - 1625, ,, , . , 30 . , : . 2004­ , 72 2005 . - 70 695 . : 69 62. 11% /10 1 , - 67. 61 160 , - 61 63. , , , 53 4,1 2008 ., 50 . 35 . - 31 , 30 , . , - 20 - - 23 , - 15 - . 11 , . - , - : - , , , , . 2005 .64 , - , 68. , - , , , . , - , , - , -, - - . 65. - « - - : , « », .- , - ? , , , - , , , ? , - - , , . , , «», 100 - , - , . - 69. «». (), - - 2005 , , 66. - . - 60 , - - 234 2007 " - . - , - . , (. 3). , , «- - », , - - , ». 70. 1,2 16 500 .- , - (), - -, 2005 . - , - - , . 1 - , 2003 . . . () - , 90 71. «» . «Tec Milenio» 8 . 3 - - : - , /3 , 1 - . - . -- . - , , , - - - . - - -. - () . , - 24 . . , , - , - - - , . , - ( 8.3). - , , - - , , - - . - . , , 1997 . () , . - . - () (). , , « » , - , - , - - . : 80% , , - . , . - 72. - - 100 , , , - 1998­2001 . - . , , . , - - . 2001 . . , , , , - . - . 2­21 - : www.avu.org; Halewood and 73. , - Kenny (2006); InternationalTelecommunication - DVD, Union (ITU) (2005); (2005); Prakesh (2003). - 235 : - - - . - « , - « » , 74. , - , , -- , /79. ... «» , - . , , 75. - , , , , , ». . - - (), , 2005 , 80. () - - - , . , 76. , , , , , , . , . , IP- . . 2002 . 72% - ; 7% -- ; 6% -- ; 3% -- ; 2% -- - 8 . 4 « »: , ; 1% 77. - , , - «» - -- , - - , -- . - . /. - 2002 . , : ,« 96%,., - », ( , 39% - , - . 800 , ). 56 . , , , , , 82%, - , - , - , /, , -- . - « » , - , \ . , - . .,,- , (http://www.staying-alive.org) 10 , . , - , , , ; - - ,, , , « - ( 8.4)78. - , -- . - , -- ». , : Halewood and Kenny (2006). , , , 236 2007 - - . - - , , 85. - - . - Global Village - 500 . , 80% - : - ; , - , , , . 81. - , . ? , - , «» , . -- - . , , - - , , , - - , (), . , , , , . , - , , . , . - - , , , - 82. , , , « - » - , , - , - 83, - . . - . , - , 84. , - - , 86. , - - , - : , , 237 . . , , - - - , . , - , , ( , , - ) -. . 2005 . - 68 200 - - 89. (13 . ). , - - 100 1998 . 4 . 2000 ., : - - - , 87. - , , - - . , - , . 18- , , 12-. - , , - . - , . - , . - - . - , - , , , . - , - , , - , , - . . , , . - - - - . , . , - , , ? 88. . 8.6. - - , «» «». , , - - , , - 238 2007 . , - - . , -- , , - -. . - , . - , , - . - . , - , , - - , - . 8.6 , -, ( () ) ()90 , (, .) ( ) () ( , (-) ) ( ) (;, Tec Milenio, ) () SMS- (OKN Mobile, -) , \ - (, ) ( - ) ( ) «» ( GTZ , BMZ, ) (, ) ( ) What donors can do 239 , , «». :«»(,«») ;, ,. - , - ? - . ? -- , , , -- - . , , , ( 1), - , , - - - .,- . , - . ,- ; ? - . (5).- , - ,, .,,- , (34). , , «»,- - - ,- ? 1990-., . , , - - ,, , - ,- «». ; .- 40%,- - . , - , , - - . ? (.). - . - 1997 . - --, - . , () - , . , · , , - . . 10 ( 1230%- , , - 0­18- . , , - , . , () /). - - - . -- , , - , , . : - · . - , 2003 . --, - - . . - . , . , : · . . 1230% 0­18 240 2007 - , (9). , , - - , ,. , . - ,- - , - . ,- ,- - , 2. « . . », , - , - ,, , - ., - ., . . . : - - , , , . , «»- , - ,, 1. , , - . . - . - ,- , - . ;- . . , (, « » 2004: Sida), « , (Oxfam, - »;, ,, ) « » - ( , - . - ( ) «»- , - 7). - ,: -. , · , ,- (3,4,56). , · - , , , - , . . · , - - - , , , , - . ,- , . - (37). , · , - « - », , .- (4). , · - - , - - (7). ,.- · SMS- : Fares, Montenegro, - and Orazem (2006a) World Bank (2006h). , . 64 , 92 . , - , -(48) . ,- 9 - , , - , , - .,- , , , , , - ,- . - « » , . , .- , - , , , , . - , - , - , , . - ,,:- , - «». ,.? - :- , , ( ), , , /, , ,--- , , - - . , . , , - - « . »,- ,- . ,- «». . , - - . , - . . 241 242 2007 ,- . , . , - , - - , , - ,- :,,- . , -,- .- , , ,,- 1. - , - «». , , , : , . - 3­8 , , ? -, ,- , . ,.-, - 1, - . , (). ,- . : -, ? , , ? . , , - , , ? , ,- , - , ? , - ?- . , , - ? -, - - - . , - . , - , , . , - , - . , , , , ,- , (- ), . . 243 , .- , - , , . . «; -- . -(. «»7). -». , - , ? , ,, ? ,- . (-),2006 . (, ).- . , , ,- - - .,, , . , , (,). , . , 2. -- -- . , «»( ; - , , - 2. , ) - - , . , , , , (,,- ),.- - - - ( (- Agetip,). ). , , , - - , - . « (), , ()3. , ». , . ;, ,- (-), . (« 2006 , , », - ),«» , - , .- , - (,«» 244 2007 ). ( - ó, ), , «..., , ( , ). , , - ,. , , ». , - , .- . - - (), .- , 2006 - ( - ). - ,- . , , - , , - . --,- .- (.«- - » , 3). ,- - (- - , , ). . - , , - , . ,- - - ,- ,. , - - , - ( ) . , , ,- , , ( ,- , « ». ) (- , ,. ), - - (, , , ). ,- - . ( ). , , - , 245 , - - (. 7). - , , . - . .- (, Oportunidades ,- - ), , , - - . (.36). . ,- - - , . - - , .: , , · , « ,, (.45). ,, , - . , ·- [ , . ]». - . - ( 3), (-), . 2006 ·- , . . , - , - , ,- (. - « » ,,, 3). - , - « . - , -- ,, ... - ,[] ,,--- - ... - , (.«»,- . - ,2). ...» - , ,22(), , 2006 , ,- - (.4). 246 2007 --,- 9 . 1 - , , , - - , - - ()5. . . - - , , , - ( - ) - , (). , . - , , , - ,- , ,-- ( ). , . , - , . - , , - , - , - , - - . , ,,, , , , - , . - - - , - . (.2.2)6. (, - , - ) (). - , . - : Mattero (2006). ( 9.1). (. 5). ,- - ,, , , . - (.3). , - , . , . ,- - .- - , , ,- , - ,- , 7. . , , . , ,-- , , - , - 4,, , - , ,. ..8,- , 3­8, , , 247 , «, . , ». --,- - (.1). ( , ), , -- - , , ,,- , - , -- ( - , - ). , - . . - , , , ( , , ), (,, « ». ) , - . (, /). , . - - , ,- . , .2001.82%- : ,89%-- - 60% - , . 70% , ? - , , , , , , , ,,- . 9., - , - .- - , . , . - . - , - - 248 2007 , , 10. - , , , - , - , - - ., (9.2). , - (. 3),- . 9 . 2 , - ? , - , 5,- - (, 1995) - , - . - , ,- , - - ,. . . - , , - , , - , - . () , - . , . - , , , , , , - , - , - , . ( .- ? ). , - - . .- , - , . . , - ? , . . : - , , - - , , . . , , , - , , - , . , , , . , . - - . ;- . - , , - . , - - . -- , , . , - - , , , , , - . - , - , 2002 . . . - , , . : Asian Development Bank and World Bank (2005); Brown, Al-Hamad, and De , - Paz Nieves (2005); Javate de Dios (2002); World ., Bank (2005g); World Bank (2005h). . 249 ,- ., - - , , , , , , - , «,, - (9.3). , . - :, . - ,-- - , - ,». . , - . ,21, , 2006 - . , - ,, , - , - 9 . 3 : , - - - ( , , , - , - ) - . , , . . ( 12) - - . () - , - 31 , - (. . 1). . 24 ( , ) (), - , -- - 2003 ., , - , - , , (14) - . . - - . , - (. . 2). , , - , 1 , , . ,? , , , - , - . , - 6 12 6 7 31 , 19 39 19 23 100 . , 2003 ., - .55 2 ? , 2006 ., , - , . - 17 7 7 31 , - , . 55 23 23 100 : Curtain (2006) United Nations (2003). 250 2007 . , , , 11. «»«», ,,(9.4);- , . , « , , .- ,,- - ,. , , , ,, 12. , , - , , - ». . , , (), , , 2005 - , . - -- - , , , , - . - ,,. ,- - 9 . 4 ? - , . - , - , - - - . - , . . , - - . 50 . - , - , - . - , 20 . - . - . 1980- ., . . , - - - , . -- - 2004 . . , -- , , « » - , . . -- , , , - , , , . . , , . - - - -- 13 , 25 . , . , . : , - : Forum 21, European Journal on Youth , Policy, : , , - . www.coe.int/youth/forum21. 251 , - 9 . 5 ., ? - , , , . - - - . ( , ). - - . . - , - - , , - , -- , - (Instituto , Nacional de Juventud) -- . , - - . - ,- , - . , - . , - , - -- , , - - . . - , , , - - . , - , . -- - - -- - - , . , - , - . , , , - , - -- - - , ( 9.5). , , . . , , - : Instituto Mexicano de la Juven- tud (IMJ), Organizacion Iberoamericana de la , - Juventud (OIJ) (2006) . , - . ,,- ,, , - (. , 9.2). -- - . , - - - 1,7­3,5- , .- , , - , 1,- /. , 8,9­13,3(9.6). /, - , - , - , . ,- - - ,- - . 252 2007 9 . 6 : 1.3 1 . 1 2 / - . , - . . - - , 1990 ., . . , , - . . 0,9% 2000 . . , - 1,8% 2020 . - . , 2020 . , 50% - , - .- -- , , - -- 2040 ., , . - . - . , , - , , - , , , , - , . - , 2020 . - . 4%, 15­24 , -- 0,8% 2000 . 1,8% (. , 2020 . 2030 . . ). , - , - , 3­4 , - , - . . . 1 2 / / , 3,5 2,9 13,3 11,7 , , : Bell, Bruhns, and Gersbach (2006). : , 4% . : - ,- , , , .- , ,.. - «», . , - , . , 13. 253 9 . 7 Vozes Jovens: , - - - -- -- Rede Nacional de . - Juventude-RENAJU, - - , . , . Vozes Jovens - Vozes - . Jovens, , , - Vozes . , »15. Jovens (« ») - 300 , . , . . Vozes Jovens , (. « , ., », , , , « Vozes Jovens 5). , , -- , - , - , , - - - . , -- , - , - « » Pro Jovem, - . - . , - Vozes Jovens »14. , - . , - , : « : . - , (.9.3). .- , , ,- , ,- ,- . .2003.- , ,- . - , , , , - ,,- , . . , - , , - . .- : - , ;- , (- ( 9.7). ); - , - - . - 254 2007 . - , ,,- . ,- ,16. , - ( .« ). »- - ,. , , - : (PISA) - ,- (TIMSS), ,- , . ( , ).- ,- . . , - - ,, , , ,- . - . , - - , - , , , ( 3­8 ).,- (9.8)17.( ; ,- , , ). - , - . - . . ,- , - , ; , - , - (, - 60, , . - . - - . . , - - , , 255 9 . 8 ? , . , *; , 18. 1. , 2. , , 3. ­ ­ * 4. , 5. , 6. , , 7. , , 8. 9. , , , * 10. , * 11. , , 12. , /, 13. 15 , 60- , 14. , 15. , 18 16. , 17. , - - , , * 18. , , , * 19. , , * 20. , , 100 . ., * 21. , , * 22. , , * 23. , 10 , * 24. , , * : , 3­8 . * . - ( ,- ). , ( , , /) , ( ,- ). .- -- . (18). - - , - - .,- . - , - . . - -- , - - . 256 2007 , . ,. «- - » . . , - ,,- --. ,,- ( , ), ( - , - ),19. .- : , - , - - - 20. --- 9 . 9 -- ( Oportunidades) Oportunidades ( Progresa) -- , . - «» . - -- «» , , ,- ? . - , , , . - - , 1997 . - , . - , - 25 . . ; , Oportunidades? , - 2005 . 0,38% . - . . - - Oportunidades - , , , , . - . -- . - ? 21. Oportunidades, - . , . - - , . - - . . - , , - . - . ; , - ( - , - , - ), - , , . . , , - -- . - . . - , - , . , . : Bate (2004); Behrman, Sengutta, and , , Todd (2001); Levy and Rodriguez (2004); Murray - . (2004); Schultz (2000). 257 ,- . , - , - , - . . , - Jovenes,, . , - . . , -- , , , - , , : , - - ., . - - , - , , (. «»8). ,- , - ,- , , .- , , ( ) . , - .,- Oportunidades 9.6,- (), . , , , - - , , - - .- . (9.9). -- - - , -- - . - - . , , , , , . , , . ? - , , - , , , . - , . . , , « , . ». , . : , , , . (19 ) , - , , , - - . , , , . -- , 2 . -, , . . (22 ) : « - . -- , -- , -- ». , 16 - 25 , , . - -. . , , : . «», . . . , , , : . Gemi Diriyat (-), 2006 . (. 2.4), ( 3). « » -- . 1, . , . , , , , , , . : (. ), , ( 7). , , . , ? , « », ? , . ( , , , /). 2004 . « , », . , 50 , ,( , , , 12­15 ) , . . , , , , , , -- , . ( 7 9), . , . , , 259 ... , , », -- : . . , /, · , , . Taking ITGlobal, , . -, ( ...»3 *. ), · , , ? , , , · « , , . , , . », -- , (18 ): « -- ( . , . 8). · -- ». , Development , , Gateway, , . , , : »*. , · , , , 2. , , : , : Umsobomvu , , , . , (, ), . , , ASER ( 3)*. , · , , , 2005 . , , , , , . , : , . « - , - , , , / . (GYCA), , , ... - . .* , - , , , , - , . , . , , , - . , »4. , , , «» . , , , , . , , (, . : , Taking ITGlobal, Youth Employment Summit ? [YES], Global Youth Action Network), « , · « , , . , , -- ... , : , "" * . , : Development Gateway: www.developmentgateway.org/youth/; / (GYCA): www.youthaidscoalition.org; Taking IT Global»: www.takingitglobal.org; «»: www.uyf.org.za; : www.un.org/youth, : www.worldbank.org/childrenandyouth; www.youthink.org; « »: www.yesweb.org. 260 2007 , *. : . « - ( ) , , . . , - , , . - -- ... - . . , , , , , - , ». . : « . , , - . , . « ... , » (Youth, Development - and Peace Network). - , , « », , : , . ... , , , , ...»5 . , . , , , , , , , . - , , , . , : , , . , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , -, , , , , , , . , , , , , -, , , . , , , , , , , , , , . , - , , , K. - , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , -, , , , , , . , , , , - , , , - . , , , , , - , , , . - , « » , , , - www.worldbank.org/wdr2007, , , , , . - M. , , , , , , - , , , , . , , , . , . , , , , - , , , , , , , , - « , . , , , ». : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , ', , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , ... , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . - , , , , , . , -, , -- - , , , , , , -- - , , , . , . . , , , , , , , , A. , , , , , , , , 261 262 , , , , - Fares, Jean, Claudio E. Montenegro, and Peter F. Orazem. "Vari- ,, , , ation in the Returns to Schooling Across and Within Developing , , , Economies." , , , , Fares, Jean, and Dhushyanth Raju. "Child Labor across the . Developing World: Patterns, Correlations and Determinants." , Fares, Jean, and Erwin Tiongson. "Entering the Labor Market and Early Mobility of Youth: Evidence from Panel Estimates in Bos- - nia and Herzegovina." . , - Galiani, Sebastián, Martín Rossi, and Ernesto Schargrodsky. "Conscription and Crime." ,,, Gomart, Elizabeth. "Supporting Youth Citizenship: Review of , , . . Evidence." Gorpe, Mehmet Ziya, Jean Fares, and Claudio E. Montenegro. , - "Public Wage Premium Around the World." . Gutierrez, Juan Pablo. "Oportunidades for the Next Generation: Effects of a Conditional Cash Transfer on the Wellbeing of Mexican Youths." - Halewood, Naomi, and Charles Kenny. "Young People and . Communications Technologies." La Cava, Gloria, Zeynep Ozbil, Sarah Michael, Elena Galliano, , Minna Mattero, and Mio Takada. "Youth and the Transition to Citizenship: The Role of the State in Promoting Positive Youth Reli- gious and Ethnic Identities and Young People's Role in Peace-Build- Adams, Arvil V. "The Role of Skills Development in the Transi- ing and Social Change." tion to Work: A Global Review." Lam, David. "The Demography of Youth in Developing Coun- Basu, Kaushik, Hyejin Ku, and Homa Zarghamee. "Determi- tries and its Economic Implications." nants of Youth Behaviour and Outcomes: A Review of Theory, Evi- Llisterri, J., H. Kantis, P. Angelelli, and L. Tejerina. "Youth Entre- dence and Policy Implications." preneurship in Latin America." Behrman, Jere R., Alexis Murphy, Agnes Quisumbing, Usha Mangiaterra, Viviana, and Gerold Vollmer. "Youth Consulta- Ramakrishna, and Kathyrn Young. "What is the Real Impact of tions for the WDR 2007: Synthesis Report of Country and Grass- Education on Age of First Parenthood and Family Formation?" roots Consultations." Bell, Clive, Ramona Bruhns, and Hans Gersbach. "Economic Mattero, Minna. "Youth Policies and the Institutional Framework." Growth, Education and Aids in Kenya Model: A Long-run Analy- sis." McKenzie, David J. "A Profile of the World's Young Developing Country Migrants." Carneiro, Pedro, and Cristobal Ridao-Cano. "Heterogeneity and Uncertainty in Returns to High School: The Case of Indonesia." Perlman, Janice E., and Sarah E. Anthony. "Citizenship and Youth in the Favelas of Rio de Janeiro." Carneiro, Pedro, and Cristobal Ridao-Cano. "The Role of Short Term Liquidity Constraints in Explaining Educational Investments in Indonesia." , Duflo, Esther, Pascaline Dupas, Michael Kremer, and Samuel Simei. "Education and HIV/AIDS Prevention: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Western Kenya." Arjona, Ana. "Understanding Recruitment in Civil Wars." El-Cherkeh, Tanja, Elena Stirbu, and Andrea Tolciu. "Youth Blum, Robert. "The Adolescent Brain." Migration to Europe: Potential Impact on the Labour Market of the Filmer,Deon,EmmanuelJimenez,andAnnetteRichter."Simulat- Countries of Origin." ing the Returns to Youth Opportunity Agency and Second Chances." Fares, Jean, and Claudio E. Montenegro. "Youth Unemploy- Graham, Carol and Matthew Hoover. "An Exploration of Civic ment's Dynamics: Evidence from Brazil (1978­2002) and Chile Activity in Latin America." (1957­2005)." Hasan, Amer. "Youth Dispositions Towards Citizenship: Do Fares,Jean,ClaudioE.Montenegro,andPeterF.Orazem."HowAre Constitutional Frameworks Matter?" Youth Faring in the Labor Market? Evidence from Around the World." Ridao-Cano, Cristobal. "Vietnamese Youth: Managing Prosperity." 24. Bloom and Canning (2005). 1. , - 25. World Bank (2003f). «», 15­24 , , 26. Kabeer (1999) Sen (1985). . 27. Vietnam Ministry of Health and General Statistics Office, , UNICEF, WHO (2005). . 28. Boyer and Shafer (1997); Caceres and others (1994); 2. World Bank (1990) World Bank (2001d). Eggleston and others (2000). 3. World Bank (2005j). 29. World Bank (2004a). 4. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005) 30. Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA) p. 73. (2001). 5. Acemoglu(2003). 31. De Ferranti and others (2003) p. 97. 6. World Bank (2005r). 32. Jacoby and Skoufias (2002). 7. Cohen and Bloom (2005). 33. Arends-Kuenning andAmin (2000). 8. World Bank (2004e). 34. Jimenez and Lockheed (1989). 35. Akerlof andKranton () -- - (2000). , - 36. Gruber and Zinman (2001) and World Bank (2005j). , 37. Hahn and Leavitt (2003). , , 1960- . 38. - , , - , , . . 2003 . - - 400 . . .: Dohmen and others (2005). 12 . . 39. Hanushek and Wofimann (2005). . .: Perlman (2005). 40. Singer (2005) Stohl (2001). 9. Bloom and Canning (2005). 41. Jha and others (2001). 10. 2050 . - , 12­24 , I . .: Lam (2006). 1. World Bank (2006b). 11. Bell, Devarajan, and Gersbach (2006) p. 80. 2. World Bank (1990); World Bank (2001d); World Bank (2005r). 12. .:World Bank (1993a). , 3. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005) , -- « 4. - » 1960 1985 . - . -- - - . . 13. De Ferranti and others (2003). Grossman (2005a); Knowls and Behrman (2005); Schultz (2002); 14. Bell and others (2004) p. 44. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005); 15. Behrman and others (2005a). World Bank (2001) ­ , - 16. Abeyratne(2004). . 17. . 2.1. 5. World Bank (2001). 18. UNESCO (2004b). 6. Paxson and Schady (forthcoming). 19. 7. World Bank (2005r). - 8. Jimenez (1995). 9. World Bank (2004e) World Bank (2005f). 10. De Frerranti and others (2003) 20. Garces, Thomas, and Currie (2000); Glewwe, Jacoby, and 11. - King (2001); Kagitcibasi, Sunar, and Bekman (2001). , 21. UNESCO (2005). . . Bell, Devarjan, and 22. World Bank (2005o). Gersbach (2006), table 1. 23. - 12. World Bank (2002b). - 13. (Barro 1999), - . . : World Bank (2005e). , 100 1960­1995 ., 263 264 2007 , . Bloom and Williamson, , . (Pritchett (). 2001), 90 1960­1985 ., 34. Deaton and Paxton (1997). 35. Bloom and Canning (2005). , , 36. , , - . , 14. Hanushek and Kimko (2000). . -- -, , , , 15. World Bank (2001d). -, . 16. C. Panton, . : World Bank (2001b). 37. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005) 17. World Bank (2001b). UNICEF (2000). 18. 38. , .: Behrman, Birsdall, and Szekely (2003) Sanchez- . - Paramo and Schady (2003); -- Abu-Ghaida , , and Connolly (2003); -- , 11 , 12 Schulz (2003); -- Abu-Ghaida and Connolly 14 , 14 , (2003); -- Heckman and Li (2004); -- , 17 National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. , , 19. Berman and Machin (2000). , , 20. Acemoglu (2003). , - 21. Vietnam Ministry of Health and General Statistics Office, , - UNICEF and WHO (2005). (National Research 22. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). Council and Institute of Medicine 2005). 23. World Bank (2002). 39. . 5. 24. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 40. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 25. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 26. « ». United Nations (2005) , - 1. , - . World Population 27. / Prospects, (United Nations 2005). , - . , , . . : http://www.un.org/esa/ , , population/publications/WPP2004/wpp2004. . , 2. , , , - 2005 . - 2000 2010 . « » - 2010 ., 2005 2015 . . 0,5% . .: Lam (2006). 28. Johnson (2000) and Lam (2006). 3. , 29. Lam (2006). , - 30. 2010 2030 ., World Population Prospects, - 2005 2015 . 0,5% , . - , 2005 . 2030 ., 2025 2035 . 100 . ., -. 0,5% . 31. , , - -- 2 . - 1. World Bank (2003f). 1960- 1970- ., 2. Moehling (2005), - , - - . , . - -- 2­3% , -- 3. , , - , , , - . , - , , , . . 4. . 7 - 32. , - 2006 (World Bank 2005r). , Coale and Hoover 5. UNESCO (2004b), Summary, p. 35. (1958) Leff (1969), , 6. Kurz, Peplinsky, and Johnson-Welch (1994). 7. Strauss and Thomas (1995). - - 8. -, - . . 33. Bloom and Sachs (1998); Bloom and Williamson (1998); Head Start , Bloom, Canning, and Malaney (2000); and Mason (2001). - , , , (), . - 265 34. World Bank (2006g). (Garces, 35. O'Donoghue and Rabin (2001). Thomas, and Currie (2000). 36. Knowles and Behrman (2005). 9. Glewwe, Jacoby, and King (2001). 37. Dupas (2006). 10. Kagitcibasi, Sunar, and Bekman (2001). 38. Jensen (2006). 11. World Bank (2005f). 39. Vegas and Umansky (2005). 12. , 40. Akerlof and Kranton (2000). 41. .: Shanahan and others (2005). , (Binder 42. Ali and others (2006) p. 11. 2005), 43. Billari, Philipov, and Baizán Munoz (2001). 28 . 44. De Ferranti and others (2003). 25- ( 22 ., 45. Jacoby and Skoufias (2002). , , - 46. Mathur, Greene, and Jamhotra (2003). «» « », ). , - . , 47. Pitt and Khandker (1996). , - 48. Jimenez and Lockheed (1989). 11­14 . . 49. O'Donoghue and Rabin (2001). (Cohen and Bloom 2005) , 50. Gruber and Zinman (2001). . 51. World Bank (2005p). 13. World Bank (2003f). 52. Bruns, Mingat, and Rakotomalala (2003). 14. , 53. Strauss and Thomas (1995). , 54. Groce(2003). , 55. Levitt and Lochner (2001). 56. Hahn and Leavitt (2003). () 30 (40) . . 4. 57. World Bank (2003f). 15. UNESCO (2005) p. 174. 58. O'Donoghue and Rabin (2001). 16. Lee and Rhee (1999). 59. National Youth Council of Ireland (2001). 17. McKenzie (2004). 60. Economic Research and 18. Bloom and Canning (2005). Consulting, Swiss Reinsurance Company, Zurich. 19. 20­24- 61. , Knowles and Behrman (2003), pp. 23% 39­40, , 1 . ., 1970 2000 . . Joekes (1995). , - 20. Maloney and Nuñez Mendez (2004) Montenegro and 10,23 . , , Pages (2004). , 21. Heckman and Pagés (2000). ( ) 22. (UNDP 1995), 2/3 ( ). ( 31 ., .: . World Bank, UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) and OECD 23. "Enquete 2006), 32,3 - Niveau de Vies des Menages, Institut National de la Statistique, . , Republique de Cote d'Ivoire" (2002). 0,8 , - 24. World Bank (2004e). . 25. World Bank (2003f). 62. ., .: Goldscheider (2000). 26. 63. Span Jr. (2000). Kabeer (1999). - - 64. Hanushek and Wofimann (2005). , 65. Philippine News online. (Sen 1985). 66. Filmer, Jimenez, and Richter (2006). 27. Arnett (2000). 67. Jensen (2006). . , , « ». , . 1. - ( ), (Shanahan and others 2005). -- 28. - , (UNICEF 2001), . .: World Bank (2004b) World Bank (2005a). . 2. Singh (1998). 29. Iversen (2002) p. 821. 3. WHO (2002b). 30. UNESCO (2005). 4. Buvinic and others (2006). 31. Basu and Foster (1998). 5. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 32. Basu, Ku, and Zarghamee (2006). 6. Lloyd, Mensch, and Clark (2000). 33. Vietnam Ministry of Health and General Statistics Office, 7. Grown, Rao Gupta, and Kes (2005). UNICEF, and WHO (2005). 8. Ritchie, Lloyd, and Grant (2004). 266 2007 9. Levison, Moe, and Knaul (2001). 18. - 10. - (91%) , - 24 : , , - , , , , , , - . UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2005). , , , , , , - 19. http://www.onderwijsraad.nl/Doc/English/masterofmarket.pdf. , , , , , , , 20. World Bank (2002a). , -, - . 21. UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2005). 12 : 22.., - , , , , , , « » , , , , (centers of excellence) - . . . http://www. . cpec.ca.gov/. 11. -«» - 23. World Bank (2005f). 10% , 23% , 27% 28% 24. Benavot (2004). . 25. World Bank (2002a) World Bank (2005l). 12. Lavy (1996) World Bank (2005a). 26. Levy and Murnane (2004). 13. Amin and others (1998). 27. Lee and Wong (2005). 14. World Bank (2005a). 28. UNESCO (2004b). 15. Buvinic (2005). 29. 16. Ministerio del Trabajo Peru (1998). , 90- . . - . , 3 - 1. Carneiro and Heckman (2003); Cunha and others (2005). . 2. Knudsen (2004); Newport (2002); Shonkoff and Phillips «» (2000). . . Gauthier and Dembélé (2004). 3. . Heckman, LaLonde, 30. - and Smith (1999). - 4. Currie and Thomas (1995). - 5. . , , : Alderman, Hoddinott, and Kinsey (forthcoming); Paxson and Schady (forthcoming); Carneiro and Heckman (2003). (. 3.11). , , 6. Paxson and Schady (forthcoming). - 7. , - , , - . . Tan, Lane, and Lassibille (1999). 31. , - , (Soewondo, Husaini, and Pollitt 1989; Seshadri and Gopaldas . . UNESCO 1989). , (2004b) . ., , Walker and others (2005); Berlinsky, Galiani, 32. World Bank (2003b). , - and Gertler (2006); Armecina and others (2006). , - 8. : http:// , stats.uis.unesco.org/. (Autor, Katz, and Krueger 1998). , 9. Canals-Cerda and Ridao-Cano (2004). - , - , , (Pabilonia . - and Zoghi -- forthcoming). . 33. Kuku, Orazem and Singh (2005) - 10. 9 , - , - . . 11. Woessmann and Hanushek (forthcoming). , , 12. , , ­ (Lochner and Moretti 2004), - , (48%), (Patrinos and Sakellariou 2005), - . - (Oreopoulos 2005); , (Lochner and Moretti 2004) -- (Munshi and Rosensweig 2003). . UNESCO (Black, Devereaux, and Salvanes 2004). (2004b) . 13. Knight and Sabot (1990); Mete (2004). 34. , , - 14. World Bank (2005r). , 15. Filmer (forthcoming). 16. UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2005). , - 17. World Bank (2002a) UNESCO Institute of Statistics (2005). (Varcoe and others 2005). 267 35. Cox (2004). 69. Akerlof and Kranton (2002). 36. Kemple and Scott-Clayton (2004). 70. O (2005b). 37. Johanson and Adams (2004). 71. Blum and Libbey (2004). 38.Chen and Kenney (2005). 72. Catalano and others (2004). 39. UNESCO (2004b). 73. Kessler and others (1995). 40. .: Chaudhury and others (2006). 74. de Jong and others (2001). - 75. Blum and Libbey (2004). , , . World Bank 76. . : UNESCO (2004a); - (2005f). (2005). 41. ., , Jacob and Lefgren (2002). 77. . Hoff and Pandey (2004); Dréze and Gazdar (1997) 42. .: ; - UNESCO (2004b) World Bank (2005k). (2005) ; Akerlof 43. and Kranton (2002) . .: Vegas and Umansky (2005). 78. Lloyd, Mensch, and Clark (2000). - 44. Banerjee and Duflo (2006); Vegas and Umansky (2005). , , - , , , - , . 79. Hoff and Pandey (2004). ( ), 80. Davies, Williams, and Yamashita (2006). , , , 12 , . - 45. Lavy (2002). , 46. -- . (Hannam 2001). 47. World Bank (2003b). 81. Davies, Williams, and Yamashita (2006). 48. Pratham Resource Centre (2005). 82 Brett and Specht (2004). 49. World Bank (2005k). - 83. - - . . . . . , 13 2006 ., . 50. , , Caldwell, Levacic, and Ross (1999). 84. : www.aimhigher.ac.uk, - 51. Fuchs and Woessmann (2004). 14­16- , "Don't 52. World Bank (2006d); Reinikka and Svensson (2002). Stop" -- « » (http://www.aimhigher.ac.uk/ dontstop/home/). 16-, - . (Emmerson and - others 2005). - . . , - 85. Carneiro and Ridao-Cano (2005). . , , . . Aakvik, Salvanes, . and Vaage (2003) . -- 53. Bray (2004). - 54. Woessmann (2003); Woessmann and Hanushek (forthcoming). (. Carneiro 55. World Bank (2005b) Patrinos (2005). and Lee 2005) Fleisher and others (2004) ). 56. Angrist and Lavy (2002); Angrist, Bettinger, and Kremer 86. , - (forthcoming). (Jensen 2006). 57. Filer and Münich (2002). 87. - 58. Patrinos (2005) and Barrera Osorio (2005). , 59. Behrman and others (2002). . 60. DeWalque (2005). , - 61. De Fraja, Oliveira, and Zanchi (2005). , , , 62. Sacerdote (2001); Kremer and Levy (2003). , - - (Dohmen and others 2005). , - , , - , , , . . 63. . : Lazear (2001) Fertig (2003) , - 88. , , - - , . . : Fryer and Torelli (2005); Akerlof and Kranton « ». , - (2005b) . , . 64. Ding and Lehrer (forthcoming). 89. Carneiro and Heckman (2002). - 65. Slavin (1996), . : UNESCO (2004b). , , , 66. Boisjoly and others (2004). , . 67. Slavin and Cooper (1999); Steinberg and Cauffman (1996). , - 68. Kremer, Miguel, and Thornton (2004). , . 268 2007 - 113. Bray (2004). : 114. Lavy and Schlosser (2005). 115. Banerjee . (2005). . 116. 90. ., ., Lillard and Willis (1994), - .: Blum and - Libbey (2004); World Bank (2006d) ; CRECE , Behrman and Knowles (1999), (2005) . 117. Abadzi (2003). [ ] 6-17 . 118. Heckman, LaLonde, and Smith (1999) and Betcherman, Behrman and Knowles (1999) 42 - Olivas, and Dar (2004). , 21 . - 119. Heckman, Smith, and Clements (1997). 120. Betcherman, Olivas, and Dar (2004). , . 121. , 91. . Jacoby and Skoufias (2002) 2007. Sawada and Lokshin (2001) . 92. , « ». , 1. : Asian (), - Development Bank (2005); Nguyen Anh, Duong, and Hai Van (- (2005); Nguyen Anh (2005); Parliamentary Committee for Social ). Affairs (2005); Vietnam Ministry of Health and General Statistics 93. Levison, Moe, and Knaul (2001). Office, UNICEF, and WHO (2005); Lautredou (2005); World Bank 94. Beegle, Dehejia, and Gatti (2004). (2003e); World Bank (2005q). 95. Canals-Cerda and Ridao-Cano (2004). 2. Vietnam Ministry of Health and General Statistics Office, 96. Gunnarson, Orazem, and Sánchez (2006). UNICEF, WHO (2005). 97. Greene and Merrick (2005); Singh (1998); (2005). 4 98. Eloundou-Enyegue (2004). 1. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 99. Behrman and others (2006). 2. ILO (2006). « » «- 100. . : Rawlings and Rubio (2005); » - Morley and Coady (2003). . , 101. Skoufias and Parker (2001); Schultz (2004); Skoufias, Davis, and de la Vega (2001). . - 102. Todd and Wolpin (2003). . 103. Coady (2000). , - 104 Sadoulet and de Janvry (2006) , - , , . , 3. Duryea and others (forthcoming). , 4. Fares and Raju (2006). , . 5. Yap, Sedlacek, and Orazem (2001) Emerson and Souza 105. Skoufias and Parker (2001). - (2002). 12­13- 6. Kaushik and Tzannatos (2003) Betcherman and others (2001). (Maluccio forthcoming). Ravallion and 7. . Gunnarson, Orazem, and Sanchez (2006) - Wodon (2000), « - - » , ; Rosati and Rossi (2003) -- - 25% - ; Heady (2003) . . . : de Janvry and others (2006). 8. Ilahi, Orazem, and Sedlacek (2005), Emerson and Souza (2006). 106. Yap, Sedlacek, and Orazem (2001). 9. 107. Arends-Kuenning and Amin (2000). 108. Angrist and others (2002); Angrist, Bettinger, and Kremer 61 (Fares, Mon tenegro, and Orazem 2006b). (forthcoming). 10. Emerson and Souza (2003). 109. - 11. Kassouf, McKee, and Mossialos (2001). 12. Fares, Montenegro, and Orazem (2006a). (Sparrow 2004) 13. Borgarello and others (2005). . , , , , , 110. . , 14. ILO (2004). - Bolsa Escola. Lavinas, Barbosa, and Tourinho (2001). , - 111. Carneiro and Heckman (2003). 112. . .. 15. Kabbani and Kothari (2005). , , - 16. ILO (2005). . 17. World Bank (2003d). 18. O'Higgins(2003). 269 19. Fares and Montenegro (2006). 54. Sánchez-Páramo and Schady (2003). 20. Fares and Tiongson (2006). 21. Mroz and Savage (2001) Card and Lemieux (2000b). . 22. Freeman (2000) Fougère, Kramarz, and Pouget (2006). 55. Japan Bank for International Cooperation (2006). 23. Hettige, Mayer, and Salih (2004). 56. Gruben and McLeod (2006). 24. Topel and Ward (1992). 57. World Bank (2004e). 25. Parent (2006). 58. Kugler(2004). 26. Hemmer and Mannel (1989). 59. Cahuc and Carcillo (2006) and Blanchard (2006). 27. Borgarello and others (2005). 60. World Bank (2004e). 28. Audas, Berde, and Dolton (2005). 61. Social Protection Note, World Bank, forthcoming, "More 29. Guarcello, Mealli, and Rosati (2003) Parent (2006). and better jobs in developing and emerging economies." 30. O'Higgins (2003) Korenman and Neumark (2000). 62. Neumark and Wascher (1999). 31. Fares and Montenegro (2006). 63. Gill, Montenegro, and Domeland (2002). 32. O'Higgins (2003). Korenman and Neumark (2000) 64. OECD (2005a). 65. Kluve(2006). . 66. Fretwell, Benus, and O'Leary (1999) Kluve (2006). 33. See Rosati (forthcoming). 67. Cockx and Gobel (2004). 34. . National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 68. Hazell and Haggblade (1993). (2005). 69. Huffman and Orazem (2004). 35. Mammen and Paxson (2000); Huffman and Orazem (2004); 70. Haggblade, Hazell, and Reardon (forthcoming). Greenwood, Seshadri, and Vandenbroucke (2005). 71. Kobrich and Dirven (2006). 36. , -- 72. Ferreira and Lanjouw (2001) and Kijima and Lanjouw (2004). , , ; 73. Haggblade, Hazell, and Reardon (forthcoming). ; - 74. Otsuka (forthcoming). ; p - 75. Kijima and Lanjouw (2004), Ferreira and Lanjouw (2001). «» . 76. - , 37. World Bank (1995); World Bank (2004e); World Bank .. (2005c). 15­24-. - 38. . « « » , 4, Lazear (1983); Bentolila and Bertola (1990); . - Bertola, Blau, and Kahn (2002). 29 . 39. Hopenhayn and Rogerson (1993). 77. World Bank (2005n). 40. Pages and Montenegro (1999) Montenegro and Pages 78. Au and Henderson (forthcoming). (2004). 79. 2000 . , 12% 41. Heckman and Pages (2000). Jimeno and Rodriguez-Palen- . zuela (2002), 80. State council policy paper, "Opinion of the state council on , , - the issue of rural migrant workers." Beijing (2006). ( - 81. Pritchett (2006). ), , 82. Ryan (2001). . 83. Johanson and Adams (2004). 42. Cunningham and Siga (2006) ; Montenegro and 84. van Eekelen, de Luca, and Ismail (2001). Pages (2004) ; Neumark and Wascher (1999) - 85. Adams (2006). . 86. Atchoarena and Delluc (2001). 43. Maloney and Nunez Mendez (2004). 87. Haan and Serriere (2002). 44. Boudarbat (2005). 88. Johanson and Adams (2004). 45. World Bank (2003d). 89. Riley and Steel (1999). 46. Serneels (2004). 90. Tan (2005). 91. Tan and Batra(1995). 47. Gorpe, Fares, and Montenegro (2006). 92. Johanson and Adams (2004). 48. Paniza (2000) , 93. World Bank (2006e). - 94. Johanson and Adams (2004) Cinterfor/ILO (2001). - 95. Llisterri and others (2006). -, 96. « . Filmer and Lindauer (2001) - » Global , - Entrepreneurship Monitor (Reynolds and others , .. 2002). , 49. Tzannatos(1999). , Global 50. Ragui and Arntz (2005). Entrepreneur ship Monitor 51. O'Higgins (2003) - ; Fares and , . Montenegro (2006) ; Rosati (forthcoming). 97. - 52. , , , , -, , - , , . , . 53. Noorkoiv and others (1998). , . Llisterri and others (2006). 270 2007 98. Kantis (2003). 18. World Bank (1999b). 99. Betcherman, Olivas, and Dar (2004). 19. Russell (2000). 100. Elway (1999). 20. UNAIDS (2000). 101. Betcherman and others (2006). - 21. World Bank (1999a). , - 22. Bateman (2001); Chandra, Jairam, and Jacob (2004); , , - Visinntini and others (1996). , -- 23. Montoya Diaz (2002). . 24. Singh and others (2000). 102. Ravallion and others (2005). MEASURE 103. Galasso, Ravallion, and Salvia (2001). (Demographic and Health Survey) , 104. Pound and Knight (2006). http://www.usnews.com/ 2000 2004 . usnews/biztech/articles/060403/3worl dbank.htm. 25. McCauley and Salter (1995). 105. Galasso, Ravallion, and Salvia (2001). 26. Mensch, Singh, and Casterline (2006). 106. UNICEF (2000), . 4.11. 27. Demographic and Health Surveys. 107. . See http://www.jobsnet.lk/. 28. Clark (2004). 108. Lasida and Rodriguez (2006). 29. Konde-Lule, Sewankambo, and Morris (1997). 109. Devia (2003) Santiago Consultores Asociados (1999). 30. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 31. Family Health International (2005). « ». « » 32. Dunkle and others (2004). 33. Jejeebhoy and Bott (2003). , 1. Korenman and Neumark (2000). « » 2. Ryan (2001). . - 3. Burgess and others (2003). () , 4. Card and Lemieux (2000a). 5. Blanco and Kluve (2002). . - 6. Gould, Weinberg, and Mustard (1998); Grogger (1998); , Machin and Meghir (2004). (Kaufman and Stavrou; 2004). 7. Fougère, Kramarz, and Pouget (2006). 34. Luke (2003). 8. Blanchard and Wolfers (2000); Nickell and Layard 35. Human Rights Watch (2002b). (1999); Blau and Kahn (1999) 36. WHO (2004). . 37. Hibbell and others (2000). 9. Jimeno and Rodríguez-Palenzuela (2002). 38. Singleton, Lee, and Meltzer (2001) Institute of Alcohol 10. Neumark and Wascher (1999) , Studies (2006). 39. Peden and others (2000). 40. World Bank (1999c). , 41. Parry and others (2000). . 42. Gajakashmi and others (2000). 11. Bertola, Blau, and Kahn (2002). 43. Jha and Chaloupka (2000). 12. Ryan (2001). 44. Witoelar, Rukumnuaykit, and Strauss (2005). 13. Kluve (2006) and Grubb (2001). Indonesia Family Life Survey, 1993­2000. 45. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 46. United Nations Economic and Social Council (2001). 5 47. UNICEF, UNAIDS, and WHO (2002). 1. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine; 2005. 48. Osmond and Barker (2000); Martorell and others (1998); 2. WHO (2002a). - Ramakrishnan (2004). , . 49. Gluckman and others (2005) Sawaya and others (2003). 3. López and others (2006). 50. FAO (2006). 4. Lule and others (2005). 51. Popkin (1994); Popkin (2002); Popkin and Gordon- Larsen 5. See Mullahy and Sindelar (1991), DeSimone (2002). (2004). 6. Rodríguez Ospina, Duque Ramirez, and Rodríguez García (1993). 52. Fernald and others (2004). 7. World Bank (2005d). 53. Gertler and others (2006). 8. Hibbell and others (2000) Bloomfield and others (2003). 54. World Bank (1993b); Reddy (2002); Deparment of Health 9. WHO and World Bank (2005). Services Sri Lanka (2002); FAO (2006). 10. Lundberg, Over, and Mujinja (2003) Yamano and Jayne 55. Hubley (2000) Gatawa (1995). (2004). 56. Cohen (2004) Gregson and others (2006). 11. Kalemli-Ozcan (2001); Kalemli-Ozcan (2005). 57. Bloom (2005a) Blum and Ireland (2004). 12. Witoelar, Rukumnuaykit, and Strauss (2005). 58. Kenkel (2000). 13. Ezzati and Lopez (2004). 59. Lansdown and others (2002). 14. Ebbeling, Pawlak, and Ludwig (2002) Koplan, Liverman, 60. Cáceres and others (1994); Eggleston and others (2000); and Kraak (2005). Boyer and Shafer (1997). 15. Slaymaker and others (2004). 61. Knowles and Behrman (2005). 16. World Bank (1999c). 62. James-Traore and others (2002). 17. World Bank (1993b). 63. Agha (2002). 271 64. Abaunza (2002). 110. Stanback and Twum-Baah (2001). 65. .: Muirhead, Kumaranayake, and Watts (2001). 111. Dickson-Tetteh, Pettifor, andMoleko (2001). 66. - 112. Temin and others (1999). , 2006 ., - 113. Knowles and Behrman (2005). (Vietnam Youth Association). 114. Thailand Ministry of Public Health and World Bank (2005). 67. James-Traore and others (2002). 115. Salomon and others (2005). 68. Cohen (2004). 116. Over and others (2004). 69. 117. Health and Treasury Task Team (2003). 0,0001 0,0014 118. Teixeira, Vitória, and Barcarolo (2003). ; 0,002 0,0001­0,004 . 119. , ( 0,10) - - , , (Lucas and others; 2001). (Gray and others 2001). 120. UNAIDS and UNODCCP (2000). 70. .: Jha and Chaloupka (2000); ­ Moore and 121. Celentano and others (2001). Cook (1995) ­ ; ; Aarts, 122. Shah and Ahman (2004a) Shah and Ahman (2004b). Paulussen, and Schaalma (1997) ­ - 123. WHO (1998). ­ Shafii and others (2004) 124. Ellertson and others (1995). 71. Knowles and Behrman (2005). 125. Aziken, Okonta, and Ande (2003). 72. James-Traore and others (2002). 126. World Bank (1993b). 73. Dupas (2006). 127. Berer (2003). 74. Kirby, Laris, and Rolleri (2005). 128. Pauly (1968). 75. DeWalque(2004). 129. Population Council (2002). 76. Kirby (2001). 130. Rowlands and others (2000). 77. Brückner and Bearman (2005); Bearman and Brückner 131. .: Over and others (2004) . (2001); Fortenberry (2005). 132. Marseille (2003). 78. WHO (2003b). 133. Jha and others (2001). 79. - 134. Dupas (2006). (Coakley 2002). . « ». . 7 . 1. , - 80. Brady (1998). , , World Bank (2006i). 81. Smith, Bogin, and Bishai (2005). , - 82. Erulkar and others (2004). , 83. Student Partnership Worldwide (2005) p. 2. . 84. Caceres and others (1994); Eggleston and others (2000); 2. Bonelli and Veiga (2004). Boyer and Shafer (1997). 3. World Bank (2006i). 85. Eggleston, Leitch, and Jackson (2000). 4. Bourguignon, Ferreira, and Menendez (2005). 86. James-Traore and others (2002). 5. Verner, Blom, and Holm-Nielsen (2001). 87. Alford, Cheetham, and Hauser (2005). 6. 88. Mensch, Hewett, and Erulkar (2001); Erulkar and Mensch , , (1997); James-Traore and others (2002). , - 89. Berer (2003). . World Bank (2001a). 90. Dupas (2006). 7. , , 91. Gutierrez (2006). , - 92. World Bank (1999b). , 93. Witoelar, Rukumnuaykit, and Strauss (2005). . 94. Grossman (2005b). 8. World Bank (2006i). 95. World Bank (1999b). 9. 96. .: Townsend, Roderick, and Cooper (1994) , , - . , 97. Rehm (2003) World Bank (1999b). . 98. Nelson (2003) Fichtenberg and Glantz (2002). 10. , 99. World Bank (1999b). 2002 ., , - 100. World Bank (1999b). Abrindo Espacos, , , 101. Jha and others (2005). , 102. World Bank (1999b) Fiore and others (2000). ( , 103. World Bank (1999b). ): -- 16%, - 104. UNDCP (2003). -- 14% (Waiselfisz andMaciel 2003). 105. Drucker and others (1998) WHO (2005a). 11. World Bank (2006a). 106. Hurley, Jolley, and Kaldor (1997) MacDonald and others 12. -- (2003). 14 25 ; 107. UNICEF, UNAIDS, and WHO (2002). , -- , 108. ., .: Grosskurth and others (1995). --, -- 17 . 109. Okonofua and others (2003). 272 2007 13. - 38. Joshi and Schultz (2005). , , - 39. World Bank (2005m). , , 40. See Rosen (2000). « , ».. 41. . National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 14. Barker (2003). (2005). 42. Berer (2003). 6 43. . Caldwell and Caldwell (2002) Askew and Maggwa 1. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). (2002). 2. «» 44. World Bank (2006f). . 45. Knowles and Behrman (2003). 3. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 46. Delisle, Chandra-Mouli, and de Benoist (2000); World Bank (2005m). , ( 20­24 ), 47. Partnership for Child Development (2006). 48. Delisle, Chandra-Mouli and de Benoist (2000). 49. Gertler (2000) Skoufias (2001). 1998­2004 . - 50. Rawlings and Rubio (2005). 1,5 . 51. Behrman and others (2005b). 4. Assaad and Zouari (2003). 52. Lloyd and Grant (2004). 5. Zabin and Kiragu (1998); Study Group on Female Genital 53. King (2005). Mutilation and Obstetric Outcome (2006). 54. Dupas (2006). 6. Conde-Aguledo, Rosas-Bermudez, and Kafury-Goeta (2006); 55. Alford, Cheetham and Hauser (2005). Hediger and others (1997); Makinson (1985); Miller (1991); Scholl and 56. FOCUS (1998) Graft; Haberland and Goldberg (2003). others (1989); Scholl and others (1992); Zabin and Kiragu (1998). 57. Nanda, Switlick, and Lule (2005). SIAGA Campaigns 7. Gertler, Levine, and Martinez (2003). Indonesia -: http://www.comminit.com/experiences/ 8. Bhargava (2005). pds 62004/experiences ­ 1983.html; JHPIEGO News Release (May, 9. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 5, 2004). 10. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) ORC , , ; http:// Macro (2000). www.jhpiego.org/media/releases/nr20040505.htm. 11. - 58. Delisle, Chandra-Mouli, and de Benoist (2000). 2004 . . 59. White (2005). 12. Jowett (2000) Berman and Rose (1996). 60. Loevinsohn (1990). 13. Fafchamps and Quisumbing (2005). 61. SCN News (2006). 14. Lundberg and Rose (2002). 62. Grantham-Mcgregor and others (1991) Paxson and Schady 15. Galloway and Anderson (1994). (forthcoming). 16. Alderman and Behrman (2006). 63. Hallman and others (2005). 17. Strauss and Thomas (1995) Behrman and Deolalikar 64. Ruel and others (2002). (1988). 65. Committee for Population and ORC Macro (2003). 18. Clark (2004). 66. Lokshin, Glinskaya, and Garcia (2004). 19. Galloway and Anderson (1994). 67. Nanda (1999). 20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998) Yip 68. Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA) and Dallman (1996). (2001). 21. . 69. Mathur, Mehta, and Malhotra (2004). 22. El-Zanaty and Way (2001). 70. Institute for Health Management-Pachod (IHMP) and 23. International Nutritional Anemia Consultative Group (1989). International Center for Research On Women (ICRW) (2003). 24. Li and others (1994). 71. Arends-Kuenning andAmin (2000). 25. Oyediran, Ishola, and Adewuyi (2002). 72. Amin and others (1998). 26. Mensch, Bruce, and Greene (1998). 73. Singh and Darroch (2000). 27. . Indonesia Young Adult Repro- 74. Geronimus and Bound (1990); Geronimus and Korenman ductive Health Survey 2002­2003 . : BPS-Statistics (1992); Hoffman (1998); Klepinger, Lundberg, and Plotnick (1997). Indonesia and ORC Macro (2006). 75. Hofferth and Reid (2001). 28. Siddiqua and Kabir (2002). 76. Kaufman, de Wet, and Stadler (2001) National Research 29. Senderowitz(1995). Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). 30. Akin and others (1984); Hodgkin (1996); Nanda (1999); Wong and others (1987). 7 31. Khan (1998); Mumtaz and Salway (2005); World Bank (2005a). 1. , -. - 32. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005). .: www.risepak.com. 33. Measure DHS, - 2. Walzer(1989). 3. Marshall (1950). . 4. Mamdani(1996). 34. Kenya 5. Benhabib (2005) Baubock (2005). Demographic and Health Survey, 2003. 6. Kymlicka (2001). 35. Senderowitz and Paxman (1985). 36. Senderowitz (1999). 7. Harrington (2005). 37. World Bank (2005a). 8. Hooghe, Stolle, and Stouthuysen (2004). 273 9. Jennings and Stoker (2002). 38. Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson (2001); Gauri and 10. Wattenberg(2006). Lieberman (2004); Mamdani (1996); Steinmo, Thelen, and 11. Norris(2005). Longstreth (1992). 12. Miguel, Glennerster, and Whiteside (2006). 39. Chiclet (2001). 13. Schmitter and Treschel (2005). 40. La Cava and others (2006). 14. Stolle and Hooghe (2004). 41. Freedom House, . : Diamond (2003). 15. Macedo and others (2005) p. 48. 42. Rodriguez-Pose and Gill (2003). 16. Gerber, Green, and Shachar (2003). 43. .: 17. Plutzer (2002). Pintor and Gratschew (2002) Franklin (2004). 18. Firebaugh and Chen (1995). 44. Franklin (2004). 19. Alwain and Krosnick (1991); Jennings and Stoker (2002); 45. Wattenberg (2006). McAdam (1988). 46. Wintour(2006). 20. Chattopadhyay and Duflo (2003); Dhakal and Misbah 47. Franklin (2004). (1997); Pande (2005). 49. Green and Gerber (2001). 21. Stern, Dethier, and Rogers (2005). 50. Navarro and Hasan (2003). 22. Besley and others (2004); Jimenez and Sawada (1999); Nara- 51. Verba, Schlozman, and Brady (1995). yan (1995); Venkatraman and Falconer (1998). 52. Zeldin and others (2000). 23. Przeworski and others (2000). 53. Matthews (2003). 24. Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson (2001). 54. Rajbhandary, Hart, and Khatiwada (2001). 25. Isham, Kaufmann, and Pritchett (1995); Lindert (2003); 55. . : Thorup and Kinkade (2005) p. 77. Rivera-Batiz (2002); Sen (1999). 55. Edmunds, Forster, and Cottey (2002); Hirsch and Mehay 26. Arunatilake, Jayasuriya, and Kelegama (2001); Barrera and (2003); WDR 2007 InterMedia surveys. Ibanez (2004); Kutan and Drakos (2003). 56. 27. Ehtesaab; , - . . -: http://www.junoon.com. , - 28. Fearon and Laitin (2003) Hegre (2003). 1/3 . 29. Steinberger (2001). 57. Angrist (1990); Galiani, Rossi, and Schargrodsky (2006); 30. ' (Stockard and O'Brien, 2002) - Imbens and Van Der Klaauw (1995); Lokshin andYemtsov (2005). 58. , , (15­29 ) (30­65 ). , 30% , , , - 35% -- - , , (Sadler, Booth, and Doebbeling (2005). - , 1950 , 1,5 . -, 1954 ., , - , 1940 1944 . , - 31. . Pampel , 71% and Peters (1995), pp. 164­169. (Murdoch 32. ' (Stockard and O'Brien, 2002) and others 2004). , , 59. Bedard and Deschenes (2006). , - 60. Abt Associates (2004); Gal and Eberly (2006); Obadare . , (2005); Viva Rio (2005). , . 61. Inno- (Jacobson, 2004) , vations in Civic Participation . 2006 . 62. Erikson (1994), p. 245. - 63. Akerlof and Kranton (2005a) pp. 10-11; Cole (2004b), p. 896; . (Jacobson 2004) (Levitt Pals and Tuma (2004); Titma and Tuma (2005). 1999) - 64. Erikson (1994); Roy (2004); Sciolino, Wingfield, and , Povoledo(2005), p.A8. 65. Neuhaus (2005). . - 66. Kriger (2005) Moscow Human Rights Bureau (2005). . 67. UNICEF (2005c). 33. - 68. Duryea, Olgiati, and Stone (2006). .: Cincotta, Engleman, and Anastasion (2003). 69. Solinger(1999). (Mesquida and Wiener, 1999) , 70. Balcells i Ventura (2005); Cogan, Morris, and Print (2002), , - p. 6; Kymlicka (2001). . 71. Torney-Purta and others (2001). 34. Cincotta, Engleman, and Anastasion (2003), p. 77. 72. Hahn (2005), p. 835. 35. , .: Hudson and den Boer (2004) 73. Finkel and Strumbas (2000). . 74. Finkel and Strumbas (2000), p. 105. 36. Mannheim (1972), p. 294, . : Cole (2004b). 75. Hahn, Dilworth, and Hughes (1998) in Gibson (2001), p. 7. 37. Cole (2004a). 76. Billig (2006). 77. Dalrymple (2005). 274 2007 78. Bay and Blekesaune (2002); Durham (forthcoming); Fougere, 122. Benus, Rude, and Patrabansh (2001). Kramarz, and Pouget (2006); and Reiss and Roth (1993). 123. Humphreys and Weinstein (2005) Utas (2004). 79. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2005), 124. - p. 405. (, 1998). 80. Furlong and others (1997). 81. Hahn, Leavitt, and Aaron (1994). « ». - 82. Elliot and Tolan (2005). 1. Government of Sierra Leone (2005a). Government of Sierra 83. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Leone (2005b). (OJJDP) (1998). 2. The Global Fund for AIDS (2005); UNICEF (2005b). 84. Maclure and Sotelo (2004). 3. Government of Sierra Leone (2002), p 1. . : Ginifer (2003). 85. Levine(1999). Sierra Leone Integrated Household Survey, 2004. 86. Thornberry (1998). 4. Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children 87. Rubio(2005). (2002). 89. Dowdney (2005). 5. Sierra Leone Integrated Household Survey, 2004 90. Smith (2004). 6. Glennerster, Imran, and Whiteside (2006). 91. Shaw (2001). 7. World Bank (forthcoming) Education Sector Review. 92. Decker and Van Winkle (1996). 8. Simon (2003). 93. Howell (1998); Thornberry (1998); UNICEF (2005a). 9. ENCISS and World Bank (2006). 94. Sherman and others (1998) and Rodgers (1999). For example, 10. Goovaerts, Gasser, and Belman Inbal (2005). Krug and others (2002). 11. Turniski(2004). 95. 12. Miguel, Glennerster, and Whiteside (2006). «Ecuador Law and Justice for the Poor». 13. Richards, Bah, and Vincent (2004). 96. Mocan and Rees (1999). 14. ENCISS and World Bank (2006). 97. Grogger(1998). 15. Bellows and Miguel (2006). 98. Krug and others (2002); Llorente and Rivas (2005); Sheley 16. Hart (2004). and Wright (1993); Villaveces and others (2000). 17. Bannon, Holland, and Rahim (2005). 99. Rashid (2000); Sageman (2004); Taylor (1988). 100. Berrebi (2003); Post (1998); Sageman (2004). 8 100. Berman and Laitin (2005); Bloom (2005b); Levine (1999), 1. Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social p. 342; Paxson (2002); Post (1998); Sageman (2004); Sprinzak Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant (1998); Stern (2004). Stock: The 2005 Revision http://esa.un.org/migration, April 7, 2006. 101. Erikson (1994), p. 196. 2. 102. Human Rights Watch (1997a); Human Rights Watch (2003); Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP); . : Parsons and others and UNICEF (2005a), Innocenti Brief 3e. (2005). 103. Greenwood and others (1998). 3. (UNHCR 104. Matthews, Griggs, and Caine (1999). 2005) , 34% -- 5 17 105. Human Rights Watch (2001a). , 47% -- 18 59 . 106. Akpokodje, Bowles, and Tigere (2002); Chen and Shapiro 15 24 32% 38% - (2004); Levitt (1998). , 107. Bayer, Pintoff, and Pozen (2005) Woolard and others (Heath and Jeffries 2005). (2005). 4. Sjaastad(1962). 108. WHO (2005b). 5. 109. Beyer (1997). 2000 ., - 110. Department of Corrections (2003). . 111. Petrosino, Turpin-Petrosino, and Buehler (2005). 6. Massey and others (1998) p. 47. 112. Wilson, Mackenzie, and Mitchell (2005). 7. , - 113. Van Ness (2005). , «», . 114. Miers (2001). McKenzie, Gibson, and Stillman (2006). 115. Latimer, Dowden, and Muise (2001); Akpokodje, Bowles, 8. . - and Tigere (2002); Roche (2006). Dustmann (2001); . Reyes (1997) . 116. Brandt (2005). 9. World Bank (2005i). 117. AFP (2001); Arjona (2006); BBC (2001); Brown (1990); 10. World Bank (2005i). Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2000) in Singer (2005); 11. Black (2003). Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2002); Coalition to 12. Hagopian and others (2005). Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2003); Coalition to Stop the Use 13. McKenzie (2006a). of Child Soldiers (2004); Human Rights Watch (2002a); Leopold 14. Mattoo, Neagu, and Özden (2005). (2001); McGirk (2001); Seyboldt (2000); Singer (2005). 15. Kleiner (2000). 118. Arjona (2006); Humphreys and Richards (2005); Hum- 16. Mishra (forthcoming). phreys and Weinstein (2003); Singer (2005). 17. - 119. Human Rights Watch (1997b); ILO (2003); World Bank 2005 . (2005t). . 120. Humphreys and Richards (2005). 18. Yang (2004) Cox Edwards and Ureta 121. Humphreys and Richards (2005). (2003) . 275 19. - 47. - OECD (2005c) OECD (2003). Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) 20.Davis (2003). 1996­2000 . , 21. Lucas (2004). 1990 1996 . 22. Kandel and Kao (2001). 48. . : World 23. McKenzie and Rapoport (2006). Bank (2005i). 24. International Organization for Migration (IOM) (2005b); 49. Gibson, McKenzie, and Rohorua (2006). Simonet (2004); 50. .: Mesnard (2004), -- Yang , - (2005). (NSACP), -. , 51. , 250 . - /, , - , 104 , . - ; - , () - , -, . , - 25. International Organization for Migration (IOM) (2005a). - 26. Hildebrandt and McKenzie (2005). (International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2005b). 27. Stepick, Stepick, and Kretsedemas (2001). 52. El-Cherkeh, Stirbu, and Tolciu (2006). , - 28. Martinez and Lee (2000). , 29. Australia Immigration Visa Services (1998). , - 30. Fidrmuc and Doyle (2005) - . , 53. Narayan and Petesch (2006). . 54. 31. Donato and Patterson (2004). 2001 ., 32. . :http://sandiego.indymedia.org/en/2005/10/111331.shtml . - 55. , , Coalition de Derechos Humanos McKenzie (2005). : http://www.derechoshumano- saz.net/deaths. 56. 1993--2000 ., - php4 [both accessed November 19, 2005]. - 33. « » , . , , , . 57. Gebrekristos and others (2005). , , , 58. Enlaces Centro de Educatión y Tecnología (2005) Hale- , - wood and Kenny (2006). , , , 59.MarGadio(2001). , ». 60. Internet World Statistics, http://www.internetworldstats.com/ , stats .htm, November 21, 2005, update [ 5 , , - 2005 .]. 61. Dodds, Muhamad, and Watts (2003). 62. Halewood and Kenny (2006). 55/25 15 2000 63. McKinsey Global Institute (2005). 34. U.S. Department of State (2005a). 64. - 35. : Omelaniuk (2005); - . .: Liang (2005). - -- : Clert and others 65. Curtain (2001). (2005) 66. Samuel, Shah, and Hadingham (2005). 36. U.S.Department of State (2005b). 67. Mungai(2005). 37. Holzmann (2005), A.2., 68. ILO (2001). . 69.http://www.digitaldividedata.com. [ 3 38. Hatton and Williamson (2005). 2005 .]. 39. Hatton and Williamson (2003). 70. Instituto Nacional para la Evaluatión de la Educatión de 40. Longhi, Nijkamp, and Poot (2005). Mexico (2005). 41. Borjas (2003) 71. Perkinson(2005). 0,3­0,4% 1%; - 72. World Links Impact Evaluation Series (2002). Card (2005) Dustmann, Fabbri, and Preston 73. Halewood and Kenny (2006). , (2005) . , , 42. Angrist and Kugler (2003). , , - 43. United Kingdom Home Office (2005). , 44. Portes and French (2005). , - 45. 2006 . . 74. Neto and others (2005). . 75. Banerjee and others (2005). 46. Maclellan and Mares (2005) - 76. Gough and Grezo (2005). . 77. Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) (2005). 78. Geary and others (2005). 276 2007 79. MarGadio (2001). - 80. Chewning and others (1996). , 81. Parham(2004). 8. ., ., Vegas and Umansky (2005) - 82. .: ; Banerjee and others (2005) o ; Jorgenson (forthcoming). Miguel and Kremer (2004) ; Glewwe, Jacoby, 83. . : and King (2001) . World Bank (2006c). 9. German Technical Cooperation and German Technical 84. Clarke and Wallsten (2004). Cooperation and International Council on National Youth Policy 85. Jensen (2006). (2005). 86. Neto and others (2005). 10. , - 87. Guermazi and Satola (2005). 88. Rao (1999). , - 89. http://www.wordtracker.com; - . , - 500 , , , 6 2005 . . 90. , , , , , , , - . , , 11. German Technical Cooperation and German Technical . Cooperation and International Council on National Youth Policy - (2005). , - . - . - « ». , , 1. - -. 1989 . 12. Instituto Mexicano de la Juventud (IMJ) and Organization , 1999 . Iberoamericana de la Juventud (OIJ) (2006). 13. German Technical Cooperation and German Technical 2000 ., 2005 . , - Cooperation and International Council on National Youth Policy , , (2005). , 2/3 , - - . , 2. - - . - 14. Clementino(2006). , 15. World Bank (2006g). . 16. Dulci (2005). .: World Bank (2004d). 17. - , , .: http:// 9 www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ youthindicatorsexist.pdf. 1. Instituto Mexicano de la Juventud (IMJ) and Organizatión , Iberoamericana de la Juventud (OIJ) (2006). - 2. , . : http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/ , documents/youthin dicatorsreport.pdf. - 18. , , - . , - , - , - 6 , - -- 3,5. , - 3. , , InterMedia . (WDR 2007 Inter- Media surveys). . 19. ., .: Summers (1992); Summers (1994); Van der . . . 2.4. Gaag and Tan (1998). 4. (Washington 2006) , 20. Knowles and Behrman (2005). 21. - , , - . . .: Knowles and Behrman (2005). 5. German Technical Cooperation and German Technical Cooperation and International Council on National Youth Policy « ». (2005). 1. : « » (Ad Hoc 6. World Bank (2003f). Working Group for Youth and the MDGs 2005) Kinkade and 7. , . Macy (2005). National Research Council and Institute of 2. Peters (2006). Medicine (2005) Knowles and Behrman (2005). - 3.Ogar(2005). . , - 4. Ekehaug (2005). «processed» , . Aakvik, Arild, Kjell G. Salvanes, and Kjell Vaage. 2003. "Measur- Akerlof, George A., and Rachel E. Kranton. 2000. "Economics and ing Heterogeneity in the Returns to Education in Norway Using Identity." Quarterly Journal of Economics 115(3):715­53. Education Reforms." Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor ------. 2002. "Identity and Schooling: Some Lessons for the (IZA), Discussion Paper Series 815. Economics of Education." Journal of Economic Literature Aarts, Henk, Theo Paulussen, and Herman Schaalma. 1997. 40(4):1167­201. "Physical Exercise Habit: On the Conceptualization and Forma- ------. 2005a. "Identity and the Economics of Organizations." tion of Habitual Health Behaviours." Health Education Research Journal of Economic Perspectives 19(1):9­32. 12(3):363­74. ------. 2005b. "Social Divisions within Schools: How School Poli- Abadzi, Helen. 2003. Improving Adult Literacy Outcomes: Lessons cies Can Affect Students' Identities and Educational Choices." In from Cognitive Research for Developing Countries. Washington, Christopher B. Barrett, (eds.), The Social Economics of Poverty: DC: World Bank. On Identities, Groups, Communities and Networks. London: Abaunza, Humberto. 2002. "Puntos de Encuentro: Communica- Routledge. tion for Development in Nicaragua." Sexual Health Exchange Akin, John S., Charles C. Griffen, David K. Guilkey, and Barry M. 2002(1):2­3. Popkin. 1984. The Demand for Primary Health Services in the Abeyratne, Sirimal. 2004. "Economic Roots of Political Conflict: Third World. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield Adams. The Case of Sri Lanka." World Economy 27(8):1295­314. Akpokodje, Joseph, Roger Bowles, and Emmanuel Tigere. 2002. Abt Associates. 2004. Serving Country and Community: A Longitu- Evidence-based Approaches to Crime Prevention in Develop- dinal Study of Service in AmeriCorps. Washington, DC: Corpo- ing Countries - A Scoping Review of the Literature. York, United ration for National and Community Service. Kingdom: Centre for Criminal Justice Economics and Psycho- Abu-Ghaida, Dina, and Marie Connolly. 2003. Trends in Relative logy. Demand for Workers with Secondary Education: A Look at Nine Alderman, Harold, and Jere R. Behrman. 2006. "Reducing the Countries in East Asia, Africa and MENA. Washington, DC: Incidence of Low Birth Weight in Low-Income Countries Has Background Paper prepared for Expanding Opportunities and Substantial Economic Benefits." World Bank Research Observer Building Competencies for Young People: A New Agenda for Sec- 21(1):25­48. ondary Education, World Bank. Alderman, Harold, John Hoddinott, and Bill Kinsey. Forthcoming. Acemoglu, Daron. 2003. "Patterns of Skill Premia." Review of Eco- "Long Term Consequences of Early Childhood Malnutrition." nomic Studies 70(2):199­230. Oxford Economic Papers. Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson. 2001. Alford, Sue, Nicole Cheetham, and Debra Hauser. 2005. Science & "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empir- Success in Developing Countries: Holistic Programs That Work to ical Investigation." American Economic Review 91(5):1369­401. Prevent Teen Pregnancy, HIV & Sexually Transmitted Infections. Ackerman, Susan. 1996. "Rebellion and Autonomy in Industrial- Washington, DC: Advocates for Youth. izing Penang: The Career History of a Young Malay Divorcee." Ali, Tariq Omar, Nuzhat Imam, Raihana Karim, and Nasheeba Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 24(1):52­63. Selim. 2006. Voices of the Youth: Findings from Youth Consulta- Ad Hoc Working Group for Youth and the MDGs. 2005. "Youth tions in Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: BRAC Research and and the Millennium Development Goals: Challenges and Evaluation Division. Available online at http://www.bracresearch. Opportunities for Implementation." Final report. Available org/reports/final_youth_report_revised.pdf. online at http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ Alwain, Duane F., and Jon A. Krosnick. 1991. "Aging, Cohorts, and youthmdgs.pdf. the Stability of Sociopolitical Orientations Over the Life Span." Adams, Arvil V. 2006. "The Role of Skills Development in the American Journal of Sociology 97(1):169­95. Transition to Work: A Global Review." Background paper for Amin, Sajeda, Ian Diamond, Ruchira T. Naved, and Margaret the WDR 2007. Newby. 1998. "Transition to Adulthood of Female Garment- Aedo, Cristián, and Sergio Nuñez. 2001. "The Impact of Training factory Workers in Bangladesh." Studies in Family Planning Policies in Latin America and the Caribbean: The Case of Pro- 29(2):185­200. grama Joven." ILADES - Georgetown University. Santiago de Andersen, Susan L. 2003. "Trajectories of Brain Development: Chile. Processed. Point of Vulnerability or Window of Opportunity?" Neurosci- Aedo, Cristián, and Marcelo Pizarro Valdivia. 2004. "Rentabilidad ence and Biobehavioral Reviews 27(1-2):3­19. Económica del Programa de Capacitación Laboral de Jóvenes `Chile Angrist, Joshua, Eric Bettinger, Erik Bloom, Elizabeth King, and Joven'." INACAP and Mideplan. Santiago de Chile. Processed. Michael Kremer. 2002. "Vouchers for Private Schooling in AFP. 2001. "Amman Conference to Seek Ban on Use of Child Sol- Colombia: Evidence from a Randomized Natural Experiment." diers in Region, World." AFP, April 7. American Economic Review 92(5):1535­58. Agha, Sohail. 2002. "A Quasi-experimental Study to Assess the Angrist, Joshua, Eric Bettinger, and Michael Kremer. Forthcom- Impact of Four Adolescent Sexual Health Interventions in Sub- ing. "Long-term Consequences of Secondary School Vouchers: Saharan Africa." International Family Planning Perspectives Evidence from Administrative Records in Colombia." American 28(2):67-70­& 113-118. Economic Review. 277 278 2007 Angrist, Joshua, and Victor Lavy. 2002. "New Evidence on Class- Available online at http://www.migrationint.com.au/news/ room Computers and Pupil Learning." Economic Journal malta/dec_1998-03mn.asp. 112(482):735­86. Autor, David H., Lawrence F. Katz, and Alan B. Krueger. 1998. Angrist, Joshua D. 1990. "Lifetime Earnings and the Vietnam Era "Computing Inequality: Have Computers Changed the Labor Draft Lottery: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Market?" Quarterly Journal of Economics 113(4):1169­213. Records." American Economic Review 80(3):313­36. Aziken, Michael E., Patrick I. Okonta, and Adedapo B. A. Ande. Angrist, Joshua D., and Adriana D. Kugler. 2003. "Protective or 2003. "Knowledge and Perception of Emergency Contraception Counter-productive? Labour Market Institutions and the Effect among Female Nigerian Undergraduates." International Family of Immigration on EU Natives." Economic Journal 113(488): Planning Perspective 29(2):84­7. F302­F331. Balcells i Ventura, Laia. 2005. "Explaining Variation in the Salience Annan, Jeannie, Christopher Blattman, and Roger Horton. 2006. of Catalan Nationalism Across the France/Spain Border." Paper The State of Youth and Youth Protection in Northern Uganda: presented at the 7th Annual Retreat of the Society for Compara- Findings from the Survey of War Affected Youth. Uganda: UNI- tive Research. March 6. Budapest. CEF. Available online at www.sway-uganda.org. Banerjee, Abhijit, Shawn Cole, Esther Duflo, and Leigh Linden. 2005. Arends-Kuenning, Mary, and Sajeda Amin. 2000. "The Effects of "Remedying Education: Evidence from Two Randomized Experi- Schooling Incentive Programs on Household Resource Allo- ments in India." London, U.K.: BREAD Working Paper 109. cation in Bangladesh." New York: Population Council Policy Banerjee, Abhijit, and Esther Duflo. 2006. "Addressing Absence." Research Division, Working Paper 133. Journal of Economics Perspectives 20(1):117­32. Arjona, Ana. 2006. "Understanding Recruitment in Civil Wars." Bankole, Akinrinola, Susheela Singh, Vanessa Woog, and Deirdre Background paper for the WDR 2007. Wulf. 2004. Risk and Protection:Youth and HIV/AIDS in Sub- Armecina, G., Jere R. Behrman, P. Duazo, S. Chumanc, S. Gul- Saharan Africa. New York: The Alan Guttmacher Institute. tianoa, Elizabeth King, and N. Lee. 2006. "Early Childhood Bannon, Ian, Peter Holland, and Aly Rahim. 2005. "Youth in Post- Development through Integrated Programs: Evidence from the conflicts Settings." Washington, DC: World Bank, Youth Devel- Philippines." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. opment Notes 1(1). Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. 2000. "Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Barker, G. 2003. "How Do We Know If Men Have Changed? Pro- Development from the Late Teens through the Twenties." Amer- moting and Measuring Attitude Change with Young Men. Les- ican Psychologist 55(5):469­80. sons from Program H in Latin America." Paper presented at Arunatilake, Nisha, Sisira Jayasuriya, and Saman Kelegama. 2001. the Expert Group Meeting on `The Role of Men and Boys in "The Economic Cost of the War in Sri Lanka." World Develop- Achieving Gender Equality'. November 21. Brasilia. ment 29(9):1483­500. Barr, Nicholas. 2004. "Higher Education Funding." Oxford Review Asian Development Bank. 2005. HIV/AIDS Prevention among of Economic Policy 20(2):264­83. Youth. Hanoi: Viet Nam Comission for Population, Family and Barrera Osorio, Felipe. 2005. "Impact of Private Provision of Public Children. Education: Empirical Evidence from Bogotá's Concessions Schools." Asian Development Bank, and World Bank. 2005. Country Gender Paper presented at the Mobilizing the Private Sector for Public Edu- Assessment. Manila and Washington, DC: Asian Development cation Conference. May 10. Harvard University, Boston, MA. Bank and World Bank. Barrera, Felipe, and Ana María Ibáñez. 2004. "Does Violence Askew, Ian, and Ndugga Baker Maggwa. 2002. "Integration of STI Reduce Investment in Education? A Theoretical and Empiri- Prevention and Management with Family Planning and Ante- cal Approach." Universidad de Los Andes: Documentos CEDE natal Care in Sub-saharan Africa: What More Do We Need to 000582. Available online at http://economia.uniandes.edu. Know?" International Family Planning Perspectives 28(2):77­86. co/~economia/archivos/temporal/d2004-27.pdf. Assaad, R., and S. Zouari. 2003. "Estimating the Impact of Mar- Barro, Robert J. 1999. "Human Capital and Growth in Cross-Coun- riage and Fertility on the Female Labor Force Participa- try Regression." Swedish Economic Policy Review 6(2):237­77. tion when Decisions are Inter related: Evidence from Urban Basu, Kaushik, and James E. Foster. 1998. "On Measuring Liter- Morocco." Topics in Middle Eastern and North African Econom- acy." Economic Journal 108(451):1733­49. ics, Electronic Journal 5, Middle East Economic Association and Basu, Kaushik, Hyejin Ku, and Homa Zarghamee. 2006. "Determi- Loyola University Chicago. nants of Youth Behaviour and Outcomes: A Review of Theory, Atchoarena, David, and Andre Marcel Delluc. 2001. "Revisiting Evidence and Policy Implications." Background paper for the Technical and Vocational Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: An WDR 2007. Update on Trends, Innovations, and Challenges." Paris: Interna- Bate, Peter. 2004. The Story Behind Oportunidades. Washington, tional Institute for Educational Planning, IIEP/Prg.DA 1.320. DC: Inter-American Development Bank, Online Magazine: Au, Chun-Chung, and J. Vernon Henderson. Forthcoming. "How FOCUS. Available online at http://www.iadb.org/idbamerica/. Migration Restrictions Limit Agglomeration and Productivity Bateman, C. 2001. "Doctor Burnout Silent and Fatal." South Afri- in China." Journal of Development Economics. can Medical Journal 91(2):98­100. Audas, Rick, Eva Berde, and Peter Dolton. 2005. "Youth Unem- Bauböck, Rainer. 2005. "Expansive Citizenship - Voting Beyond Ter- ployment and Labour Market Transitions in Hungary." Educa- ritory and Membership." Political Science & Politics 38(4):683­87. tion Economics 13(1):1­25. Bay, Ann-Helén, and Morten Blekesaune. 2002. "Youth, Unem- Australia Immigration Visa Services. 1998. Immigration Laws: ployment and Political Marginalization." International Journal of December 1998. Sidney: Australia Immigration Visa Services. Social Welfare 11(2):132­39. 279 Bayer, Patrick, Randi Pintoff, and David Pozen. 2005. "Building Bell, Clive, Hans Gersbach, Ramona Bruhns, and Dagmar Volker. Criminal Capital Behind Bars: Peer Effects in Juvenile Correc- 2004. "Economic Growth, Human Capital and Population in tions." New Haven, CT: Center for Economic Growth Working Kenya in the Time of AIDS: A Long-run Analysis in Historical Paper, Yale University 864. Perspective." University of Heidelberg. Heidelberg. Processed. BBC. 2001. "U.N. Finds Congo Child Soldiers." BBC News, February 21. Bellows, John, and Edward Miguel. 2006. "War and Institutions: Bearman, Peter, and Hannah Brückner. 2001. "Promising the New Evidence from Sierra Leone." American Economic Review Future: Virginity Pledges and First Intercourse." American Jour- 96(2):394­99. nal of Sociology 106(4):859­912. Benavot, Aaron. 2004. Comparative Analysis of Secondary Educa- Becker, Gary S. 1964. Human Capital. Chicago, IL: University of tion Curricula. Washington, DC: World Bank and International Chicago Press. Bureau of Education. Becker, Gary S., and Kevin M. Murphy. 1988. "A Theory of Ratio- Benhabib, Seyla. 2005. "Borders, Boundaries, and Citizenship." nal Addiction." Journal of Political Economy 96(4):675­700. Political Science & Politics 38(4):673­77. Bedard, Kelly, and Olivier Deschênes. 2006. "The Long-Term Impact Bentolila, Samuel, and Giuseppe Bertola. 1990. "Firing Costs and of Military Service on Health: Evidence from World War II and Labour Demand: How Bad Is Eurosclerosis?" Review of Eco- Korean War Veterans." American Economic Review 96(1):176­94. nomic Studies 57(3):381­402. Beegle, Kathleen, Rajeev Dehejia, and Roberta Gatti. 2004. "Why Benus, Jacob, James Rude, and Satyendra Patrabansh. 2001. Bos- Should We Care about Child Labor?" Washington, DC: World nia & Herzegovina: Impact of the Emergency Demobilization and Bank Policy Research Division Working Paper Series 3479. Reintegration Project. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor, Behrman, Jere R., Nancy Birdsall, and Miguel Szekely. 2003. "Eco- Bureau of International Affairs, Office of Foreign Relations. nomic Policy and Wage Differentials in Latin America." Wash- Bercovich, Alicia. 2004. People with Disability in Brazil: A Look ington, DC: Center for Global Development Working Paper 29. at the 2000 Census Results. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Brasilero Behrman, Jere R., and Anil B. Deolalikar. 1988. "Health and Nutri- de Geografía e Estatistica. Available online at http://iussp2005. tion." In H. Chenery and T. N. Srinivasan, (eds.), Handbook of princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=52108. Development Economics vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Berer, Marge. 2003. "Integration of Sexual and Reproductive Behrman, Jere R., M. R. Foster, Mark Rosenzweig, and P. Vashishtha. Health Services: A Health Sector Priority." Reproductive Health 2002. "Does Increasing Women's Schooling Raise the Schooling of Matters 11(21):6­15. the Next Generation?" American Economic Review 92(1):323­34. Berlinsky, S., S. Galiani, and P. Gertler. 2006. "Public Pre-primary Behrman, Jere R., John Hoddinott, John A. Maluccio, Erica Schooling and Primary School Performance." University Col- Soler-Hampejsek, Emily Berhman, Reynaldo Martorell, Agnes lege, Universidad de San Andrés, and World Bank. London and Quisumbing, Manuel Ramirez, and Aryeh D. Stein. 2005a. Washington, DC. Processed. "What Determines Post-school Skills? Impacts of Pre-School, Berman, Eli, and David D. Laitin. 2005. "Hard Targets: Theory and School Years and Post School Experiences in Guatemala." Uni- Evidence on Suicide Attacks." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau versity of Pennsylvania, International Food Policy Research of Economic Research Working Paper Series 11740. Institute, Middleburry College, Emory University and INCAP- Berman, Eli, and Stephen Machin. 2000. "Skill-biased Technology Guatemala. Philadelphia, PA. Processed. Transfer Around the World." Oxford Review of Economic Policy Behrman, Jere R., and James C. Knowles. 1999. "Household 16(3):12­22. Income and Child Schooling in Vietnam." World Bank Economic Berman, Peter, and Laura Rose. 1996. "The Role of Private Provid- Review 13(2):211­56. ers in Maternal and Child Health and Family Planning Services in Behrman, Jere R., A. Murphy, Agnes Quisumbing, Usha Ramak- Developing Countries." Health Policy and Planning 11(2):142­55. rishna, and Kathyrn Young. 2005b. "What is the Real Impact Bernasconi, Andrés, and Fernando Rojas. 2004. Informe sobre la of Schooling on Age of First Union and Age of First Parenting? Educación Superior en Chile: 1980-2003. Santiago, Chile: Edito- New Evidence from Guatemala." Emory University, University rial Universitaria. of Pennsylvania, and International Food Policy Research Insti- Berrebi, Claude. 2003. "Evidence about the Link between Education, tute. Philadelphia, and Washington, DC. Processed. Poverty, and Terrorism Among Palestinians." Princeton, NJ: Prin- Behrman, Jere R., Alexis Murphy, Agnes Quisumbing, Usha ceton University Industrial Relations Section Working Paper 477. Ramakrishna, and Kathyrn Young. 2006. "What is the Real Bertola, Giuseppe, Francine D. Blau, and Lawrence M. Kahn. 2002. Impact of Education on Age of First Parenthood and Family "Labor Market Institutions and Demographic Employment Pat- Formation?" Background paper for the WDR 2007. terns." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research Behrman, Jere R., Piyali Sengupta, and Petra Todd. 2001. Progress- Working Paper Series 9043. ing through PROGRESA: An Impact Assessment of a School Sub- Bertrand, Marianne, Sendhil Mullanaithan, and Douglas Miller. sidy Experiment. Washington, DC: International Food Policy 2003. "Public Policies and Extended Families: Evidence from Pen- Research Institute. sions in South Africa." World Bank Economic Review 17(1):27­50. Bell, Clive, Ramona Bruhns, and Hans Gersbach. 2006. "Economic Besley, Timothy, Lawrence Haddad, John Hoddinott, and Michelle Growth, Education and Aids in Kenya Model: A Long-run Adato. 2004. "Community Participation and the Performance of Analysis." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Public Works Programs in South Africa." Dalhousie University. Bell, Clive, Shantayanan Devarajan, and Hans Gersbach. 2006. "The Halifax, Nova Scotia. Processed. Long-run Economic Costs of AIDS: A Model with an Application Betcherman, Gordon, Jean Fares, Amy Luinstra, and Robert Prouty. to South Africa." World Bank Economic Review 20(1):55­89. 2001. "Child Labor, Education, and Children's Rights." In Philip 280 2007 Alston and Mary Robinson, (eds.), Human Rights and Development: Bloom, David E., and David Canning. 2005. "Global Demographic Toward Mutual Reinforcement. New York: Oxford University Press. Change: Dimensions and Economic Significance." Cambridge, Betcherman, Gordon, Martin Godfrey, Susana Puerto, Friederike MA: Harvard Initiative for Global Health Working Paper No. 1. Rother, and Antoneta Stavreska. 2006. "Supporting Young Available online at http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/pgda/working/ Workers: Results of the Global Inventory of Interventions." working_paper1.pdf. World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Bloom, David E., David Canning, and Pia Malaney. 2000. "Popula- Betcherman, Gordon, Karina Olivas, and Amit Dar. 2004. tion Dynamics and Economic Growth in Asia." Population and "Impacts of Active Labor Market Programs: New Evidence from Development Review 26(supplement 2000):257­90. Evaluations with Particular Attention to Developing and Transi- Bloom, David E., and Jeffrey D. Sachs. 1998. "Geography, Demog- tion Countries." Washington, DC: World Bank, Social Protec- raphy, and Economic Growth in Africa." Brookings Papers on tion Discussion Paper Series 0402. Economic Activity 0(2):207­73. Beyer, Marty. 1997. "Experts for Juveniles at Risk of Adult Sen- Bloom, David E., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. 1998. "Demographic tences." In Patricia Puritz, Alycia Capozello, and Wendy Shang, Transitions and Economic Miracles in Emerging Asia." World (eds.), More Than Meets the Eye: Rethinking Assessment, Compe- Bank Economic Review 12(3):419­55. tency and Sentencing for a Harsher Era of Juvenile Justice. Wash- Bloom, Mia. 2005b. Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror. New ington, DC: American Bar Association Juvenile Justice Center. York, NY: Columbia University Press. Bhargava, Alok. 2005. "AIDS Epidemic and the Psychological Bloomfield, Kim, Tim Stockwell, Gerhard Gmel, and Nina Rehn. Well-being and School Participation of Ethiopian Orphans." 2003. "International Comparisons of Alcohol Consumption." Psychology, Health and Medicine 10(3):263­75. Alcohol Research & Health 27(1):95­109. Bhatnagar, Deepti, Ankita Dewan, Magüi Moreno Torres, and Para- Blum, R. W., and M. Ireland. 2004. "Reducing Risk, Increasing meeta Kanung. 2003. "The Bangladesh Female Secondary School Protective Factors: Findings from the Caribbean Youth Health Assistance Project." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Survey." Journal of Adolescence Health 35(6):493­500. Billari, Francesco C., Dimiter Philipov, and Pau Baizán Munoz. 2001. Blum, Robert. 2006. "The Adolescent Brain." Background note for "Leaving Home in Europe: The Experience of Cohorts Born Around the WDR 2007. 1960." International Journal of Population Geography 7(5):339­56. Blum, Robert W., and Heather P. Libbey. 2004. "School Connect- Billig, Shelley. 2006. "Service Learning." In Lonnie R. Sherrod, edness - Strengthening Health and Education Outcomes for Constance A. Flanagan, Ron Kassimir, and Amy K. Bertelsen, Teenagers." Journal of School Health 74(7):231­34. (eds.), Youth Activism: An International Encyclopedia. Westport, Blum, Robert W., and Kristin Nelson-Mmari. 2004. "The Health of CT: Greenwood Press. Young People in a Global Context." Journal of Adolescent Health Binder, Melissa. 2005. The Cost of Providing Universal Secondary 35(5):402­18. Education in Developing Countries. Cambridge, MA: American Boisjoly, Johanne, Greg J. Duncan, Michael Kremer, Dan M. Levy, Academy of Arts and Sciences. Available online at http://www. and Jacque Eccles. 2004. "Empathy or Antipathy? The Impact of amacad.org/projects/ubase.aspx. Diversity." Harvard University. Cambridge, MA. Processed. Black, Richard. 2003. Soaring Remittances Raise New Issues. Wash- Bonelli, Regis, and Alinne Veiga. 2004. "Determinants of Educa- ington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Available online at tional Exclusion in Five States of Brazil." In Maria-Valeria Pena http://www.migrationinformation.org/about.cfm. and Maria Madalena, (eds.), Children's and Youth Vulnerabil- Black, Sandra E., Paul J. Devereaux, and Kjell G. Salvanes. 2004. ity: Poverty, Exclusion and Social Risk in Five Brazilian States. "Fast Times at Ridgemont High? The Effect of Compulsory Brasilia: World Bank. Schooling Laws on Teenage Births." Cambridge, MA: National Borgarello, Andrea, Susan Duryea, Olgiati Scarpetta, and Stefano Scar- Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 10911. petta. 2005. "Early Experiences of Youths in the Labor Market: Step- Blanchard, Olivier. 2006. "Emploi: La Solution passe par le CUP ping Stones or Traps?" World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. (Contract Unique Progressif)." MIT. Cambridge, MA. Processed. Borjas, George J. 2003. "The Labor Demand Curve IS Downward Blanchard, Olivier, and Justin Wolfers. 2000. "The Role of Shocks Sloping: Reexamining the Impact of Immigration on the Labor and Institutions in the Rise of European Unemployment: The Market." Quarterly Journal of Economics 118(4):1335­74. Aggregate Evidence." Economic Journal 110(2000):C1­C33. Boudarbat, Brahim. 2005. "Job-search Strategies and the Unem- Blanchard, Olivier J., and Augustin Landier. 2001. "The Perverse ployment of University Graduates in Morocco." Paper presented Effects of Partial Labor Markets Reform: Fixed Duration Con- at the IZA-EBRD International Conference on Labor Market tracts in France." Cambridge, MA: MIT, Department of Eco- Dynamics. May 5. Bologna, Italy. nomics, Working Paper Series 01-14. Bourguignon, Francois, Francisco Ferreira, and Marta Menendez. Blanco, Almudena, and Jochen Kluve. 2002. "Why not Stay Home: 2005. "Inequality of Opportunity in Brazil?" World Bank. Wash- Nest-leaving Behavior in Western Europe." University of Cali- ington, DC. Processed. fornia, Berkeley. Berkeley, CA. Processed. Bowles, Samuel, and Howard Gintis. 1976. Schooling in Capital- Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. 1999. "Institutions and ist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Eco- Laws in Labor Markets." In Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, nomic Life. New York: Basic. (eds.), Handbook of Labor Economics. Vol. 3A. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Boyer, Cherrie B., and Mary-Ann Shafer. 1997. "Evaluation of a Bloom, David E. 2005a. "Education and Public Health: Mutual Knowledge -and Cognitive- Behavioral Skills-Building Inter- Challenges Worldwide." Comparative Education Review vention to Prevent STDs and HIV Infection in High School Stu- 49:437­51. dents." Adolescence 32(125):25­42. 281 Brady, Martha. 1998. "Laying the Foundation for Girls' Healthy Caldwell, John C., and Pat Caldwell. 2002. "Is Integration the Answer Futures: Can Sports Play a Role?" Studies in Family Planning for Africa?" International Family Planning Perspective 28(2):108­10. 29(1):79­82. Canals-Cerda, José, and Cristobal Ridao-Cano. 2004. "The Dynam- Brandt, Pamela Robin. 2005. "The Brotherhood." American Way ics of School and Work in Rural Bangladesh." Washington, DC: Magazine. May 15, 2005. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 3330. Bray, Mark. 2004. "Sharing the Burden of Financing: Government Card, David. 2005. "Is the New Immigration Really that Bad?" and Household Partnerships for Basic Education." Economic Economic Journal 115(507):F300­F323. Affairs 24(4):22­26. Card, David, and Thomas Lemieux. 2000a. "Adapting to Circum- Brett, Rachel, and Irma Specht. 2004. Young Soldiers: Why They stances: The Evolution of Work, School and Living Arrangments Choose to Fight. Geneva: Lynne Rienner Publisher for the Inter- among North American Youth." In Dabid G. Blanchflower and national Labour Organization. Richard B. Freeman, (eds.), Youth Employment and Joblessness in Brown, Gillian, Laila Al-Hamad, and Carmen de Paz Nieves. 2005. Advanced Countries. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Gender Equality in East Asia: Progress, and the Challenges of ------. 2000b. "Dropout and Enrollment Trends in the Post-War Economic Growth and Political Change. Washington, DC: World Period: What Went Wrong in the 1970's?" Cambridge, MA: Bank, East Asia and Pacific Region, Social Development Team. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 7658. Brown, Ian. 1990. Khomeini's Forgotten Sons: The Story of Iran's Boy Carneiro, Pedro, and James J. Heckman. 2002. "The Evidence on Soldiers. London, U.K.: Grey Seal. Credit Constraints in Post-Secondary Schooling." Economic Bruce, Judith, and Shelley Clark. 2004. The Implications of Early Journal 112(482):705­34. Marriage for HIV/AIDS Policy. Brief based on background paper ------. 2003. "Human Capital Policy." In James J. Heckman and prepared for the WHO/UNFPA/Population Council Technical Con- Alan B. Krueger, (eds.), Inequality in America: What Role for sultation on Married Adolescents. New York: Population Council. Human Capital Policies? Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Brückner, Hannah, and Peter Bearman. 2005. "After the Promise: Carneiro, Pedro, and Sokbae Lee. 2005. "Ability, Sorting and Wage The STD Consequences of Adolescent Virginity Pledges." Jour- Inequality." University College London. London. Processed. nal of Adolescent Health 36(4):271­8. Carneiro, Pedro, and Cristobal Ridao-Cano. 2005. "Heterogeneity Bruns, Barbara, Alain Mingat, and Ramahatra Rakotomalala. and Uncertainty in Returns to High School: The Case of Indo- 2003. Achieving Universal Primary Education by 2015: A Chance nesia." Background paper for the WDR 2007. for Every Child. Washington, DC: World Bank. Catalano, Richard F., Kevin P. Haggerty, Sabrina Oesterle, Charles B. Burgess, Simon, Carol Propper, Hedley Reeys, and Arran Shearer. Fleming, and J. David Hawkins. 2004. "The Importance of Bonding 2003. "The Class of 1981: The Effects of Early Career Unemploy- to School for Healthy Development: Findings from the Social Deve- ment on Subsequent Unemployment Experiences." Labor Eco- lopment Research Group." Journal of School Health 74(7):252­61. nomics 10(3):291­309. Celentano, David D., Noya C. Galai, Ajay K. Sethi, Nina G. Shah, Buvinic, Mayra. 1998. "The Cost of Adolescent Childbearing: Evi- Steffanie A. Strathdee, David Vlahov, and Joel E. Gallant. 2001. dence from Chile, Barbados, Guatemala and Mexico." Studies in "Time to Initiating Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy among Family Planning 29(2):201­9. HIV-Infected Injection Drug Users." AIDS 15(13):1707­15. -------. 2005. "Economic Opportunities for Women: Experiences Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993. "Mortal- from Latin America and the Caribbean." Paper presented at the ity Trends for Selected Smoking-Related Cancers and Breast High-Level Policy Forum on Enhancing Women Economic Par- Cancer -- United States, 1950-1990." Morbidity and Mortality ticipation and Opportunities. El Cairo, Egypt. Weekly Report 42(44):857­863-6. Buvinic, Mayra, Andre Medici, Elisa Fernandez, and Ana Cris- ------. 1998. "Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron tina Torres. 2006. "Gender Differentials in Health." In Dean T. Deficiency in the United States, Recommendations and Report." Jamison, Joel Breman, Anthony R. Measham, George Alleyne, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47(RR-3):1­36. Mariam Claeson, David B. Evans, Prabhat Jha, Anne Mills, and Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA). Philip R. Musgrove, (eds.), Disease Control Priorities in Develop- 2001. Adolescent Girls in India Choose a Better Future: An ing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press. Impact Assessment. Washington, DC: Center for Development Cáceres, Carlos F., Anna M. Rosasco, Jeffrey S. Mandel, and Nor- and Population Activities (CEDPA). man Hearst. 1994. "Evaluating a School-based Intervention for Chandra, Prabha S., K. R. Jairam, and Anila Jacob. 2004. "Factors STD/AIDS Prevention in Peru." Journal of Adolescent Health Related to Staff Stress in HIV/AIDS Related Palliative Care." 15(7):582­91. Indian Journal of Palliative Care 10(2):48­54. Cahuc, Pierre, and Stéphane Carcillo. 2006. Que Peut-on Attendre Chapman, Bruce. Forthcoming. "Income Contingent Loans des Contrats Nouvelle Embauche et Premiere Embauche? Paris: for Higher Education: An International Reform." In Eric A. Université de Paris. Available online at http://www.crest.fr/page- Hanushek and Finis Welch (eds.) Handbook of the Economics of perso/cahuc/CNECahucCarcillo.pdf. Education. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Caldwell, Brian J., Rosalind Levacic, and Kenneth N. Ross. 1999. Chattopadhyay, Raghabendra, and Esther Duflo. 2003. "Women as "The Role of Formula Funding of Schools in Different Educa- Policy Makers: Evidence from a India-Wide Randomized Policy tional Policy Contexts." In Rosalind Levacic and Kenneth N. Experiment." MIT. Cambridge, MA. Processed. Ross, (eds.), Needs-Based Resource Allocation in Education: Via Chaudhuri, Saulma, and Pratima Paul-Majumder. 1995. The Con- Formula Funding of Schools. Paris: UNESCO, International ditions of Garment Workers in Bangladesh: An Appraisal. Dhaka: Institute for Educational Planning. Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. 282 2007 Chaudhury, Nazmul, Jeffrey Hammer, Michael Kremer, Karthik Université Catholique de Louvain. Louvain. Available online at Muralidharan, and F. Halsey Rogers. 2006. "Missing in Action: http://www.iza.org/en/webcontent/teaching/summerschool_ Teacher and Health Worker Absence in Developing Countries." html/7thsummer_school_files/ss2004_goebel.pdf. Processed. Journal of Economic Perspectives 20(1):91­116. Cogan, John J., Paul Morris, and Murray Print, eds. 2002. Civic Chen, Kun, and Martin Kenney. 2005. "Universities/Research Insti- Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Case Studies Across Six tutes and Regional Innovation Systems: The Case of Beijing and Societies. Oxford, U.K.: Rutledge. Shenzhen." Berkeley, CA: BRIE Working Paper 168. Available Cohen, Joel E., and David E. Bloom. 2005. "Cultivating Minds: Edu- online at http://brie.berkeley.edu/publications/wp168revised.pdf. cating All Children is not only Urgent but also Feasible within the Chen, M. Keith, and Jesse M. Shapiro. 2004. "Does Prison Harm Next Few Years." Finance and Development 42(2):8­14. Inmates? A Discontinuity-Based Approach." Harvard University. Cohen, Susan A. 2004. "Beyond Slogans: Lessons From Uganda's Cambridge, MA. Processed. Experience with ABC and HIV/AIDS." Reproductive Health Chewning, Betty, Pat Mosena, Dale Wilson, Harold Erdman, Sandra Matters 12(23):132­35. Potthoff, Anita Murphy, and Kathleen Kennedy Kuhnen. 1996. Cole, Jennifer. 2004a. "Fresh Contact in Tamatave, Madagascar: "Evaluation of a Computerized Contraceptive Decision Aid for Ado- Sex, Money, and Intergenerational Transformation." American lescent Ppatients." Patient Education and Counseling 38(3):227­39. Ethnologist 31(4):573­88. Chiclet, Christophe. 2001. "Otpor: The Youth who Booted Milos- ------. 2004b. "The Jaombilo of Tamatave (Madagascar), 1992- evic." UNESCO Courier. 2004: Reflections on Youth and Globalization." Journal of Social Cincotta, Richard P., Robert Engleman, and Daniele Anastasion. 2003. History 38(4):891­914. The Security Demographic: Population and Civil Conflict after the Committee for Population, Family and Children Vietnam, and Cold War. Washington, DC: Population Action International. ORC Macro. 2003. Vietnam Demographic and Health Survey Cinterfor/ILO. 2001. Modernization in Vocational Education and 2002. Calverton, MD: Committee for Population, Family and Training in the Latin American and the Caribbean Region. Mon- Children (Vietnam), ORC Macro. tevideo: Cinteford - ILO. Conde-Aguledo, Agustín, Anyeli Rosas-Bermúdez, and Ana Ceci- Clark, Shelley. 2004. "Early Marriage and HIV Risks in Sub-Saha- lia Kafury-Goeta. 2006. "Birth Spacing and Risk of Adverse ran Africa." Studies in Family Planning 35(3):149­60. Perinatal Outcomes: A Meta-analysis." Journal of the American Clarke, George R. G., and Scott Wallsten. 2004. "Has the Inter- Medical Association 295(15):1809­23. net Increased Trade? Evidence from Industrial and Develop- Cox Edwards, Alejandra, and Manuelita Ureta. 2003. "Interna- ing Countries." Washington DC: World Bank Policy Research tional Migration, Remittances and Schooling: Evidence from Working Paper Series 3215. El Salvador." Journal of Development Economics 72(2):429­61. Clementino, Josbertini. 2006. Speech at Vozes Jovens Pernambuco Cox, Cristián. 2004. "Policy Formation and Implementation in (part of WDR consultations), Recife, Brazil, January 17. Secondary Education Reform: The Case of Chile in the 1990s." Clert, Carine, Elizabeth Gomart, Ivana Aleksic, and Natalie Otel. Paper presented at the Second Regional Secondary Education in 2005. "Human Trafficking in South Eastern Europe: Beyond Africa Conference. June 6. Dakar. Crime Control, an Agenda for Social Inclusion and Develop- CRECE. 2005. Sistema de Aprendizaje Tutorial. Columbia: CRECE. ment." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Cunha, Flavio, James J. Heckman, Lance Lochner, and Dimitriy V. Coady, David P. 2000. The Application of Social Cost-benefit Analysis Masterov. 2005. "Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill to the Evaluation of PROGRESA. Report Submitted to PROGRESA. Formation." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Research Working Paper Series 11331. Coakley, Jay. 2002. "Using Sports to Control Deviance and Violence Cunningham, Wendy, and Lucas Siga. 2006. "Wage and Employ- among Youths: Let's Be Critical and Cautious." In Margaret Gatz, ment Effects of Minimum Wage on Vulnerable Groups in the Michael A. Messner, and Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, (eds.), Paradoxes Labor Market: Brazil and Mexico." World Bank. Washington, of Youth and Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press. DC. Processed. Coale, Ansley J., and Edgar M. Hoover. 1958. Population Growth and Currie, Janet, and Duncan Thomas. 1995. "Does Head Start Make Economic Development in Low-Income Countries: A Case Study of a Difference?" American Economic Review 85(3):341­64. India's Prospects. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Curtain, Richard. 2001. "Promoting Youth Employment through Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers. 2000. "The Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): Best Children by OSCE Member States." Paper presented at the Practice Examples in Asia and the Pacific." Paper presented at Human Dimension Seminar on Children and Armed Conflict. the ILO/Japan Tripartite Regional Meeting on Youth Employ- Warsaw, Poland. ment in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok. ------. 2002. "DRC Child Soldiers." London, UK: Child Soldiers ------. 2005. Case for Investing in Young People as Part of a Newsletter 3. National Poverty Reduction Strategy. New York: UNFPA. Avail- ------. 2003. The Use of Child Soldiers in the Americas: An Over- able online at http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/424_ view. London, U.K.: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers. filename_Investing.pdf. ------. 2004. Child Soldier Use 2003: A Briefing for the 4th UN Dalrymple, William. 2005. "Inside the Madrasas." The New York Security Council Open Debate on Children and Armed Conflict. Review of Books. London, U.K.: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers. Davies, Lynn, Christopher Williams, and HiromiMan-Hing Cockx, Bart, and Christian Göbel. 2004. "Subsidized Employment Aubrey Ko Yamashita. 2006. Inspiring Schools: Taking up the for Young Long-term Unemployed Workers ­ An Evaluation." Challenge of Pupil Participation. London, U.K.: Carnegie Trust. 283 Davis, Todd M. 2003. Atlas of Student Migration. New York: Insti- Dhakal, Raju Malla, and M. Sheikh Misbah. 1997. Breaking Barri- tute of International Education. ers Building Bridges: A Case Study of USAID/Nepal's SO3 Wom- de Cordoba, José. 2004. "As Venezuela Tilts Left, a Rum Mogul Reaches en's Empowerment Program. Kathmandu, Nepal: USAID. Out to the Poor." Wall Street Journal, November 10. Page: A1. Diamond, Larry. 2003. "Universal Democracy." Policy Review De Ferranti, David, Guillermo E. Perry, Indermit S. Gill, J. Luis 119(June & July):3­25. Guasch, William F. Maloney, Carolina Sánchez-Páramo, and Dickson-Tetteh, Kim, Audrey Pettifor, and Winnie Moleko. 2001. Norbert Schady. 2003. Closing the Gap in Education and Tech- "Working with Public Sector Clinics to Provide Adolescent- nology. Washington, DC: World Bank. Friendly Services in South Africa." Reproductive Health Matters De Fraja, Gianni, Tania Oliveira, and Luisa Zanchi. 2005. "Must 9(17):160­69. Try Harder. Evaluating the Role of Effort in Educational Attain- Ding, Weili, and Stephen F. Lehrer. Forthcoming. "Do Peers Affect ment." London: Centre for Economic Policy Research Discus- Student Achievement in China's Secondary Schools?" Review of sion Papers 5048. Economic and Statistics. de Janvry, Alain, Frederico Finan, Elisabeth Sadoulet, and Renos Dodds, Peter S., Roby Muhamad, and Duncan J. Watts. 2003. "An Vakis. 2006. "Can Conditionnal Cash Transfers Serve as Safety Nets Experimental Study of Search in Global Social Networks." Sci- in Keeping Children at School and from Working when Exposed to ence 301(5634):827­29. Shocks?" Journal of Development Economics 79(2):349­73. Dohmen, Thomas, Armin Falk, David Huffman, Uwe Sunde, Jürgen de Jong, Joop T. V. M., Ivan H. Komproe, Mark Van Ommeren, Schupp, and Gert Wagner. 2005. "Five Facts about Risk Attitudes: Mustafa El Masri, Mesfin Araya, Noureddine Khaled, Willem Evidence from a Large, Representative, Experimentally-Validated van de Put, and Daya Somasundaram. 2001. "Lifetime Events Survey." Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Bonn. Processed. and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in 4 Postconflict Settings." Donato, Katharine M., and Evelyn Patterson. 2004. "Women and Journal of American Medical Association 286(5):555­62. Men on the Move: Undocumented Border Crossing." In Jorge de Moura Castro, Claudio. 1999. Proyecto Joven: New Solutions Durand and Douglas S. Massey, (eds.), Crossing the Border: and Some Surprises. Washington, DC: Inter-American Develop- Research from the Mexican Migration Project. New York, NY: ment Bank. Available online at http://www.colombiajoven.gov. Russell Sage Foundation. co/injuve/instit/bid/4_pjov.pdf. Dowdney, Luke. 2005. Neither War nor Peace: International Com- De Walque, Damien. 2004. "How Does the Impact of an HIV/ parisons of Children and Youth in Organized Violence. Rio de AIDS Information Campaign Vary with Educational Attain- Janeiro, Brazil: Children and Youth in Organized Armed Vio- ment? Evidence from Rural Uganda." Washington, DC: World lence, Viva Rio, Instituto de Estudos da Religião. Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 3289. Dréze, Jean, and Haris Gazdar. 1997. "Uttar Pradesh: The Burden ------. 2005. "Parental Education and Children's Schooling Out- of Inertia." In Jean Dréze and Amartya Sen, (eds.), Indian Devel- comes: Is the Effect Nature, Nurture, or Both? Evidence from opment: Selected Regional Perspectives. New Delhi: Oxford Uni- Recomposed Families in Rwanda." Washington, DC: World versity Press. Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 3483. Drucker, Ernest, Peter Lurie, Alex Wodak, and Philip Alcabes. Deaton, Angus S., and Christina H. Paxson. 1997. "The Effects 1998. "Measuring Harm Reduction: The Effects of Needle and of Economic and Population Growth in National Saving and Syringe Exchange Programs and Methadone Maintenance on Inequality." Demography 34(1):97­114. the Ecology of HIV." AIDS 12(Suppl A):217­30. Decker, Scott H., and Barrik Van Winkle. 1996. Life in the Gang: Family, Duflo, Esther, Pascaline Dupas, Michael Kremer, and Samuel Friends and Violence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Simei. 2006. "Education and HIV/AIDS Prevention: Evidence Delisle, Hélène, Venkatraman Chandra-Mouli, and Bruno de Ben- from a Randomized Evaluation in Western Kenya." Background oist. 2000. "Should Adolescents Be Specifically Targeted for Nutri- paper for the WDR 2007. tion in Developing Countries? To Address Which Problems, and Dulci, Luiz. 2005. Speech at seminar "Young Voices--A View of How?" World Health Organization. Geneva. Processed. Youth Organizations and Movements on 21st Century Brazil," DeMaeyer, E. M. 1989. Preventing and Controlling Iron Deficiency Brasilia, Brazil, May 24. Anemia through Primary Health Care: A Guide for Health Dunkle, Kristin L., Rachel K. Jewkes, Heather C. Brown, Glenda E. Administrators and Programme Managers. Geneva: World Gray, James A. McIntryre, and Siobán D. Harlow. 2004. "Trans- Health Organization. actional Sex among Women in Soweto, South Africa: Preva- Deparment of Health Services Sri Lanka. 2002. Annual Health lence, Risk Factors and Association with HIV Infection." Social Bulletin 2002. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka, Department of Science & Medicine 59(8):1581­92. Health Services. Dupas, Pascaline. 2006. "Relative Risks and the Market for Sex: Department of Corrections. 2003. Draft White Paper On Correc- Teenagers, Sugar Daddies and HIV in Kenya." EHESS-PSE. tions in South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Paris. Processed. Corrections. Durham, Deborah. Forthcoming. "Empowering Youth: Making Youth DeSimone, Jeff. 2002. "Illegal Drug Use and Employment." Journal Citizens in Botswana." In Jennifer Cole and Deborah Durham of Labor Economics 20(4):952­77. (eds.) Generations and Globalization: Family, Youth and Age in the Devia, Sergio. 2003. Exito o Fracaso de las Políticas Públicas de New World Economy. Bloomington, I.N.: Indiana University Press. Capacitación Laboral a Jóvenes? - Evaluación del Programa Tes- Duryea, Susan, Jasper Hoek, David Lam, and Deborah Levison. tigo: `Proyecto Joven' de Argentina (1993-2000). Geneva: Interna- Forthcoming. "Dynamics of Child Labor: Labor Force Entry and tional Labour Office. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/. Exit in Urban Brazil." In Peter F. Orazem, Guilherme Sedlacek, 284 2007 and Zafiris Tzannatos (eds.) Child Labor and Education in Latin- Emerson, Patrick M., and André P. Souza. 2002. "The Effect of America. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. Adolescent Labor on Adult Earnings and Female Fertility in Duryea, Suzanne, Analia Olgiati, and Leslie Stone. 2006. "The Brazil." University of Colorado. Denver, CO. Processed. Under-Registration of Births in Latin America." Washington, DC: ------. 2003. "Is There a Child Labor Trap? Inter-generational Inter-American Development Bank Working Paper Series 551. Persistence of Child Labor in Brazil." Economic Development Dustmann, Christian. 2001. "Why Go Back? Return Motives of and Cultural Change 51(2):375­98. Migrant Workers." In Slobodan Djajic, (eds.), International Migra- Emerson, Patrick M., and André Portela Souza. 2006. "Is Child tion: Trends, Policies and Economic Impacts. Oxford: Routledge. Labor Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in Life on Adult Dustmann, Christian, Francesca Fabbri, and Ian Preston. 2005. Earnings." University of Colorado at Denver and Cornell Uni- "The Impact of Immigration on the British Labor Market." Eco- versity. Denver, CO and Cornell, NY. Processed. nomic Journal 115(507):F324­341. Emmerson, Carl, Christine Frayne, Sandra McNally, and Olmo Ebbeling, Cara B., Dorota B. Pawlak, and David S. Ludwig. 2002. Silva. 2005. Evaluation of Aimhigher: Excellence Challenge. The "Childhood Obesity: Public-health Crisis, Common Sense Early Impact of Aimhigher: Excellence Challenge on Pre-16 Out- Cure." The Lancet 360(9331):473­482. comes: An Economic Evaluation. London: British Department Edmunds, Timothy, Anthony Forster, and Andrew Cottey. 2002. for Education and Skills. Available online at http://www.dfes. "Armed Forces and Society: A Framework for Analysis." Bristol, gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR652.pdf. U.K.: The Transformation of Civil-Military Relations in Central ENCISS, and World Bank. 2006. "Youth in Sierra Leone: Focus and Eastern Europe 1.13c. Group Discussions." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Eggleston, Elizabeth, Jean Jackson, Wesley Rountree, and Zhiy- Enlaces Centro de Educación y Tecnología. 2005. Estadisticas Naciona- ing Pan. 2000. "Evaluation of a Sexuality Education Program les Enlaces 2005. Santiago de Chile: Chile, Ministerio de Educación. for Young Adolescents in Jamaica." Revista Panamericana de la Available online at http://www.enlaces.cl/libro/estadisticas.pdf. Salud Publica 7(2):102­12. Erikson, Erik H. 1994. Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York, NY: Eggleston, Elizabeth, Joan Leitch, and Jean Jackson. 2000. "Consis- W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. tency of Self-reports of Sexual Activity among Young Adolescents Erulkar, Annabel S., Linus I. A. Ettyang, Charles Onoka, Frederik K. in Jamaica." International Family Planning Perspectives 26(2):79­84. Nyagah, and Alex Muyonga. 2004. "Behavior Change Evaluation Ekehaug, Vidar. 2005. African Youth at the UN World Summit! of a Culturally Consistent Reproductive Health Program for Young World Wide Web: Panorama: A TakingITGlobal Online Pub- Kenyans." International Family Planning Perspectives 30(2):58­67. lication. Available online at http://www.takingitglobal.org/ Erulkar, Annabel S., and Barbara S. Mensch. 1997. Youth Centers express/panorama/article.html?ContentID=6543. in Kenya: Evaluation of the Family Planning Association of Kenya El-Cherkeh, Tanja, Elena Stirbu, and Andrea Tolciu. 2006. "Youth Programme. Nairobi, Kenya: Population Council. Migration to Europe: Potential Impact on the Labour Market of Eusuf and Associates, and Center on Social Research and Human the Countries of Origin." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Development. 2002. Non-formal Education Project-3: Mid-term El-Zanaty, Fatma, and Ann Way. 2001. Egypt Demographic and Evaluation Report. Dhaka: Eusuf Associates and Center on Health Survey 2000. Calverton, MD: Egypt Ministry of Health Social Research and Human Development for the Government and Population, National Population Council and ORC Macro. of Bangladesh. Available online at http://www.measuredhs.com/. Ezzati, Majid, and Alan D. Lopez. 2004. "Smoking and Oral Elias, Victor, F. Ruiz-Nuñez, R. Cossa, and D. Bravo. 2004. "An Tobacco use." In Majid Ezzati, Alan D. Lopez, Anthony Rodgers, Econometric Cost-benefit Analysis of Argentina's Youth Train- and Christopher J. L. Murray, (eds.), Comparative Quantification ing Program." Washington, DC: Inter-American Development of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Attribut- Bank, Research Network Working Paper R-482. able to Selected Major Risk Factors. Geneva: WHO. Ellertson, Charlotte, Beverly Winikoff, Elizabeth Armstrong, Sha- Fafchamps, Marcel, and Agnes R. Quisumbing. 2005. "Marriage, ron Camp, and Pramilla Senanayake. 1995. "Expanding Access Bequest, and Assortative Matching in Rural Ethiopia." Economic to Emergency Contraception in Developing Countries." Studies Development and Cultural Change 53(2):347­80. in Family Planning 26(5):251­63. Family Health International. 2005.Network 23(4) Elliot, Delbert S., and Patrick H. Tolan. 2005. "Youth Violence FAO. 2006. Assessment of the Double Burden of Malnutrition in Six Prevention, Intervention, and Social Policy: An Overview." In Case Study Countries. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. Daniel J. Flanner and C. Ronald Huff, (eds.), Youth Violence Pre- Fares, Jean, and Claudio E. Montenegro. 2006. "Youth Unemploy- vention, Intervention, and Social Policy. Washington, DC: Amer- ment's Dynamics: Evidence from Brazil (1978-2002) and Chile ican Psychiatric Press, Inc. (1957-2005)." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Eloundou-Enyegue, Parfait M. 2004. "Pregnancy Related Dropouts Fares, Jean, Claudio E. Montenegro, and Peter F. Orazem. 2006a. and Gender Inequality in Education: A Lifetable Approach and "How are Youth Faring in the Labor Market? Evidence from Application to Cameroon." Demography 41(3):509­28. Around the World." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Eltigani, Eltigani E. 2000. "Changes in Family-Building Patterns ------. 2006b. "Variation in the Returns to Schooling Across and in Egypt and Morocco: A Comparative Analysis." International Within Developing Economies." Background paper for the Family Planning Perspectives 26(2):73­8. WDR 2007. Elway, Ann. 1999. "Poverty and Disability: A Review of the Litera- Fares, Jean, and Dhushyanth Raju. 2006. "Child Labor across the ture." Washington, DC: World Bank, Social Protection Discus- Developing World: Patterns, Correlations and Determinants." sion Paper Series 9932. Background paper for the WDR 2007. 285 Fares, Jean, and Erwin Tiongson. 2006. "Entering the Labor Market FOCUS. 1998. Reproductive Health Programs for Young Adults: and Early Mobility of Youth: Evidence from Panel Estimates in Health Facility Programs. Watertown, MA: FOCUS on Young Bosnia and Herzegovina." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Adults, Pathfinder International. Fearon, James D., and David D. Laitin. 2003. "Ethnicity, Insurgency, Fortenberry, J. Dennis. 2005. "The Limits of Abstinence-only in and Civil War." American Political Science Review 97(1):75­90. Preventing Sexually Transmitted Infections." Journal of Adoles- Fernald, Lia C., Juan Pablo Gutierrez, Lynnette M. Neufeld, Gus- cent Health 36(4):269­70. tavo Olaiz, Stefano F. Bertozzi, Michelle Mietus-Snyder, and Fougère, Denis, Francis Kramarz, and Julien Pouget. 2006. "Youth Paul J. Gertler. 2004. "High Prevalence of Obesity Among the Unemployment and Crime in France." Bonn, Germany: Discussion Poor in Mexico." Journal of the American Medical Association Paper Series of the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) 2009. 291(21):2544­5. Franklin, Mark N. 2004. Voter Turnout and the Dynamics of Elec- Ferreira, Francisco H. G., and Peter Lanjouw. 2001. "Rural Non- toral Competition in Established Democracies since 1945. Cam- farm Activities and Poverty in the Brazilian Northeast." World bridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Development 29(3):509­28. Freedom House. 2006. Freedom in the World 2005 : The Annual Fertig, Michael. 2003. "Education Production, Endogenous Peer Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Long Beach, CA: Group Formation and Class Composition - Evidence from PISA Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 2002 Study." Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Dis- Freeman, Richard B. 2000. "Disadvantaged Young Men and cussion Paper Series 714. Crime." In David G. Blanchflower and Richard B. Freeman, Fichtenberg, Caroline M., and Stanton A. Glantz. 2002. "Youth (eds.), Youth Employment and Joblessness in Advanced Coun- Access Interventions Do Not Sffect Youth Smoking." Pediatrics tries. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press for the 109(6):1088­92. National Bureau of Economic Research. Fidrmuc, Jan, and Orla Doyle. 2005. Does Where You Live Affect Fretwell, David H., Jacob Benus, and Christopher J. O'Leary. 1999. How You Vote: An Analysis of Migrant Voting Behaviour. "Evaluating the Impact of Active Labour Market Programme: Results Uxbridge: Brunel Business School. of Cross-Country Studies in Europe and Central Asia." Washington, Filer, Randall K., and Daniel Münich. 2002. "Responses of Private DC: World Bank, Social Protection Discussion Paper 9915. and Public Schools to Voucher Funding." The Center for Eco- Fryer, Roland G., and Paul Torelli. 2005. "An Empirical Analysis of nomic Research and Graduate Education - Economic Institute. `Acting White'." Harvard University. Cambridge, MA. Processed. Prague. Processed. Fuchs, Thomas, and Ludger Woessmann. 2004. "What Accounts Filmer, Deon. Forthcoming. "School Availability and School Partici- for International Differences in Student Performance? A Re- pation in 21 Developing Countries." Journal of Development Studies. Examination Using PISA Data." Munich, Germany: CESifo Filmer, Deon, Emmanuel Jimenez, and Annette Richter. 2006. Working Paper Series 1235. "Simulating the Returns to Youth Opportunity Agency and Sec- Furlong, Andy, Fred Cartmel, Janet Powney, and Stuart Hall. 1997. ond Chances." Background note for the WDR 2007. Evaluating Youth Work with Vulnerable Young People. Edin- Filmer, Deon, and David L. Lindauer. 2001. "Does Indonesian burgh: Scottish Council for Research in Education. Have a `Low Pay' Civil Service?" Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Fussell, Elizabeth. 2006. "Comparative Adolescences: The Transi- Studies 37(2):189­205. tion to Adulthood in Brazil, Kenya, Mexico, the U.S., and Viet- Finkel, Steve E, and Sheryl Strumbas. 2000. Civic Education in nam." University of Tennessee. Knoxville, TN. Processed. South Africa: The Impact of Adult and School Programs on Dem- Gajakashmi, C. K., P. Jha, K. Ranson, and S. Nguyen. 2000. "Global ocratic Attitudes and Participation. Washington, DC: USAID. Patterns of Smoking and Smoking-Attributable Mortality." In Available online at http://pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACH577.pdf. Prabhat Jha and Frank J. Chaloupka, (eds.), Tobacco Control in Fiore, M. C., W. C. Bailey, S. J. Cohen, S. F. Dorfman, M. G. Gold- Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press. stein, E. R. Gritz, R. B. Heyman, C. R. Jaen, T. E. Kottke, H. A. Gal, Reuven, and Donald Eberly. 2006. Service Without Guns. New Lando, R. E. Mecklenburg, P. D. Mullen, L. M. Nett, L. Robin- Zealand: Lulu Press. son, M. L. Stitzer, A. C. Tommasello, L. Villejo, and M. E. Wew- Galasso, Emanuela, Martin Ravallion, and Agustin Salvia. 2001. ers. 2000. "Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: A Public "Assisting the Transition from Workfare to Work: A Ran- Health Service Clinical Practice Guideline." Paper presented at domized Experiment." Washington, DC: World Bank Policy the Press Briefing, HHS Auditorium. June 27. Washington, DC Research Working Paper Series 2738. Firebaugh, Glenn, and Kevin Chen. 1995. "Vote Turnout of Nine- Galiani, Sebastian, Martin Rossi, and Ernesto Schargrodsky. 2006. teenth Amendment Women: The Enduring Effect of Disenfran- "Conscription and Crime." Background paper for the WDR 2007. chisement." American Journal of Sociology 100(4):972­96. Galloway, Rae, and Mary Ann Anderson. 1994. "Prepregnancy Fitzgerald, A. M., B. F. Stanton, N. Terreri, H. Shipena, X. Li, J. Nutritional Status and Its Impact on Birthweight." SCN News Kahihuata, I. B. Ricardo, J. S. Galbraigth, and A. M. de Jaeger. 1994(11):6­10. 1999. "Use of Western-Based HIV Risk-Reduction Interventions Garces, Eliana, Duncan Thomas, and Janet Currie. 2000. "Longer Targeting Adolescents in an African Setting." Journal of Adoles- Term Effects of Head Start." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau cent Health 25(1):52­61. of Economic Research Working Paper Series 8054. Fleisher, Belton M., Haizheng Li, Shi Li, and Xiaojun Wang. 2004. Gatawa, B. G. 1995. Zimbabwe: AIDS Education for Schools. "Sorting, Selection, and Transformation of the Return to Col- Harare, Zimbabwe: UNICEF. lege Education in China." Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor Gauri, Varun, and Evan S. Lieberman. 2004. "Institutions, Social (IZA), Discussion Paper Series 1446. Boundaries, and Epidemics: Explaining Government AIDS Poli- 286 2007 cies in Brazil and South Africa." Paper presented at the Annual Latin America. Washington, DC: Oxford University Press for the Meetings of the American Political Science Association. Sep- World Bank. tember 2. Chicago, IL. Ginifer, Jeremy. 2003. "Reintegration of Ex-Combatants." In Mark Gauthier, Clermont, and Martial Dembélé. 2004. Quality of Teach- Malan, Sarah Meek, Thokozani Thusi, and Jeremy Ginifer, ing and Quality of Education: A Review of Research Findings. (eds.), Sierra Leone: Building the Road to Recovery. Pretoria, Paris: Background paper for the UNESCO Global Monitoring South Africa: Institute for Securities Studies. Report 2005. Available online at http://portal.unesco.org/. Glennerster, Rachel, Shehla Imran, and Katherine Whiteside. 2006. Geary, Cindy W., Hally Mahler, William Finger, and Kathleen H. "Baseline Report on the Quality of Primary Education in Sierra Shears. 2005. Using Global Media to Reach Youth: The 2002 MTV Leone: Teacher Absence, School Inputs, and School Supervision Staying Alive Campaign. Arlington, VA: Family Health Interna- in District Education Committee and Government-Assisted tional, YouthNet Program. Schools in Sierra Leone." Processed. Gebrekristos, Hirut, Stephen Resch, Khangelani Zuma, and Mark Glewwe, Paul, Hanan G. Jacoby, and Elizabeth M. King. 2001. "Early Lurie. 2005. "Estimating the Impact of Establishing Family Childhood Nutrition and Academic Achievement: A Longitudi- Housing on the Annual Risk of HIV Infection in the South nal Analysis." Journal of Public Economics 81(3):345­68. African Mining Communities." Sexually Transmitted Diseases Gluckman, Peter D., Mark A. Hanson, Susan M. B. Morton, and 32(6):333­40. Catherine S. Pinal. 2005. "Life-Long Echoes - A Critical Analy- Gerber, Alan S., Donald P. Green, and Ron Shachar. 2003. "Vot- sis of the Developmental Origins of Adult Disease Model." Biol- ing May be Habit Forming: Evidence from a Randomized Field ogy of the Neonate 87:127­39. Experiment." American Journal of Political Science 47(3):540­50. Goldscheider, Frances K. 2000. "Why Study Young Adult Living German Technical Cooperation, and International Council on Arrangements? A View of the Second Demographic Transition." National Youth Policy. 2005. Comparative Analysis of National Youth Brown University. Providence, RI. Processed. Policy. Eschborn, Germany: International Council on National Gonzalez, Rosa Amelia, and Patricia Marquez. 2005. Ron Santa Youth Policy (ICNYP). Available online at http://www.icnyp.net. Teresa's Social Initiatives. Washington, DC: Inter-American Geronimus, Arline T., and John Bound. 1990. "Black/white Differ- Development Bank, Social Enterprise Knowledge Network. ences in Women's Reproductive-Related Health Status: Evidence Goovaerts, Piet, Martin Gasser, and Alisa Belman Inbal. 2005. from Vital Statistics." Demography 27(3):457­66. "Demand Driven Approaches to Livelihood Support in Post- Geronimus, Arline T., and Sanders Korenman. 1992. "The Socio- War Contexts." Washington, DC: World Bank, Social Develop- economic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered." ment Papers 29. Quarterly Journal of Economics 107(4):1187­214. Gorpe, Mehmet Ziya, Jean Fares, and Claudio E. Montenegro. Gertler, Paul J. 2000. Final Report: The Impact of PROGRESA on 2006. "Public Wage Premium Around the World." Background Health. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research paper for the WDR 2007. Institute. Gough, Neil, and Charlotte Grezo. 2005. "Africa: The Impact of Gertler, Paul J., Stefano F. Bertozzi, Juan Pablo Gutierrez, and J. Mobile Phones." Berkshire, England: Vodafone Policy Paper Sturdy. 2006. "Preliminary Results from Analysis of Poverty and Series 2. Adolescent Risk Behavior in Mexico." World Bank. Washington, Gould, Eric D., Bruce A. Weinberg, and David B. Mustard. 1998. DC. Processed. "Crime Rates and Local Labor Market Opportunities in the United Gertler, Paul J., David Levine, and Sebastian Martinez. 2003. "The States: 1979-1997." Review of Economic and Statistics 84(1):45­61. Presence and Presents of Parents: Do Parents Matter for More Government of Sierra Leone. 2002. Survey on Reinsertion & Rein- than their Money?" University of California. Berkeley, CA tegration Assistance to Ex-Combatants. Freetown, Sierra Leone: Available online at http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/. Processed. Government of Sierra Leone, report submitted to National Cen- Gian, Cong, Doan Hong Quang, Nguyen Thi Lan Huong, and ter for the Dissemination of Disability Research. Remco H. Oostendorp. 2006. "Trade Liberalization, the Gender ------. 2005a. "National Population Based HIV Seroprevalence Sur- Wage Gap and Returns to Education in Vietnam." Tinbergen vey of Sierra Leone". Freetown, Sierra Leone, Statistics Sierra Leone. Institute, Amsterdam Institute for International Development. ------. 2005b. Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper: A National Pro- Amsterdam. Processed. gramme for Food Security, Job Creation and Good Governance Gibson, Cynthia. 2001. "From Inspiration to Participation: A (2005-2007). Freetown, Sierra Leone: Government of Sierra Leone. Review of Perspectives on Youth Civic Engagement." Paper pre- Graft, Auralice, Nicole Haberland, and Rachel Goldberg. 2003. sented at the Grantmaker Forum on Community and National "Married Adolescents: A Review of Programs." Paper presented Service. Berkeley, CA at the WHO/UNFPA/Population Council Technical Consulta- Gibson, John, David J. McKenzie, and Halahingano Rohorua. 2006. tion on Married Adolescents. Geneva. "How Cost Elastic Are Remittances? Evidence from Tongan Grantham-Mcgregor, S. M., C. A. Powell, S. P. Walker, and Migrants in New Zealand." Pacific Economic Review 21(1):112­38. J. H. Himes. 1991. "Nutritional Supplementation, Psychosocial Gill, Indermit S., and Ih Chon-Sun. 2000. "Republic of Korea." In Stimulation, and Mental Development of Stunted Children: The Indermit S. Gill, Fred Fluitman, and Amit Dar, (eds.), Vocational Jamaica Study." Lancet 338(8758):1­5. Education and Training Reform: Matching Skills to Markets and Gray, Ronald H., Maria J. Wawer, Ron Brookmeyer, Nelson K. Budgets. New York: Oxford Univesity Press. Sewankambo, David Serwadda, Fred Wabwire-Mangen, Tom Gill, Indermit S., Claudio E. Montenegro, and Dörte Dömeland, Lutalo, Xianbin Li, Thomas van Cott, Thomas C. Quinn, and eds. 2002. Crafting Labor Policy: Techniques and Lessons from Rekai Project Team. 2001. "Probability of HIV-1 Transmission 287 per Coital Act in Monogamous, Heterosexual, HIV-1-discor- Gunnarson, Victoria, Peter F. Orazem, and Mario A. Sánchez. dant Couples in Rakai, Uganda." Lancet 357(9263):1149­53. 2006. "Child Labor and School Achievement in Latin America." Green, Donald P., and Alan S. Gerber. 2001. Getting out the Youth World Bank Economic Review 20(1):31­54. Vote: Results from Randomized Field Experiments. Youth Vote Gutierrez, Juan Pablo. 2006. "Oportunidades for the Next Genera- Coalition: Pew Charitable Trusts. tion: Effects of a Conditional Cash Transfer on the Wellbeing of Greene, Margaret E., and Thomas Merrick. 2005. "Poverty Reduction: Mexican Youths." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Does Reproductive Health Matter?" Washington, DC: World Bank Haan, Hans Christiaan, and Nicholas Serriere. 2002. Train- Health, Nutrition and Population Discussion Paper July 2005. ing for Work in the Informal Sector: Fresh Evidence from West Greenwood, Jeremy, Ananth Seshadri, and Guillaume Vandenb- and Central Africa. Turin: International Training Centre roucke. 2005. "The Baby Boom and Baby Bust." American Eco- of the International Labour Organization. Available online nomic Review 95(1):183­207. at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLM/214578- Greenwood, Peter W., Karyn E. Model, C. Peter Rydell, and James 1103217503703/20295542/TrainingforWorkWCA.pdf. Chiesa. 1998. Diverting Children from a Life of Crime: Measuring Haggblade, Steven, Peter B. R. Hazell, and Thomas Reardon. (eds.) Costs and Benefits. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Forthcoming. "Transforming the Rural Nonfarm Economy." Bal- Gregson, Simon, Geoffrey P. Garnett, Constance A. Nyamukapa, timore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Timothy B. Hallett, James J. C. Lewis, Peter R. Mason, Stephen Hagopian, Amy, Anthony Ofosu, Adesegun Fatusi, Richard Birit- K. Chandiwana, and Roy M. Anderson. 2006. "HIV Decline wum, Ama Essel, L. Gary Hart, and Carolyn Watts. 2005. "The Associated with Behavior Change in Eastern Zimbabwe." Sci- Flight of Physicians from West Africa: Views of African Physi- ence 311(5761):664­66. cians and Implications for Policy." Social Science & Medicine Groce, Nora Ellen. 2003. "Adolescents and Youth with Disability: 61(8):1750­60. Issues and Challenges." PhD thesis. Yale School of Public Health. Hahn, Andrew. 1999. "Extending the Time of Learning." In Doug- Grogger, Jeffrey. 1998. "Market Wages and Youth Crime." Journal las J. Besharov, (eds.), Ameruca's Disconnected Youth: Towards a of Labor Economics 16(4):756­91. Preventive Strategy. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of Grosskurth, Heiner, Frank Mosha, James Todd, Ezra Mwijarubi, America Inc. Arnoud Klokke, Kesheni Senkoro, Philippe Mayaud, John Hahn, Andrew, Susan Lanspery, and Tom Leavitt. 2005. Docu- Changalucha, Angus Nicoll, Gina ka Gina, James Newell, Koku- mentation of Outcomes in the Philippines Make A Connection gonza Mugeye, David Mabye, and Richard Hayes. 1995. "Impact Program. Baltimore, MD: International Youth Foundation and of Improved Treatment of Sexually Transmitted Diseases on Nokia Corporation. HIV Infection in Rural Tanzania: Randomised Controlled Trial." Hahn, Andrew, and Tom Leavitt. 2003. Joined-Up Government. Lancet 346(8974):530­36. Coordination and Collaboration Opportunities to Strengthen Grossman, Michael. 2005a. "Education and Nonmarket Out- Multi-Sectoral Youth Policy Implementation in Jamaica. Wash- comes." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic ington, DC: World Bank. Research Working Paper Series 11582. Hahn, Andrew, Tom Leavitt, and Paul Aaron. 1994. Evalua- ------. 2005b. "Individual Behaviors and Substance Use: The Role tion of the Quantum Opportunities Program: Did the Program of Price." In Björn Lindgren and Michael Grossman, (eds.), Sub- Work? Waltham, MA: Brandeis University. Available online at stance Use: Individual, Behavioral, Social Interactions, Markets, http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_ and Policies. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 01/0000000b/80/27/39/7a.pdf. Grown, Caren, Geeta Rao Gupta, and Aslihan Kes. 2005. Taking Hahn, Carole L, Paulette Patterson Dilworth, and Michael Hughes. Action: Achieving Gender Equality and Empowering Women. 1998. IEA Civic Education Project, Phase 1, The United States - A Sterling, VA: Earthscan. Review of Literature, Volume 1. Washington, DC: International Gruben, William C., and Darryl McLeod. 2006. "Apparel Exports and Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Education: How Developing Nations Encourage Women's Schoo- Hahn, Carole L. 2005. "School Influences and Civic Engagement." ling." Economic Letter - Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas 1(3):1­8. In Lonnie R. Sherrod, Constance A. Flanagan, Ron Kassimir, Gruber, Jonathan, eds. 2001. Risky Behavior among Youths: An Eco- and Amy K. Syvertsen, (eds.), Youth Activism: An International nomic Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Gruber, Jonathan, and Jonathan Zinman. 2001. "Youth Smoking in Halewood, Naomi, and Charles Kenny. 2006. "Young People and the United States: Evidence and Implications." In Jonathan Gru- Communications Technologies." Background paper for the ber, (eds.), Risk Behavior among Youths: an Economic Analysis. WDR 2007. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Hallman, Kelly, Agnes R. Quisumbing, Marie Ruel, and Bénédicte Guarcello, Lorenzo, Fabrizia Mealli, and Furio Camillo Rosati. de la Briere. 2005. "Mothers' Work and Child Care: Findings 2003. "Household Vulnerability and Child Labour: The Effects from the Urban Slums of Guatemala City." Economic Develop- of Shocks, Credit Rationing and Insurance." Washington, DC: ment and Cultural Change 53(4):855­86. World Bank, Social Protection Unit, Human Development Net- Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie L., and Elizabeth Cauffman. 2001. "Costs work 0322. and Benefits of a Decision: Decision-making Competence in Guermazi, Boutheina, and David Satola. 2005. "Creating the Adolescents and Adults." Journal of Applied Developmental Psy- `Right' Enabling Environment for ICT." In Robert Schware, chology 22(3):257­73. (eds.), E-development: from excitement to effectiveness. Washing- Hannam, Derry. 2001. A Pilot Study to Evaluate the Impact of Stu- ton, DC: World Bank. dent Participation Aspects of the Citizenship Order on Standards 288 2007 of Education in Secondary Schools. London, U.K.: DFEE. Avail- the 44th Annual Convention of the International Studies Asso- able online at http://www.csv.org.uk/csv/hannamreport.pdf. ciation. February 25. Portland, O.R. Hanushek, Eric A., and Dennis D. Kimko. 2000. "Schooling, Labor Hemmer, Hans R., and C. Mannel. 1989. "On the Economic Force Quality, and the Growth of Nations." American Economic Analysis of the Urban Informal Sector." World Development Review 90(5):1184­208. 17(10):1543­52. Hanushek, Eric A., and Ludger Wößmann. 2005. "Does Educational Hettige, S. T., Markus Mayer, and Maleeka Salih. 2004. "School- Tracking Affect Performance and Inequality? Differences-in-Dif- to-work Transition of Youth in Sri Lanka." Colombo: University ferences Evidence Across Countries." Cambridge, MA: National of Colombo, Employment Policies Unit, Employment Strategy Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 11124. Department, Employment Strategy Paper 2004/19. Available Harrington, Julia. 2005. "Voiding Human Rights: Citizenship and online at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/ Discrimination in Africa." Justice Initiatives: Human Rights and download/esp19.pdf. Justice Sector Reform in Africa February:23­28. Hibbell, Björn, Barboro Anderson, Salme Ahlström, Olga Bala- Hart, Jason. 2004. Children's Participation in Humanitarian Action: kireva, Thoroddur Bjarnason, Anna Kokkevi, and Mark Mor- Learning from Zones of Armed Conflict. Oxford: Refugees Stud- gan. 2000. The 1999 ESPAD Report: Alcohol and Other Drug ies Center. Use Among Students in 30 European Countries. Stockholm: The Hatton, Timothy J., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. 2003. "Demo- Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs graphic and Economic Pressure on Emigration out of Africa." (CAN) and the Pompidou Group at the Council of Europe. Scandinavian Journal of Economics 105(3):465­486. Hildebrandt, Nicole, and David J. McKenzie. 2005. "The Effects of ------. 2005. "What Fundamentals Drive World Migration?" In Migration on Child Health in Mexico." Economia 6(1):257­89. George J. Borjas and Jeff Crips, (eds.), Poverty, International Hirsch, Barry T., and Stephen L. Mehay. 2003. "Evaluating the Labor Migration and Asylum. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan. Market Performance of Veterans Using a Matched Comparison Hazell, Peter B. R., and Steven Haggblade. 1993. "Farm-Nonfarm Group Design." Journal of Human Resources 38(3):673­700. Growth Linkages and the Welfare of the Poor." In Michael Lip- Hodgkin, Dominic. 1996. "Household Characteristics Affecting ton and Jacques Van der Gaag, (eds.), Including the Poor. Wash- Where Mothers Deliver in Rural Kenya." Health Economics ington, DC: World Bank. 5(4):333­40. Heady, Christopher. 2003. "What is the Effect of Child Labour on Hoff, Karla, and Priyanka Pandey. 2004. "Belief Systems and Dura- Learning Achievement? Evidence from Ghana." Florence, Italy: ble Inequalities: An Experimental Investigation of Indian Caste." Innocenti Working Papers inwopa00/7. Washington, DC: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Health and Treasury Task Team. 2003. Full Report of the Joint Series 3351. Health and Treasury Task Team Charged with Examining Treat- Hofferth, Sandra L., and Lori Reid. 2001. "The Effects of Early ment Options to Supplement Comprehensive Care for HIV/AIDS Childbearing on Schooling Over Time." Family Planning Per- in the Public Health Sector. South Africa: Ministry of Health & spectives, 33(6):259­67. Ministry of Treasury. Hoffman, Saul D. 1998. "Teenage Childbearing Is Not So Bad After Heckman, James J., Robert J. LaLonde, and Jeffrey A. Smith. 1999. All. Or is it? A Review of the New Literature." Family Planning "The Economics and Econometrics of Active Labor Market Pro- Perspectives 30(5):236­39. grams." In Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, (eds.), Handbook Holzmann, Robert. 2005. "Demographic Alternatives for Aging of Labor Economics, vol. 3A. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Industrial Societies: Enhanced Immigration, Labor Force Partic- Heckman, James J., and Xuesong Li. 2004. "Selection Bias, Com- ipation, or Total Fertility." Washington, DC: World Bank, Social parative Advantage and Heterogeneous Returns to Educa- Protection Discussion Paper 0540. tion: Evidence from China in 2000." Pacific Economic Review Hooghe, Marc, Deitlind Stolle, and Patrick Stouthuysen. 2004. 9(3):155­71. "Head Start in Politics: The Recruitment Function of Youth Heckman, James J., and Carmen Pagés. 2000. "Regulation and Organizations of Political Parties in Belgium (Flanders)." Party Deregulation: Lessons from Latin American Labor Markets." Politics 10(2):193­212. Economía 1(1):123­45. Hopenhayn, Hugo, and Richard Rogerson. 1993. "Job Turnover Heckman, James J., Jeffrey A. Smith, and Nancy Clements. 1997. and Policy Evaluation: A General Equilibrium Analysis." Journal "Making the Most out of Social Experiments: The Intrinsic of Political Economy 101(5):915­38. Uncertainty in Evidence from Randomized Trials with an Appli- Howell, James C. 1998. "Abolish the Juvenile Court? Nonsense!" cation to the National JTPA Experiment." Review of Economic Juvenile Justice Update 1:1­13. Studies 64(4):487­535. Hubley, J. 2000. Interventions Targeted at Youth Aimed at Influenc- Heckman, James J., Jora Stixrud, and Sergio Urzua. 2006. "The ing Sexual Behavior and AIDS/STDs. Leeds, U.K.: Leeds Health Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Mar- Education Database. ket Outcomes and Social Behavior." Cambridge, MA: National Hubner, John. 2005. Last Chance in Texas: The Redemption of Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 12006. Criminal Youth. New York, NY: Random House. Hediger, M. L., T. O. Scholl, J. I. Schall, and P. M. Krueger. 1997. Hudson, Valerie M., and Andrea M. den Boer. 2004. Bare "Young Maternal Age and Preterm Labour." Annals of Epidemi- Branches: The Security Implications of Asia's Surplus Male Popu- ology 7(6):400­6. lation. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Hegre, Håvard. 2003. "Disentangling Democracy and Develop- Huffman, W. E., and Peter F. Orazem. 2004. "Agriculture and ment as Determinants of Armed Conflict." Paper presented at Human Capital in Economic Growth: Farmers, Schooling and 289 Health." Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University, Economics Working Institute for Health Management-Pachod (IHMP), and International Papers 04016. Center for Research On Women (ICRW). 2003. Increasing Low Age Human Rights Watch. 1997a. Juvenile Justice: Police Abuse and at Marriage in Rural Maharashtra, India. Maharashtra, India: Insti- Detention of Street Children in Kenya. New York, NY: Human tute for Health Management. Available online at http://www2.phis- Rights Watch. hare.org/files/1046_IHMP_marriagebrief_Dec2003.pdf. ------. 1997b. The Scars of Death: Children Abducted by the Lord's Institute of Alcohol Studies. 2006. Adolescents and Alcohol. St. Ives: Resistance Army in Uganda. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Institute of Alcohol Studies. ------. 2001a. Easy Targets: Violence Against Children Worldwide. Instituto Mexicano de la Juventud (IMJ), and Organización New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Iberoamericana de la Juventud (OIJ). 2006. Institucionalidad y ------. 2001b. Scared at School: Sexual Violence against Girls in Políticas Públicas de Juventud. Mexico City: Instituto Mexicano South African Schools. New York, NY: Human Rigths Watch. de la Juventud por encargo y con la colaboración de la Orga- Available online at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/safrica/. nización Iberoamericana de la Juventud. ------. 2002a. My Gun was as Tall as Me. New York, NY: Human Instituto Nacional para la Evaluación de la Educación de Mexico. Rights Watch. 2005. "Las Telesecundarias Mexicanas: Un Recorrido sin Ata- ------. 2002b. Suffering in Silence: The Links Between Human jos." Online Magazine. Rights Abuses and HIV Transmission to Girls in Zambia. New Inter-American Development Bank. 2005. Ex-post Evaluation of York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Training Programs `Youth Labor Training Program' (PROJOVEN) ------. 2003. Charged with Being Children: Egyptian Police Abuse in PERU. Ex-Post Project Report. Preliminary version. Washing- of Children in Need of Protection. New York, NY: Human Rights ton, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. Available online at Watch. http://www.iadb.org/ove/Documents/uploads/cache/498982.pdf. Humphreys, Macartan, and Paul Richards. 2005. "Prospects Interagency Gender Working Group. 2005. An Education in Mak- and Opportunities for Achieving the MDGs in Post-Conflict ing Schools Safe. Washington, DC: Interagency Gender Working Countries: A Case Study of Sierra Leone and Liberia." NEPAD. Group. Available online at http://www.igwg.org/articles/ New York, NY Available online at http://www.columbia.edu/ safeschools.htm. ~mh2245/papers1/HR.pdf. Processed. International Center for Prison Studies. 2003. "World Prison Humphreys, Macartan, and Jeremy M. Weinstein. 2003. What the Brief". London, UK, King's College London, University of Lon- Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-Combatants in Sierra Leone June- don. Available online at http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/rel/icps/ August 2003. Freetown, Sierra Leone: The Post-Conflict Reinte- worldbrief/world_brief.html. gration Initiative for development and Empowerment (PRIDE). International Council on National Youth Policy. 2005. ICNYP Pro- -------. 2005. "Disentangling the Determinants of Successful Dis- files on Country Actions to Promote Implementation of National armament, Demobilization, and Reintegration." Paper presented Youth Policies. Vienna: International Council on National Youth at the 101st Meeting of the American Political Science Associa- Policy (ICNYP). Available online at http://www.icnyp.net. tion. September. Washington, DC International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), and ORC Hurley, Susan F., Damien J. Jolley, and John M. Kaldor. 1997. Macro. 2000. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2), 1998-99, "Effectiveness of Needle Exchange Programmes for Prevention India. Mumbai: IIPS. of HIV Infection." Lancet 349(9068):1797­800. International Nutritional Anemia Consultative Group. 1979. Iron Ilahi, Nadeem, Peter F. Orazem, and Guilherme Sedlacek. 2005. Deficiency in Infancy and Childhood. Geneva: World Health "How Does Working as a Child Affect Wages, Income and Pov- Organization. erty as an Adult?" Washington, DC: World Bank, Social Protec- ------. 1989. Iron Deficiency in Women. Geneva: World Health tion Discussion Paper Series 0514. Organization. ILO. 2001. World Employment Report 2001: Life at Work in the International Organization for Migration (IOM). 2005a. HIV/ Information Economy. Geneva: International Labour Office. AIDS, Population Mobility and Migration in Southern Africa: ------. 2003. Wounded Childhood: The Use of Children in Armed Defining a Research and Policy Agenda. South Africa: IOM Conflict in Central Africa. Geneva: International Labour Office. South Africa Office. Available online at http://www.iom.org.za/ ------. 2004. Global Employment Trends for Youth. Geneva: Inter- Reports/PopulationMobilityReport.pdf. national Labour Office. ------. 2005b. World Migration 2005: Costs and Benefits of Interna- ------. 2005. Global Youth Employment Trends. Geneva: Interna- tional Migration. Geneva: International Organization for Migration. tional Labour Office. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 2005. The African ------. 2006. The End of Child Labour: Within Reach. Geneva: Virtual University. Geneva: International Telecommunication International Labour Office. Available online at http://www.ilo. Union. Available online at http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/wsis- org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc95/pdf/rep-i-b.pdf. themes/ict_stories/Themes/Case_studies/AVU.html . Imbens, Guido, and Wilbert Van Der Klaauw. 1995. "Evaluating Internet Safety Group. 2005. New Survey Illustrate the Profound the Cost of Conscription in The Netherlands." Journal of Busi- Impact of Mobile Phones on Many New Zealand Youth. Auck- ness and Economic Statistics 13(2):207­215. land, New Zealand: Internet Safety Group. Available online at Inglehart, Ronald, Miguel Basáñez, Jaime Díez-Medrano, Loek http://www.netsafe.org.nz/isgnews/text_generation.aspx. Halman, and Ruud Luijkx, eds. 2004. Human Beliefs and Values: Isham, Jonathan, Daniel Kaufmann, and Lant Pritchett. 1995. A Cross-cultural Sourcebook based on the 1999-2002 Values Sur- "Governance and Project Performance." Washington, DC: veys. Mexico, D.F.: Siglo Veinteiuno. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 1550. 290 2007 Iversen, Vegard. 2002. "Autonomy of Child Labor Migrants." World tries." In J. R. Behrman and T. N. Srinivasan, (eds.), Handbook of Development 30(5):817­34. Development Economics vol. 3. Amsterdarm: Elsevier. Jacob, Brian A., and Lars Lefgren. 2002. "The Impact of Teacher Jimenez, Emmanuel, and Marlaine E. Lockheed. 1989. "Enhanch- Training on Student Achievement: Quasi-Experimental Evidence ing Girls' Learning Through Single-Sex Education: Evidence from School Reform Efforts in Chicago." Cambridge, MA: National and a Policy Conundrum." Educational Evaluation and Policy Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 8916. Analysis 11(2):117­42. Jacobson, Mireille. 2004. "Baby Booms and Drug Busts: Trends Jimenez, Emmanuel, and Yasuyuki Sawada. 1999. "Do Commu- in Youth Drug Use in the United States: 1975-2000." Quarterly nity-Managed Schools Work? An Evaluation of El Salvador's Journal of Economics 119(4):1481­512. EDUCO Program." World Bank Economic Review 13(3):415­41. Jacoby, Hanan G., and Emannuel Skoufias. 2002. "Financial Con- Jimeno, Juan F., and Diego Rodríguez-Palenzuela. 2002. "Youth straints on Higher Education: Evidence from Mexico." World Unemployment in the OECD: Demographic Shifts, Labour Bank and IFPRI. Washington, DC. Processed. Market Institutions, and Macroeconomic Shocks." Frankfurt: James-Traore, Tijuana, Robert Magnani, Nancy Murray, Judith European Central Bank, Working Paper Series 155. Senderowitz, Ilene Speizer, and Lindsay Steward. 2002. "Inter- Joekes, Susan. 1995. "Trade- Related Employment for Women in vention Strategies that Work for Youth: Summary of the FOCUS Industry and Services in Developing Countries." New York, NY: on Young Adults End of Program Report." Arlington, VA: Fam- United Nations Development Program, Occasional Paper 5. ily Health International, YouthNet Program, Youth Issues Paper Available online at http://www.unrisd.org/. 1. Available online at http://www.fhi.org/. Johanson, Richard K., and Arvil V. Adams. 2004. Skills Develop- Japan Bank for International Cooperation. 2006. "Meeting the ment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. Increasing and Changing Demand for Quality Labor in FDI-led Johnson, Amy W. 1996. "An Evaluation of the Long-Term Impacts Growth: From Adaptability to Creativity." Japan Bank for Inter- of the Sponsor-A-Scholar Program on Student Performance." national Cooperation (JBIC). Tokyo. Processed. Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. Princeton, NJ. Processed. Javate de Dios, Aurora. 2002. "From the Margins to the Mainstream: Johnson, D. Gale. 2000. "Population, Food, and Knowledge." Making Government Work for Gender Equality." Paper presented American Economic Review 90(1):1­14. at the ASEAN-World Bank High Level Conference on Social Jorgenson, Dale W. Forthcoming. "Accounting for Growth in the Development in the National Development. January 16. Jakarta. Information Age." In Philippe Aghion and Steven Durlauf (eds.) Jejeebhoy, Shireen J., and Sarah Bott. 2003. "Non-consensual Handbook of Economic Growth. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Sexual Experiences of Young People: A Review of the Evidence Joshi, Shareen, and Paul Schultz. 2005. "Family Planning as an from Developing Countries." New Delhi: Populaiton Council Investment in Female Human Capital: Evaluating the Long South & East Asia Regional Working Papers 16. Term Consequences in Matlab, Bangladesh." Yale University. Jennings, Kent M, and Laura Stoker. 2002. "Generational Change, New Haven, CT. Processed. Life Cycle Processes, and Social Capital." Paper presented at the Jowett, Matthew. 2000. "Safe Motherhood Interventions in Low- Workshop on "Citizenship on Trial: Interdisciplinary Perspec- income Countries: An Economic Justification and Evidence of tives on the Political Socialization of Adolescents". June 20. Cost Effectiveness." Health Policy 53(3):201­28. Montreal, Canada. Kabbani, Nader, and Ekta Kothari. 2005. "Youth Employment in Jensen, Robert. 2006. "Do the Perceived Returns to Education the MENA Region: A Situational Assessment." Washington, Affect Schooling Decisions? Evidence from a Randomized DC: World Bank SP Discussion Paper 0534. Experiment." John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard Kabeer, Naila. 1999. "Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflec- University. Cambridge, MA. Processed. tions on the Measurement of Women's Empowerment." Develop- Jensen, Robert, and Rebecca Thornton. 2003. "Early Female Marriage ment and Change 30(3):435­64. in the Developing World." Gender and Development 11(2):9­19. Kagitcibasi, Cigdem, Diane Sunar, and Sevda Bekman. 2001. "Long- Jha, Prabhat, and Frank Chaloupka, eds. 2000. Tobacco Control in term Effects of Early Intervention: Turkish Low-Income Mothers Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press. and Children." Applied Developmental Pshychology 22:333­61. Jha, Prabhat, Frank J. Chaloupka, James Moore, Vendhan Gaja- Kalemli-Ozcan, Sebnem. 2001. "The Effect of Mortality on Fertil- lakshmi, Prakash C. Gupta, Richard Peck, Samira Asma, and ity and Human Capital Investment: What Do We Learn from Witold Zatonski. 2005. "Tobacco Addiction." In Dean T. Jamis- AIDS?" University of Houston. Houston. Processed. ion, David B. Evans, George Alleyne, Prabhat Jha, Joel G. Bre- ------. 2005. "AIDS, Reversal of the Demographic Transition and man, Anthony R. Measham, Mariam Claeson, Anne Mills, and Economic Development: Evidence from Africa." University of Philip R. Musgrove, (eds.), Disease Control Priorities in Develop- Houston and NBER. Houston. Processed. ing Countries. Bethesda, MD: Disease Control Priorities Project. Kandel, William, and Grace Kao. 2001. "The Impact of Temporary Jha, Prabhat, Lara M. E. Vaz, Francis A. Plummer, Nico J. D. Labor Migration on Mexican Children's Educational Aspirations Nagelkerke, Bridget Willbond, Elizabeth N. Ngugi, Stephen Moses, and Performance." International Migration Review 35(4):1205­1231. Grace John, Ruth Nduati, Kelly MacDonald, and Seth Berkley. 2001. Kantis, H., eds. 2003. Estudios de Desarrollo Empresarial en Argen- "The Evidence Base for Interventions to Prevent HIV Infection in tina: La Creación de Empresas y su Entorno Institucional. Buenos Low and Middle-Income Countries." Geneva: Commission on Mac- Aires: JICA. roeconomics and Health Working Paper Series WG 5 Paper 2. Kassouf, Ana Lucia, Martin McKee, and Elias Mossialos. 2001. Jimenez, Emmanuel. 1995. "Human and Physical Infrastructure: "Early Entrance to the Job Market and its Effect on Adult Health: Public Investment and Pricing Policies in Developing Coun- Evidence from Brazil." Health Policy and Planning 16(1):21­28. 291 Kaufman, C. E., T. de Wet, and J. Stadler. 2001. "Adolescent Preg- Klepinger, Daniel, Shelly Lundberg, and Robert Plotnick. 1997. nancy and Parenthood in South Africa." Studies in Family Plan- "How Does Adolescent Fertility Affect the Human Capital and ning 32(2):147­60. Wages of Young Women?" Madison, Wisconsin: Institute for Kaufman, Carol E., and Stavros E. Stavrou. 2004. "Bus Fare, Please: Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin, Discussion Paper The Economics of Sex and Gifts Among Adolescents in Urban 1145-97. South Africa." Culture, Health and Sexuality 6(5):377­91. Kluve, Jochen. 2006. "The Effectiveness of European Active Labor Kaushik, Basu, and Zafiris Tzannatos. 2003. "The Global Child Market Policy." Bonn: Institute for Labor Policies (IZA), Discus- Labor Problem: What Do We Know and What Can We Do?" sion Paper 2018. World Bank Economic Review 17(2):147­73. Knight, John B., and Richard H. Sabot. 1990. Education, Productiv- Kemple, James J., and Judith Scott-Clayton. 2004. Career Acad- ity, and Inequality: The East African Natural Experiment. Wash- emies: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes and Educational ington, DC: World Bank. Attainment. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Knowles, James, and Jere R. Behrman. 2003. Assessing the Eco- Corporation (MDRC). nomic Returns to Investing in Youth in Developing Countries. Kenkel, Donald S. 2000. "Prevention." In Anthony J. Culyer and Washington, DC: World Bank, HNP Discussion Paper. Joseph P. Newhouse, (eds.), Handbook of Health Economics. Knowles, James C., and Jere R. Behrman. 2005. "The Economic Amsterdam: Elsevier. Returns to Investing in Youth in Developing Countries: A Kessler, Ronald C., Cindy L. Foster, William B. Saunders, and Paul E. Review of the Literature." Washington, DC: World Bank: Health, Stang. 1995. "Social Consequences of Psychiatric Disorders I: Educa- Nutrition, and Population Discussion Paper January 2005. tional Attainment." American Journal of Psychiatry 152(7):1026­32. Knudsen, Eric I. 2004. "Sensitive Periods in the Development Khan, Ayesha. 1998. Female Mobility and Social Barriers to Access- of the Brain and Behavior." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience ing Health and Family Planning Services: A Qualitative Research 16(8):1412­25. Study in Three Punjabi Villages. Islamabad: Ministry for Popula- Köbrich, Claus, and Martine Dirven. 2006. "Características del tion Welfare. Empleo Rural no Agrícola en America Latina con Enfasis en los Khandker, Shahidur R. 2005. "Microfinance and Poverty: Evidence Servicios." ECLAC. Santiago de Chile. Processed. Using Panel Data from Bangladesh." World Bank Economic Kohlberg, Lawrence. 1973. "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of Review 19(2):263­86. a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment." Journal of Philosophy Khandker, Shahidur R., Mark M. Pitt, and Nobuhiko Fuwa. 2003. 70(18):630­46. "Subsidy to Promote Girls' Secondary Education: The Female Konde-Lule, J. K., N. Sewankambo, and M. Morris. 1997. "Ado- Stipend Program in Bangladesh." World Bank. Washington, DC. lescent Sexual Networking and HIV Transmission in Rural Processed. Uganda." Health Transition Review 7(Suppl):89­100. Kibria, Nazli. 1995. "Culture, Social Class, and Income Control in Koplan, Jeffrey P., Catharyn T. Liverman, and Vivica I. Kraak, the Lives of Women Garment Workers in Bangladesh." Gender eds. 2005. Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance. and Society 9(3):289­309. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available Kijima, Yoko, and Peter Lanjouw. 2004. "Non-farm Employment, online at http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11015.html. Agricultural Wage, and Poverty Trends in Rural India." World Korenman, Sanders, and David Neumark. 2000. "Cohort Crowd- Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. ing and Youth Labor Markets: A Cross-National Analysis." In Kim, Gwang-Jo. 2002. "Education Policies and Reform in South David G. Blanchflower and Richard B. Freeman, (eds.), Youth Korea." In World Bank, (eds.), Secondary Education in Africa: Employment and Joblessness in Advanced Countries. Chicago and Strategies for Renewal. Washington, DC: World Bank. London: University of Chicago Press for the National Bureau of King, Elizabeth M. 2005. "Schemes to Acknowledge the Value of Economic Research. Daughters in India." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Kremer, Michael, and Dan M. Levy. 2003. "Peer Effects and Alco- Kinkade, Sheila, and Christina Macy. 2005. Our Time is Now: Young hol Use Among College Students." Cambridge, MA: National People Changing the World. New York, NY: Pearson Foundation. Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 9876. Kirby, Douglas. 2001. Emerging Answers: Research Findings on Kremer, Michael, Edward Miguel, and Rebecca Thornton. 2004. Programs to Reduce Teen Pregnancy. Washington, DC: National "Sensitive Periods in the Development of the Brain and Behav- Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. ior." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research Kirby, Douglas, B. A. Laris, and Lori Rolleri. 2005. "Impact of Sex and Working Paper Series 10971. HIV Education Programs on Sexual Behaviors of Youth in Deve- Kriger, Norma. 2005. "ZANU(PF) Strategies in General Elec- loping and Developed Countries." Research Triangle Park, N.C.: tions, 1980-2000: Discourse and Coercion." African Affairs Family Health International, Youth Research Working Paper 2. 104(414):1­34. Kirby, Douglas, Gina Lepore, and Jennifer Ryan. 2005. A Matrix of Krug, Etienne G., Linda L. Dahlberg, James A. Mercy, Anthony Risk and Protective Factors Affecting Teen Sexual Behavior, Preg- B. Zwi, and Rafael Lozano. 2002. World Report on Violence and nancy, Childbearing and Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Wash- Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. ington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. Kugler, Adriana D. 2004. "The Effect of Job Security Regulations on Available online at http://www.etr.org/recapp/theories/RiskPro- Labor Market Flexibility: Evidence from the Colombian Labor tectiveFactors/Matrix_Kirby.pdf. Market Reform." In James J. Heckman and Carmen Pagés, (eds.), Kleiner, Morris M. 2000. "Occupational Licensing." Journal of Eco- Law and Employment: Lessons from Latin America and the Carib- nomics Perspectives 14(4):189­202. bean. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. 292 2007 Kugler, Adriana D., Juan F. Jimeno, and Virginia Hernanz. 2003. Lee, Jong-Wha, and Changyong Rhee. 1999. "Social Impacts of the "Employment Consequences of Restrictive Permanent Con- Asian Crisis: Policy Challenges and Lessons." New York: UNDP tracts." London: Centre for Economic Policy Research Discus- Occasional Paper 33. sion Paper 3724. Lee, Lena, and Poh Kam Wong. 2005. "Entrepreneurship Edu- Kuku, Yemisi, Peter F. Orazem, and Rajesh Singh. 2005. "Com- cation - A Compendium of Related Issues." Singapore: SSRN puter Adoption and Returns in Transition." Ames, Iowa: Iowa Electronic Paper Collection Available online at http://ssrn.com/ State University Economics Working Paper 04021. abstract=856227. Kurz, Kathleen M., Nancy L. Peplinsky, and Charlotte Johnson- Leff, Nathaniel H. 1969. "Dependency Rates and Saving Rates." Welch. 1994. Investing in the Future: Six Principles for Promoting American Economic Review 59(5):886­96. the Nutritional Status of Adolescent Girls in Developing Countries. Leopold, Evelyn. 2001. "Congolese Kids Face Horrific Conditions." Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women. Reuters, June 17. Kutan, Ali M., and Kostas Drakos. 2003. "Regional Effects of Terror- Lesthaeghe, R., and G. Moors. 2000. "Recent Trends in Fertility ism on Tourism." Journal of Conflict Resolution 47(5):621­641. and Household Formation in the Industrialized World." Review Kymlicka, Will. 2001. Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism, Mul- of Population and Social Policy 9:121­70. ticulturalism, and Citizenship. New York, NY: Oxford University Levine, Saul. 1999. "Youth in Terrorist Groups, Gangs, and Cults: Press. The Allure, the Animus, and the Alienation." Psychiatric Annals La Cava, Gloria, Zeynep Ozbil, Sarah Michael, Elena Galliano, 29(6):342­49. Minna Mattero, and Mio Takada. 2006. "Youth and the Transi- Levison, Deborah, Karine S. Moe, and Felicia M. Knaul. 2001. tion to Citizenship: The Role of the State in Promoting Positive "Youth Education and Work in Mexico." World Development Youth Religious and Ethnic Identities and Young People's Role 29(1):167­88. in Peace-Building and Social Change." Background paper for Levitt, Steven D. 1998. "Juvenile Crime and Punishment." Journal the WDR 2007. of Political Economy 106(6):1156­1187. Lam, David. 2006. "The Demography of Youth in Developing ------. 1999. "The Limited Role of Changing Age Structure in Countries and its Economic Implications." Background paper Explaining Aggregate Crime Rates." Criminology 37(3):581­98. for the WDR 2007. Levitt, Steven D., and Lance Lochner. 2001. "The Determinants Lanjouw, Peter, and Nicholas Stern. 2006. Economic Development in of Juvenile Crime." In Jonathan Gruber, (eds.), Risky Behavior Palanpur Over Five Decades. New York: Oxford University Press. among Youths: An Economic Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Lansdown, R., A. Ledward, A. Hall, W. Issae, E. Yona, J. Matulu, M. Chicago Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research. Mweta, C. Kihamia, U. Nyandindi, and D. Bundy. 2002. "Schis- Levy, Frank, and Richard Murnane. 2004. The New Division of tosomiasis, Helminth Infection and Health Education in Tan- Labor: How Computers Are Creating the Next Job Market. Princ- zania: Achieving Behavior Change in Primary Schools." Health eton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Education Research 17(4):425­33. Levy, Santiago, and Evelyne Rodríguez. 2004. Economic Crisis, Lasida, Javier, and Ernesto Rodríguez. 2006. "Entrando al Mundo Political Transition and Poverty Policy Reform. Washington, de Trabajo: Resultados de Seis Proyectos Entra 21." Baltimore, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, Regional Operations MD: International Youth Foundation, Serie de Aprendizaje 2. Department II. Policy Dialogue Series. Latimer, Jeff, Craig Dowden, and Danielle Muise. 2001. The Effec- Li, R., X. Chen, Yan.H., P. Deurenberg, L. Garby, and J. G. Hautv- tiveness of Restorative Justice Practices: A Meta-Analysis. Canada: ast. 1994. "Functional Consequences of Iron Supplementation in Research and Statistics Division, Department of Justice. Iron-deficient Female Cotton Mill Workers in Beijing, China." Lautrédou, Gérard. 2005. "Viet Nam: A Tale of Two Cities." The Maga- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59(4):908­13. zine of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Liang, Gui. 2005. The CASS Internet Survey Report 2005: Sur- Lavinas, Lena, Maria Lígia Barbosa, and Octávio Tourinho. 2001. veying Internet Use and Impact in 5 Chinese Cities. Beijing: Assessing Local Minimum Income Programmes in Brazil: ILO- Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Available online at World Bank Agreement. Geneva: International Labour Office. http://www.worldinternetproject.net/publishedarchive/ Available online at http://www-ilo-mirror.cornell.edu/public/ China%20Report%202005.pdf. english/protection/ses/download/docs/2brazil.pdf. Lillard, Lee A., and Robert J. Willis. 1994. "Intergenerational Edu- Lavy, V., and A. Schlosser. 2005. "Targeted Remedial Education cational Mobility: Effects of Family and State in Malaysia." Jour- for Underperforming Teenagers: Costs and Benefits." Journal of nal of Human Resources 29(4):1126­66. Labor Economics 23(4):839­74. Lindert, Peter H. 2003. "Voice and Growth: Was Churchill Right." Lavy, Victor. 1996. "School Supply Constraints and Children's Journal of Economic History 63(2):315­50. Educational Outcomes in Rural Ghana." Journal of Development Llisterri, J., H. Kantis, P. Angelelli, and L. Tejerina. 2006. "Youth Economics 51(2):291­314. Entrepreneurship in Latin America, Inter-American Develop- ------. 2002. "Evaluating the Effect of Teachers' Group Perfor- ment Bank Forthcoming." Background paper for the WDR mance Incentives on Pupil Achievement." Journal of Political 2007. Economy 110(6):1286­317. Llorente, María Victoria, and Angela Rivas. 2005. "Case Study: Reduc- Lazear, Edward. 2001. "Educational Production." Quarterly Journal tion of Crime in Bogota: A Decade of Citizen's Security Policies." of Economics 116(3):777­803. Washington, DC: World Bank Working Paper Series 35128. Lazear, Edward P. 1983. "A Competitive Theory of Monopoly Lloyd, Cynthia B. 2003. "The Impact of Educational Quality on School Unionism." American Economic Review 73(4):631­43. Exit in Egypt." Comparative Education Review 47(4):444­67. 293 Lloyd, Cynthia B., and Monica J. Grant. 2004. "Growing Up in Wendy M. Rahn, Rob Reich, Robert R. Rodgers, Todd Swanstrom, Pakistan: The Separate Experiences of Males and Females." New and Katherine Cramer Walsh. 2005. Democracy at Risk: How Politi- York: Population Council, Policy Research Division, Working cal Choices Undermine Citizen Participation, and What We Can Do Paper Series 188. About It. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Lloyd, Cynthia B., Barbara S. Mensch, and Wesley H. Clark. 2000. Machin, Stephen, and Costas Meghir. 2004. "Crime and Economic "The Effects of Primary School Quality on School Dropout Incentives." Journal of Human Resources 39(4):958­79. Among Kenyan Girls and Boys." Comparative Education Review Maclellan, Nic, and Peter Mares. 2005. "Labour Mobility in the 44(2):113­47. Pacific: Creating Seasonal Work Programs in Australia." Paper Lochner, Lance, and Enrico Moretti. 2004. "The Effect of Educa- presented at the Globalisation, Governance and the Pacific Islands. tion on Crime: Evidence from Prison Inmates, Arrests, and Self- State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Project (SSGM) Aus- Reports." American Economic Review 94(1):155­89. tralian National University, Canberra, 25-27 October 2005. Loevinsohn, Benjamin P. 1990. "Health Education Intervention in Maclure, Richard, and Melvin Sotelo. 2004. "Youth Gangs in Nica- Developing Countries: A Methodological Review of Published ragua: Gang Membership as Structured Individualization." Jour- Articles." International Journal of Epidemiology 19(4):788­94. nal of Youth Studies 7(4):417­32. Lokshin, Michael, Elena Glinskaya, and Marito Garcia. 2004. "The Makinson, Carolyn. 1985. "The Health Consequences of Teenage Effect of Early Childhood Development Programs on Women's Fertility." Family Planning Perspectives 17(3):132­39. Labor Force Participation and Older Children's Schooling in Maloney, William F., and Jairo Nuñez Mendez. 2004. "Measuring Kenya." Journal of African Economies 13(2):240­76. the Impact of Minimum Wages: Evidence from Latin America." Lokshin, Michael, and Ruslan Yemtsov. 2005. "Who Bears the Cost In James Heckman and Carmen Pagés, (eds.), Law and Employ- of Russia's Military Draft?" Washington, DC: World Bank Policy ment: Lessons from Latin America and the Caribbean. Chicago: Research Working Paper 3547. University of Chicago Press. Longhi, Simonetta, Peter Nijkamp, and Jacques Poot. 2005. "A Maluccio, John A. Forthcoming. "Education and Child Labor: Meta-analytic Assessment of the Effect of Immigration on Experimental Evidence from a Nicaraguan Conditional Cash Wages." Journal of Economic Surveys 19(3):451­77. Transfer Program." In Peter F. Orazem, Guilherme Sedlacek, and López, Alan D., Colin D. Mathers, Majad Ezzati, Dean T. Jamison, Zafiris Tzannatos (eds.) Eradicating Child Labor in Latin America and Christopher J. L. Murray, eds. 2006. Global Burden of Dis- in the 90s: The Promise of Demand Side Interventions. Washing- ease and Risk Factors. Washington, DC: World Bank and Oxford ton, DC: World Bank and Inter-American Development Bank. University Press. Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Lucas, Gregory M., Laura W. Cheever, Richard E. Chaisson, and Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton, NJ: Princ- Richard D. Moore. 2001. "Detrimental Effects of Continued eton University Press. Illicit Drug Use on the Treatment of HIV-1 Infection." Journal of Mammen, Kristin, and Christina Paxson. 2000. "Women's Work Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 27(3):251­9. and Economic Development." Journal of Economic Perspectives Lucas, Robert E. B. 2004. International Migration Regimes and Eco- 14(4):141­64. nomic Development. Boston: Boston University, Department of Mangiaterra, Viviana, and Gerold Vollmer. 2006. "Youth Consulta- Economics. tions for the WDR 2007: Synthesis Report of Country and Grass- Luke, Nancy. 2003. "Age and Economic Asymmetries in the Sexual roots Consultations." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Relationships of Adolescent Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa." Stud- Mannheim, Karl. 1972. "The Problem of Generations." In P Alt- ies in Family Planning 34(2):67­86. bach and R Laufer, (eds.), The New Pilgrims: Youth Protest in Lule, Elizabeth, James E. Rosen, Susheela Singh, James C. Knowles, Transition. New York, NY: David McKay and Company. and Jere R. Behrman. 2005. "Adolescent Health Programs." In Dean Mar Gadio, Coumba. 2001. Exploring the Gender Impacts of World T. Jamison, David B. Evans, George Alleyne, Prabhat Jha, Joel G. Links in some Selected Participating African Countries: A Quali- Breman, Anthony R. Measham, Mariam Claeson, Anne Mills, and tative Approach. Washington, DC: World Links. Available online Philip R. Musgrove, (eds.), Disease Control Priorities in Developing at http://www.world-links.org/modules/Downloads/fileuploads/ Countries. Bethesda, MD: Disease Control Priorities Project. gender_study_v2.pdf. Lundberg, Mattias K. A., Mead Over, and Phare Mujinja. 2003. Marseille, Elliot. 2003. The External Effects of HAART. A Back- "Do Savings Predict Death? Precautionary Savings During an ground Paper for HIV/AIDS Treatment and Prevention in India. Epidemic." UNAIDS. Geneva. Processed. Washington, DC: World Bank. Lundberg, Shelly, and Elaina Rose. 2002. "The Effects of Sons and Marshall, T. H. 1950. Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays. Daughters On Men's Labor Supply and Wages." Review of Eco- Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. nomics and Statistics 84(2):251­68. Martin, John P., and David Grubb. 2001. "What Works and for Whom: MacDonald, Margaret, Matthew Law, John Kaldor, Jim Hales, and A Review of OECD Countries' Experiences with Active Labour Gregory J. Dore. 2003. "Effectiveness of Needle and Syringe Pro- Market Policies." Swedish Economic Policy Review 8(2):9­56. grammes for Preventing HIV Transmission." International Jour- Martinez, Ramiro Jr., and Matthew T. Lee. 2000. "On Immigration nal of Drug Policy 14(5-6):353­57. and Crime." In U.S.Department of Justice Office of Justice Pro- Macedo, Stephen, Yvette Alex-Assensoh, Jeffrey M. Berry, Michael grams, (eds.), Criminal Justice 2000. Washington, DC: National Brintnall, David E. Campbell, Luis Ricardo Fraga, Archon Fung, Institute of Justice. William A Galston, Christopher F. Karpowitz, Margaret Levi, Meira Martorell, R., U. Ramakrishnan, D. G. Schroeder, P. Melgar, and Levinson, Keena Lipsitz, Richard G. Niemi, Robert D. Putnam, L. Neufeld. 1998. "Intrauterine Growth Retardation, Body Size, 294 2007 Body Composition and Physical Performance in Adolescence." Meager, Nigel, and Ceri Evans. 1998. "The Evaluation of Active Labour European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52(Supplement):S43­53. Market Measures for the Long-term Unemployed." Geneva: Interna- Mason, Andrew, eds. 2001. Population Change and Economic tional Labour Office, International Migration Paper Series 16. Development in East Asia: Challenges Met, Opportunities Seized. Mensch, Barbara S., Judith Bruce, and Margaret E. Greene. 1998. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. The Uncharted Passage: Girls' Adolescence in the Developing Massey, Douglas S., Joaquín Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaou- World. New York: Population Council. chi, Adela Pellegrino, and Edward Taylor. 1998. Worlds in Mensch, Barbara S., Paul C. Hewett, and Annabel S. Erulkar. 2001. Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the "The Reporting of Sensitive Behavior Amons Adolescents: A Millennium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Methodological Experiment in Kenya." Demography 40(2):247­68. Mathur, Sanyukta, Margaret Greene, and Anju Jamhotra. 2003. Too Mensch, Barbara S., Susheela Singh, and John B. Casterline. 2006. Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights and Health of Young Married Girls. "Trends in the Timing of First Marriage Among Men and Women Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women. in the Developing World." In Cynthia B. Lloyd, Jere R. Behrman, Mathur, Sanyukta, Manisha Mehta, and Anju Malhotra. 2004. Nelly P. Stromquist, and Barney Cohen, (eds.), The Changing Youth Reproductive Health in Nepal: Is Participation the Answer? Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries: Selected Studies. Washington, DC: International Center for Research On Women. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available online at http://www.icrw.org/docs/nepal_0104.pdf. Mesnard, Alice. 2004. "Temporary Migration and Capital Market Mattero, Minna. 2006. "Youth Policies and the Institutional Frame- Imperfections." Oxford Economic Papers 56(2):242­262. work." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Mesquida, Christian G., and Neil I Wiener. 1999. "Male Age Com- Matthews, Iole, Richard Griggs, and Glenda Caine. 1999. The position and Severity of Conflicts." Political and Life Sciences Experience Review of Interventions and Programmes Dealing 18(2):181­9. with Youth Violence in Urban Schools in South Africa. Durban, Mete, Cem. 2004. "The Inequality Implications of Highly Selective South Africa: Independent Projects Trust. Promotion Practices." Economics of Education Review 23(3):301­14. Matthews, Limb H. 2003. "Another White Elephant? Youth Coun- Miers, David. 2001. "An International Review of Restorative Jus- cils as Democratic Structures." Space Polity 7(2):172­92. tice." London, U.K.: Crime Reduction Research Series 10. Mattoo, Aaditya, IIeana Cristina Neagu, and Caglar Özden. 2005. Miguel, Edward, Rachel Glennerster, and Kate Whiteside. 2006. "Brain Waste? Educated Immigrants in the U.S. Labor Market." "Civil Conflict and Local Collective Action in Sierra Leone." Washington, DC: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Paper presented at the Annual Meeting Allied Social Science No. 3581. Associations. Boston, MA. McAdam, Doug. 1988. Freedom Summer. New York, NY: Oxford Miguel, Edward, and Michael Kremer. 2004. "Worms: Identifying University Press. Impacts on Education and Health in the Presence of Treatment McCauley, A. P., and C. Salter. 1995. "Meeting the Needs of Young Externalities." Econometrica 72(1):159­217. Adults." Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Miller, J. E. 1991. "Birth Intervals and Perinatal Health: An Inves- Population Information Program Series J, No. 43. tigation of Three Hypotheses." Family Planning Perspectives McGirk, Jan. 2001. "Brutality of Child Army Shocks Colombia." 23(2):62­70. The Independent, May 2. Ministerio del Trabajo Peru. 1998. La Evaluacion de Impacto del McKenzie, David J. 2004. "Aggregate Shocks and Urban Labor Programa de Capacitación Laboral Juvenil Projoven. Lima, Peru: Market Responses: Evidence from Argentina's Financial Crisis." Ministerio del Trabajo de Peru. Economic Development and Cultural Change 52(4):719­58. Mishra, Prachi. Forthcoming. "Emigration and Wages in Source ------. 2005. "Paper Walls are Easier to Tear Down: Passport Countries: Evidence from Mexico." Journal of Development Eco- Costs and Legal Barriers to Emigration." Washington, DC: nomics. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3783. Mocan, H. Naci, and Daniel I. Rees. 1999. "Economic Conditions, ------. 2006a. "A Profile of the World's Young Developing Coun- Deterrence, and Juvenile Crime: Evidence From Micro Data." try Migrants." Background paper for the WDR 2007. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research Work- -------. 2006b. "Remittances in the Pacific." Paper presented at ing Paper Series 7405. the Werner-Sichel lecture. February 15b. University of Western Moehling, Carolyn M. 2005. "She Has Suddenly Become Pow- Michigan. erful: Youth Employment and Household Decision-Making McKenzie, David J., John Gibson, and Steven Stillman. 2006. "How in the Early Twentieth Century." Journal of Economic History Important is Selection? Experimental vs Non-experimental 65(2):414­38. Measures of the Income Gains from Migration." Washington, Montenegro, Claudio E., and Carmen Pagés. 2004. "Who Benefits DC: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 3906. from Labor Market Regulations?" In James Heckman and Car- McKenzie, David J., and Hillel Rapoport. 2006. "Can Migration men Pagés, (eds.), Law and Employment: Lessons from Latin Reduce Education? Depressing Evidence from Mexico." World America and the Caribbean. Chicago: University of Chicago Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Press. Reprinted in Jorge Enrique Restrepo and Andrea Tokman McKinsey Global Institute. 2005. The Emerging Global Labor R. (eds.) "Labor Markets and Institutions," (2005), Santiago de Market: Part I - The Demand for Offshore Talent in Services. Chile: Banco Central de Chile. Washington, DC: McKinsey Global Institute. Available online Montoya Díaz, M. Dolores. 2002. "Socio-economic Health at http://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/publications/emergingglobal- Inequalities in Brazil: Gender and Age Effects." Health Econo- labormarket/Part1/Index.asp. mics 11:141­54. 295 Moore, Michael J., and Philip J. Cook. 1995. "Habit and Hetereogene- Narayan, Deepa, and Patti Petesch. 2006. "Moving out of Poverty: ity in the Youthful Demand for Alcohol." Cambridge, MA: National Some Preliminary Results." World Bank, PRMPR. Washington, Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series 5152. DC. Processed. Morley, Samuel, and David Coady. 2003. From Social Assistance to National Assessment and Examination Center. 2005. Unified Social Development: Targeted Education Subsidies in Developing National University Entry Examinations. Tiblisi: Ministry of Countries. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics. Education and Science, Government of Georgia. Moscow Human Rights Bureau. 2005. Racism, Xenophobia, Anti- National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. 2005. Semitism and Ethnic Discrimination in Russia, January-June Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in 2005. Moscow, Russia: Moscow Human Rights Bureau. Developing Countries. Panel on Transitions to Adulthood in Mroz, Thomas A., and Timothy H. Savage. 2001. The Long-Term Effects Developing Countries. Cynthia B. Lloyd, ed. Committee on of Youth Unemployment. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Population and Board on Children, Youth, and Families. Divi- Carolina at Chapel Hill and Welch Consulting Economists. Avail- sion of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washing- able online at http://www.epionline.org/studies/mroz_10-2001.pdf. ton, DC: The National Academies Press. Muirhead, Debbie., Lilani Kumaranayake, and Charlotte Watts. National Youth Council of Ireland. 2001. The Plunder Years: A 2001. Economically Evaluating the 4th Soul City Series: Costs and Report on Young Drivers and Motor Insurance in Ireland. Dublin: Impact onHIV/AIDS and Violence Against Women. Johannesburg; National Youth Council of Ireland. London: Institute for Health and Development Communication, Navarro, Napoleon, and Amer Hasan, eds. 2003. Good Practices and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. in Asia and the Pacific: Expanding Choices, Empowering People. Mullahy, John, and Jody L. Sindelar. 1991. "Gender Differences New York, NY: UNDP. Available online at http://www.undp.org/ in Labor Market Effects of Alcoholism." American Economic rbap/BestPrac/BGD_Elections.pdf. Review: Papers and Proceedings 81(2):161­65. Nelson, Jon P. 2003. "Youth Smoking Prevalence in Developing Mumtaz, Z., and S. Salway. 2005. "I Never Go Anywhere: Extricat- Countries: Effect of Advertising Bans." Applied Economic Letters ing the Links between Women's Mobility and Uptake of Repro- 10(13):805­11. ductive Health Services in Pakistan." Social Science and Medicine Neto, Isabel, Charles Kenny, Subramaniam Janakiram, and 60(8):1751­65. Charles Watt. 2005. "Look Before you Leap: The Bumpy Road Mungai, Wainaina. 2005. "Using ICTs for Poverty Reduction to E-development." In Robert Schware, (eds.), E-development: and Environmental Protection in Kenya: The "M-vironment" From Excitement to Effectiveness. Washington, DC: World Approach." In Maja Andejelkovic, (eds.), A Developing Connec- Bank. tion: Bridging the Policy Gap between the Information Society Neuhaus, Tom. 2005. "No Nazi: Youth Rebels of the Third Reich." and Sustainable Development. Winnipeg, Canada: IISD. History Today 55(11):52­7. Munshi, Kaivan, and Mark Rosensweig. 2003. "Traditional Insti- Neumark, David, and William Wascher. 1999. "A Cross-National tutions Meet the Modern World: Caste, Gender and Schooling Analysis of the Effects of Minimum Wages on Youth Employ- Choice in a Globalizing Economy." Cambridge, MA: Bureau ment." Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research for Research in Economic Analysis of Development(BREAD) Working Paper Series 7299. Working Paper Series 038. Available online at http://www.cid. Newport, Elissa L. 2002. "Critical Periods in Language Develop- harvard.edu/bread/papers/working/038.pdf. ment." In Lynn Nadel, (eds.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. Murdoch, Maureen, Melissa A. Polusny, James Hodges, and London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd./Nature Publishing Group. Nancy O'Brien. 2004. "Prevalence of in-service and Post-service Nguyen Anh, Dang. 2005. "Viet Nam Internal Migration: Oppor- Assault among Combat and Non-combat Veterans Applying for tunities and Challenges for Development." Paper presented at Department of Veterans Affairs Posttraumatic Stress Disorder the Regional Conference on Migration and Development in Disability Benefits." Military Medicine 169(5):392­5. Asia. Lanwhou, China. Murray, Sarah. 2004. "Investing in Young People: A Force with a Nguyen Anh, Dang, Le Bach Duong, and Nguyen Hai Van. 2005. Huge Potential." Financial Times, January 23. "Youth Employment in Viet Nam: Characteristics, Determi- Myers, David, and Allen Schirm. 1999. "The Impacts of Upward nants and Policy Responses." Geneva: ILO Employment Strategy Bound: Final Report for Phase I of the National Evaluation Papers 2005/9. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/public/ Analysis and Highlights." Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. english/employment/strat/download/esp2005-9.pdf. Washington, DC. Processed. Nickell, Stephen, and Richard Layard. 1999. "Labor Market Insti- Nanda, Geeta, Kimberly Switlick, and Elizabeth Lule. 2005. "Accele- tutions and Economic Performance." In Orley Ashenfelter and rating Progress towards Achieving the MDG to improve Maternal David Card, (eds.), Handbook of Labor Economics. Vol. 3C. Health, Health Nutrition and Population." Washington, DC: World Amsterdam: Elsevier. Bank, Health Nutrition and Population Discussion Paper 31969. Noorkôiv, Rivo, Peter F. Orazem, Allan Puur, and Milan Vodop- Nanda, Priya. 1999. "Women's Participation in Rural Credit Pro- ivec. 1998. "Employment and Wage Dynamics in the Estonia grammes in Bangladesh and their Demand for Formal Health Transition, 1989-1995." Economics of Transition 6(2):481­503. Care: Is there a Positive Impact?" Health Economics and Econo- Norris, Pippa. 2005. Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political metrics 8:415­28. Activism. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Narayan, Deepa. 1995. The Contribution of People's Participation: O'Donoghue, Ted, and Matthew Rabin. 2001. "Risky Behavior Evidence from 121 Rural Water Supply Projects. Washington, Among Youths: Some Issues from Behavioral Economics." In DC: World Bank. Jonathan Gruber, (eds.), Risky Behavior among Youths: An Eco- 296 2007 nomic Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press for the Oyediran, Kola A., Gbenga P. Ishola, and Alfred A. Adewuyi. 2002. National Bureau of Economic Research. "Knowledge of Possible Pregnancy at First Coitus: A Study of O'Higgins, Niall. 2003. "Trends in the Youth Labor Market in In-school Adolescents in Ibadan, Nigeria." Journal of Biosocial Developing and Transition Countries." Washington, DC: World Science 34(2):233­48. Bank, Social Protection Discussion Paper Series 0321. Pabilonia, Sabrina W., and Cindy Zoghi. Forthcoming. "Returning Obadare, Ebenezer. 2005. Statism, Youth and the Civic Imagination: to the Returns to Computer Use." American Economic Review. A Critical Study of the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Pro- Pagés, Carmen, and Claudio E. Montenegro. 1999. "Job Secu- gramme in Nigeria. Missouri: Global Service Institute, Washing- rity and the Age Composition of Employment: Evidence from ton University. Chile." Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, OECD. 2003. Trends in International Migration: SOPEMI 2002 Office of the Chief Economist Working Paper Series 398. Edition. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Pals, Heili, and Nancy Brandon Tuma. 2004. "Entrepreneurial Development. Activities in Post-Soviet Societies: Impacts of Social Psychological ------. 2004. OECD Employment Outlook 2004. Paris: Organiza- Characteristics." International Journal of Sociology 34(2):11­38. tion for Economic Co-operation and Development. Pampel, Fred C., and H. Elizabeth Peters. 1995. "The Easterlin ------. 2005a. OECD Employment Outlook 2005. Paris: Organiza- Effect." Annual Review of Sociology 21:163­94. tion for Economic Co-operation and Development. Pande, Rohini. 2005. "Can Mandated Political Representation Increase ------. 2005b. School Factors Related to Quality and Equity: Results Policy Influence for Disadvantaged Minorities? Theory and Evi- from PISA 2000. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-opera- dence from India." American Economic Review 93(4):1132­51. tion and Development. Paniza, Hugo. 2000. "The Public Sector Premium and the Gender ------. 2005c. Trends in International Migration: SOPEMI 2004 Gap in Latin America: Evidence from the 1980s and 1990s." Edition. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, Research Development. Department, Working Paper 431. Ogar, Joel. 2005. A Friend's Slap. World Wide Web: Panorama: Parent, Daniel. 2006. "Youth Labor Markets in Burkina Faso: Recent A TakingITGlobal Online Publication. Available online at Trends and Analysis." McGill University. Montreal. Processed. http://www.takingitglobal.org/express/panorama/article. Parham, Angel Adams. 2004. "Diaspora, Community and Com- html?ContentID=6505. munication: Internet Use in Transnational Haiti." Global Net- Okonofua, F. E., P. Coplan, S. Collins, F. Oronsaye, D. Ogunsakin, works 4(2):199­217. J. T. Ogonor, J. A. Kaufman, and K. Heggenhougen. 2003. "Impact Parker, Susan. 2003. "Evaluación de Impacto de Oportunidades of an Intervention to Improve Treatment-seeking Behavior and sobre la Inscripción Escolar: Primaria, Secundaria y Media Prevent Sexually Transmitted Diseases among Nigerian Youths." Superior." Mexico, D.F.: Secretaria de Desarrollo Social, Docu- International Journal of Infectious Diseases 7(1):61­73. mento de Investigación 6. Omelaniuk, Irena. 2005. "Trafficking in Human Beings." World Parliamentary Committee for Social Affairs. 2005. Assessment on Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Urban Migration Policy. Hanoi: UNFPA. Ong, Aihwa. 1987. Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Parry, C. D. H., A. Louw, E. Vardas, and A. Plüddemann. 2000. Med- Factory Women in Malaysia. Albany: State University of New ical Research Council and Institute for Security Studies: 3-Metros York Press. Arrestee Study (Phase 1). Parow: Medical Research Council. Online Computer Library Center (OCLC). 2005. Country and Parsons, Christopher R., Ronald Skeldon, Terrie L. Walmsley, and Language Statistics. Dublin, O.H.: Online Computer Library L. Alan Winters. 2005. Quantifying the International Bilateral Center (OCLC). Available online at http://www.oclc.org/ Movements of Migrants. Sussex University: The World Bank and research/projects/archive/wcp/stats/intnl.htm. the Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation ORC Macro. 2006. "The Demographic and Health Surveys STAT and Poverty at Sussex University. Compiler". www.measuredhs.com, ORC Macro. Partnership for Child Development, Working Group on the Nutri- Oreopoulos, Philip. 2005. "Do Dropouts Drop Out Too Soon? tion of the School Age Child. 2006. Survey of School Health and International Evidence From Changes in School-Leaving Laws." Nutrition Programs for the UN Subcommittee on Nutrition. New Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research Work- York: United Nations. ing Paper Series 10155. Patrinos, Harry A. 2005. "Education Contracting: Scope of Future Osmond, C., and D. J. Barker. 2000. "Fetal, Infant, and Childhood Research." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Growth are Predictors of Coronary Heart Disease, Diabetes, and Patrinos, Harry A., and Chris Sakellariou. 2005. "Schooling and Hypertension in Adult Men and Women." Environmental Health Labor Market Impacts of a Natural Policy Experiment." Labour Perspectives 108(Supp. 3):545­53. 19(4):705­19. Otsuka, Keijiro. Forthcoming. "The Rural Industrial Transition in East Paul-Majumder, Pratima, and Anwara Begum. 2000. "The Gen- Asia: Influences and Implications." In Steven Haggblade, Peter B. der Imbalances in the Export Oriented Garment Industry in R. Hazell, and Thomas Reardon (eds.) Transforming the Rural Non- Bangladesh: Measures for Eliminating Gender Imbalances in farm Economy. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Export-oriented Garment Industries." Washington, DC: World Over, Mead, Peter Heywood, Julian Gold, Indrani Gupta, Subhash Bank, Policy Research Report on Gender and Development Hira, and Elliot Marseille. 2004. HIV/AIDS Treatment and Pre- Working Paper Series 12. vention in India: Modeling the Costs and Consequences. Washing- Pauly, Mark V. 1968. "The Economics of Moral Hazard." American ton, DC: World Bank; Health, Nutrition, and Population Series. Economic Review 58(3):531­7. 297 Paxson, Christina H. 2002. "Comment on Alan Krueger and UK Labour Market: Early Evidence." London: United Kingdom Jitka Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There Department of Work and Pensions Working Paper 18. a Causal Connection?"." Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Post, Jerrold M. 1998. "Terror Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behavior Research Program in Development Studies Working Paper 207. as a Product of Psychological Forces." In Walter Reich, (eds.), Paxson, Christina H., and Norbert Schady. Forthcoming. "Cogni- Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of tive Development among Young Children in Ecuador: The Roles Mind. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. of Wealth, Health and Parenting." Journal of Human Resources. Pound, Edward T., and Danielle Knight. 2006. "Cleaning Up the ------. Forthcoming. "Early Childhood Development in Latin World Bank." U.S.News and World Report, April 3. America and the Caribbean." Journal of Human Resources. Prakesh, Siddhartha. 2003. "The African Virtual University and Peden, M., H. Donson, M. Maziko, and P. Smith. 2000. "Substance Growth in Africa: A Knowledge and Learning Challenge." Abuse Trends Among Trauma Patients: The South African Washington, DC: World Bank, Human Development Findings Experience." Paper presented at the 5th World Injury Prevention 223. Available online at http://www.worldbank.org/afr/findings/ and Control Congress. New Delhi. english/find223.pdf. Perkinson, Ron. 2005. "Beyond Secondary Education: The Promise Pratham Resource Centre. 2005. Annual Status of Education of ICT for Higher Education and Lifelong Learning." In Robert Report: Aser 2005. Mumbai: Pratham Resource Centre. Avail- Schware, (eds.), E-development: From Excitement to Effective- able online at http://www.pratham.org/aserrep.php. ness. Washington, DC: World Bank. Pritchett, Lant. 2001. "Where Has All the Education Gone?" World Perlman, Janice E. 2005. "Policy Roundtable on the Policy Impli- Bank Economic Review 15(3):367­91. cations of Rio Favela Re-Study." Paper presented at the World ------. 2006. "Boom Towns and Ghost Countries: Geography, Bank Policy Roundtable on the Policy Implications of Rio Favela Agglomeration and Population Mobility." Harvard University. Re-Study. June 9. Washington, DC Cambridge, MA. Processed. Perlman, Janice E., and Sarah E. Anthony. 2006. "Citizenship and Przeworski, Adam, Michael E. Alavarex, Jose Antonio Cheibub, Youth in the Favelas of Rio de Janeiro." Background paper for and Fernando Limongi. 2000. Democracy and Development: the WDR 2007. Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. Peters, Krijn. 2006. "Footpaths to Reintegration: Armed Con- Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. flict, Youth and the Rural Crisis in Sierra Leone." PhD thesis. Ragui, Assaad, and Melanie Arntz. 2005. "Constrained Geographic Wageningen University. Mobility and Gendered Labor Market Outcomes under Struc- Petrosino, Anthony, Carolyn Turpin-Petrosino, and John Buehler. tural Adjustment." World Development 33(3):431­54. 2005. "Scared Straight and Other Juvenile Awareness Programs Rahman, Rushidan Islam. 1995. "Formal Sector Emplyoment for Preventing Juvenile Delinquency". Chichester, U.K., John Among Women in Bangladesh and Gender Composition of Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Industrial Workers." World Bank, Background paper for the Pintor, Rafael López, and Maria Gratschew. 2002. Voter Turn- 1995 World Development Report. Washington, DC. Processed. out Since 1945. Stockholm, Sweden: International Institute for Rajbhandary, Jasmine, Roger Hart, and Chandrika Khatiwada. Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA). 2001. Extracts from The Children's Clubs of Nepal: A Democratic Pitt, Mark, and Shahidur Khandker. 1996. "Household and Intra- Experiment. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environ- household Impact of the Grameen Bank and Similar Targeted ment and Development. Available online at http://www.iied.org/ Credit Programs in Bangladesh." Washington, DC: World Bank NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/documents/plan_04205.pdf. Discussion Paper 320. Ramakrishnan, Usha. 2004. "Nutrition and Low Birth Weight: Pitt, Mark M., Shahidur R. Khandker, Signe-Mary Mckernan, and From Research to Practice." American Journal of Clinical Nutri- M. Abdul Latif. 1999. "Credit Programs for the Poor and Repro- tion 9(1):17­21. ductive Behavior in Low Income Countries: Are the Reported Rao, Madanmohan. 1999. Internet Content in India: Local Chal- Causal Relationships the Result of Heterogeneity Bias?" Demog- lenges, Global Aspirations. The Hague: International Institute for raphy 36(1):1­21. Communication and Development (IICD). Plutzer, Eric. 2002. "Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Rashid, Ahmed. 2000. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Funda- Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood." American Political mentalism in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Science Review 96(1):41­56. Press. Popkin, Barry M. 1994. "The Nutrition Transition in Low-income Ravallion, Martin, Gaurav Datt, and Dominique van de Walle. Countries: An Emerging Crisis." Nutrition Reviews 52(9):285­98. 1991. "Quantifying Absolute Poverty in the Developing World." ------. 2002. "An Overview on the Nutrition Transition and Its Review of Income and Wealth 37 (4): 345­61. Health Implications: The Bellagio Meeting." Public Health Nutri- Ravallion, Martin, Emanuela Galasso, Teodoro Lazo, and Ernesto tion 5(1A):93­103. Philipp. 2005. "What Can Ex-participants Reveal about a Pro- Popkin, Barry M., and P. Gordon-Larsen. 2004. "The Nutrition gram's Impact?" Journal of Human Resources 40(1):208­30. Transition: Worldwide Obesity Dynamics and Their Determi- Ravallion, Martin, and Quentin Wodon. 2000. "Does Child Labour nants." International Journal of Obesity 28(Supp. 3):2­9. Displace Schooling? Evidence on Behavioural Responses to an Population Council. 2002. "Does Easy Accessibility of Emergency Enrollment Subsidy." Economic Journal 110(462):C158­C175. Contraception Increase Sexual Risk-Taking?" Momentum, October. Rawlings, Laura B., and Gloria M. Rubio. 2005. "Evaluating the Portes, Jonathan, and Simon French. 2005. "The Impact of Free Impact of Conditional Cash Transfer Programs." World Bank Movement of Workers from Central and Eastern Europe on the Research Observer 20(1):29­55. 298 2007 Reddy, K. Srinath. 2002. "Cardiovascular Diseases in the Developing Rosen, James E. 2000. "Contracting for Reproductive Health Care: Countries: Dimensions, Determinants, Dynamics and Directions A Guide." Washington, DC: World Bank, Health Nutriton and for Public Health Action." Public Health Nutrition 5(1a):231­7. Population Discussion Paper 28900. Refaat, A. 2004. "Practice and Awareness of Health Risk Behaviour Rowlands, S., H. Devalia, R. Lawrenson, J. Logie, and B. Ineichen. among Egyptian University Students." Eastern Mediterranean 2000. "Repeated Use of Hormonal Emergency Contraception Health Journal 10(1/2):72­81. by Younger Women in the UK." Journal of Family Planning and Rehm, Jürgen. 2003. "Alcohol, Addiction and Public Health." Washing- Reproductive Health Care 26(3):138­43. ton, DC: Disease Control Priorities Project, Working Paper 33. Roy, Olivier. 2004. Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. Available online at http://www.dcp2.org/file/47/wp33.pdf. London, U.K.: C. Hurst & Co. Ltd. Reinikka, Ritva, and Jacob Svensson. 2002. "Assessing Frontline Rubio, Mauricio. 2005. "La Mara, Trucha y Voraz." Inter-American Service Delivery." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Development Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Reiss, Albert J. Jr, and Jeffrey A Roth, eds. 1993. Understanding and Ruel, Marie T., Bénédicte de la Briere, Kelly Hallman, Agnes Preventing Violence. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Quisumbing, and Nora Coj. 2002. "Does Subsidized Childcare Reynolds, Paul D., William D. Bygrave, Erkko Autio, Larry W. Help Poor Working Women in Urban Areas? Evaluation of a Cox, and Michael Hay. 2002. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Government-Sponsored Program in Guatemala City." Washing- Executive Report 2002. London: Babson College, London School ton, DC: IFPRI, FCND Discussion Paper 131. of Business and Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation. Available Ruoen, Ren, and Chen Kai. 1995. "China's GDP in U.S. Dollars online at http://www.kauffman.org/pdf/GEM2002.pdf. Based on Purchasing Power Parity." Washington, DC: World Richards, Paul, Khadija Bah, and James Vincent. 2004. "Social Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 1415. Capital and the Survival: Prospects for Community-Driven Russell, Michele. 2000. "Community Based Care and Support Ser- Development in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone." Washington, DC: vices in South Africa." Paper presented at the The 13th Interna- World Bank, Social Development Papers 12. tional AIDS Conference. July 7. Durban, South Africa. Riley, Thira, and William Steel. 1999. "Kenya Voucher Program Ryan, Paul. 2001. "The School-to-Work Transition: A Cross- for Training and Business Development Services." World Bank. National Perspective." Journal of Economic Literature 39(1):34­92. Washington, DC. Processed. Sacerdote, Bruce. 2001. "Peer Effects with Random Assignment: Ritchie, Amanda, Cynthia B. Lloyd, and Monica Grant. 2004. "Gen- Results for Dartmouth Roommates." Quarterly Journal of Eco- der Differences in Time Use among Adolescents in Developing nomics 116(2):681­704. Countries: The Implications of Rising School Enrollment Rates." Sadler, Anne G., Brenda M. Booth, and Bradley N. Doebbel- Washington, DC: Population Council Working Paper 193. Avail- ing. 2005. "Gang and Multiple Rapes During Military Service: able online at http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/wp/193.pdf. Health Consequences and Health Care." Journal of American Rivera-Batiz, Francisco L. 2002. "Democracy, Governance and Medical Women's Association 60(1):33­41. Economic Growth: Theory and Evidence." New York, NY: Sadoulet, Elisabeth, and Alain de Janvry. 2006. "Making Condi- Columbia University Department of Economics Discussion tionnal Cash Transfers More Efficient: Designing for Maximum Paper Series 0102-57. Available online at http://www.columbia. Effect of the Conditionality." World Bank Economic Review edu/cu/economics/discpapr/DP0102-57.pdf. 20(1):1­29. Roche, Declan. 2006. "Dimensions of Restorative Justice." Journal Sageman, Marc. 2004. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadel- of Social Issues 62(2):217­38. phia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Rodgers, A., T. Corbett, D. Bramley, T. Riddell, M. Willis, R-B. Lin, Salomon, Joshua A., Daniel R. Hogan, John Stover, Karen A. Stan- and M. Jones. 2005. "Do U Smoke after Text? Results of a Ran- ecki, Neff Walker, Peter D. Ghys, and Bernhard Schwartländer. domized Trial of Smoking Cessation Using Mobile Phone Text 2005. "Integrating HIV Prevention and Treatment: From Slo- Messaging." Tobacco Control 2005(14):255­61. gans to Impact." PLOS Medicine 2(1):50­56. Rodgers, Dennis. 1999. "Youth Gangs in Latin America and the Samuel, Jonathan, Niraj Shah, and Wenona Hadingham. 2005. Caribbean: A Literature Survey." Washington, DC: Latin Amer- "Mobile Communications in South Africa, Tanzania and Egypt: ica and the Caribbean Sustainable Development Working Paper, Results from Community and Business Surveys." Newbury, Urban Peace Program Series 4. Berkshire, U.K.: Vodafone Policy Paper Series 2. Rodríguez Ospina, Edgar, Luis Fernando Duque Ramirez, and Sánchez-Páramo, Carolina, and Norbert Schady. 2003. "Off and Jesús Rodríguez García. 1993. "National Household Survey on Running? Technology, Trade, and the Rising Demand for Skilled Drug Abuse". Bogota, Colombia, Escuela Colombiana de Medic- Workers in Latin America." Washington, DC: World Bank Pol- ina y Fundación Santa Fé de Bogota. icy Research Working Paper Series 3015. Rodríguez-Pose, Andrés, and Nicholas Gill. 2003. "The Global Santiago Consultores Asociados. 1999. Evaluación Ex-Post Chile Trend Towards Devolution and its Implications." Environment Joven Fase II. Santiago de Chile: Santiago Consultores Asocia- and Planning C: Government and Policy 21(3):333­51. dos. Available online at http://www.cinterfor.org.uy/public/ Rosati, Furio. Forthcoming. "Child Labour and Youth Employ- spanish/region/ampro/cinterfor/temas/youth/doc/not/libro225/ ment: Ethiopia Country Study." In World Bank (eds.) Youth in libro225.pdf. Africa's Labor Market. Washington, DC: World Bank. Sathar, Zeba A., Minhaj ul Haque, Azeema Faizunnissa, Munawar Rosati, Furio Camillo, and Mariacristina Rossi. 2003. "Children's Sultana, Cynthia B. Lloyd, Judith A. Diers, and Monica Grant. Working Hours and School Enrollment: Evidence From Pakistan 2002. Adolescents and Youth in Pakistan 2001-2002: A Nation- and Nicaragua." World Bank Economic Review 17(2):283­95. ally Representative Survey. Islamabad: UNICEF. 299 Sawada, Yasuyuki, and Mikhail Lokshin. 2001. "Household Seyboldt, Taylor, eds. 2000. SIPRI Yearbook 2000: Armaments, Schooling Decisions in Rural Pakistan." Washington, DC: World Disarmament and International Security. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 2541. University Press. Sawaya, A. L., P. Martins, D. Hoffman, and S. B. Roberts. 2003. Shafii, Taraneh, Katherine Stovel, Robert Davis, and King Holmes. "The Link Between Childhood Undernutrition and Risk of 2004. "Is Condom Use Habit Forming? Condom Use at Sexual Chronic Diseases in Adulthood: A Case Study of Brazil." Nutri- Debut and Subsequent Condom Use." Sexually Transmitted Dis- tion Reviews 61(5):168­75. eases 31(6):366­72. Schmitter, Philippe C., and Alexander H. Treschel. 2005. Green Shah, I., and E. Ahman. 2004a. "Age Patterns of Unsafe Abortion Paper on the Future of Democracy in Europe for The Council in Developing Country Regions." Reproductive Health Matters, of Europe. Paris: Council of Europe. Available online at http:// 12(24 (Abortion law, policy and practice supplement)):9­17. www.coe.int/t/e/integrated_projects/democracy/05_Key_ ------, eds. 2004b. Unsafe Abortion: Global and Regional Estimates texts/02_Green_Paper/default.asp. of the Incidence of Unsafe Abortion and Associated Mortality in Scholl, T. O., M. L. Hediger, J. Huang, F. E. Johnson, W. Smith, and 2000, 4th ed. Geneva: World Health Organization. I. G. Ances. 1992. "Young Maternal Age and Parity. Influences Shanahan, Michael J., Erik J. Porfeli, Jeylan T. Mortimer, and Lance on Pregnancy Outcome." Annals of Epidemiology 2:565­75. D. Erickson. 2005. "Subjective Age Identity and the Transi- Scholl, T. O., R. W. Hediger, D. H. Salmon, H. Belsky, and I G. Ances. tion to Adulthood: When Do Adolescents Become Adults?" In 1989. "Association Between Low Gynaecological Age and Preterm Richard A. Settersten Jr., Frank F. Furstenberg Jr., and Rubén G. Birth." Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 3:357­66. Rumbaut, (eds.), On the Frontier of Adulthood: Theory, Research, Schultz, T. Paul. 2000. Final Report: The Impact of PROGRESA on and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. School Enrollments. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Shaw, Margaret. 2001. Investing in Youth: International Approaches and Research Institute. to Preventing Crime and Victimization. Montreal, Quebec, Can- ------. 2002. "Why Governments Should Invest More to Educate ada: International Center for the Prevention of Crime. Girls." World Development 30(2):207­25. Sheley, Joseph F., and James D. Wright. 1993. Gun Acquisition and ------. 2003. "Evidence of Return to Schooling in Africa from Possession in Selected Juvenile Samples. Washington, DC: US Household Surveys: Monitoring and Restructuring the Mar- Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. ket for Education." New Haven, CT: Yale University, Economic Sherman, Lawrence W., Denise C. Gottfreddson, Doris L. Macken- Growth Center Discussion Paper No. 875. Available online at zie, Joun Eck, Peter Reuter, and Shawn D. Bushway. 1998. Prevent- http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp875.pdf. ing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising: A Report ------. 2004. "School Subsidies for the Poor: Evaluating the Mexi- to the U.S. Congress. Washington DC: National Institute of Justice. can Progresa Poverty Program." Journal of Development Eco- Shonkoff, Jack, and Deborah Phillips, eds. 2000. From Neurons to nomics 74(1):199­250. Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Schweinhart, Lawrence J., Helen V. Barnes, and David P. Weikart. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 1993. Significant Benefits: The High-Scope Perry Pre-school Study Siddiqua, Yasmin, and M. Kabir. 2002. "Adolescent Reproductive through Age 27. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Press. Health: What Are the Lessons Learned from the Intervention Sciolino, Elaine, Brian Wingfield, and Elisabetta Povoledo. 2005. Projects." Asia-Pacific Population Journal 17(3):79­100. "From Tapes, a Chilling Voice of Islamic Radicalism in Europe." Simon, Arthy. 2003. Ex Combatant Reintegration: Key Issues for The New York Times, November 18. Page: 1. Policy Makers and Practitioners, Based on Lessons from Sierra SCN News. 2006. "Adolescence." U.N.Standing Committee on Leone, Phase 3 evaluation. London: DFID. Nutrition 31 Simonet, Daniel. 2004. "The AIDS Epidemic and Migrants in South Sen, Amartya. 1985. "Well-being, Agency and Freedom, The Asia and South-East Asia." International Migration 42(5):35­67. Dewey Lectures 1984." Journal of Philosophy 82(4):169­221. Singer, Peter Warren. 2005. Children at War. New York, NY: Pan- ------. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York, NY: Random theon Books. House, Inc. Singh, Susheela. 1998. "Adolescent Childbearing in Developing Coun- Senderowitz, Judith. 1995. "Adolescent Health: Reassessing the tries: A Global Review." Studies in Family Planning 29(2):117­36. Passage to Adulthood." Washington, DC: World Bank Discus- Singh, Susheela, and Jacqueline E. Darroch. 2000. "Adolescent sion Paper 272. Pregnancy and Childbearing: Levels and Trends in Developed ------. 1999. Making Reproductive Health Services Youth Friendly. Countries." Family Planning Perspectives 32(1):14­23. Washington, DC: Focus on Young Adults: Research Program Singh, Susheela, and Renee Samara. 1996. "Early Marriage Among and Policy Series. Women in Developing Countries." International Family Plan- Senderowitz, Judith, and John Paxman. 1985. "Adolescent Fertility: ning Perspectives 22(4):148­75. Worldwide Concerns." Population Bulletin 40(2):3­51. Singh, Susheela, Deirdre Wulf, Renee Samara, and Yvette P. Cuca. Serneels, Pieter. 2004. "The Nature of Unemployment in Urban 2000. "Gender Differences in the Timing of First Intercourse: Ethiopia." Oxford, U.K.: CSAE (Oxford) Working Paper 2004-18. Data from 14 Countries." International Family Planning Perspec- Seshadri, S., and T. Gopaldas. 1989. "Impact of Iron Supplemen- tives 26(1):21­9. tation on Cognitive Functions in Preschool and School-aged Singleton, Nicola, Alison Lee, and Howard Meltzer. 2001. Psychiatric Children: The Indian Experience." American Journal of Clinical Morbidity among Adults Living in Private Households 2000: Tech- Nutrition 50(3):675S­84S. nical Report. London: HMSO Office for National Statististics. 300 2007 Sjaastad, Larry A. 1962. "The Costs and Returns of Human Migra- Steinberg, Laurence, and Elizabeth Cauffman. 1996. "Maturity of tion." Journal of Political Economy 70(5):80­93. Judgement in Adolescence: Psychosocial Factors in Adolescent Skoufias, Emmanuel. 2001. Progressa and Its Impact on the Human Decision Making." Law and Human Behavior 20(3):249­72. Capital and Welfare of Household in Rural Mexico: A Synthesis of Steinberger, Michael. 2001. "So, Are Civilizations at War?" The the Results of an Evaluation by IFPRI. Washington, DC: Interna- Observer, October 21.Available online at http://observer.guard- tional Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). ian.co.uk/islam/story/0,1442,577982,00.html. Skoufias, Emmanuel, Benjamin Davis, and Sergio de la Vega. 2001. Steinmo, Sven, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth, eds. 1992. "Targeting the Poor: An Evaluation of the Selection of House- Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative holds into PROGRESA." World Development 29(10):1769­84. Analysis. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Skoufias, Emmanuel, and Susan W. Parker. 2001. "Conditional Cash Stepick, Alex, Carol Dutton Stepick, and Philip Kretsedemas. 2001. Transfers and Their Impact on Child Work and Schooling: Evidence Civic Engagement of Haitian Immigrants and Haitian Americans In from the PROGRESA Program in Mexico." Economia 2(1):45­86. Miami-Dade County. Miami, Florida: Haitian American Foundation, Slavin, R. E. 1996. Success or Fall. Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Human Services Coalition of Dade County and Kellog Foundation. Zeitlinger. Stern, Jessica. 2004. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Mili- Slavin, R. E., and R. Cooper. 1999. "Improving Intergroup Rela- tants Kill. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. tions: Lessons Learned from Cooperative Learning Programs." Stern, Nicholas, Jean-Jacques Dethier, and F. Halsey Rogers. 2005. Journal of Social Issues 55(4):647­64. Growth and Empowerment: Making Development Happen. Cam- Slaymaker, Emma, N. Walker, B. Zaba, and M. Collumbien. 2004. bridge, MA: MIT Press. "Comparative Risk Assessment: Unsafe Sex." In M. Ezzati, A. Lopez, Sternberg, Robert. 1985. Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human A. Rodgers, and C. Murray, (eds.), Comparative Quantification of Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease due to Selected Stockard, Jean, and Robert M. O'Brien. 2002. "Cohort Effects on Major Risk Factors. Geneva: World Health Organization. Suicide Rates: International Variations." American Sociological Smith, Daniel Jordan. 2004. "The Bakassi Boys: Vigilantism, Vio- Review 67(6):854­72. lence, and Political Imagination in Nigeria." Cultural Anthropol- Stohl, Rachel. 2001. Global Report on Child Soldiers Released. ogy 19(3):429­55. Washington, DC: Center for Defense Information. Smith, P. K., B. Bogin, and D. Bishai. 2005. "Are Time Preference and Stolle, Deitlind, and Marc Hooghe. 2004. "Review Article: Inaccu- Body Mass Index Associated? Evidence from the National Longitu- rate, Exceptional, One-Sided or Irrelevant? The Debate about the dinal Survey of Youth." Economics & Human Biology 3(2):259­70. Alleged Decline of Social Capital and Civic Engagement in West- Soewondo, S., M. Husaini, and E. Pollitt. 1989. "Effects of Iron ern Societies." British Journal of Political Science 35(1):149­67. Deficiency on Attention and Learning Processes of Preschool Strauss, John, and Duncan Thomas. 1995. "Human Resources: Children." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50(3):667­74. Empirical Modeling of Household and Family Decisions." In Solinger, Dorothy. 1999. Contesting Citizenship in Urban China: Jere R. Behrman and T. N. Srinivasan, (eds.), Handbook of Peasant Migrants, the State, and the Logic of Market. Berkeley, Development Economics Volume 3A. Amsterdam: Elsevier. CA: University of California Press. Student Partnership Worldwide. 2005. The Regai Dzive Shiri Pro- Span Jr., Milton G. 2000. Remediation: A Must for the 21st Century gramme: 2002-2007. London: Student Partnership Worldwide. Learning Society. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States. Available online at http://www.spw.org/. Sparrow, Robert. 2004. "Protecting Education for the Poor in Study Group on Female Genital Mutilation and Obstetric Out- Times of Crisis: An Evaluation of the Scholarships Program in come. 2006. "Female Genital Mutilation and Obstetric Out- Indonesia." Jakarta, Indonesia: East Asian Bureau of Economic come: WHO Collaborative Prospective Study in Six African Research, Development Economics Working Papers 96. Countries." Lancet 367:1835­41. Sprinzak, Ehud. 1998. "The Psychopolitical Formation of Extreme Summers, Lawrence H. 1992. "Investing in All the People." Paki- Left Terrorism in a Democracy: The Case of the Weathermen." stan Development Review 31(4):367­93. In Walter Reich, (eds.), Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ide- ------. 1994. "Investing in All the People: Educating Women in ologies, Theologies, States of Mind. Washington, DC: Woodrow Developing Countries." Washingon, DC: World Bank, Economic Wilson Center Press. Development Institute Seminar Paper 45. Stanback, John, and K. A. Twum-Baah. 2001. "Why Do Family Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA). 2005. Cedeca- Planning Providers Restrict Access to Services? An Examination Ceara Project. Stockholm: Swedish International Development in Ghana." International Family Planning Perspectives 27(1):37­41. Agency (SIDA). Stanton, Bonita F., Xiaoming Li, Joshua Kahihuata, Ann M. Tan, Hong W. 2005. "In-service Skills Upgrading and Training Pol- Fitzgerald, Simeone Neumbo, Geraldus Kanduuombe, Izabel icy: Global and Regional Perspectives." Paper presented at the B. Ricardo, Jennifer S. Galbraith, Nancy Terreri, Irene Guevara, MNA Job Creation and Skills Development Conference. Cairo. Hannu Shipena, Johan Strijdom, Rebecca Clemens, and R. F. Tan, Hong W., and Geeta Batra. 1995. "Enterprise Training in Zimba. 1999. "Increased Protected Sex and Abstinence among Developing Countries: Incidence, Productivity Effects, and Pol- Namibian Youth Following a HIV Risk-Reduction Intervention: icy Implications." Washington, DC: World Bank, Private Sector a Randomized, Longitudinal Study." AIDS 12(18):2473­80. Development Department Working Paper 15373. Stapleton, David C., and Rirchard V. Burkhauser, eds. 2003. Decline Tan, J. P., J. Lane, and G. Lassibille. 1999. "Outcomes in Philip- in Employment of People with Disabilities: A Policy Puzzle. Kalam- pine Elementary Schools: An Evaluation of Four Experiments." azoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. World Bank Economic Review 13(3):493­508. 301 Taylor, Maxwell. 1988. The Terrorist. London, U.K.: Brassey's. Tudawe, Indra. 2001. "Chronic Poverty and Development Policy Teixeira, Paulo R., Marco Antônio Vitória, and Jhoney Barcarolo. in Sri Lanka: Overview Study." Manchester, U.K.: CPRC Work- 2003. "The Brazilian Experience in Providing Universal Access to ing Paper 9. Available online at http://www.chronicpoverty.org/ Antiretroviral Therapy." In Dumoulin J. P. Moatti, B. Coriat, pdfs/09Tudawe.pdf. Y. Souteyrand, T. Barnett, and Y. A. Flori, (eds.), Economics of AIDS Turni_ki, Maja. 2004. The Place of Participation in the Recovery of and Access to HIV/AIDS Care in Developing Countries, Issues and Identity in Adolescents and Young Adults Affected by War and Challenges. Paris: Agence Nationale de Recherches sur le Sida. Displacement in Croatia. New York, NY: The Graduate Center, Temin, Miriam J., Friday E. Okonofua, Francesca O. Omorodion, Elisha City University of New York. P. Renne, Paul Coplan, H. Kris Heggenhougen, and Joan Kaufman. Tzannatos, Zafiris. 1999. "Women and Labor Market Changes in 1999. "Perceptions of Sexual Behavior and Knowledge About Sexu- the Global Economy." World Development 27(3):551­69. ally Transmitted Diseases Among Adolescents in Benin City, Nige- U.S.Department of State. 2005a. Trafficking in Persons Report 2005. ria." International Family Planning Perspectives 25(4):186­190. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of State, Office of the Under Thailand Ministry of Public Health, and World Bank. 2005. Secretary for Global Affairs. Expanding Access to Antiretroviral Treatment in Thailand: ------. 2005b. Visa Bulletin for October 2005. Washington, DC: Achieving Treatment Benefits while Promoting Effective Preven- United States, Department of State. Available online at http:// tion. Bangkok and Washington, DC: Thailand Ministry of Public travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/bulletin/bulletin_2631.html. Health and World Bank. UNAIDS. 2000. Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic 2000. The Global Fund for AIDS, TB and Malaria. 2005. Development of Geneva: UNAIDS. a Comprehensive National Response to HIV/AIDS that Includes UNAIDS, and UNODCCP. 2000. Drug Use and HIV Vulnerability: Adequate Prevention, Treatment, Care and Support for Those Policy Research Study in Asia. Bangkok, Thailand: UNAIDS. Affected. Freetown: The Global Fund for AIDS, TB and Malaria. UNDCP. 2003. Investing in Drug Abuse Treatment: A Discussion The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Paper for Policy Makers. New York: UNDCP. (OJJDP). 1998. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. UNDP. 1995. The World's Women 1995: Trends & Statistics. New Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of York: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Affairs Statistics Division. Thorn, Kristian, Lauritz Holm-Nielsen, and Samuel Jeppesen. 2004. UNESCO. 2004a. Gender and Education for All Global Monitoring "Approaches to Results-Based Funding in Tertiary Education: Report 2003/4: The Leap to Equality. Paris: UNESCO. Identifying Finance Reform Options for Chile." Washington, DC: ------. 2004b. Global Monitoring Report 2005. Education for All: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 3436. The Quality Imperative. Paris: UNESCO. Thornberry, Terence P. 1998. "Membership in Youth Gangs and ------. 2005. World Education Indicators 2005. Paris: UNESCO, Involvement in Serious and Violent Offending." In Rolf Loeber Institute for Statistics. and David P. Farrington, (eds.), Serious and Violent Offenders: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2005. Global Education Digest: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Comparing Education Statistics Across the World. Montreal: Sage Publications, Inc. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Thorup, Cathryn L., and Sheila Kinkade. 2005. What Works in UNICEF. 2000. "Young People in Changing Societies." Florence: Youth Engagement in the Balkans. Baltimore, MD: International UNICEF Innocenti Research Center Report 7. Available online Youth Foundation. Available online at http://www.iyfnet.org/ at http://www.unicef-icdc.org. section.cfm/31/223. ------. 2005a. Innocenti Digest: Juvenile Justice. Florence, Italy: Titma, Mikk, and Nancy Brandon Tuma. 2005. "Human Agency Innocenti Research Center. in the Transition from Communism." In K. Warner Schaie and ------. 2005b. The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls in West Glen Elder, (eds.), Historical Influences on Lives and Aging. New and Central Africa and the UNICEF Response. Paris: UNICEF. York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. ------. 2005c. The State of the World's Children 2006. New York, Todd, Petra, and Kenneth I. Wolpin. 2003. "Using a Social Experi- NY: UNICEF. ment to Validate a Dynamic Behavioral Model of Child Schooling UNICEF, UNAIDS, and WHO. 2002. Young People and HIV/AIDS: and Fertility: Assessing the Impact of a School Subsidy Program Opportunity in Crisis. New York: UNICEF. Available online at in Mexico." University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia. Processed. http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/pub_youngpeople_ Topel, Robert H., and Michael P. Ward. 1992. "Job Mobility and hivaids_en.pdf. the Careers of Young Men." Quarterly Journal of Economics United Kingdom Home Office. 2005. Accession Monitoring Report. 107(2):439­79. London: United Kingdom Home Office. Available online at Torney-Purta, Judith, Rainer Lehmann, Hans Oswald, and Wol- http://www.workingintheuk.gov.uk/ind/en/home/0/reports/ fram Schulz. 2001. Citizenship and Education in Twenty-Eight accession_monitoring.Maincontent.0018.file.tmp/Accession_ Countries: Civic Knowledge and Engagement at Age Fourteen. Monitoring_ReportNW2%5B1%5D.2doc.pdf. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Association for the United Nations. 2003. World Youth Report 2003: Global Situation Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Available online of Young People. New York: United Nations, Department of Eco- at http://www.wam.umd.edu/~jtpurta/interreport.htm. nomic and Social Affairs. Townsend, J., P. Roderick, and J. Cooper. 1994. "Cigarette Smoking ------. 2005. World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision by Socio-Economic Group, Sex and Age: Effects of Price, Income (CD-ROM). New York: United Nations Population Division, and Health Publicity." British Medical Journal 309:923­26. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 302 2007 United Nations Economic and Social Council. 2001. World Situ- Visinntini, R., E. Campanini, A. Fossati, M. Bagnato, L. Novella, ation with Regard to Drug Abuse, with Particular Reference to and C. Maffei. 1996. "Psychological Stress in Nurses' Relation- Children and Youth. Vienna: United Nations. ships with HIV-infected Patients: The Risk of Burnout Syn- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2004. Solvent Abuse drome." AIDS Care 8(2):183­94. Among Street Children in Pakistan. Islamabad: United Nations Viva Rio. 2005. Youth Service: A Policy for Preventing and Providing System in Pakistan. Alternatives to Youth Involvement in Urban Violence in Brazil. UNODCCP. 2002. Street Children of Cairo and Alexandria: Drug Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Viva Rio. Abuse Trends, Consequences and Response. El Cairo: UNODCCP Vodopivec, Matija. 2005. "Wage and Productivity Differentials Regional Office in El Cairo. during Slovenia's Transition: Matched Employer-Employee Evi- Upchurch, Dawn M., Lee A. Lillard, and Constantijn W. A. Panis. dence." Senior Honors thesis. Macalester College. 2002. "Nonmarital Childbearing: Influences of Education, Mar- Waiselfisz, Julio Jacobo, and Maria Maciel. 2003. Revertendo Vio- riage, and Fertility." Demography 39(2):311­29. lências, Semeando Futuros: Avaliação de Impacto do Programa Urdal, Henrik. 2004. "The Devil in the Demographics: The Effect Abrindo Espaços no Rio de Janeiro e em Pernambuco. Brasilia: of Youth Bulges on Domestic Armed Conflicts, 1950-2000." UNESCO Office Brasilia. Washington, DC: World Bank, Social Development Papers, Walker, S. P., S. M. Grantham-Mcgregor, C. A. Powell, and S. M. Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction 14. Chang. 2005. "Effects of Early Childhood Psychosocial Stimula- Utas, Mats. 2004. "Building the Future: The Reintegration and tion and Nutritional Supplementation on Cognition and Educa- Marginalisation of Ex-combatant Youth in Liberia." In Paul tion in Growth-stunted Jamaican Children: Prospective Cohort Richards, (eds.), No Peace, No War: An Anthropology of Contem- Study." Lancet 366(9499):1804­7. porary Armed Conflicts. Oxford, U.K.: James Currey. Walzer, Michael. 1989. "Citizenship." In Terrence Ball, James Farr, Van der Gaag, Jacques, and Jee-Peng Tan. 1998. The Benefits of and Russell L Hanson, (eds.), Political Innovation and Concep- Early Child Development Programs, An Economic Analysis. tual Change. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Washington, DC: World Bank, Human Development Network. Washington, Ebonya. 2006. "Female Socialization: How Daugh- van Eekelen, Willem, Loetta de Luca, and Nagwa Ismail. 2001. ters Affect their Legislators Father's Voting on Women's Issues." "Youth Employment in Egypt. InFocus Programme on Skills, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research Work- Knowledge, and Employability Skills." Geneve: International ing Paper Series 11924. Labour Office, Skills Working Paper 2. Available online at http:// Wattenberg, Martin P. 2006. Is Voting for Young People? New York, www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/skills/youth/ NY: Longman. download/skillswp2.pdf. Watts, Anthony G., and David H. Fretwell. 2004. "Public Strate- Van Ness, Daniel W. 2005. "An Overview of Restorative Justice gies for Designing Career Information and Guidance Systems in Around the World." Paper presented at the 11th United Nations Middle-Income and Transition Economies." World Bank. Wash- Congress on Crime Prevention, and Criminal Justice. Bangkok, ington, DC. Processed. Thailand. White, Howard. 2005. Maintaining Momentum towards the MDGs: Varcoe, Karen P., Allen Martin, Zana Devitto, and Charles Go. An Impact Evaluation of Interventions to Improve Maternal and 2005. "Using A Financial Education Curriculum For Teens." Child Health and Nutrition Outcomes in Bangladesh. Washing- Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning 16(1):63­71. ton, DC: World Bank, Operation Evaluation Division. Vegas, Emiliana, and Ilana Umansky. 2005. Improving Teaching Whiteside, Katherine, John Bellows, Mame Fatou Diagne, Benn and Learning through Effective Incentives: What Can We Learn Eifert, Rachel Glennerster, Edward Miguel, David Zimmer, and from Education Reforms in Latin America? Washington, DC: Yongmei Zhou. 2006. "Baseline Measures of Social Capital in World Bank. GoBifo Communities: Report for IRCBP." Processed. Venkatraman, Arjunamurthy, and Julie Falconer. 1998. Rejuvenat- WHO. 1998. The Second Decade: Improving Adolescent Health and ing India's Decimated Forests through Joint Action: Lessons from Development. Geneva: World Health Organization. Available Andhra Pradesh. Washington, DC: World Bank. online at http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/docs/adoles- Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady. 1995. centhealth.html. Voice and Equality. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University ------. 1999. Volatile Solvent Abuse: A Global Overview. Geneva: Press. World Health Organization. Verner, Dorte, Andreas Blom, and Lauritz Holm-Nielsen. 2001. ------. 2002a. The World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Pro- "Education, Earnings, and Inequality in Brazil 1982-1998." moting Healthy Life. Geneva: World Health Organization. Washington, DC: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper ------. 2002b. World Report on Violence and Health: Summary. Series 2686. Geneva: World Health Organization. Vietnam Ministry of Health and General Statistics Office, UNI- ------. 2003a. Adolescent Pregnancy: Unmet Needs and Undone CEF, and WHO. 2005. Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth. Deeds. A Review of the Literature and Programs. Geneva: World Hanoi: Government of Vietnam. Health Organization. Villaveces, Andrés, Peter Cummings, Victoria E. Espitia, Thomas ------. 2003b. Health and Development through Physical Activity D. Koepsell, Barbara McKnight, and Arthur L. Kellermann. and Sport. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2000. "Effect of a Ban on Carrying Firearms on Homicide Rates ------. 2003c. Pregnancy, Childbirth, Postpartum and Newborn in 2 Colombian Cities." Journal of American Medical Association Care: A Guide for Essential Practice. Geneva: World Health 283:1205­9. Organization. 303 ------. 2004. Global Status Report on Alcohol. Geneva: World ------. 1999c. Proposed Learning and Innovation Loan in the Health Organization. Amount of $4.75 Million to the Argentine Republic for an Inte- ------. 2005a. Effectiveness of Drug Dependence Treatment in Pre- grated Drug Prevention Pilot Project. Washington, DC: World venting HIV among Injecting Drug Users. Geneva: World Health Bank. Organization. ------. 2000. World Development Report 1999/2000: Entering the WHO, and World Bank, eds. 2005. World Report on Road Traffic 21st Century. New York: Oxford University Press. Injury Prevention. Geneva and Washington, DC: World Health ------. 2001a. An Assessment of the Bolsa Escola Programs Report Organization and World Bank. No. 20208-BR. Washington, DC: World Bank. WHO, Regional Office for Europe. 2005b. "Status Paper on Pris- ------. 2001b. Caribbean Youth Development, A World Bank ons, Drugs and Harm Reduction." Copenhagen: World Health Country Study. Washington, DC: World Bank. Organization Regional Office for Europe EUR/05/5049062. ------. 2001c. World Bank Policy Research Report 2001: Engender- Willis, Robert J., and John G. Haaga. 1996. "Economic Approaches ing Development Through Gender Equality In Rights, Resources to Understanding Nonmarital Fertility." Population and Develop- And Voice. New York: Oxford University Press. ment Review 22(Supp.):67­86. ------. 2001d. World Development Report 2000/01: Attacking Pov- Wilson, David B., Doris L. Mackenzie, and Fawn Ngo Mitchell. erty. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005. Effects of Correctional Boot Camps on Offending. Canberra, ------. 2002a. Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges Australia: Campbell Collaboration's Crime & Justice Coordinat- for Tertiary Education. Washington, DC: World Bank. ing Group, Australian Institute of Criminology. ------. 2002b. Russian Economic Report # 3. Washington, DC: Wintour, Patrick. 2006. "Brown Backs Votes at 16 in Radical World Bank. Shakeup of Politics." The Guardian, February 27.Available online ------. 2003a. "Caribbean Youth Report: Issues and Policy Direc- at http://politics.guardian.co.uk/apathy/story/0,,1718744,00.html. tions." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Witoelar, Finman, Pungpond Rukumnuaykit, and John Strauss. ------. 2003b. Closing the Gap in Education and Technology. 2005. "Smoking Behavior Among Youth in a Developing Coun- Washington, DC: World Bank. try: Case of Indonesia." Princeton University. Princeton, NJ. ------. 2003c. Project Performance Assessment Report, Bangladesh Available online at http://paa2006.princeton.edu/download. Female Secondary School Assistance Project (Credit 2469). Wash- aspx?submissionId=60756. Processed. ington, DC: World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department. Woessmann, Ludger. 2003. "Schooling Resources, Educational ------. 2003d. Republic of Tunisia: Employment Strategy. Report # Institutions, and Student Performance: The International Evi- 25456-TUN. Washington, DC: World Bank. dence." Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 65(2):117­70. ------. 2003e. Vietnam Development Report 2004: Poverty. Report Woessmann, Ludger, and Eric A. Hanushek. Forthcoming. "Does Edu- No. 27130-VN. World Bank: Washington, DC cational Tracking Affect Performance and Inequality? Differences- ------. 2003f. World Development Report 2004: Making Services in-Differences Evidence across Countries." Economic Journal. Work for Poor People. New York: Oxford University Press. Women´s Commission for Refugee Women and Children. 2002. ------. 2004a. Addressing HIV/AIDS in East Asia and the Pacific. Precious Resources Adolescents in the Reconstruction of Sierra Washington, DC: World Bank. Leone, Participatory Research Study with Adolescents and Youth ------. 2004b. Gender and Development in the Middle East and in Sierra Leone. New York: Women´s Commission for Refugee North Africa: Women in the Public Sphere. Washington, DC: Women and Children. Available online at http://www.reliefweb. World Bank. int/library/documents/2002/wcrwc-sie-31oct.pdf. ------. 2004c. Serbia and Montenegro: Poverty Reduction Strategy Wong, Emelita L., Barry M. Popkin, David K. Guiley, and John S. Paper and Joint IDA-IMF Staff Assessment of the PRSP, 9. Wash- Akin. 1987. "Accessibility, Quality of Care and Prenatal Care in ington, DC: World Bank. the Philippines." Social Science & Medicine 24(11):927­44. ------. 2004d. Timor-Leste Education Since Independence From Woolard, Jennifer L., Candice Odgers, Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, and Reconstruction to Sustainable Improvement. Washington, DC: Hayley Daglis. 2005. "Juveniles within Adult Correctional Set- World Bank, Human Development Sector Report EAP. tings: Legal Pathways and Developmental Considerations." ------. 2004e. World Development Report 2005: A Better Invest- International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 4(1):1­18. ment Climate for Everyone. New York: Oxford University Press. World Bank. 1990. World Development Report 1990: Poverty. New ------. 2005a. Bridging the Gender Gap: Opportunities and Chal- York: Oxford University Press. lenges, Pakistan Country Gender Assessment. Washington, DC: ------. 1993a. World Bank Policy Research Report 1993. The East World Bank. Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. New York: ------. 2005b. Colombia: Contracting Education Services. Wash- Oxford University Press. ington, DC: World Bank. ------. 1993b. World Development Report 1993: Investing in ------. 2005c. Doing Business in 2005: Removing Obstacles to Health. New York: Oxford University Press. Growth. Washington, DC: World Bank, International Finance ------. 1995. World Development Report 1995: Workers in an Inte- Corporation and Oxford University Press. grating World. New York: Oxford University Press. ------. 2005d. Dying Too Young: Addressing Premature Mortality ------. 1999a. Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities in a Global Epi- and Ill Health Due to Non-Communicable Diseases and Injuries demic. New York: Oxford University Press. in the Russian Federation. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 1999b. Curbing the Epidemic: Governments and the Eco- ------. 2005e. Economic Growth in the 1990s: Learning from a nomics of Tobacco Control. Washington, DC: World Bank. Decade of Reform. Washington, DC: World Bank. 304 2007 ------. 2005f. Expanding Opportunities and Building Competencies ------. 2006g. "School-to-Work Transition and Youth Inclusion in for Young People: A New Agenda for Secondary Education. Wash- Southern Russia." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. ington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2006h. World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: ------. 2005g. "Gender Assessment in Vietnam." World Bank. World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. ------. 2006i. Youth at Risk in Brazil, Report No. 32310-BR. Wash- ------. 2005h. "Gender Mainstreaming Process in the Lao PDR." ington, DC: World Bank. World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. World Bank, Unesco Institute for Statistics (UIS), and OECD. ------. 2005i. Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic Impli- 2006. Education Statistics (EDSTATS). Washington, DC: World cations of Remittances and Migration. Washington DC: World Bank. Available online at http://www1.worldbank.org/educa- Bank. tion/edstats/. ------. 2005j. Global Monitoring Report. Washington, DC: World World Links Impact Evaluation Series. 2002. Uganda Tracer Study: Bank. An Impact Assessment of Information and Communications Tech- ------. 2005k. Implementation Completition Report on a Credit to nologies on World Links Participating Students. Washington DC: the Republic of Guyana for the Secondary School Reform Project. World Links. Washington, DC: World Bank. Yamano, Takashi, and T. S. Jayne. 2004. "Measuring the Impacts of ------. 2005l. Malaysia: Firm Competitiveness, Investment Climate, Working-Age Adult Mortality on Small-Scale Farm Households and Growth. Report N0. 26841-MA. Washington, DC: World in Kenya." World Development 32(1):91­119. Bank. Yang, Dean. 2004. "International Migration, Human Capital, ------. 2005m. "Pakistan Country Gender Report (Gray Cover)." and Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Philippine Migrants' World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. Exchange Rate Shock." Washington D.C: World Bank policy ------. 2005n. Policy Note on Employment of Migrants in China. research working paper 3578. Washington, DC: World Bank. ------. 2005. "Why Do Inmigrants Return to Poor Countries? ------. 2005o. Republic of Uruguay. Policy Notes. Report No. Evidence from Philippines Migrant's Responses to Exchange 31338-UY. Washington, DC: World Bank. Rate Shocks." University of Michigan. Ann Arbor. Processed. ------. 2005p. Tobacco Use in Indonesia. Washington, DC: World Yap, Yoon-Tien, Guilherme Sedlacek, and Peter F. Orazem. 2001. Bank. "Limiting Child Labor Through Behavior-Based Income Trans- ------. 2005q. Vietnam Business: Vietnam Development Report fers: An Experimental Evaluation of the PETI Program in Rural 2006. Report No. 34474-VN. World Bank: Washington, DC Brazil." World Bank. Washington, DC. Processed. ------. 2005r. World Development Report 2006: Equity and Devel- Yip, R. 1994. "Iron Deficiency: Contemporary Scientific Issues and opment. New York: Oxford University Press. International Programmatic Approaches." Journal of Nutrition ------. 2005s. "Youth Development in Kenya." World Bank. Wash- 124(8):1479S­1490S. ington, DC. Processed. Yip, R., and P. R. Dallman. 1996. "Iron." In E. E. Ziegler and L. J. Jr. ------. 2005t. "Youth in Post-Conflict Settings." Washington, DC: Filer, (eds.), Present Knowledge of Nutrition. 7th ed. Washington, Youth Development Notes Volume 1, Number 1. DC: International Life Sciences Institute Press. ------. 2006a. "Crime, Violence, and Economic Development in Zabin, Laurie Schwab, and Karungari Kiragu. 1998. "The Health Brazil: Elements for Effective Public Policy." World Bank. Wash- Consequences of Adolescent Sexual and Fertility Behavior in ington, DC. Processed. Sub-Saharan Africa." Studies in Family Planning 29(2):210­32. ------. 2006b. Global Monitoring Report 2006. Washington, DC: Zeldin, Shepherd, Annette Kusgen McDaniel, Dimitri Topitzes, World Bank. and Matt Calvert. 2000. Youth in Decision-Making: A Study on ------. 2006c. Information and Communications for Development: the Impacts of Youth on Adults and Organizations. Madison, Global Trends and Policies. Washington, DC: World Bank. W.I.: Innovation Center for Community and Youth Develop- ------. 2006d. Mobilizing Resources for Secondary Education in ment, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Available online at EAP and LAC. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://www.theinnovationcenter.org/pdfs/Youth_in_Decision_ ------. 2006e. Public Training Reform Issues in Colombia: The Case Making_Brochure.pdf. of SENA. Report # 27752. Washington, DC: World Bank. Zins, J. E., R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang, and H. J. Walberg, eds. 2004. ------. 2006f. Repositioning Nutrition as Central to Development: Building Academic Success on Social and Emotional Llearning: A Strategy for Large Scale Action. Washington, DC: World Bank. What Does the Research Say? New York: Teachers College Press. 1. 2. (PISA) A3. A4. A5. (1) A6. (2) A7. (1) A8. (2) 1. 2. 3. « , »: 4. 5. , 6. T A1. M 9 a 12­14 15­17 18­24 12­14 15­17 18­24 12­14 15­17 18­24 . 2002 100 81 17 100 79 17 100 83 17 .. .. .. 2002 89 46 11 90 47 9 88 45 13 35 36 34 1999 55 45 18 56 48 20 53 41 16 10 11 10 2001 97 86 46 97 84 43 98 87 48 78 76 81 1999 98 73 19 98 68 13 99 77 25 .. .. .. 2003 36 25 11 54 42 18 19 8 3 20 31 6 2000 67 46 17 62 40 24 72 54 11 40 38 41 2003 65 49 23 72 56 34 56 41 14 48 55 39 1995 92 77 24 92 80 22 93 74 25 53 56 50 2002 54 51 34 54 52 35 55 49 32 31 31 31 2001 98 90 28 98 93 22 99 87 34 .. .. .. 2001 95 81 34 95 82 34 95 80 34 57 57 57 - 2003 32 20 9 36 21 12 28 18 7 18 19 16 1998 52 36 19 59 39 21 47 34 17 26 30 22 2003 67 52 22 71 61 29 63 44 16 46 53 40 2002 100 98 50 100 98 50 100 97 51 .. .. .. , 2004 93 76 26 92 74 23 95 78 28 59 57 62 2001 88 63 25 89 66 26 87 60 24 56 58 54 2000 94 64 0 92 62 0 95 66 0 45 42 47 1998 85 67 22 88 72 28 81 61 16 .. .. .. 2002 71 46 20 79 52 26 63 40 15 35 41 29 1994 36 29 13 44 37 22 26 19 6 34 44 24 2003 77 48 23 77 45 21 78 52 25 47 45 50 2004 96 83 40 96 81 37 96 84 42 75 76 75 , . . 1998 84 69 26 88 73 29 81 65 23 64 68 61 2002 84 69 24 84 75 30 84 64 19 44 48 42 2000 71 51 16 77 57 21 65 43 11 .. .. .. 2002 88 62 16 87 62 18 88 61 15 43 44 43 2002 87 85 31 86 84 30 87 86 32 69 67 72 - 2000 91 63 21 91 62 20 91 64 22 59 58 60 2004 88 61 15 89 66 21 86 55 11 38 43 34 2001 83 63 28 86 71 34 80 55 22 55 61 49 1997 92 77 22 92 80 28 92 73 17 45 51 38 2002 96 90 30 96 89 24 96 90 35 .. .. .. 2000 89 58 9 87 52 8 91 65 9 .. .. .. 2000 85 66 27 84 64 28 86 68 26 50 49 51 - 2001 87 66 37 88 64 36 87 68 38 60 58 62 -' 2002 61 39 17 69 50 23 51 29 12 36 46 26 2002 86 60 19 80 58 21 91 61 16 38 40 38 2000 53 39 20 56 43 22 51 36 19 32 31 33 1997 90 80 33 91 85 47 88 74 22 .. .. .. 1998 92 72 21 93 73 19 92 71 24 44 43 45 1999 86 70 29 85 69 32 87 70 27 55 55 56 2002 90 61 26 90 61 28 89 61 25 47 48 45 , . 2000 86 68 21 84 64 20 88 71 21 49 47 52 1996 58 37 10 64 44 17 52 28 4 10 13 8 2002 98 74 24 99 69 23 98 78 25 .. .. .. 1993 94 84 40 94 83 43 94 84 37 .. .. .. 1995 61 43 14 71 51 18 51 36 9 0 0 0 2002 69 43 25 70 43 27 68 43 22 44 44 44 2003 64 58 36 64 59 42 65 58 30 44 44 43 2001 82 59 27 79 54 25 86 63 29 48 42 53 2001 53 37 10 63 46 13 43 27 7 24 30 18 2000 96 88 31 95 86 30 96 91 31 76 75 78 2003 92 76 35 92 73 33 92 79 38 64 61 68 2001 87 64 28 87 61 28 87 67 29 55 53 58 2002 94 73 29 95 75 29 93 71 29 56 56 56 2002 100 99 54 100 98 52 100 99 57 .. .. .. 1997 77 40 14 77 42 15 78 39 13 23 23 23 1994 95 80 21 95 80 19 95 81 24 0 0 0 2002 87 66 25 86 68 26 87 65 24 50 50 49 - 2000 76 48 14 75 50 15 76 45 14 35 36 34 2000 90 76 25 89 78 34 91 75 18 60 64 57 1995 68 38 23 79 42 28 59 34 19 38 43 35 1999 74 58 19 76 63 24 73 53 15 33 36 29 - 2003 77 61 31 81 68 43 72 52 21 51 59 43 1999 91 63 10 94 72 15 88 54 6 .. .. .. 2002 94 77 29 93 71 29 95 82 30 67 62 72 2000 78 49 9 79 52 11 77 46 6 10 9 11 1996 95 77 24 94 74 24 96 81 24 70 67 73 1992 90 68 19 87 64 17 93 72 21 .. .. .. 2002 85 49 11 91 59 16 78 40 7 .. .. .. 2002 92 72 20 93 74 30 92 70 13 46 51 42 2003 96 81 44 95 78 41 96 84 48 72 69 76 1996 92 68 14 91 65 15 93 71 13 61 60 63 2003 98 91 40 98 91 41 99 91 38 79 80 79 2004 85 68 33 85 66 32 85 69 35 62 61 63 2000 99 93 42 100 92 43 99 95 41 81 80 82 2000 96 90 43 96 91 45 96 90 42 75 77 74 2002 98 74 9 97 70 7 99 78 10 46 42 50 a. , ; 10­19 ( ). -, , . 306 A2. (PISA) , , , : 15 , 2003 : 15 , 2003 : 15 , 2003 526 506 545 524 527 522 530 527 533 491 467 514 506 509 502 506 505 508 508 489 526 529 533 525 525 522 527 402 384 419 357 365 348 371 374 368 483 467 498 490 494 486 501 499 503 492 471 513 503 508 499 513 511 517 () 510 494 525 550 552 548 548 545 550 472 453 490 445 455 436 448 450 448 492 479 505 514 523 506 517 519 514 382 370 394 360 362 359 361 358 365 516 501 530 503 510 495 498 499 498 493 464 522 515 508 523 505 490 520 480 461 500 485 490 481 482 479 485 475 455 495 466 475 457 469 467 471 530 514 546 535 541 530 529 533 532 , . . 536 526 547 540 552 528 550 554 546 490 470 509 483 485 482 483 481 484 399 389 410 385 391 380 384 387 382 513 503 524 538 540 535 520 522 518 522 508 535 524 531 516 533 531 534 500 475 525 495 498 492 490 486 494 497 477 516 490 493 488 487 486 487 477 459 495 466 472 460 470 470 470 442 428 456 468 474 463 479 480 477 412 390 433 437 438 436 420 416 424 470 453 486 498 507 489 492 495 488 495 479 511 483 486 480 477 477 478 418 396 439 417 415 419 425 418 431 374 362 387 359 365 353 345 346 343 443 426 459 423 430 415 408 408 406 434 414 453 422 428 416 411 412 409 543 521 565 544 548 541 548 543 553 495 476 514 511 515 507 519 519 520 489 473 504 516 524 509 516 520 513 500 482 518 526 535 518 521 520 523 514 496 533 509 512 506 509 504 514 498 487 509 534 539 530 547 546 548 307 A3. 15 24 15­24 , 15­24 15­24 (15­24 ) (25­49) 2002 35,9 41,6 30,3 .. .. .. .. .. .. 25,6 19,2 31,9 2002 42,5 42,0 43,0 14,2 9,6 16,3 12,1 45,2 4,6 36,2 37,7 34,6 1999 46,4 48,1 44,9 8,0 3,8 10,5 5,6 9,3 0,4 30,7 26,9 34,1 2001 38,6 47,4 29,9 28,8 12,0 27,4 31,1 28,8 .. 13,1 6,8 19,4 2003 39,9 60,8 17,3 7,5 3,9 6,0 12,8 .. .. 46,1 18,0 77,1 2000 33,9 58,9 7,3 4,1 1,1 3,2 11,6 6,8 3,3 39,9 11,8 69,9 2002 30,4 30,5 30,3 21,8 6,3 22,9 20,7 21,9 21,3 .. .. .. 2003 53,9 46,3 61,8 5,9 3,0 6,0 5,9 8,8 4,5 14,5 12,4 16,5 1995 39,7 40,9 38,4 38,6 12,7 37,2 40,1 37,4 40,7 19,0 17,6 20,4 2002 58,9 66,9 51,3 13,7 7,0 9,9 18,4 20,0 5,5 9,0 7,7 10,4 2004 46,0 .. .. 43,0 19,9 42,5 43,6 .. .. .. .. .. 2001 61,8 72,7 51,2 17,9 7,2 14,6 22,4 20,5 5,2 13,5 5,8 21,0 - 2003 79,1 82,4 76,2 3,8 1,8 3,9 3,6 22,1 0,7 8,7 3,1 13,7 1998 70,7 67,8 73,1 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,3 25,3 .. 3,9 3,8 3,9 2003 55,8 51,8 59,3 1,4 0,5 1,1 1,5 5,1 0,8 11,6 7,2 15,4 2002 33,6 34,6 32,5 11,5 7,6 12,6 10,2 9,7 14,6 4,4 3,9 5,1 , 2004 46,5 59,3 33,2 19,3 11,1 17,9 21,9 .. .. 20,2 10,7 30,1 2001 63,9 63,7 64,0 5,4 1,1 5,8 5,0 14,6 3,6 5,0 3,7 6,3 2001 39,0 42,9 35,2 54,6 22,5 48,8 61,7 70,6 39,5 .. .. .. 1998 36,4 32,4 40,2 9,2 3,4 12,9 6,4 26,6 2,9 34,6 30,7 38,4 1998 49,1 47,5 50,8 15,7 3,4 16,1 15,2 26,0 11,5 22,6 20,4 24,9 1994 71,1 67,9 74,2 2,1 2,2 2,5 1,6 7,4 0,2 10,5 5,1 15,8 2003 52,2 73,5 31,5 7,9 4,7 6,1 12,1 12,0 4,2 31,6 8,5 56,6 2004 51,3 67,5 35,0 20,6 8,8 16,6 28,2 22,0 17,6 48,7 32,5 65,0 , . ., 1998 42,3 44,8 39,5 23,7 5,2 22,1 25,7 32,5 19,6 18,7 12,2 25,8 2002 34,8 33,8 35,8 25,0 6,1 28,4 21,8 46,2 4,2 26,2 21,0 31,2 2000 44,3 63,0 24,1 8,1 1,6 8,4 7,0 15,6 5,9 29,2 5,1 55,3 2002 49,7 60,1 39,4 22,0 3,3 20,6 24,1 28,1 16,8 21,0 9,2 32,6 2002 33,6 51,2 15,1 42,2 17,0 37,6 58,8 40,4 48,7 18,9 3,0 35,6 , . 1998 26,3 37,4 14,9 14,5 5,3 17,9 5,7 34,7 10,9 .. .. .. - 2000 50,8 58,7 43,1 26,1 8,7 24,5 28,3 30,5 21,1 15,1 8,2 21,8 2002 43,3 48,3 37,9 20,8 7,3 19,0 23,4 17,6 24,3 .. .. .. 2004 77,9 79,3 76,5 1,4 0,5 1,5 1,2 4,2 0,8 9,8 6,3 13,2 2001 48,7 51,0 46,7 12,6 5,8 14,7 10,6 29,5 4,5 17,0 8,4 24,8 1997 39,7 43,1 36,5 20,7 6,3 22,1 19,1 31,5 17,4 24,7 15,9 33,0 2002 35,1 39,3 30,9 16,7 3,9 18,4 14,5 37,8 10,5 14,5 13,6 15,4 2000 76,1 77,7 74,4 2,0 1,3 2,0 2,0 .. .. 4,2 4,3 4,2 2000 57,1 66,1 48,6 30,2 13,6 23,1 39,3 36,0 20,1 14,2 5,6 22,4 - 2001 51,4 64,8 37,0 13,4 4,0 11,9 16,4 14,0 12,7 16,5 5,7 28,1 -' 2002 48,4 53,0 44,3 5,0 3,9 6,0 3,8 12,9 1,3 28,4 16,5 39,0 2004 30,6 36,0 24,9 21,7 11,4 22,0 21,2 .. .. 7,0 6,7 7,3 2002 47,7 48,7 46,8 52,4 32,4 46,7 58,0 42,2 56,3 21,2 18,5 23,8 2000 .. .. .. 9,2 10,5 11,1 7,2 9,6 8,2 .. .. .. 2000 26,1 33,6 19,2 10,8 7,9 11,2 10,1 26,9 3,2 46,5 36,1 56,0 2001 59,9 64,6 55,3 4,1 3,3 3,9 4,2 9,3 2,7 .. .. .. 1997 .. .. .. 7,9 2,1 10,6 4,9 21,0 5,5 31,3 17,4 44,2 1999 .. .. .. 21,2 5,7 16,4 28,9 24,2 16,9 44,0 39,4 48,6 2002 49,0 64,8 33,6 6,7 1,9 7,6 4,9 7,2 5,3 20,3 5,3 35,2 , . 2000 38,9 43,5 34,0 30,7 14,3 27,4 35,3 .. .. 28,3 25,2 31,6 1996 64,2 59,2 68,8 1,1 0,6 2,4 0,2 7,2 0,3 16,9 13,8 19,6 2002 66,8 66,1 67,6 5,7 4,4 5,8 5,6 12,5 0,7 11,9 13,0 10,9 1993 35,3 37,8 33,1 35,1 18,2 32,6 37,7 49,0 22,8 14,7 9,9 19,1 1995 62,3 59,6 65,0 .. .. .. .. .. .. 23,0 22,4 23,7 2002 36,6 48,6 26,8 20,8 8,7 21,0 20,4 .. .. 35,3 22,6 45,7 2003 .. .. .. 5,6 1,1 5,9 5,3 10,2 3,5 35,4 30,9 40,1 1999 53,6 49,7 57,8 3,8 2,0 3,7 3,9 .. .. 1,9 1,5 2,3 2001 50,2 70,2 30,1 5,2 3,3 4,4 7,0 7,3 2,6 24,0 9,6 38,5 2001 44,7 65,1 24,9 10,4 4,4 8,0 16,5 14,9 8,6 37,9 13,1 62,1 2000 27,5 29,0 25,8 9,9 3,4 9,5 10,4 .. .. 25,2 24,6 25,9 2003 46,1 60,2 31,5 21,4 7,8 18,4 27,4 27,3 11,3 15,9 5,4 26,8 2001 61,1 75,7 45,8 13,8 5,6 11,7 17,3 18,4 7,7 16,3 6,2 26,9 2002 57,4 64,3 50,3 13,5 6,9 13,0 14,2 .. .. 13,3 7,4 19,4 2002 55,6 56,4 54,8 19,4 15,3 19,9 18,8 22,1 16,2 10,2 10,2 10,2 2002 37,8 38,5 37,0 25,7 11,5 24,2 27,4 21,7 35,4 .. .. .. 1997 72,9 71,5 74,1 9,6 9,1 10,1 9,2 27,6 8,0 5,9 5,6 6,1 2002 63,3 63,6 63,1 24,2 17,9 24,0 24,4 26,3 22,4 .. .. .. 2002 45,7 60,8 31,4 11,5 4,9 13,1 8,4 11,7 11,1 22,5 7,8 36,6 - 2000 35,2 50,3 20,0 8,5 1,4 7,1 11,6 7,2 10,1 40,5 24,2 57,0 2000 34,6 37,2 32,1 13,8 5,8 16,6 10,6 10,2 15,4 22,8 14,3 30,9 1995 37,5 53,1 24,2 10,1 9,0 12,3 6,0 .. .. 33,6 12,6 51,0 2005 36,6 41,1 31,9 61,0 26,0 64,3 56,5 .. .. .. .. .. 1992 41,7 47,2 36,2 19,6 7,3 20,5 18,4 15,3 19,8 15,5 7,9 22,9 1999 38,4 43,4 32,8 30,3 10,9 27,4 34,6 .. .. 0,6 0,7 0,5 1999 54,8 57,3 52,2 11,5 4,8 12,7 10,1 .. .. 20,7 14,5 27,0 - 2003 40,3 34,2 46,0 1,8 3,0 2,2 1,5 3,6 1,0 19,2 14,7 23,5 1999 48,9 54,5 43,6 25,8 12,9 27,9 23,4 23,8 26,3 28,1 18,5 37,2 2002 51,8 57,8 46,0 9,2 1,1 10,4 7,8 12,8 7,4 5,9 2,6 9,0 2000 66,9 69,1 65,2 2,8 0,8 4,6 1,4 10,9 1,1 12,7 6,8 17,5 1996 42,1 53,9 29,7 30,2 8,7 31,9 27,0 .. .. 16,4 6,2 27,1 1992 38,9 50,9 26,8 19,6 12,9 18,2 22,4 21,2 18,5 29,8 21,4 38,2 2002 45,3 58,8 34,1 18,2 5,5 21,5 13,6 12,5 23,7 31,9 11,8 48,7 2002 55,0 49,1 60,1 6,0 1,8 4,2 7,2 23,2 2,5 8,6 5,5 11,3 308 A3. () 15 24 15­24 , 15­24 15­24 (15­24 ) (25­49) 2003 32,4 36,8 27,6 39,1 18,2 37,8 40,9 33,3 51,4 .. .. .. 2003 52,6 59,8 45,3 38,0 13,4 33,5 44,0 .. .. 10,0 5,7 14,4 1996 35,7 49,7 21,2 16,2 4,3 12,9 24,2 18,1 14,9 30,9 17,6 44,7 2004 34,7 37,6 31,5 36,0 13,5 32,2 41,1 36,7 35,5 7,1 7,8 6,2 2003 36,1 41,7 30,3 21,2 8,3 17,8 26,1 22,3 14,0 14,4 7,8 21,1 2000 55,8 57,9 53,6 32,0 6,1 33,3 30,4 29,6 34,4 1,2 1,1 1,2 - 2002 50,0 59,5 40,6 45,2 10,3 39,9 52,9 47,3 44,9 .. .. .. 2004 50,8 62,9 38,3 12,2 4,7 10,1 15,6 17,5 3,8 16,6 6,7 26,9 2000 38,8 44,3 32,7 21,2 11,5 24,2 16,9 19,1 25,6 9,1 4,2 14,6 2000 62,0 75,0 50,1 3,9 1,8 2,8 5,3 27,9 0,6 .. .. .. 2000 27,8 29,5 26,1 54,1 25,4 49,6 59,1 53,8 54,9 16,2 13,4 18,9 2002 30,0 37,2 22,6 18,9 6,6 14,5 26,3 17,8 18,7 40,1 35,7 44,6 309 A4. % 7­14 % 7­14 2000 9,7 12,0 7,3 4,2 95,8 2000 36,6 41,1 31,8 43,1 56,9 1995 5,2 4,9 5,6 77,6 22,4 1997 20,7 25,4 16,0 8,6 91,4 2003 17,5 20,9 13,9 63,3 36,7 2000 19,2 20,4 18,0 19,7 80,3 2000 20,2 22,8 17,6 4,0 96,0 2003 7,1 9,5 4,6 5,8 94,2 - 1998 66,5 65,4 67,7 95,9 4,1 2000 37,0 38,4 35,7 48,3 51,7 2003 9,1 11,4 6,6 17,6 82,4 2000 25,3 25,4 25,3 41,6 58,4 2000 28,5 28,5 28,4 36,4 63,6 2000 20,1 25,9 13,9 38,5 61,5 1994 48,3 47,2 49,5 98,6 1,4 - 2000 67,5 67,4 67,5 63,7 36,3 2002 11,4 16,5 6,1 41,9 58,1 2000 12,5 16,7 8,1 7,2 92,8 , . . 1998 6,4 4,0 8,9 60,9 39,1 1999 14,4 15,0 13,9 72,8 27,2 2000 5,2 5,3 5,1 89,8 10,2 2000 13,7 17,4 9,7 51,7 48,3 , . 1999 13,1 12,4 14,0 64,3 35,7 1996 29,7 30,3 29,1 4,4 95,6 2001 52,3 52,4 52,1 16,5 83,5 a 2001 15,9 14,5 17,4 52,5 47,5 1999 6,7 6,9 6,4 44,8 55,2 1998 8,6 9,7 7,6 7,0 93,0 2001 12,2 16,6 7,7 23,0 77,0 , . . 2000 39,8 39,9 39,8 35,7 64,3 - 2002 6,7 9,7 3,5 20,8 79,2 -' 2000 40,7 40,9 40,5 46,4 53,6 2000 30,8 34,2 27,5 17,6 82,4 2001 25,6 26,1 25,1 85,1 14,9 2000 10,6 9,4 11,6 17,1 82,9 2001 25,3 32,3 18,6 68,7 31,3 1998/1999 13,2 13,5 12,8 93,2 6,8 b 1996 14,7 20,0 9,5 45,6 54,4 2000 33,5 34,1 32,8 3,8 96,2 2000 22,0 23,5 20,6 28,2 71,8 1999 15,4 16,2 14,7 9,5 90,5 1999 47,2 42,2 52,4 35,6 64,4 2001 12,1 17,5 6,5 33,3 66,7 2000 4,0 6,4 1,4 37,5 62,5 1999 8,1 11,7 4,4 24,2 75,7 1994 17,7 20,4 15,2 7,3 92,7 2001 3,6 4,6 2,6 3,6 96,4 2000 33,1 36,1 30,3 27,5 72,5 2003 12,7 17,1 8,1 19,5 80,5 2000 11,2 11,4 10,9 14,0 86,0 2000 35,4 43,2 27,7 56,2 43,8 2000 19,1 21,5 16,8 55,9 44,1 - 2000 74,0 24,7 72,7 53,8 46,2 2001 40,4 41,5 39,2 40,0 60,0 2000 72,5 73,4 71,6 28,4 71,6 2000 3,9 5,2 2,8 12,8 87,2 1999 4,5 5,2 3,8 66,8 33,2 2002/2003 13,1 15,0 11,3 18,3 81,7 2000 18,1 22,0 14,0 4,1 95,9 2001 13,3 16,3 10,0 14,8 85,2 2000 67,0 66,5 67,6 54,9 45,1 2000 69,9 73,5 66,5 44,6 55,4 2003 8,8 10,5 6,9 4,0 96,0 2001 17,9 22,1 13,6 25,1 75,0 2001 57,1 67,9 45,9 63,5 36,5 1999 27,7 29,0 26,4 5,1 94,9 a. 10­14 . b. 12­14 . 310 A5. , , 15 , 60- (2003) 1 . . % % 13­15 13­15 .. .. 51 89 .. .. 59 115 .. .. 120 220 2006 9 16 92 167 .. .. 125 155 .. .. 488 584 .. .. 41 107 2000 11 16 122 193 2000 34 31 90 176 .. .. 108 240 448 510 2000 14 23 146 257 .. .. 258 251 2002 13 16 106 189 2001 12 34 81 117 .. .. 130 370 2003 14 24 153 257 .. .. 66 125 2003 10 24 332 393 2002 42 33 91 216 2000 24 35 180 247 2003 12 19 89 190 2001 12 17 839 850 2002 18 21 129 240 .. .. 86 114 - 2001 7 18 462 533 .. .. 525 654 .. .. 202 261 .. .. 64 103 2002 33 34 111 257 , 2003 12 15 97 181 .. .. 203 235 2003 2 10 129 205 .. .. 323 397 2001 18 18 385 450 2004 5 15 255 290 .. .. 262 332 2000 19 20 295 352 2002 12 18 165 289 .. .. 342 403 - .. .. 405 479 .. .. 59 115 2003 19 27 181 248 2000 14 18 220 258 .. .. 48 118 2002 13 34 76 195 .. .. 73 121 .. .. 311 376 2000 16 24 118 210 .. .. 147 250 , . . 2001 16 23 157 242 2002 24 25 685 719 2001 14 19 819 830 .. .. 51 92 2001 20 29 213 283 2000 5 37 204 241 2004 12 28 120 189 .. .. 205 466 , 2003 5 14 125 201 .. .. 60 100 .. .. 53 81 .. .. 46 116 .. .. 47 93 , . 2002 14 21 227 298 - .. .. 129 213 .. .. 187 419 2003 3 11 285 441 .. .. 461 503 .. .. 57 93 .. .. 76 93 2003 14 21 521 495 .. .. 47 99 .. .. 160 339 .. .. 191 304 2003 6 14 103 164 2001 29 30 97 231 .. .. 182 254 , . . .. .. 452 578 , . .. .. 381 434 , . . .. .. 168 231 311 A5. () , , 15 , 60- (2003) 1 . . % % 13­15 13­15 , . .. .. 61 155 - 2002 19 20 76 129 -' .. .. 450 558 2001 18 17 87 137 2001 18 33 53 73 2002 33 41 120 306 2002 20 32 781 912 .. .. 484 590 2001 40 46 138 199 2003 9 19 101 172 2001 32 40 106 302 2003 4 18 303 335 .. .. 63 115 .. .. 115 218 2001 23 34 312 408 .. .. 260 337 , 2002 8 12 86 202 2001 15 20 615 652 .. .. 108 195 2001 13 45 427 486 .. .. 49 84 2001 9 17 103 159 .. .. 280 333 2002 20 24 95 166 , . .. .. 172 206 2002 10 11 543 621 .. .. 152 303 .. .. 47 110 .. .. 179 310 2001 5 37 222 337 .. .. 529 619 .. .. 303 448 2001 6 15 284 290 2001 14 27 477 508 2001 17 24 470 511 .. .. 66 93 .. .. 138 209 .. .. 65 98 .. .. 58 96 2002 13 30 121 168 2003 9 27 91 163 .. .. 199 225 2001 62 55 205 226 2002 16 19 84 146 -- .. .. 246 309 2003 23 24 119 171 2001 16 24 133 193 1999 24 33 81 202 .. .. 63 150 2001 29 41 182 480 .. .. 455 541 2006 20 27 107 239 2003 15 25 138 248 - .. .. 32 73 - .. .. 244 295 2006 .. 5a 119 196 2001 10 21 790 894 2002 25 36 92 235 2002 6 25 280 350 - 2001 20 27 192 233 - 2002 16 20 145 200 - 2001 10 19 131 224 2003 17 16 99 186 2006 8 11 51 87 . . 2002 15 24 126 188 2002 23 27 77 204 2003 29 27 69 165 2001 13 20 248 348 2000 20 26 82 139 - .. .. 517 597 .. .. 169 225 .. .. 153 267 .. .. 550 587 2002 10 20 377 448 2000 12 20 155 249 2001 7 29 113 167 .. .. 171 352 .. .. 111 176 2002 16 22 459 533 .. .. 142 226 1999 35 46 142 384 2001 26 22 87 180 312 A5. () , , 15 , 60- (2003) 1 . . % % 13­15 13­15 1999 13 24 173 275 2003 8 21 149 271 .. .. 57 134 .. .. 59 132 2002 15 19 70 173 .. .. 590 641 .. .. 444 513 2002 33 36 74 166 2000 42 33 66 133 .. .. 50 90 .. .. 50 79 - 2006 1 3 120 235 2001 17 21 127 212 .. .. 301 359 2002 30 35 114 319 2003 6 12 386 450 2003 27 38 579 642 2001 15 24 123 165 .. .. 45 96 a. . 313 A6. % . % . % . % . % . % . 15­19 20­24 15­19 20­24 15­24 15­24 .. .. .. .. 2000 9 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 39 .. 2000 0,2 4,0 .. .. 2000 37 52 2001 3,6 4,5 16,8 27,0 2001 40 45 2003 1,2 4,3 .. .. 2000 52 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 71 .. - 2003 6,3 8,9 11,2 36,7 2003 45 54 .. .. .. .. 1997 52 .. 2000 10,9 13,0 40,8 48,4 .. .. 2000 2,0 4,9 .. .. 2000 44 69 .. .. .. .. 2000 60 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 45 .. 2003 5,2 7,7 .. .. 2003 72 75 1998/1999 0,8 1,1 .. .. .. .. 1999 2,3 2,7 14,4 27,8 .. .. - .. .. .. .. 2000 24 .. 2002 1,3 2,9 .. .. 2002 80 78 2001/2002 4,0 5,2 .. .. .. .. 1999 1,8 2,8 9,4 27,7 1999 64 69 .. .. .. .. 2002/2003 21a 32a 1999 2,2 5,1 20,7 35,1 .. .. 2000 0,1 0,6 .. .. 2000 59 .. 2004 11,3 16,0 .. .. 2004 64 73 2003 1,8 1,6 .. .. 2003 55 65 2005 6,2 9,4 .. .. .. .. , . . .. .. .. .. 2000 42 .. -' 1998/1999 6,0 7,7 21,6 30,8 2000 46 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 47 .. 2000/2001 0,0 0,4 1,2 3,4 .. .. 2003/2004 1,1 1,7 5,4 6,4 2000 32 .. 2000 2,8 2,9 .. .. 2000 57 65 2001 1,0 1,1 5,0 17,6 2001 33 43 2003/2004 0,0 0,4 .. .. 2003/2004 36 .. 2003 9,2 5,8 .. .. 2003 47 63 .. .. .. .. 2000 47 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 71b .. 2000 10,8 11,0 .. .. 2000 65 81 .. .. .. .. 2001 38c 75c 1998 0,0 0,2 2,6 8,9 2000 28 .. 2003 2,6 6,0 .. .. 2003 40 58 2001 1,0 2,6 .. .. .. .. 2000 0,9 3,3 .. .. .. .. 2000 0,3 0,8 .. .. 2000 52 63 - .. .. .. .. 2000 20 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 46 .. - .. .. .. .. 2000 27 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 4d .. 1999 3,7 6,0 10,6 20,9 2003/2004 61 65 1998 6,9 6,7 12,8 30,4 2000 58 .. .. .. .. .. 2000 48 .. 2000 0,1 0,4 .. .. 2000 15 .. 1998 0,9 5,2 0,0 3,0 .. .. 2000/2001 5,7 4,9 .. .. 2000/2001 66 77 .. .. .. .. 2002 25 40 2003 0,1 1,0 .. .. 2000 46 .. 2004 0,4 0,9 4,6 11,0 .. .. 2002 0,4 0,4 .. .. 2002 58 .. 2000 0,3 0,7 1,6 3,4 .. .. 1998 2,0 3,5 .. .. 1998 74 .. a. , - , . b. . . , - and men. d. . 314 A7. 1000 , 18 % 15­24 15­24 .. .. 2006 7,0 2000 199 2000 8,0 2004 328 2004 45,5 2001 370 2001 23,8 2003 267 2003 19,0 - 2003 384 2003 27,1 2002 163 2002 3,9 2000 338 2000 35,4 2000 269 2000 15,2 2003 250 2003 14,9 1998/1999 393 2006 24,0 1999 406 2006 47,0 .. .. 2006 28,0 .. .. 2006 11,0 .. .. 2006 4,0 2002 306 2002 25,0 , . . 2000 247 2000 9,5 2001/2002 426 2001/2002 34,6 1999 311 2006 20,0 1998/99 317 2006 28,0 2002/2003 182 2002/2003 11,9 2002 178 2002 5,0 , . .. .. .. .. - .. .. 2006 24,0 1999 207 2006 6,0 2000 222 2000 12,1 2004 374 2004 33,0 2003 357 2003 22,7 2000 227 2005 19,5 -' .. .. 2006 .. 2000/2001 246 2006 25,0 2003/2004 395 2003/2004 31,3 2000 477 2000 30,3 2001 475 2001 45,0 2003/2004 136 2003/2004 7,5 2003 424,2 2006 42,0 2000 254 2000 20,5 2001 358 2001 26,0 .. .. 2006 47,0 2003 355 2003 28,0 2001 297 2001 28,1 .. .. 2006 13,0 2000 206 2000 14,2 2000 292 2000 9,2 .. .. 2006 5,0 .. .. 2006 24,0 .. .. 2006 27,0 .. .. .. .. 1999 406 2006 26,0 .. .. 2006 19,0 2000 214 2000 1,8 .. .. 2006 8,0 2000/2001 509 2000/2001 42,0 .. .. 2006 4,0 2003 231 2003 6,9 .. .. 2004 48,0 .. .. 2006 18,0 2002 262 2002 25,4 2000 335 2000 24,2 .. .. 2006 20,0 315 A8. . . b (. 15 24 , %) (. 15 24 , %) 2000 7,0 2000 50,4 2004 38,1 2004 50,1 2001 9,3 2001 17,3 2003 16,5 2003 62,9 2003 23,7 2003 15,1 2002 20,2 .. 2000 3,1 .. 2000 18,6 2000 29,0 2003 5,1 2003 57,3 1998/1999 11,7 .. 1999 18,8 .. 2002 1,0 2002 60,2 , . . .. 2000 41,1 2001 4,2 .. 1999 7,2 1999 43,8 1998/1999 30,3 .. 2002/2003 7,5 2002/2003 28,6 1999 4,5 .. 2004 16,8 2004 36,5 2003 8,9 2003 34,2 2000 10,1 2000 80,8 ' 1998 10,4 .. 2002 4,1 2002 69,5 2001 40,5 2001 23,6 2003/2004 35,2 2003/2004 37,3 2003 12,0 2003 51,6 2000 5,0 2000 46,5 2001 42,1 2001 52,0 2001 11,6 2001 76,1 2004 5,0 2004 81,2 2000 7,1 2000 5,7 1998 28,0 .. 2001 4,8 2001 15,8 2003 5,3 2003 46,9 2004 52,0 2004 14,1 2000 74,7 2000 20,4 a. , . b. , , . 316 317 , - . A1. , - - . , , . - . , - , , , , - . . 9 - ,, , - (), - - (), , . 10­19 . , , , -, - , ; , . - . A2. , , (PISA) , - « - , - » (PISA) : 15-- , , , , , - , - - ( - . ), .. , , A3. 5 14 . - 7­14 . -- - , , . , - -- - , - . , - . - , , . . , -- , , , - , , - . . - 4. - , .. , . - , , . -- -- , - ( ) -- , , , . . « - » , , , . « » , - , - . . , 1993 . - ( 3) - A5. (1) , -- - 1982 . - 13­15 , . - Global Youth 318 2007 TobaccoSurvey, - A7. (1) () (), - 1 . 15­ World'sYouth2006DataSheet - 24 -- - . (15­24), , , 15 , - . - 60- -- ORC Macro, 2006, MEASURE DHS STAT. 1 . . 15­60 . , , 18 -- (The World Health Report 2005), 15­24 , - 18 . ORC , , . Macro, 2006, MEASURE DHS STAT - World'sYouthSurvey2006DataSheet - A6. (2) . - -- 8. (2) 15­24 , 15­19 20­24 , . - i-- ORC Macro, 2006, 15 24 , - MEASURE DHS STAT. -- - , - , , . . - 1524, , . -- - , i-- , , 15 24 , -- , , , . . -- . - ORC Macro, 2006, . MEASURE DHS STAT. .. . 0 0,0 . / (., 1990/1991) , 12 , , - . . , , () - () ( . 130 () . , , - , - -- . , 75 , 2 . , - , , - , 800 , , 2005. . , - . , - . , , - - , , - - () 1990- ., - . . 2000 . -- . ,- 2005 . 2006. 2000 . - - . , . . , , , - . , , - , - , , . , . - 2005 - CD ROM WDIOnline. , , 1000 800 . , 222 . , (WDIOnline) CD ROM. . - - - -- - : - , , , , , . , , -, , - . - 319 320 2007 2004 ., -- , . - . . , (), () (). 1999 . -, . , - , , - . .. - : ( 2005 . -- - . 875 .),(876.10725.) 0 0,0 ( 10 726 .) - 3 465 . . ( ) ( ). . - / , , . 1990/1991, , , - , ( 12 , - 2 .) , - . ( t [total]), $ , . ; ( - > s [sum]); (w [weighted averages]) . (m [median]), < . , . ( . 5), - , ( - , , ) . , , , . - - - . , , , - , (« . »). « 2006. » - . , 2006 «-», ( ), - , : . : http://www.world_bank.org/ - data/wdi2006/index.htm. : 1-800-645-7247 . , 703-661-1580; 703-661-1501. , - : The World Bank, P.O. Box 960, , , Herndon, VA 20172-0960, U.S.A. . [ : «»,101831,,,9 - .:(495)623-68-39,623-85-68 , , :(495)625-42-69 - - :orders@vesmirbooks.ru . http://www.vesmirbooks.ru]. , 2007 -- - - , . . - , . . . , . - - -- . - - - - - - - - - , . . , . -' - - , - - () , . () . . , , . - , . . , . - - () . - , - - . . - - - () - : . .--,30..2005 . , «», () : (), 875 .; (), 876­3 485 .; (), 3486­10 725 .; , 10 066 . . 321 1. ()a () b - . - , . . , - - , % . , , 15 , , , % . . 0­14 . . , % 2004 2004 , % . 2005 2000­2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2004­2005 2000­2004 2002 20 1,2 3 20 654,6 32 220 622 30 610 1,5 77 83 .. 18,1 8 0,5 100 16 303,6 36 980 272 33 140 1,4 76 82 .. 7,9 8 0,8 102 26 10,4 1 240 41 4 890 25,0 70 75 99 3,4 3 0,5 114 27 8,1 2 580 17 5 420 4,9 71 77 99 0,8 33 1,5 14 30 89,6 2 730 222c 6 770c 3,7 70 73 70 2,9 16 2,9 13 46 21,5 1 350 35c 2 210c 11,5 40 43 67 0,5 39 1,0 14 26 173,0 4 470 539 13 920 8,2 71 79 97 3,5 3 ­0,4 107 21 4,4 1 470 15 5 060 14,4 68 75 99 1,0 142 1,9 1 090 35 66,2 470 296 2 090 3,5 63 64 .. 0,3 10 ­0,5 47 15 27,0 2 760 77 7 890 9,8 63 74 100 6,0 10 0,4 319 17 373,8 35 700 342 32 640 0,7 76 82 .. 8,9 8 3,2 76 44 4,3 510 9 1 110 0,7 54 55 35 0,3 8 ­0,8 70 14 26,7 3 450 67 8 630 5,8 69 76 98 5,3 9 2,0 9 38 9,3 1 010 25 2 740 2,1 62 67 87 1,2 4 0,2 76 17 9,5 2 440 30 7 790 5,4 72 77 97 4,7 186 1,4 22 28 644,1 3 460 1 534 8 230 0,9 67 75 89 1,8 13 3,2 48 47 5,2 400 16c 1 220c 1,6 47 49 22 0,1 8 3,1 294 45 0,7 100 5c 640c ­2,6 43 45 59 0,0 60 0,2 249 18 2 263,7 37 600 1 968 32 690 1,2 76 81 .. 9,2 10 ­0,2 110 16 101,2 10 030 171 16 940 4,3 69 77 .. 5,6 , 27 1,8 30 31 127,8 4 810 171 6 440 7,5 71 77 93 4,3 83 1,1 255 30 51,7 620 250 3 010 7,4 68 73 90 0,8 9 1,4 309 37 3,9 450 16c 1 840c 0,5 51 53 0,2 22 2,2 97 39 10,0 450 52c 2 370c 3,7 57 58 58.. 0,4 13 2,4 116 43 30,3 2 400 56c 4 410c 0,8 64 71 69 0,9 9 2,2 38 44 3,5 370 21 2 240 0,8 54 54 29 0,1 82 0,1 236 14 2 852,3 34 580 2 409 29 210 0,9 76 81 .. 10,3 7 2,3 64 39 8,6 1 190 21c 2 900c 2,3 66 70 80 0,9 11 0,3 86 14 218,1 19 670 262 23 620 3,4 77 81 96 8,5 4 ­1,1 64 19 6,0 1 350 15c 3 270c 10,4 67 75 .. 0,7 5 0,3 128 19 256,8 47 390 182 33 570 2,8 75 80 .. 8,8 9 1,5 184 33 21,1 2 370 64c 7 150c 3,0 64 71 87 2,5 , . . 74 1,9 74 34 92,9 1 250 329 4 440 2,9 68 73 71 2,1 12 1,7 16 46 5,7 490 11 950 3,4 39 38 68 0,2 4 4,1 .. 45 3,8 1 120 .. .. .. 71 75 92 .. 13 0,6 34 40 4,5 340 25 1 940 ­7,6 38 37 .. 1,0 7 1,9 318 28 128,7 18 620 175 25 280 3,5 77 81 97 10,6 1 095 1,5 368 32 793,0 720 3 787c 3 460c 7,1 63 64 61 1,2 221 1,3 122 28 282,2 1 280 820 3 720 4,2 66 69 90 1,4 5 2,6 61 37 13,5 2 500 29 5 280 4,5 70 73 90 3,3 , . . 68 1,2 41 29 187,4 2 770 545 8 050 4,9 69 72 77 5,5 4 1,7 60 20 166,6 40 150 144 34 720 2,6 76 81 .. 11,0 43 1,4 87 14 1 100,1 25 360 1 120 25 820 1,7 77 84 .. 7,4 57 ­0,1 195 14 1 724,9 30 010 1 657 28 840 0,2 77 83 98 7,5 , . 21 3,2 40 46 12,7 600 19 920 1,0 60 63 .. 0,7 15 0,3 6 23 44,4 2 930 117 7 730 8,4 60 71 100 9,9 14 2,0 80 37 5,3 380 35c 2 490c 5,0 53 60 74 0,0 16 1,9 35 41 16,5 1 010 35 2 150 0,8 45 47 68 0,2 32 1,0 4 18 1 051,9 32 600 1 040 32 220 2,0 77 83 .. 16,5 34 2,2 60 43 18,0 530 40 1 170 0,4 49 48 74 0,2 5 0,9 27 31 2,3 440 10 1 870 ­1,8 64 72 99 1,0 1 305 0,6 140 21 2 263,8 1 740 8 610d 6 600d 9,2 70 73 91 2,7 , 7 0,8 .. 14 192,1 27 670 241 34 670 6,3 79 85 .. 5,2 46 1,6 44 31 104,5 2 290 338c 7 420c 3,6 70 76 93 1,3 , . . 58 2,8 25 47 6,9 120 41c 720c 3,5 43 45 67 0,0 , . 4 3,1 12 47 3,8 950 3 810 6,0 51 54 .. 0,6 , . 48 0,5 489 19 764,7 15 830 1 055 21 850 3,5 74 81 .. 9,4 4 1,9 85 28 19,9 4 590 42c 9 680c 2,3 76 81 95 1,4 ' 18 1,6 57 42 15,3 840 27 1 490 ­1,9 45 47 49 0,4 3 2,9 142 24 59,1 24 040 59c 24 010c 5,3 75 80 93 25,6 2 ­0,6 37 15 15,5 6 760 31 13 480 10,8 66 78 100 2,7 4 1,0 350 29 22,1 6 180 21 5 740 ­0,0 70 75 .. 4,7 3 ­0,5 55 17 24,1 7 050 49 14 220 8,0 66 78 100 3,6 6 2,3 26 41 2,6 440 12 2 020 4,6 54 57 69 0,2 3 3,0 3 43 1,7 560 7c 2 150c 2,3 52 55 51 1,1 19 2,8 32 44 5,4 290 16 880 1,8 54 57 71 0,1 , 2 0,2 80 20 5,8 2 830 14 7 080 3,8 71 76 96 5,1 13 2,3 137 47 2,1 160 8 650 0,4 40 40 64 0,1 25 2,0 77 32 125,8 4 960 262 10 320 3,4 71 76 89 6,3 14 3,0 11 48 5,1 380 14 1 000 2,3 48 49 19 0,0 30 1,7 68 31 52,3 1 730 132 4 360 0,4 68 72 52 1,5 103 1,0 54 31 753,4 7 310 1 034 10 030 1,9 73 78 91 3,8 20 2,0 25 44 6,1 310 25c 1 270c 5,7 41 42 .. 0,1 4 ­0,3 128 18 3,2f 880f 9 2 150 7,3 65 72 98 1,6 3 1,3 2 30 1,8 690 6 2 190 4,6 62 68 98 3,4 2 1,4 3 42 6,1 2 990 16c 7 910c 2,4 47 48 85 1,1 27 2,1 190 39 7,3 270 42 1 530 0,3 62 63 49 0,2 14 3,4 11 49 3,3 240 11c 800c 1,1 45 45 29 0,1 132 2,3 144 44 74,2 560 137c 1 040c 4,7 43 44 .. 0,4 16 0,5 482 18 598,0 36 620 530 32 480 0,8 76 81 .. 9,3 5 2,0 45 39 5,0 910 20 3 650 1,9 68 73 77 0,7 . . , . 322 1. () ()a () b - . - , . . , - - , % . , , 15 , , , % . . 0­14 . . , % 2004 2004 , % . 2005 2000­2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2004­2005 2000­2004 2002 4 1,4 15 21 106,7 25 960 95 23 030 0,7 77 82 .. 8,6 5 0,6 15 20 275,2 59 590 187 40 420 1,7 78 82 .. 13,9 3 1,0 8 35 23,0 9 070 37 14 680 .. 73 76 81 12,1 156 2,4 202 38 107,3 690 366 2 350 5,2 64 66 50 0,7 3 1,8 43 30 15,0 4 630 24c 7 310c 4,5 73 78 92 2,0 -- 6 2,1 13 40 3,9 660 14c 2 370c 1,0 55 57 57 0,4 6 2,4 16 38 7,9 1 280 31c 4 970c 0,4 69 74 .. 0,7 28 1,5 22 32 73,0 2 610 163 5 830 5,1 68 73 88 1,0 38 ­0,2 125 16 271,4 7 110 515 13 490 3,3 70 79 .. 7,7 11 0,6 115 16 170,7 16 170 208 19 730 ­0,2 74 81 .. 6,0 143 ­0,4 9 15 639,1 4 460 1 523 10 640 6,9 59 72 99 9,8 9 2,3 366 43 2,1 230 12c 1 320c 3,2 42 46 65 0,1 22 ­0,7 94 15 82,9 3 830 193 8 940 4,4 68 75 97 4,0 7 1,8 332 34 16,8 2 450 35c 5 120c 1,0 68 74 .. 1,0 25 2,7 11 37 289,2 11 770 362c 14 740c 3,9 70 74 79 15,0 12 2,4 61 43 8,2 710 21c 1 770c 3,7 55 57 39 0,4 8 0,1 80 18 26,8g 3 280g .. .. 5,7 71 76 96 .. 4 1,4 6 495 20 119,6 27 490 130 29 780 3,7 77 81 93 13,7 . . 19 2,5 104 37 26,3 1 380 71 3 740 1,7 72 75 80 2,8 5 0,0 112 17 42,8 7 950 85 15 760 5,9 70 78 100 6,8 2 0,1 99 14 34,7 17 350 44 22 160 3,8 73 81 .. 7,7 36 1,9 15 39 23,3 640 72 2 000 5,9 55 58 61 0,3 296 1,0 32 21 12 969,6 43 740 12 438 41 950 2,5 75 80 .. 20,2 6 4,2 77 43 1,2 220 4 780 3,8 40 43 35 0,1 7 1,1 47 39 2,2 330 8 1 260 6,2 61 67 99 0,7 64 0,9 126 24 176,9 2 750 542 8 440 3,6 67 74 93 3,7 38 2,0 43 43 12,7h 340h 28 730 5,0 46 47 69 0,1 6 2,7 113 43 2,2 350 10c 1 550c 0,2 53 57 53 0,3 10 0,9 65 26 29,0 2 890 79 7 900 3,3 71 75 74 2,3 5 1,4 10 32 .. ..i .. .. .. 59 67 99 9,1 73 1,5 94 29 342,2 4 710 612 8 420 6,0 69 71 87 3,0 29 3,5 146 50 7,9 280 43c 1 500c 1,9 48 50 67 0,1 27 1,5 63 33 13,5 510 54 2 020 5,5 64 70 .. 4,8 47 ­0,9 81 15 71,4 1 520 317 6 720 3,3 63 74 99 6,4 3 0,7 20 24 15,1 4 360 34 9 810 5,8 72 79 .. 1,2 83 1,9 279 35 108,3 1 300 440 5 300 3,3 69 73 93 0,9 5 0,3 17 17 196,5 37 460 163 31 170 1,8 75 82 .. 12,0 61 0,6 110 18 2 177,7e 34 810e 1 855 30 540 0,9 77 84 .. 6,2 4 0,2 80 16 35,8 8 060 57 12 750 4,2 72 79 98 4,7 4 1,3 7 43 1,4 350 5c 1 140c 0,9 39 40 49 0,1 10 3,5 8 47 3,9 400 14 1 470 2,3 43 45 26 0,0 10 ­0,1 132 15 109,2 10 710 205 20 140 6,2 73 79 .. 11,2 16 1,1 22 25 95,7 5 870 187 11 470 5,2 75 81 96 3,6 7 0,7 186 16 408,7 54 930 276 37 080 1,2 79 84 .. 5,6 9 0,4 22 17 370,5 41 060 284 31 420 2,3 78 83 .. 5,8 20 0,5 303 24 22,8 1 160 89 4 520 4,4 72 77 91 0,5 13 1,5 48 32 34,8 2 630 54 4 070 2,5 72 78 91 2,0 4 4,4 44 45 1,0 220 4c 1 010c 0,8 53 56 .. 0,2 71 2,1 71 45 11,1 160 71c 1 000c 6,8 42 43 .. 0,1 45 0,5 37 33 224,1 4 960 548c 12 120c 5,6 44 45 82 7,6 3 0,5 245 31 9,0 3 400 11 4 110 1,3 69 73 80 4,1 128 0,2 351 14 4 988,2 38 980 4 019 31 410 2,6 78 85 .. 9,4 6 438s 1,2w 50w 28w 44 983,3t 6 987w 60 644t 9 420w 2,4w 65w 69w 80w 3,9w 2 353 1,9 83 36 1 363,9 580 5 849 2 486 5,6 58 60 62 0,8 3 073 0,9 45 26 8 113,1 2 640 22 115 7 195 5,4 68 73 90 3,3 2 475 1,0 63 25 4 746,5 1 918 15 622 6 313 5,9 68 73 89 2,6 599 0,6 21 24 3 367,9 5 625 6 541 10 924 5,0 66 73 94 6,2 5 426 1,3 56 30 9 476,8 1 746 27 954 5 151 5,2 63 67 80 2,2 . . 1 885 0,9 119 24 3 067,4 1 627 11 149 5 914 7,8 68 72 91 2,4 . 473 0,0 20 20 1 945,0 4 113 4 324 9 142 5,9 64 73 97 6,7 . . . 551 1,4 28 30 2 209,7 4 008 4 472 8 111 3,1 69 75 90 2,4 . . 305 1,9 34 33 684,6 2 241 1 856 6 076 2,8 68 71 72 3,2 . 1 470 1,7 308 33 1 005,3 684 4 618 3 142 6,4 63 64 60 1,0 741 2,3 31 44 552,2 745 1 469 1 981 3,1 46 47 .. 0,7 1 011 0,7 31 18 35 528,8 35 131 32 893 32 524 2,1 76 82 .. 12,8 a. «» . b. , . . , . d. (Ruoen and Kai, 1995)., , , . , . e. , , . f. . g. . h. . i (876--3465 .). 323 2. (%) (%) 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . . % % % . % % % . , % , % , % , % 2002 29,6 19,8 25,4 2002 <2 <0,5 11,8 2,0 1995 68,1 2001 42,0 55,0 49,0 2001a 3,7 0,6 33,4 9,1 1988 16,6 7,3 12,2 1995 30,3 14,7 22,6 1995a <2 <0,5 15,1 3,8 1995 28,4 1998 29,9 2003b 7,0 2,0 23,0 8,4 1998­1999 50,8 58,3 55,1 2001 48,7 51,9 50,9 2003a <2 <0,5 31,1 7,1 1995­1996 55,2 29,4 51,0 2000 53,0 36,6 49,8 2000a 36,0 8,1 82,8 36,3 2000 41,9 2002a <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1995 25,2 28,5 26,5 1999 33,0 23,3 29,0 2003a 30,9 8,2 73,7 31,7 1997 36,0 2001 12,8 2003a <2 <0,5 6,1 1,5 1997 77,3 53,8 63,2 1999 81,7 50,6 62,7 2002b 23,2 13,6 42,2 23,2 2001­2002 19,9 13,8 19,5 1993a 23,5 7,7 50,1 22,8 1996 54,0 15,4 23,9 1998 51,4 14,7 22,0 2003b 7,5 3,4 21,2 8,5 1998 61,1 22,4 54,6 2003 52,4 19,2 46,4 2003a 27,2 7,3 71,8 30,4 1990 36,0 43,0 36,4 1998a 54,6 22,7 87,6 48,9 1993 14,5 1997 17,3 2002a <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 , 1989 31,3 2000b 8,3 2,8 27,6 10,2 1998 45,5 9,2 37,4 2002 35,6 6,6 28,9 1987 65,0 1995 66,0 2001b 53,9 26,6 78,0 47,4 1992 64,0 1998 61,0 48,0 57,6 1998a 26,5 8,8 54,3 25,2 1992 50,0 1998­1999 49,9 18,6 39,5 1998­1999a 44,8 17,3 78,5 40,8 1989 71,9 33,7 57,9 2000 74,5 27,1 56,2 2002b 13,5 5,5 31,9 13,8 1994 40,0 1997 58,0 35,0 47,0 1999 58,0 37,0 48,0 1999b 20,7 7,5 44,0 20,2 2002 55,4 48,5 52,1 2003 52,7 56,2 54,5 2003a 6,5 2,1 25,3 8,6 1992 49,0 19,3 33,9 1998 42,1 20,5 28,6 2003b 2,5 0,8 11,0 3,6 , . . 1995­1996 23,3 22,5 22,9 1999­2000 16,7 1999­2000a 3,1 <0,5 43,9 11,3 1996 82,8 46,0 69,2 1998 83,1 56,0 72,9 2002­2003a 75,8 36,4 94,1 62,2 1990­1991 35,8 3,4 25,8 1995­1996 48,0 7,9 34,9 1995­1996 56,1 24,2 83,0 48,2 1993­1994 37,3 32,4 36,0 1999­2000 30,2 24,7 28,6 1999­2003a 34,7 8,2 79,9 35,3 1996 15,7 1999 34,4 16,1 27,1 2002a 7,5 0,9 52,4 15,7 1991 15,0 1997 11,7 2002­2003a <2 <0,5 7,0 1,5 , . 1998a <2 <0,5 7,3 1,5 , . 1998 45,0 30,8 41,8 1998 10,2 2,3 45,2 15,0 1996 39,0 30,0 34,6 2003a <2 <0,5 16,0 3,8 1997 40,1 21,1 36,1 1997 40,1 935,9 35,9 1997a 34,1 9,7 77,7 34,5 1996 59,6 41,4 53,3 2001 49,9 22,1 40,2 2001a 17,1 4,1 50,6 19,3 1994 47,0 29,0 29,0 1997 53,0 49,0 52,0 1997a 22,8 5,9 58,3 23,9 2000 56,4 43,9 52,0 2001 51,0 41,2 47,6 2003a <2 <0,5 21,4 4,4 1996 7,9 <2 6,0 1998 4,6 <2 4,6 2001a 16,6 3,9 46,7 18,4 1995 79,0 48,0 60,0 1999 79,0 55,0 64,0 2003b 7,0 3,1 17,8 7,7 , . 1998b <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1992 25,5 19,2 22,0 2001b 2,2 0,8 7,5 2,8 ' 2002a 14,8 4,1 48,8 18,4 2003a <2 <0,5 4,7 1,2 1995a 36,4 19,0 56,1 33,1 2003a <2 <0,5 7,8 1,8 1993 48,7 33,1 45,0 1997­1998 41,0 26,9 38,6 2002a 27,0 6,1 74,1 30,2 1996 65,5 30,1 50,0 2000 61,2 25,4 46,3 2000a 25,9 7,6 63,1 26,8 1997 76,0 63,2 73,3 1999 76,7 52,1 71,3 2001a 61,0 27,9 85,1 51,8 , 2003a <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1990­1991 54,0 1997­1998 66,5 54,9 65,3 1997­1998a 41,7 14,8 76,1 38,3 1989 15,5 1997b <2 <0,5 9,3 2,0 1998 75,9 30,1 63,8 1994a 72,3 37,4 90,6 60,5 1990­1991 18,0 7,6 13,1 1998­1999 27,2 12,0 19,0 1999a <2 <0,5 14,3 3,1 1996 52,4 26,5 37,1 2002 34,8 11,4 20,3 2002a 4,5 1,2 20,4 6,5 1996­1997 71,3 62,0 69,4 1996a 37,9 12,0 78,4 36,8 2001 64,1 58,0 62,4 2002 67,2 42,6 48,5 2001 22,0 5,8 63,7 25,1 1995 33,1 38,5 36,3 1998 32,6 39,4 35,6 1998a 27,0 8,1 74,9 30,6 1993b 34,9 14,0 55,8 30,4 1995­1996 43,3 21,6 41,8 2003­2004 34,6 9,6 30,9 2003­2004a 24,1 5,4 68,5 26,8 1989­1993 66,0 52,0 63,0 1995a 60,6 34,0 85,8 54,6 1985 49,5 31,7 43,0 1992­1993 36,4 30,4 34,1 2003a 70,8 34,5 92,4 59,5 1993 76,1 31,9 50,3 1998 68,5 30,5 47,9 2001a 45,1 16,7 79,9 41,2 1993 33,4 17,2 28,6 1998­1999 35,9 24,2 32,6 2002a 17,0 3,1 73,6 26,1 1997 64,9 15,3 37,3 2002b 6,5 2,3 17,1 6,9 -- 1996 41,3 16,1 37,5 1991 28,5 19,7 21,8 2002b 16,4 7,4 33,2 16,2 1994 67,0 46,1 53,5 1997 64,7 40,4 49,0 2002b 12,5 4,4 31,8 13,4 1993 23,8 2002a <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1994b <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1994 30,9 2002a <2 <0,5 12,1 3,1 1993 51,2 1999­2000 65,7 14,3 60,3 1999­2000a 51,7 20,0 83,7 45,5 1994 27,9 20,4 21,5 2003a <2 0,5 12,9 3,0 1992 55,7 43,1 48,3 2002b 19,0 9,3 40,5 17,7 1992 40,4 23,7 33,4 1995a 22,3 5,7 63,0 25,2 1996b <2 <0,5 2,9 0,8 1998a <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1989 82,8 2003­2004 79,0 56,4 70,2 1989a 57,0 39,5 74,5 51,8 2003a 7,4 1,3 42,8 13,0 1990 18,0 1992 15,5 10,2 13,1 2002a <2 <0,5 25,1 6,2 1991 40,8 31,2 38,6 2000­2001 38,7 29,5 35,7 2000­2001a 57,8 20,7 89,9 49,3 1987­1989 32,3 . . , . 324 2. () (%) (%) 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . . % % % . % % % . , % , % , % , % 1992 20,0 24,0 21,0 1992b 4,0 1,0 20,0 6,3 1990 13,1 3,5 7,4 1995 13,9 3,6 7,6 2000a <2 <0,5 6,6 1,3 1994 28,3 2002 34,5 21,9 27,0 2003a 3,4 0,8 18,7 5,7 1999­2000 37,4 9,6 33,8 2002­2003 41,7 12,2 37,7 2000 30,5 22,5 27,5 2000 34,9 31,5 2003 28,4 19,5 2003b <2 <0,5 4,9 0,9 1994 20,2 1998 24,7 2003b <2 <0,5 5,7 1,6 1994 53,1 28,0 40,6 1997 50,7 21,5 36,8 2000a 15,5 3,0 47,5 17,8 2001a <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1993a 66,6 38,1 84,0 58,4 1995­1996 67,0 63,0 64,0 1996b <2 <0,5 <2 <0,5 1996 19,9 1998 17,0 2000b <2 <0,5 9,6 2,5 1990­1991 22,0 15,0 20,0 1995­1996 27,0 15,0 25,0 2002a 5,6 0,8 41,6 11,9 1995 56,0 19,0 34,0 1998 69,0 30,0 46,0 1998b 15,8 6,3 37,2 15,8 1993­1994 53,0 1995 14,7 6,8 8,9 2003a <2 <0,5 7,5 1,9 1995­1996 47,0 33,3 45,5 1999­2000 45,0 37,0 44,2 1999­2000 23,0 4,8 77,8 29,6 2000a 10,7 1,7 34,1 12,6 1995 37,0 18,7 27,5 2000 25,1 12,8 18,7 2000a <2 <0,5 13,3 2,7 a. . b. . 325 3. « , »: / , - 1 . - - - % , - % , 5 , , 5 % 1 . % 15­49 - 1989­ 2000­ 1990­ 2000­ () 1994a 2004a 1991 2004 1991 2004 1990 2004 2000 1994a 2004a 2005 2002b 9,1 14 99 96 97 45 19 55 98 1994d 5,9 98 101 98 10 6 8 100 0,1 2000d 8,6 95 96 10 5 4 100 0,3 2002b 12,2 7 96 100 97 105 90 94 84 0,1 1995b 7,0 9 10 79 94 83 99 69 40 140 77 96 0,1 20 31 35 260 260 1 700 45 3,7 2003c,d 3,2 2 100 103 29 18 82 96 99 0,6 2003b 8,5 3 107 103 60 32 55 97 0,1 2000b 9,0 68 48 76 106 149 77 380 10 13 <0,1 2002b 8,5 95 101 100 17 11 35 100 0,3 2000d 8,5 79 101 98 10 5 10 0,3 2003b 7,4 23 21 49 50 71 185 152 850 66 1,8 2003b 8,7 85 98 99 96 19 15 32 99 <0,1 2002d 1,5 15 8 100 98 125 69 420 47 67 0,1 2001b 9,5 4 22 15 31 97 100 <0,1 2003d 2,6 7 109 103 60 34 260 72 96 0,5 2003b 6,9 33 38 21 29 62 76 210 192 1 000 42 38 2,0 1998b 5,1 45 46 33 82 82 190 190 1 000 25 3,3 1999d 6,1 98 102 10 6 13 2002b 9,5 93 95 100 99 17 8 16 100 0,1 , 2000d 4,7 5 4 43 89 105 103 27 19 96 94 0,7 2002b 7,5 45 28 101 94 53 23 130 90 0,5 2001d 2,4 27 17 27 95 150 117 680 23 24 3,8 1998­1999b 5,6 27 22 63 72 79 91 122 112 540 44 47 2,3 2002d 2,9 23 70 91 82 45 240 41 0,9 1994b 6,4 27 33 17 49 46 72 240 155 740 31 56 1,5 2000d 8,5 96 99 9 5 8 0,1 2003d 3,4 18 17 65 79 108 107 59 41 110 45 56 1,5 2000d 6,7 99 100 11 5 9 0,2 2003b 5,6 91 98 99 47 45 32 0,2 1997d 8,3 98 99 101 102 9 5 5 0,2 2003d 3,9 10 5 91 105 65 32 150 93 98 1,1 , . . 1999­2000b 8,6 10 9 95 81 95 104 36 84 41 69 <0,1 2002­2003b 6,1 25 23 66 93 180 182 750 51 43 17,0 98 103 97 1995b 4,6 16 99 80 92 96 80 129 1 100 69 20,1 2001d 5,7 104 105 100 12 6 17 1999­2000b 8,9 53 89 70 88 123 85 540 34 43 0,9 2002b 8,4 28 91 101 93 99 91 38 230 37 72 0,1 2002­2003b 6,7 6 4 73 97 101 101 40 27 41 87 100 , . 1998b 5,1 91 95 85 100 72 38 76 90 0,2 2000d 7,4 101 104 102 9 6 5 100 0,2 2000d 7,0 104 102 9 5 4 0,6 2000d 6,5 104 101 100 99 9 5 5 0,5 , . 1998b 7,4 39 46 62 63 142 111 570 16 27 2003b 7,4 110 102 98 63 73 210 0,1 1997b 6,9 45 82 73 87 115 141 450 32 1,6 2001b 5,6 15 18 56 63 83 81 139 149 730 58 62 5,4 2000d 7,2 99 100 8 6 6 98 0,3 1997b 6,0 23 20 91 94 94 97 120 1 000 45 42 6,1 2003b 8,9 7 93 101 80 68 110 99 0,1 2001b 4,7 17 8 103 87 100 49 31 56 96 0,1 () 1996d 5,3 102 111 103 95 2003d 2,5 10 7 70 94 108 104 36 21 130 82 86 0,6 , . . 31 46 205 205 990 61 3,2 , . 54 66 85 90 110 108 510 5,3 , . 1998d 7,9 98 105 99 100 9 6 20 98 <0,1 2001d 3,9 2 79 92 101 102 18 13 43 98 98 0,3 ' 2002b 5,2 24 17 43 43 65 68 157 194 690 45 68 7,1 91 97 104 16 12 5 2003b 6,6 92 100 99 18 12 42 0,8 94 102 37 31 150 0,1 2003b 6,8 98 99 13 8 13 100 0,2 2002b 8,1 40 40 74 75 84 163 83 650 19 0,1 2000b 6,2 48 32 33 43 67 96 133 125 1 000 40 57 0,7 2001b 4,9 45 42 33 45 98 168 123 550 57 51 0,5 , 2003b 6,1 96 99 99 38 14 23 99 <0,1 1997b 4,9 28 22 28 59 61 99 241 175 1 800 55 61 14,1 1997d 4,4 22 11 91 91 101 106 22 12 41 97 0,5 1994b 4,6 33 11 44 59 74 250 219 1 200 41 1,7 1998­1999b 6,5 10 10 47 75 70 88 89 43 220 31 63 0,1 2002b 4,3 17 86 99 98 102 46 28 83 95 0,3 1996­1997b 6,5 24 30 72 82 235 152 1 000 48 16,1 2003b 7,8 91 105 102 40 28 36 1,1 1998b 5,6 12 13 96 109 108 108 52 110 99 <0,1 1993d 1,4 26 24 81 108 104 86 63 300 68 76 19,6 2003­2004b 6,0 48 75 59 85 145 76 740 7 15 0,5 . . , . 326 3. « , »: () / , - 100 . - - - % , - % , 5 , , 5 % 1 . % 15­49 - 1989­ 2000­ 1990­ 2000­ () 1994a 2004a 1991 2004 1991 2004 1990 2004 2000 1994a 2004a 2005 1995b 2,6 43 40 17 25 57 71 320 259 1 600 15 16 1,1 2003b 5,1 39 29 75 79 84 230 197 800 31 35 3,9 1999d 7,6 100 97 98 9 6 16 0,2 2001b 5,6 11 10 44 73 109 103 68 38 230 67 0,2 1997d 6,4 100 101 105 11 7 7 95 0,1 2000d 9,6 100 101 102 101 9 4 16 0,1 24 91 89 98 32 13 87 95 2002b 9,3 40 38 73 130 101 500 19 23 0,1 2002d 2,5 6 97 101 34 24 160 86 93 0,9 -- 1996b 4,5 47 54 80 87 101 93 300 41 1,8 2002d 2,2 4 5 71 91 99 98 41 24 170 67 77 0,4 2002d 3,2 11 7 100 96 100 80 29 410 59 0,6 2002b 7,5 98 100 101 100 18 8 13 100 0,1 1997d 5,8 95 103 102 14 5 5 98 100 0,4 2002b 6,1 4 6 104 99 29 21 67 99 1,1 1983­1985b 29 24 33 37 96 100 173 203 1 400 26 31 3,1 2003b 8,1 6 3 93 99 100 31 20 49 99 99 <0,1 2002d 2,7 11 10 41 86 102 98 60 28 150 51 92 0,9 15 56 62 84 92 44 27 23 1995b 6,4 22 23 45 69 90 148 137 690 47 58 0,9 2 96 101 28 15 11 93 0,2 1998d 5,0 3 95 8 3 30 0,3 . . 12 7 89 107 85 94 44 16 160 77 1996d 8,8 99 101 14 9 3 99 <0,1 1998­1999d 9,1 114 100 10 4 17 100 100 <0,1 34 41 41 49 78 88 120 91 590 86 87 1,6 2000d 5,4 1 2 100 99 11 8 17 99 0,6 1989b 29 27 67 74 302 283 2 000 42 1,6 2003b 7,9 92 89 119 93 100 71 0,1 2002b 6,3 19 95 98 37 21 44 99 1,4 2000­2001b 7,3 29 61 54 97 161 126 1 500 44 46 6,5 35 66 59 73 152 140 570 61 3,2 2000b 6,0 4 74 97 86 102 52 25 120 90 0,1 1998b 6,1 12 97 103 31 97 <0,1 2003b 5,3 10 4 90 88 81 86 82 32 70 76 83 1999b 5,9 23 23 57 82 97 160 138 880 38 39 6,7 2000b 9,2 8 97 94 98 79 69 24 96 0,2 2003b 9,2 1 92 100 99 26 18 35 100 1,4 2003c,d 5,0 4 94 91 106 25 17 27 0,5 2000b 5,4 30 28 97 100 102 62 34 200 53 60 <0,1 2000d 9,6 97 100 109 102 7 4 6 100 100 0,1 1995d 7,2 104 99 102 100 9 5 17 99 0,4 2001b 8,3 1 91 102 101 12 7 8 100 <0,1 1993b 2,0 24 27 60 168 193 1 100 44 10,7 37 18 29 41 58 203 200 1 100 14 3,5 1996d 10,3 1 104 98 100 13 4 9 100 0,1 2000d 3,3 1 1 95 100 98 21 8 31 100 100 0,3 2000d 7,6 53 97 97 96 9 5 7 0,4 2000d 9,1 96 102 102 7 4 2 0,2 1999­2000b 8,3 38 30 97 102 102 32 14 92 94 96 <0,1 1998b 3,3 12 101 100 57 26 130 0,3 41 40 43 71 147 82 630 28 2,4 1999­2000b 9,1 48 47 55 68 73 204 166 850 6 2000b 3,5 75 96 104 101 60 67 230 18,8 2000b 6,7 5 4 90 84 102 101 20 20 87 79 97 1,5 1993d 10,6 101 101 100 6 4 10 100 <0,1 ..w 25we ..w ..w 86w 93w 95w 79w 410w 43w 62w 1,0w 39e 64f 78g 73 85 147 122 684 32 41 1,7 11e 91f 96g 91 99 58 39 150 87 0,6 12e 93f 97g 89 99 62 42 163 86 0,3 7e 87f 95g 98 98 41 28 91 95 2,2 26e 80f 87g 84 92 103 86 450 40 60 1,1 . . 19 15e 97f 98g 89 99 59 37 117 86 0,2 . 5e 92f 94g 97 96 49 34 58 94 0,7 . . . 7e 84f 96g 102 54 31 194 77 88 0,6 . . 13e 75f 88g 82 92 81 55 183 46 72 0,1 . 53 45e 73f 87g 70 85 129 92 564 30 37 0,7 29e 51f 61g 80 83 185 168 921 43 42 6,2 3e 100 99 11 7 14 99 0,4 a. . b. , , . . d. , . e. 1995­2004 . f. 1989­1994 . g. 2000­2005 . 327 4. - - - , % , - - , .-. , - . % . 2000 . % % % % , % 2005 2000­2005 1992­1994 2002­2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2000­2005 8 379 5,3 916 1 469 25 20 55 88 9 25 ­23 4,0 700 672 3,3 20 693 27 058 3 26 71 60 18 25 ­3 3,2 304 527 1,3 12 881 21 083 2 31 67 56 18 22 5 1,7 12 561 12,7 922 1 061 12 55 32 59 11 53 ­24 6,0 102 257 5,1 1 743 1 983 8 62 29 39 7 32 22 7,8 28 038 9,1 99 168 8 66 26 73 13 15 80,0 183 309 2,2 7 335 9 311 10 36 54 63 11 19 7 12,5 4 903 12,3 1 464 2 722 21 44 35 73 11 30 ­13 4,2 59 958 5,3 251 309 21 28 52 77 6 24 ­7 4,3 29 566 7,6 1 964 2 612 10 41 49 50 20 30 1 35,8 364 735 1,5 27 442 41 536 1 25 73 54 23 20 3 2,0 4 287 4,0 391 591 32 13 54 78 15 20 ­13 2,9 26 648 5,0 2 152 6 635 9 30 60 72 17 28 ­17 4,0 9 334 3,0 678 749 16 31 53 69 15 12 4 4,8 9 369 5,1 3 028 5 709 12 28 61 85 23 21 ­29 3,5 794 098 2,2 1 839 3 111 10 38 52 58 15 19 8 10,1 5 171 5,1 157 166 31 20 50 83 13 19 ­15 2,7 800 2,2 104 79 35 20 45 87 28 12 ­28 8,3 2 192 553 2,3 23 089 26 897 1 26 73 65 21 17 ­3 2,7 109 154 4,0 2 825 3 986 4 31 65 68 10 23 ­1 6,3 138 857 1,3 4 781 5 899 5 52 44 50 13 21 16 28,6 52 408 7,5 225 294 22 40 38 65 6 36 ­7 5,9 4 245 ­0,5 672 421 28 17 55 91 8 30 ­29 18,0 10 695 5,1 301 341 39 25 37 74 15 30 ­19 22,6 31 683 2,5 2 178 2 275 23 19 58 89 6 18 ­13 7,2 2 689 2,9 175 229 26 38 37 85 6 12 ­3 9,4 2 781 900 0,7 13 908 23 616 1 29 70 59 19 17 5 0,9 7 976 3,6 992 1 163 13 31 56 72 14 29 ­15 7,3 213 698 4,2 8 315 9 303 7 23 70 66 17 26 ­9 3,1 6 395 7,4 2 127 1 442 17 27 56 65 18 27 ­10 6,0 254 401 1,5 22 271 37 443 2 25 73 48 27 20 5 1,9 28 303 2,1 2 482 4 169 13 27 60 76 7 19 ­2 20,4 . . 89 336 3,7 1 575 2 007 14 39 47 70 13 17 ­0 5,6 7 257 4,7 160 206 19 25 56 70 13 26 ­9 20,4 3 454 ­13,3 6 12 82 84 53 3 ­39 10,9 3 364 ­6,1 238 242 22 28 50 68 29 38 ­35 223,4 123 434 1,9 59 28 19 ­5 1,3 785 468 6,9 353 382 19 28 54 61 11 30 ­2 3,8 287 217 4,7 498 564 14 41 45 64 8 23 5 8,2 12 861 5,9 1 810 1162 2 29 69 91 16 27 ­34 2,6 , . 196 343 5,8 2 042 2 438 10 44 46 51 14 32 5 18,8 196 388 5,0 3 41 56 44 15 25 16 3,5 1 123 691 3,1 12 611 19 132 3 29 67 58 18 28 ­4 4,2 1 723 044 0,7 13 672 21 553 3 28 70 60 19 20 1 2,8 . 14 452 5,9 383 511 13 35 52 80 13 17 ­10 6,9 56 088 10,1 1 585 1 420 7 40 54 52 11 28 9 11,7 5 391 6,6 276 289 33 29 38 80 5 26 ­11 2,7 16 985 3,8 720 1 111 41 14 45 70 10 20 ­0 2,2 1 115 192 2,6 29 378 38 509 56 20 20 4 2,3 17 977 2,8 301 317 27 18 55 70 11 25 ­6 4,3 2 441 4,0 625 942 34 21 45 82 18 20 ­20 4,7 2 228 862 9,6 273 373 13 46 41 49 10 39 3 3,2 () 177 722 4,3 0 10 90 59 9 21 12 ­3,6 122 309 3,5 3 208 2 971 13 34 53 61 19 19 0 6,6 . . 6 974 4,4 183 153 46 25 29 87 7 14 ­8 43,7 . 5 091 3,9 295 337 6 46 48 34 14 24 28 ­0,6 . 787 624 4,6 6 257 9 996 4 41 55 52 13 30 4 2,4 19 432 4,0 3 364 4 285 8 29 63 77 5 21 ­3 9,5 ' 16 055 ­0,5 608 757 22 21 57 71 8 10 10 2,9 74 658 7,3 13 898 0 53 47 38 21 14 27 6,4 15 771 7,9 1 624 2 505 4 23 73 64 17 27 ­8 4,8 22 210 4,1 7 21 72 87 15 20 ­22 2,5 25 495 7,8 4 363 6 31 63 62 17 25 ­5 1,1 2 855 6,2 376 461 46 28 26 17 ­4 11,0 1 888 5,0 283 282 17 32 51 8,5 5 040 2,0 183 174 28 16 56 84 8 22 ­15 11,0 5 762 1,7 2 104 3 034 12 29 59 77 20 21 ­18 2 1 2 072 3,4 73 131 35 19 46 95 17 15 ­26 14,7 130 143 4,8 3 918 4 690 9 50 40 43 13 23 21 3,4 5 098 5,8 205 229 36 24 40 79 10 24 ­13 3,5 51 745 4,2 1 275 1 582 13 31 56 63 20 26 ­9 1,0 768 438 1,9 2 295 2 727 4 26 70 68 12 22 ­2 7,1 6 630 8,6 98 142 23 30 47 77 11 22 ­10 11,4 2 906 7,0 902 732 21 24 55 97 15 20 ­32 10,6 1 880 5,8 811 661 22 27 51 57 17 37 ­11 11,5 6 126 4,6 845 1 097 10 32 58 50 23 26 1 5,3 7 346 2,6 191 208 40 21 38 76 11 26 ­13 4,1 3 405 3,7 165 172 40 17 43 79 12 19 ­9 2,4 . . , . 328 4. () - - - , % - - , .-. , - . % . 2000 . % % % % , % 2005 2000­2005 1992­1994 2002­2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2000­2005 98 951 5,9 610 863 24 56 20 41 21 21 18 17,4 594 755 0,6 27 857 39 358 2 26 72 49 25 20 5 2,7 4 911 3,0 1 221 1 916 19 30 52 88 11 29 ­28 6,9 109 041 3,8 20 319 27 660 60 18 23 0 2,4 283 920 1,7 23 252 32 779 2 39 59 45 22 19 14 2,4 24 284 3,0 1 000 1 128 2 56 42 45 23 18 14 1,8 110 732 4,8 603 688 22 25 53 80 8 17 ­5 6,0 15 467 4,3 2 450 3 570 8 18 75 69 13 20 ­2 1,6 -- 4 731 1,3 451 482 26 45 30 9,4 8 152 1,8 2 165 2 453 27 24 49 72 7 24 ­3 12,3 78 431 4,2 1 169 1 764 9 33 58 66 10 19 5 2,7 299 151 3,1 1 510 2 003 5 31 65 63 19 19 ­0 2,3 173 085 0,3 4 414 5 735 4 27 70 63 21 23 ­8 3,3 763 720 6,2 1 746 2 297 6 38 56 50 16 21 14 16,8 2 131 4,9 183 229 42 20 38 88 13 21 ­22 5,9 98 559 5,8 2 312 3 519 10 35 55 74 12 24 ­10 21,8 16 974 2,2 1 639 1 618 11 30 60 92 11 15 ­18 2,9 309 778 4,2 8 905 14 284 4 59 37 26 23 16 34 6,3 8 318 4,9 236 235 17 20 63 76 13 23 ­14 2,0 27 059 5,3 1 446 16 32 52 88 18 17 ­22 25,3 116 764 4,2 28 729 32 267 0 34 66 41 11 19 30 0,5 . . 26 320 4,0 2 356 2 977 21 26 53 65 13 20 1 4,7 46 412 4,9 3 29 67 56 20 29 ­4 4,1 34 030 3,4 12 339 34 447 3 35 62 55 20 25 ­0 5,4 27 699 6,1 384 728 34 30 37 65 17 22 ­4 9,8 12 455 068 2,8 22 868 36 863 1 22 77 71 16 18 ­5 2,2 1 193 13,7 46 24 30 90 13 15 ­19 6,8 2 326 9,7 367 401 22 36 42 95 9 14 ­19 21,3 176 602 5,4 481 599 10 47 44 61 10 31 ­2 2,3 b 12 111 6,9 242 287 45 18 38 77 14 19 ­9 6,3 2 203 2,7 360 409 42 23 35 86 10 18 ­13 1,2 28 683 4,5 2 365 2 415 13 28 59 63 14 25 ­3 2,3 6 774 1 179 21 45 34 52 14 25 9 363 300 5,2 1 772 1 793 12 24 65 69 13 25 ­7 25,5 8 712 5,4 192 231 34 21 46 77 14 23 ­13 5,1 13 667 5,3 1 263 1 567 28 29 43 51 16 25 8 29,0 81 664 8,0 1 235 1 442 11 34 55 55 18 19 8 10,7 16 792 1,0 6 213 7 102 11 29 60 74 11 13 2 11,4 98 306 4,5 901 1 021 14 33 53 75 10 16 ­1 5,1 193 176 2,4 17 815 31 339 3 31 66 53 22 19 6 1,1 2 110 185 1,5 24 724 40 521 2 22 76 56 24 20 0 1,7 37 412 4,4 5 189 9 237 8 28 64 57 19 28 ­5 3,3 1 369 ­1,4 292 415 54 21 25 2,0 5 469 14,5 191 225 23 51 26 58 5 17 20 7,6 122 345 3,5 3 531 4 543 3 39 58 50 22 28 0 2,8 115 250 3,0 4 235 3 222 6 47 48 57 12 23 8 5,3 365 937 0,9 21 565 22 190 61 12 20 7 0,9 354 115 2,2 21 654 31 716 2 29 69 48 28 16 8 1,6 23 479 4,2 713 743 17 26 57 77 9 26 ­12 8,7 36 244 5,0 1 027 1 478 6 28 66 68 8 26 ­2 11,7 986 3,6 91 56 23 23 55 82 45 20 ­48 15,1 11 174 4,2 147 144 48 13 39 82 14 26 ­23 4,2 240 152 3,7 1 764 2 463 3 31 66 59 20 18 4 6,6 9 696 1,5 2 162 1 916 5 33 62 72 14 31 ­17 10,7 4 505 912 1,3 19 958 26 557 1 31 68 57 18 24 2 ­1,8 44 384 871t 2,8w 772w 863w 4w 28w 68w 62w 17w 21w 0w 1 391 362 6,0 327 364 22 28 50 65 11 27 ­2 8 535 129 5,1 581 726 10 37 53 58 14 26 2 4 869 491 6,3 451 587 13 41 46 56 13 29 2 3 665 404 3,5 2 279 2 733 7 32 62 63 14 22 1 9 926 393 5,3 477 567 12 36 52 59 13 26 2 . . 3 032 573 8,3 13 45 42 52 10 34 3 . 2 190 933 5,4 1 652 1 971 8 32 60 61 16 23 1 . . . 2 455 621 2,3 2 233 2 831 8 32 60 64 13 20 3 . . 632 570 4,1 1 589 1 978 11 41 48 60 13 26 1 . 995 809 6,4 357 394 19 27 54 64 10 28 ­2 615 216 4,2 293 334 17 32 51 63 17 20 0 34 466 198 2,2 2 26 72 62 18 20 0 a. , . . . b. . 329 5. , , - - - a % % . , . . . . . . % % . . 2005 2005 2004 2005 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2000­2005 654 2 650 82 1 ­572 426 117 1 549 17 10 ­100 105 825 125 280 25 14 ­42 084 42 469 102,4 500 123 317 124 749 84 12 3 848 4 022 105,6 100 4 346 4 202 11 2 167 3 556 21 1 986 23 9,7 ­100 44 390 20 040 2 1 882 10 21 987 32 11,0 ­100 23 120 8 150 686 1 444 74 9 521 69 5,4 145 40 044 28 692 29 8 3 281 4 084 2 169 247 159 45,4 ­100 950 1 768 62 1 ­204 219 84 1 224 50 7,2 ­100 9 190 13 868 90 0 ­279 449 10 20 344 26 30,1 ­350 15 992 16 699 60 3 469 169 5 3 717 20 13,9 ­10 329 650 320 363 81 8b 6 563 40 080 73,1 67 620 960 9 2 ­331 60 46 1 916 24c 14,6 99 11 725 18 181 62 4 ­3 133 2 005 80 15 661 83 36,8 ­50 2 671 2 200 14 9 285 117 85 6 096 38c 52,5 ­100 2 440 7 199 ­2 087 613 172 3 202 34 43,6 40 118 308 77 576 54 12 14 199 18 166 2 222 026 47 81,0 ­130 440 1 230 8 10 35 48 1 967 23c 14,9 100 110 280 5 6 ­25 3 48 1 385 15 40,5 192 377 856 501 223 77 24 ­57 616 72 561 156,3 686 62 194 65 711 88 29 ­7 962 4 608 30 63 159 76 46,4 50 , 56 200 24 933 12 3 25 359 1 518 2 35 570 45 10,8 40 32 233 36 881 53 6 ­926 1 610 22 17 825 39 58,9 ­200 473 1 471 ­13 7 29 1 225 29 14,9 ­105 2 520 5 090 14 4 ­236 139 63 7 035 32c 13,1 12 3 477 8 810 42 7 ­1 188 155 18 5 532 23 15,2 ­300 910 845 25 0 ­162 100 30 3 538 45 3,7 ­299 970 688 774 069 84 17 115 519 ­34 903 112,3 1 100 1 694 4 484 27 2 ­413 293 91 6 332 38 37,4 ­30 17 192 54 031 59 11 ­17 879 1 355 78,6 179 867 2 491 37 38 ­689 499 70 2 082 37 9,8 ­248 85 708 76 539 66 20 5 941 ­8 804 160,3 61 5 854 9 210 1 399 645 10 6 965 39 36,7 ­140 , . . 10 344 16 552 31 1 3 922 1 253 20 30 292 32 110,8 ­450 1 720 2 750 10 1 334 94 7 279 36 8,0 ­65 324 ­40 1 490 2 220 29 1 60 14 4 798 33 49,6 ­50 42 588 46 910 94 19 2,385 1,664 70 92,2 158 89 843 131 648 73 5 6 853 5 335 1 122 723 18 36,9 ­1 400 86 285 68 736 56 16 3 108 1 023 0 140 649 61 24,0 ­1 000 4 284 10 455 72 5 ­18 620 110 8 175 73 74,0 100 , . 58 400 41 561 9 2 500 3 13 622 9 38,6 ­1 379 109 525 66,356 86 34 ­3,946 11,040 136,9 194 186 099 277 597 77 7 ­83 136 16 594 125,4 2 025 366 797 379 696 88 8 ­26 814 16 772 87,7 600 , . 4 883 4 328 3 13 1 215 144 12 5 488 37 7,7 ­100 27 849 17 353 16 2 ­486 4 104 18 32 310 101 26,7 ­600 3 100 3 700 97 0 ­217 131 35 3 377 68 9,3 ­10 2 500 2 450 5 1 0 48 9 496 20c 9,1 13 359 578 320 105 60 14 25 268 6 284 97,0 1 050 3 450 6 360 21 3 ­379 46 19 6 826 34 40,2 ­212 672 1 108 43 2 ­75 77 51 2 100 82 7,1 ­75 761 999 660 118 91 30 68 659 54 937 1 248 934 15 120,1 ­1 950 () 292 328d 300 635 97d 32 19 706 34 035 1 147,6 300 21 187 21 204 38 6 ­1 930 3 052 11 37 732 49 34,4 ­200 , . . 2 190 2 270 0 33 11 841 36 1,5 ­322 , . 5 000 1 980 ­3 0 30 5 829 331 3,2 ­14 , . 284 742 261 028 92 33 27 613 8 189 ­1 98,2 ­80 7 039 9 798 63 37 ­832 620 3 5 700 36 32,3 84 ' 7 180 4 690 20 8 303 175 9 11 739 90 14,4 ­371 44 016 17 422 18 884 ­20 1 71,6 240 5 122 8 625 61 5 ­1 959 699 71 12 661 110 44,3 ­12 1 880 9 340 68 2 ­4 805 288 75 22 177 121 75,6 ­35 11 815 15 453 58 5 ­1 771 773 73 9 475 54 25,7 ­20 435 605 17 47 2 056 76 6,3 ­7 410 740 300 60 2 297 57c 25,9 30 750 1 550 23 1 ­309 45 68 3 462 38c 10,0 0 , 2 041 3 228 77 1 ­415 157 122 2 044 39 23,2 ­10 460 1 035 16 2 16 38 3 418 60c 22,1 ­20 140 948 114 607 76 55 14 872 4 624 12 52 145 53 133,7 150 1 150 1 500 ­271 180 43 3 316 33c 20,0 ­134 10 463 20 124 69 10 970 769 24 17 672 39 56,7 ­400 213 711 231 670 80 21 ­5 708 17 377 1 138 689 24 34,6 ­2 000 1 790 2 420 3 9 ­607 245 63 4 651 17c 2,1 ­20 1 091 2 312 36 4 ­286 81 28 1 868 75 21,3 ­40 1 045 1 145 38 0 63 93 104 1 517 86 32,0 ­50 1 990 2 450 41 3 634 89 53,2 ­6 . . , . 330 5. , () , - - - a % % . , . . . . . . % % . . 2005 2005 2004 2005 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2000­2005 830 1 860 74 0 197 0 16 3 354 37 ­100 410 920 8 3 ­219 0 40 1 950 26c 6,3 ­10 43 500 15 200 2 2 12 264 1 875 5 35 890 71 15,6 ­170 401 333 357 869 70 29 40 187 377 166,3 150 858 2 595 11 6 ­772 250 229 5 145 35 85,6 ­100 21 731 26 224 31 14 ­6 456 2 271 121,1 79 103 256 54 907 19 18 49 488 502 11,1 58 17 119 9 000 12 1 443 ­17 22 3 872 18 34,9 ­160 15 942 25 335 85 1 ­817 1 118 9 35 687 35 29,3 ­1 810 1 080 4 180 10 2 ­818 1 012 12 9 469 94 88,2 8 -- 3 070 1 710 6 39 25 46 2 149 66 10,1 0 1 495 2 880 13 7 20 93 0 3 433 52 17,9 ­25 17 206 12 502 20 2 1 030 1 816 18 31 296 57 17,4 ­300 88 940 100 487 81 3 ­4364 12 613 40 99 190 45 26,6 ­80 37 858 60 175 85 9 ­17 007 825 150,3 250 245 255 125 123 21 9 84 249 12 479 9 197 335 46 24,2 400 120 410 10 25 ­6 8 53 1 656 15c 10,7 45 27 730 40 463 82 3 ­6 382 5 440 42 30 034 51 9,7 ­150 3 383 6 712 60 4 ­612 466 31 7 250 54 41,9 ­38 178 755 56 092 12 2 87 132 1 56,0 250 1 600 3 330 39 7 ­437 70 92 3 938 22c 21,2 ­100 5 142 11 558 57 966 144 15 882 77 ­100 229 620d 200 030 84d 59 27 897 16 032 2 106,2 200 . . 6 001 7 754 11 1 210 275 6 21 521 101 11,8 ­30 31 973 35 301 86 5 ­282 1 122 44 22 068 67 31,2 5 18 698 20 141 90 6 ­362 827 31 45,9 10 5 150 6 100 2 0 ­2 768 1 511 25 19 332 151 7,6 ­519 904 289 1 732 706 82 32 ­804 961 106 831 269,4 5 800 150 350 7 31 ­74 26 67 1 723 37c 4,7 438 909 1 330 ­19 272 38 896 41 17,4 ­345 110 110 118 191 75 30 ­3 719 1 412 ­0 51 307 35 103,7 ­50 1 482 2 659 20 2 ­437 249 46 7 800 22c,f 8,6 ­345 755 1 050 47 0 ­162 60 10 1 812 83 16,0 ­4 10 494 13 177 78 5 ­555 593 33 18 700 79 71,1 ­20 4 935 3 588 8 ­10 73 275 116 352 85 2 ­15 543 2 733 4 161 595 70 54,6 ­250 870 1 810 15 13 ­267 222 42 4 822 33c 6,8 ­15 4 706 3 640 140 9 5 007 46 ­300 34 287 36 141 67 5 2 531 1 715 8 21 652 42 25,0 ­700 3 422 3 425 32 2 ­103 311 6 12 376 108 30,4 ­10 41 224 46 257 55 64 2 080 469 6 60 550 73 34,3 ­900 65 998 58 737 83 21 9 698 3 075 68,7 41 459 246 495 796 83 19 ­38 781 24 521 90,8 300 8 809 18 547 73 13 ­2 541 1 243 27 31 548 110 57,5 100 140 165 37 0 ­13 26 1 078 75 7,2 ­45 3 230 850 478 34 1 701 33c 3,2 271 78 474 76 863 90 13 ­5 595 4 454 27 45 561 51 33,2 50 39 536 32 542 13 5 703 7 603 3 44 058 57 62,5 30 125 898 121 156 93 22 49 710 ­797 161,2 40 129 922 110 645 81 17 27 485 ­588 105,9 157 ka 6 275 8 985 74 2 ­648 233 27 10 887 50 31,5 ­160 9 821 9 609 9 7 ­157 1 160 12 16 868 70 22,0 ­250 9 495 30 61 681 53 32,7 280 860 4 160 11 0 ­668 545 26 6 574 30c 48,9 ­150 51 874 66 500 58e 6 ­10 079 585 14 28 500 17 156,4 50 1 487 4 560 65 0 ­509 602 29 6 399 89 28,3 ­100 595 750 516 075 93 24 165 783 7 805 99,5 270 10 392 567t 10 652 542t 77w 20w 664 877s 14w ,,s 145,5w ,,wg 256 379 310 841 51 4 16 576 15 426 945 32,0 ­4 000 2 785 199 2 551 288 64 20 194 808 11 2 328 780 68,4 ­11 987 1 512 592 1 375 639 68 23 106 037 10 1 140 272 84,8 ­10 086 1 272 607 1 175 649 61 16 88 771 12 1 188 508 47,0 ­1 901 3 041 588 2 862 091 64 19 211 385 16 2 755 725 63,3 ­15 987 . . 1 185 932 1 059 945 80 34 64 563 4 588 888 105,7 ­3 939 . 759 841 746 370 57 9 62 212 25 794 943 32,0 ­2 665 . . . 561 873 517 073 56 13 60 843 13 778 970 48,9 ­4 012 . . 221 252 182 440 20 3 5 340 35 163 935 47,3 ­2 374 . 123 050 186 039 76 4 7 151 5 193 933 35,5 ­1 680 189 636 170 236 31 4 11 276 36 235 056 74,4 ­1 318 7 351 037 7 790 420 81 20 453 492 166,6 15 970 a.,.,«- ».b..c. , ().d..e. (,,,)..f..g.,, ,,. 331 6. - () () b - - % , - - % , % , , , , 15 . 2000­ ./. 0­14 . . . . , % . . 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005b 2005 2005 2005 2004­2005 2004 2004 2000­2004 2002 6 957 ..d 28 58 1,1c 292 ..e 66 0,2c 141 ..f 81 1,0 184 885 10 920 948 11 700 2,6 4,7 101 0,8c 529 ..f 97 323 1,4 32 28 ..f 67 74 6,7 270 0,3 627 19 ,,e 73 78 4,6 727 1,6 1 023 27 10 288 14 370 15 470 21 290 5,3 73 76 87 30,6 292 3,1 13 37 1 021 3 500 1 967 6 740 ­0,2 69 74 3,0 65 0,2 1 293 ..f 7,7 1 765 0,1 3 38 9 145 5 180 18 090 10 250 4,0 36 35 81 2,3 374 2,3c 71 30 ..f 75 79 93 17,7 918 2,6 20 38 799 870 3,3 62 65 0,5 211 2,0 17 40 338 1 600 670g 3 170g 4,8 67 71 74 0,4 () 115 1,1 329 24 ..f 76 81 92,8 1 384 1,7 5 40 6 930 5 010 8 151 5 890 0,6 54 55 2,6 751 0,2 4 29 759 1 010 3 178g 4 230g ­2,9 61 67 2,2 1 517 2,8 152 40 442 290 2 913g 1 920g 2,2 55 58 0,2 1 586 3,0 56 48 283 180 1 110 700 0,5 44 46 0,2 107 1,0 313 418 3 920 773 7 260 0,2 2,2 57 0,3 0 ..f 10,0 170 1,8 308 30 ..f 73 77 25,4 793 2,1 34 42 807 1 020 1 776g 2 240g 1,4 52 54 0,5 72 0,2c 96 273 3 790 400 5 560 2,3 1,7 119 0,5 305 29 427 3 590 769 6 460 4,4 69 74 1,6 185 0,8 65 41 387 2 090 1 199g 6 480g 4,8 67 73 0,8 ..h 74 295 1,0 3 22 13 671 46 320 10 258 34 760 4,5 78 82 7,7 507 2,4 126 40 947 1 870 3 041g 6 000g 3,0 67 74 0,3 45 2,3c 173 ..f 813 6,2 74 22 ..f 72 76 89 53,0 835 1,2 90 20 13 633 16 510 18 360g 22 230g 77 81 97 8,3 99 1,8 136 137 1 390 ­0,9 0,3 600 2,1 269 42 387 640 1 201g 2 000g 0,7 61 65 0,1 , . . 22 488 0,6 187 25 ..d 61 67 6,5 11 269 0,3 103 19 ..h 75 79 100 2,1 1 795 0,1 59 39 1 718 960 6 120 3 410 1,4 35 37 82 3 283 1,4 34 47 436 130 3,9 42 43 0,1 5 854 2,0 3 30 32 354 5 530 1,5 72 77 9,1 34 0,6c 215 ..f 457 0,8 174 19 29 976 65 630 29 841 65 340 3,2 75 81 21,3 1 248 1,0 615 25 6 560 5 260 15 538 12 450 3,4 69 76 84 2,6 , 180 4,0c 430 ,,e () 460 0,7 16 ..f 78 82 91 4,0 329 2,5 1 097 41 787 2 390 ­6,0 68 67 96 3,4 404 0,7 1 263 18 5 491 13 590 7 662 18 960 1,8 77 81 88 7,4 63 3,6 352 185 2 930 0,2 , . 111 0,6 158 39 254 2 300 ­0,4 67 69 33 0,6c 159 ..f 50 519 1,1 77 29 ..d 58 64 90 0,2 , 77 0,3 135 2 138 27 770 . 183 0,8 228 23 ..f 73 79 27,8 234 1,9 13 28 ..f 72 78 96 8,2 149 0,4 745 16 ..f 76 83 4 533 6,7 54 22 102 693 23 770 104 069 24 090 77 81 25,0 20 1,3c 43 154 7 630 4,5 3 911 0,5 441 22 ..f 74 82 3,5 28 0,7c 473 ..f 157 2,3 163 39 60 390 0,7 62 64 0,6 1 131 1,6 66 41 2 579 2 280 5 870 5 190 0,8 43 42 80 0,9 . 79 1,5c 161 ..e 84 0,8 184 701 8 290 1 347g 15 940g ­3,3 92 6,4 48 1,6 133 394 8 210 600 12 500 2,7 2,4 166 1,2 271 29 794 4 800 990 5 980 3,9 72 75 2,4 478 2,6 17 41 282 590 898 1 880 1,8 62 63 0,4 8 228 3,2 13 44 ..d 46 48 449 0,7 3 30 1 140 2 540 4,5 66 73 90 5,1 976 4,4 66 41 729 750 ­3,5 102 0,4 142 36 224 2 190 823g 8 040g 2,0 71 74 99 1,0 1 305 0,3 254 22 13 632 13 170 17 190 13 170 6,4 67 73 31,8 48 0,2c 34 ..f 848 0,9 46 32 2 784 3 280 5 052 5 960 0,9 66 70 1,6 257 1,7 70 28 ..f 71 76 2,9 504 2,3 18 44 ,,e 3 731g 7 580g 42 43 87 0,4 1 345 ­0,4 32 15 12 244 9 100 20 740 15 420 10,1 66 77 100 11,7 a. «». b. -- , . . . 2003­2005 . d. , (875 . ). e. , (3 466--10 725 .). f. , ( 10 726 .). g. , . h. , (876--3 465 .) 332 333 , , , , . - «- , - ». - , . « . - » , , () 1993 . - (1993 System of National Accounts, SNA). . - 2006 CD-ROM, WDI Online. « - » 2006 (World Development Indicators 2004). , - , . . , 1 6 CD-ROM - 2006. , () 2005 . (. ). - , (World Development Indicators , , 2004). - - . - . , . , - () - , , , , () -- . , . - - . , . - , - . . , - , . . - , 2006. . - - , , - . 2006 2000 . . , : - . - , , ; ; , . , . - , , , , ( , - , ). , . , . 334 2007 , . , , . - . , , - (), - , , - . . - , , , - 2000 . - , , , , - , . . , - , - , , - . . - , 1999 .; , 1996 ., 1993 . . 1996.- , , 1. . , , , - . , , - , () , - . . - . - . (. .) , , , - ; . . - . - . - .) . « . % , - 0­14 » - , 0­14 . - ( -- . - ,), . , , , 15, . - , () . . , , - «». . - - ,. - . ( «» . - .) , , , , - . . - ( ) - «». - , , - . 335 (2) . - . : http://ire . , , - , . 2 -- , - . - . - , () . -- - - . , . ,,- , - . (World Energy Data Set), , , , , - . , . (ement Manufacturing Data , Set), - , , - . . , 1950 . , , - . - , . , , , - , - , -. - . 2. ( - - , - ) 1990 - . 22 (Ravallion, Datt, and van de Walle , - 1991). , - . 15 , , 440 , 100 - , . 1980- , . - 1,1 , - 93% . . , , : , ,, , - , . - - . . , , - , - , , , . . 1979 . , . , . - . : 13 1979 1981 . 100 1997 20 , 1999 . 41 - 1999 . , - , , , , - . . , , , ; , 48 , - , 28 - . 336 2007 , , - . ., , , , . - . , - - , - . , , , , - , , - . . - , - -- -- , . ? : PovcalNet - - ,- PovcalNet, - . 1990 1 . - , 1985 . - . PovcalNet-- ,,- (),- , . - . , , - (Penn . PovcalNet World Tables) , , , - , . - . , . - , . . , - , , . . - , Penn World Tables. , . - , PovcalNet, 1993 . 1 . , , - 1985 ., 1993 ., , . 1,08.. PovcalNet - - - . , 1 . , - . , , 1,50 - 3. . , - - (., , . ) , - . PovcalNet , . : http://iresearch.worldbank.org/povcalnet/. 2002 . . -- , . - -- -- .. , , -- . , , , . -- , , , 337 - . -- , - -- - . , - . . 1 . , . 2 . -- - . , , 1,08 2,15 , , 2005 ., - 1993 . , - ,. , , - . . () -- , , ( , - , , , , ), . . , , , , - . 3. , -, : . 5 - , , - ()-- , , , - , 20% . . 1 . , . - 2 , 0­59 . « », . - , 1983 ., - , , , 5 , . . . - . - - . , , - . () - - . , , , , , , 100 .. , - . , - . -- , - , , , , , , . . , . , - , , - , -- , - - , , (ISCED), -- ( ) --- , , ( ) . , - ( ). , , - - . . 338 2007 - . : , - , - , , -, , - ( 10-45 ). , - . 5-99 . -- 15 -- 24 , . , - (, . ), . , . - , . , ,- - . . - - ,- ; , . . , - , . , . 4. () -- - - , ( ) - ( -, ). , . , - - , - () . . - , - - .- . - (, , ..); - (), . , ; , , . ., ,,,, , . . - , , , , - , - . . () 1993 . , - - . . 1993 -- - . - -- , 2000 ., . - . - , - - , , , - . . (), . ,,- , - , -- (), 1-5 . . . 339 , 1 (Paasche price index), . , . , , - - , , 2 - . -- , , . -- , . , - . 25% 5. , . - () -- ( , , , ) , . . . , ()--( -- , , -- ), , - , . - . - (). . -- - (): 5 (), 6 ( - , - ), 7 ( ) 8 , - ( , 68. , - . . , - , , , , -, - . . . , . GlobalDevelopmentFinance. -- , - - (10 ) , , , . , , -. -- , - , , , - , ( - , . , , , ). - - - BalanceofPaymentsStatisticsYearbookInternational - , FinancialStatistics. . (), InternationalFinanceStatistics. () -- - -- - - , .. , () -- , - ; , , . , , - -, . () . WorldPopulation : - Prospects:The2004Revision. ; - ; 6. , 25% . ( . . 1 « ), , ». 340 2007 , «». «» - , - ( ), «» - . «» - , . ( ) - - , , . , , - - , , . , . , - . . - , . , - . , . : ln Xt = a + bt, «». «» . - , . Xt = Xo (1 + r)t. t - : X-- , t-- , a = log X0, b=ln(1+r) --. b*-- b, , - r [exp (b*) -- 1] 100 . , t-- - . : . Yt = (Yt/Nt)/et , $ * : et* -- «» ( - ) t;t-- ( , , ) t;pt-- t;PtS$-- : t;Yt$-- «» r = ln (pn /p1)/n, t;Yt-- ( ) t; Nt-- t. pn p1 - , n -- , 1n -- - . . - . , . , , , : , (pn ­ pn­1)/pn­1. . (. - 2006. «» «» «- » - - , . b , f -- , , t -- . 58b 169, 175 159 166b, 180, 179b 22, 197 , 193, 196t ( ) 234b 242 . .: », 95 (), 169b : 224, 225, 230 253 , 25, 103b , 196t 65b, 66, 177b , 233 , 99 223, 225f «» 81 170, 172, 158 116 18­19, 18f, 61f 18f, 61f 107 21, 95, 237 , 22, , . .: 66, 100 171b, 171f, 172­173, 174 8, 9f, 45, 58 , 211 () / 120­121, 162 , 48b, 48, 169 . .: , 135 114, 115 222 138­139b 138b 116 138b 131 , 114b : 83 112­125, 114f, 114b, - 115f, 115b 130 , ­, « » 138­139b : « » 132­133 « » 131­135 : 58 125 Joven(es), 135b 170 45, 146, 230, 242 . .: . .: -- 146b 4, 203, 240b 66b () 234b 253 96, 169, 230 115b, 211 150, 200 201­202, 225 341 342 2007 202 , 254b 5b () 21, 45, 63 248, 254b 140 , 18, 60b, 191­196, 193b 155, 158­159, 174 49f 7b , 240b 158 84 143, 144­145 , , 235b 41f , 235b 251b 102 : 26, 71, 158­160 / 159 224, 229­230 258b 143­144, 144f, 151­152f, 155, 55 162, 173­174 « » 22 100 148f «» 83 143 131 149­155, 150b, 151­151f, 153t, , 126 155b 144 169 163­164b 89 / 108b , 164b, 192, 193b, 215 / 34­35, 34b, 141­143 -, 90, 116, 144, 181 «, , », 151f , «» 2, 13­18, 53­60 100 155­157, 157b , 17­18, 59­60, 60b, 191­197, 198b 139b , , 239b , 193 , 15­16, 57­59, 106t 101b 53b 227 203 42­45 127, 128 . .: ; , 162 , 31, 116, 125 : , 116, 141, 135b, 199, 208b 55­56 199 «» : 56­57 / 173­175 ABC («, , , 9, 140­163. . : - »), 151f , , /; AT ( ) 158­159, 162 : 19­20, 19, 145, 163, 166b, 169, 45, 62­63, 144­145, 148­150 176­177 140, 145 25 () 141­143 252 , «» 155­57, 157b 343 143­144 7b : 36f 213b 104 155­156, 135­159 150 148­155, 149b, 251b : 36 158 140, 144­145 128 , 235­236, 235b 55, 97, 179 255b 166b 148­155, 149­150b, 151­152f, 73­74, 248b. . 153t, 155b, 164b : ; . .: 251b : 26, 71, 158­160 224, 229­230 239, 242b 156­157, 157b 221, 227 : 152­154 196 . .: 198b, 203 « », «», 25, 157­160 : () 143 100, 127 162­163, 161t «», () 206b 165, 168­179 143, 147 , «» 148­155, 149b, 155b , 36­37, 215, 216. . : 3 (), ; 158­160, 170­173, 177­179, 234­2235, 235b : 37f, 192­193, 193f, 225 156­157, 157b () 103 204­207 () , 166b 123 . .: 169 203 , 185, 187, 198 100 , 214b Joven(es) 135b ­ 37, 245 241­254. . : 230 : ; , : 121 213­214b 108b 27, 28b, 165b, 245, 247­253, 251b, 257 243­248 245, 246 , 99 : 247­254 251­254 41f , 179 , 107b 108­109b, 121 - 83­84, 91 173­175 , 46­47, 46f, 170, 224, 235 , , 10­11, 11f, 183­212 37f, 189­190, 192 , 198 , «» 17­18, 59­60, 60b, 191­197, 198b 187, 188t, 196 123 186, 187, 188, 188t, 196, 199, 201 , 231 , 201­202 344 2007 196­197, 196t 38­42 196­197, 196t , 204, 217 255b 224­225 37f, 189­190, 192 193­195 , 221, 223 198 , , 246b, 251b , : .: 190, 193b, 214b , 8, 43, 57­59, 100, 110­112, 111f , , 198­199 143, 147 184b . .: ; . .: ; 233­234, 234b « », «» 204­211 / 185­188, 186f, 187­189t, 192 241, 249b 188­191 : 191 22­23, 168 200 : 211­212, 211t 22­23, 168 196­197, 196t 253­254 , «» 197­204 240b , 199­201 167 37f, 192­193, 193f , 237 : 190f 19, 20b, 70 : 190 Joven(es) , 135b - 213­214b , , 239­240b 190, 198 - 190, 198b, 203­204, 213­214b 19, 37, 66­68, 245 208­209, 210b : 20­23, 64­66, 95­101 « » () 177b , , 11f, 81, 179 43f, 78f, 105, 210f, 240f 88b, 107, 116 « », , 215 (), 226­227. . : ­; , , 226 ­ 146b 169, 170 190f 113 239­240b 230 . .: 30­31 5f 242 : 147 39­41, 41f , 167­68, 167f 121 39f, 49­50, 50f , 204 5­6, 41­42 148 190b 73­74, 248b. . : : ; ; 99, 118 15, 58b, 121 , 118, 138­139b 165 345 , 187, 188, 188t, 195, 101 199, 200 255b 158­160, 170­173 86 , 21­23, 65­66, 65b / 174 « » 179­180, 179f », 19­20, 179­180 , 18­19, 18f 147, 169, 170, 177 33­34, 43­44b, 73­74 , , 185, 186, 189, 191, 202 169, 199 , 231 : 159, 170­174, 172f 94 « », () 19­20, , 232, 233, 234, 236 179­180 102, 103 225, 230f 83 166b 222, 226 22, 93 62 , 33­34, 44b, 99 , 87b , 176 : 91 - 176 166b : 94, 121 147 22­23, 168 : 126b 225f 167, 169, 170, 172, 175, 177 115 , (), 172, 178 25, 150, 152, 153 155­158, : 162 158f, 173, 175. . : / (), 112 15, 58­59, 118­125, 139b , 187, 196 : : 198b 15, 58­59, 118­121, 122­123, , 139b 123 149b , 199 171, 177 7b , 230, 231t , , 129 143, 146, 166 144, 145 45 - , 230 166b , 128 .: , 177 4, 94 (): ( ), 173 15, 58­59, 119­125, 123b, 139b , 77f 128, 154, 185, 195, 198b 121 . .: - 197­204. . : , (), «» . .: 198, 199 (), 103, 196 , 215, 216, 230­237 . .: 21, 231, 232f , 132b, 233 232f 346 2007 231 , - 43f, 78f, 105, 120f, 240f 121 «» 232­235 , , 96 SMS- 157b, 230, 231, 232, 240b , 84 - 213b ­: 181 21, 37­38, 38f, 231­233, 231­232f 223, 230 . .: , - 55 98­99, 98f, 111 150, 155b 255b . .: 20 . .: 234­235, 235b , 185, 217f, 221, 227 , 102­103 , 183 ­, 180­181 , 113 233­234, 234b 198 177­178 7b, 13­14,19, 55­56, 55f, 7b, 12­13, 79­80, 83 19, 55­56, 55f, 81­82, 83 170, 176­177 19­20, 62­63 236­238 , 197 , «» 236­238 , , 232­233 73, 94 230­233, 19, 149b, 153, 160­161 230t, 231­232f, 233t 19­20, 45, 62­63, 144­145, 148­154 223 , 118 230b , 233 , 223 20, 235­237 SMS- 252 157b 258­260b 106t, 106, 238t 87b 19­20, 62­63 : «» 81 , 148­154, 150­151b, 151­ 152b 153t, : 159 155b, 165b , 128 194 (), - 18­19, 18f, 61f, 196t, 225, 242 173 , 129, 192, 204, 207 19, 166b, 173­174 139b, 227 26, 71, 160 123b, 217f, 222, 227 : 170­172, 176­179 ( ) .: SMS- 240 (), , 45 : 83 227, 259b 204 , 4, 73b, 240b 183 128 « », 28b, 186 171­173 81f (92) , 197 : », 94 / 34b , 233 230, 231f 347 , 154­155, 157b , 185, 186, 191, 198 SMS- 157b, 231, 232, 233, 240b 242 , 230, 233t 217, 226 - 79 16, 125­126 209 : 147 « », () 19­20, 86 178­180 - 129 129 41f, 42 , , 29, 200, 240b, 253, 258b 156 , 68b, 258b , 200 : , 15, 58b 207 , 196t 84 242 206 223, 225 104 , 128 , 128 18f, 61f () : 83 27, 28b, 215 - 204 129 , , 204, 207 95, 101b, 106t 107 , 159, 170­171,172f 144, 166b, 170, 171 203 , 26, 28b, 165b, 245, 245­255, 251b, 257 19, 21, 145, 161, 166b, 169, 176­177 , , 66, 84, 90b, 127, 132 165­166, 166b 99­100 . .: 188 : 48b, 48, 168 28,88b : 21­22, 64­65 -, 122, 217 166b -' 198b, 217 : 166b . .: ; 19, 65b, 97­98, 21­22, 168 97b 176, 180, 179b 19,65b : 165­166, 166b 65b, 66, 177b . .: , 97­98, 97b , 119, 228b 145f . .: 9, 48 () 157b 182 111 142 . .: 45 : 142 , 204 66b, 67 140, 141f , 21, 64 65 147, 149b 348 2007 , 234 32­35, 57b 101b 239b 45 193­196 17b, 254, 255, 222, 223­224, 225, 1­29. 225f, 226, 228 . : 258b 245­248, 252­256 , 128 , 239­240b , 147 2­6 104 33­36 131 255b 173, 176 258­260b Oportunidades, 22f, 74f, 100, 156, 176, 245, 256b 31b . 28 . () 27­28 «». .: «» 215, 216­230 () 221, 225­226, 226f, 228 108­109b 194­195, 196t 248b , 224­225 () 221, 223 245, 247, 254­259, 255b, 256b 226­228 , 239b 17b, 59, 118, 255b 119f, 126­127, 221­222 245, 246, 254­259 224, 229­230 , 28 255b 154­155 198 84, 87­88 223 259b 62 ( ), 182 220­221, 219t, 220f, 225­230 111 : 91­95 218b 73­74. . : 229 , , "H" 165b 225­230 166 217­219 226­228 , 48b, 48, 168 238t 187, 189t, , 195 225f, 229­230 115 65b, 66, 177b , 231 , 246b, 251b , , . . 174, 178, 177b . . (), 118f , 181 129, 214b, 225 , 195, 253 , 2, 11­13f, 27t, . .: « » 51­72, 51f. . : , «»; 79b , «»; « », «» / 173, 179 349 , 14­15, 55­56 129­130, 130t : 77­78, 78f 150 , 173­177 169, 174­175 . .: « » : 77f , 149, 150b, 202 166b . .: ; 27t, 76­106 . : ; 166b 190b 73­74 87b 148­154, 149b, 251b 89­90 . .: 251b () 259b , 196­197, 196t 198­199 . .: 43, 81 28b : 8b, 13­14, 19, 169b 9­56, 55f,81­83 , 97­98, 163b, 174­175, « », 25 179b 6­7, 36f, 77 , 203 225f, 229­230 .: , , 159, 170­171, 172f 115­116, 128 «» 117f , 189, 194 143, 147f , 235b «», () 191, 191b 45 , 71, 83 258b , ­ 55, 169 « » 138­139b « » , , 246b 179­180 94, 223, 242 169, 183, 191, 203, 215, 258b 174 , 123, 135b, 201 , 185, 196 135b : 159 « » () 201 204 256­259 138 «» 6­11, 45­48, 75. . : 150, 158 , ; : ; ; 170 ; , : , 221­225, 221f 158 255­258 139b, 259b 252b , : 232­233 91 18­19, 18f, 62b, 61f 201 (), , 173 141 217 , 246b 123 251b 170­171 350 2007 ­: , 179­180, 181t 179 , , 136­137, 136t (), . .: 173 167, 171­172 130­131, 130t , 112, 123, 220 150 . .: : 83 Joven(es) 155b . .: . .: , ; /, , 168­169, 172f : 169­170, 138b 175 , 143­144, 144f, 151­152f, 153, 169­170, 171f 154, 169­170 174 86­87 , 143, 147f , - , 197­198, 220 143, 147f 201 165, 168­169, 171f, 174 202­205 55, 80 208b 177­178 23 . .: 202­205, 205f . .: ; « », «» 23­24,202­203, 206b, 208b « », «» 2, 23­25, 67­71 188 , 164­165b 1202­205, 205f 24, 70­71, 81, 23­24, 193b 102­105, 103b, 106t 202 24, 157­160 « », 18, 64, 149 204­207 221­223 204­209 192­194 24­25, 204­209, 206­207b 126­128 23, 25, 66­68, 71 112, 127 240b 101­102 24, 70­71 112 : 24, 70 64, 86­87 24­25, 71 , 127 180­181 « » 24, 134­136 , , 131­135, 135b, 136t 14­15 26, 133­135 - . .: 83, 84, 86, 127­128 () 125­126 245­246 Entra 24, 102, 131­132 25­26, 71 Joven(es) 24, 74, 98, 102, 134­136, 135b, 239, : . .: 248 , , . .: 130­131 () . .: « », «» 158­159, 161t 205­207, 210b , 207­208, 211t 23­24, 71 , 238t , 23­24, 206b, 208b 238t , 106t, 103 135 351 235, 249b , 157 198 , 196t 220 204 144 18f, 61f 23 : . .: , - 83, 84, 86, 127­128 123 66b 218, 219, 220, 246b, 251b «» . .:«» : 22 128­129 15 123 - . .: . .: . .: 197 87b . .: : "H" () 143b 11f, 79, 173 : 123­124, 126b / 169, 174 10f, 162­163.. . : , 90 161 11, 73, 240b 162, 163, 167f 57, 84, 90b, 128, 132 : 18­20, 64­66, 94­98 , 48b, 48, 165 66b 164­1465 167f 9f « » 177­178, 179f 144 « », «» 178­179 140 167­169,171­172 , 231­232 / 166 : 66 , «» 169­171 143­144 162,165­172. . : 225f . .: 66, 67 165 144 () 169 108b 255b 18, 20 163­164 « » 22, 24, 64­66, 71 169­173 22, 65­67 165­169 , 185, 192, 193 169b : 198b 156­158, 167­169, 172­173 122 , 90 217, 221 166b 258b 157,167­168, 172f « » , «» 178­179 113 157b 31­32, 44b, 96, 166b . .: , 171­172 198b 199­201, 181t 352 2007 , , 164­165b 172 31­32, 43­44b, 73­74 , «» 171­174, 177b, 179f 170­171 188, 195 162­165 , 140, 143­144 77f, 131, 235b 94­98 130, 244 138b 240 31­33 128, 196, 246b , 6­8, 7f, 75. . : 114 124 : 17, 43, 63­64 122f, 192 40­43, 43b 200 37­38, 36f, 76, 78 94, 101b, 106t 30­32, 57b 141­142 5b ( ) () : 20­22, 64­65, 94­98 248b 7b, 12­13,17, 54­55, 94­98, 98f, 97b 55f, 79­80, 81 28, 88b 105­106b 138b 162­165 90 , , 228­229, 234b 121 17, 20b, 64 . .: 91­92 (), 83­84 . .: / 93­94 , «» 2,15­19, 18f, 59­65. . : , 114b ; « » 87b 147­153, 149b, 155b : 100­102, 103b 202 84 () 86­87 , 238­241, 243­245 84, 87­88 , 194­201 « », 23, 70­71, 79, 99­102, 101b, , 239­240b 103b, 106t , 19­21, 64­66, 94­98 84­88 , 231­232 «» : 55­56, 56f 258­260b 3f ( ), 76­79, 77f «», , 16­17, 18f, 100­101 62b, 61f - 83, 84, 86 171­174, 177b, 179f 82­90 - 142, 146 71, 83 , 106t, 103 90­98, 106t 13­14, 54­55, 83, 84­88, 94, 105b -, 213 , 106t 90­98, 106t , 238­241 90­94 94­98, 98f, 97b 242­245 77­78, 78f 88­90, 89­90b, 94­98 197­198 94, 101b, 106t 353 , 97­98, 97b 132 . .: ; 84 . .: 176 , . .: , 77f 2,11­12, 12f, 27t, 51­72, 19 51f. . : , «»; , «»; « », «» 117 205 () 124, 126 , 2, 11­12, 12f, 27t, 51­74, 51f. , 201 . : , «»; , 83, 148, 157, 228 «»; « », «» SMS- 157b, 230 231, 232, 123 240b. . : (), 198 - 139b 83, 84, 86, 127­128 , 185, 191, 192, 193, . .: 194, 196 (), 167 144­146, 145­146f 149b , 229, 230 141 154­155, 157b 101b 142 96 155­156 , 140, 141f 146b ­, 174 218b, 218 223 . .: 220, 229­230 258b 8, 8f, 27t, 110­137. 202 . : 201, 202, 206b , 158 114b / 18, 64 () 166b , 117­119, 123b, 139b : , , 196­197 « » 24, 70 125 8, 41, 56­57, 97, 111­113, 111f 65 154 117f Head Star, 79 - 14, 57­58, 114­123, 213­214b 123b, 139b , 185 114, 138­139b : 132b 105, 207 255b , , 240b , «» 106t 258b 116­117, 122f 237 113b , 227­228 . .: 118f 18f, 61f, 196t, 220 , 17b, 58, 114, 119f, 124­125, 216­217 354 2007 114 , 164, 190, 193b, 211 (): 111­112 96, 114 «» 111­113 132 . .: , 191, 192 « », «» 128­129, 135b, 136t , 228 218, 219, 220, 221, 229­230 125­127 258b , 95­96, 98f, 111 54 136­137, 136t : 146 . .: 198, 204 101 , 123­124, 126b SMS, 240 14­15, 56­58, 116­125, 136t 96­97, 163b, 116 170­171, 179b , 13­14, , 97­98, 97b 54­55, 83, 84­88, 94, 112t , 65b, 66, 177b -: 88­90, 89­90b, 94­98 213­214b , 55­56 Joven(es), 24, 74, 98, 102, 132­134, 135b, 239, 19, 65b 252 1997­1998 . 56­57 20, 66­67 173­174, 179f () 79, , 123b 80b, 85b , 185, 193 92­93 : 103 195 83, 84, 103, 115 218, 222 14f, 99, 119, 166 : 138b 202­205, 205f 126 244 : , 87b 210b 143 - , 144 (), 148, 150 32­33b, 91 , 210f 112, 217 . .: , 164, 236 , 128, 132 : 185, 186t 156­158, , 167­169, 172­173, 229­230, 235b 124 193­194, 196t 11f, 79, 173 125­126. . : 6b 355 : 239b 170­171 «» , 21, 91­92, 91f 111­113 2­5 66b 28­30 32­34, 43­44b 31­34 / 32b 108b 53b 32­34, 34b, 123, 220 149­152 141­142 () , 186­189 240 236­240 , 192, 193f, 194 , 116­117, 121b , 250b , , 230­232 122 , 215­216, , 231 219t, 220f, 216­221 / ­- 162­165 118f ­, 179 144 , 264b 157, 158 , - . .: 115 3, 117 «» 47­48, 47f 128 , , 196t 148 236 83, 84, 89b », , 93 - 225 148 , 220 Joven(es) 135b , Un Techno para Chile 28 , 115 18f, 61f , 216, 222 123, 185, 222, 246b, 250b . .: ; ; , 179, 183, 186 149b, 149 « », 28b , 238 97 / 157 94, 101b, 106t ­, - 178 , 10, 184, 210b 217f 50b 87b 219 : 146 258­260b 202, 204 SMS- 240 - 84 , 202 129 , 111, 132b, 130 : 156 , , 79, 173 «», 189, 191b 154­155, 157b , 57, 84, 90b, 128, 132 356 2007 Desa Siaga () 172 198 ­: Entra 21, ( ) 102,131­132 199 218 "H", () 164b : 246b "Horizon Jeunes", () 155b 173 « » 18 Joven(es), 24, 74, 98, 102, 135­136, 135b, 239, 248 148 23 Oportunidades, (), 22f, 74f, 97, 154, 171, 238, : 256b 2f 86, 185 Pro Jovem, () 163b Scared Straight, () 204 ABC, («, , Suami Siaga () 172 ») 151f Abrindo Espagos () 164­165b Un Techo para Chile, () 28 AGETIP, () 131 "Alcatraz", () 208b Vozes Jovens, () 259b "Bolsa Familia", () 164b Weather Underground 202 63 2007. . . . -- : « », 2007. -- 376 c. ISBN978­5­7777­0372­9 - . : , , , . , - : , « ». - , , . , , . - . 33+2007+(37.032) 60.5 , . , 12 24 , 1,3 .; . , . - , , . -- , , , , , , - . , . 2007: - «», : , , , . «» . , : , «- ». ( ) - , - . , , ; ; . « » , , . : , 19- , . (). -- , -- , . , . ISBN 978-5-7777-0372-9 « »