67706


       THE ETHNIC CONFLICT
           IN SRI LANKA:
        A HISTORICAL AND
         SOCIOPOLITICAL
              OUTLINE




                                   Sasanka Perera




This volume is a background paper prepared for the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development/ The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this
paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the
governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data
included in this work.
                                    February 2001

                                                                                      1
                                    Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction                                                    3

1.2 Demographic patterns                                            4

2.1 The dynamics of Sinhala – Tamil ethno-cultural
    identity formation                                              5

2.2 The emergence of ethnic politics                                7

2.3 Issues of language and inter ethnic conflict                    9

2.4 Inter ethnic conflict and education                             11

2.5 Inter ethnic conflict and employment                            14

2.6 Inter ethnic conflict and the issue of land                     17

3.1 The emerging ideas of separatism and loss
    of confidence in non violent and democratic politics            19

3.2 The continuation of inter ethnic conflict and
    the emergence of armed conflict                                 20

3.3 Consequences of inter ethnic conflict and its militarization:
    issues of trauma and psychological stress                       22

3.4 Concluding comments                                             25

3.5 Bibliography                                                    27




                                                                         2
                         THE ETHNIC CONFLICT IN SRI LANKA:
                     A HISTORICAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL OUTLINE1

1.1 Introduction

Why does the World Bank need to understand the socio-cultural and political roots of
the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict? A recent Bank document commenting on the
international response to the crisis in Rwanda observes that the unavailability of detailed
knowledge of the historical, political, social and economic background of the crisis in
Rwanda undermined the effectiveness of international intervention (A Framework for
World Bank Involvement in Post Conflict Reconstruction 1997: 6). This situation also
applies to Sri Lanka. That is, any program of rehabilitation, relief and reconstruction in
particular must necessarily be preceded by a comprehensive understanding of the
conflict that has made such relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction necessary in the first
place. The mere existence of literature on different aspects of the conflict does not
necessarily mean that such knowledge is readily and easily accessible in terms of
institutional needs. For instance, political biases in such works or analytical lapses have
to be correctly identified. It is then on the basis of these assumptions that this document
has been written, identifying and analyzing the root causes of the Sri Lankan ethnic
conflict. It is primarily intended to be a socio-historical review of the main events and
dynamics that created and sustained the conflict involving the Sinhala and Tamil ethnic
groups.

Sri Lanka is a multi-ethnic and multi religious country where a number of ethno-
religious groups have been co-existing for centuries. But that co-existence has not
always been without stress, tension and sometimes violence. The current ethnic conflict
involving the country's Sinhala majority and the Tamil minority is primarily a 20th
century phenomenon which nevertheless has some of its roots in the period of colonial
British rule from 1815 to 1948. But in the popular perception of the past, the manner in
which both Sinhalas and Tamils perceive and interpret what they believe as their
authentic history has much to do with how the conflict is understood at the popular level.
The political process in the country is also influenced by ethnicity, religion and
sometimes caste in that socio-cultural markers such as ethnicity and religion often play a
vital and even divisive role. In this context electoral area demarcation, political party
formation, party affiliation, political mobilization, and voter preferences may depend on
these considerations. It is important to understand how ethnic conflict and the resulting
violence originated and evolved in Sri Lanka, since ethnic conflict and
institutionalization of political violence have now become two of the most serious issues
facing the country. These phenomena threaten the country's fragile democratic
institutions and impede its socio-economic growth by diverting much needed funds from
development initiatives to military and counter insurgency activities as well as to re-
building destroyed infra-structure. In addition, the violence associated with the conflict

1 Sections in this paper draws heavily from the following sources: 1) Political Violence in Sri Lanka: Dynamics, Consequences and
Issues of Democratization by Sasanka Perera. Colombo: Centre for Women’s Research (CENWOR), 1998, 2) Teaching and
Learning Hatred: The Role of Education and Socialization in Sri Lankan Ethnic Conflict by Sasanka Perera. Santa Barbara:
University of California (Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, 1991).




                                                                                                                                    3
has taken a serious psychological toll on survivors. In the following outline, I would
attempt to place in context the origins and the development of the ethnic conflict
between the Sinhalas and Tamils by focussing on the most critical junctures and
incidents of its socio-political evolution.

The inter-ethnic conflict of Sri Lanka has many root causes and consequences that are
closely inter-linked. However, given the complexities of the current conflict, it should
not be assumed that these causes are part of uniliner historical process where one event
led to another and so on. Often many of the issues that may be regarded as root causes
arose within a single but extended context and equally as often, simultaneously. It is
primarily within the context of ethnic politics that the manifestation of language politics
and ethnic politics of education can be located. However, for purposes of analysis and
discussion it would be necessary to separate these issues as clearly identifiable themes
that would necessarily emerge in any analysis of the Sri Lankan conflict. In general,
these themes can be broadly identified as follows:

      * Ethnic politics and the interpretation of the past
      * Politics of language
      * Politics of education
      * Militarization of ethnic conflict and issues of trauma

1.2 Demographic Patterns

Sri Lankan society is an ethno-religious mosaic. According to recent (1981) statistics,
the population of Sri Lanka can be categorized in the following manner: the Sinhalas
constitute 73.95% (10,980,000) of the population; Sri Lankan Tamils account for
12.70% (1,887,000); Indian Tamils make up 5.52% (819,000); Muslims constitute
7.05% (1,047,000); Burghers make up 0.26% (39,000); Malays, followers of Islam,
account for 0.32% (47,000); numerous other small groups make up 0.19% (28,000)
(Department of Census and Statistics 1988: 12-14).

Within these ethnic groups, there are clear religious divisions as well. Buddhists, who
are Sinhalas, make up 69.30% (10,288.3). Hindus, who are Tamils (Sri Lankan and
Indian), constitute 15.48% (2,297.8). Muslims constitute the only ethnic group in Sri
Lanka who have a single term to denote ethnicity and religion. They and Malays, who
are also Muslim by religion, account for 7.55% (1,121.7) of the population. Christians,
made up of Burghers and a minority of Tamils and Sinhalas account for 7.61% (1,130.6)
(Department of Census and Statistics 1988: 12-14). Numerous ethnic groups of Indian
origin, Africans, Chinese, Veddas and others are collectively identified under the
statistical category of "others."

To a certain extent, ethnicity and religion also have a regional basis, which is one
significant reason why the Tamil militancy has a strong geographical dimension, which
has logically extended to the demand of a separate independent state. Of the ethnic and
religious groups identified above, Tamil Hindus predominate in the Northern Province
and maintain a significant presence in the Eastern Province. The Eastern Province is (or
was before the outbreak of protracted violence and low intensity conflict in the early
1980s) an ethnically mixed area where Tamils, Muslims and Sinhalas were found in
                                                                                          4
sizeable numbers even though Tamils have a slightly higher statistical edge over others.
Indian Tamils who are the descendants of laborers brought from Southern India by the
British in the 19th century to work in their tea and coffee estates are concentrated in
parts of Central, Uwa and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. Sinhala Buddhists predominate in
all parts of the country except the Northern and Eastern Provinces. Muslims have a
significant concentration in the Eastern Province but on the average are scattered
throughout the country. Christians maintain a significant presence in the coastal areas as
a result of over five hundred years of constant European colonial expansion, and the
consequent Christianization of significant numbers of the population in these areas.
However, Christians are found in all parts of the country in small numbers. Malays are
mostly concentrated in and around the city of Colombo and the Western Province.

By the time Sri Lanka achieved independence in 1948 from Britain, there were many
expectations that the country would become a model democracy. Universal adult
franchise had been introduced in the 1930s, democratic institutions and traditions had
been in place and political violence was not an issue. Moreover, by the 1950s literacy in
Sri Lanka was on the rise and there were no serious indicators of economic or social
catastrophes of the years to come. However, even before independence, there were clear
indications of ethnic politics that were to emerge later, and as early as in 1956, Sinhala
mobs attacked Tamil civilians led by their political leaders who had been protesting in
Colombo against the passing of the so called "Sinhala Only Bill" (Official Language
Act, No 33 of 1956). The aim of the bill was to declare Sinhala the official language of
the country replacing English. Anti-Tamil violence of 1956 was reported from other
areas of the country also along with predictable anti-Sinhala violence from Tamil
dominated areas of the north-east. That spurt of initial violence against Tamils was later
to continue, and by the 1980s had reached seriously protracted proportions, which
involved low intensity military conflict in the north east, Tamil guerrilla incursions to
the capital and a steady militarization of society.

2.1 The Dynamics of Sinhala - Tamil Ethno-cultural Identity Formation:

The overall context of the violence outlined above has to be located in the manner in
which minority and majority relations have been conducted in the recent past, and the
manner in which different ethnic groups perceive the past colored by the ethnic tensions
of the present. In ancient Sri Lanka, as far as surviving written records and oral
traditions indicate, ethnicity was a social factor though it was not a ubiquitous political
issue. Tamil and Sinhala ethno-cultural identities which came into existence after the
twelfth or thirteenth century (and much later by other estimates)2 were profoundly
revitalized and manifested themselves in a mutually aggressive and confrontational
manner only in times of external aggression from South India.



2 For a good analysis of the dynamics of ethno-cultural identity formation in Sri Lanka, see "The generation of
Communal Identities" by Elizabeth Nissan and R.L. Stirrat and "The People of the Lion: The Sinhala Identity and
Ideology in History and Historiography" by R.A.L.H. Gunawardana. In, Jonathan Spencer ed., Sri Lanka: The History
and the Roots of Conflict. London: Routledge.



                                                                                                                5
In the final analysis, both Sinhalas and Tamils of today are descendants of immigrants
from mostly southern parts of India. At the level of popular perception, Sinhalas believe
that they belong to a superior ethnic group called “Aryans� who trace their descent from
northern parts of India. The perceived North Indian and Aryan ancestry of Sinhalas is a
fundamental component in the Sinhala origin myth while it is also a corner stone in their
popular perception of themselves. However, as recent critical socio-historical
scholarship has documented, the mega identity of the Sinhalas is something that has
come into existence over a long period of evolution. Gunawardena has argued that the
term Sinhala was used to refer to different groups in different times. The earliest
available records indicate that the word referred to the royalty and at a second state it
referred to a much extended group which also included other nobles. It was only in
much later time that the word was used to refer to the kingdom and a section of the
people within it (Gunawardena 1990).

Similarly, Tamil popular perception and nationalist historiography and mythmaking
suggest that Sinhalas lack pedigree and that Tamils once ruled all of Sri Lanka
(Ponnambalam 1982, Gunasegaram 1985).                 They also consider themselves
“Dravidians�3 and trace their descent to South India. The myth making in Tamil
nationalist discourse became much stronger and more dynamic in the 1980s in the
context of the expanding interethnic conflict and aggressive Sinhala mythmaking. Some
strains of these myths suggest that Tamils of contemporary Sri Lanka are descendents of
the inhabitants of the great centers of Indian civilization in Mohendejaro and Harappa
(Gunasinghe & Abesekera eds., 1987).

These assumptions and claims, part of the origin myths of Sinhalas and Tamils, are
replete with inaccuracies in terms of history which the few critical scholarship on the
subject have not yet been able to dispel (Gunawardena 1990, Siriweera 1976). The
general thrust of such myth making in both groups was to establish the “greatness� of
each group and its long term presence in the country preceding the claims of the rival
groups. Thus the Tamil myths linking their origin to great centers of Indian civilization
was both an attempt to enhance their relative greatness over the Sinhalas as well as to
establish the claim that they arrived in Sri Lanka prior to the Sinhalas. These identities
and their constituent components have changed considerably over time.

Nevertheless, since the formation of these two identities, the bulk of the Tamil speaking
population tended to congregate in northern and eastern Sri Lanka and the majority of
Sinhala speaking population in the south. As a result of constant South Indian invasions,
the Sinhalas abandoned their early dry-zone settlements like Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruwa and migrated south to the wet zone and later to the central hills where they
now predominate. The Tamils settled themselves in the north and east, and seldom
ventured south in a military sense in pursuit of the Sinhalas.




3 In contemporary mainstream academic discourse, both Aryan and Dravidian are used as linguistic categories to
identify clusters of related languages, and makes no reference to ethnicity or race.


                                                                                                                 6
Over time, the former great population centers of the dry zone were completely
abandoned and overrun by advancing tropical jungle. This abandoned area functioned
as a buffer zone which physically segregated the bulk of Tamil and Sinhala populations,
even though official contacts did exist between Tamil rulers of the north and the
southern Sinhala rulers. In some cases Tamil rulers paid tribute to kings in the south,
especially to Kandyan kings (Devaraja 1988). Though limited trade and some
interpersonal relations always took place between the two population clusters, the buffer
zone was so entrenched that it prevented free and fluid interactions between Sinhala and
Tamil masses. Perhaps, this also prevented the occurrence of regular inter-ethnic
conflagrations, which became somewhat endemic in the 1970s and 1980s. Given the
relatively abundant availability of resources, the two groups had fewer reasons to
compete for scarce resources, as they do today.

This state of affairs continued until European colonization began in the 15th century.
The Portuguese, Dutch and British viewed the island as a single administrative unit. The
Portuguese defeated the independent Tamil kingdom in Jaffna and brought all coastal
areas under their control. The Dutch continued this process. The British conquered the
entire country in 1815 and ended the physical segregation of north and south by building
roads and railways linking all parts of the island. The opening of the economy and the
firm entrenchment of the capitalist market economic system motivated many Tamils to
migrate south.

2.2 The Emergence of Ethnic Politics

To a certain extent, the emergence of ethnic politics can be understood in the context of
colonialism in general and some colonial practices and policies in particular. Ethnic
politics however was not clearly manifest until the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
From the very beginning of colonial rule, the British introduced an extremely divisive
and parochial form of limited representation based on caste, ethnicity and religion. This
kind of „communal‟ representation in a systemic sense was retained until 1931 (Nissan
1996: 10). Nevertheless, as a tradition, this system has in many ways survived to date,
and is the precursor of the current ethnic conflict.

In many multicultural societies, in times of socio-economic and political difficulties, it is
not unusual to see one ethnic group becoming the target of another's frustrations. In this
regard Sri Lanka is no exception. Sri Lanka has a clear tradition of ethnic and religious
conflict in the late 19th century and throughout the 20th century in times of socio-
economic and political stress. In most instances, the violence was unleashed upon
ethnic or religious minorities by members of the Sinhala majority. The Kotahena riots
in Colombo in 1883 were the culmination of Buddhist – Catholic distrust which had
evolved over time. The riot itself occurred due to the violation of what was perceived
by local Catholics as sacred space. A Buddhist procession winding its way past a
Catholic church was the immediate cause for the violence of 1883. The anti-Muslim
violence of 1915 was the result of trade rivalries between Muslim and Sinhala traders,
even though a specific incident of violating sacred space was once again the immediate
cause which sparked off the island-wide violence. These conflicts hardly were the result
of long and well-established antagonisms. The antagonisms and violence against
Malayalis in the 1920s and 1930s also has to be understood in the context of economic
                                                                                            7
competition particularly in a time economic depression. The Malayalis who constituted
a significant component of the work force, particularly in the city, were perceived as an
economic threat by many Sinhalas. This suspicion was increased when industrialists in
the first two decades of this century used cheap Malayali labor to sabotage key industrial
strikes. The anti-Malayali agitation diminished only after most of them returned to India
by the 1940s. Thus, ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka also has to be understood in the context
of this tradition.

While exploitable immediate causes always existed, most conflicts of this nature were
the creations of vote-seeking politicians, a negative consequence of democratic politics.
Politicians found especially fertile grounds for violent in ethnic politics when the the
people were experiencing economic and socio-political difficulties. Thus the anti-
Malayali agitation was spear-headed by the once "radical" labor movement of A.E
Gunasinghe. Likewise, the 1915 ant-Muslim riots also have to be understood in the
context of politics of Buddhist revivalists such as Anagarika Dharmapala. Throughout
the 20th century the circumstances under which conflicts arose, how ideologies were
constructed, and the manner in which conflicts were fueled have remained reasonably
constant, while the minority groups targeted have changed over the years (Perera 1989:
3).

The initial impetus to the conflict between Sinhalas and Tamils in the contemporary
sense arose with the decreasing Malayali presence, deteriorating quality of life,
increasing competition for scarce resources and the continuing process of ethnic politics
at national level. Even though the conflict with Tamils, particularly in its violent
manifestations did not surface until after independence, some of its causes can be traced
to the period of colonialism.

However, relations between Tamils and Sinhalas have not always or consistently been
antagonistic. This happened only in times of external threats from South India after the
formulation of clear Sinhala and Tamil ethnic or cultural identities in the 9th (or 12th)
century. These wars were wars of dominance fought between regional rulers and were
not „race‟ wars as defined later. Pali historical chronicles like the Mahawamsa and
Pujavaliya compiled by Sinhala Buddhist monks defined these wars as campaigns
undertaken to protect Buddhism and the Sinhala nation. This was mainly because these
chronicles were written in times of political instability characterized by constant
invasions from South India. Mainly due to reinforced by formal education, many
Sinhalas accept these problematic interpretations as fact today. In the eyes of many Sri
Lankans, these interpretations seem to suggest a long and bloody tradition in which hope
for reconciliation is minimal. Reality plays little part in these interpretations. However,
beliefs are sometimes more important than realities. Significantly, these interpretations,
with their potent and emotional contents have also found their way into school
textbooks, which is an important agency of social and political socialization in
contemporary Sri Lanka.

Forces of Sinhala nationalism perpetuating notions of eternal conflict with Tamils had
been gathering strength since before independence. Many of them were Sinhala
educated rural folk whose nationalist aspirations for cultural transformation, power and
status did not automatically materialize with independence. Soon after independence it
                                                                                          8
was clear that due to reasons outlined above a conflict was emerging between Sinhala
educated rural elite and the English educated urban ruling elite.

2.3 Issues of Language and Interethnic Conflict

In addition to the barriers imposed by the continued use of the English language as the
official language of the state, the emerging nationalist forces referred to above also
perceived that Sri Lankan Tamils had access to a disproportionate share of power as a
consequence of educational opportunities in the colonial period and were also
disproportionately represented in the administration (Nissan 1996). Moreover,
considerable mercantile interests were also controlled by non Sinhala groups which had
become an issue in nationalist politics from the beginning of this century (Nissan 1996:
11). These fears and concerns were a basis for the politics of language that were to
emerge.

The first resounding victory of such Sinhala nationalist forces was the election of
S.W.R.D Bandaranaike as Prime Minister in 1956. His main election promise was the
establishment of Sinhala as the official language of the country, replacing English. The
new government fulfilled this promise soon after the election giving no status of parity
to the Tamil language. In the colonial period, both Tamil and Sinhala politicians
espoused the idea of swabasha, which, literally translates into as „native languages.‟ By
this, they meant that in the post independent period primacy of place should be given to
local languages, namely Sinhala and Tamil. Contrary to Tamil nationalist claims and
some contemporary academics, politics of language have not always been a reflection of
inter-ethnic rivalry. In its initial stages, when demands for swabasha (local languages)
rights surfaced, the politics of language were a class issue even though some blurred
outlined of Sinhala aspirations could be detected. These sentiments were not clearly
articulated and did not receive popular support in the early stages (Perera 1991).
Demands for swabasha rights emerged as a protest against the privileges enjoyed by
English educated elite, which were not open to the masses educated in the local
languages (Perera 1991).

Nevertheless, as early as in 1944 J.R. Jayawardena moved a resolution in Parliament to
declare "Sinhalese the official language of Ceylon within a reasonable number of years"
(Kearney 1967: 63). An amendment was proposed by V. Nallaiah, a Tamil state
councilor, providing for both Sinhala and Tamil as official languages, which was
seconded by R.S.S. Gunawardena, a Sinhala state councilor. The resolution in this form
was approved by 27 to 2 in the Sinhala-dominated legislature, another sign of the lack of
ethnic overtones in the issue of official languages at this stage (Kearney 1967: 63,
Kasynathan & Somasundaram 1981: 55, Debates in the State Council of Ceylon, 1944:
745-746, 816-817, Perera 1991). The resolution specified that Sinhala and Tamil would
become the languages of instruction in schools, examinations for public services and
legislative proceedings.

In 1945, at the suggestion of S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike a select committee was appointed
under the chairmanship of J.R. Jayawardena to advise how changes were to be
implemented. In 1946, the committee submitted its report strongly favoring the
establishment of local languages as official languages replacing English. It also
                                                                                        9
recommended that the transition take place over a period of ten years (Sessional Paper
XXII, 1946: 12). The UNP policy of gradual transition ran into a number of problems.
In 1951, an Official Languages Commission was established to determine the
procedures to be followed in the replacement process. By late 1953 the commission still
had not offered any suggestions. In the same year, Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake
stressed again the UNP's commitment to gradual change.

S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike left the UNP in 1954 citing the government's inaction in
implementing the new official language policies. Within days after his resignation
Bandaranaike launched a concerted attack on the UNP claiming to see "no difficulty in
the way of the early adoption of our languages" (Kearney 1967: 65). Soon after his
resignation, Bandaranaike organized the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) and began to
organize the forces supporting the swabasha movement within Sinhala society in an
attempt to create a broad-based coalition to wrest political power from the UNP in the
upcoming general election (Perera 1991). Even at this stage the language issue had not
become a divisive ethnic issue. In this regard the SLFP manifesto claimed that "it is
most essential that Sinhalese and Tamil be adopted as official languages immediately so
that the people of this country may cease to be aliens in their own land---" (reproduced
in Kearney 1967: 65).

But despite these signs of tolerance, as stated earlier, soon after the electoral victory in
1956, the SLFP government passed the Sinhala Only Bill making language a permanent
and thus far irreconcilable issue in the Sri Lankan interethnic conflict. Moreover, the
non violent protests organized by Tamil leaders to protest the provisions of the Sinhala
Only Bill ushered in the first wide scale anti Tamil violence in this century.

Amidst the wave of cultural revivalism that swept the country from this period onwards,
an increasing process of Sinhalization of the state was clearly visible. In this scheme of
things, the nation was conceptualized in exclusively Sinhala Buddhist terms, which
affectivity excluded minorities from the project of nation-building.

The language issue in many ways brought the Sinhala-Tamil conflict into the forefront
of Sri Lankan politics and has continued unabated since then. The demand for "Sinhala
only" legislation was made for nationalist as well as economic reasons. In terms of the
dominant strands of Sinhala nationalism, the Sinhala language along with the Buddhist
religion necessarily had to occupy the pre-eminent position in society. This was
perceived to be the only way the glory of ancient Sinhala civilization could be
revitalized.

Even though the Tamil has been decreed an official language along with Sinhala in
terms of the 13th amendment to the Sri Lankan constitution, the damage caused by the
politics of language generally remain un-addressed. Moreover, the vast gap between the
official recognition of Tamil as an official language and the practical implementation of
the provisions and conditions it entails, is yet to be bridged.




                                                                                          10
2.4 Interethnic Conflict and Education

Since the 1970s, access to education, particularly access to higher education has been
ethnicized. In addition, many other aspects of education, including the structural
organization of schools and universities, contents of textbooks and training of teachers
have impacted directly on inter-ethnic conflict.

Compared to other ethnic and religious groups in the country, Tamils have had strong
cultural norms which valued education. Education was considered the most worthwhile
legacy one could provide one's children because all other inheritances are material and
therefore perishable (Hellman-Rajanayagam 1984: 133). This notion was a major
premise in the Tirukkural, the Tamil holy book of aphorisms (Arasaratnam 1965: 115,
Bastiampillai 1981). On the other hand, traditional Tamil education was not exclusively
linked with religion unlike its Sinhala counterpart. This made Tamils far less resistant
towards attending missionary-controlled English language schools which were the
passport to higher education and better employment in the colonial period (Perera 1989:
15, Hellman-Rajanayagam 1984: 134). At the same time, as a consequence of well
funded American missionary activities, the Tamil dominated Northern Province had
comparatively better facilities for English language and pre-university education.

There was also a limit beyond which Tamils could not be absorbed within the traditional
land-based occupations in the arid areas where they predominated. This further
encouraged many to seek employment through education. The net result of these
combined circumstances was the relative over-representation of Tamils in higher
education, professions and the administration in comparison to their status in the general
population. By the time Sri Lanka achieved independence in 1948, Tamils constituted
over 30% of government services admissions, which was substantially larger than their
proportion in the general population (Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils together have never
totaled over 18% of the population). In 1956, eight years after independence, Tamils
constituted 30% of Ceylon Administrative Service personnel, 50% of the clerical
personnel of the railway, postal and customs services, 60% of all doctors, engineers and
lawyers, 40% of the armed forces and 40% of other labor forces (Perera 1989: 15, 16,
38).

In the context of this scenario, post independent Sinhala nationalism sought to curb the
Tamil presence in education and thus also in the professions and civil administration. In
other words, curbs on access to higher education were also perceived as a means of
reducing Tamil advantage in jobs and influence. The passing of the Sinhala only Bill
was one attempt in this overall process. More direct hurdles were placed on the path of
Tamils‟ realization of educational goals since the 1970s. The constitutional provisions
in the 1972 constitution of the United Front government favoring the Sinhala language
and Buddhist religion convinced many Tamils that they had been perceived as a
marginal community in national life. The United Front government‟s educational
policies further confirmed this belief. These changes were designed to expand Sinhalas‟
access to higher education. Up to 1971, individuals entered universities on the basis of
competitive examinations conducted at national level, and marks were given on a
uniform basis. Those who scored highest, gained access to different faculties in
universities irrespective of their ethnicity or districts from which they came. While there
                                                                                         11
was no bias inherent in this system, Tamils from Jaffna and Colombo did particularly
well. For example, in the 1969-1970 intake to science and engineering courses, Tamils
constituted 35%, while they constituted over 45% of the intake of engineering and
medical faculties (quoted in Nissan 1996: 12).

From 1971 onwards, a new system was introduced, which ensured that the number of
students qualifying for university entrance from each language was proportionate to the
number of students who sat for university entrance examination in that language. In real
terms this meant that Tamil speaking students had to score much higher than Sinhala
speaking students to gain admission to universities. This also meant that for the first
time, the integrity of university admissions policy was tampered with by using ethnicity
as a basis. In 1972, a district quota system was introduced in order to benefit those not
having adequate access to educational facilities within each language stream (for
example, Sinhala speaking Kandyans were generally under represented in higher
education as were Tamil speaking Muslims, particularly from the Eastern Province).
These changes had a serious impact on the demographic patterns of university entry.
The Tamil representation in the science based disciplines fell from 35.3% in 1970 to
19% in 1975. The Sinhala representation in all disciplines increased quite dramatically.
In 1975, Sinhalas accounted for 78% of places in the science based disciplines while in
the humanities and social sciences they held over 86% of the placements (quoted in
Nissan 19966: 13).

In general, these policies seriously impacted upon not only the chances of Tamils to gain
access to higher education, but also on the overall process of interethnic relations as
well. In 1977, the language based admission policy was abolished by the UNP regime
that had come to power that year, and since that time various adjustments have been
introduced on the basis of merit, district quotas, disadvantaged area quotas etc. While
the obvious ethno-linguistic discrimination of the 1971 policy has long been dismantled,
the serious loss of integrity in the system brought about by constant tampering with it
has not been restored. As a result, many Tamil youth still feel that they are
discriminated against in access to higher education.

In any event, the ethnic divisions and animosities in Sri Lanka tend to manifest within
the education structure in the country in a number of other ways, which are much more
long lasting and far more insidious than the more visible ethno-linguistic discrimination
of the 1970s. These problematic manifestations can be located in the following areas:

     A. The organizational structure of educational institutions.
     B. The training of teachers.
     C. The content of textbooks and syllabi.

In so far as the educational structure of Sri Lankan educational institutions are
concerned, it is clear that language based segregation takes place within schools,
universities and other institutes of higher education. This situation does not apply to
privately owned institutions within which instruction is imparted in English. However
this applies to institutions where more than one language of instruction exists (such as
some universities, mixed media schools and technical institutes) where a system of
internal segregation takes place. What this means in real terms is that Sinhala students
                                                                                       12
are segregated into Sinhala language schools and Tamil and Tamil-speaking Muslim
students are segregated into Tamil language schools (Often however, Muslims and
Tamils are further segregated on the basis of ethnicity). If they enter universities or
technical institutes, this segregation is likely to continue unless they opt to, and have the
money to receive a non-segregated further education in English in private institutions.

The exception to this rule would be some state institutions (e.g., some university
departments where instruction is given in all three languages [Department of Law,
University of Colombo]) where students can opt for the medium of instruction of their
choice. But given the legacy of segregated school education and the general
backwardness of English language education in the country, very few have the required
background or make the choice to educate themselves in a non segregated environment
even when state sector educational institutes may sometimes give the choice.

In the final analysis, what this means is that the voluntary and relatively segregated
routine life of most Sri Lankans is replicated in a great majority of educational
institutions. As a result, schools in Sri Lanka are generally reckoned on the basis of
their ethno-linguistic/ religious identity: Sinhala Buddhist schools, Tamil schools,
Muslim schools, Tamil Christian and Sinhala Christian schools etc. Similarly,
University of Jaffna caters exclusively for Tamils and the South Eastern University
caters to Muslims while the Ruhuna University caters to mostly Sinhala students and the
Eastern University caters to an overwhelmingly Tamil student population. Other
universities cater to all ethnic groups and instruction is imparted in Sinhala, Tamil and
English depending on different departments. However, as noted earlier, these seemingly
multi-linguistic institutions are internally segregated based on the manner in which
students finally opt to form class clusters, which generally follow the lines of
segregation in the outer society and pre-university school system (Perera 1991). In a
society rendered unstable as a result of interethnic conflict and the resultant
manifestations of violence, more integrated schools could have been a site where aspects
of the conflict ideally could have been effectively addressed. That possibility has been
foreclosed as a result of Sri Lankan educational policy.

The training of teachers for the Sri Lankan school system undertaken by state
organizations poses similar problems as those identified above. It is clear that most
teachers in service today, are products of the segregated education system as are the
students they are teaching. Moreover, they are also trained in institutions that are
internally segregated except in the training of teachers specializing in subjects such as
English. None of the teacher training institutions in operation today have seriously
taken into account the need to train teachers who can teach in a context keeping in mind
the challenges of a multicultural society (Perera 1992). There is a clear dis-juncture
between current state policy towards interethnic relations and the manner in which
teachers are trained.

Since the early 1980s, emerging scholarship in Sri Lanka had stressed upon the role
school texts play in shaping interethnic relations in the country (Siriwardena et. al 1983,
Perera 1991, Sama Shakti Guru Sanwada Sansadaya 1998). Ideally, school texts (eg.,
texts used for teaching religion, language, social studies etc) should portray the multi
cultural reality of Sri Lankan society and address issues that are important in this context
                                                                                           13
while approaching the prescribed subject matter. School texts are written, supervised,
produced and distributed by agencies of the state (Ministry of Education and Higher
Education, National Institute of Education, Department of Educational Publications).
This means that the contents of texts must necessarily reflect state policy or thinking.

In this context, an analysis of the evolution of both the process of text publication and
the contents of texts over the years indicate that the text compilers have been interested
in creating within the pages of these texts (particularly, texts used for teaching Sinhala
language, Buddhism and Social Studies) a sense of Sinhala Buddhist hegemony
(Siriwardena et. al 1983, Perera 1991). In this state of affairs, other ethno-cultural
communities have been literally pushed into the margins of the texts or completely
removed from them (Siriwardena et. al 1983, Perera 1991). Similarly, Christian and
Islam texts create a relatively exclusive portrayal of their own religious communities
without any reference to the Sri Lanka‟s multi-religious reality. Tamil language readers
portray a very northern (Jaffna) centric sense of Sri Lankan reality, even though the
kinds of explicit and ethnocentric references in the Sinhala readers are absent in these
texts (Siriwardena et. al 1983, Perera 1991). In other words, ethnic politics are being
played out in the process of text production.

In recent times some of more problematic contents in these texts have been removed in
the process of revision and re-writing. Ironically however, in the social studies texts,
this has gone to the extent of removing all references to ethnicity and related issues.
This makes little sense in a country where ethnicity is a central issue but has also led to
considerable political and social turmoil (Perera & Wickramasinghe 1999). Even so, in
the most recent Sinhala Language Reader for grade 9 produced with World Bank aid,
ethnocentric content with regard to Sinhala hegemony and minority phobia very clearly
emerges in the very first lesson of the text (Sinhala 9, 1999: 3).

2.5 Interethnic Conflict and Employment

Economically, "Sinhala only" legislation was a practical way to limit the employability
of Tamils (and other minorities) and the English-educated elite of all ethnic groups. As
apparent from the preceding outline, the conflicts with Muslims and Malayalis were
triggered by economic grievances in economically depressed times.

During the colonial era and the early years after independence, the middle classes of
both ethnic groups enjoyed conflict-free interactions as they did not have to compete for
the same economic resources. Moreover, they were also educated in non-segregated
English language schools, which gave them access to social networks cutting across
ethnic and religious lines. As a result, at the time it was possible for the Tamil, Muslim
and Sinhala elite to work together to campaign for constitutional changes for Sri Lanka.
The unity between these individuals gave an illusion of a real national consciousness (as
opposed to an ethnic consciousness). But the vision of a unified Sri Lankan nation was
held primarily by the English educated elite of both groups, and was not shared by the
masses of either group, and in any case died out in its embryonic form soon after
independence. While employment opportunities were available in the administrative,
professional and mercantile services, middle-class inter-ethnic relations were cordial.

                                                                                         14
The situation did not deteriorate until employment opportunities started drying up after
World War Two and soon after independence (Vittachi 1958: 98).

Though Tamils were over-represented in higher education and therefore in the
administration and professions, it was the Sinhalas who dominated the remainder of the
wider economy like the lucrative plantation and business sectors (Samaraweera 1977:
97). To excel in these fields, competence in English or higher education qualifications
were not required. One reason why the Sinhalas were not vocal about their unenviable
position in the administration and the professions was because of the availability of
these modes of financial and social advancement. Some observers have suggested that
when competition for state and professional-sector employment intensified, Tamils
zealously protected their achievements precisely because they lacked deep roots in the
wider economy (Samaraweera 1977: 99). On the other hand, as suggested by Wriggins,
some colonial policies designed to encourage and induce entrepreneurship tended in the
short run to favor minority groups like Tamils (Wriggins 1960: 310, Perera 1989: 17-
18).

Indian Tamils living in the Kandyan Sinhala heartland added another dimension to the
escalating problem. Initially, Indians were brought to certain parts of Sri Lanka by the
British in the 19th century to work in the tea estates when the Kandyans refused to
engage in such unattractive manual labor. The expansion of tea estates and Indian Tamil
settlements caused a number of demographic and physical changes in the hill country
which were to have chaotic consequences with the escalation of the Sinhala-Tamil
conflict. First, the large scale and rapid influx of a group of people who were socially
and culturally different to the deeply conventional Kandyans inhibited their integration.
Though to some extent Sri Lanka had a tradition of assimilating new migrants from the
sub-continent without dis-equilibrium (by creating new castes within the Sinhala caste
system), the sheer numbers and the rapidity of this influx made prospects of assimilation
impossible. In the 19th century the migration of these workers added a higher
percentage to the total population than was added by natural increase (Samaraweera
1977: 98).

Second, when the British evicted the Kandyans from their traditional land to make room
for the new Tamil settlements and estates, a class of landless Kandyan peasants was
created, which was a totally new phenomenon. The growth of estates and Tamil labor
settlements also circumscribed Sinhala villages in some regions leaving them little room
for expansion. Because of these developments, the new arrivals were later seen as a
problematic presence who denied the Kandyans employment opportunities and who
were a contributory factor in the dispossession of their patrimony in land. The truly
pitiful state of the new arrivals was never really seen or accepted by the Sinhalas.

Even before independence, the Sinhalas feared that Indian Tamil immigrants and local
Tamils from the north east could form an alliance detrimental to the Sinhalas. Kandyans
demanded that the estate workers be repatriated so that they could occupy those
positions (Vittachi 1958: 94-95). Sinhala fears heightened when repatriation talks with
India failed and the laborers began to politically organize themselves under the Ceylon
Workers Congress with a strong allegiance to India. A number of important legislative
actions in the 1940s and 1950s were aimed at stemming the political clout of these
                                                                                       15
people by denying them citizenship rights. These actions created a new category called
"Stateless Persons" (as India also refused to accept them).4

As Gunasinghe has pointed out, traditional patron client relationships in the allocation of
jobs in the emerging market tended to favor young Sinhalas (Gunasinghe 1984). Youth
leaving schools or universities had to have access to politicians in order to gain access to
certain kinds of employment, particularly in the state sector. The economic system in
force in the country from 1956 to 1977 has been described as a „state regulated
economy‟ (Gunasinghe 1984: 198). Gunasinghe has pointed out that in the context of
this regulated economy, individuals with affiliations with the ruling Sinhala dominated
political parties (UNP and SLFP) had better chances of success. That is, it was mostly
Sinhala individuals with direct access to these political parties who were successful in
getting the numerous quotas, licenses etc that were needed to carry out business
(Gunasinghe 1984: 199). As a result, the “period of state regulation and import
substitution provided the background to the upliftment of a fair section of middle level
Sinhala entrepreneurs to the position of captains industry (Gunasinghe 1984: 199).

A similar situation was taking place in the expanding public sector as well. According
to Gunasinghe, the system of political patronage was a significant factor in gaining
access to employment in the public sector (1984: 199):

        “The system of recruitment on political patronage also favored the Sinhala
        youth. Irrespective of the regime being UNP or SLFP, opportunities existed
        for Sinhala youth to build up patron client linkages with local politicians and
        press themselves forward. The Tamil youth, especially those of the north
        and the east, did not enjoy this advantage, as their local politicians
        represented regional ethnic parties, enjoying no power at the centre. Thus
        the expansion of the public sector was not merely an increase in the state
        regulation of the economy. It was, simultaneously an area of expansion of
        job opportunities for Sinhala youth� (Gunasinghe 1984: 199).

In the private sector, which mostly continued to work in the English language,
employment opportunities for Tamils and other minorities remained relatively open.
The expanding private banking sector in the post 1977 period did not favor any ethnic
group, but generally those who were credit-worthy. In this sector also, the kind of
discrimination that one could have expected in the state sector did not take place
(Gunasinghe 1984). Today, as a result, some of the leading business ventures in the
country are Tamil-owned.




4 In the 1980s the then President J.R Jayawardena granted citizenship to most of these "Stateless Persons" as a means
of generating more votes for the UNP. Today, some of these people are government ministers while others demand a
separate state for themselves in the hill country called Malaya Desam. In the 1980s and 1990s, some of them received
covert training by some Tamil guerrilla groups.




                                                                                                                   16
However, as a result of the discrimination that has occurred in state sector employment
practices over time, there is a tendency among many Tamils to perceive of themselves as
generally discriminated against in employment.

Another dimension of the ethnic factor in employment linked to the patron client
relations takes place in the state sector when members of parliament or particularly
cabinet ministers representing minority ethnic groups form parts of coalition
governments or simply happen to be members of mainstream Sinhala dominated
political parities which form governments. In this setup, such ministers and members of
parliament have adequate clout to find employment or even scholarships for members of
their own ethnic or religious (and sometimes caste) group in state sector agencies that
they control or have access to.

2.6 Interethnic Conflict and the Issue of Land

The issue of ownership over and access to land has also been a consistent area in which
ethnic politics in Sri Lanka have manifested, and have sustained themselves over the
years. As already noted, one of the peculiarities in the demographic patterns in Sri
Lanka is the relative concentration of certain ethnic groups in certain geographical
regions.

The clearest site of politics of land and ethnicity has been in the sparsely populated areas
of the dry zone in the North Central Province and the Eastern Province. Some observers
have correctly noted that the “unfolding pattern of dry zone colonization has fuelled the
ethnic conflict� (Tambiah 1992: 69). The opening up of the dry zone for settlement and
irrigated agriculture commenced under British colonial rule. The dry zone areas of the
North Central Province had special socio-cultural significance for Sinhalas in term of
their popular imagination of the past. It was area where a number of ancient Sinhala
capitals were located in a time considered as “golden era of Sinhala civilization.� It was
also where many of the ruins of these ancient cities and citadels continued to be a source
of pride to many Sinhalas.

When post independent governments decided to settle poor Sinhala farmers from the
densely populated wet zone areas of the country, many Sinhala politicians and people in
general viewed the process as a “reclamation and recreation in the present of the
glorious Sinhalese Buddhist past� (Nissan 1996: 23). The so called colonization
schemes became an integral aspect of the project of Sinhala Buddhist „nation‟ building,
which excluded from that process the participation of ethnic and religious minorities.

For many Sinhalas, the expansion of their presence in the north east seemed legitimate
in the context of their understanding of Thesawlamei, the Tamil personal law in force in
Jaffna. In terms of provisions in Thesawalamei, it was extremely difficult for „outsiders‟
to buy land in Jaffna. Many Sinhala nationalists viewed these traditional laws as an
affront to their dominance particularly in the context of post dependence politics.

Not surprisingly, the Tamils had a completely different perception of the colonization of
the dry zone. As Tambiah observes:

                                                                                          17
     “given the ethnically preferential policy and the manner in which the
     Sinhala-Tamil conflict was developing, it was inevitable that Sri Lankan
     Tamils would see the massive migrations of Sinhalese into the Dry Zone as
     an intrusion into their alleged “homelands,� and as attempts to swamp them�
     (Tambiah 1992: 69).

The notion of the „traditional Tamil homeland‟ became a potent component of popular
Tamil political imagination. Since Sinhala settlements in the north central and eastern
provinces occurred under direct state sponsorship, it appeared to many Tamils as a
deliberate attempt of the Sinhala dominated state to marginalize them further by
decreasing their numbers in the area. The colonization schemes did alter the
demographic patterns, particularly in the eastern province in a significant way.
According to some reports, Sinhala population which constituted 3% of the population
in the Trincomalee District in the east in 1921 had risen to 30% in 1981. Similarly,
Amparai District which used to be a largely Tamil and Muslim majority area is currently
a Sinhala majority area.

The Ceylon Tamil Congress complained about Sinhala colonization in the north east
prior to independence, while the same issue was a major preoccupation for the (Tamil)
Federal Party from its inception in 1949 (Nissan 1996: 23). Tamil fears and concerns
over re-settlement were recognized in the aborted Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact,
where Prime Minister Bandaranaike observed that:

     “The instrument of colonization should not be used to convert the Northern
     and eastern Provinces into Sinhalese majority areas or in any other manner to
     the detriment of the Tamil speaking people of these areas� (quoted in Nissan
     1996: 23).

Nevertheless, such recognition did not translate into policy except at a much later stage.
Despite this recognition, a decision was made after the UNP government came to power
in 1977 to accelerate the development of the dry zone through what was called the
Accelerated Mahaweli Program, a program, which provided for the opening up dry zone
areas further for agriculture and resettlement of people. Only in 1986, as a result of
continuing Tamil agitation, did the government agree to allocate the remaining land
under the Mahaweli Program on the basis of the ethnic distribution of each ethnic group
in the total population.

By the time the interethnic conflict had transformed itself into a military confrontation
between the security forces of the state and various Tamil militant groups in the late
1970s and early 1980s, the great majority of Sinhala settlements in the North East had
literally become an ethnic buffer zone between Tamil population centers in the north-
east and Sinhala population centers in the south. Many of these settlements never really
evolved into communities with cross cutting relationships with adjacent Tamil or
Muslim villages. They remained ethnic „colonies‟ in the midst of a mostly Tamil ethno-
cultural and political terrain. This was the situation up to the mid 1980s despite the
relative absence of violent conflict between members of these Sinhala settlements and
Tamil villages. The resettled areas were clearly perceived in military strategic terms as
an ethnic buffer zone by the LTTE and other militant groups. Since the 1980s, the
                                                                                        18
resettled groups have become regular targets of violent and brutal attacks by many of
these militant groups, particularly the LTTE. Today many of these people have been
internally displaced, and their properties in the area destroyed in sustained attacks by
Tamil guerillas. The goal of these attacks was to eliminate the Sinhala presence in these
areas and to destroy their infrastructure in order to prevent future resettlement. On the
other hand, some of the remaining settlers have been armed by the state to protect
themselves, which has also contributed to the escalation of violence in the long run.

In this context, it is significant that the devolution proposals proposed by the People‟s
Alliance government (initially in 1995) has suggested that the issue of land would be a
subject that would be dealt with by the regional councils, and that state land in the
regions would be vested in the proposed councils. Nevertheless, even in the event of
establishing regional councils, the issue of land, particularly the future of colonies
already established must be clearly spelt. the absence of clear policy in this regard may
lead to a further manifestation of ethnic conflict and violence in the future as regional
legislature may opt to evict settlers given the memories and history of ethnic conflict
which are not easy to forget at the level of popular perception or mass politics.

3.1 The emerging Ideas of Separatism and Loss of Confidence in Non-violent and
Democratic Politics

Divisive ethnic politics and fears of discrimination had led Tamil politicians in the
direction of political autonomy or separation from a very early stage of recent Sri
Lankan politics. Since the 1930s, and much more clearly since the 1950s, Tamil
political parties have been asking for greater political autonomy for the areas in which
they predominate. Such a devolution of power has been recognized at different times as
a means to diffuse tensions between the two groups. A number of pacts had been
formulated to define the modalities for devolution of power. In July 1957, less than a
year after the „Sinhala Only‟ legislation had been adopted by parliament, an agreement
known as the Bandaranaike - Chelvanayagam Pact was agreed upon between Prime
Minster S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and S.J.V. Chelvanayagam, the Leader of the Federal
Party. Even though the Bandaranaike - Chelvanayagam Pact did not accept all the
demands of the Federal Party nor provide for the creation of an extensive federal
governing structure, it did offer a framework for regional devolution. But under
relentless pressure from UNP dominated Sinhala nationalist opposition forces, the
provisions of the pact were never implemented. It is generally accepted now that if the
provisions of the pact had been implemented at that time, the interethnic conflict would
not have reached the destructive proportions it has reached today. In 1965, yet another
pact known as Dudley - Chelvanayagam Pact was formulated, and agreed upon between
the UNP lead by Prime Minster Dudley Senanayake and S.J.V. Chelvanayagam of the
Federal Party. But yet again the provisions of this pact, quite similar to the earlier, one,
were never implemented, this time under pressure from SLFP led Sinhala nationalist
forces. On both occasions the conditions under which the pacts were abrogated,
indicated the general lack of political will on the part of national level Sinhala political
leadership.

The failure to implement these proposals lead to Tamil demands for separation instead
of federal type of regional autonomy they had been mostly seeking up to that point. On
                                                                                          19
the part of many Tamils, particularly Tamil youth from the north, the failure of these
pacts also marked a disintegration of confidence in parliamentary politics in general. In
1977, the Tamil United Liberation Front won an overwhelming electoral victory on a
highly charged political platform of separatism. In 1980, the District Development
Council Act was passed in Parliament and elections to the councils were held in July
1981. But given the lack of government commitment to decentralization of power, this
attempt also proved to be a failure. After this point, there were clear indications that the
politics of Tamil society were going shift from the commitment to parliamentary
democracy held by its conservative leaders to a commitment to armed struggle held by
considerable sections of Tamil youth. In 1979, the government enacted the draconian
Prevention of Terrorism Act as a an interim measure, but in 1982 it was amended to be
part of the permanent law.

3.2 The Continuation of Interethnic Conflict and the Emergence of Armed Conflict

Until the early 1980s, inter-ethnic conflict was primarily limited to the political arena
where destruction to property and life was minimal. However, even at this stage
violence occurred on certain occasions such as in the passing of the “Sinhala Only� bill
in 1956. The non violent opposition to the bill organized by Tamil politicians was
disrupted by Sinhala crowds in what has been described by both academics and
journalists as a riot, implying spontaneous mob action (Vittachi 1958). Similar violent
incidents involving Tamils and Sinhalas have occurred in 1957, 1977, 1978, and the
most violent and destructive of these took place in July 1983. Many observers see the
violence of July 1983 as a turning point in the conflict.

In the light of recent interviews I would argue that none of these violent incidents in Sri
Lanka were spontaneous riots in the strictest sense of the word. There was clearly
popular and spontaneous participation. But I would argue that participation was
facilitated by clear organization and planing at other levels such as is in the provision of
transport for those who engaged in violence as well as delayed or no action to stem the
violence on the part of the law and order apparatus. These tendencies were much more
clearer in 1983 than on any previous occasion.

After the early 1980s such sporadic cases of violence gradually gave way to
institutionalized political violence which became a main feature of the conflict. At this
stage, organized or institutionalized political violence was widely utilized by both the
political parties in power and Tamil youth who organized themselves into armed
guerrilla outfits.     This development marked the militarization and the steady
brutalization of the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict which has now reached civil war
proportions and led to Indian military intervention in 1987.

The development Tamil militancy and its various manifestations have to be understood
in the context of the Sinhala dominated Sri Lankan state‟s inability to address the serious
socio-political and economic issues which the Tamil minority faced. In many cases,
these issues were directly linked to problems of language, and restricted access to higher
education and state sector employment. Gunasinghe has argued in an influential essay
that language policies and the patron-client relationships that emerged between Sinhala
politicians and their supporters also paved the way for enhanced employment and
                                                                                          20
business opportunities for Sinhalas of whatever party affiliation at the expense of Tamils
(Gunasinghe 1984).

The failure of parliamentary politics and the entrenchment of ethnic politics which led to
frustration among Tamil youth eventually made some of these youth to organize
themselves into armed groups for the ostensible purpose of seeking independence from
Sinhala domination. The first of these groups was the Tamil Tigers which later came to
be known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam or LTTE. In 1978 the Tamil Tigers
carried out a series of bank robberies and also assassinated a number of police officers,
many of whom were Tamil. Tamil police officers were specifically seen as traitors who
were aiding in the process of Sinhala domination (Hoole et. al 1990: 22-23). Bank
robberies and selected assassination of individuals within the Tamil community who
were considered traitors in the initial period later led to massacres of Sinhala and
Muslim civilians in the border villages and contested areas. By the 1980s, this phase in
the evolution of political violence expanded to include indiscriminate bomb attacks in
the Sinhala dominated south, particularly in Colombo, the capital.

A detailed social history of the Tamil militancy would sketch the processes which led to
the emergence and entrenchment of political violence within Tamil society. However,
my intention here is not to outline that process in detail which has been ably done by
other writers elsewhere.5 But it is necessary to identify some of its dynamics which
directly led to the entrenchment of political violence in Tamil society. From its
inception, the militancy was not a monolith. The splintering of the movement into
various groups such as Tamil Elam Army (TEA), People‟s Liberation Organization of
Tamil Elam (PLOTE), Elam People‟s Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF), Elam
Revolutionary Organization of Students (EROS) and so on almost from the beginning
clearly indicate the ideological differences and different opinions in terms of strategy
that existed among those who engaged in youth politics in the Tamil dominated north
and eastern provinces of Sri Lanka. Moreover, from the very beginning, the collective
militant movement, whatever their institutional manifestations showed very little regard
for democratic values or the routine rights of the very people they claimed to protect. In
his recent book, Loganathan makes the following pertinent observation regarding the
nature of the militancy:

        “The distinction between „liberation struggle‟ and „terrorism‟ has become
        blurred. The armed struggle was never mass-based; it reduced people to the
        status of „observers‟ or contributors to the coffers of the „sole protectors.‟
        Those among the „people‟ who were inclined towards national reconciliation
        and accommodation were branded as „traitors‟. In addition, the „battle‟ was
        no longer against the state and its organs. Non-combatant civilians,
        particularly in the „border areas‟ became legitimate targets� (Loganathan
        1996: 189).



5 See Broken Palmyra: The Tamil Crisis in Sri Lanka, An Inside Account, 1990 by Rajan Hoole et. al (Claremont: Sri
Lanka Studies Institute) and Sri Lanka: Lost Opportunities by Ketheswaran Loganathan, 1996 (Colombo: CEPRA,
University of Colombo).


                                                                                                                21
Even though Loganathan‟s comments are directed specifically at the LTTE, the
observations of other writers indicate that a similar situation existed among other groups
from the very beginning of the militancy (Hoole et. al 1990). In a sense, Tamil society
has faced three clear waves of political violence at extreme levels.

       1. The first of these was the violence unleashed by the Sri Lankan armed forces
       in the context of ambushes and other confrontations with guerrillas. In such
       situations, members of the armed forces, unable to locate the invisible enemy
       constantly harassing them, aimed their guns on civilians populations. The
       detailed publications of the University Teachers for Human Rights (Jaffna)
       documents much of the violence unleashed by the armed forces of the state as
       well as guerrilla outfits within Tamil society (UTHR 1990, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c,
       1992, 1993, 1994).

       2. The second clear wave of violence was from within Tamil society. That is,
       locally manufactured violence that was never supposed to be directed at the local
       populace.

       3. The third wave of violence was the unprecedented terror unleashed by the
       Indian armed forces known as the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) which
       landed in Sri Lanka in 1987 in keeping with the Indo-Lanka Accord which was
       supposed to bring peace to the island's war torn north east. Instead, it added a
       new dimension into the violence and prolonged the conflict. In the context of the
       escalating violence by the IPKF, the people in Jaffna renamed it the Innocent
       People Killing Force.

Currently, in the north-east theater of war, only the LTTE continues to fight the Sri
Lankan armed forces. The other groups have either joined Sri Lankan forces to fight the
LTTE which had attempted to annihilate many of them or have been eliminated by the
LTTE. In fact as early as in 1985, the LTTE successfully eliminated the TELO (Tamil
Elam Liberation Organization) killing most of its leaders, and raiding their camps
(Hoole et. al. 1990: 81-82). From its embryonic stage, the LTTE under its undisputed
leader Velupillai Prabhakaran has not tolerated dissent or any semblance of plurality of
political ideas. In fact, observers have noted that with the rise of internal killings and the
emerging autocratic leadership of the collective militant movement, many of the more
idealistic university students who initially joined such organizations, left them to engage
themselves in other activities such as providing relief for refugees (Hoole et. al. 1990:
76-77). In addition to military and economic targets and dissenting voices within Tamil
society, the LTTE has also consistently attacked Sinhala civilians in what has come to
be called border villages, and in also in the capital by using indiscriminate bombing
tactics.

3.3 Consequences of Interethnic Conflict and its Militarization: Issues of Trauma
and Psychological Stress

Some of the direct most visible consequences of the conflict are linked to issues of
trauma and displacement. The psychological and social consequences of the conflict
result primarily from the following conditions:
                                                                                            22
      A. Living in conditions of extreme violence for extended periods of time.

      B. Being involved in violent activities as in the case of guerrillas, including
      female and child cadres of the LTTE or as members of state military forces.

      C. Consequences of internal and external displacement.

In his recent book, Scarred Minds: The Psychological Impact of War on Sri Lankan
Tamils, Jaffna based psychiatrist, Daya Somasundaram observes that mental health
workers took a long time to comprehend the nature of psychological consequences of
the evolving “civil war in northern Sri Lanka (Somasundaram 1998: 175). More
importantly, he also observes that in the initial stages, these mental health workers did
not “really possess the appropriate knowledge, training or facilities to tackle post
traumatic problems on such a large scale� (Somasundaram 1998: 175).
Somasundaram‟s case studies clearly indicate the extent of trauma and resultant post
traumatic conditions in the war affected northern Sri Lanka (1998). Many of these
conditions have arisen as a result of directly experiencing violence such as torture at the
hands of various Tamil guerrilla groups, Sri Lankan government forces or Indian Forces
when they were operating in these areas in the late 1980s. They are also the result of
losing loved ones in war or the result of physical injuries in war (Somasundarm 1998).

The manner in which the consequences of the conflict have affected children in the north
east is ill understood. By 1993 about 400, 000 children had been displaced in the north
and east due to the prevailing conditions of violence and instability (Marga Institute
1994: 60, quoted in Perera 1998). The Law and Society Trust in Colombo quoting from
a UNICEF report notes that children in the region are seriously affected psychologically
due to the trauma of war and displacement. Their observable symptoms resulting from
the prevailing socio-political conditions included extreme sadness, fear, anger and
irritable behavior, and lack of hope -- particularly in older and adolescent children
(quoted in Perera 1998). In addition, an increase in physical symptoms related to stress
has also been reported along with fear and difficulty in dealing with routine matters,
withdrawal from routine activities at home and school as well as from other persons, and
withdrawal into conflict related fantasies (Law and Society Trust 1996: 165, quoted in
Perera 1998).

Available information also indicates that the LTTE actively recruits very young children
into its fighting ranks. It is quite common to encounter children under 15 years trained in
the use of fire arms who are also used in combat situations and for sentry duty.
Observers have noted that in 1995 the recruitment of children into the fighting ranks of
the LTTE intensified (Perera 1998). When over 200 LTTE members died while trying
to overrun four army camps in the Weli Oya area in the east in July 1995, it was
discovered that many of the dead were children (Law and Society Trust 1996: 167,
quoted in Perera 1998).

Children living in conditions of constant military conflict and social instability resulting
from inter-ethnic rivalry are likely to internalize certain ideas that would also be
detrimental to interethnic relations in the long run. Thus it was no surprise that some
                                                                                          23
children in the Eastern Province who were randomly asked the question “what do you
think of Sinhalas?� came up remarkably consistent terms of reference to describe
Sinhalas: they are people wearing khaki, people carrying guns, they kill, they are loud
mouthed (Perera 1998). Clearly, their perception of the Sinhalas was clouded by the
reality of war that they faced every day.

Women are yet another group upon whom the violence would leave a serious
psychological impact. This is the result of begin exposed to the violence perpetrated by
others (rape, war widows etc.) as well as being the perpetrators of violence themselves
(e.g., LTTE female cadre). Rape was regularly utilized by the Indian armed forces in
the late 1980s and the Sri Lankan armed forces as well (UTHR 1991b). Even after the
current Sri Lankan government came to power with promises of peace and a flurry of
peace negotiations with the LTTE, there are indications that rape of women in military
controlled areas has occurred (WERC 1996). The best documented case of this nature
was the rape and the murder of Krishanthy Kumaraswamy by Sri Lankan military
personnel who was last seen near the Kithady checkpoint in the north September 9th
1996 (WERC 1996: 107-108).

The trauma of rape does not result merely from the act of rape itself. Much of it comes
after the act in the way society reacts to rape victims. In conservative Tamil society
which privileges notions of chastity, virginity before marriage and restrictive notions of
purity, women are placed in an extremely difficult position when many of these notions
would be violated in a situation of rape (Perera 1998). In these conditions rape victims
are victimized by more than one aggressor. That is firstly by the rapist, and then by their
own society.

Violence has been ritualized and glorified in some sections of Tamil society in the north
and east particularly as a result of LTTE‟s ideological and strategic considerations. This
has also affected women quite significantly as the LTTE has expanded the military role
of women within its organization. LTTE sympathizers have attempted to present the
case of LTTE women fighters as an example of women‟s liberation and a situation of
acquiring equal status with men. Radhika Coomaraswamy, the United Nations Special
Rappoteur on Violence Against Women, in a recent influential essay attempts to place
this problem in context in the following words:

      “I do not believe that inducting women into a fighting force is a step towards
      empowerment and equality. I believe that the recruitment of women into the
      fighting ranks signals the militarization of civil society -- a militarization
      which in itself is inimical to anyone who believes in human rights�
      (Coomaraswamy 1996: 8).

A similar situation of exposure to extreme violence exists among men as well. This
includes both civilians and members of various militant groups, including state military
formations. It is clear that particularly under LTTE leadership, a cult of ritualized
political violence has been established within sections of Tamil society. This is clearly
visible in areas under its control or in areas that have been under its control. The
clearest manifestations of this cult of violence are the emergence of the suicide bomber
who is willing to assassinate a complete stranger in the name of his/ her organization
                                                                                         24
and its leader. The other symbol of this process is the emergence of wayside shrines for
fallen LTTE martyrs and the social significance of the idea of martyrdom within the
organization (Perera 1998). However, as opposed to the availability of information on
the psychological dimensions of the violence in the north east among children and
women (civilians), information is vague about the psychological consequences of war
among members of organizations such as the LTTE and state security forces.

On the basis of available information and the high rate of violence the conflict has
ushered in, it is reasonable to assume that a serious mental health crisis exists in the
areas most affected by war. This is the direct result of being exposed to violence as well
as the instability brought upon by constant displacement and forced migration. Yet
neither the state, nor groups such as the LTTE who control certain areas of the country,
have an overall plan currently in operation to address such possibilities. On the other
hand, given the relatively restricted access to mental health expertise and facilities in the
country, addressing such issues even in the event of peace would become a serious issue.
Hence, it is extremely important to understand this situation, and the challenges it may
pose in any relief, rehabilitation of reconstruction program that may emerge in the
future.

3.4 Concluding Comments

The extent of militarization of the conflict and the scale of destruction in terms of lives
lost and property destroyed have lead many Sri Lanakns to perceive of the conflict as
having passed a point of no return. The rapid militarization it self is a consequence of
the almost complete loss of faith in conventional politics experienced by many segments
within Tamil society, particularly the youth.

This also means that democratic processes and democratic institutions have been
seriously undermined over the years. In other words, democracy itself has been one of
the most obvious casualties of the conflict. In this context, it is imperative to note that
any future initiatives to address or resolve the Sri Lankan conflict has to take into
account the need to build confidence in the system of governance, particularly in the
democratic practices and institutions that have been subverted or dismantled. This is
particularly significant in a context where Sri Lankan political parties in general (not
simply in the north east) have accepted the dismantling of democratic practices as
inevitable, and therefore acceptable.

In addition, the possible resolution of the conflict has to take into account a number of
other long term priority areas that needs to be addressed. These would include viable
mechanisms of peace building and reconciliation such as the education structure
including school texts and teachers that could promote notions of multiculturalism,
pluralism and democracy. Currently, this does not happen. The ethnic and religious bias
in employment, particularly state sector employment also has to be addressed as a matter
of priority. Employment should be a rational economic process rather than a process
governed by dynamics of ethnicity and religion. The means to ensure the equitable use
of national languages must also be taken into account particularly because language is
one of the most emotive aspects of the ethnic conflict.

                                                                                           25
Currently, in military terms the conflict has entered a new phase. The government has
had a number of serious military reversals in the Wanni area since November 1999 that
has seriously compromised the security of these areas and their potential for
development. Moreover, the LTTE has stepped up its bombing campaign in the city
since December 1999, which includes an assassination attempt on the President and the
assassination of a Cabinet Minister.

The recent military reversals and the entrenchment of the conflict has lead to a number
of contradictory scenarios in both Sinhala and Tamil societies. In urban areas,
particularly Colombo, Sinhala nationalists, generally not directly touched by the war
have organized themselves into organizations such as the National Movement Against
Terrorism and the Sinhala Veera Vidahana, whose collective aims include the
continuation of armed action against the LTTE, suspension of possible peace talks with
the LTTE, and in general oppose any political compromises that may lead to a cessation
of conflict. This also means that these organizations and their supporters oppose the
political proposals that the government has proposed to devolve power to the regions as
a means of seeking a political compromise without giving into the demand for a separate
Tamil state. On the other hand, in border areas, as recent fieldwork has indicated,
Sinhala and Tamil villagers constantly and severely touched by the war are more
interested in seeking a compromise political solution rather than the continuity of war.

LTTE on the other hand, and Tamil nationalist forces sympathetic towards its aims both
within Sri Lanka and in Europe and North America are opposed to any solution other
than a separate Tamil state. Moreover, the LTTE does not have a democratic agenda in
any form at the moment as indicated in the low profile and stature of its political wing.
This is particularly striking when compared to the influence and political capability of
the political wing of an organization such as the Irish Republican Army.

The political commitment the government initially had towards peace soon after its
electoral victory in 1994 has steadily deteriorated both in the context of the military
reversals it has recently experienced and due to the pressure brought upon by influential
sections within Sinhala society. On the other hand, the influence of non governmental
organizations, despite specific work they have done, has been minimal in the larger
scheme of peace building within the country.

In the context of the considerations above, the general assumption that cessation of
hostilities and peace being only a distant possibilities entertained by many people seem
to make sense. Yet, it is also clear that the conflict as it has evolved, cannot be resolved
by any actor purely on military terms. That solution, irrespective of the ultimate shape it
may take, will be situated in political compromise and vision of all the actors involved.
However, at the moment, such vision and commitment to political compromise seem to
be scarce resource.




                                                                                          26
3.5 Bibliography

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