Report No. AUS0000002 B REAKING THE GLASS ceiling Challenges to female participation in technical diploma education in Bangladesh World Bank Office Dhaka Plot- E-32, Agargaon, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka-1207 Bangladesh Tel: 880-2-5566-7777 Fax: 880-2-5566-7778 www.worldbank.org/bangladesh Standard disclaimer: This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Bangladesh Female Participation in Technical Education BREAKING THE GLASS ceiling CHALLENGES TO FEMALE PARTICIPATION IN TECHNICAL DIPLOMA EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH January 2, 2017 South Asia Region, Education Global Practice Acknowledgment This report was prepared by Tashmina Rahman (Consultant, GEDDR) and Shiro Nakata (Sr. Economist, GEDDR) under the overall supervision of Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (Sr. Operations Officer, GEDDR) and Shinsaku Nomura (Sr. Economist, GEDDR). The authors particularly thank Keiko Miwa (Practice Manager, GEDDR), Tobias Linden (Lead Education Specialist, GEDDR), Syed Rashed Al-Zayed Josh (Sr. Economist, GEDDR) and Aftab Uddin Ahmed (Consultant, GEDDR) for their review and comments on earlier drafts. The team is also grateful to Iffath Anwar Sharif (Program Leader and Lead Economist, SACBD), Ferdous Jahan (Consultant, GSU06) and Jaynab Akhtab (Social Development Specialist, GSU06) for their review and guidance. The peer reviewers for this report were: Francisco Marmolejo (Global Lead for Tertiary Education and Lead Economist, GEDDR) and Sabah Moyeen (Sr. Social Development Specialist, GSU06). The Skills and Training Enhancement Project (STEP) Unit provided excellent support in data collection for this study. Golam Faruque Khan (Consultant, GEDDR) has edited and formatted this report. Nazma Sultana (Program Assistant, SACBD) and Rex Quiah (Team Assistant, GEDDR) provided logistical support for all field visits conducted for this report. Abbreviations and Acronyms BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics BTEB Bangladesh Technical Education Board CGPA Cumulative Grade Point Average DTE Directorate of Technical Education DUET Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology FGD Focus Group Discussion GDP Gross Domestic Product GER Gross Enrolment Ratio GPI Gender Parity Index GOB Government of Bangladesh LIC Lower Income Country MIC Middle Income Country MOPA Ministry of Public Administration PSC Public Service Commission NSDP National Skills Development Policy RMG Ready Made Garments STEP Skills and Training Enhancement Project TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization Contents Executive Summary Vii Chapter 1: Introduction 8 1.1 Background 8 1.2 Objective of the Study 10 1.3 Research Methods 10 1.4 Limitations of the Research 11 1.5 Structure of the Report 11 Chapter 2: Perspectives on Improving Female Participation in TVET 12 2.1 Economic and Social Perspectives 12 2.2 Policy Perspective 16 Chapter 3: Female Enrollment in TVET 18 3.1 International Experiences in Female TVET education 18 3.2 Overview of General Education Enrollment in Bangladesh 19 3.2 Female Enrolments in Polytechnics 20 3.3 Student Performance in Polytechnics 23 Chapter 4: Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh 24 4.1 Inaccessible Supply of TVET 24 4.2 Demand-side Constraints 32 4.3 Other Issues for Consideration 34 Chapter 5: Policy Options 36 Reference List 40 Annexure 42 Photo: Ismail Ferdause Female enrolments in diploma programs remained steady, averaging around 12 percent over the past five years despite the repeated call of the government for increased female participation in skills training Executive Summary While Bangladesh has achieved gender parity in primary and secondary education under the general education stream, it is yet to improve gender outcomes in the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) subsector. The share of female enrolments in diploma programs remained steady, averaging around 12 percent over the past five years despite the repeated call of the government for increased female participation in skills training. The paucity of relevant studies has been hindering effective policy discussion on the issue. To understand the factors that affect female participation in TVET, this study undertook a systematic review of existing literatures, supplemented by qualitative information from Focus Gr oup Discussions (FGD) conducted on students of diploma programs offered by polytechnics in Bangladesh. The study discusses several factors affecting female participation in TVET: (a) supply constraints – lack of institutions nearby, non-conducive facility and faculty environment, non-availability of female-friendly courses and relatively high TVET costs for poor households, and (b) demand-side constraints - the reputational issue as the TVET sector is associated with the image of male-domination and low-performers, weak demand for technical training among potential female students due to lack of awareness, and employers’ perception of appropriate female roles at work. The study indicates that female participation in technical diploma programs would benefit from activities across the following areas: (i) creating a gender-friendly environment in polytechnics and workplaces; (ii) developing more service-orientated diploma programs; (iii) developing a TVET awareness campaign for females; (iv) supporting a career counselling and guidance system for females; (v) improving access to higher education; (vi) providing greater demand-stimulating incentives; (vii) generating research and knowledge on TVET for females, and (viii) leveraging partnerships to promote skills development for females. | vii Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND 1. Bangladesh economy grew steadily over the past decade with concurrent progress in human development. The economy registered an average GDP growth of 6.1 percent over the past decade, despite natural calamities, political turmoil and regional and global downturns. This growth has been contributed by economic shifts toward services and industry from a largely crop-based agrarian economy, controls on population as well as increased remittances from migrant workers. Public spending priority and continued reforms to social sectors such as health and education have resulted in a healthier and more educated workforce to meet the labour needs of the growing industry and service sectors. Bangladesh has experienced the fastest decline in child and infant mortality rates among developing countries while it has already eliminated gender disparity in primary and secondary education enrolments. These gains in developments are reflected by Bangladesh’s recent progression from Lower Income Country (LIC) to Lower Middle-Income Country (LMIC) status in 2015, based on its US$1,080 GNI per capita (Atlas Method) in FY2014. 2. Policies to promote more active labour force participation of half of the population – women – will likely have significant positive implications for economic development. More women have been joining the workforce due to a decline in the incidence of early marriage, increase in women’s share in education, availability of microfinance, and improved job opportunities for females across expanding industry and service sectors and technological development. Female labor force participation rates have been steadily on the rise, reaching 33.5 percent in 2013 according to the Labor Force Survey. Particularly, the supply of women workers at relatively low wages is considered to have supported the phenomenal growth of export sectors such as Ready Made Garments (RMG) and footwear during 1995-2005 (Hossain, Sen and Sawada, 2012). The share of earners among women household members increased from almost 12 percent to 15 percent between 2005 and 2010 (BBS, 2014). It is likely that further expanding female participation in income-generating activities would contribute to the overall increase in household income and further poverty reduction. 8 3. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) over-representation in informal sector jobs, with little or recognizes the contribution of female labor force no education or skills training (BBS, 2013). Stereotyped participation in economic development, and has social perceptions of female roles in society also encouraged and invested in improving female influence their participation to be largely concentrated participation in TVET. The 7th Five-Year Plan of the in traditional occupations, despite a projected increase government recognizes the significant contributions in employment opportunities in new and emerging made by the increased female labor participation sectors. Consequently, there are still gains to be reaped particularly in the RMG industry, and encourages female from the expansion of employment opportunities to low- enrollment in TVET as well as in tertiary education. income and young females. It aims at increasing the females’ ratio in the overall TVET from 27 percent in 2015 to 40 percent by 2020. 5. Technical and vocational education and The National Skills Development Policy (NSDP) 2011 training (TVET) through polytechnics are playing recognizes the critical role of TVET in imparting skills an increasingly important role in providing post- training particularly to under-represented groups secondary level skills training to female youths to including women for promoting economic growth and equip them with necessary skills. Around 46 percent social development. The Policy envisages increasing of female students who start secondary education the enrolment of females across all skills development (as opposed to 34 percent of males) drop out before programs through offering a broader range of skills completing it (BANBEIS 2015), failing to progress to programs and ensuring a gender-friendly TVET system. higher education under the general education stream in Bangladesh. Consequently, a large section of the 4. The gender gains achieved remain far below dropped-out female population enters either low-skilled what is needed to lift and sustain the economy jobs or remains unemployed at home. In this situation, to higher income levels. Huge economic and the polytechnic education system can offer valuable social gains remain to be reaped from higher female opportunities of higher-level technical skills training workforce participation and women’s improved and alternative pathways to higher education1 for those workforce composition. Despite a gradual increase who did not complete higher secondary education, in female labor participation, it still remains less than particularly females. Expanding female participation half of male participation across all age groups in in TVET polytechnics would improve the chances of Bangladesh (BBS, 2013). Hence, the female working post-secondary level education attainment by females population in Bangladesh has not been fully utilized to and likely enhance their labour market participation and its potential. If female participation can be raised to male quality of employment2. Tapping on this opportunity, participation rates, it is expected to add 1.8 percentage female enrolment in polytechnics has been increasing points to potential GDP growth each year, and help lift over the past years as this study discusses later, giving the country to middle-income status by 2021 (World the polytechnic system an increasingly larger role in Bank, 2015c). Moreover, the female workforce has skilling up female youths. 1 Graduates of polytechnics are eligible to apply for enrollment in universities and colleges, regardless of higher secondary education qualification. 2 Though evidence in Bangladesh is limited, a number of researches in developing country contexts point to the overall positive impact of TVET on employment (including school to work transition) and modest positive impact on wages (see, for example, Card, D. et al. (2011); Chandrasiri, S. (2010); Eichhorst, W. (2015); Hirshleifer, S. et al. (2014); Moenjak, T. & Worswick, C. (2003); Reis, M. (2012)) | 9 Chapter 1: Introduction 1 . 2 O B J E C T I V E O F T H E S T U DY 1.3 RESEARCH METHODS 6. The current study documents the status of 9. This study uses a synthesizing research female enrolments in diploma programs mainly in approach, relying on multiple sources of Bangladesh and unpacks the factors that affect their evidence on various themes related to female participation in the subsector. The study first provides participation in TVET. The information was an overview of the enrolment trends and gender parity collected through i) literature, including sector status in diploma education under the TVET system in studies, policies and strategies as well as other Bangladesh. Additionally, it briefly discusses the prospects pertinent records on skills development; ii) Focus which higher female participation in technical education Group Discussions (FGDs) with current and former could bring to the country as well the benefits which female diploma students; iii) key informant interview accrue to females with technical diploma training from the with polytechnic management officials and senior economic and social perspectives. The study then attempts government officials; and iv) available data from to identify and understand the factors for low female the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE), participation in these programs, taking into consideration Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB) and supply-side and demand-side constraints. other relevant agencies. This study also draws upon preliminary analysis of data from a tracer study on 7. The TVET system in Bangladesh is large and polytechnics students.5 complex, comprising of different providers and training modalities. Two types of formal TVET is mainly 10. FGDs and in-depth interviews were offered through two sets of providers: (I) a four-year diploma leveraged to deepen the understanding level training through polytechnics, and (ii) a 360-hour of issues related to female participation in training through short-course institutes. The eligibility for technical diploma programs. Group discussions entrance into the diploma level training requires Grade 10 are particularly useful when conducting gender completion, whereas short-course training requires Grade studies in highly patriarchal societal structures, as 8 completion. However, the informal skills recognition seen in the Bangladesh context. This approach process has no restriction or formal education requirement.3 provides the enabling environment for females to openly discuss the issues that are affecting their 8. This study focuses only on female participation education. In addition, the inductive approach in diploma training programs in the polytechnics through FGDs provides the space to accommodate under the Directorate of Technical Education. Female any new information which would otherwise fail to participation is important across the broad TVET sector; be accounted for through a questionnaire survey. however, this study focuses on polytechnics as this sub- In each institution visited for this study, students sector is the pinnacle of the TVET system in Bangladesh. were selected for FGD based on random sampling Polytechnic diploma is the highest degree for most and grouped into three cohorts: i) currently enrolled vocational stream students.4 It is important to understand female students; ii) female diploma graduates; and iii) the gender issues in the polytechnic education system for dropped-out female students from public and private ensuring higher female participation and improvement in polytechnics. This allowed the team to compare the TVET system. and contrast the responses of the three groups and 3 Informal skills recognition implies programs which certify skills of individuals with no formal education qualification or skills training. 4 Except for a small share of students who pursue higher education through Bachelors, Masters and PhD programs. 5 A forthcoming tracer study on diploma graduates by the World Bank is expected to provide more in-depth quantitative analysis of employment outcomes of diploma students, including females. Based on the author’s preliminary analysis of the tracer study data, this report draws upon some of those findings. 10 Photo credit: Ismail Ferdause uncover the major issues in female participation in the the findings. Nonetheless, this research contributes technical diploma education. In addition, key informant to identifying existing areas of gender concerns in the interviews with polytechnic managements helped to technical diploma education system in Bangladesh to reinforce the findings. The study conducted FGDs and better inform future analytical work. key informant interviews covering seven public and private polytechnics located in Dhaka, Chittagong, 1.5 STRUCTURE OF THE Rajshahi and Sylhet (Annex 2).6 REPORT 1 . 4 L I M I TAT I O N S O F T H E 12. This report comprises of five chapters, RESEARCH including the Introduction. Chapter two provides an overview of the importance of female participation in 11. There is an overall dearth of literature on skills training from different perspectives while Chapter gender aspects of the TVET system, even more so, three then shows the current enrollment trends and in the Bangladesh context. A lack of analytical studies gender parity status in technical diploma programs. and absence of proper documentation, particularly Chapter four is the main chapter which builds on of the diploma education system, limits the ability to issues highlighted in the preceding chapters and link findings specific to this subsector as opposed discusses the factors that contribute to low female to the overall TVET education sector. Additionally, participation in these programs. Finally, Chapter five findings based on FGDs have limitations of reliability brings together the findings of the study to provide some as the sample size is generally small. The study draws key recommendations for improving gender parity and upon quantitative information as well as other relevant mainstreaming gender in the Bangladesh technical literatures where available to build on and substantiate diploma system for females. 6 The following institutions were visited/interviewed: Dhaka Mohila Polytechnic, Tangail Polytechnic, Institute of Science, Trade and Technology (ISTT), SAIC Institute of Management and Technology, Chittagong Mohila Polytechnic, Sylhet Polytechnic and Rajshahi Mohila Polytechnic. Around 150 female students across the three groups participated in the FGDs while 20 individuals from polytechnic management were interviewed. | 11 Chapter 2 Perspectives on Improving Female Participation in TVET 13. The critical need for improved female participation in TVET stems from the economic, social and policy contexts in Bangladesh. While economic growth and labor market developments demand more and higher skilled female workers, social development requires their improved access to skills training opportunities for facilitating better employment and equitable incomes, accruing social benefits and improving women’s empowerment. These deliberations are also reflected in the overall policy and plans of the Government of Bangladesh. 2.1 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES 14. The demand for more and higher skilled workers continues to grow in industry and service sectors in Bangladesh. In 2010, the share of workforce employed in industry and services (52 percent) outpaced that in agriculture (48 percent) for the first time in the job market (Figure 1). Between 2010 and 2013, the share of workers employed in non-agricultural activities, particularly female workers in industries, continued to increase. The increasing share of workers in higher paid non-agriculture work led the economy to experience higher growth and set the contexts for the country’s progression to middle-income status. Growth in industry and services is expected to continue with around 15 million jobs projected to be created in fast-growing economic sectors, including Ready-Made Garments (RMG), export-oriented manufacturing, light engineering, ship-building, agri- business, ICT and pharmaceuticals (World Bank, 2015b). 15. Workforce development through skills training is critical to respond to the economic changes and achieve Bangladesh’s goal of becoming a middle-income country over the next few years. In order to reach the middle-income status, GDP growth must increase from the current average of around 6.2 percent to 8 percent over the next five years (GoB, 2015). To achieve this target, the economy must transition to the next stage of efficiency-driven development, involving more sophisticated 12 Figure 1: Employment Share by Broad Economic 16. The national labor market survey shows that Sectors, in Percent (%) the Bangladesh labor supply has been growing steadily over the past decades, but workforce 2013 2010 participation by female workers remains low. The working-age population increased to 154 million in 2013 from 74 million in 2000 (Table 1). Particularly, 34% 23% 39% 35% 22% 41% the urban female working-age population grew rapidly at an average annual growth rate of around 12 13% percent during this period. Concurrently, the female 24% workforce participation rate increased from around 24 21% 17% percent in 2000 to 34 percent in 2013. Despite these 20% 19% improvements, female participation in the workforce, particularly across the prime working age, remains less than half of its male counterpart (Figure 2). Particularly, a large share of female workforce remains engaged in 45% 53% 42% 48% 65% 40% unpaid family work, especially in rural areas, with limited opportunities for formal sector employment (World Bank, Figure 2: Labour Force Participation Rate by Total Female Male Total Female Male Gender, in Percent (%) 97.3% 81.6% Agriculture Industry Services 67.1% 63.4% 57.1% 54.6% Source: BBS, 2010 & 2013 53.8% 41.4% 33.6% 33.5% 30.2% production processes and increased product quality. 12.5% At this point, one of the driving factors for Bangladesh’s competitiveness is the availability of a better educated, higher skilled workforce, capable of performing complex tasks and adapting to the evolving needs of a rapidly 15-29 30-64 65+ Total changing production system and work environment Male Female Total (WEF, 2015). However, the current labour supply is yet to Source: BBS, 2013 be responsive to these changing economic contexts. Table 1: Working Age Population, 2000-2013 (in millions) 2000 2013 Average Annual Growth Rates (%) Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 74 38 36 154 77 78 8 7 8 Urban 17 9 8 43 21 22 11 11 12 Rural 58 30 28 111 55 56 7 6 7 | 13 Chapter 2: Perspectives on Improving Female Participation in TVET 2016a). Conversely, this implies that there are economic job seeking. The female worker share in informal jobs gains to be reaped from sourcing labour through higher is also higher at 90 percent compared to 86 percent participation of the eligible working-age female groups. for male workers (ibid, 2013). The current composition A recent analysis predicts that if female participation of the female workforce indicates a critical need to can be raised to male participation rates, it would add upgrade their skills in responding to the economic 1.8 percentage points to the potential GDP growth each and technological changes in the job market for better year, and help lift the country to middle-income status by employment opportunities and thus contributing to the 2021 (World Bank, 2015c). country’s progress. 17. Low educational qualifications and high 18. Literatures suggest that economic growth informal employment are a general characteristic is more inclusive and leads to better results in of the Bangladesh labor market. But the labor market poverty alleviation through improving access outcome is worse for females. Almost 21 percent of the to skills training and employment among female working population has no education (Figure 3). females. Studies have shown that education and The unemployment rate for females is higher at around skills development are key determinants in reducing 7 percent while for males the figure stands at about 3 the inequity among advantaged and disadvantaged percent (BBS, 2013). The national labor force survey groups in accessing better jobs and higher incomes also finds that 85 percent of the ‘potential labor force’7 and benefitting from the economic growth process are female, indicating that they face greater difficulty in (World Bank, 2013; Hossain et al., 2012; World Bank, 2011). A formal sector employment analysis conducted by World Bank (2013) shows that graduates with either Figure 3: Share of Female Workforce by technical, vocational, or training degrees are more likely Education, in Percent (%) to find professional jobs than regular secondary school 0.4% graduates (Grade 10/equivalent) or higher secondary 10.3% 10.3% school graduates (Grade12/equivalent) in Bangladesh. 21.4% In particular, the national labor market survey indicates that female technical diploma graduates tend to earn a monthly income which on average is around 25 percent higher than that of female secondary school graduates 29.3% while the former also earn around 8 percent higher than female higher secondary school graduates (BBS, 2013).8 The relatively higher returns to technical training 34.7% for female secondary school graduates indicate that diploma education can facilitate their formal job market integration with better outcomes as compared to those None Primary Secondary with little or no education.9 Similarly, experience from an Higher Secondary Tertiary Others Afghanistan skills training program shows that females who receive skills training are more competitive against Source: BBS, 2013 untrained individuals in securing good jobs, experience 7 The Potential Labor Force estimates two groups - the people seeking work but not immediately available and those who are available to work but not seeking it. 8 The analysis compares the monthly average earnings among employed females who complete post-secondary education, either through technical diploma program or higher secondary college, as opposed to those with only secondary school qualifications. 9 See World Bank, 2013 for detailed discussion on skills training and female employment 14 higher household savings and accumulate productive participation, among others. Several studies find a assets (World Bank, 2009). range of social benefits accruing to females equipped with higher education and skills. Health outcomes, 19. Female workers with pre-employment particularly across indicators such as life expectancy, training are also better prepared to work in the infant and child mortality incidence, child nutrition, etc. industrial environment. Studies show that female improve for females with higher education as compared workers are more prone to on-the-job injuries than male to those with no or little education in Bangladesh (Akhter, workers in the industrial environment (World Bank, 2012). Future generations also benefit as evidence shows 2009; Uddin, 2015). Skills training in machinery and that young children of graduate mothers have higher tools operations used in different trades would likely cognitive skill levels and greater ability to persist at tasks improve female workers’ awareness of occupational than children of mothers with lower levels of education hazards and safety issues and helps to prevent injuries. (Baum and Payea, 2005). Females with higher education and skills are also less likely to commit crimes and more 20. Social benefits from increased female likely to be active citizens (such as, in voting, pursuing participation in higher education and training political careers, etc.) than those with lower levels of also extend to a variety of other areas for women, education as evidenced by studies on Bangladesh and such as health, social cohesion, higher education other countries (Akhter, 2012; Baum and Payea, 2005). attainment for next generation, higher political Photo credit: STEP | 15 Chapter 2: Perspectives on Improving Female Participation in TVET 2.2 POLICY PERSPECTIVE headquarters have been established, while two additional institutions have been proposed in the 21. Mainstreaming gender in skills training Government’s 7th five-year plan.10 The Government is a priority in the national policy and plans of maintains a 20 percent female quota for enrollments Bangladesh. The National Skills Development Policy in all public polytechnics to ensure competiveness (NSDP) 2011 envisages increasing access to skills for prospective female students. According to the training for females and creating a gender-friendly Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB), on environment in training institutions. The National average, around 18 percent of the female quota is Education Policy 2010 also advocates increasing the filled by female applicants whose performance in the supply of training providers for females at district and entrance exam is not as strong as others. The quota upazila (sub-district) levels. Specifically, the National provision allows females from academically weak Strategy for Promotion of Gender Equality in TVET 2012 backgrounds the opportunity to access technical aims at increasing the female share in TVET programs to education and ensures that they are not excluded from 40 percent by 2020 and female employment by at least skills training opportunities. Six female Technical Training 30 percent. The current 7th Five-Year Plan (2016-2021) Centers (TTCs) have also been established by the GoB also echoes the need for bringing more skilled female in each of the divisional headquarters, specifically to workers to the labor market through improved access to provide short course training for prospective female quality training. migrant workers. Additionally, the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) is providing stipend support 22. The Government has taken proactive steps to all female students in selected public and private to mainstream gender into the TVET system. polytechnics under a skills project (Box 1). Four public girls’ polytechnics in major divisional Box 1: Skills Training and Enhancement Project (STEP) The Government of Bangladesh (GOB) is implementing a project, Skills Training and Enhancement Project (STEP), in the TVET sector with the support of the World Bank and the Government of Canada. The main objective of the project is to strengthen selected public and private training institutions to improve training quality and employability of trainees, including those from disadvantaged socio- economic backgrounds. The project is being implemented in 93 institutions, including both public and private education providers. STEP has been supporting gender mainstreaming in the Bangladesh TVET system through focusing on improving female accessibility in training institutions as well as creating a more gender-friendly environment. The Project provides universal stipends to female students enrolled in supported public and private training institutions. It is also providing institutional development grants to institutions for improving the teaching-learning environment for quality skills training as well as running awareness programs targeting prospective TVET students, particularly females. 10 The all-girl polytechnics are located in Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi. 16 | Photo credit: Ismail Ferdause 17 Chapter 3 Female Enrolment in TVET 3 . 1 I N T E R N AT I O N A L E X P E R I E N C E S I N F E M A L E T V E T E D U C AT I O N 23. The gender gap in TVET remains pronounced in many parts of the world. Low female enrollment in TVET programs has been found to be a challenge for governments in Africa (Kaaya & Waiganjo, 2015; Egun & Tibi, 2010) and Asia (Agrawal, 2013; World Bank, 2009). The literature reporting on factors relating to low female enrollment in TVET includes: (i) cultural factors, which include the social and traditional norms that expect females in traditional roles (Ndahi, 2002); (ii) attitudinal factors, which include perceived differences between male and female capabilities arising from a lack of female role models in TVET, and low societal perception of TVET (Yakubu, 2006); (iii) situational factors, which include financial insolvency of households, geographic barriers and lack of family support (Kaaya & Waiganjo, 2015); and (iv) institutional factors, which include inadequate gender-mainstreaming in programmes, lack of medical department and childcare services, lack of female campus dormitories and non-flexible entrance requirements for females (Ayonmike, 2010). 24. However, there are successful cases of improved female participation in TVET. The TVET sector in the Philippines experienced an overall boost in female enrollments (from around 800,000 in 2010 to 1,000,000 in 2013), with the female TVET graduates outnumbering males in 2013 (UNESCO, 2015; TESDA 2013). Gender concerns were incorporated in national policy, plans and activities along with monitoring and evaluation of gender outcomes in TVET. Institutions ensured increasing opportunities for females to enter trades generally considered non-traditional for them (such as automotive and welding trades) through increasing female teachers, electing female students in classroom leadership roles, scholarship programs, work placement as well as intensified recruitment programs for prospective female students (Misola, 2010). 18 3.2 OVERVIEW OF GENERAL through national stipend support since the early E D U C AT I O N E N R O L L M E N T 1990s. However, almost half of the female students IN BANGLADESH do not progress from secondary to post-secondary education. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) shows that 25. The Bangladesh education system is complex female enrollments are high and at par with males with different study streams. All school-age children during primary and secondary schooling years, but enroll in primary education from Grade 1 to Grade 5. rapidly decline when transitioning from secondary to During their secondary education (Grade 6-10), students tertiary level schooling (Table 2). The major share of have the option to continue in the general education female workforce, therefore, enters the labour market system or transfer to technical education after Grade 8. unequipped as these women lack the skills and Again, on completing the Secondary School Certificate training necessary for higher productivity, better paid (SSC) examination (i.e. Grade 10), students can choose formal jobs. to continue their general education through enrolling in a higher secondary college or receive technical education 27. Gender disparity is even more glaring when through a four-year diploma program in a polytechnic. comparing enrollment shares across general Other than polytechnics, technical training centers (TTCs) and TVET education. Bangladesh has made strides offer short-courses on different trades which involve in improving gender parity in basic education (GPI of 360 hours of training on a specific skill. Enrollment in a 1.03 and 1.13 in primary and secondary education formal short-course program requires a student to have a respectively), while the country has been improving minimum qualification of Grade 8 completion. in the tertiary sector of the general education system (0.68). However, the gender parity index in TVET 26. Nearly half of the female students drop out of stands at 0.38, making it the education subsector with school on secondary school education (Grade 10) the highest enrollment disparity for females (Table 2). completion. Bangladesh has made good progress In particular, the GPI for polytechnic enrollments is in basic education (Grade 1-8) with near universal significantly lower than the subsector GPI as a whole enrollment in primary education and gender parity in both (0.09 versus 0.38). primary and secondary education. Particularly, female participation in secondary education has improved Table 2: Gender Parity Index for General Education and TVET Boys Girls Gender Parity Index (GPI) Primary (Grade I-V) 9,639,095 9,913,884 1.03 Secondary (Grade VI- X) 4,285,281 4,875,084 1.13 Higher Secondary (Grade XI-XII) 2,510,584 2,008,394 0.80 Tertiary (Grade XIII-XVI) 1,504,899 1,030,433 0.68 TVET (Grade VIII – XIV) 500,489 189,174 0.38 Polytechnics (XI-XIV) 147,426 14,691 0.09 Source: BANBEIS, 2014 Note: Tertiary enrollments include all students in universities and tertiary colleges. TVET enrollments include all students in secondary and post- secondary level TVET programs | 19 Chapter 3: Female Enrolment in TVET 3.2 FEMALE can be attributed to an increase in the number of female ENROLLMENTS IN secondary school graduates, higher in-take capacity of P O LY T E C H N I C S polytechnics and introduction of stipends for females to help them enroll in polytechnics in 2010. 28. TVET is a useful pathway for developing technical skills of secondary school female However, the female enrollment share has remained graduates as well as upgrading the skills of steady between 10-14 percent of total enrollments existing female workforce through a range of (Figure 4). This implies that female enrollments programs and modalities. Polytechnic institutions increased proportionately to that of males mainly as offer four-year diploma programs in major fields a result of the increased enrollment capacity of the including engineering, agriculture, textiles, fisheries, etc. subsector. At the same time, the female-targeted stipend for secondary school (i.e. at least Grade 10/equivalent) provided by the Government also created demand graduates (see Annex 1 for the full subject list). By among an increasing number of female secondary contrast, short-course training institutions offer 6-month school graduates. In spite of the progress, the low to 12-month training in different trades, including gender parity index (0.13) for this sample of polytechnics Computer Office Applications, Database Programming, indicates that gender equity issues largely remain as a Electrical House Wiring, Graphic Design and Multimedia, challenge in technical diploma education. etc. for trainees with at least Grade 8 completion. The shortcourses mainly offer quick skills training to improve Figure 4: Share of Total Enrollment in Polytechnics the employability of individuals with low education by Gender, in Percent (%) levels for mostly lower-end jobs in the engineering and services field. By contrast, the diploma programs of polytechnics offer higher level practical and theoretical training for individuals to help them become technical experts and gain higher-value jobs in engineering and technical fields. 29. The demand for diploma level technical 86% 87% 89% 89% 89% 90% 88% education by female students has gradually increased, but their participation remains nearly one-sixth of that of the male students. Female enrollment in diploma courses has increased by almost 60 percent between 2008/09 and 2014/15 (Table 3). The increase in female enrollment in diploma programs 2014/15 14% 2013/14 13% 2012/13 11% 2011/12 11% 2010/11 11% 2009/10 10% 2008/09 12% Table 3: Change in Polytechnics Enrollments by Gender Male Female Total 2008/09 20,533 2,835 23,368 2014/15 27,544 4,441 31,985 Girls’ Enrolment Share Boys’ Enrolment Share Source: DTE, 2015 Source: DTE, 2015 Note: Includes enrollment data from a sample of 93 polytechnics. 20 30. Public polytechnics are large with a higher 31. Female enrollment in polytechnics has share of female enrollments than private ones. picked up in secondary cities. Though Dhaka and Out of 425 polytechnics, 51 are public and the Chittagong are the major cities for industry, female remaining are privately managed institutions. participation in diploma courses is slightly higher in Though fewer in number, public polytechnics absorb a Khulna (11%) and Rajshahi (10%) (Table 4). Based slightly larger share (52 percent) of the total polytechnics on interviews with polytechnic management, this enrollments (Figure 5). Particularly, the share of female can be explained by: (a) a better targeted outreach to enrollments is three times higher in public polytechnics prospective female students through intense promotion than private ones (Figure 6). Currently, there are four and awareness-building by the polytechnics; and (b) the girls’ public polytechnics in divisional headquarters, higher local industry recruitment and demand for female which account for around 3 percent of total polytechnic graduates. enrollments (DTE, 2014). Figure 5: Share of Polytechnic Enrolments by Figure 6: Share of Polytechnic Enrollments by Management Type, in Percent (%) Management Type and Gender, in Percent (%) 96% 87% 13% 4% 48% 52% Public Private Public Private Male Female Source: DTE,2014 Source: DTE, 2014 Table 4: Enrollment Share by Geographic Location and Gender (%) Barishal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Rongpur Sylhet Male 93 92 91 89 90 92 94 Female 7 8 9 11 10 8 6 Divisional Share of 6 16 36 14 19 7 3 Total Enrolment Source: DTE, 2014 | 21 Chapter 3: Female Enrolment in TVET 32. In terms of subject trends, female enrollments Being a girl, I have are high in softer technologies that provide desk-based jobs. By contrast, emerging and non- to be practical on what traditional areas like mechatronics, shipbuilding, marine jobs I can continue to do even technology, etc. have very small shares of female after I get married. I chose students. Female preference in terms of their enrollment shares show that the majority are in softer skills areas, Computer Technology as the field such as, architecture and design, electro-medical, is very female-friendly and also computer applications, graphic design and other in demand in the job market. For technologies that require mostly desk work (Figure 7). example, I can do out-sourcing The female enrollment share is least in technologies work from home, such as data- Figure 7: Top Diploma Programs in terms of entry, web-development, graphic Female Enrolment Share (%) design, making it possible to have work while also looking after my 45% family after I get married. 36% —Saimoon, 2nd Year Student in Computer 33% Technology 24% 19% involving heavy machineries and tools, such as 17% automobile (1%), marine technology (2%), aircraft 15% 15% 14% 14% maintenance (5%), shipbuilding (8%) and mechatronics (8%). Similar patterns of choosing softer skills areas have been observed by a tracer study conducted by the World Bank (2015) on short-term trainees, indicating that women in TVET are limited to a few of skills, which in turn might narrow their choices and opportunities in the Architecture Technology Architecture and Interior Design Electro-Medical Technology Computer Technology Graphic Design Technology Electronics Technology Chemical Technology Mining and Mine Survey Technology Food Technology Telecommunication Technology labor market. 33. The FGD participants expressed their views on the factors that influence female diploma students’ choice of the technology. Both the job prospects of the technology and the social acceptability of their role in the job market seem to be important considerations while choosing a technology for study in polytechnics by females. Social norms on acceptable roles of females in the labor market may make some technologies less accessible for some females (e.g. technologies in the mechanical, construction and electrical branches). Some of the female students feel that employers may not be willing to accept them in these traditionally ‘male- Source: DTE, 2014 dominated’ areas where the work is generally physically 22 demanding, in addition to the fact that they have to Female diploma students are also performing better in balance their job and household responsibilities. As a semester terminal examinations at the polytechnics. Figure result, they tend to prefer enrolling in technologies with 9 shows that, around 39 percent of current female diploma perceived better job prospects for females and which students scored at least an A- grade (i.e. 70 -75 points) in likely lead to less physically-demanding, flexible, and their last semester exam as compared to 29 percent of more deskwork-based work. male students. This indicates that female students are as academically strong as male students in the polytechnics, grasping well the diploma curriculum and technical 3.3 STUDENT PERFORMANCE training aspect of the polytechnic education. I N P O LY T E C H N I C S 34. In terms of academic performance, female Figure 9: Average Pass Rate for Diploma Graduates diploma students are faring better than their male by Gender, in Percent (%) 88% 87% 87% counterparts. The average pass rate over the past five years stood at around 75 percent for female diploma 77% students and 67 percent for males, and the yearly female 73% 72% average pass rate consistently remained higher than 68% 67% 66% 66% that of the male pass rate and total pass rate11 (Figure 8). 64% 63% 63% 56% 55% Figure 8: Share of Students by Grade Achieved in Last Semester by Gender, in Percent (%) 28.8% 19.2% 17.6% 11.5% 11.3% 9.7% 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% A+ A A- 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Male Female Total Male Female Total Source: World Bank, 2016b Source: DTE, 2016 11 Note: A high increase in average pass rate is noted for the year 2015, arising due to changes in the examination system introduced by the Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB). In 2015, the examination was held under the government regulation-2010. Under the new regulation, student pass rates improved primarily for the following three reasons: (i) the first three semesters were held by the polytechnics while the last five semesters were held centrally by BTEB. Exams held at the institutions helped students to better prepare for the final examination held by BTEB; (ii) In 2015, students were assessed based on their combined score of continuous and final assessments, while previously it was required for them to separately pass each assessment for progression; (iii) previously students participated in the industrial attachment (internship) in the 7th semester but under the new regulation, industrial attachments is in the 8th semester. As a result, student are able to better complete their coursework and assessments and then go for practical learning. | 23 Chapter 4 Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh 35. This chapter attempts to analyse several supply and demand side factors which hinder greater female participation in TVET. Some of the factors are similar to those often identified in other countries, while others may be specific to Bangladesh’s contexts. 4 . 1 I N A C C E S S I B L E S U P P LY O F T V E T 4.1.1 Unequal Supply of TVET services 36. Participation in diploma education may have been largely limited to a ‘privileged’ section of the eligible female population. This ‘privileged’ section is identified in terms of their location and economic condition. Interviews with polytechnic management reveal that female students are generally from middle-income families coming from metropolitan and urban areas.12 A recent study finds that young people from economically advantaged backgrounds are twice as likely to enroll in TVET programs, and those living in urban areas are more likely to opt for TVET due to their proximity to training schools (CAMPE 2013; cited in World Bank, 2013). This suggests that access to TVET for females is likely to be affected by spatial factors as well as education costs. 37. The spatial bias in access to technical education is mainly due to (i) the relatively lower numbers of polytechnic institutions as compared to other post-secondary institutions, and (ii) the urban- bias in the locations of polytechnics in Bangladesh. Expansion in the technical education sector has not kept pace with secondary general education in terms of the number of institutions. Secondary level general 12 In Bangladesh, students who complete Grade 10 and enroll in a post-secondary institution are considered to be relatively well-off as those from poorer groups generally dropout prior to secondary school completion. Students who choose to enroll in polytechnics have to undertake the high costs of technical diploma education, requiring either financial solvency of the family or external financial support. 24 education institutions are five times the number of all only 46 percent of all female diploma students are TVET institutions in Bangladesh (CAMPE, 2013).13 from rural areas (World Bank, 2016b). Particularly, the In particular, there are over 1,300 higher secondary current research re-confirms that restricted mobility of colleges in the general stream compared to 425 Bangladeshi females in general and those living in rural polytechnics in the technical stream, indicating limited areas in particular limits their participation in diploma accessibility to polytechnics14. In addition, polytechnic education. Anecdotal evidence suggests that due to the outreach is further disadvantaged by the urban-bias of sheer number of general colleges, rural female students their locations. More than 65 percent of the population find accessing higher education through local colleges lives in rural areas, yet the majority of polytechnic more convenient than pursuing technical education seats (76 percent) are located in metropolitan cities in a polytechnic, which would require re-locating from and district headquarters (Figure 10). The urban-bias their homes to the divisional/district headquarters. A of polytechnics is possibly due to the preference for survey conducted by CAMPE (2012) further supports locating them within the vicinity of industries. this finding; 96.7 percent of the surveyed females were enrolled in non-TVET programs as a share of the total Figure 10: Distribution of Polytechnics by enrollment in higher secondary education (Figure 11). Location, in Percent (%) Also, female TVET enrollment as a proportion of the total enrollment in higher secondary education was higher for metropolitan cities and urban areas as compared to rural areas. This supports that access to TVET supply is 26% 24% higher among non-rural female students. Figure 11: Enrolment in TVET as a Share of Total Enrolment in Higher Secondary Education, in Percent (%) 50% 96.7 96.4 97.4 95.3 95.6 94.7 94.6 93.7 94.4 94.1 93.2 95 Metro/Divisional HQ District HQ Rural Source: DTE, 2014 5.3 6.3 5.6 6.8 5.9 4.7 5.4 4.4 3.3 3.6 2.6 5 38. The spatial bias of polytechnics creates greater TVET Non- TVET Non- TVET Non- disparity in access to technical education for TVET TVET TVET females, particularly for those who live in suburbs Both Girls Boys and rural areas. A skills-mapping survey identifies that equity in access to TVET remains a challenge for All Bangladesh Urban marginalized groups in rural areas (STEP, 2014). A tracer Metropolitan City Rural study survey results shows that a striking 71 percent Source: CAMPE, 2012 of all male diploma students are from rural areas while 13 There are over 25,000 secondary education institutions compared to a total of 4,898 government and privately held TVET institutions in Bangladesh. Here, the TVET figure includes all diploma, short-course, TTCs and SSC (Voc) schools. 14 Data provided by BANBEIS and DTE. | 25 Chapter 4: Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh Initially, I did not Students reported that they sought admission to polytechnics with full information on the program want to enroll in a polytechnic. and career prospects. The information was sourced I always felt that pursuing my HSC either from family members knowledgeable on from a college would be better as TVET education or from informational materials (e.g. newspaper, poster, flyer, etc.). polytechnic education is generally associated with weak students. 4.1.2 Non-conducive Facility and Faculty However, my father encouraged Environment me to pursue a diploma program, Institutional Learning Environment referring to the skills training and employability aspects. One year 40. Personal security issues arising from into the program, I understand facility-related factors such as a lack of campus accommodation appear to be further hindering that this was the right choice. their enrollment in polytechnics. One of the major My learnings have been more school environment issues for females is the lack of practical compared to what my safe accommodation facilities for female students in polytechnics (ILO, 2010). As the majority of polytechnics friends have been taught in HSC. I are located in metropolitan or urban areas, lack of look forward to getting work right secure accommodation for non-local female students after I complete my diploma as a crops up as a challenge to their participation. More junior engineer which would have than half of the female FGD participants were living away from home and residing in a campus dormitory not been possible to achieve so or private accommodation. Two contrasting cases quickly had I chosen the general in Sylhet and Chittagong reveal the critical role that education. campus accommodation plays in female participation and retention in polytechnics. The Sylhet polytechnic —Tamanna, 2nd Year Student in Computer does not provide accommodation facility for female Technology students while the Chittagong polytechnic offers campus accommodation for them. Female students in Sylhet identified the restricted mobility arising from 39. Females who do choose to pursue a diploma a lack of personal security as their major problem in education from a polytechnic as opposed to continuing education. By contrast, female students in general education from a higher secondary Chittagong did not face any security issue in continuing college appear to be generally well informed of their education, though over-crowding in dormitories the diploma education structure and prospects. is a major issue. Anecdotal evidence suggests that As revealed by FGDs, female students’ choice to enrol the geographical bias of polytechnics mainly to in polytechnics was likely motivated mainly by: (a) metropolitan cities combined with a lack of campus personal aspirations of building a career in science and accommodation facilities raises security concerns for technology; (b) career advice and motivation from a female students, particularly for those from small district family member from a similar TVET background; (c) towns and rural areas. This often leads these students to the desire to complete higher studies in a short period transfer to a polytechnic closer to their home district or to and enter the job market quickly; and (d) availability of general education in a higher secondary college at their financial assistance to complete the study program. hometown. 26 Right after my SSC program, I became uncertain whether I would be able to pursue higher studies as my family was facing financial problems. I wanted to study Architecture, but another two years of HSC followed by four years in engineering university would have been too expensive for my family to bear. That is when I learned that financial assistance was available for me to enroll in diploma programs. As such support would make higher education financially viable for me, I applied and eventually got admitted. —Dina, 1st Year student in Architecture Technology 41. Access to safe transportation and medical services may lead to absence in classes, reduced services was noted as an important factor to academic performance and in extreme cases, drop-out. support female students. Some of the FGD participants revealed accounts of unpleasant behaviour 42. There is general under-representation experienced while travelling to and from the institution in of female teachers and staff at polytechnics, public transport. While many higher education institutions which may be posing extra challenges to female in the general stream offer transport facilities for students, participation in the polytechnics. As of 2016, the this facility is yet to be extended to the technical education female shares in teaching and non-teaching staff sector. Equally important, some of the management of government polytechnics were only around 21 staff interviewed and students in the FGD emphasized percent and 13 percent respectively; and the ratio goes the need for easy-to-access basic medical service on even lower for senior faculty positions to 5 percent. campus. Ideally, an education institution should have Female managers are practically non-existent in top some arrangement for medical services if it is providing administration positions (i.e. principal and vice-principal boarding services. Infectious diseases can also spread positions) in the TVET system, partly due to the fairly easily at the congested dormitories. Resident Government policy to promote staff based on seniority female students are prone to health issues, particularly (Table 5). Even the government girls’ polytechnics are due to unhealthy food consumption, unhygienic living led by male principals, which is suggestive of challenges environment and infectious diseases spread from in fully accounting for female perspectives in the congested dormitory facilities. Limited access to medical management of those institutions. Table 5: Government Staffing in TVET by Gender Male Female Total Female Share (%) Teaching staff 1668 433 2101 21 Non-teaching staff 1011 145 1156 13 Principal 50 0 50 0 Vice Principal 5 1 6 17 Chief Instructor (Tech) 62 3 65 5 Chief Instructor(Non-Tech) 20 2 22 9 Source: DTE, 2016 | 27 Chapter 4: Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh One of our classmates dropped out of the polytechnic a couple of months ago. While travelling to the institution from the hostel, some boys teased her a couple of times. When her parents came to know about this, they decided to take her back home. I have heard she is now enrolled in a local college at her home district. —Farzana, 3rd Year Student in Electrical and Electronics Technology 43. Presence of more female staff would likely near their husbands’ home and special emphasis on encourage greater female student participation; professional development throughout their career. however, the low availability of female TVET The 60 percent female placement in schools is one teacher candidates continues to be a challenge. of the critical factors that improved girls’ enrollment Students in the FGD repeatedly commented that the and retention at the primary education level. But the presence of more female teachers would assist in Government is yet to set a target and action plan for better communicating their problems and seeking help increasing female teachers’ share in the technical on academic and personal issues. Recruitment and education sector. Building on the experience of the placement of teachers for government polytechnics primary education sector, initiatives to increase female is conducted centrally by the Ministry of Education via teachers’ share (at least to 40 percent) should be the Ministry of Public Administration (MoPA) and Public seriously considered. Such initiatives can involve a Service Commission (PSC). Hiring of teachers is out of review of the Government’s existing recruitment policy the jurisdiction of the government polytechnics. Private to ensure more female-friendly hiring policies that focus polytechnics have the autonomy to recruit female on female teacher retention and quality of teaching in teachers, but an overall low availability of technically the polytechnics.15 trained female teachers in the sector negatively affects recruitment. The low number of female graduates in Industry Environment TVET is also one of the major factors responsible for 45. The job trajectory of most diploma programs producing a lower number of female teachers for the entails working in factories, where the work sector. environment often is not female-friendly. In 44. The Government is yet to set a target for industries with predominantly male workers, ensuring increasing female teachers in technical diploma a female-friendly working environment is critical to education. Bangladesh set and achieved an ambitious support more female diploma graduates in joining the target to increase female teachers’ share to 60 percent sector. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that in the primary education sector. This target was female diploma graduates, including those from softer achieved through female teacher recruitment drives technologies, often find it difficult to adjust to industry which involved female-friendly policies, such as the work as the environment is non-conducive for their opportunity of female teachers to be placed in schools participation.16 Examples cited include, difficulties in 15 Currently, the National Strategy for Promotion of Gender Equality in TVET 2012 plans to increase quotas for female teachers (30%) and female staff (20%) as a means to increase female presence in technical education. However, to make teaching jobs in TVET more female-friendly, policies favorable toward female teachers’ recruitment are required, examples of which include: deployment and transfers closer to their family, scholarship and incentives to attend pre-service training, and ensuring their professional development. 16 This however does hold for the RMG sector, where female worker presence is large. 28 Box 2: Relevance and Appropriateness of Curricula – the skills for retail industry case The retail industry case is a good example to illustrate the need to upgrade diploma education in alignment with emerging markets, particularly for female students. The public polytechnics have limited capacity in revising curricula and re-structuring programs to meet future market demands for graduates. The technologies offered in the different public polytechnics are determined centrally by the DTE. Consequently, the process lacks collaboration with polytechnic managements and industry employers for adapting to the market demands for female Diploma graduates. This is likely to be detrimental in achieving gains from local and foreign industry demands. A common example cited by female students and polytechnic management was the unavailability of Garments Design and Pattern Making Technology. Strikingly, there are only 3 polytechnics (1 public, 2 private) providing Garments Design and Pattern Making Technology. With the Ready Made Garments (RMG) sector considered as the most important industry for Bangladesh, and employing almost 4 million workers (of whom, 80 percent are females), the existing training opportunities are inadequate (McKinsey & Company, 2011). adjusting to work environment arising from: (a) a lack of the Labour Force Survey show that the demand for separate washrooms and prayer rooms, (b) misconduct skills in the service sector is expanding (e.g. tourism & by male colleagues with no proper reporting system, hospitality, IT, hospice care, etc.) along with high job and (c) non-cooperative attitude experienced at work projections in manufacturing and other industry sectors from males. (e.g. RMG, pharmaceuticals). However, a review of the list of programs under the Directorate of Technical 4.1.3 Non-availability of Female Preferred Education (DTE) shows that there is little skills training Programs offered in those emerging industries and services such as garments & design, tourism & hospitality, health 46. A lack of relevant training programs for services, accounting, management, and business, even females may also be another factor for lower though potential employers may well express an interest female participation in polytechnics. Some of the in hiring women in those areas. female students opined in the FGD that the technologies they studied were not always the first preference. This 4.1.4 Other General Supply-related Issues is because the technology they would like to master is either not offered as a program at their institution 47. Technical education in private polytechnics or has not been developed as a curriculum for study is relatively expensive, which is likely to be a in polytechnics. The majority of skills programs in disincentive to participation of female students polytechnics are orientated in branches of mechanical, from socio-economically disadvantaged electrical and construction related fields, where females backgrounds. The relatively high education costs of are traditionally less employed. Trends revealed by diploma programs at private providers as compared to | 29 Chapter 4: Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh HSC programs (Figure 12) may be one of the reasons for students revealed that while educational expenses prospective students’ preference of general education seemed financially viable during enrollment, factors to technical education, particularly for those from rural such as income shocks (e.g. demise of the household and socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds.17 head, large health expense) as well as increasing non- High institutional expenses are likely to be a greater direct costs of education (e.g. travel costs, dormitory disincentive to enrollment particularly among females rent) has led to discontinuation of polytechnic education as underprivileged families tend to invest less in girls’ for some students. Underprivileged families are education compared to boys in Bangladesh (CAMPE, more inclined to discontinue education of girls in the 2012) household compared to that of boys when coping with income crisis, placing girls in a relatively disadvantaged Figure 12: Average Annual Institutional Fees (in position. A CAMPE survey notes a gender difference in Bangladeshi Taka): Diploma vs. HSC family spending on TVET across non-tuition expenses such as transportation, accommodation, food etc. 75,000 (CAMPE, 2012) 49. Stipend programs were found to support female diploma students from socio- economically disadvantaged backgrounds, but only up to a certain extent. Female recipients of 30,000 stipends reported that the money received greatly contributed to meeting education expenses (Box 3). Several participants communicated that the stipends 9,000 8,000 encouraged them to enroll in the diploma program, given their economically challenging background. At the same time, some of the FGD participants voiced that the stipend amount did not cover their full Non-Government College Government College Private Polytechnic Govt. Polytechnic education expenditures, and often fell short in meeting non-tuition expenses, including accommodation, transportation, food, etc. According to tracer study results, accommodation appears to be the biggest expenditure among non-tuition costs for diploma students, as students incur an average expenditure Source: Author’s calculation based on institutional data, 2016 of around BDT 28,000 (USD 350 equivalent) each year (World Bank, 2016b).18 This is likely as, except for a few public polytechnics and large private ones, 48. Financial constraints add an additional layer all institutions have either inadequate hostel capacity of vulnerability for low-income female diploma or none, for which the majority of accommodation- students, making it challenging to complete their seeking diploma students have to rely on private diploma programs. FGDs with dropped-out female arrangements which are generally costly. 17 Institutional fees include tuition, examination fees, annual event fees and other fees charged for conducting the one year of the program. This amount excludes other non-educational associated costs, e.g. books, travel costs, meals, etc. 18 The cost incurred for other non-tuition expenses such as textbooks and transportation stood at around BDT 4,100 (USD 51 equivalent) and BDT 7, 400 (USD 93 equivalent) respectively. 30 51. Higher education for diploma graduates is offered by a single public institution located in Box 3: Stipends support female enrolments Dhaka, which is often perceived as a restriction on in polytechnics career progress by prospective female students from semi-urban or rural areas. On completing The Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) has diploma programs, a student may enroll in additional been providing stipends to all female students four-year graduate programs to receive a Bachelor in across 93 public and private polytechnics under Science degree and become a full-fledged engineer. the World Bank-financed Skills and Training There are several private universities offering post- Enhancement Project (STEP). Under the project, diploma education, which are located mostly in all females enrolling in a diploma program receive metropolitan and urban areas. By contrast, there is a stipend of BDT 800 each month throughout only one public institution, i.e., Dhaka University of their four-year diploma program. In order to ensure Engineering and Technology (DUET), located in the female retention, the stipend is conditional upon periphery of the capital, which offers higher studies for meeting the following: (i) at least 75 percent diploma graduates (Box 4). DUET recognizes diploma attendance in each year, and (ii) achievement of at least GPA 2.00 out of 4.00 in each semester. Since 2010, around 16,000 females have received stipends under STEP. Box 4: Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET) The Dhaka University of Engineering and 50. In the context of the increasing general level of Technology (DUET) originated as a faculty of education among the new entrants of Bangladeshi engineering under the University of Dhaka in labour market, some diploma students aspire 1980, and became a full-fledged university in to have a higher level of qualification. Higher 2003. DUET is the only institution offering diploma education is particularly preferred by the female graduates from polytechnics the opportunity to diploma students as it improves the perceived value pursue higher education in TVET. The university of their course and helps to advance their career. currently offers programs in seven areas: civil Interviews with employment placement offices suggest engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical that female diploma graduates are often unable to and electronics engineering, industrial and adjust to technical roles in the industry environment production engineering, architecture, computer and opt for an academic career through gaining science and engineering and textile. DUET has a higher education. Additionally, some females pursue total seat capacity of 570, with a total enrollment higher education after spending some years in work of around 3,300 students across the different with the aim to progress onto higher level positions, programs. Currently, the progression of female which they think will provide greater authority and diploma graduates to higher education at DUET is better perceived acceptance in a technical role in the particularly low as their share of enrollment is less industry environment. Many females would still prefer to than 5 percent (around 4.4 percent) of the total continue working in the labour market after polytechnic DUET enrollment. graduation, but some capable ones often want to go up the ladder a bit more. | 31 Chapter 4: Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh certificates by relaxing two semester credits for diploma ‘appropriate’ female roles exist in Bangladesh, limiting graduates who enroll for further education, while private their career choice to traditional and non-technical jobs. universities relax either one or two semester credits. The FGD participants shared experiences revealing that While DUET offers relatively low-cost post-diploma their peers were uninterested in joining TVET merely programs compared to most private providers, the due to a pre-conceived understanding that technical former is also well-accepted among industry and TVET education is male-dominated and not female-friendly. community compared to private universities. As a result, The majority of female students and their families remain all female FGD participants who expressed an interest unaware of the developments that have occurred in the in pursuing higher education spoke about their plan TVET sector, which is why female participation in this to enroll in DUET, while dismissing private universities. sector is still quite low. However, the limited seat availability at DUET coupled with the need to re-locate to the capital for post-diploma 54. The negative attitude towards diploma studies was considered as barriers to quality higher education is further spurred by a common education among females residing outside Dhaka. perception that technical education is meant for academically weak students. The low social perception of technical education remains a challenge 4.2 DEMAND-SIDE for both male and female students. Traditionally, CONSTRAINTS students with weak academic records and less chance of success in higher education enroll in technical 4.2.1 Reputational Issues schools to improve their employability (STEP, 2014). 52. Historically, technical and vocational However, technical education has evolved from being education has been viewed as training for male manual skills-led to technical skills-led, demanding students. Traditionally, technical and engineering students with higher cognitive skills. The high academic programs were limited to male participation as most and cognitive requirements are yet to be perceived programs led to manually demanding and often risky in society. During FGDs, some of the female students jobs in the industrial and service sector. However, reported that in society many perceived them as low new technologies accompanied by the evolution of performers who had opted for technical education as a sophisticated production processes have created a ‘last resort’. For this reason, several female participants demand for new skills and expertise. Concurrently, claimed that their peers were deterred from joining the TVET sector has developed several new areas technical education and instead chose general of technologies over the past two decades that are education. less manually demanding and more responsive to female preferences. The availability of these new 4.2.2 Lack of Awareness technologies has contributed to gradual improvements 55. There are inadequate promotional and in female participation in polytechnics. This is evident awareness-building activities in technical from female students’ enrollment concentration in education for prospective female diploma areas of architecture and design, electro-medical, students and their families. Print and electronic media computer applications, graphic design and other new tend to focus on reporting matters relating to admission technologies that require more desk-work and less and examination sessions along with success stories of mobility (refer to Chapter 2). the general education system. Unlike general education, there is inadequate promotion of the technical 53. Despite the availability of new technical education stream, particularly in rural and remote areas. programs adapted toward female students, their Some efforts have recently been undertaken by the DTE participation nonetheless remains low. Common for TVET promotion through electronic and print media. to the South Asian region, stereotyped perceptions of However, extensive TVET targeting that can remove 32 the patriarchal image of the sector for potential female During my internship, students is yet to be undertaken. I saw that my employer did not 56. Unlike their male counterparts, social norms send me for on-call service and limited mobility disadvantage female diploma students in networking outside or, to some extent, support to clients. My male even within the institution. More than half of the colleagues always went to these FGD participants were unsure of potential industry calls, while I was mostly given employers in their field of study. Additionally, they had little deskwork. I feel that clients as exposure to pre-employment preparations (e.g. resume development, interview skills and communication skills), well as my employer find it difficult which male students often gained through networking or to believe that a female can pre-employment training outside of the institution. In the service their computer. It is true backdrop of their restricted mobility and limited networking opportunities, pre-employment preparations and job that hardware networking does search support for females become particularly essential. require taking equipment apart, removing screws and putting it 57. Employers also remain largely unaware of the skills training and curricula of polytechnic back together, which often needs graduates in general, and even more so, of the a lot of strength. However, they pool of emerging well-trained female students of failed to understand that I was polytechnics. Several polytechnics have established employment placement cells to help diploma graduates trained to handle this and am find industry-specific jobs. However, interviews capable of doing the job as well with polytechnic management staff revealed that as the males. employment cells faced challenges with establishing initial communications with employers, who were often —Ishrat, Final Year Student in Computer Technology unaware of the skills and training received by diploma graduates. This is likely as formal TVET graduates comprise less than one percent of the labor force (World 58. Family awareness and support is another Bank, 2013). Employers are accustomed to having crucial factor for successful completion of to recruit untrained workers and train them on-the- diploma education. FGDs between successful job (Hussain, 2012; World Bank, 2007). Some of the and dropped-out female students strongly female graduates in FGD revealed that finding a job signalled the importance of family support in with industry often took longer for them than their male continuing studies. More than half of the successful peers. Some FGD participants identified that a lack of female graduates ranked family support and then personal networks followed by employers’ perception self-motivation and financial solvency as contributing of their limited ability to ‘adjust’ with the environment factors for successful education completion. In the case of industry work often restricted their competitiveness of family support, participants spoke about the support in the job market. Survey data from a tracer study on of male household members, such as the father or short-course trainees shows that female graduates on elder brother, as the main source of their motivation to average take a slightly longer time to find a job than their continue studying in technical education. By contrast, male counterparts. The survey shows that, on average, more than half of the dropped-out cohort identified females took 7 weeks and males 6 weeks to find financial insolvency, lack of family support, health issues, employment on training completion (World Bank, 2015a) poor academic performance and lack of interest as their | 33 Chapter 4: Challenges to Female Participation in Technical Diploma Programs in Bangladesh reasons for leaving the technical stream. Both cohorts Figure 13: Economic Outcomes of Polytechnic agreed that ‘family support’ extended to non-financial Graduates after One or Two years of Graduation, assistance, including encouragement and shielding by Gender from socio-cultural pressures, such as early marriage and child-bearing, which are often faced by young 5% 5% women in Bangladesh. Studying Studying 24% 4.3 OTHER ISSUES FOR 33% C O N S I D E R AT I O N 4.3.1 Job Market Perspective Unemployed Unemployed 59. Female polytechnic graduates are just as 23% 41% likely as male graduates to look for jobs in the 1% labor market after completing their training at polytechnics. However, unemployment remains 1% Working high among female graduates compared to their male full/part time Working counterparts. Data from a tracer study on polytechnic 38% full/part time graduates reveal that 78 percent of female graduates 30% compared to 77 percent of males reported to have looked for work on completing their diploma programs Male Female (World Bank, 2016b). Despite similar aspirations, female graduates are less likely to find work or continue with Unavailable for work Self-employed further study and training compared to males. The share Studying Working full/part time of unemployed female polytechnic graduates stands Unemployed at 41 percent while their share in further education and Source: World Bank, 2016b training also falls behind male graduates (Figure 13). The gender gap in economic outcomes of technical diploma programs can be discouraging female participation two disciplines particularly for desk-based design work. in these study programs. Females are already Female diploma graduates generally undertake roles as underrepresented in polytechnic education and ensuring assistant engineers for these positions. better economic outcomes from their degrees would be critical in attracting them to enroll in polytechnics. 61. The societal perception of appropriate female work roles however seems to make employers 60. Employment for female diploma graduates hesitant to hire female diploma graduates for generally tends to be desk-based work in selective field-based technical roles. The diploma education technologies. Interviews revealed that among existing system is designed to mainly provide the job market with technologies, computer and architecture technology a supply of technical skills to support industry jobs in female graduates tend to get employed sooner than branches of civil, construction, electrical and mechanical those from other engineering disciplines. For example, engineering. These industry roles often require frequent one polytechnic job placement cell placed 75 percent field visits, which are yet to be commonly accepted for of the institution’s architecture female graduates in females due to the existing societal perception of gender industry jobs, which was higher than the overall average roles in Bangladesh. As anecdotal evidence suggests, placement of around 53 percent of female graduates. employers make specific requests for male candidates Anecdotal evidence also suggests that employers often rather than females for field-based jobs, making it difficult prefer female graduates to male graduates from these for eligible female candidates to access these jobs. 34 We often receive requests for CVs of female graduates with a background in Data Telecommunication Networking for design-based technical roles. According to employers, this area requires a lot of time and patience for design work, and females tend to perform better in such positions. However, our institution does not have many female students in this technology. It is still relatively new and prospective female students are yet to be fully aware of the job prospects for them. —Rawshan Ara, Coordinator of a Polytechnic Job Placement Cell 62. There are some new and emerging providing market relevant training (World Bank, 2015a). occupational fields which have potential However, the institutions are yet to leverage these employment opportunities for female diploma industry partnerships for improving diploma training graduates. Among emerging technologies, outcomes for female students. Employers can be interviews with polytechnic employment cell staff involved in a range of areas, such as developing gender- suggest that employers have a strong preference responsive curriculum development and program for female graduates in data telecommunication design, facilitating more and better internships for female networking, garments pattern making, and electro- students, creating female-friendly work environment, medical service. These new technologies involve etc. Such involvement of employers would help to break technical roles requiring a strong combination of discriminatory images held by industry and society of design and engineering, which, as reported by ‘appropriate roles’ of females in the workplace, which employers, are better executed by females. However, otherwise limit female diploma graduates to a narrow these technologies fail to attract as many female range of skills training and jobs and disadvantage their students as traditional disciplines such as computer employment opportunities. and architecture technology can attract. Additionally, there exists considerable scope for introducing 4.3.2 Societal Issues service-orientated diploma programs in areas of 64. Marriage and child bearing among female medical services, hospitality and tourism, and business polytechnic students, possible causes of female management, which favor female roles and support drop-out, appear to be infrequent. A World Bank increasing job market demand at home and abroad. survey results show that the majority of current female There was a consensus for a need to review the students in polytechnics are not married (World Bank, demand for skills in the emerging service sector and 2016b). The survey finds around 8 percent of female overhaul the diploma education system to provide new students married compared to about 1 percent of male service-orientated skills in encouraging more female- students. Interviews with polytechnic managements friendly TVET. also reveal that a small percentage of female students 63. Stronger linkage between polytechnics and - less than five percent - dropped out due to socio- employers is imperative to improve employers’ cultural factors such as early marriage or child-bearing. perception of female work roles and enhance job Though early marriage pressure is a common issue, the competitiveness of female diploma graduates. majority of students agreed that they were capable of Several polytechnics in Bangladesh are already overcoming this challenge through communicating the partnering with industry to gain employers’ input in benefits of completing their education to their families. | 35 Chapter 5 Policy Options 65. The review of this study provides some key information for future policy discussions towards promotion of female participation in TVET. Several factors seem to influence female participation and retention in technical education, including: (a) supply constraints – lack of institutions nearby, non- conducive facility and faculty environment, non-availability of female- friendly courses and relatively high TVET costs for poor households; (b) demand-side constraints - the reputational issue as the TVET sector is associated with the image of male-domination and low-performers, weak demand for technical training among potential female students due to lack of awareness, and employers’ perception of appropriate female roles at work. 66. Eight major areas for improvement have emerged through the review as potentially beneficial policies and strategies for further boosting female participation in post-secondary TVET: (i) creating a gender-friendly environment in polytechnics and workplaces; (ii) developing more service- orientated diploma programs; (iii) developing a TVET awareness campaign for females; (iv) supporting a career counselling and guidance system for females; (v) improving access to higher education; (vi) providing greater demand- stimulating incentives; (vii) generating research and knowledge on TVET for females, and (viii) leveraging partnerships to promote skills development for females. KEY POLICY OPTIONS 1. Creating a female-friendly environment in polytechnics and the workplace: A lack of campus accommodation and safe transportation is a major challenge to female participation and retention in polytechnics without these facilities. The provision of campus dormitory and transport facilities for females would encourage more females to enroll in polytechnics. To make the polytechnic environment more female-friendly, an increase in female teacher and staff share to at least 40 percent of polytechnic staffing is critical and this requires a review of the recruitment policy by the Government. Training in gender awareness among staff and reviewing curriculum from gender perspective may also be considered by the DTE. Ensuring women-friendly facilities (e.g. separate washrooms and religious facilities, leisure rooms, etc.) and regulations against gender discrimination in the industry environment would also encourage female graduates to pursue technical jobs. 36 2. Developing more service-orientated diploma polytechnic graduates. More involvement of employers programs in sync with emerging service sector in the process to improve diploma education for businesses: The service sector in Bangladesh females would help to remove discriminatory societal has expanded considerably over the past decade, perceptions of ‘appropriate roles’ of females in the employing more than one-third of the labor force (of workplace and expand job opportunities for technical whom, 23 percent are females) (BBS, 2013). New and diploma graduates. emerging service sector jobs are demanding specialized skills which are less labor-intensive and more orientated 5. Improving access to higher education – toward soft technical skills, a characteristic considered Pathways to higher education work to make technical favorable to female employment. The inclusion of new diploma education attractive to students, particularly service-orientated diploma programs aligned with among female students who are more likely to pursue labor market demand under the DTE would improve teaching careers in TVET. The DUET as the sole public employment opportunities and economic outcomes provider has inadequate higher education opportunities for female diploma graduates. This would, in turn, for students with a diploma background. Female encourage more girls to opt for diploma education for its students, particularly those residing outside of Dhaka, improved employability. are additionally disadvantaged in pursuing higher education due to their restricted mobility. There is also a 3. Developing a TVET Awareness Program for need to assess the quality of private providers of higher Females: The DTE has taken some notable steps education and ensure quality and access in these in creating awareness of the prospects of diploma institutions for technical diploma graduates. Additionally, education. However, it is yet to implement a gender- alternate paths to higher education, e.g. distance specific awareness program to educate citizens on learning and partnerships with international institutions, the evolution of technical education and job market may be explored by the Ministry of Education and DTE prospects for female diploma graduates in Bangladesh. to provide better access to further education and vertical These programs must target beyond female students mobility, making technical diploma programs attractive to include their families and prospective employers. for female students in the long run. Prospective female students as well as their families require greater awareness of the available diploma 6. Providing greater demand-stimulating programs and market opportunities for graduates. incentives – Access to diploma education still largely Awareness building must also include ‘branding’ the remains limited to a privileged section, i.e. urban female TVET sector and breaking the image of technical students from relatively well-off families. This study has education as ‘male dominated’. found that stipends have been useful in generating demand and making diploma education viable for low- 4. Developing a career counseling and guidance income female students. However, the stipend money system for females: There is a need to address is often considered inadequate for some students, given the dearth of knowledge of career prospects for the relatively high costs of technical education. There diploma graduates, particularly for female students is a need to explore different mechanisms for financial who have fewer opportunities for networking and job support to low-income female students to enable them preparation. Functional career guidance cells, which to complete their diploma program. For example, the offer mentorship, career counseling and job placements, DTE may consider the introduction of teaching and lab would work well to support female students as well assistantships as well as part-time job placement for as attract prospective ones. Additionally, these units students with partnered industries. The Government should work toward improving links with industry may also consider facilitating better access to education employers through knowledge and idea exchange. loans by female polytechnic students for pursuing Industry employers need to be better informed of the technical education. skills development and training received by female | 37 Chapter 5: Policy Implications 7. Generating research and knowledge on TVET for females –There remains a general dearth of research on female skills training outcomes and their labor market demand. Some areas of research that would benefit gender mainstreaming in TVET include: (a) job market analysis of demand for female diploma graduates; (b) the current female diploma graduate employment patterns and performance; (c) a review of gender responsiveness of the polytechnic curriculum; (d) analysis of the workplace environment for female diploma graduates; and (e) female students’ satisfaction with the diploma education system in Bangladesh. The availability of analytical work in these areas would be useful in guiding the government, polytechnic administrators, skills practitioners and other stakeholders in improving diploma education for females. 8. Leveraging partnerships to promote skills development for females: Meaningful partnerships may focus on the following areas: (a) liaising with women organizations and civil society organizations for social marketing of TVET in rural areas; (b) networking with the industry to encourage apprenticeships for female diploma graduates; (c) establishing monitoring and evaluation systems on gender-mainstreaming in TVET; and (d) streamlining data and information on female diploma students to better inform the gender policy in TVET. 38 | Photo credit: Ismail Ferdause 39 Reference List Agrawal, T. (n.d.) Vocational education and training programs (VET): An Asian perspective, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR): India. Akhter, S. 2012. 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Paper presented at ETF Zonal Sanitization Workshops on the Importance of Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria, Held February 9th, 2006 at Port Harcourt. | 41 Annexture ANNEX 1: LIST OF TECHNOLOGIES UNDER DTE Diploma in Engineering: Diploma in Engineering: 1. Aircraft Maintenance (Aerospace) Technology 20. Glass Technology 2. Aircraft Maintenance (Avionics) Technology 21. Graphic Design Technology 3. Architecture and Interior Design Technology Instrumentation and Process Control 22. Technology 4. Architecture Technology 23. Marine Technology 5. Automobile Technology 24. Mechanical Technology 6. Ceramic Technology 25. Mechatronics Technology 7. Chemical Technology 26. Mining and Mine Survey Technology 8. Civil (Wood) Technology 27. Power Technology 9. Civil Technology 28. Printing Technology 10. Computer Science and Technology 29. Refrigeration and Aircondition Technology 11. Computer Technology 30. Shipbuilding Technology 12. Construction Technology 31. Surveying Technology Data Telecommunication and Networking 13. 32. Telecommunication Technology Technology 14. Electrical Technology Diploma in Agriculture 15. Electro-Medical Technology Diploma in Textile 16. Electronics Technology Diploma in Fisheries 17. Environmental Technology Diploma in Forestry 18 Food Technology Garments Design and Pattern Making 19. Technology 42 ANNEX 2: FOCUS GROUP METHODS This annex illustrates details of the Focus Group diverse. The use of a pre-existing social group was Discussions (FGD) methods and activities that were advantageous while conducting the research as it undertaken by the study team in collecting data and provided the social contexts within which the students’ information from the participants and institutions. opinions are formed as well as allowed them to relate to each other’s comments or incidents in their shared 1. FGD Questionnaire Preparation educational life (Kitzinger, 1994)19. Four sets of questionnaire to guide the FGDs and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were conducted with interviews were prepared for: (i) female current the Polytechnic Principal, often in presence of higher students; (ii) female graduate students; (iii) dropped-out level management, including Vice-Principal and Head female students of polytechnics, and (iv) polytechnic Teachers. management. The questionnaires were based on an extensive literature review and guided the interviewer 3. Data Collection in moderating the sessions. The questionnaires used to guide the FGD are included in Appendix 1-4. Informed consent was taken for recording that allowed participants to understand the topic and rules, their 2. Composition of FGD participants rights as well as potential risks of over-disclosure and ensured ethical issues were met (Bloor et al., 2001)20. The FGDs were conducted among three cohorts of A small guide of open questions was used for each females: i) currently enrolled female students; ii) female cohort and was found to be very useful in the instances diploma graduates and iii) dropped-out female students. where participants went off-topic or the group went This allowed the team to compare and contrast the silent. Though the study was looking at broad areas of responses of the three female groups and uncover study motivation, geographical/spatial factors, learning the major issues in female participation in the technical environment, and awareness on TVET, the discussion diploma education. For each cohort, the female in addition gave insight into various sub-topics (e.g. participants were selected randomly from the student higher education and skills recognition, workplace register database at the polytechnic and based on their environment, social perception issues) within these availability for participation on the particular day. categories that may not have been included in a literature-based questionnaire. Hence, the focus group Each cohort comprised of female students from methodology seemed very apt in identifying a range different study years and programs in polytechnics from of factors relating to female students’ adjustment in across major divisions of the country. Particularly, the polytechnics. composition of participants from the current student cohort included both first year students and final year 4. Data Analysis students from a range of diploma programs, including Computer, Electrical, Architecture, Electro-Medical, Food The discussion lasted for 60-80 minutes with each Technology, among others. The group composition student cohort and recording was transcribed for data consisted of students who had a shared background analysis. Prior to the focus group, four major categories and some pre-existing social ties but were individually – study motivation, geographical/spatial factors, learning 19 Kitzinger, J. (1994) ‘The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interaction between research participants’, Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 103-121. 20 Bloor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M. and Robson, K. (2001) Focus Groups in Social Research, London: Sage. | 43 Photo credit: STEP environment, and awareness of TVET – were identified in polytechnics. The analysis revealed that geographical from the literature review. However, the FGD provided and socio-cultural factors played a stronger role in scope to accommodate new issues/factors to be limiting their participation in diploma education. The discussed and accommodated into the study. availability of female-preferred programs and lack of awareness among prospective students were also The direct content analysis method, which is a uncovered as factors that deter their participation. The structured coding process in which the researchers findings are discussed in detail along with relevant identify key codes based on previous studies or existing transcripts in Chapter 4. theories, was therefore followed (Potter and Levine- Donnerstein, 1999).21 All highlighted text was coded 5. Field Work under the four categories and then these texts were further considered for sub-categorization. For example, The main field visits were conducted during September under learning environment there emerged sub- 2015-January 2016. The following institutions were categories relating to polytechnic facilities, staffing and visited/interviewed: Dhaka Mohila Polytechnic, Tangail personal security. Polytechnic, Institute of Science, Trade and Technology (ISTT), SAIC Institute of Management and Technology, Similarly, KIIs were conducted with polytechnic Chittagong Mohila Polytechnic, Sylhet Polytechnic principals and management and content analysis was and Rajshahi Mohila Polytechnic. Around 150 female conducted on these interviews. students across the three groups participated in the FGDs while 20 individuals from polytechnic The FGDs conducted gave some very interesting management were interviewed during the visits. findings in understanding female students’ participation Potter, W.J. and Levine-Donnerstein, D. (1999) ‘Rethinking validity and reliability in content analysis’, Journal of Applied Communication Research, Vol. 27, 21 No.3, pp. 258-284. 44 APPENDIX 1: FGDS WITH CURRENT FEMALE STUDENTS I N P O LY T E C H N I C S Questions 1. How has your experience with your diploma program been? Would you like to share some of your positive experiences in the program so far? 2. What motivated you to enroll in a polytechnic? 3. Did you consider other postsecondary education options, such as higher secondary colleges? 4. What motivated you to choose the technology program you are studying? 5. What are you aspirations on completing the program? Geographical Factors 6. How many of you live far from this training institute? How do you get from your homes to the institute? 7. Do you face any trouble while travelling to your institution? Please elaborate on the types of issues you face while trav- elling to and from the institute. 8. How many of you live without your parents while pursuing your education? Where are you staying? Are there any prob- lems you feel in living by yourselves in private accommodations or with relatives? Financial Factors 9. How are you financing your education? How many of you are receiving stipends? 10. For those who receive stipends, do you require supplement income to help in pursuing your training? Where does this supplement money come from – parents, part-time jobs? 11. What are your major expenses related to pursuing your diploma education? 12. Do you ever feel the need to forgo training and enter work to support your family and yourself? Socio-Cultural Factors 13. When you applied for the diploma program, did you feel supported and encouraged? By whom? 14. How many have school friends who also enrolled with you on training programs? What may have deterred some of your friends from joining? 15. How many here have to balance household chores as well as training? What kind of chores are you responsible for? 16. Do you face any difficulty in balancing your domestic responsibilities with your training? Do you receive any help from siblings or other members in carrying out household chores? 17. For those who are single, would you like to complete your training first and then settle down? Or do you feel that you may get married prior to completing your training? 18. Do any of you feel that it may be difficult for a girl to continue with her training if she is married? 19. Do you know any classmates who were not able to continue their training after marriage? 20. How do feel about the quality of training you are receiving? 21. Are you able to communicate openly with your instructors when you are facing trouble with your work? If not, what may be the reason(s)? 22. Does anyone feel that some training programs are unsuitable for girls to pursue even if they may have interest for the trade? If so, why? 23. Do you feel confident that you will successfully complete your training and join the workforce? If not, why? | 45 Annexure A P P E N D I X 2 : F G D S W I T H F E M A L E G R A D U AT E S O F P O LY T E C H N I C S Questions 1. (a) For how long have you been working? (b) Did you face any difficulty in finding a job after you completed your training? (c) What motivated you to enroll at the polytechnic institute? Geographical Factors 2. (a) During your training program, where did you live? With family, at hostel or private accommodation? (b) For those who lived away from their families, did you face any difficulty and were you able to overcome it? If so, how? (c) How did you travel to and from the institute during your training program? (d) Did you face any difficulty while travelling, and if so, were you able to overcome it? If so, how? Financial Factors 3. (a)How many of you have parents working in 1) agriculture 2) manufacturing and 3) services? (b) How did you finance your studies during your diploma program? Did anyone receive stipend? (c)At any point, did you feel the necessity to forgo training for work and how did you resolve this? Socio-Cultural Factors 4. (a) How many of you were married when you were enrolled in your training program? (b) For married students, how did you balance your training with your household life? (c) Did you have any classmates who dropped out after they were married? If so, are you aware of the problems they were facing in continuing with their training? 5. (a) For single students, did you have responsibilities of household chores? Would you say you had light or heavy domestic responsibility? (b) What kind of chores were you responsible for and did you receive support from other family members? At what times did you receive support? 6. Can you share an experience during your training program when you felt you will have to withdraw from the training program? 7. On reflecting back, what are the things that helped you successfully complete your training program? APPENDIX 3: FGD WITH DROPPED-OUT FEMALE STUDENTS Questions 1. What are you currently doing? Working/Unemployed/Studying/Homemaker 2. Geographical Factors (a) What initially motivated you to enroll in the training program? (b) With whom were you staying when you were enrolled in your training program? (c) How did you travel to and from the training institute? (d) Did you face any trouble while travelling? 46 3. Financial Factors (a) How did you pay for the program? (b) Did face any difficulty in paying your training fees? (c) Did any of you receive stipend? 4. Socio-Cultural Factors (a) How many here were married while pursuing your training? (b) Did you personally want to get married or would you have preferred to delay it? (c) How did your husband/in-laws feel about your training? (d) How much work load do you have at home? (e) What kind of responsibilities do you have at home? (f) When you were studying, did this in any way affect your training? 5. System Level Factors (a) Did you face any difficulty as a student in understanding the material or keeping up with your peers? If so, what kind? (b) Were you able to consult/get help from your teachers? (c) If not, why? (d) Were there female teachers for your program? 6. What do you feel was the top reason for leaving the training program? 7. What do you think could have helped you in completing your training program? A P P E N D I X 4 : I N T E R V I E W W I T H P R I N C I PA L / M A N A G E M E N T O F P O LY T E C H N I C Questions 1. Would you please provide a brief background of the institute? 2. (a)What is the staff number at your institute? Of which, how many are female teachers? (b) In your opinion, what are the reasons for low female teacher recruitments? 3. Which types of training programs is the institution offering? What were the criteria in choosing to offer these programs? 4. What is the available number of seats at this institute? How many female students are currently enrolled? 5. (a) Which training programs are in demand/preferred by female students? (b) In your opinion, what motivates female students to pursue these particular training programs? 6. Is the institute currently taking any particular step(s) to target female students during admissions? 7. What kinds of facilities exist for students undertaking training at this institute? 8. How has female student retention been at this institute? 10. In your opinion, what are the likely factors that are preventing female students completing their training? 11. In your opinion, what do you think must be done to assist female students to successfully complete their training programs and join the workforce? | 47 World Bank Office Dhaka Plot- E-32, Agargaon, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh Tel: 880-2-5566-7777 Fax: 880-2-5566-7778 www.worldbank.org/bangladesh