Report No: ACS18530
.




    Republic of Liberia
    Liberia Skills Development Constraints for
    Youth in the Informal Sector
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    January 31, 2016
.
    Social Protection and Labor
    AFRICA
.




.
Document of the World Bank
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                        ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS


AfDB         African Development Bank
AfT          Agenda for Transformation
CPS          Country Partnership Strategy
CWIQ         Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire
DHS          Demographic and Health Survey
EPAG         Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women
ICT          Information and Communications Technology
KTF          Korea Trust Fund
LFS          Labor Force Survey
NGO          Non-Governmental Organization
OECD         Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OTJ          On-the-job
PASET        Partnership for Skills in Applied Sciences, Engineering, and Technology
SPF          State and Peacebuilding Fund
TVET         Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UNDP         United Nations Development Program
USD          United States Dollar
YES          Youth, Employment and Skills




                  Regional Vice President:      Makhtar Diop
                         Country Director:      Henry G. R. Kerali
    Acting Senior Global Practice Director:     Omar S. Arias Diaz
                        Practice Manager:       Stefano Paternostro
                      Task Team Leaders:        Suleiman Namara / Laura Ralston
                                  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report was prepared and written by Laura Ralston with guidance from Suleiman Namara.
Analysis on the profiles of youth for section 2 was contributed by Elizabeth Foster and analysis
on the vocational skills development providers for section 3 was contributed by Building
Markets Liberia. Editing services were provided by Elizabeth Schwinn and formatting assistance
by Lydie Billey.

Many others inside and outside of the World Bank provided comments, participated in review
and consultation meetings, and made other contributions. We are particularly grateful to Jesse
Bengu, Thomas Bossuroy, Yoonyoung Cho, Anastasiya Denisova, Inguna Dobraja, Roberta Gatti,
James Gresham, Sam Gotomo, Andrew Macgona, Mack Mulbah, Stefano Paternostro, Obert
Pimhidzai, Peter Pojarski, Christabel Sefa, Doug Sumerfield, Emily Weedon and Jerry Zanger.

The team also thanks the Government of Liberia for their consultations and discussions, and for
the valuable contributions of senior officials. In particular, we would like to thank the Ministry
for Youth and Sports.

The team is extremely grateful to the men and women in Liberia who participated in interviews
and focus groups. It is their perspectives and words that shaped the findings in this report.
                                                    TABLE OF CONTENTS


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY……………………………………………………………………………………………..1
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 10
2. PROFILE OF LIBERIAN YOUTH ...................................................................................... 14
   2.1 Demography and Geography .............................................................................................. 14
   2.2 Education and Skills Development ..................................................................................... 17
   2.3 Labor Market Participation, Employment Industry, and Contract Type............................. 23
   2.4 Incomes: Labor Market Earnings ........................................................................................ 31
3. VOCATIONAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT PROVIDERS ............................................... 36
   3.1 Types of Training Providers ................................................................................................ 36
   3.2 Recruitment ......................................................................................................................... 40
   3.3 Training Program Quality and Capacity ............................................................................. 47
   3.4 Trainees ............................................................................................................................... 54
   3.5 Trainees’ Experience of TVET Programs ........................................................................... 60
4. SYNTHESIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS....................................................................... 65
5. APPENDIX A: TRAINEE FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................ 71


Table of Figures

Figure 1 Total Population (in thousands)...................................................................................... 15
Figure 2 Youth Overview by Gender............................................................................................ 15
Figure 3 Geographic Concentration of Youth by Gender ............................................................. 16
Figure 4 Position of Youth in Household ..................................................................................... 16
Figure 5 School Attendance by Gender and Cohort ..................................................................... 17
Figure 6 Educational Attainment by Age and Gender .................................................................. 18
Figure 7 Educational Attainment by Monrovia/Urban/Rural ....................................................... 18
Figure 8 Work and School by Age and Gender ............................................................................ 19
Figure 9 Work and School by Age and Gender ............................................................................ 19
Figure 10 Work and School by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural (CWIQ) ....................................... 20
Figure 11 Work and School by Monrovia/Other Urban/ Rural (LFS).......................................... 20
Figure 12 Work and School by Household Position and Gender ................................................. 21
Figure 13Vocational Training by Age and Gender....................................................................... 21
Figure 14Vocational Training by Education and Gender ............................................................. 22
Figure 15 Vocational Training Subject by Gender ....................................................................... 22
Figure 16 Vocational Training Subject by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural .................................... 23
Figure 17 Labor Market Status by Age and Gender ..................................................................... 24
Figure 18 Labor Market Status by Position in Household and Gender ........................................ 24
Figure 19 Labor Market Status by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural ................................................ 25
Figure 20 Employment Status by Age and Gender ...................................................................... 25
Figure 21 Employment Status by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural .................................................. 26
Figure 22 Employment Status by Household Position and Gender .............................................. 26
Figure 23 Employment Status by Education Level and Gender ................................................... 27
Figure 24 Employment Status by Household Position and Wealth Quintile ................................ 27
Figure 25 Employment Status by State Sector ............................................................................. 28
Figure 26Employment Status by Age and Gender ....................................................................... 29
Figure 27 Employment Status by Monrovia/Other Urban/ Rural ................................................. 29
Figure 28 Sector by Education Level and Gender ........................................................................ 30
Figure 29 Sector by Education Level and Urban/Rural ................................................................ 30
Figure 30 Sector by Household Position and Wealth Quintile ..................................................... 31
Figure 31 Income by Education and Gender ................................................................................ 32
Figure 32 Income by Employment Status ..................................................................................... 32
Figure 33 Income by Education and Employment Status ............................................................. 33
Figure 34 Income by Occupation .................................................................................................. 34
Figure 35 Income by Industry ....................................................................................................... 34
Figure 36 Income by Type of Enterprise ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 37 Types of Training Courses Provided by TVET Institutions (number of institutions) .. 37
Figure 38 Types of Training Offered by Apprenticeship Providers ............................................. 38
Figure 39 Types of On-the-Job Training ...................................................................................... 38
Figure 40 Formal TVET Advertising ........................................................................................... 41
Figure 41 Advertising Method used by Institutions Offering On-the-Job Training ..................... 41
Figure 42 Channel through Which Trainees Found Out About Program ..................................... 42
Figure 43 Relationship between Apprentice or OJT and Training Provider ................................ 42
Figure 44 Recruitment and Enrollment of TVET Trainees .......................................................... 43
Figure 45 Gender of Current Trainees by Training Program ....................................................... 44
Figure 46 Gender of Current Trainees by Training Course .......................................................... 45
Figure 47 Training Course by Training Program for Current Trainees ........................................ 45
Figure 48 Age of Trainees by Training Program .......................................................................... 46
Figure 49 Educational Attainment of Trainees by Training Program .......................................... 47
Figure 50 Numeracy and Literacy of Trainees by Training Program ........................................... 47
Figure 51 Apprenticeships and On-the-Job Training Duration .................................................... 51
Figure 52 TVET Facilities ............................................................................................................ 51
Figure 53 Management Activities at TVET Institutions............................................................... 53
Figure 54 Management of Apprenticeship Programs ................................................................... 54
Figure 55 Sample of Youth Trainees Surveyed ............................................................................ 55
Figure 56 Attendance of Youth Trainees ...................................................................................... 55
Figure 57 Formal TVET Course Length and Class Size .............................................................. 56
Figure 58 Time Spent Learning in Formal TVET Programs ........................................................ 56
Figure 59 Assessment Methods .................................................................................................... 57
Figure 60 Cost Associated with Training Programs ..................................................................... 58
Figure 61 TVET Fees.................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 62 On-the-Job and Apprentice Wages ............................................................................... 59
Figure 63 Qualifications among Apprentices and On-the-Job Trainees ....................................... 60
Figure 64 Employment and Earnings Expectations of Youth ...................................................... 61
Figure 65 Overall Quality and Quality of Students Enrolled in Training, Rated by Peers........... 62
Figure 66 Training Program Quality: Student-Teacher Ratio and Teaching ................................ 62
Figure 67 Training Program Quality: Curriculum and Facility and Tools ................................... 63
Figure 68 Training Program Quality: Industry Links and Career Support ................................... 63
Figure 69 Living Wage by Age and Gender ................................................................................. 71
Figure 70 Age of Trainees by Learner Status ............................................................................... 71
Figure 71 Types of Support Requested by Informal TVET Trainees ........................................... 72
Figure 72 Improvements to Training Suggested by Informal TVET Trainees ............................. 72
Figure 73 Skills Training Requested by Informal TVET Trainees ............................................... 72

List of tables

Table 1: Funding for Different TVET Providers .......................................................................... 39
Table 2: Apprenticeship Funding.................................................................................................. 40
Table 3: Staff average years of industry experience by type of TVET training provider ............ 48
Table 4: Staff average years of teaching experience by TVET training provider ........................ 48
Table 5: Work experience of apprenticeship providers ................................................................ 50
Table 6: OTJ trainers' years of experience .................................................................................... 50
Table 7: Adequacy and Sufficiency of Facilities Used by Apprenticeship Training Providers ... 52
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Liberia has enjoyed a stable, democratic government since conflict ended in 2003, and President
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is now completing her second and final six-year term, which will end in
2017. Liberia remained stable despite the challenges of last year’s Ebola outbreak. However, the
aftermath of the long years of conflict is still evident in the members of the generation who are
coming of age and embarking on their most productive work years. It is this generation —which
will determine the short- and medium-term future of Liberia’s economy—on which this report is
focused.

The labor force in Liberia is particularly young compared to other African and Western nations.
Youth, defined for this report as those aged 15 to 34, constitute over a third of the population in
Liberia, according to the 2008 census. As a group, they are somewhat concentrated in urban
areas. For example, just over 40 percent of the population of Greater Monrovia is between the
ages of 15 and 35, compared to 33 percent of those living in rural areas.1 This report assesses
skills development challenges and opportunities for youth, with a particular focus on vocational
trades and the informal sector, where most of this age group is employed.

The economy in Liberia is undiversified and heavily reliant on a few primary export
commodities. As a result, limited opportunities exist for formal sector employment . Paid
employment covers only 17 percent of the total workforce, while unpaid family work and
self-employment cover 48 percent and 32 percent, respectively. Among 15-to-24-year-olds,
informal sector work, interpreted as non-wage work, is even more common than the average:
only 6.2 percent of this cohort finds paid employment.2 The rest are occupied in unpaid family
work or self-employment, mostly in agriculture and small-scale household enterprises. Thus the
majority of youth are employed in what can be considered the informal sector.

Given the limited potential for employment growth in formal sector industries, informality or
non-wage work will continue to dominate Liberia’s labor market over the medium term. 3
Therefore, it is crucial to increase labor productivity in non-wage occupations and sectors so that
young people are able to provide for themselves and make a successful transition to adulthood.
Understanding the options for increasing labor productivity in non-wage occupations and sectors
is an important priority.

A key feature of our analysis is the first comprehensive survey of training programs. Building
Markets interviewed 139 formal, non-formal and informal TVET training providers and 354
youth involved in training programs in February 2015. Other sources used for the report include
the 2010 Labor Force Survey, the 2007 and 2010 Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire, the
2013 Demographic and Health Survey and the 2008 Census in Liberia.




1
    Liberia National Census, 2008.
2
    Labor Force Survey, 2010.
3
    World Bank (2010). Liberia: Employment and Pro-Poor Growth. Report No. 59124-LR.
Youth Education


Many youth have low levels of education, and their basic skills are limited. For example, in 2010
around 60 percent of males and females 15 to 19 years old had not finished primary school. Over
50 percent of females 25 to 34 years old had no schooling at all. Among a sample of youth
apprentices interviewed for this study, 50 percent had not finished primary school, while 70
percent lacked basic reading and mathematics skills. In part, these figures reflect the large
number of youth who were still trying to complete their education while at the same time
working or holding household responsibilities. It is likely that poor educational quality also
contributes to these low levels of basic skills. Even among Liberians who complete secondary
school, limited skills are a problem. Of the 27,651 Liberian candidates who sat for the Senior
High School Certificate with the West Africa Examinations Council in 2014, only 48 percent
passed, and only five of those students got as high as the second tier of scores. All the other
candidates fell in the bottom three tiers of test-takers.4

Administrative data confirms that only a small proportion of youth (10 percent) participate in
vocational training. These youth have relatively high levels of education, having completed
secondary education, or even university. Thus, in Liberia, vocational training appears to
complement rather than substitute for schooling. However, many of these highly educated youth
enroll in training for manual or low-skill vocations, such as masonry, carpentry, mechanics,
tie-dye, tailoring and pastry. This may reflect the tightness of the youth labor market in Liberia,
where even the more educated struggle to find high-skill occupation vacancies, as well as a lower
quality of education that leaves even secondary school graduates without the academic skills
required for paid employment.

Youth Employment and Income

Education, gender and age all seem to contribute to determining the sector and type of work
youth find. For both males and females and in urban and rural locations, employment in
agriculture tends to fall as education level and age increases. Females are more likely to work in
commerce, while males find employment in commerce, mining, manufacturing and construction.
Technical/business activities and services are concentrated among the highest educated youth in
the urban areas, and attract slightly more males than females.

A demographic breakdown shows that there are more female youth than males, and that the
transition out of the household as a dependent to become a spouse or household head happens
earlier for girls. Fifty per cent are married or household heads by 24 years of age, compared to 28
for men. Educational attainment among females remains low, particularly those above 25 years
old, despite recent improvements among younger age groups. Females appear to miss out on the
opportunities afforded to youth who are able to remain as dependents in the household of their
parents or others, as these youth are much more likely to be in school.

Even when education levels are comparable, gender bias exists in pay. At each level of education,
females on average make less than males, and paid employees on average earn considerably

4
    Liberia – Africa Economic Outlook, 2015 (AfDB, OECD, UNDP).
more than self-employed workers. Since they have less education and less representation in paid
employment, young women earn considerably less than young men.

The analysis of incomes shows some other striking findings. First is the very low incomes that
youth obtain. To support a family of four (two adults and two young children) an individual
would need to earn at least USD 1,486 per annum. Currently, only 13 percent of youth obtain
such incomes. Second is the limited earnings improvement by youth without post-secondary
education. Again this helps explain some of the earnings differential between males and females,
since it is only really males that complete secondary education and then break into the technical
and business sectors of employment. Third, contrary to the trends in developed countries, among
the most lucrative types of paid employment are nonprofit and government work.

The lack of earnings equalization by gender and by education is suggestive of labor market
frictions, implying that the earnings of youth do not correspond one-to-one with their
productivity. While other explanations exist, such as a girls having a stronger preference for
occupations that pay less or paid employment selecting the most able youth, it is likely that part
of the observed friction is due to differential access to work opportunities. Other evidence in this
study shows that youth have different levels of information about employment and training, and
face high costs searching, matching and changing jobs.

TVET Overview

For the purposes of this report, providers of technical and vocational education training (TVET)
in Liberia are classified into two types: formal TVET, which provides classroom-based training
in both vocational and technical skills, and non-formal or informal TVET, which refers to
institutions that provide on-the-job training or apprenticeships in a particular type of trade or skill
outside the school system. Most training programs are concentrated in urban areas, particularly
Monrovia. Youth pursue training for personal advancement, but also hope for better employment
and earning power. Almost all formal TVET learners hope for formal employment, as do a
substantial minority of apprentices.

Course content and tuition fees influence access to training programs. For example, as most
apprenticeships focus on manual trades there is low enrollment of females. While apprenticeship
providers claim to be willing to enroll females in these opportunities, they admit it may be
difficult for females to be as successful in these trades given the traditional gender norms in
Liberia. This likely affects females’ interest in pursuing such opportunities. ICT and business
skills are more gender-neutral, and formal TVET courses thus see more equal enrollment by both
genders. However, formal TVET training is more common among older and more educated
youth due to the funding structure, where participants are largely responsible for their own
tuition fees.

Training programs vary across the different skills providers. Apprenticeships and on-the-job
training typically involve daily attendance and several hours of work or training per day, while
formal TVET students only meet a couple of times per week and spend less than five hours per
week on both theory and practical instruction. Formal TVET courses also are of limited duration:
most are completed within 12 months, and a large number finish in less than three months.
Apprenticeships and on-the-job training last longer. Formal TVET courses rely on practical and
theoretical exams for students, while informal TVET students take trade tests. Whether the
program is formal or informal, the exams and tests often do not lead to formal accreditation.
While most seem to think connections and job-placement opportunities are the most reliable
channel into employment, a formal accreditation process may help improve this outcome and
also provide youth with more flexibility to move between different employers.

Formal TVET Programs

Formal TVET institutions attract better-educated, wealthier youth. Most have relatively high
levels of education--secondary education or even university. TVET training is largely funded by
the individuals taking the training or their parents. Most of those surveyed report that they find
tuition fees affordable and not a constraint on enrollment. The most popular courses are in
information and communications technology (ICT), business and vocation-specific technical
skills.

In an important finding for the future of formal TVET programs, the survey conducted for this
report found that even though TVET candidates could be considered top job candidates, with
high education and training, most of them have not found jobs. Three-quarters of the youth who
graduated from TVET programs were unemployed at the time of the Building Markets survey.
There are several possible explanations for the failure of TVET graduates to find work:

      They may be choosier about taking a job. Since these youth come from more affluent
       backgrounds, they may have a higher reservation wage and not need to seek out work.
       Put another way, they are willing and able to remain unemployed over taking lower-paid
       jobs. This would fit with the finding that TVET trainees are generally unemployed before
       pursuing training and have higher socio-economic characteristics, such as the ability to
       cover tuition fees and the ability to attain a higher level of schooling.

      The quality of formal TVET training programs may be insufficient to affect employment
       prospects. TVET students spent less than five hours per week on theoretical and practical
       learning activities, and nearly half, 45 percent, of courses are less than three months long.
       The limited length and intensity of training may limit students’ ability to acquire or
       develop new technical skills.

      Training courses may focus on developing skills for which there is less demand in the
       Liberian labor market. For example, information and communications technology (ICT)
       and business skills are sought after by TVET students because they are prerequisites for
       formal employment, but there are likely fewer positions offered than there are candidates
       with these skills.
Non-Formal and Informal TVET Programs

On-the-job skills acquisition is the most common form of training in Liberia, mostly for manual
trades such as carpentry, welding, construction, auto mechanics, and artisanal skills. Some
on-the-job training opportunities also exist in the service sector in fields such as tailoring,
cosmetology, hospitality and catering. Youth from lower socioeconomic classes and with lower
levels of educational attainment are more likely to choose apprenticeships and on-the-job
training. These opportunities are thus better aligned with the majority of Liberian youth.

The most common ways for youth to find out about training opportunities are through word of
mouth or personal connections. About half of informal and non-formal TVET students are
related to another employee or the primary employer. The geographic location of most training
programs in Montserrado means that youth in rural locations likely have limited access to these
opportunities. Finally, while travel restrictions at the time of the survey made the collection of
data on agricultural skills training providers difficult, their limited presence in accessible
locations is indicative of a weakness in the provision of these skills.

Most apprenticeship and on-the-job training providers have substantial industry experience, in
contrast to formal TVET program instructors. More than half, 62 percent, of apprenticeship
providers have over ten years of relevant work experience, and 81 percent of on-the-job training
providers have more than five years of industry experience (most TVET trainers have less than
five years of either industry or teaching experience). Anecdotal evidence gathered during the
survey found that apprenticeships and on-the-job training are mainly offered by master craftsmen
with their own businesses. Trainers are well connected with their industry and better able to
follow up with and support the youth they train.

Non-formal and informal training programs are associated with better employment outcomes
than formal TVET programs. The factors cited above may help contribute to these trainees’
stronger employment outcomes.

Constraints on TVET in Liberia

While TVET programs overall present an opportunity for youth to improve their skills and
earnings prospects, several factors constrain the effectiveness of the different types of training
and the ability of young people to benefit from it.

Lack of access to capital or resources is a widespread problem, challenging training providers as
well as the youth trainees themselves. Informal training providers report challenges in securing
workspace, obtaining consistent access to the electricity needed to operate machinery, and
providing tools and materials to operate effectively while training apprentices. Their trainees,
meanwhile, say that financial constraints may limit their ability to attend or complete the training.
This is despite the fact that in most cases informal TVET trainees receive stipends from their
trainers and don’t pay fees. Trainees say they struggle with the cost of tools and transportation,
can’t bring in enough income to meet their economic responsibilities within their households, or
can’t access the start-up capital to embark on their own ventures. Given apprentices’ improved
prospects for employment and earnings, we believe liquidity may be at the root of this problem.
More specifically, youth are limited in their ability to take full advantage of training because
their households lack the resources to support them during this period, and there are alternative
activities that offer higher returns over a couple of days at a time in the short term.

Facilities and resources also are a limiting factor in formal TVET training: for example, those
involved in ICT courses often must share computers and face internet connectivity and electricity
outage problems. However, strengthening these programs may not be effective, due to the high
degree of mismatch between courses offered and skills in demand previously noted: while ICT
may be an important skill to access the highest-paying jobs, for example, these employment
opportunities are limited. In addition, most Liberian youth do not take advantage of these
programs, either because they cannot afford to or because the programs are not offered in their
geographic area.

Actual outcomes for both trainees and apprentices also show a mismatch between expectation
and reality. Contrary to their expectations, most youth who complete training programs and
secure employment will find non-wage work. In fact, from the survey evidence it appears that at
least some formal TVET trainees are choosing unemployment over non-wage work. The
employment outcomes of apprentices and on-the-job trainees were better, but this may reflect
wealth dynamics: youth enrolled in apprenticeships and on-the-job training have fewer financial
resources and thus may have a greater need to find work.

TVET trainees surveyed identified lack of employment opportunities as their most common
challenge (67 percent), followed by lack of start-up capital available to start a business and low
earnings from the work they do find.

Access is a problem for potential TVET trainees. As noted above, word-of-mouth was the most
common way to find out about non-formal and informal TVET, and nearly half of the trainees
surveyed were related to someone else in the shop. Limited social networks will thus play an
important role in restricting access to such opportunities. When it comes to formal TVET
programs, many youth may not be aware of them because most of the programs are located near
the capital and advertise in media that rural youth may not see. Lack of money and education
level prerequisites also limits access to formal TVET programs for many youth. Until a new
TVET policy took effect in 2014, many institutions required at least a ninth-grade education
(mid-secondary). Even now, students are expected to have completed primary education in most
cases.
As mentioned above, gender bias is another problem in the informal TVET sector. Although all
trainers say they enroll trainees regardless of gender, fewer females participate in informal
training. Some of the skills taught through apprenticeships are typically associated with
traditionally male-dominated professions such as carpentry, automotive, construction and
engineering, which may affect females’ desire to enroll. However, to ensure equal access to
productive work opportunities, this finding needs consideration in future programming.

Recommendations

The findings of this report indicate several directions to consider for policy action. In particular,
we suggest that programming focus on the strengthening training in three dimensions: improving
the quality of programs, particularly informal and non-formal programs; improving access to
informal and non-formal TVET programs for female and rural youth; and creating or
encouraging skills development programs related to agricultural productivity and management,
since agriculture is the primary employment sector for this population.

Improve training outcomes. Youth pursue skills programs, particularly TVET courses, with
high aspirations for employment in the formal sector, or at least outside agriculture. However,
given the structure of the economy in Liberia, wage employment opportunities are scarce. It is
important to empower youth to develop their own income-generating enterprises and facilitate
their deeper knowledge of how to improve productivity in agriculture, commerce and low-skilled
services.

Offer agricultural programs. Agriculture is by far the largest employer of youth. The survey
did not cover training programs offered in this sector, possibly due in part to its timing (February
2015, during the EVD crisis). Nonetheless, there is an acute need to help youth increase
productivity and earnings in this sector. Possible programs might include practical activities that
place students in different parts of the agricultural sector (such as farms or processing
companies). Lessons can be taken from the ongoing community livelihoods program
implemented by the Liberian Agency for Community Empowerment, which focuses on
strengthening agricultural livelihoods of youth in rural locations. Adding agriculture to the
mainstream school curriculum, as was the practice before the civil conflict, may improve young
people’s basic knowledge of agriculture and traditional farming practices, as well as raise their
awareness of the potential benefits from agricultural activities.

Support funding for apprenticeship and on-the-job training providers as well as for their
trainees. Training providers report challenges in securing workspace, obtaining consistent access
to the electricity needed to operate machinery, and providing tools and materials to operate
effectively while training of apprentices. Trainees, on the other hand, say that financial
constraints limit their ability to attend or complete the training. This is despite the fact that in
most cases they receive stipends from trainers and don’t pay fees. Given apprentices’ improved
prospects for employment and earnings, we believe liquidity may be at the root of this
phenomenon. More specifically, youth are limited in their ability to take full advantage of
training because their households lack the resources to support them during this period, and there
can be temporary alternatives that may pay them better for a day or two of work. Trainees say
they struggle with the cost of tools and transportation, can’t bring in enough income to meet their
household economic responsibilities within their households, or can’t access the start-up capital
to embark on their own ventures.

It would be beneficial to explore financing solutions that would provide greater incentive for
youth to make the most of their training, while supporting the capacity of businesses to take on
youth trainees. This could involve replacing fixed-level stipends with a scheme paying youth
trainees a proportion of the income they generate for the training provider’s business. This will
align the incentives of both the trainees and the trainers to maximize trainees’ productivity. More
explicitly, trainees will have an incentive to learn quickly and increase their contributions to the
business, and trainers will have a corresponding incentive to invest in teaching trainees and pass
on skills in order to improve their bottom line. Simultaneously, capital resources could be
directly provided to businesses on condition of their taking on apprentices, for example, through
the provision of a capital equipment allowance or a work space subsidy by the government or
development partners. This would again better align the incentives of businesses to both take on
apprentices, and to invest in these apprentices so that they contribute to productivity. At the same
time, this solution would help alleviate the capital constraints faced by many small businesses
that limit the quality of training they can offer to youth. Furthermore, both incentives
(performance-related pay and capital subsidies conditioned on offering apprenticeships) may
help to encourage stronger meritocracy in the selection of trainees, as youth that are willing and
able to work will be more attractive candidates than those that are not.

Standardize curriculum and certification for informal/non-formal TVET programs. Lack
of standardization currently limits the utility of training because it is not recognized by other
potential employers. Curriculum and testing for on-the-job training and apprenticeships varies
widely across the board, and regulation is lacking for both testing and curriculum. While
certification may not be a requisite for a specific skill or trade, it is important that training
programs lead to the development of skills that youth can transfer to different employers.
Certification can also help inform potential clients that a particular youth is a skilled service
provider. In addition, given the poor quality of their education, many youth felt that they would
benefit from additional training in literacy and numeracy, as well as customer service skills.
Finding ways to integrate this element of skill development will be beneficial for future informal
and non-formal TVET programming.

Focus on the quality of formal TVET programs. Given the limited number of youth who
access formal TVET training and the large number who fail to find employment after completing
it, TVET institutions may not be an immediate priority for policy makers when addressing the
constraints to skill development for the broader population of youth. However, in the long term
this will be necessary. As noted above, trainers in TVET institutions have limited teaching and
industry experience, and access to equipment and facilities, such as computers, electricity and
internet connectivity, can be a problem. Creating a certification program for TVET instructors
and ensuring that TVET institutions have the facilities and equipment they need will enable the
TVET system to be more effective in the long term. Again, however, improving these
institutions may not improve employment outcomes for most youth in the short term.

Equalize access to apprenticeships and on-the-job training. Almost half of apprentices and
on-the-job trainees reported that they were either related to another employee or to the owner of
the business. Word-of-mouth was the most common way to find out about this type of training.
Thus, social networks play an important role in connecting youth to opportunities and may limit
access. Policy makers should consider ways to spread the word among young people about these
opportunities. This will be particularly important if resources are directed towards strengthening
these TVET programs.

Improve geographic distribution of training. The majority of youth live near Monrovia
(Montserrado County), while about a third live in other parts of Liberia. However, 70 percent of
skills providers are based in Montserrado. A key recommendation is to expand skills
development (TVET and apprenticeships) outside Monrovia. This may require partnering with
other ministries to support the development of private enterprises and one-man businesses that
can host youth trainees and are best placed to facilitate their training in these locations. Examples
of this support could include provision of a basic training curriculum and accreditation services,
as well as direct financial incentives. Connections and networks seem to play a critical role in
how youth find opportunities in Liberia, which means that without more government
intervention, the most able or willing youth will not get access to the same options as others.

Improve young women’s utilization of all types of TVET programs. The majority of training
opportunities, especially the most successful, are accessed more readily by young men than
young women. Although women are a slightly larger proportion of the youth labor force, their
skills development and work opportunities outside the family appear to be more limited. This
implies a labor market friction that ultimately will distort incentives and lead to misallocation of
labor, reducing aggregate income in the country. Cognizance of this problem is needed during
the design of projects and programs, as special attention to this issue in conversations with
stakeholders could help overturn the status quo. Furthermore, innovative communication
materials may help to encourage a shift in social norms, providing women more equitable access
to work and broadening the perception of their roles in society. At the same time, a clear,
transparent process for recruiting youth for training opportunities should be put in place, and
support offered only to training providers that adhere to these principles.

Encourage more young women to seek apprenticeships. A specific example of the young
women’s underutilization of TVET programs is their limited enrollment in apprenticeships and
on-the-job training. While all trainers say they enroll trainees regardless of gender, few enter
these programs. Some of the skills taught through apprenticeships are typically associated with
traditionally male-dominated professions such as carpentry, automotive, construction and
engineering, which may affect females’ desire to enroll. Shifting social attitudes and finding
ways for females to confidently and successfully enter these professions would help to rebalance
the scope of different economic opportunities between genders.
1. INTRODUCTION

The labor force in Liberia is quite young. Youth aged 15 to 34 constitute over a third of the
population in Liberia and are somewhat concentrated in urban areas, according to the 2008
census. For example, just over 40 percent of the population of Greater Monrovia is between the
ages of 15 and 35, compared to 33 percent in rural areas. These youth represent both a
demographic dividend and a concern. Most are able-bodied and willing to work and contribute to
the economic growth of the country, yet many find employment hard to come by. This has led to
some becoming marginalized.

The educational attainment of Liberian youth is steadily improving but remains low on
average. Only 59 percent of Liberians over age 15 are literate. In addition, there are significant
gender and regional disparities in literacy.5 For example, 72 percent of males over age 15 are
literate, compared with just 48 percent of females. In urban areas, 75 percent of Liberians over
age 15 are literate, compared with 43 percent of those in rural areas. In terms of schooling, over
50 percent of females above 25 years old have no education, and over 60 percent of all youth in
rural areas have not completed primary school.6 Many youth combine school with work, and for
this reason it is not unusual to find youth above the age of 19 still pursuing basic primary
education.7 This means that many youth enter the labor market in Liberia with a low level of
skills and lack preparation for productive employment.

Youth recognize that their lack of skills and experience are impediments to employment.
Approximately 68 percent of youth age 18-34 believe that they lack the skills or experience
needed to find a job, a slightly higher rate than their older counterparts. 8 While this statistic
would seem to imply that the demand for skills training is high, in fact little is known about the
supply of skills training accessible to youth and how these services affect labor market outcomes.
Formal, government-operated technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
institutions are limited in number, and generally serve a minority of more literate and better
educated youth.9 Non-government training providers typically operate on a smaller scale and
provide less formal training (for example, through apprenticeships and on-the-job training)
without necessarily offering any type of certification. A greater understanding of the scope and
capacity of these providers will help policy makers understand the options for improving the
employment readiness of youth.

The objective of this report is to assess youth skills development in Liberia. In Liberia, the
economy is undiversified and heavily reliant on a few primary export commodities, which limits
prospects for formal sector employment. Furthermore, growth has decreased in the export-driven
mining and natural resource sectors as commodity prices have fallen. Agriculture remains the
largest sector, contributing 35 percent of GDP in 2013, followed by wholesale and retail

5
  Liberia – Africa Economic Outlook, 2015 (AfDB, OECD, UNDP).
6
  Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire, 2010.
7
  Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire, 2007 and Labor Force Survey, 2010.
8
  Search for Common Ground (2012). “Youth to Youth: Measuring Youth Engagement, Liberia, 2012.” Supported
by SCG, American University, Ministry of Youth and Sports, and Federation of Liberian Youth.
9                                                                                             th
  For example, until 2014 government sponsored TVET institutions required students to have a 9 grade education
before being considered for admission.
(including repair of vehicles, household goods and restaurants and hotels) at 14.1 percent, mining
and quarrying at 12.4 percent, finance, real estate and business services at 9.6 percent and
manufacturing at 7.3 percent.10 However, out of the total labor force, only 17 percent work in
formal paid jobs, while unpaid family work and self-employment cover 48 percent and 32
percent, respectively.11

Given the composition of Liberia’s economy and the concentration of the labor force
outside formal employment, this report has a particular focus on skill development in
vocational trades and the informal sector. Among 15-to-24-year-olds informal sector work,
interpreted as non-wage work, is even more common than the average: only 6.2 percent of this
cohort finds paid employment.12 Given the limited potential for employment growth in formal
sector industries, informality or non-wage work will continue to dominate Liberia’s labor market
over the medium term. 13 Among youth, self-employment is the most common form of
employment, followed by unpaid family work. The majority of youth are employed in what can
be considered the informal sector, with wage or paid employment covering only a minority.

 Box 1. Defining the Informal Employment Sector
 There is no official definition of the informal work sector in Liberia. This report adopts the
 definition in the World Bank Employment and Growth Report for Liberia from 2010, which
 interprets informal sector employment as non-wage employment. In Section Two of this report
 we show how informal employment can be broken down further into own-account and unpaid
 family work. Section Three analyzes both formal TVET providers and informal training
 arrangements. Although many youth undertake formal TVET programs with a goal of securing
 wage-based employment, the skills they develop can be used in non-wage employment as well.

This report comprises three analyses. Section Two constructs a profile of Liberian youth
from existing administrative data.14 It examines the demographic and geographic trends in
Liberia, showing the representation of both males and females in both rural and urban areas.
Education and skill attainment are studied to enable a more detailed understanding of the current
skill levels among working youth. The profiles consider how attributes such as gender, age,
education, training, location, wealth impact the type of work youth pursue and the earnings
outcomes they obtain. This helps to set the foundation of where skills gaps lie among youth in
Liberia and where potential policy actions should be focused.

Section Three first assesses skills development providers based on new survey data. This
summarizes the results of original analysis carried out on data collected on a sample of 139 skill
providers’ training offerings, capacity, target beneficiaries, and other criteria.15 The institutional
and funding structure is discussed, as well as potential for expansion, to identify where service

10
   Liberia – Africa Economic Outlook, 2015 (AfDB, OECD, UNDP).
11
   Labor Force Survey, 2010.
12
   Labor Force Survey, 2010.
13
   World Bank (2010). Liberia: Employment and Pro-Poor Growth. Report No. 59124-LR.
14
   Data sources include: National Census – 2008, Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire – 2007 and 2010, Labor
Force Survey – 2010, Demographic Health Survey – 2013.
15
   Data was collected by Building Markets.
delivery is stretched and quality insufficient. Recruitment into training programs is examined as
this is an important aspect governing access to training opportunities.

Next section three goes on to present young trainees’ perceptions of skills development
opportunities and limits, based on 354 interviews with recent trainees. Why youth choose to
pursue training and their work aspirations are compared to their post-training outcomes.
Information is collected directly from the youth about their experiences in training courses, the
challenges they faced, and where they feel programs could be improved. A final section
summarizes these findings and draws out implications for action and policy.

This report contributes to the Government of Liberia’s Agenda for Transformation (AfT)
and the World Bank’s Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) 2013-2017. Both recognize that
inadequate skills and vulnerable employment are key constrictions on rapid, inclusive and
sustainable growth. The Government is concerned about high rates of joblessness, especially
among youth, whose prolonged idleness may pose risks to the country’s peace, security, and
economic recovery. This challenges cuts across the three pillars of the AfT. Economic
transformation requires a skilled labor force to utilize new technologies in an expanding private
sector and to maintain rehabilitated infrastructure. Human development is impeded by the low
level of education and skills and high levels of vulnerable employment. Strengthening
governance and public sector institutions also has an effect on skills and employment by
providing more reliable and high-quality social services and enhancing transparency and state
legitimacy. This report helps to increase the understanding of where skills gaps exist and where
opportunities for closing them lie.

This report provides practical recommendations that align with pillars of the National
TVET Policy 2015-2020. In 2015 an inter-ministerial task force, including the ministries of
youth and sports, education, agriculture and health, released an ambitious, ten-pillar TVET
policy that aims to achieve goals specific to youth skill development in the AfT. This report
makes recommendations specific to three pillars: promoting productivity in the agricultural
sector through TVET, promoting productivity in the informal sector through TVET, and
financing TVET.
Box 2. Overall Youth Employment Agenda in Liberia
In support of Liberia’s Agenda for Transformation, as outlined in its Country Partnership
Strategy, the Bank is supporting several analytical and operational programs in Liberia related
to youth employment. Former and current Bank-funded operations to promote youth
employment and employability—particularly the Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and
Young Women (EPAG) and the Youth, Employment and Skills (YES) projects—have
engaged approximately 70,000 participants since 2008 and provided valuable information on
the profile and interests of youth, the capacity of training providers, and the limits of the
nascent private sector’s demand for employees. Analytic work includes:

      Economic and labor market analyses of constraints on job creation in the formal sector
      Development of a qualitative toolkit for understanding constraints on productivity and
       employment growth in household enterprises, funded by the Korean Trust Fund (KTF)
      Support for drafting the Private Sector Development Strategy, including policies to
       help micro, small and medium sized enterprises (MSME) grow and expand their
       employment potential
      Dialogue on the Partnership for Skills in Applied Sciences, Engineering, and
       Technology (PASET) initiative to promote advanced education

The Government, with Bank support, is currently developing a new youth project that will
benefit from our ongoing analysis and this report. The project will utilize the lessons learned
from the EPAG and YES projects and operationalize aspects of the new national TVET policy.
For example, the project is expected to support various types of skills development for youth:
life skills, business development skills, and vocational/trade skills, as well as more advanced
technical skills. This project will benefit from the profile of Liberian youth created in this
report, in addition to the mapping of skills development providers’ capacity and quality, and
analysis of constraints on skills acquisition. This data sheds light on the little-known trainees
and training providers in the informal sector.
2. PROFILE OF LIBERIAN YOUTH


Before analyzing the benefits and disadvantages of existing TVET programs, it is useful to
first understand the challenges facing this generation of Liberian youth. This section
constructs a profile of youth based on administrative data.16 It examines the demographic and
geographic trends in Liberia, showing the representation of both males and females in both
rural and urban areas. Education and skill attainment are studied to enable a more detailed
understanding of the current skill levels among working youth. The section considers how
attributes such as gender, age, education, training, location, and wealth affect the type of work
young people pursue and the earnings outcomes they obtain. The aim is to identify where
skills gaps lie among youth in Liberia and where potential policy actions should be focused.

2.1 Demography and Geography

Youth aged 15 to 34 constitute over a third of the population in Liberia, according to the 2008
census. There are more females than males, and the transition from being a dependent to
becoming a spouse or household head happens earlier for girls: 50 percent are married or
household heads by aged 24 years, compared to age 28 for men. Youth are more concentrated in
urban areas. Just over 40 percent of the population of Greater Monrovia is age 15 to 35,
compared to 33 percent of the population in rural areas. Youth are both a demographic dividend
and a concern: they are able-bodied and willing to contribute to economic growth but often find
employment hard to obtain, leading to some youth becoming marginalized.

This study adopts the common definition of “youth” used across the region: people between
the ages of 15 and 34. This reflects the traditional age-based hierarchical structures that relied
heavily on the labor of people in this age range and their limited participation in community
decision-making. It also reflects the reality that because of numerous disruptions, young people
often do not finish even secondary school before their mid-twenties. These youth constituted
over a third of the population of Liberia as of the 2008 Census.

The youth population of Liberia has more females than males, with the 2008 Census
showing about a 5 percent surplus in the 15-34 age range (Figure 1 and 2). This could be due
to several reasons: gender differences in mortality or emigration trends, or a failure of even the
census to capture young people living in non-traditional households (for example, young men
living on the streets or sleeping in the shops where they work). It is likely, however, that this
demographic misbalance is also at least partially a result of the years of conflict where young
men incurred higher mortality rates and higher separation rates from their households.




16
  Data sources include: National Census – 2008, Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire – 2007 and 2010, Labor
Force Survey – 2010, Demographic Health Survey – 2013.
                                Figure 1 Total Population (in thousands)




                                  Figure 2 Youth Overview by Gender



There is a higher concentration of youth in the urban areas, especially Monrovia (Figure 3).
Just over 40 percent of the population of Greater Monrovia is between the ages of 15 and 35,
compared to 33 percent in the rural areas. The gender breakdown of youth does not vary between
urban and rural areas, but is consistently just over 50 percent female.
                                Figure 3 Geographic Concentration of Youth by Gender

The age range under consideration is a time of transition for these young people, as they
ideally finish their schooling, start work and set up their own households (Figure 4). In the
2010 CWIS, only 5 percent of 15-19 year olds are the head/spouse of their own household,
compared to 77 percent of 30-34 year olds. For marital status, 95 percent of 15-19 year olds have
never been married, and this goes down to 22 percent for 30-34 year olds. Females tend to
become independent or marry somewhat earlier: 50 percent of females are the head/spouse of a
household by age 24,17 while for males, this shift (where more than half are heads/spouses) does
not occur until age 28.




                                      Figure 4 Position of Youth in Household




17
  All women who lived with a male partner were classified as “spouse.”      Those women who are classified as
“head” are those heading their own household without a male partner.
2.2 Education and Skills Development

The educational attainment of youth is steadily improving in Liberia, and women are catching up
to men in this regard. However, average educational attainment remains low, particularly
among older young women and among youth in rural areas. Only 10 percent of youth enroll in
formal vocational training. Many of these youth have relatively high levels of education --
secondary education or even university. This may in part be due to TVET institutions requiring a
minimum level of education. Until the 2014 TVET policy took effect, many institutions required
at least a ninth-grade education (mid-secondary). Even now, students are expected to have
completed primary education in most cases.18

Primary school enrollment is steadily improving in Liberia, with females catching up to
males (Figure 5). The multiple household surveys conducted over a six year period allow
examination of the education outcomes of different cohorts based on year of birth.19 Looking at
the percent who have ever attended school, there is a slow but steady increase for males and a
rapid catching up for females. Of the cohort born 1970 to 1974, 76 percent of the males and only
40 percent of the females had ever attended school by 2013. For the youngest cohort, those born
1995 to 1999, these numbers and 93 percent and 91 percent respectively. If we consider mean
years of education instead, we see a similar pattern of small gains for the males and catching up
from a much lower baseline for the females.




                                Figure 5 School Attendance by Gender and Cohort

However, educational attainment remains low, and decades of lower participation have left
many older female youths with no schooling (Figure 6). An examination of the level of
education obtained by different cohorts of youth shows that over 50 percent of females above 25
years old have no schooling. While the educational attainment of the youngest cohorts of females
more closely matches that of males, education levels are still very low in Liberia. For example,

18
  National Policy for TVET, MYS 2015.
19
  We use data from the 2007 CWIQ, the 2010 CWIQ and the 2013 DHS to look at various cohorts who would
qualify as “youth” over the time period.
in 2010 around 60 percent of both males and females 15 to 19 years old had no or incomplete
primary education. This in part reflects the large number of youth who are still trying to
complete their education.

Many youth in Liberia continue to pursue an education even after they begin working
(Figure 6). A full 75 percent of 15-19 year olds are still in school. This percent declines to 46
percent for 20-24 year olds, 22 percent for 25-30 year olds and 10 percent for 30-34 year olds are
also in school. A significant number of these youth are still trying to complete their basic
education: 37 percent of 15-19 year olds are still in primary school. Comparing males and
females, we see that as well as higher education attainments for males, they also stay in school
longer. Fifteen percent of males in the 30-34 years old group are still in school, compared to only
6 percent of females. Looking again at individuals in the 30-34 years old group, 29 percent of
males have completed secondary school, and another 30 percent have completed primary school.
For the females in this age group, only 14 percent have completed secondary school and another
18 percent primary school.




                      Figure 6 Educational Attainment by Age and Gender

Educational attainment is somewhat higher in the urban areas, particularly greater
Monrovia. But a substantial fraction of youth (between 37 percent and 49 percent) across all
areas are still in school (Figure 7).




                  Figure 7 Educational Attainment by Monrovia/Urban/Rural
The legacy of civil conflict and the pervasive poverty levels throughout the country likely
contribute to the low levels of education. The youth cohort of 2010 grew up during the civil
wars in Liberia, and whose education was likely disrupted as a result. Many other factors
contribute to the length of time it takes to complete basic education -- lack of funds leads to
students having to suspend their education, overall poor quality of education can lead to students
retaking exams several times before continuing to the next level. Currently, youth are struggling
to finish their education at the same time they are getting married and starting their own
households.

A significant number of youth who are in school are working as well. In 2007, 25 percent of
youths aged 15-19 combined work and school, and these youth transition into just work as they
age (Figure 8). This is one area where there seems to have been significant changes in the pattern
over time. The 2010 LFS, using very similar questions, finds that, compared to 2007, almost
twice as many younger youth, both male and female, are able to devote all their time to school
(Figure 9). In 2007, 30 percent of 15-19 year olds are in school and not working, in 2010 that
number is 57 percent. There is still a similar pattern of transitioning from education to work
during the 15-35 age range.




                         Figure 8 Work and School by Age and Gender




                         Figure 9 Work and School by Age and Gender
Combining work with school is more common in rural than urban areas (Figures 10 and
11). Comparing the participation of youth in work and school across different areas, in 2007,
significantly more youths were working in the rural areas (72 percent) as opposed to Monrovia
and other urban areas (40 percent and 58 percent respectively). The percentage of youth in
school is significantly lower outside Monrovia. By 2010, we see a different pattern, with youth in
other urban areas catching up to Monrovia in school attendance.




             Figure 10 Work and School by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural (CWIQ)




              Figure 11 Work and School by Monrovia/Other Urban/ Rural (LFS)

Youth who are able to remain as dependents in the household of their parents or others are
much more likely to be in school (Figure 12). The gains in school attendance between 2007
and 2010 have been concentrated in dependents. Looking at females, there is little difference
between those who are “spouses” (living with a male partner) and those who are “heads”
(heading their own household without a male partner), both are unlikely to be in school (15
percent and 12 percent respectively).
                Figure 12 Work and School by Household Position and Gender

Overall, the 2010 LFS finds that 10 percent of youth have participated in vocational
training (Figure 13). The rates are higher for males and for females, and for older youth as
compared to younger youth. As participation in vocational training also increases with formal
educational attainment, this suggests that for most youth it is a complement for formal schooling,
not a substitute (Figure 14).




                       Figure 13 Vocational Training by Age and Gender
                   Figure 14 Vocational Training by Education and Gender

Vocational training subjects are somewhat segregated along traditional gender roles,
although computer training is popular with both young men and women (Figure 15). For
males, the most common subjects are computers (24 percent), auto mechanic (11 percent),
carpentry (11 percent) and masonry (11 percent). For females, they are tailoring (24 percent),
computer (13 percent), pastry (13 percent) and tie and dye (12 percent). There are also some
differences between urban and rural areas, with computers being by far the most common subject
in greater Monrovia (31 percent) compared to 4 percent in rural areas. Agricultural courses are
unknown in Monrovia, but make up a small but significant percentage of courses taken (8
percent) in rural areas (Figure 16).




                       Figure 15 Vocational Training Subject by Gender
                Figure 16 Vocational Training Subject by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural

Many vocational training subjects are concentrated around manual occupations. Given the
high level of educational attainment of the youth participating in vocational training, it is
somewhat surprising to see the degree to which most training courses are focused on manual or
low-skill service occupations such as masonry, carpentry, mechanics, tailoring and pastry. This
may reflect the lack of high-skill jobs available even to educated youth, as well as poor skill
acquisition in high school graduates. Of the 27,651 candidates who sat for the Senior High
School Certificate in 2014, 48 percent passed, with only 5 scoring in the 2nd tier, and all others
scoring in the bottom of three tiers. Only 58 percent of examinees passed the Junior High School
Certificate. In 2013, all 23 000 candidates failed the entrance exam at the University of Liberia,
and in October 2014, only 15 of 13 000 examinees passed the exam.20

2.3 Labor Market Participation, Employment Industry, and Contract Type

Employment starts young in Liberia: more than 20 percent of 15-19 year-olds work. As youth get
older and form their own households, labor force participation grows and school attendance
declines. Own-account is the most common form of employment, followed by unpaid family work.
A minority of youth earn wages or pay. Agriculture is by far the largest sector of employment,
followed by commerce. In both sectors most youth work as unpaid family members or
own-account workers. Paid work is concentrated in sectors where few youth obtain employment:
mining, manufacturing, utilities, transport and construction; at nonprofits; and in government.
Employment in agriculture tends to fall as education level and age increase for both genders and
all geographic areas.

Youth participation in the labor market is common at all ages but increases with age and
household position (Figures 17 and 18). 77 percent of 30-34 year olds are actively working,
compared to 25 percent for 15-19 year olds. This transition to work correlates with leaving
school, marrying and forming a household. Supplementary analysis shows that youth who are

20
     Liberia – Africa Economic Outlook, 2015 (AfDB, OECD, UNDP).
dependents in upper-income households delay labor market participation the longest. On the
other hand, youth in rural areas tend to move into work earlier (Figure 19). Patterns are similar
for males and females, except that females are more likely at all ages to be inactive in the
workforce for reasons other than school and begin the transition out of school at an earlier age. It
is notable that only very recently have Liberian youth begun staying in school longer. Earlier
surveys found that youth were active in the labor market at a younger age.21




                          Figure 17 Labor Market Status by Age and Gender




               Figure 18 Labor Market Status by Position in Household and Gender




21
   The CWIQ 2007 shows much higher rates of labor market participation for younger youth as discussed in the
section above on work and school.
               Figure 19 Labor Market Status by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural

Own-account work is the predominant form of work for youth (Figure 20) . Participation in
the workforce rises steadily as youth age, and youth who were unpaid family workers switch
mainly into own-account employment. Fifteen percent of all 15-19 year-olds (64 percent of all
working 15-19 year-olds) are unpaid family workers. By the time youth reach the 30-34 age
group, only 6 percent of them are still doing unpaid family work. Wage work covers a small
proportion of the youth, and mostly only older males.




                      Figure 20 Employment Status by Age and Gender

Employment among youth is highest in rural areas, due to more unpaid family work
(Figure 21). Once youth are heads or spouses in their own households, they are more than twice
as likely to work. The majority are own-account workers. Wage employment is concentrated
among males who are household heads, but only around 20 percent of these males obtain this
type of employment (Figure 22). Very few male heads are unpaid family workers, although a
significant number of young women, mainly spouses, continue to fill this role even after forming
their own households.




                 Figure 21 Employment Status by Monrovia/Other Urban/Rural




                Figure 22 Employment Status by Household Position and Gender

Labor force participation is greatest among males who have completed secondary
education and then among females who have no or incomplete primary education (Figure
23). This may reflect the fact that girls with very low education levels have limited opportunities
to gain independence and most are working as unpaid family members or own account workers.
For males, the highest rates of employment, and by far the highest rates of paid employment are
for those who have completed secondary school or more. Among even educated females, far
fewer relative to males find employment in paid employment.
                       Figure 23 Employment Status by Education Level and Gender

Rates of labor market participation are very high in the poorest households, where unpaid
family work is common for spouses and dependents and own-account work is common
among household heads (Figure 24). The household wealth quintile for the census data is
constructed based on various measures of household wealth, mainly housing characteristics and
durable goods ownership.22 Overall, rates of labor force participation decrease as household
wealth increases, for both dependents and heads/spouses. There is a decrease in the fraction of
youth doing unpaid family work as household wealth increases, again, both for those who are
heads/spouses and those who are dependents, and an increase in the fraction working as a paid
employee, especially for those who are heads. This indicates that much labor force participation
by youth, particularly in unpaid family work, is likely an economic necessity, rather than a
choice.




                Figure 24 Employment Status by Household Position and Wealth Quintile

22
     The construction is discussed in more detail in the appendix.
Agriculture is by far the largest youth employment sector, followed by commerce. In both,
most youth are unpaid family members or own-account workers. Paid work is
concentrated in the sectors where few youth obtain employment (Figure 25). The highest
rates of wage or salaried employment for youth are in the technical/business and service sectors
(76 percent and 64 percent respectively). These are relatively small sectors, however, so each
only accounts for less than 5 percent of all working youth. Further analysis shows that technical
and business employment covers workers in government and nonprofits (6 percent and 16
percent, respectively, of paid employees). Another 33 percent of youth obtain paid employment
in the mining, manufacturing, utilities, transport and construction industries that comprise the
service sector. Unpaid family workers as well as own-account workers are concentrated in
agriculture (76 percent and 46 percent, respectively). Another 38 percent of own-account
workers are in commerce.




                           Figure 25 Employment Status by State Sector

While agriculture is the largest sector in which youth work, there is some transition out of
agriculture into other sectors as youth get older (Figure 26). Males move into employment in
both the mining, manufacturing and construction sector and the commerce sector, while females
are more likely to transition into the commerce sector. Looking across different types of
locations, agriculture is by far the largest sector in the rural areas, and remains a substantial share
in urban areas outside of Monrovia (Figure 27). For those youth not working in agriculture, the
distribution of sectors is fairly similar across geographic area, with commerce always being the
largest, followed by mining, manufacturing and construction.
                       Figure 26 Employment Status by Age and Gender




                Figure 27 Employment Status by Monrovia/Other Urban/ Rural

There is a clear negative correlation between employment in agriculture and education,
suggesting that higher levels of education allows youth to access employment in other
sectors (Figure 28). For both males and females and in urban and rural locations, employment in
agriculture tends to fall as education level increases (Figures 28 and 29). Again, females tend to
instead be more likely to work in commerce, while males find employment in both commerce
and mining, manufacturing and construction. Technical/business activities and services are
concentrated among the highest educated youth in the urban areas, and somewhat more for males
than females.
                       Figure 28 Sector by Education Level and Gender




                    Figure 29 Sector by Education Level and Urban/Rural

Employment in agriculture is also strongly correlated with poverty in the household
(Figure 30). There is a sharp decline in employment in agriculture if households are
disaggregated by wealth quintile. Over 70 percent of those in the bottom two quintiles work in
agriculture, while the number falls to 18 percent and 5 percent respectively for the two top
quintiles. Patterns are similar for heads/spouses vs dependents, and all other sectors increase
fairly evenly as household wealth increases.
                  Figure 30 Sector by Household Position and Wealth Quintile

2.4 Labor Market Earnings

One indicator of economic welfare for youth is their individual incomes. For this analysis, we
define a “living wage” as at least $1,486 per year. This would allow a youth to support a family
of four (two adults and two young children) at or above the poverty line. Only 13 percent of
youth have such jobs. Our analysis of youth income also finds a significant degree of earnings
variation by gender and type of employment, even at comparable education levels. At each level
of education, females earn less, and paid employees earn considerably more than own account
workers. As females also tend to have lower levels of educational attainment and lower
representation in paid employment, on average they earn considerable less than male youth. The
lack of earnings equalization by gender and by education is suggestive of labor market frictions,
where the earnings of youth do not correspond one-to-one with their productivity, possibly due
to costly search and matching, or even simply nepotism. Also of note is that nonprofit and
government work are the highest-paying jobs.

At almost all levels of educational attainment males earn more than females, and there is
remarkably little improvement in incomes until secondary education is pursued (Figure 31).
There are large increases in incomes for youth who have finished secondary school or higher
education. The preceding subsection found that it is only really males with complete secondary
education that break into the technical and business sectors of employment. At the lowest levels
of education most youth are engaged in agriculture, which is also includes unpaid family work,
or, as is particularly the case for females, basic commerce. Females appear to catch up in
earnings with males once higher education is achieved. However, the labor force survey records
only 8 females with university education. Given the earning differentials and the earlier findings
on the lower levels of educational attainment by females, particularly at secondary levels, this
implies that female youths in the labor market in Liberia earn considerably less on average than
males.
                                 Figure 31 Income by Education and Gender

Looking at income by employment status, we see that those who are paid employees do
significantly better than others (Figure 32). Next are youth who employ others. However,
these categories cover a minority of youth: 6 percent of all youth are paid employees or 17
percent of those on whom we have income data, henceforth called “earning youth”, while youth
employers are an even smaller group: only about 2 percent of earning youth.23 The largest group
of earning youth, own account workers, have significantly lower incomes. Altogether less than
20 percent of male youth earn a living wage and this decreases for younger youth and females,
where less than 10 percent on average earn living wages (see supplementary figure in appendix).
This implies that most youth could be considered as underemployed. They are working, but not
earning sufficient income to support themselves and their dependents.




                                   Figure 32 Income by Employment Status
23
     The Labor Force Survey records 71 youth as employers in total.
When incomes are broken down by educational attainment, there are stark differences
between the absolute returns to education in the cross-section between paid employees and
own account workers (Figure 33). For example, an employee with at least a secondary degree
(secondary complete or university) has a median income of USD 1182, compared to USD 480
for an own account worker. The figures are USD 675 and USD 206 for workers with no
education, respectively. This is interesting as it shows that there is a lack of earnings equalization
across different types of work at a given educational level. While some individual heterogeneity
in productivity, such as talent, skill, aptitude, can account for some of this earnings differential it
is implausible that it can cover the full differences. Similarly, concerns about under reporting of
own account incomes cannot explain such a large earning differential. This implies labor market
frictions, such as costly search and matching, or even simply nepotism, could be causing
differentiation in earnings.




                        Figure 33 Income by Education and Employment Status

Those that break into paid employment as technical professionals (often, ironically, with
nonprofits) have the highest earning potential, while among the categories of
self-employment technical occupations and those in the construction, mining, and
transportation pay best (Figures 34 to 36). Incomes for youth who are employees vary widely
across industries (although this variation may be partly driven by small sample sizes), with the
highest incomes reported for those in the technical/business sector. There is less variation in the
much larger group of youth who are own account workers, both within industries and across
industries, with most of them making very modest incomes.24 There is a similar pattern looking
at income by type of occupation. For enterprise type, the highest wages are paid in non-profit
organizations (8 percent of youth who are paid employees work for non-profits), followed by
government employees (19 percent). There is very little difference between the two biggest
groups of employees, those in non-farm private enterprises (37 percent) and those in farm private
enterprises (21 percent). Own account workers are highly concentrated in non-farm and farm

24
  There may be systemic biases in asking respondents to estimate their net profits from small informal
businesses.
private enterprises (36 percent and 46 percent respectively of youth own account workers).
Those in the non-farm sector make somewhat more, although incomes are very modest.




                             Figure 34 Income by Occupation




                               Figure 35 Income by Industry
Figure 36 Income by Type of Enterprise
3. VOCATIONAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT PROVIDERS

With a better understanding of the educational challenges Liberian youth have coped with
growing up and the ongoing challenge many face of trying to secure an education while
simultaneously supporting themselves, it will be evident how this history contributes to some of
the problems experienced by TVET trainers and trainees. This section assesses skills
development providers based on new survey data, and discusses their institutional and funding
structure as well as their potential for expansion, to identify where service delivery is stretched
and quality insufficient. In addition, we examine methods used to recruit trainees, as this is an
important aspect governing access to training opportunities.

Building Markets collected survey data on TVET providers in February 2015. From a sample
of 470 training providers, 139 were selected: 41 TVET providers, 58 apprenticeship providers,
and 40 on-the-job training providers. They were located in the counties of Montserrado,
Grand Bassa, Lofa, Margibi, Maryland and Nimba. The selection of training providers to
include in the survey was guided by the length of time institutions had been established
(preference given to more established institutions), the familiarity of institutions in their local
communities (preference given to better-known institutions), whether they had traceable
graduates and whether the institution was operating and reachable at time of survey.

3.1 Types of Training Providers

Training providers in Liberia can broadly be classified into two types of institutions: those that
provide on-the-job training or apprenticeships in a particular type of vocation or skill and often
in a non-formal or informal set-up, and formal TVET programs that provide class-room based
training in both vocational and technical skills. Popular formal TVET courses include ICT,
business and vocation-specific technical skills.

Although the Building Markets survey distinguished on-the-job training providers from
apprenticeship providers, the cross-sectional and qualitative information collected on the two
categories is very similar, except perhaps that on-the-job training tends to be offered in larger
establishments than apprenticeships. Training in manual trades such as carpentry, welding,
construction, and auto mechanics, as well as certain artisanal skills, are popular subjects for
informal and non-formal TVET training. In addition, on-the-job training offers opportunities for
service-based sectors such as tailoring, cosmetology, hospitality and catering.

The geographic location of most training programs in Montserrado means that a majority of
youth in rural locations have limited access to these opportunities. A final critical point: while
travel restrictions at the time of the survey made the collection of data on agricultural skills
training providers difficult, their limited presence in accessible locations is indicative of a
weakness in the provision of these skills. Given the employment profiles of youth outlined in the
preceding chapter, this demonstrates a mismatch between opportunities for employment and the
focus of training programs.

There are two forms of training provided in Liberia outside of the education system:
formal technical and vocational educational training (TVET) and informal education in the
form of on-the-job training or apprenticeships. According to the Building Markets 2014
assessment, there are around 470 training providers in Liberia. Roughly three-quarters, 74
percent, offer apprenticeships and on-the-job training, and 26 percent offer facility-based formal
TVET programs. Training providers are concentrated in Montserrado around the capital, where
70 percent are based. There are also clusters of training providers in Grand Bassa (7 percent),
Margibi (5.5 percent) and Nimba (6 percent).

Private or for-profit institutions provide most of the training (70 percent). The remaining
30 percent is provided by nonprofits including faith-based and community-based
organizations. Outside the workplace, training is provided by training centers. On-the-job
training is mostly provided by independently or privately operated enterprises. Of the 40 formal
TVET institutions, 15 were privately operated, for-profit institutions. Another 19 were operated
by non-governmental, faith-based and community-based organizations or the government.
International NGOs financially support several of these institutions, although they rarely provide
training directly. Most of the on-the-job and apprenticeship training was provided by master
craftsman (80 out of a sample of 98), technical businesses and service providers. These were
classified as private or for-profit, since the income of these enterprises was generated from their
business activities rather than supported by the government or an NGO. However, the most
commonly stated reason that these training providers take on trainees was to assist unemployed
youth and provide a service to their community. They do not appear to take on trainees to
improve their incomes.

Formal TVET providers offer courses in ICT, business and vocation-specific skills (Figure
37). TVET providers offer courses in three areas: vocation-specific skills, such as cosmetology,
engineering, construction, healthcare and hotel services; business management and financial
literacy; and information communications and technology (ICT). A majority of trainees enrolled
at these institutions specialize in one course at a time. In rare cases, trainees enrolled in business
management courses take ICT courses concurrently. ICT courses are popular and were offered
by more than a quarter of TVET providers surveyed. Many of these are basic computer courses,
including typing and web browsing, as well as subject-specific courses such as ICT for
accounting, payroll or logistics. TVET courses vary depending on whether trainees are full-time
or part-time and whether they attend classes during the day or in the evening. A majority of
courses (66 percent) last from one to six months. Many of the institutions providing ICT courses
lacked proper equipment and facilities, such as computers and internet connectivity.
                                              ICT                                                         18
             Business and financial management                                             13
                    Technical and artisanal skills                                    11
                                    Cosmetology                              7
                                     Engineering                         5
                                       Academic                      4
                                    Construction                 3
                                        Logistics                3
                             Hotels and catering             2
                                          Health             2
                                      Wholesale          1
                                                     0   2       4       6   8   10   12   14   16   18        20

  Figure 37 Types of Training Courses Provided by TVET Institutions (number of institutions)
On-the-job and apprenticeship training, by comparison, focuses on manual trade skills or
service-specific skills, with a few trainers offering business, ICT or financial literacy
development. The largest categories of apprenticeships are in carpentry and woodworking (33
percent); motor mechanics, auto electric and repairs (24 percent); and artisanal skills including
weaving, tailoring and design (21 percent) (Figure 38). Similarly, the most common form of
on-the-job training, 24 percent, is in metalwork, carpentry and engineering (Figure 39). In
Liberia, carpentry and woodwork apprenticeships are reportedly popular because of the
substantial forestry resources in the country and the anticipated opportunity carpentry offers for
self-employment. On-the-job training also facilitates training in more female-dominated sectors
such as tailoring and garment-making (15 percent), hair dressing, beauty therapy and
cosmetology (12 percent), training in business skills, consulting, accounting (22 percent), and
hotels and restaurants service (10 percent).

Although most of the informal employment in Liberia is predominantly agricultural, the Building
Markets study did not survey any informal training provider offering agriculture-related training.
This may be due to the difficulties in accessing these training institutions following the peak of
the Ebola crisis.

                                              Welding,
                                             Engineering,
                                 Building &   Steelwork
                                Construction     8%
                                    14%
                                                                                             Carpentry &
                                                                                             Woodwork
                                                                                                33%




                                                                                          Motor
                             Artisnal Skills                                            Mechanics,
                               (Weaving,                                               Auto Electrics,
                             Tailoring, etc.)                                             Repair
                                  21%                                                      24%


                Figure 38 Types of Training Offered by Apprenticeship Providers

      30%
               24%
      25%                   22%

      20%
                                            15%
      15%                                                  12%
                                                                           10%
      10%                                                                                   7%                7%

       5%                                                                                                                    3%

       0%
            Metal Work,   Training &     Tailoring &   Hair Dressing,   Restaurants,    Wholesale &      Printing & ICT    Health &
             Carpentry,    Business       Garment         Beauty           Hotels        Retailing                        Sanitation
            Engineering   Consulting      Making        Therapy &        & Catering
                                                       Cosmetology

                                   Figure 39 Types of On-the-Job Training
Options for apprenticeships are similar across geographic locations, with the exception of
building and construction. Far more building and construction apprenticeships were found in
Montserrado (88 percent). Slightly more motor mechanics and auto electronics (57 percent) were
found outside of Monrovia. Most of the on-the-job training providers surveyed were based in
Montserrado (30 of 41). Of the providers outside of Montserrado most focused on metal work,
carpentry and engineering.

Many Montserrado-based formal TVET providers (35 percent) offer different ICT courses
than those based in other counties (18 percent). As will be seen later in the report, this
correlates with the access to internet and ICT-related equipment available in each geographical
region.

More than half (52 percent) of formal TVET programs surveyed were funded by the
trainees (through fees), most of whom are taking courses at private/for-profit institutions.
The most common courses in this category are ICT and management courses. Government
agencies, local NGOS, and international organizations also provide some funding, while
faith-based organizations and private/for-profit institutions provide a very small amount of
funding for TVET programs (Table 1). The government provides funding for small-scale training
courses which are run and managed by government entities and aimed at providing short-term
skills-based training in a variety of subjects. This includes literacy, business management and
work-based skills. These are different from the more formalized programs offered at formal
TVET training programs and community colleges, which are accredited and tend to be longer in
duration and more structured. International organizations supply funding for training offered by
CBOs and local NGOs, as well as for their own programming.

                          Table 1: Funding for Different TVET Providers

                                                Type of organization providing funding
Type of organization providing
training                               Gov’     Int’l    Traine        Local       Othe      Tota
                                        t       Org         e       NGO/FBO          r         l
Business Association                    -         -         1            -           -         1
CBO                                     1         1         1            1           1         5
Faith-Based Organization                -         -         2            1           -         3
Government                              4         -                      -           -         4
International organization              1         1                      -           -         2
Local NGO                               -         2         2            2           1         7
Other                                   -         -         3            -           -         3
Private/For-profit Institution          -         -        15            -           -        15
Total                                   6         4        24            2           1        40

Most apprenticeship providers cover the cost of training through the income they generate
for master craftsmen and technical businesses in the informal sector. More than half of
apprenticeship providers surveyed offer financial incentives to their apprentices, as they believe
apprentices should be compensated for the labor they provide. However, those who do not
provide monetary compensation maintain that skills acquisition is compensation for labor, since
apprentices did not pay for their training programs. Relative to apprentices, where only some
receive remuneration, in all cases, on-the-job trainees are employed in some capacity and
training providers are mainly private/for-profit institutions (68 percent). As with apprenticeships,
business-generated income covers the cost of training provided by private/for-profit institutions.
Some on-the-job training is supported by local NGOs, the government and CBOs, where trainees
are most likely sponsored to learn on-the-job through placement in private/for-profit institutions.

                                Table 2: Apprenticeship Funding

                                                               Type of organization providing
                                                 Numbe
                                                                  apprenticeship training
                                                   r of
Type of apprenticeship training provided                                 Loca
                                                  cases     Governmen            Private/For-profi
                                                                           l
                                                   (N)          t                   t institution
                                                                         NGO
Artisanal skills                                    12          1          4              7
Building and construction                            8          0          0              8
Carpentry and woodwork                              19          0          0             19
Motor mechanics and auto electrics                  14          0          0             14
Welding, engineering & steel works                   5          0          0              5
Total                                               58          1          4             53


3.2 RECRUITMENT

Enrollment in training courses is influenced by training type, cost, and educational prerequisites.
Most of the apprenticeships focus on manual trades, and few females enroll in them. Most youth
in TVET training courses tend to be slightly older and to have a higher level of educational
attainment. TVET training is largely funded by the individuals taking the training or their
parents. Formal TVET is accessed by youth with higher levels of education than the national
average and those who can afford tuition fees, while apprenticeships and on-the-job trainees are
more accessible to youth in lower socio-economic groups. Recruitment channels also govern
access to training. Formal TVET providers use radio and newspapers, but the majority of youth
involved in any training program found out about it through word of mouth. Among apprentices
and on-the-job trainees about half are related to another employee or the primary employer.
Finally, the geographic location of most training programs in Montserrado likely means that the
majority of youth in rural locations have limited access to these opportunities.

TVET institutions use formal channels, such as radio and newspapers, for advertising their
training courses. Radio is the most common method and is more popular in the counties (used
by 88 percent of TVET providers) than in Montserrado (used by 41 percent). Outside
Montserrado, radio is often community-based or county-based (e.g. Radio Nimba, Radio Sinoe,
etc.) and an important source of information. Monrovia has approximately 20 daily papers and
the counties each have only one or two daily papers with limited distributions. For this reason,
newspaper advertising is more prevalent in Montserrado than in the counties. Only a few
institutions in Montserrado use other advertising channels such as posters, internet or television
(Figure 40).
               100%
                               88%
                   90%
                   80%
                   70%
                   60%
                   50%               41%
                   40%                                    36%

                   30%
                   20%                              12%                        13%
                   10%                                                                            5%             5%
                                                                         0%                 0%             0%
                   0%
                                 Radio            Newspaper              Poster &        Television        Internet
                                                                        Pamphlets
                                                          Counties              Montserrado

                                           Figure 40 Formal TVET Advertising

Institutions offering on-the-job training most commonly use word of mouth to advertise
their training and job opportunities (Figure 41), while apprenticeship providers typically
offer opportunities to those within their network. As with TVET providers, radio advertising
is higher outside Montserrado (used by 40 percent of OJT providers) than inside Montserrado
(used by 16 percent). On-the-job providers only marginally use other advertising methods such
as career events, newspapers and job advertisements. Since in many cases OJT providers train
people they already employ, they have little need to advertise their training. Nearly all
apprenticeship providers (97 percent) report offering training in order to assist trainees and the
majority of trainers recruit apprentices from within their networks and communities.

             60%         56%

             50%
                               40%               40%
             40%


             30%


             20%                           16%
                                                                                                           12%
                                                                  10%                10%
             10%                                                                8%               8%

                                                             0%                                       0%         0%
              0%
                         Referrals          Radio         Career Events       Job Adverts    Newspaper      Other

                                                          Montserrado                 Counties

        Figure 41 Advertising Method used by Institutions Offering On-the-Job Training

According to trainees, word of mouth is by far the most common way that they find out
about training (Figure 42). Over 75 percent of on-the-job trainees and apprentices found out
about the training opportunity through word of mouth. Almost half of these trainees reported that
they were related to either another employee or the owner of the business connected with the
training (Figure 43), demonstrating that social networks play an important role in connecting
youth to these opportunities. For TVET trainees, radio communication was more common, but
word of mouth still accounted for over 50 percent of the way youth found out about training
courses. Close to half of the TVET trainees reported being competitively recruited, often through
written applications followed up by interviews, but the majority (over 70 percent) reported that
enrolling was easy (Figure 44).


        Apprenticeship                                      OTJ                               TVET




     radio    word of mouth     other            radio   word of mouth   other    radio     word of mouth   other


              Figure 42 Channel through Which Trainees Found Out About Program




                              regular employee      owner & employee      owner   neither

             Figure 43 Relationship between Apprentice or OJT and Training Provider
           Competitively recruited?                              Ease of enrollment




                                                           very easy   easy             average
                       no   yes                            difficult   very difficult



                    Figure 44 Recruitment and Enrollment of TVET Trainees

Training providers are concentrated in Montserrado, around the capital. From a listing
exercise carried out in November 2014, out of 470 training providers in Liberia, 70 percent
(330) were are based in Montserrado. There are small clusters of training providers in the
following counties: Grand Bassa (7 percent), Margibi (5.5 percent) and Nimba (6 percent).
Across locations there were a few notable differences in the types of training provided. First, far
more building and construction apprenticeships were found in Montserrado (88 percent) than
elsewhere. Second, slightly more motor mechanics and auto electronics apprenticeships (57
percent) were found outside of Monrovia. Third, most of the on-the-job training providers
surveyed were based in Montserrado (30 of 41). Of the providers outside of Montserrado most
focused on metal work, carpentry and engineering. Fourth, for TVET, Montserrado-based
providers offered more ICT courses (35 percent) than those based in other counties (18 percent).
Thus, access to training is more abundant close to Monrovia and the types of training
opportunities vary by location, with construction apprenticeships and ICT courses being more
readily available near the capital.

All types of trainers report enrolling trainees regardless of gender. However, enrollment
information shows fewer females in general accessing training, and particularly low
numbers in specific sectors and in on-the-job or apprenticeship training (Figure 45).
Courses that are traditionally male dominated, such as engineering, enroll more male than female
trainees, while courses that are traditionally female dominated, such as catering and cosmetology
enroll more female trainees. Among apprenticeship training providers, many of them anecdotally
report gender preferences for particular courses based on traditional gender roles. They report
that attracting female trainees for courses in the carpentry, automotive, construction and
engineering sectors is difficult. Female trainees tend to prefer courses in the service sector such
as catering, hospitality and cosmetology, which are more often provided by on-the-job training
programs or in formal TVET institutions.
           100%
            90%
            80%
            70%
            60%
            50%
            40%
            30%
            20%
            10%
             0%
                       Apprenticeship             OTJ                  TVET

                                           Male   Female

                  Figure 45 Gender of Current Trainees by Training Program

Across the different types of training, gender enrollment is most balanced in the programs
offered by formal TVET providers. Courses in ICT, business and financial skills are
popular among both genders (Figures 46 and 47). There is a strong bias towards males among
the apprenticeship providers, likely due to their concentration in manual, typically
male-dominated sectors. Among trainees surveyed only 14 of 150 apprentices were female.
Similarly, among on-the-job trainees only 26 of 95 trainees were female. Traditional societies,
including those in Africa, have long associated males and females with particular occupations
based on gender, which create some obstacles for those wishing to train for jobs outside of these
stereotypes. Information gathered from apprenticeship and on-the-job trainers indicates that these
perceptions are still persistent in Liberia and discourage females from training for traditionally
male dominated occupations and vice versa.
                training & business mgmt

              tailoring & garment making

                         security training

           motor mechanics & auto repair

                      health & sanitation

                engineering & skill-based

                  carpentry & woodwork

                            artisanal skills
                                               0%          20%      40%           60%    80%   100%

                                                          Male   Female

                   Figure 46 Gender of Current Trainees by Training Course
           welding, engineering & steel works
                    training & business mgmt
                 theory (academic, teaching)
                  tailoring & garment making
                                 soap making
                             security training
                restaurants, hotels & catering
              motor mechanics & auto repair
                                               ICT
                          health & sanitation
              hair dressing, beauty therapy &…
                    engineering & skill-based
                                        driving
                      carpentry & woodwork
                      building & construction
                                artisanal skills

                                                     0%      20%         40%       60%   80%   100%

                                               Apprenticeship      OTJ     TVET

             Figure 47 Training Course by Training Program for Current Trainees

The majority of the trainees surveyed were between 15 and 24 years old (Figure 48).
Apprenticeships engaged slightly younger youth, with 53 percent 15-24 year olds, 30 percent
25-34 year olds, and 12 percent above 34 years old, while TVET trainees were slightly older,
with 36 percent 15-24 year olds, 34 percent 25-34 year olds, and 28 percent above 34 years old.
On-the-job trainees were approximately in the middle of these age distributions.
            60%

            50%

            40%

            30%

            20%

            10%

             0%
                      Apprenticeship                 OTJ                  TVET

                                  Below 15   15-24     25-34   Above 34

                        Figure 48 Age of Trainees by Training Program

Educational attainment varies across different types of training programs. About 50
percent of apprentices had no schooling or incomplete primary, while this dropped to 21
percent for on-the-job trainees and 10 percent for TVET trainees (Figure 49). Among
TVET and on-the-job trainees about 60 percent had completed secondary school or higher.
Given our discussions on the profiles of youth in the preceding chapter, where higher educational
attainment in Liberia is very low among youth, this implies that a minority of youth are likely
accessing these training programs, or at least have been covered in the survey data. The national
TVET policy has since reduced the educational prerequisite to grade 6 schooling, yet this is still
above the average level of education for youth. Figure 50 shows the literacy and numeracy of
trainees. This further shows the weaknesses in the basic skills of youth, even among those
enrolled in TVET and on-the-job training programs. Apprentices have the lowest skill levels with
about 70 percent having low or no literacy and numeracy.
           45%
           40%
           35%
           30%
           25%
           20%
           15%
           10%
            5%
            0%
                        Apprenticeship                      OTJ                                  TVET

                    no schooling                primary not completed        primary completed
                    secondary not completed     secondary completed          high school not completed
                    high school completed       college/university           other

                 Figure 49 Educational Attainment of Trainees by Training Program

     50%                                                        60%
     45%
     40%                                                        50%
     35%
                                                                40%
     30%
     25%                                                        30%
     20%
     15%                                                        20%
     10%
                                                                10%
      5%
      0%                                                          0%
            Apprenticeship         OTJ          TVET                    Apprenticeship            OTJ                TVET

                 not numerate       low numeracy                               not literate        low literacy
                 fairly numerate    highly numerate                            fairly literate     highly literate

                 Figure 50 Numeracy and Literacy of Trainees by Training Program

3.3 Training Program Quality and Capacity

The years of conflict have significantly impacted the level of experience offered by trainers in
TVET institutions. Trainers in most formal TVET institutions began working or teaching in their
subject area after the civil war ended, which means that as a group they lack industry or
teaching experience. Formal TVET institutions also lack standardized curriculum and
accreditation processes, facilities that correspond to their subject area, such as computers and
internet access for ICT courses, and the resources to provide the necessary training materials
and tools to their students. Few TVET institutions currently track their students so it is hard to
evaluate the success of their training programs.
In contrast to formal TVET trainers, apprenticeship and on-the-job training providers almost all
have at least five years of industry experience. They have stronger links to industry and are
better equipped to track their trainees after their apprenticeships. They are able to facilitate
some degree of trade testing, although opportunities of formal accreditation are minimal. These
training providers also lack resources, with inadequate facilities, equipment or materials to offer
effective training.

The industry and teaching experience of most TVET trainers is relatively limited, in part
due to the disruption the civil war caused to training institutions. Most TVET trainers (65
percent) surveyed had an average of zero to five years of industry experience and only 10 percent
have an average more than ten years of industry experience (Table 3). As most TVET institutions
opened after the end of the civil war they had to hire from a limited pool of candidates. As a
result, they employ recent graduates with little or no work experience. Only international
organizations and local NGOs were found to employ staff with an average of 11 or more years of
industry experience. As with industry experience, the majority of TVET trainers have less than
five years of teaching experience (Table 4). Qualitative evidence from provider interviews
suggests that most institutions employ recent graduates. Trainers with little teaching or industry
experience may decrease the effectiveness of training programs.
      Table 3: Staff average years of industry experience by type of TVET training provider

                                  Number               Average years of industry experience
    Type of TVET trainer
                                  of cases     0 - 5 years     6 - 10 years        11 years and
 Business Association               (N)
                                      1           100%              0%                 above
                                                                                         0%
 Community-Based                      5            40%             60%                   0%
 OrganizationOrganization
 Faith-Based                          3           100%              0%                   0%
 Government                           4            75%             25%                   0%
 International Organization           2            50%              0%                  50%
 Local NGO                            7            43%             43%                  14%
 Others                               3            67%             33%                   0%
 Private/For-profit Institution      15            73%             13%                  13%
 Total                               40            65%             25%                  10%



         Table 4: Staff average years of teaching experience by TVET training provider

                             Number                  Average years of teaching experience
 Type of TVET training
                             of cases                                              11 years and
 provider
                               (N)           0 - 5 years       6 - 10 years            above
 Business association            1              100%                0%                  0%
 CBO                             5              100%                0%                  0%
 Faith-Based
 organization                     3            100%                0%                  0%
 Government                       4            100%                0%                  0%
 International                    2            100%                0%                  0%
 Organization
 Local NGO                     7          57.14%             42.86%                 0%
 Other                         3          66.67%             33.33%                 0%
 Private/For-profit
 Institution                  15          86.67%                0%                13.33%
 Total                        40           85%                 10%                  5%


In contrast to TVET programs, most apprenticeship providers and on-the-job training
providers have substantial industry experience. 62 percent of apprenticeship providers have
more than ten years of relevant work experience, while only 12 percent have five years or less
(Table 5). 81 percent of OTJ providers have six or more industry experience (Table 6). From
anecdotal evidence gathered during the survey, apprenticeships and on-the-job training offered
by private businesses are mainly provided by master craftsman. In contrast, programs facilitated
by local NGOs employ less experienced staff.
                       Table 5: Work experience of apprenticeship providers

                               Number          Work experience of apprenticeship providers
 Type of institution           of cases                                          11 years and
                                              0-5 years       6-10 years
                                 (N)                                                above
 Government                        1             0%              100%                 0%
 Local NGO                         4            75%               0%                 25%
 Private/For-profit
 Institution                      53              8%                 26%                 66%
 Total                            58             12%                 26%                 62%



                            Table 6: OTJ trainers' years of experience

                                 Number                       Years of experience
 Type of OTJ provider            of cases        0-5 years        6-10 years      11 years and
 Government                        (N)
                                     3              0%                0%             above
                                                                                     100%
 Local NGO                           5             40%               60%               0%
 Others                              5              0%               60%              40%
 Private/For-profit                 28             21%               25%              54%
 Total                              41             19%               32%              49%


TVET training courses and local NGO apprenticeships cater for larger class sizes, while
on-the-job and apprenticeships with private businesses usually take on less than ten
trainees at a time. The majority of TVET providers (64 percent) limit class sizes to 30 or less
trainees at one time, but are willing to cater for class sizes this large. In Montserrado, the average
number of youth participating in apprenticeships with local NGOs is 46. In contrast, private
businesses offering apprenticeships had only eight to nine apprentices across locations and most
on-the-job training providers trained only one to ten trainees at a time. Although many
businesses indicate their desire to train more people than currently enrolled, many explained that
they are unable to do so because of current constraints on capacity and finances (and presumably
business activity).

The length of TVET training courses varies by type of course. Apprenticeships and
on-the-job training typically last between one to six months (Figure 51). Duration tends to
depend on the complexity of the subject area and trainees’ previous experience. Artisanal skills,
such as weaving and tailoring, on average take less training time than more technical skills, such
as carpentry and welding.
                       Apprenticeships                                                           OTJ
    60%
                 50%                                                  80%
                                                                                       70%
    50%                                                               70%
                                                                      60%
    40%
                                                                      50%
    30%                                      24%                      40%
    20%                          16%                                  30%
                                                          10%         20%                            15%             15%
    10%
                                                                      10%
     0%                                                               0%
             1-6 Months 7-12 Months         13-24     More than 24              1-6 months       7-12 monhs     more than 12
                                            Months      Months                                                    months

                         Figure 51 Apprenticeships and On-the-Job Training Duration

While most TVET institutions had access to classrooms, many lacked other important
facilities and equipment associated with providing training. All TVET institutions
interviewed have access to classrooms and trade area spaces, but more than 75 percent have no
access to administrative facilities (Figure 52). Access to a standardized curriculum, library, ICT
facilities and internet connectivity remains a serious challenge both inside and outside
Montserrado. Furthermore, there is an educational disassociation between the courses offered
and the access to facilities available. For example, a large proportion of TVET providers offer
ICT courses, but only a small number have access to internet connectivity. Moreover, though
providers may have access to computers for training, the number of computers are limited and
many are outdated. This is an issue primarily in the counties, where TVET providers may train
up to five trainees per computer, limiting hands-on, practical training. Thus, while 73 percent of
institutions report having space for more students, many do not have the appropriate facilities.
This inevitably limits institutions’ ability to adequately train an increased number of students


       Classroom & Trade                                                                                         100%
               Area Space                                                                                        100%

               Water Supply                                                              65%
                                                                                               76%
              Administrative                          22%
                   Building                            24%
              ICT & Internet                 13%
                Connectivity           6%
          Library for Current                13%
                   Textbooks           6%
               Standardized                  13%
                 Curriculum            6%

                                0%             20%              40%             60%            80%            100%

                                                        Montserrado         Counties


                                                     Figure 52 TVET Facilities
TVET providers repeatedly noted a lack of financial resources as a constraint to delivering
courses. Donor-funded institutions are vulnerable to funding cycles, and TVET providers who
rely on these funds cease to provide training when their funding ends, leaving the youth in these
communities underserved. Though nonprofit institutions generally provide training free of
change, they often require trainees to supply their own learning materials. For example,
cosmetology trainees must bring their own hair dressing equipment. If students are unable to
acquire such materials they often drop-out of the training program. Private and for-profit
institutions in the counties compensate for a lack of financing from students by decreasing
training cost, which negatively affects training quality. This is reflected in both trainers’ and
trainees’ comments on the lack of adequate tools and equipment.

Almost half (48 percent) of the apprenticeship training providers believe that their facilities
are not suitable for proper training (Table 7). Facilities refer to trade area space, infrastructure
and other immovable hardware (including machinery) required for training. Apprenticeship
providers offering training in welding, engineering and steel works report the lowest level of
facility suitability and sufficiency (20 percent), while those providing training in building and
construction report the highest (75 percent). Many say they are renting facilities which are often
poorly equipped and in many cases have no access to electricity. The use of generators to supply
electricity is expensive and providers note that this affects not only training but also their
business viability. In order to improve training, apprenticeship providers say they need more
space and established and/or permanent locations, as many operate from rented facilities which
only accommodate a few people. This limits the number of people they can train, as well as their
ability to secure their tools and to expand their business operations. For apprenticeships in
manual trades access to better materials and tools was also required. The proportion of trainers
with limited access to appropriate and sufficient tools is high in the counties, at 84 percent, as
well as in Montserrado, at 71 percent.

  Table 7: Adequacy and Sufficiency of Facilities Used by Apprenticeship Training Providers

                                              Do you think your facilities are suitable/sufficient
Type of apprenticeship training
                                                       the type of training you provide?
                                                   for No                           Yes
Artisanal skills (N=12)                               50%                          50%
Building and construction (N=8)                       25%                          75%
Carpentry and woodwork (N=19)                         47%                          53%
Motor mechanics and auto electrics                    50%                          50%
(N=14) engineering & steel works
Welding,                                              80%                          20%
(N=5)
Total (N= 58)                                         48%                          52%


As with apprenticeships, on-the-job training providers believe they do not have access to
sufficient tools and equipment. 64 percent of providers outside of Montserrado and 47 percent
inside Montserrado reported having insufficient access to tools and equipment. Again, as with
apprenticeship providers, this presumably has a negative effect on the providers’ business
activities and ability to expand.
Institutional management and organizational administration of TVET programs, or lack
thereof, affects the effectiveness and impact of training. The majority of these institutions
have human resource mechanisms in place, as well as attendance tracking systems and graduate
placement services. However, trainees consider most of these services to be inadequate (to be
discussed further in the next chapter). An example of inadequacy can be seen from the lack of
financial audits: 52 percent of institutions surveyed did not participate in any financial auditing
in the previous year, making it difficult to determine if these institutions are properly managed
and operate efficiently (Figure 53).

       Has Attendance Register                                                              95%

      Employ Qualified Trainers                                                            93%
        Has Staff Compensation
                                                                                      90%
                         System
                 Follow Training
                                                                                     87%
                      Cirriculum
         Has Trainer Evaluation
                                                                                     87%
                         System
                     Has Human
                                                                               80%
               Resources Policy
            Has Grad Placement
                                                                       63%
                        Services
              Accounts Audited
                                                           48%
         in Previous 12 Months

                                   0%    20%        40%          60%         80%           100%

                            Figure 53 Management Activities at TVET Institutions

Most TVET providers also lack the administrative capacity to properly track previous
trainees. As a result, they do not monitor the employment status of graduates or investigate why
some trainees drop-out. Among other things, this limits their ability to measure their training
programs’ success in terms of job placement or to improve their courses based on trainee
feedback (current, drop-out or graduates). Tracking graduates would also allow them to maintain
an alumni network that could be used to make employment connections for their trainees in the
future.

Apprenticeship providers demonstrate greater success in tracking youth learners’
outcomes and facilitating trade testing, although connections to external training
institutions are weak (Figure 54). 74 percent of the apprenticeship providers facilitated trade
testing with the relevant governing authorities and just over half of apprenticeship providers
track apprentices after they complete their training. More than half do not advertise their training
opportunities but recruit apprentices through personal networks. Although this may be cheaper
and faster than formal advertising, it excludes young people who may not be directly linked to
the training providers. More than half of apprenticeship providers offer financial incentives to
their apprentices, as they believe apprentices should be compensated for the labor they provide.
However, those who do not provide monetary compensation maintain that skills acquisition is
compensation for labor, since apprentices do not pay for their training programs.
               Trainers Facilitate Trade
                                                                                               74%
                     Tests for Learners
                   Trainers Keep Track
                                                                                  55%
                           of Learners

                 Trainers Pay Learners                                           53%

                Trainers who Advertize
                                                                           48%
                          their Training
          Trainers with Connections to
                                                        19%
          External Training Institutions

                                           0%   10%   20%     30%   40%   50%      60%   70%    80%

                           Figure 54 Management of Apprenticeship Programs

3.4 Trainees

This subsection discusses the findings of survey data collected by Building Markets on youth
involved in training programs. Youth pursue a training program for personal advancement but
also hope for better employment opportunities and better earning opportunities. Most
apprentices expect to realize these improvements through self-employment, although a fair
number wish to pursue formal employment. Almost all formal TVET learners hope for formal
employment. Employment outcomes were much stronger among apprentices and on-the-job
trainees than among formal TVET trainees. However, given their higher educational attainment
and their ability to afford tuition fees, it is possible that formal TVET trainees choose
unemployment over low-wage employment or work they do not want to do. The challenges
trainees faced varied by type of training program. The costs of transportation, tools, and
materials were indicated as a challenge by youth pursuing on-the-job and apprenticeship
training, and many young people suggested that financial incentives could be improved.
However, most youth would recommend their training program to others. The survey also found
that formal TVET courses are not accessed by the bulk of youth and seem set up to provide skills
such as ICT that are not highly marketable in Liberia. In addition, the funding structure for
apprenticeships and on-the-job training would benefit from further thought. Last, the majority
and most successful training opportunities are currently accessed more readily by males than
females.

Based on the trainee records provided by training providers, the survey firm Building
Markets collected information on 354 youth who had enrolled in training programs (Figure
55). 256 trainees were current learners (130 apprentices, 65 on-the-job employees, 61 formal
TVET trainees), 15 dropouts (2 apprentices, 1 on-the-job employees, 12 formal TVET trainees),
53 employed graduates (12 apprentices, 25 on-the-job employees, 16 trainees) and 30
unemployed graduates (6 apprentices, 4 on-the-job employees, 20 formal TVET trainees). The
majority of the current learners (47 percent) and drop outs (40 percent) were in the 15 to 24 age
group, while the employed and unemployed graduates were mostly above 25 (83 percent and 66
percent, respectively). The majority of trainees surveyed were male (262 of 354) and based in
Montserrado (229 of 354), and these ratios persisted over categories of current learners and
graduates.
            unemployed graduate


              employed graduate


                         drop out


                   current learner


                                     0       50        100         150          200       250         300

                                            Apprenticeship   OTJ         TVET

                           Figure 55 Sample of Youth Trainees Surveyed
Most training courses required daily attendance, but youth are not always able to attend
their training (Figure 56). 81 percent of apprentices and 86 percent of on-the-job trainees
reported that their training required daily attendance, while slightly fewer TVET trainees (66
percent) reported this requirement. However, only 68 percent of apprentices reported always
attending their training, compared to 82 percent and 84 percent of on-the-job and TVET trainees
respectively. When asked why apprentices did not attend all the time, most explained it was due
to alternative responsibilities, such as domestic work, or because they were unwell.


 100%                                                        100%
  90%                                                        90%
  80%                                                        80%
  70%                                                        70%
  60%                                                        60%
  50%                                                        50%
  40%                                                        40%
  30%                                                        30%
  20%                                                        20%
  10%                                                        10%
   0%                                                         0%
        Apprenticeship       OTJ             TVET                        Apprenticeship         OTJ              TVET

           daily    a few days a week     other                                 always    sometimes     rarely


                                     Figure 56 Attendance of Youth Trainees

58.     According to the TVET trainees surveyed, class sizes rarely exceeded 20 students,
and most courses finished within 12 months (Figure 57). 42 percent of trainees were in classes
with less than ten students and a further 38 percent report their class size was between 10 to 20
students. During their classes, most students spend less than 5 hours per week on both theory and
practical (Figure 58). This, along with the finding that many courses are less than 3 months in
length (45 percent) and the majority shorter than 12 months (81 percent), suggests that TVET
courses provide a limited opportunity for youth to acquire or develop a new technical skill or
vocation.

                    Course Length                                                      Class Size

    24+ mths
                                                              31-40

  12-23 mths

                                                              21-30
   6-11 mths

    4-5 mths
                                                              11-20

    2-3 mths

                                                               0-10
    0-1 mths

               0%     10%    20%         30%         40%              0%         10%     20%   30%   40%   50%


                       Figure 57 Formal TVET Course Length and Class Size


                                        Practical Hours per Week

                             21+ hrs



                            11-20 hrs



                             6-10 hrs



                              0-5 hrs


                                        0%      20%          40%       60%         80%


                     Figure 58 TimeTheory         per
                                           Hours in
                                   Spent Learning     Week
                                                    Formal TVET Programs

Learning outcomes are measured through a variety of approaches (Figure 59). Homework
                             21+ hrs
and role play exercises are more   common among apprenticeship and on-the-job training, while in
class exercises are more popular in TVET programs. This likely reflects the difference in
learning environments, whereby
                           11-20 hrs
                                     TVET trainees are commonly in the class room, while
apprentices and on-the-job trainees are not. Relatedly only TVET trainees report taking any type
of exam during their program. Instead 63 percent of apprentices and on-the-job trainees take
                              however,
trade tests. Unfortunately, 6-10 hrs   this only leads to 35 percent obtaining some form of
certification (Figure 60).
                              0-5 hrs


                                        0%     20%     40%     60%         80%    100%
            theoretical exams


              practical exams


                      roleplay


                   homework


             in class exercises


                                  0%   10%   20%    30%   40%    50%       60%   70%   80%   90%

                                             TVET   OTJ   Apprenticeship

                                       Figure 59 Assessment Methods

The employment outcomes of on-the-job trainees and apprentices are stronger than those
of TVET graduates. 27 of the 36 graduates of TVET programs reported being unemployed,
while 37 of the 47 apprentices and on-the-job trainees who had completed their training reported
being employed. Most TVET graduates thought that their employment outcomes could be
strengthened if the learning program facilitated internships and job exposure, and most felt that
lack of connections was limiting their employment prospects. It is worth noting that most TVET
trainees also reported being unemployed before the enrolling in programs, which along with the
information on their higher level of educational attainment suggests that they may be from
relatively more well-off socioeconomic groups, where not working is an option. Of the 12 youth
who dropped out of TVET programs, most reported financial challenges, sickness or becoming
pregnant as the reason.

By far the most common reason youth enrolled in training programs was “personal
advancement.” More than half, 56 percent, of apprentices and on-the-job trainees and 60
percent of TVET trainees reported that “personal advancement” was their motivation for
pursuing training. Other popular reasons were increased employment opportunities (34 percent
of apprentices/OTJ trainees and 43 percent TVET trainees) and increased earning opportunities
(36 percent and 34 percent, respectively). Very few chose to take training to start their own
business (9 percent and 7 percent, respectively) and even fewer took courses to meet the needs of
a family business or occupation.

Financial problems were the most common problem that youth faced while accessing their
training. Financial problems were more common among apprentices and on-the-job trainees
who reported having trouble covering the costs for transport, tools and materials. Other problems
included inconsistent electricity supply and lack of workspace, as well as payment issues. Only
20 percent of TVET trainees reported any challenges, and half of these trainees faced problems
due to a lack of money to secure a place on the course. Again this seems to indicate that youth
accessing TVET courses in Liberia are from relatively more well-off socio-economic groups,
while those accessing apprenticeships and on-the-job training are from lower socio-economic
groups.
Costs faced by youth, beyond tuition fees, typically included the cost of transportation,
study materials and tools (Figure 61). Work tools and study materials were the highest cost
youth faced and were highest for on-the-job trainees ($285 per term), then TVET trainees ($176
per term) and apprentices ($104 per term). Food and transport were common frequently
occurring costs and were in the range of $7 to $12 per week.



            work tools & study materials (per term)




                                transport (weekly)




                                     food (weekly)



                                                      0     50    100    150   200   250   300

                                            TVET      OTJ   Apprenticeship

                         Figure 60 Cost Associated with Training Programs

Formal TVET tuition fees were considered affordable by the majority of formal TVET
trainees (Figure 62). 71 of the 109 trainees reported being able to pay all the TVET tuition fees
and only 25 of 109 said they found them expensive or too expensive. Most TVET trainees were
either paying the fees themselves or their parents were covering the costs. Again this indicates
that youth accessing TVET courses in Liberia are from relatively more well-off socio-economic
groups.
                                       Figure 61 TVET Fees
Slightly more than half of on-the-job trainees and apprentices report receiving wages or
stipends. These wages average $70 per month among apprentices and $80 per month among
on-the-job trainees (Figure 63), helping to offset the weekly costs incurred on transport and food.

                                                    100
                  Paid wages?
                                                     90
  100%                                               80
   90%
                                                     70
   80%
   70%                                               60
   60%                                               50
   50%                                               40
   40%
                                                     30
   30%
                                                     20
   20%
   10%                                               10
    0%                                                0
            Apprenticeship          OTJ                             monthly wage (USD)

                        no   yes                                  Apprenticeship   OTJ



                             Figure 62 On-the-Job and Apprentice Wages
                      Trade Tests                              Certification




                          no   yes                                  no   yes


              Figure 63 Qualifications among Apprentices and On-the-Job Trainees

3.5 Trainees’ Experience of TVET Programs

Most youth who completed training did not achieve the earnings or employment they expected.
However, most trainees would still recommend their training program to others. Formal TVET
trainees attributed their failure to find jobs to a lack of job placement or internship components
in their programs, and suggested that providers create these components. On-the-job trainees
and apprentices said that they lacked access to practical equipment, tools and materials, secure
training spaces, and consistent electricity supplies. Many of these youth also felt that they would
benefit from additional training in literacy and numeracy, as well as in customer service skills.
Start-up capital for self-employment was another suggestion made by trainees.

Almost all youth enrolled in training programs reported that they expected higher
employment and earnings chances after completing their training (Figure 64). Close to 90
percent of each type of trainee reported that they thought that the experience of training would
give them better or much better employment and earnings prospects. Among the apprentices
most (56 percent) expected to realize these improvements through self-employment, while a fair
number (32 percent) wished to pursue formal employment. Almost all TVET learners hoped for
formal employment.
                                     Employment Expectations
                             100%

                              80%

                              60%

                              40%

                              20%

                               0%
                                    Apprenticeship        OTJ          TVET

                                    much better      better     same   unsure


                    Figure 64 Employment and Earnings
                                    Earnings          Expectations of Youth
                                              Expectations
                           100% that teaching was the most important aspect of a training
The majority of youth thought
course. 65 percent TVET trainees thought that teaching was the most important aspect of the
                            80%
course, while 53 percent of apprentices and on-the-job trainees thought the quality of teachers
                            60% of the training program (53 percent), followed by the learning
was the most important aspect
environment (26 percent). In terms of usefulness, the practical and theoretical aspects of the
courses were ranked highly  40%
                              by TVET trainees and the practical experience gained from the
course most useful for apprentices and on-the-job trainees.
                              20%

Surprisingly, all TVET trainees0%       surveyed reported that they would recommend their
training program to other youth.            Similarly,OTJ
                                    Apprenticeship        98 percent    of on-the-job trainees and
                                                                     TVET
apprentices would recommend their training program to others. The majority of youth feel
                                     much better   better   same    unsure
that the overall quality of their training  program   is satisfactory to excellent (Figure 65). At first
glance, there appears to be a discrepancy between trainees’ perception of the courses and the
level of unemployment among graduates (at least among TVET graduates where 75 percent
surveyed were unemployed). However, this is due in part to trainees’ belief that there are limited
jobs in the Liberian economy. Additionally, youth taking TVET courses believe that certain
courses (such as ICT in Montserrado) are a prerequisite to employment rather than a course that
will lead directly to employment opportunities. In other words, ICT skills are seen as basic skills
needed in tandem with other skill sets (and perhaps additional training) in order to obtain
employment.

Interestingly, while the youth trainees felt that the overall quality of their training
programs was high, many felt that the quality of the other student enrolled in the program
was relatively low (Figure 65). This latter finding is intriguing and suggestion of misconception
among youth about their own ability and efforts. For example, for the majority of students to
think that their peers are of a lower quality than themselves shows that youth may not be willing
to identify their own shortcomings. This is concerning to the extent that it could limit their ability
to take ownership of their own economic and employment prospects.
                       Overall Quality
  100%
   90%
   80%
   70%
   60%
   50%
   40%
   30%
   20%
   10%
    0%
          Apprenticeship          OTJ            TVET

         inefficient       unsatisfactory   average
         satisfactory      excellent


               Student
    Figure 65 Overall   Quality
                      Quality and Quality of Students Enrolled in Training, Rated by Peers
  100%
With90%
        regards to teaching most students were satisfied with the teaching and the
student-teacher
    80%          ratio (Figure 66). Close to 80 percent of youth in each type of training felt that
    student-ratio was adequate, although there may be some room for improvement as only
the 70%
    60% 40 percent felt that it was excellent. Almost 90 percent of youth felt that the teaching was
around
    50% to excellent, with close to 60 percent reporting that it was excellent.
adequate
   40%
   30%         Student-Teacher Ratio                                          Teaching
   20%
  100%
   10%                                                  100%
    0%
   80%    Apprenticeship          OTJ            TVET   80%

   60% inefficient         unsatisfactory   average     60%
         satisfactory      excellent
   40%                                                  40%

   20%                                                  20%

    0%                                                   0%
          Apprenticeship          OTJ            TVET           Apprenticeship          OTJ            TVET

         inefficient       unsatisfactory   average            inefficient       unsatisfactory   average
         satisfactory      excellent                           satisfactory      excellent



             Figure 66 Training Program Quality: Student-Teacher Ratio and Teaching

Curriculum and facilities and tools are areas where training programs were lacking
(Figure 67). 33 percent of apprentices, 21 percent of on-the-job trainees and 25 percent of TVET
trainees felt that the training program curriculum was unsatisfactory or inefficient. 24 percent of
apprentices, 20 percent of on-the-job trainees and 21 percent of TVET trainees also felt that the
training facilities and access to tools was unsatisfactory or inefficient.


                        Curriculum                                       Facilities and Tools
  100%                                                    100%
   90%                                                     90%
   80%                                                     80%
   70%                                                     70%
   60%                                                     60%
   50%                                                     50%
   40%                                                     40%
   30%                                                     30%
   20%                                                     20%
   10%                                                     10%
    0%                                                      0%
          Apprenticeship          OTJ             TVET            Apprenticeship          OTJ            TVET

         inefficient      unsatisfactory     average             inefficient       unsatisfactory   average
         satisfactory     excellent                              satisfactory      excellent

              Figure 67 Training Program Quality: Curriculum and Facility and Tools

Industry links and career support was ranked by youth to be the weakest parts of their
training programs. 60 percent of apprentices, 44 percent of on-the-job trainees and 54 percent
of TVET trainees felt that the links to industry offered by their training program was
unsatisfactory or inefficient. For career support, only 38 percent of apprentices, 42 percent of
on-the-job trainees and 30 percent of TVET trainees felt that the training program offered
satisfactory or better support.

                        Industry Links
  100%
   90%
   80%
   70%
   60%
   50%
   40%
   30%
   20%
   10%
    0%
           Apprenticeship          OTJ             TVET

         inefficient        unsatisfactory   average
         satisfactory       excellent

              Figure 68 Training Program Quality: Industry Links and Career Support
                       Career Support
  100%
   90%
   80%
   70%
   60%
   50%
Among TVET trainees the most frequent challenge that youth felt they faced was simply
the lack of employment opportunities. 67 percent of TVET trainees referenced lack of
employment opportunities as the main challenge for graduates. This reinforces the earlier
perception, that even after pursuing training, most youth feel employment will be difficult to
obtain. The second most common challenges were the lack of start-up capital available to youth
and low earnings. When asked how TVET programs could be improved, youth provided a
variety of responses: better links with industry, job placement support, higher quality teachers,
better teaching resources and improvement in accreditation. Better links to industry and job
placement were the most popular responses.

Among apprentices and on-the-job trainees the most critical areas they needed support
were funding (58 percent) and technical resources (40 percent). In terms of skills where they
felt they needed to improve technical skills was most important with 40 percent of youth feeling
like they need to improve these skills. Literacy and numeracy, as well as customer relations were
also seen to be important areas for improvement, with 24 percent and 20 percent of youth
wishing that training programs incorporated a greater focus on these skills. In terms of improving
the arrangements for their training, 54 percent youth felt their training program would benefit
from newer learning resources and 47 percent suggested that financial or other incentives could
help trainees get more from their training.
4. SYNTHESIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The objective of this report was to assess the opportunities and constraints to skills
development for youth in Liberia, with a particular focus on vocational trades and the
informal sector. Given the economy in Liberia is undiversified and heavily reliant on a few
primary export commodities, there exist limited opportunities for formal sector employment . Out
of the total labor force, paid employment covers only 17 percent, while the unpaid family work
and self-employment cover 48 percent and 32 percent, respectively. This is even more the case
among youth where only 6.2 percent of 15 to 24 year olds find paid employment. Given the
limited potential for employment growth in formal sector industries, informality or non-wage
work will continue to dominate Liberia’s labor market over the medium term.25 Understanding
the options for increasing labor productivity in non-wage occupations and sectors is an important
priority.

Many youth have only reached low levels of education and basic skills are limited. Over 50
percent of females between 25 to 34 years old have no schooling. While younger cohorts of
females have higher educational attainment and more closely match that of males the same age,
education levels are still very low in Liberia. For example, in 2010 around 60 percent of both
males and females 15 to 19 years old had no or incomplete primary education. This in part
reflects the large number of youth who are still trying to complete their education at the same
time as pursuing work or holding other household responsibilities. Among the youth apprentices
interviewed, 50 percent had no schooling or incomplete primary and 70 percent had low or no
numeracy or literacy skills.

The majority of youth work in agriculture and as own account workers. By far the largest
sector of employment is agriculture, followed by commerce. In these sectors most youth work as
unpaid family members or as own account workers. Overall own account work is the most
common form of employment for youth, followed by unpaid family work. Paid work is
concentrated in the sectors where few youth obtain employment, such as: mining, manufacturing,
utilities, transport and construction; at NGOs; and in government.

Substantial variations exists among the earnings of youth, even at comparable education
levels. For example, at each level of education, females on average earn less than males, and paid
employees on average earn considerably more than own account workers. As females also tend
to have lower levels of educational attainment and lower representation in paid employment, on
average they earn considerable less than male youth. Non-profit and government work are the
most highly paid types of work. While multiple explanations exist, such as youth having
different preferences in work, the lack of earnings equalization by gender and by education is
also suggestive of labor market frictions. For example, the earnings of youth may not correspond
with their productivity, possibly due to problems regarding access to work opportunities, such as
a lack of information available to youth or high costs associated with searching, matching or
changing jobs.

Training providers in Liberia can be classified into two types of institutions: those that
provide on-the-job training or apprenticeships in a particular type of trade or skill, and
25
     World Bank (2010). Liberia: Employment and Pro-Poor Growth. Report No. 59124-LR.
those that provide class-room based training in both vocational and technical skills. This
typology of training providers aligns with the definitions of formal and non-formal or informal
TVET discussed in the 2015 National TVET policy. The policy labels class-room based
vocational and technical training as formal TVET and labels on-the-job training and
apprenticeships as informal and non-formal TVET. Informal or non-formal on-the-job based skill
acquisition or through apprenticeships is the most common form of training in Liberia, with
around 70 percent of the training providers surveyed offering this type of training. These
providers are more heavily concentrated in urban areas, particularly around Monrovia, indicating
that training opportunities are more limited outside the capital. Apprenticeships and on-the-job
training tend to be concentrated in manual trades such as carpentry, welding, construction, auto
mechanics, as well as artisanal skills, which have greater enrollment of males than females.
Some on-the-job training opportunities also exist in service based sectors such as tailoring,
cosmetology, hospitality and catering, however, overall their appear to be more options that
appeal to males than females, given current gender norms in Liberia. The most popular courses
offered by TVET training providers were on ICT, business and vocation-specific technical skills.
Among TVET courses there is a more even enrollment of males and females.

TVET training institutions currently attract and target youth with higher levels of
education and the economic means to cover tuition. Administrative data shows that only a
small proportion of youth (10 percent) participate in vocational training and these youth have
relatively high levels of education, having completed secondary education, or even university.
This may be due to TVET institutions requiring a minimum level of education. For example,
until the 2014 TVET policy many institutions required at least 9th grade education
(mid-secondary) and even since the policy most students are expected to have completed primary
education (6th grade).26 TVET training is also largely funded by the individuals taking the
training or their parents, and most report that they find tuition fees to be affordable and not a
constraint to enrollment.

A large number of youth are unemployed after completing TVET training. While the
sample is small, about three-quarters of the 36 youth surveyed who had graduated from TVET
programs reported being unemployed when they were interviewed. There are several
explanations for this finding. First, TVET trainees have a higher reservation wage, so they are
more willing to remain unemployed over taking lower paying work options. This fits with the
finding that they are generally unemployed before pursuing training and have higher
socio-economic characteristics, such as the ability to cover tuition fees and have been able to
reach a higher level of schooling. Second, the quality of TVET training programs may be
insufficient to impact their employment prospects. TVET students spent less than 5 hours per
week on both theoretical and practical learning activities, and a large number of courses finish in
under 3 months (45 percent). This length and intensity of training may limit the ability for youth
to acquire or develop new technical skills. Third, training courses may focus on the development
of skills for which there is a lower demand in the Liberian labor market. For example, ICT and
business skills may be pre-requisites to employment in paid work, but there is likely fewer
positions offered than there are candidates with this skills. As youth indicated when interviewed,
taking an ICT or business skills course may only be part of the extra-curricular training they will
pursue while searching for employment.
26
     National Policy for TVET, MYS 2015.
The capacity and quality of TVET institutions is limited. However, only a minority of
youth access these institutions. Teaching and industry experience of trainers in TVET
institutions was found to be very low, with most TVET trainers having less than five years of
either industry or teaching experience. Access to relevant equipment and facilities, such as
computers, electricity and internet connectivity, was also reported to be a problem. Youth also
felt that programs would benefit from more practical training and job placements or internships
to better prepare them for work. Only a minority of youth, however, access these types of
training and their employment outcomes after training programs are poor. This suggests that
investing in TVET institutions may not be an immediate priority when addressing the constraints
to skill development for the broader population of youth.

In contrast to TVET programs, most apprenticeship providers and on-the-job training
providers have substantial industry experience. These training programs also lead to
stronger employment outcomes. 62 percent of apprenticeship providers had more than ten
years of relevant work experience and 81 percent of OTJ providers have more than five years of
industry. Anecdotal evidence gathered during the survey, found that these apprenticeships and
on-the-job trainings were mainly offered by master craftsmen who run their own businesses in
the respective trade. This tended to mean that trainers were well connected with the industry and
were better able to follow up and support the youth they had trained. This may have helped
contribute to their trainees’ employment outcomes as close to 80 percent of the apprentices and
on-the-job trainees who had completed training reported being employed. Apprenticeships and
on-the-job training were also found to be taken up by youth from lower socioeconomic classes
and with lower levels of educational attainment, more in alignment with the current
characteristics of the majority of youth in Liberia.

There are, however, several limiting factors with regards to apprenticeships and on-the-job
training as they currently are offered: access to these opportunities, gender biases and
certification of the skills acquired. Almost half of apprentices and on-the-job trainees reported
that they were related to either another employee or the owner of the business connected with the
training. Word-of-mouth was stated as the most common way of finding out about this type of
training. This demonstrates the extent to which social networks play an important role in
connecting youth to these opportunities and may limit who has access to them. Related to access,
while all trainers report enrolling trainees regardless of gender, enrollment information shows
fewer females are involved in these types of training. Some of the skills taught through
apprenticeships are typically associated with more male dominated professions, such as
carpentry, automotive, construction and engineering, which may impact females’ preference to
enroll. However, to ensure equal access to productive work opportunities this finding should be
considered in future programming. Across on-the-job trainings and apprenticeships there is a
lack of regulation on the curriculum of programs and testing of skills youth obtain. While
certification may not currently be a requisite for working in all skills or trades, it is important that
these training programs lead to the development of skills and that the youth are able to
demonstrate that they have achieved meaningful learning outcomes.

Being able to certify this skill acquisition is also important for the longer run income security of
youth as it can help them to demonstrate to other potential employers or customers their
credibility.
Another limiting factor for providers of apprenticeships and on-the-job training is capital,
or a lack there of. This is also a challenge for the youth trainees themselves. Training
providers report challenges regarding the securing of work space, obtaining consistent access to
electricity required to operate machinery, and being able to provide adequate tools and materials
to operate effectively while facilitating the training of apprentices. Youth trainees, on the other
hand, report financial constraints can limit their attendance and completion of the training. This
is despite, in most cases, receiving stipends from their trainers and not paying fees. Youth
trainees note that they struggle with the cost of tools and transportation, meeting their economic
responsibilities within their households, and start-up capital necessary to embark on their own
ventures. Given the improved employment and earning outcomes apprentices obtain, this
suggests that liquidity may be at the root of the problem. Specifically, youth are limited in their
ability to take full advantage of the training because of the lack of resources within their
households and the alternative activities they can pursue in the short term.

The findings in this report indicate several directions to consider for policy action. In
particular, we suggest that programming focus on the strengthening training in three dimensions:
the integration of agricultural skill development in schools and throughout rural communities,
improving the quality of programs already offered through formal TVET, supporting the success
of on-the-job training and apprentices, while addressing some of its shortcomings.

By far the largest sector for employment of youth is agriculture. Fostering the integration
of agricultural skill programs in schools and throughout rural communities will help youth
to access more productive livelihoods in this sector. These programs could include practical
activities that place students within different parts of the agricultural sector (farms, processing
companies) to appreciate the theory that is being taught and better understand how agriculture
can be a profitable industry. Lessons can be taken from the ongoing community livelihoods
program implemented by the Liberian Agency for Community Empowerment that focuses on
strengthening agricultural livelihoods of youth in rural locations. Reinforcing the role of
agriculture in the mainstream school curriculum, as occurred prior to the years of civil conflict,
may help to improve the youth’s basic knowledge of agriculture and traditional farming practices,
as well as raise their awareness of the potential benefits from agricultural activities.

The quality of education across all levels from primary to university and formal TVET is
lacking. Addressing this shortfall is necessary to see an improvement in the levels of human
development in Liberia. The education quality in Liberia is extremely weak: this can be
evidenced through the meagre progression through primary and secondary education, as well as
the low levels of attainment and graduation. Many youth leave school without finishing their
primary education and even when they do, many have still not become fully numerate or literate.
Youth, hence, come into TVET with low levels of basic and foundation skills. Formal TVET
education continues this trend of low quality, and is weak in its capacity to impact meaningful
skill development as its courses offer few practical activities, have short course durations and
limited classroom hours. Inadequate equipment and limited links to industry and workplace
experiences, further constrain youth in their ability to graduate from courses and into
employment. Formal TVET courses should work to address these limitations in their existing
programs, particularly focusing on lower cost measures such as greater facilitation of
practical-based experiences and extending the number of hours that trainees have to practice
their skills.

While formal TVET is weak and lacking in quality, focusing on apprenticeship providers
and the on-the-job training providers will benefit a larger number of youth, particularly
those from the most disadvantaged groups. Non-formal and informal TVET opportunities are
more numerous in Liberia, and accessible to youth from lower socioeconomic groups that are not
currently served by formal TVET courses, given the prerequisites on educational attainment and
training fees involved. These programs have also shown more success in placing youth in
income-generating work after their completion. However, there are several areas where these
programs could be improved: increasing access to these opportunities across social networks and
to both males and females, introducing financing structures that better align with both trainees
and training providers’ interests, and providing certification of the skills acquired.

Equitable access and gender-balanced opportunities. While the majority of youth live in the
Monrovia areas, a good proportion (33 percent) live in the other parts of Liberia. However, 70
percent of the skills providers are based in Montserrado. Therefore, a key recommendation is to
look into expanding the skill development activities available to youth outside of Monrovia,
particularly with regards to on-the-job training and apprenticeships. This will likely require
coordinating with other ministries to support the development of private enterprises and one-man
businesses that can host youth trainees and will be best placed to facilitate their training in these
locations. Examples of this support could include the provision of a basic training curriculum
and accreditation services, as well as direct financial incentives that are discussed below.
Connections and networks seem to play a critical role in how youth find opportunities in Liberia
and this may mean that the most able or willing youth do not get access to the same options as
others. Relatedly females have more limited training and labor opportunities. Ultimately this
implies a labor market friction that will distort incentives and lead to a misallocation of labor,
reducing aggregate income in the country. Cognizance of this problem is needed during the
design of projects and programs as special attention to this in the dialogue with stakeholders may
help to overcome the current status quo. Furthermore, innovative communication materials may
help to encourage a shift in social norms towards more equitable access and broaden the
perception of the roles applicable to females. At the same time, a clear and transparent process
for the recruitment of youth into opportunities funded by training programs should be put in
place and support offered only to training providers that adhere to these principles.

Funding structures for apprenticeships and on-the-job training. It would be beneficial to
explore a financing solution that provides stronger incentives to youth to make the most of their
training, while supporting the capacity of businesses to take on youth trainees. This could
involve replacing fixed level stipends with a scheme paying the youth trainees a proportion of
the income they generate for the training provider’s business. This will align incentives of both
the trainees and employers/trainers to work towards maximizing productivity of the youth.
Explicitly, both the trainee will have an incentive to learn and increase his contribution to the
business and the trainer will have a corresponding incentive to invest in teaching the trainee and
pass on skills. Simultaneously, capital resources could be directly provided to businesses on
condition of taking on apprentices, for example, through the provision of a capital equipment
allowance or a work space subsidy by the government or development partners. This would
again better align the incentives of businesses to (a) want to take-on youth, and (b) invest in
youth so that they contribute to the productivity of the business. At the same time, it would
address the capital constraints faced by many small businesses that also limit the quality of
training they can offer to youth. Furthermore, both sets of incentives (performance related pay
and capital subsidies conditioned on offering apprenticeships) may help to encourage stronger
meritocracy in the selection of trainees as youth that are more willing and able will be more
attractive candidates. Attention will be needed to check that this does not undermine the existing
intrinsic motivation of training providers to take on youth and “provide a service to the
community”. To this end, it will be important to increase regulation to ensure that these training
programs lead to the development of skills and the youth have meaningful learning outcomes.

Related to regulating the curriculum of apprenticeships and on-the-job training, it will also
be valuable to invest in standardizing the accreditation process to certify the skills obtained
through these opportunities. While apprentices and on-the-job trainees take trade tests, most of
these tests do not lead to formal accreditation. Even though most youth think that social
connections and job-placement opportunities are the most reliable channel into employment, a
formal accreditation process may help change this current status quo and also provide youth with
more flexibility to move between different employers. For example, apprentices with
well-recognized formal certificates may be better able to move from their current employer to
another employer or to develop their own customer base. Regulation of certification process, as
well as the curriculum, would also be beneficial to ensure a minimal level of learning outcomes
among on-the-job trainees and apprentices.
                   5. APPENDIX A: TRAINEE FIGURES AND TABLES




                             Figure 69 Living Wage by Age and Gender



            unemployed graduate



              employed graduate



                       drop out



                 current learner


                                   0         50      100       150        200   250   300

                                       Below 15   15-24    25-34     Above 34

                            Figure 70 Age of Trainees by Learner Status




Document of the World Bank
               Other


      Competent HR


 Technical resources


            Funding


               None

                       0%         10%    20%          30%     40%    50%         60%    70%

     Figure 71 Types of Support Requested by Informal TVET Trainees



 Supplemental training courses and facilities

        Empowering training providers/CBOs

        More structured training/curriculum

                       New learning resources

 Financial and/or other incentives to trainees

                                                 0%    10%    20%   30%    40%    50%   60%

Figure 72 Improvements to Training Suggested by Informal TVET Trainees



     Literacy/numeracy

     Customer relations

              Purchasing

             Accounting

          Technical skills

 Theoretical background

                             0%    5%   10%      15%    20%   25%   30%    35%    40%   45%

      Figure 73 Skills Training Requested by Informal TVET Trainees