I Q Environmental Monitoring in - Beijing 9- Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau June 1994 Metropolitan Environmental Improvement ME I P Program (I) City Working Paper # MEIP/BEI/2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIJING Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau June 1994 The City Working Paper Series are informal papers published by the Metropolitan Environmental Improve- ment Program (MEIP), in an effort to share and exchange experiences in urban environmental governance among metropolitan cities in the Asia-Pacific Region. This paper was prepared by Staff of the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, from funds provided by MEIP. MEIP is a UNDP-assisted, World Bank-executed initiative now operating in six Asian cities -- Beijing, Bom- bay, Colombo, Jakarta, Kathmandu and Metro Manila. The primary goal is to assist selected Asian metropoli- tan areas to begin reversing the process of environmental degradation through appropriate interventions and improved governance, and to enable them to continue the process following the initial phase of external assistance. MEIP is a constituent partner of UNDP's Urban Management Program for Asia and the Pacific (UMPAP). The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in these papers are entirely those of the au- thors and should not be attributed in any manner to MEIP, the World Bank, UNDP or any of its affiliates. MEIP does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. MEIP encourages dissemination of its work and will give permission to reproduce portions of this paper if proper acknowledgement of the author is given. Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Environment and Natural Resources Division Asia Technical Department The World Bank 1818, H Street Washington D.C., N.W. 20433 Tel: 202-458-2726, 2729, 2747 L ____ *_ Fax: 202-522-1664 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................... mi THE BEIJING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS ....................................... 1 - BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING .... -6- ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MONITORING ....................- 6- POLLUTION SOURCE MONITORING ........................ 13- TECHNICAL SUPPORT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT .... - 13- ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING RESEARCH .................. 15- EMERGENCY MONITORING .............................. 18- ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS ..... . 19- TASKS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS .............................-19- EQUIPMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS...... - 24 - STANDARD ANALYTICAL METHODS ....................... -27- QA AND QC ......................................... 31- THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM ............. 39- DESIGNING AN AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM FOR BEIJING ........................................ -39- CONFIGURATION AND INVESTMENT OF THE SYSTEM ............ 41- THE SYSTEM'S OPERATION ............................... 45- QA AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE ........................ -49- THE SYSTEM'S ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS ................... -52- EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM ............................ -55- MANAGEMENT AND USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING DATA .. . . -63- ANALYSIS AND STORAGE OF MONITORING DATA ............... -63- REPORTS AND STATISTICAL METHODS OF THE MONITORING DATA . -68- MONITORING DATA AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ...... . -70- ENVIRONMENTAL FORECASTING ........................... -72- SERVICE TO OTHER RESEARCHERS ......................... -74- PERSONNEL TRAINING ...................................... -75- PURPOSES AND REQUIREMENTS OF TRAINING .................. -76- TRAINING METHODS ................................... -77- INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ............................... -81- DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEM .............................. -81- DESIGN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS ................................ -83- ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SPECIALIST CONTINGENT ........................... -83- RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING .................................... -84- DISCUSSION . ............................................-85- STANDARD ANALYTICAL METHODS ........................ -85- ABBREVIATIONS BMEMC Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center BMEPB Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau BMEPC Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Commission BMG Beijing Municipal Government CNEMC China National Environmental Monitoring Center EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPB Environmental Protection Bureau NEMMRAR National Environmental Monitoring Management Rules And Regulations NEPA National Environmental Protection Bureau QA Quality Assurance QC Quality Control SD Standard Distribution SRM Standard Research Material TSP Total Suspended Particles WHO World Health Organization Y Chinese yuan (1990) Y5.4 - US$1 s INTRODUCTION Environmental monitoring is the supervision and measurement of environmental quality and its influence on mankind and other organisms. Monitoring primarily measures three aspects: Measurement of Physical Indices Levels of noise, vibrations, electromagnetic waves, temperature and radioactivity. Measurement of Chemical Indices The presence of various chemicals in air, water, soil and organisms. Monitoring of the Ecosystem Ecological changes attributable to human activities, such as soil erosion and desertification resulting from deforestation and livestock grazing; changes in biological quality and community caused by pollutants in the food chain; temperature changes and destruction of the ozone layer by excess CO2 and CFC emissions. The principles of monitoring are a defined purpose, a thorough and rational monitoring plan, dependable monitoring methods and quality assurance measures, and scientific methods to analyse and assess the collected data. Environmental monitoring breaks down into subcategories including routine monitoring, pollution source monitoring, accident monitoring, arbitration monitoring and research monitoring. Monitoring is the foundation of environmental management and science. China's history of environmental protection, beginning in 1974, falls into 3 stages: Declaring a national environmental policy, founded on the simultaneous planning, implementation and development of economic, developmental and environmental policy and practice. Introducing this system and its guiding priciples (prevention first, "polluter pays", and the establishment of a governmental authority). Establishing a set of management measures: * responsibility for environmental protection objectives; * periodic assessment of the urban environment; * mandatory environmental impact assessments (EIAs) for construction projects; * the San Tong Shi system (measures to mitigate pollution and other public hazards are to be designed, built and implemented simultaneously with the primary project); * licenses to discharge a limited amount of pollution and fines for exceeding this; vi ENVIRONMENTAL MONrTORING IN BEIJING * pollution abatement deadlines; * emission control measures; and * environmental protection by enterprises as a condition for promotion and designation as "Advanced" units. As environmental management capabilities have strengthened, environmental monitoring has been continuously enhanced. From 1974 to 1988, monitoring served as "ears and eyes," only providing basic environmental management information. As environmental management became more important, it was shown that simple supervision did not adequately reflect the importance of monitoring to environmental management. At the Second National Anti-Water Pollution Meeting in 1989, it was proposed that environmental monitoring should be not just ears and eyes, but also a "ruler" against which environmental protection trends and the level of management are measured. In 1990, environmental monitoring was identified as a primary management and enforcement measure. The 4th National Monitoring Work Conference that same year further emphasized these conclusions. The centrality of monitoring is affirmed in Article 11 of The Environmental Protection Law Of The People's Republic Of Ching (1989). Practice over the years confirms the importance of environmental monitoring. The two are dependent on and inseparable from each other. If monitoring is separated from serving environmental management, it is functionless; if environmental management does not rely on monitoring, it loses its scientific basis and becomes blind. This would lead to errors in planning and decision-making. After the 3rd National Environmental Protection Work Conference (1989), methods characteristic to China were developed. The country was faced with three transformations: transformation of qualitative management into quantitative; transformation of individual abatement into comprehensive; and transformation of concentration control into total emissions control. Monitoring supports and guides these targets. According to the National Environmental Monitoring Management Rules And Regulations (NEMMRAR) (1983), environmental management comprises six facets: management of monitoring systems; monitoring enterprises; monitoring techniques and technologies; monitoring data and its management; monitoring personnel; and monitoring logistics (conditional assurance). The monitoring system is the link between the six components. NEMMRLAR and The Environmental Protection Law (1989) are the foundation of monitoring system management. The monitoring management branches of the environmental protection bureaus (EPBs) and affiliated organizations are divided into four levels: primary (China National Environmental Monitoring Center), secondary (provincial stations), tertiary (municipal stations), and quaternary (district and county stations). Monitoring agency functions vary from level to level. Generally, environmental monitoring departments manage monitoring systems, establish a monitoring network, and supervise relations between components. The state and provincial EPBs emphasize program management, while UMrRODUCMION Vu municipal, district and county stations emphasize objective plan management. Stations at lower administrative levels emphasize developing implementation plans and organizing the enforcement under the instructions of different programs and objectives. In addition, they organize implementation of relevant technical criteria and standards. The duties of the China National Environmental Monitoring Center (CNEMC) are: 1. To help develop monitoring programs and annual plans for the entire country; 2. To instruct and supervise secondary monitoring stations; to coordinate the national monitoring network; to train and professionally certify monitoring personnel at lower levels; 3. To research statistical and analytical approaches to environmental monitoring data; to collect, store, and analyze national environmental monitoring data; to compile the national environmental yearbooks and draw environmental pollution charts; to assess national environmental quality and present periodic reports to the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA); 4. To supervise quality assurance (QA) for national environmental monitoring; to study new techniques, technologies and methods; to organize the development, preparation and dissemination of standard research methods; to select instruments for national environmental monitoring; 5. To undertake comprehensive environmental investigations at the national level and investigate major pollution incidents; to arbitrate major pollution incidents and international environmental disputes; 6. To help develop and revise national environmental standards and technical specifications; 7. As entrusted by NEPA, to review EIAs for major state construction, renovation and expansion projects, and help monitor the environmental benefits of abatement projects. The main duties of the provincial EPBs are: 1. To help develop programs and annual plans for regional environmental monitoring work; 2. To collect, sort and store regional environmental monitoring data, and supply NEPA with data for various monitoring reports; to compile and submit to NEPA regional environmental yearbooks; 3. To give professional and technical instructions to the tertiary and quaternary environmental monitoring stations; to supervise and coordinate the regional environmental monitoring networks; to train and professionally certify lower-level monitoring personnel; viii ENVIRONMENTAL MONTORING IN BEING 4. QA for regional environmental monitoring; 5. Within the region, to investigate and arbitrate pollution disputes; 6. To develop and modify local and national environmental criteria and technical specifications; testing and verifying work, and providing basic materials; 7. To undertake environmental QA and research on monitoring techniques and technologies within the region; to help compile the regional environmental report books; 8. As entrusted by NEPA and CNEMC, to investigate pollution incidents, review construction project EIAs, and monitor the environmental benefits of abatement projects; The duties of the municipal EPBs are: 1. To carry out routine monitoring and analysis of various environmental parameters such as air, water, soil, biology, noise and radioactivity; to collect, store and sort environmental monitoring data and periodically present technical reports on environmental quality and pollution trends in their cities to the environmental protection authorities at their level and secondary monitoring stations; 2. To monitor pollution discharges from city enterprises; to establish pollution source archives and provide monitoring data for strengthening pollution source management and the collection of discharge fees. (Discharge fee management units do not set up their own measurement organs.) 3. To help draft municipal environmental monitoring programs and plans; to accomplish various monitoring tasks as needed by the authorities; 4. To be in charge of environmental quality assessment for their city, to help compile municipal environmental report books and yearbooks; 5. To supervise the environmental monitoring network within their city and organize technical exchanges and training for monitoring personnel; 6. To study problems in important technical links, such as field work, sampling, monitoring point allocation, sample transportation, storage, analysis and measurement to improve monitoring techniques and technologies; 7. To test and verify national and local environmental criteria and technical specifications; to help develop and revise local environmental criteria; 8. To investigate pollution incidents in their city and supervise technical arbitration of pollution disputes. The duties of the provincial and urban district environmental monitoring stations are: INTRODUCITON ix 1. To draw up monitoring plans and regularly measure various parameters; to present monitoring data reports periodically to higher-level stations; to compile and submit to higher levels the provincial environmental quality report books; 2. To monitor provincial pollutant discharge units; to establish pollution source archives; to manage enforcement of applicable environmental rules, regulations, criteria and standards; and to provide monitoring data for the environmental management, including discharge fees; 3. To accomplish various monitoring tasks needed by the environmental protection authorities; 4. To investigate pollution incidents in the province; to provide monitoring data for the arbitration of environmental pollution disputes; to organize a local monitoring network; 5. To propagate general and specific environmental protection policies; to mobilize support and enlist the public in environmental supervision. The size and function of the enterprise monitoring stations are decided by enterprise management. These stations contribute to the environmental monitoring networks at various levels and are supervised by the corresponding environmental protection authority. Their main duties are: 1. To develop environmental monitoring programs and their own organizational system; 2. To participate in the local environmental monitoring network; to monitor sectoral and regional environmental status in accordance with general plans and requirements; to be responsible for organizing environmental monitoring activities within their own organizational systems or river basins; 3. To help develop and revise the environmental criteria applied to their branch or area; to participate in the discussion and examination of national and local environmental criteria and standards; 4. To investigate major pollution incidents in their organization; to manage implementation of environmental rules, regulations, criteria and standards; 5. To assess new construction, renovation and extension projects of enterprises and institutions in their organization; 6. To collect environmental monitoring data in their organization or river basin; plot charts of pollution trends and set up pollution source archives; 7. The monitoring stations of the enterprises and institutions monitor their own units' pollutant discharge and should be aware of changing trends; x ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 8. Reporting monitoring data and information to the relevant authority and to the local environmental monitoring network; 9. To organize research on monitoring techniques and technology appropriate to their sectors, trades and professions; to train technical personnel and conduct technical staff exchanges; 10. Environmental monitoring stations in sectors like hygiene, water conservation and the ocean are responsible for environmental monitoring in their organization. Aside from coordinating with local environmental monitoring stations, they help investigate major pollution incidents as called on by environmental protection authorities. According to "The Environmental Protection Law" the relevant administrative authority for environmental protection, in coordination with the departments concerned organizes the monitoring network. The national environmental monitoring network is subdivided into networks at the state, provincial and municipal levels, managed by the relevant EPB. The national environmental monitoring network comprises the provincial environmental monitoring stations, the state environmental monitoring stations and the units monitoring important river systems and coasts. A national environmental monitoring network, headed by CNEMC, has been established, including an atmospheric monitoring network of 72 stations, a surface water monitoring network consisting of 109 stations, an acid rain monitoring network made up of 200 stations, a radioactivity monitoring network consisting of 29 stations, and a noise monitoring network consisting of 52 stations. Attention is increasingly being paid to ecological monitoring. Monitoring stations in grassland, desert and ocean regions are being built by national and local governments. Each province, autonomous region, centrally-governed municipality and provincially-governed city, in accordance with local environmental management requirements, has set up local monitoring networks, supervised by the provincial or municipal monitoring station. Each department, trade, profession and major river system has its own monitoring network, responsible for coordinating with other monitoring networks, conducting environmental monitoring activities, carrying out pollution abatement and collecting data to be reported to the various government levels. According to NEMMRAR, environmental monitoring stations at different levels are supervised by the environmental protection authorities at their respective levels, while the stations' professional work is managed by the environmental monitoring stations immediately superior. The Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center (BMEMC) (Figure I-1) carries out its monitoring work under the supervision of the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau (BMEPB) (Figure 1-2) and CNEMC. The Beijing Municipal Government (BMG) established the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Commission (BMEPC) to unify environmental protection work within the city. BMEPB is the BMEPC administrative body, responsible for environmental protection planning, INTRODUC1ION xi THE BEIJING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING CENTER (BMEMC) (230 people) LABORATORY MANAGEMENT SOCIAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATIVE OTHER (104 people) (39 people) SECTION AND LOGISTICS ADMINISTRATIVE (23 people) DIVISION PERSONNEL (48 people) (16 people) INSTRUMENTATION ANALYSIS MONITORING NETWORK & TECHNICAL BMEMC OFFICE Supervises DIVISION (11 people): QUALITY CONTROL DIVISION (5 DEVELOPMENT (5 people): personnel Large sophisticated in- people): Drawing up the DIVISION (10 Management of abroad for struments used for quaLi- network's annual work plan; people): Super- administrative significant tative & quantitative ana- management of personnel, vise technical archives and lengths of lysis of multicomponent training and measurement; developments and secretarial time. organic and inorganic ma- standardizing measurement service, services. terial. methods, criteria and standards and management of ANTI-POLLUTION LOGISTICS WATER QUALITY MONITORING QA system. DIVISION (6 SECTION (43 LAB (22 people): Routine people): Super- people): Su- monitoring of surface DATA COLLECTION & vise the tech- pervises to- water and industrial ASSESSMENT DIVISION (6 nical & gistical mat- wastewater; research on people): Responsible for technological ters, utiti- analytical methods and optimum distribution of design of small- ties and BMEMC monitoring techniques. monitoring stations and scale pollution vehicles. data collection and analy- control AIR MONITORING LAB (28 sis. projects. people): Routine atmo- spheric monitoring; moni- TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT TECHNICAL toring of air pollution DIVISION (5 people): Plans SERVICE SECTION sources; research on ana- BMEMC's professional work; (7 people): Lytical methods and moni- establishes technical work Provide monitor- toring techniques. procedures; manages ing equipment & technical work. technical AUTOMATIC AMBIENT AIR expertise to the QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS broader society. DIVISION (22 people): DIVISION (7 people): Pur- Continuous year-round chases and maintains BMEMC real-time monitoring at 1 equipment, supplies and fa- central station & 8 sub- cilities. stations. PERSONNEL AND EDUCATION PHYSICAL TESTING LAB (9 DIVISION (4 people): people): Monitoring of Responsible for personnel noise, vibrations and recruitment, deployment, electromagnetic radiation. certification, promotion and compensation. SOLID WASTE & BIOLOGY LAB (12 people): Monitoring & TECHNICAL INFORMATION investigation of pollution DIVISION (7 people): Cot- caused by domestic and lection & dissemination of industrial refuse; mon- foreign & domestic techni- itoring crops; testing cal information; acquire & fish and water toxicity; maintain books & periodi- monitoring indexed organ- cals. isms. FINANCE SECTION (5 people): Supervise funding, annual budget & accounts. FIGURE 1-1 determining objectives, and conducting supervision and coordination. The EPBs in each district and county, under district or county leadership, are in charge of environmental management, supervision and coordination. There are full-time environmental protectors in each residential district, and villages and towns in the counties. Thus, a 3-level environmental management and supervision system has been established. Based on years of experience, Beijing's environmental quality system has been set up so that management, quality control and environmental xii ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIUING THE BEIJING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BUREAU BEIJING MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE (20 people): In charge of correspondence and ENVIRONMENTAL visits, public information, documents, archives and administrative PROTECTION Logistics; draws up annual work plan and synthesizes materials. BUREAU (BMEPB) (112 PEOPLE) FIRST SUPERVISORY DIVISION (10 people): Supervises industries and enterprises; pollution prevention and elimination; supervises water, industries, noise, solid waste. SUBORDINATE UNITS SECOND SUPERVISORY DIVISION (9 people): Supervises atmospheric (566 PEOPLE) pollution and controls vehicular exhaust. BEIJING MUNICIPAL THIRD SUPERVISORY DIVISION (9 people): Reviews and approves ENVIRONMENTAL construction, renovation and expansion projects. PROTECTION RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOURTH SUPERVISORY DIVISION (8 people): Manages the pollution (331 PEOPLE) discharge fee system and supervises district and county work. BEIJING MUNICIPAL FIFTH SUPERVISORY DIVISION (4 people): Manages nature conservation, ENVIRONMENTAL the agricultural ecosystem, and supervises town and village MONITORING CENTER enterprises. (221 PEOPLE) LAWS AND REGULATIONS DIVISION (4 people): Drafts laws, regulations BEIJING MUNICIPAL and criteria for environmental management, and supervises their TECHNICAL enforcement. TRAINING CENTER (14 PEOPLE) SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DIVISION (6 people): Develops research plans; supervises information management; arranges technical exchanges between China and other countries. PROPAGANDA AND EDUCATION DIVISION (7 people): Manages public information and education on environmental issues; Liaison with China Environmental News. PLANNING AND FINANCE DIVISION (9 people): Supervision of environmental protection plans, the BMEPB budget and district and county bureaus; statistical work. PERSONNEL DIVISION (4 people): BMEPS personnel recruitment and training. SENIOR ENGINEER OFFICE (6 people): Research on environmental protection strategies; develop medium- and long-term programs; supervise the environmental management information system. AUDIT, SUPERVISION AND SECURITY DIVISION (3 people): Oversee auditing, management and security for BMEPB and affiliated organizations. MISCELLANEOUS (14 people) FIGURE 1-2 monitoring are the three main component parts (Figure 1-3). Since opening the Three Wastes Control Office in 1971, BMG has developed its monitoring capabilities to include an environmental protection system, an industry and communications system, and water conservation, sanitation and epidemic prevention, and geology departments, all conducting environmental monitoring, sharing results and coordinating with one another. In 1977 BMEMC was established and began operations. From 1976 to 1985, Beijing's districts and counties established EPBs. Most departments, trades and professions had already INTRODUCTION mu BEIJING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ORGANIZATIONS MuniipalBeijing Municipal Peoples' Goverrnent Municipal Offices & Comrmissions Beijing Municipal Envirornental Coronction Comission Bureaus & Head Offices Beijing Municipal Environmental within the Protection Bureau Municipality Secondary Companies Source District/ Party Central District/County Municipal Monitoring County Bureaus Committee units, Environmental Monitoring Units & Read the State Protection Center Unitsy uit Potlution Workshops PoltutionSource Source Town Units Workshops Enviromental Monitoring Networks o Pte corotation Saision ori os. Rehicln suicat Eion ieal rtecto Bureaus iePoLut on SUpori oanne rEnagment wr odste Bnaeeon nionm onitoring syte sitd o ot evionenalprtetin ndChn semstanctem District/~eam PatAeta Dsrc/ont -eNuneica n te lat fie yers, ntyP Buras evelope e nimal m niona onitoringponditbuonadmrve m&nageent; e thnle thed m to tetion Ceste CopaisEonciromna &BBureau samplingoandan lytimod omun NgboMonitoring odtam qualty ssuanc rhae beni oucean Tchnia pr cues apporinatfrinahv benoevloed Bejngs eniom hp Evrrental maaeetad monitoring aeteomeicrksnl ProtectorsrStation Pot LutioniMetoooia Posts Cmittee Coordiationaniaios Water Companies FIGURE 1-3 established monitoring offices. Rules, regulations, technical specifications, criteria, methods, quality assurance, pollution source monitoring, data reporting and network management were introduced and modified during this time. Beijing thus developed an environmental monitoring system suited to both environmental protection and Chinese circumstances. In the last five years, BMEPB has developed optimal monitoring point distribution and improved management; improved technology, networked monitoring stations, standardized site allocation, sampling and analytical methods, computerization of data processing and program-controlled quality assurance have been introduced; and technical procedures appropriate for China have been developed. Beijing's environmental management and monitoring have become increasingly xiv ENVIRONMENTAL MONrORIG IN BEIIING scientific and its managerial system has served as a model for other cities. INTRODUCION xv THE SIX COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Name Main Contents Main Basis 1. Management of Establishment of networks, definition and adjustment of Management rules for monitoring functions and duties; establishment of relations between the environmental monitoring, system bureau and stations at the same level; relations between state or local network rules higher- and lower-level stations and the relations of business and regulations. and technology; personnel, funding and materials for monitoring organizations and their subordinate relations. 2. Management of Development and adjustment of monitoring programs; "National Environmental monitoring development, assignment, evaluation and assessment of Monitoring Management business monitoring work plans; setup and refinement of working Rules and Regulations" procedures, appropriate programs and plans for (NEMMRAR) environmental protection. 3. Management of Choice of monitoring methods, criteria and procedures; setup "Technical Specifications, monitoring and adjustment of QA system; organization and coordination NEMMRAR, state or local techniques and of the monitoring of technical progress; examination and criteria, various technical technology assessment of technical results. rules and regulations 4. Management of Processing, analysis, assessment, interpretation, handling and NEMMRAR, various rules monitoring storage of monitoring data; standard formats and and regulations, "Technical information transmission of reports and technical results; determination Specifications" of collection scope, degree of processing and general storage of environmental information; management of technical archives. 5. Management of Monitoring staff selection and skills mix; enhancement of NEMMRAR, relevant monitoring talent ideological quality; technical training and updating; policies, laws and cultivation and guidance of professional awareness; regulations; personnel enhancing organizational efficiency and the embodiment of management; various rules self-value of the staff members. and regulations 6. Management of Management of equipment, communications and transport; NEMMRAR, various rules monitoring equipment installation and adjustment; maintenance of and regulations logistics instrumental facilities; management of safety, health, welfare and funding. TABLE I-1 9 s THE BEIJING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEM Beijing's environmental monitoring system is a network supervising the environment. According to "National Environmental Monitoring Management Rules and Regulations" (NEMMRAR), the Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center (BMEMC), a division of the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau (BMEPB) is responsible for organizing Beijing's 18 district and county environmental monitoring bureaus (EPBs), setting up an environmental monitoring network and coordinating the monitoring units of associated bureaus and companies, including the sanitation and antiepidemic bureau, the hydrogeologic bureau, the meteorologic bureau, the agricultural bureau, the head companies of the chemical and textile industries, the Capital Iron and Steel Company and the Yan Shan petrochemistry Head Company. These monitoring units share responsibility for environmental monitoring work in Beijing (Figure 1-1). BEIJING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING NETWORK Beijing Municipal Environmental Cina National Environmental Protection Bureau Monitoring center State-level Beijing Municipal Environmental oitoring Network Monitoring Center II D Primary monitoring network Monitoring network of environmental protection departments and af fitliated organization Secondary monitoring network Envirormental monitoring Departmental and tra d stations in districts environmenta monitoring and counties -stations Department and trade monitoring network Tertiary monitoring network Enterprises' monitoring stations FIGURE 1-1I Construction of BMEMC facilities started in March 1974, and the present quarters were completed and put into service in October 1977. BMEMC is a provincial level environmental monitoring agency, one of the first in China. 230 staff work in the Center, 163 of whom are technical personnel. BMEMC possesses fixed assets valued originally at Y18.62 million. Facilities total an area of 20,000 square metres, presently holding 18 large instrumental facilities and equipment, including an ICP, a GC/MS, an AAS, a GC, an LC, a U.V spectrophotometer, a fluorescent spectrophotometer, a dust 0 radio-detector, and a mobile automatic air quality monitoring station. 2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING In 1983, in cooperation with Thermal Election Corporation (TECO), an Automatic Air Quality Monitoring System was introduced. This System, which has been running for 7 years, consists of 8 substations (7 in the urban and inner-suburb districts, and 1 in the outer suburbs) and a central station. The data capture rate is over 85 percent. BMEMC is divided into 18 divisions and labs (Table 1-1). This includes a water lab, an air lab, a solid waste lab, a biology lab, a physical testing lab, an instrumentation analysis division, an automatic air monitoring system division, a monitoring network and quality assurance (QA) division, a technical management division, a. data collection and assessment division, a technical information division, and a division for supplying equipment and materials. BMEMC has evolved as a technical and organization model as well as a source of data for environmental monitoring work in Beijing. In accordance with monitoring agency tasks stipulated in NEMMRAR, BMEMC functions as both a provincial and a municipal station, supplying BMG with data needed for environmental management work. BMEMC duties include: 1. Drafting medium- and long-term programs and annual plans for supervision and monitoring of key pollution sources; 2. Organizing and supervising a municipal environmental monitoring network assessing air quality, water, soil, noise and other parameters; organizing technical exchanges, training and certification of monitoring personnel; 3. Managing district and country EPBs; 4. QA work in various monitoring media; 5. Collecting, analyzing, and storing environmental monitoring data; preparing municipal environmental quality assessments and compiling the annual environmental quality report; 6. Various other monitoring tasks as needed by administrative authorities; 7. Developing, revising and verifying state and local environmental standards, technical specifications and criteria; research on environmental management and monitoring; and 8. Investigating pollution incidents in Beijing; arbitration of environmental disputes. During its years of experience, BMEMC has evolved some characteristics of its own. These include: 1. As well as relying on the network units, BMEMC directly reviews the most important components of the work. BMEMC has accumulated considerable experience in network siting, sampling, analysis, quality assurance, data collection and processing, and large- scale monitoring organizations. 2. As various industries are located in Beijing, and emergencies occur periodically, BMEMC has practical experience in monitoring pollution sources and accidents. THE BEUING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEM 3 3. BMEMC has for some time monitored and analyzed trace elements, teratogens, carcinogens and mutagens, as it possesses sophisticated instruments and facilities. 4. Through study and research on the Automatic Air Quality Monitoring System, System software has been improved. This System, under strict quality control, has been running for 7 years and its annual data capture is still over 75 percent. 5. Through investigation of pollution sources and data analysis, BMEMC has developed various pollution dispersion models and assessment methods, laying a foundation for air pollution modelling in Beijing's urban areas and inner suburbs. Following the establishment of BMEMC, between 1976 to 1985 the 18 district and county EPBs established monitoring stations, supplementing Beijing's environmental monitoring network (Table I-1), the front line of environmental quality measurement and monitoring. At present, 216 staff members work at these monitoring stations. DISTRICT AND COUNTY ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BUREAUS IN BEIJING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PERSONNEL TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AREA VALUE OF BUREAU MONITORED INSTRUMENTAL ENGINEERS SENIOR (mW) FACILITIES ENGINEERS (USS,000) Dongcheng District 10 1 2 400 200 Xicheng District 7 2 400 300 Xuanwu District 7 3 300 200 Chongwen District 11 1 7 900 200 Chaoyang District 27 3 346 382 Haidian District 17 4 409 150 Fengtai District 18 1 4 1000 300 Shijingshan District 15 2 530 300 Mentougou District 9 1 230 300 Fangshan District 16 2 1000 200 Daxing County 10 1 530 200 Tongxian County 12 2 1000 200 Shunyi County 10 1 700 200 Pinggu County 9 2 500 200 Miyun County 12 1 300 300 Changping County 9 3 540 209 Yanqing County 8 1 400 134 Huairou County 9 450 200 TOTAL 216 3 41 9935 4,175 TABLE 1-1 According to each administrative district's characteristics (population, physical geography, industrial layout and structure) the monitoring stations emphasize different primary tasks. For example, the Miyun and Huairou county monitoring stations in the outer suburbs emphasize safe 4 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIUING drinking water; the Chaoyang, Fengtai and Shijingshan monitoring stations in the inner suburbs place more emphasis on the control of industrial pollution; the four urban monitoring stations pay particular attention to environmental and traffic noise, smoke and dust control. The district and county monitoring stations provide technical support for the implementation of environmental management rules, regulations and measures. They do much work in environmental quality measurement and supervisory monitoring of key pollution sources, and provide a scientific foundation for collecting excess pollution discharge fees. The district and county monitoring stations are the environmental management laws' main enforcers. These stations' personnel distribution, staff quality, monitoring facilities and station work areas do not fill the entire city's environmental protection requirements. Therefore, it is necessary that they make a greater effort to strengthen and improve their monitoring capability. According to NEMMRAR, Beijing's monitoring stations are classified as quaternary stations (district and county EPBs, provinces, municipalities directly under the central government or big cities). Yet, measured by population and industry density the Chaoyang, Haidian, Fengtai and Shijingshan monitoring stations in Beijing's inner suburbs, have concurrently the functions of a tertiary station (municipal district monitoring stations). This is different from district monitoring stations in other big cities. Beijing's district and county monitoring stations primarily undertake these tasks: 1. Routine environmental quality measurements in their own districts in accordance with BMEPB and BMEMC monitoring plans; regularly reporting monitoring data to BMEMC; environmental quality assessments in their own districts or counties; and compiling annual environmental quality reports for their district or county; 2. Monitoring pollution sources in their area and using this data to assess excess pollution discharge fees. 3. Other monitoring tasks as needed by the environmental protection authorities; 4. Investigating pollution incidents in the district or county, to provide data for arbitration of pollution disputes; 5. Management of the professional organization and coordination of monitoring networks in their own districts (only certain district monitoring stations are subject to this). In addition to Beijing's district and county monitoring stations, 19 bureaus or head companies and more than 100 enterprises or institutions located in Beijing have their own monitoring stations or offices, forming a environmental monitoring network covering Beijing. In general, the trade monitoring stations possess more highly qualified staff members and more advanced monitoring methods. The main functions of the departmental and trade monitoring agencies are: THE BEIJING MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEM 5 1. Developing environmental monitoring programs for their organizations; 2. Contributing to the state or local environmental monitoring network and undertaking monitoring work according to network plans and requirements; organizing environmental monitoring network activities within their own organizations; 3. Developing and revising the environmental standards to which the organization will be held responsible; helping evaluate state or local environmental standards and criteria; 4. Cooperating with pollution investigations within their organizations; 5. If certified, helping assess construction, renovation and expansion projects within their subordinate organizations; 6. Collecting environmental monitoring data in their field and making it publicly available; 7. Organizing monitoring research in their field and training technical personnel. These institutional monitoring stations are primarily responsible for monitoring pollutant discharges within their own units to track pollution discharges and changing trends. The monitoring stations report their findings to the local EPBs, participating in the local environmental monitoring network. 6 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIFING BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Environmental monitoring is the foundation of environmental protection and of laws addressing environmental management. NEMMRAR stipulates that environmental monitoring must: * regularly monitor significant environmental parameters to track and assess environmental quality status and emerging trends; * monitor pollutant discharges from regional sources; * provide the government with accurate and reliable monitoring data in order to implement laws and regulations, enforce standards and and carry out environmental management work; * support research on environmental measurement to develop new and improved monitoring techniques. The tasks of the monitoring stations at the various levels are: * Environmental quality measurements in their region; * Supervision of pollution sources in their area; * Research in their area; and * Supervision and management in accordance with the government's environmental action plan. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MONITORING Atmospheric Monitoring Air pollution in Beijing is primarily smoke, in great varieties and quantities, from burning coal and fly ash. Automobile emissions along major roads and industry in certain sectors also contribute pollution. The main pollutants measured are SO2, dust, NO, and CO. Allocation of Monitoring Points The present distribution of atmospheric monitoring stations throughout Beijing was determined in accordance with the distribution of pollutant sources, district functions, population density and spread of pollution from the source. To improve the distribution and account for changing demographics, the distribution has been adjusted three times, in 1980, 1985 and 1991. SO2 is monitored at 71 points in Beijing (Table 2-1). BMEMC operates 8 automatic continuous air quality monitoring stations, while manual sampling is done at the other locations. District BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 7 and county EPBs manage 41 monitoring stations; the sanitation and antiepidemic station manages a monitoring station in each of Beijing's 4 WHO districts; the Yan Shan Petrochemistry Head Company monitoring station operates 6 stations near its facilities; and the Iron and Steel Company monitoring station operates 12 sites near its facilities. SO Monitoring in Beijing POLLUTANT URBAN AND INNER SUBURBAN AREAS OUTER SUBURBS, URBAN INNER TOTAL DISTRICT SUBURBAN AND COUNTY so, Number Of Monitoring Substations 3 4 7 1 (Automatic Monitoring Number of Valid Daily Averages 821 1120 1941 285 Systemi) System) _ Capture Rate per Year (%) 75.0 76.7 76.0 78.1 SO2 (Manual Number Of Monitoring Points 41 Sampting, 5 Days/Quarter) Number of VaLid Daily Averages 752 DaiLy Capture Rate (%) 97.7 So, Number Of Monitoring Point 2 2 4 (Stations in WHO Nunber of Valid Daily Averages 336 335 671 Districts) Daily Capture Rate (%) 46.0 45.9 46.0 SuLphation Nunber Of Monitoring Points 14 13 27 51 Rate Number Of Valid Monthly Averages 160 152 314 588 TABLE 2-1 Sulphation rates are observed at 91 points in Beijing (Table 2-1). The district and county monitoring stations manage 78 of these (14 in urban areas, 13 in inner suburbs, 51 in outer suburbs or counties); the Capital Iron and Steel Company monitoring station manages 13 sites. There are 86 monitoring points for NO, in Beijing (Table 2-2). Automatic continuous monitoring is carried out at 8 BMEMC stations, and manual sampling at the other points. 26 of the manual sampling stations are in urban districts or inner suburbs, 40 in outer suburbs, districts or counties and 12 operated by the Capital Iron and Steel Company monitoring station. CO is monitored at 34 points across the city (Table 2-3), 8 automatic continuous monitoring points and 26 manual sampling points. Of the manual sampling stations, 22 are set up within the third-ring road (10 within the second-ring road, 12 between the second-ring road and the third-ring road); 4 between the third-ring road and the planned fourth-ring road. 03 and IP are monitored at BMEMC's 8 automatic continuous substations. The Yan Shan Petrochemistry Head Company monitoring station monitors H2S at 6 locations near its facilities. There are 96 dust-fall monitoring points in Beijing. 84 are district and county monitoring 8 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORINO IN BEIIING NOx Monitoring In Beijing (1988) AUTOMATIC MONITORING MANUAL SAMPLING SUBSTATIONS VALID DAILY MONITORING NUMBER OF VALID VALID DAILY AVERAGE POINTS MONITORING SAMPLES AVERAGE CONCENTRA- DAYS CONCENTRA- TIONS TIONS Urban 7 1881 Traffic 26 1st 5 days 2040 510 Areas & Within The of each Inner Planned 4th- quarter (20 Suburbs Ring Road total) Urban Area 3 779 Inner 4 1102 Within Third- 22 June 7-11 1728 432 Suburbs Ring Road Within 2nd- 10 Sept. 6-10 784 196 Ring Road Outer 2nd-Ring Road 12 Dec. 6-10 944 236 Suburbs, To 3rd-Ring Districts, Road Counties Ding Tomb 1 262 3rd To The 4 312 78 (cean Planned 4th- Point) Ring Road Outer 10 3144 786 Suburbs, Districts, Counties Mentougou 3 240 60 Daxing 1 304 76 Changning 3 240 60 Tong Xian 4 320 80 Fangshan 6 480 120 Shunyi 4 320 80 Miyun 3 240 60 Pinggu 4 300 75 Yangquing 4 300 75 Ding Tomb 1 80 20 (Clean Point) Huairou 4 320 80 TOTAL 8 2143 TOTAL 66 5484 1296 TABLE 2-2 stations; the Capital Iron and Steel Company monitoring station manages another 12. There are 4 TSP monitoring points in Beijing's four WHO districts (industrial, commercial, residential and sanitation), managed by the municipal sanitation and antiepidemic station. There are 2 monitoring points for atmospheric rainfall; one is on the premises of BMEMC and the other in Daxing county. BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 9 CO Monitoring In Beijing (1988) AUTOMATIC MONITORING MANUAL SAMPLING SUBSTATIONS VALID DAILY MONITORING MONITORING VALID VALID AVERAGE POINT DAYS SAMPLE DAILY CONCENTRA- AVERAGE TIONS CONCENTRA I_ TION Urban Area 7 1854 Traffic 26 1st 5 days 1530 510 And Inner Environment of each Suburbs Within The quarter (20 Planned total) 4th-Ring Road Urban Area 3 832 Inner 4 1022 In 3rd-Ring 22 QuarterLy 1290 430 Suburbs Road In 2nd-Ring 10 June 7 582 194 Road Inner 2nd-Ring 12 to June 11 708 236 Suburbs, Road To Districts, 3rd-Ring Counties Road 3rd-Ring Sept.6-10 Road To Ting Tomb 1 246 The Planned 4 Dec. 6-10 240 80 4th-Ring Road TOTAL 8 2100 TOTAL 26 1530 510 TABLE 2-3 Monitoring Methods and Sampling Frequency Except for the 8 automatic air quality monitoring substations, monitoring at the manual sampling points is carried out by scheduled sampling and evaluating collected samples at the lab. Sampling frequency is determined by analysis of data gathered from the automatic monitoring instruments, compared to the manual sampling results. The combination of manual and automatic continuous monitoring increases the area covered, providing a reasonably accurate evaluation while saving a significant amount in capital construction, maintenance and operation costs. Data Transmission And Analysis Data from the automatic substations is transmitted to the central station through a dedicated radio communications network and input into the mainframe as tables. After the data is examined and analyzed, BMEPB and other departments issue monthly, quarterly and annual reports. Vehicle Exhaust In addition to the routine air pollution monitoring system, BMEMC and the district and county monitoring stations monitor automobile emissions; BMEMC also monitors 200 experimental vehicles equipped with exhaust purification equipment. Manual sampling frequency: 0 SO2, NO, and CO: 4 times a year (March, June, September and December, for 5 days at 10 ENVIRONMENTAL MONTORING IN BEING the beginning of the month; 24-hour continuous sampling every other day at the WHO monitoring sites). * Sulphation rate: measured by the alkalization method once a month. * H2S: continuous monthly sampling for 3 days at the beginning of the month; * Dust: once a month, sampling for a whole month; * IP: continuous sampling each month for 10 days; Pb and Bap in IP are analyzed at the same time; * TSP: 24-hour continuous sampling every other day; * Rainfall: tested for pH, conductivity and chemical components after every rain or snow. Ambient Water Quality Monitoring Beijing is located in the valley of the Haihe River. The city receives less rain than the eastern half of the country. Some 60 rivers or streams flow within the city. Since 1949, 84 large, medium-sized and small reservoirs have been built, with a total storage capacity of 71.86 hundred million m. 70 percent of Beijing's urban and inner-suburb groundwater is in the western and south-west suburbs. This has been heavily tapped for many years and water quality is poor; the water table has descended and pollutants in untreated industrial and domestic wastewater seep into the aquifer through rivers, canals, ditches, sewers, seepage pits and irrigation, hardening the water and increasing the nitrate content. Protecting water quality, especially drinking water, is the focus of water monitoring. Surface Water Monitoring Points 64.8 percent (10,400 k2) of Beijing's surface water is in the mountainous areas and 35.2 percent in the plains (6,400 k2). BMEMC surveyed hydrologic characteristics of the rivers, lakes and reservoirs, the distribution of pollution sources in Beijing, and factors such as controllability, representivity, comparability with historic data, regional status, self-purification capacity and dispersion, then identified spots for monitoring points. There are 204 surface water monitoring points in Beijing. 50 are in Miyun county, upstream from Beijing's main water sources, Huairou, Yangquing and Pinggu counties and the water source conservation areas of the Haidian and Mentougou districts; 23 are in the tourist zones in Haidian and Xicheng Districts; 54 are in industrial areas and downstream of the city's industrial and domestic wastewater sources (Shijingshan, Fengtai, Chaoyang, Daxing and Tongxian Counties). Surface water monitoring is managed jointly by BMEMC and the 18 district and county EPBs. In 1990 82 rivers or river sections, totalling 2100 k2 (77.8 percent of Beijing's total), were monitored. 18 reservoirs, with a storage capacity of 70.60 hundred million m, or 98.4 percent of Beijing's total storage capacity, are monitored. 19 lakes, with a capacity is 10.375 million M3, some 90.9 percent of total capacity, are also monitored. Monitoring Techniques And Frequency Samples are manually gathered and sent to the labs for analysis. Regular monitoring is done 4 times a year, in the dry season (April and May) and rainy season (July and August). BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 11 Parameters Measured More than 20 parameters are measured, on various schedules. These include: water temperature, color, odor, PH, SS, COD, hardness, DO, BOD(5), ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, volatile phenol, cyanide, heavy metal, oils, total phosphorus, total nitrogen, conductivity and turbidity. Surface water phenol, cyanogen, mercury chromium and arsenic are monitored only at certain locations, once in the dry season and once in the rainy season. Biological Monitoring The biological status of a water body directly reflects environmental quality, and therefore BMEMC monitors certain water bodies. Stationary monitoring points have been established up and biological samples are collected in certain seasons. Through identification and analysis of species present and their changing circumstances, water quality can be assessed. Work completed includes investigations of eutrophication in lakes, reservoir hygiene indexes and investigations finding that there are no large biological belts in certain nivers. Groundwater Monitoring Beijing contains rich, if polluted, groundwater resources. Groundwater monitoring is jointly done by the Beijing Hydrogeology Company, the Beijing Sanitation and Antiepidemic Station and the Beijing Running Water Company. Since 1973, a network of groundwater monitoring points has been created, surveying regional water quality. Extra monitoring stations are located near drinking water sources and significant pollution sources. At present there are 562 groundwater monitoring wells, 306 in urban areas and inner suburbs and 256 in the outer suburbs and counties, collecting samples in dry and rainy seasons. More than 20 parameters are measured, including hardness, nitrate, sulfate, chloride, and heavy metals. The monitoring data and materials are reported to BMEMC annually and incorporated into the annual environmental quality yearbooks. Noise Monitoring Beijing residents increasingly are complaining about noise pollution-50 percent of their letters and calls of complaint address this. BMEMC has established a noise monitoring system consisting of: * Monitoring points across the city (287 monitoring stations, 95 in urban areas and 192 in the inner suburbs), assessing the average amount of noise in Beijing and the different districts. The monitoring work is carried out jointly by BMEMC and the 8 district monitoring substations. Noise monitoring is conducted from October to November each year. * Traffic noise monitoring stations in urban areas or inner suburbs (469 monitoring stations, 129 in urban areas, 167 in inner suburbs, 173 in the outer suburbs and counties). Traffic is monitored for 9 days between October and November of each year. BMEMC and some district monitoring stations also do some noise monitoring as part of the city's environmental master plan. For the last three years they have monitored noise from firework displays on the eve of the Spring Festival. 6 monitoring points were established in the affected residential districts, 4 in urban areas and 2 in the near suburbs. 12 ENVIRONMENTAL MONTORING IN BEIING POLLUTION SOURCE MONITORING Beijing's industrial development has greatly impacted urban construction and development and environmental quality. In Beijing, there are 9000 industrial enterprises, of all sizes, representing various trades and professions. These include 179 large enterprises, 307 medium-sized ones and 1643 municipal or state enterprises. According to NEPA's "3000 Major Pollution-Causing Enterprises In China", Beijing contains 45 major sources of industrial wastewater and 55 major sources of industrial waste gases. Industrial pollution source monitoring in Beijing is presently done by enterprise, industry, and district and county monitoring facilities. BMEMC irregularly monitors a small number of outstanding industrial pollution sources, and manages arbitration monitoring. Enterprise monitoring stations report their data monthly to their administering EPB, which also monitors key pollution sources within its district. In 1990, the 18 district and county EPBs monitored 1818 significant industrial pollution sources (404 in urban areas, 886 in the inner suburbs and 528 in the outer suburbs or counties). In addition, 550 kilns were monitored (110 in urban areas, 103 in inner suburbs and 337 in the outer suburbs or counties). TECHNICAL SUPPORT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT China's environmental management is based on monitoring and measurement. The Beijing environmental monitoring system provides technical support and service through the following features: Environmental Responsibilities BMEMC and the district and county EPBs survey environmental quality in their district through analysis of monitoring data, helping enforce existing environmental laws. They then provide the appropriate governmental departments with information needed to draft new environmental protection objectives and revise the municipal work plan. Reducing Industrial Pollution at the Source and Pollution Licensing Monitoring stations at the various levels must verify reports on discharges from pollution sources, so that a permissible pollution load, within the local environment's carrying capacity can be distributed between a region's industries. After experiments beginning in 1988, BMEPB has begun issuing licenses to industries, entitling them to discharge a limited amount of emissions. Under BMEPB supervision, in 1988 the First Light Industrial Corporation, the Chemical Industrial Corporation and the Textile Industrial Corporation experimented with controlling at the factory level COD discharges in industrial wastewater. By 1990, between the three enterprises total industrial output value increased by 1.9 percent, while average COD discharges reduced by 8.16 percent, proving that pollution could be reduced without decreasing production. BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 13 The participating enterprises paid close attention to the research, development and application of sampling and measuring instruments, conducted research on wastewater discharge laws and optimum monitoring frequency, and established a integrated monitoring management system, measurably controlling emissions. Since 1991, these enterprises have been experimenting with total control of gaseous emissions. In 1989, BMEPB began to issue regular pollution control permits to other Beijing enterprises. The Yongding River is Beijing's most important source of drinking water. BMEMC and Mentougou EPB monitoring suggests that in the two years since these permits were issued 370 tons of COD discharge and 220 tons of SSI discharge have been kept out of the river, protecting water quality and helping BMEMC to control other emissions and clean up other river basins. Pollution Abatement Deadlines The monitoring stations at the various levels help enterprises develop pollution abatement plans and ensure that they are completed on schedule. BMEMC also supervises the San Tong Shi (measures to prevent and mitigate pollution must be designed and implemented simultaneously with the main project) system, and monitors state-approved construction projects, while the district and county EPBs in turn clear projects approved by the district or county government. Environmental Impact Assessments BMEMC and the district and county EPBs supervise the assessment of present environmental status and potential environmental impacts surrounding construction project, quality assurance, and certify the environmental impact report forms that the enterprises must submit. Excess Pollution Discharges Fees The district and county EPBs and the department, trade and profession monitoring stations monitor pollution sources on which pollutant discharge fees are imposed, assessing the production process, measuring effluents, their concentrations, the amount the facility is permitted to discharge and the results of abatement procedures and equipment. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING RESEARCH Scientific research is the foundation of environmental monitoring. To do the most effective job possible, BMEMC must pay attention to both scientific research and monitoring. Research strengthens a monitoring organization's technical reserves and makes the monitoring work more comprehensive. For the past several years, in addition to research for NEPA, the Beijing Municipal Science And Technology Commission and the Beijing Municipal Administration Commission, BMEMC has conducted research projects of its own, alloting 30 percent to 40 percent of its research budget and 5 percent to 10 percent of its operating expenses for this. Since 1974 BMEMC has completed almost 100 scientific research projects, of which 2 won national prizes and 22 won 14 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEING ministry or municipal prizes. This research has led to improved monitoring quality, by producing greater amounts of reliable data, bolstering environmental management and strategic planning and improving service quality. New and improved monitoring methods have been developed, intellectual resources strengthened by the rapidly expanding scope of work, and a contingent of skilled managerial, technical and research personnel has been garnered. Improving Monitoring Quality An integrated environmental monitoring system has yet not been established in China, and many urgent monitoring problems must first be solved. Further research on monitoring quality is needed as soon as possible. Standardization Of Monitoring Methods In the 1970s, NEPA entrusted BMEMC and the Environmental Chemistry Institute (Chinese Academy Of Sciences) with the standardization of monitoring and analytical methods. BMEMC developed a standardized program, subsequenly published as "Environmental Monitoring Analytical Methods", collecting the work of hundreds of analysts from monitoring and research units, colleges and universities. This research filled a substantial gap in standardized monitoring and analytical methods. Research And Testing of Analytical Methods BMEMC organized testing of wastewater and waste gases criteria by EPBs, industry monitoring sections and other Beijing environmental protection offices. The resulting standardized methods became the foundation for pollution source monitoring, the pollution discharge fee system and arbitration standards. BMEMC is presently researching quality assurance techniques and improved pollution source monitoring. Improved Techniques and Technology BMEMC organized and participated in infrared remote sensing and color photography monitoring of the Guanting Reservoir, the Miyun reservoir, and Beijing's urban areas and inner suburbs, to map the distribution of garbage and smokestacks. Since the early 1980s, a GC/MS has been used to analyze organic components in groundwater, surface water, pollution sources, flyash and other media, to identify their composition and potential harm. Improvement of the Automatic Air Quality Monitoring System Since the establishment of Beijing's Automatic Air Quality Monitoring System, continuous research has improved its instruments, software and quality control. The System has been operating for over 7 years, but its annual data capture rate is still over 75 percent. System data is comparable to international standards. BMEMC has compiled a quality assurance manual for a system of this nature, and helped design, install and adjust a municipal automatic air monitoring system for Zhengzhou, adjusted instruments for the city of Anshan, designed and adjusted a mobile automatic air quality monitoring station for the Qing Dao pottery works, and trained technical staff in quality control and maintenance of such a system in Shanghai, Suzhou, Harebin, Shenyang and Macao. The Dispersion Model Of Atmospheric Pollutants BASIC TASKS AND PROGRAMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 15 Environmental monitoring is only the first stage of environmental protection, because raw monitoring data does not provide very much insight. The monitoring data must be thoroughly studied to show where environmental management is needed and what will work best. BMEMC research on pollution prediction and forecasting led to the creation of three models, used to forecast SO2 concentrations, assess the distribution of various pollutants across the city, and forecast changes in pollution sources and trends under different control scenarios. As part of work of total pollution emissions control BMEMC researched the total control of pollutants in the canyon section of the Yongding river, and the total control of atmospheric pollutants in Shijingshan County. BMEMC has also studied management measures to control emissions, particularly pollution discharge licenses and fees, and changing pollution control theory from simple concentration control to total emissions control. To more effectively protect drinking water sources, BMEMC studied the Miyun Reservoir and tourism's effects on its water quality, the effects of aquaculture on drinking water sources, and the environmental impacts of an important iron mine in Miyun County. The effects of the last had been long disputed between the ministries concerned, but BMEMC research led to effective strategies. Development Of New Environmental Monitoring Realms Creating a Solid Waste Monitoring System BMEMC has studied for several years the status and sources of hazardous solid waste in Beijing, its toxicity and other environmental effects, suitable sampling and monitoring methods and feasible control measures. A solid waste monitoring system is being established based on these studies. Listing Priority Water Pollutants In association with other organizations, including China National Environmental Monitoring Center, BMEMC has developed a national list of priority water pollutants, to be used to draft new legislation and a code of preferred monitoring techniques and control measures. Researching Environmental Criteria BMEMC has conducted research on odor measurement methods and associated environmental criteria, developing one more category for pollution prevention and elimination required by environmental impact assessments of construction projects. Listing Priority Hazardous Chemicals In association with NEPA, BMEMC studied industrial chemicals used in Beijing, and monitoring procedures for the more hazardous. BMEMC has since issued an inventory of priority hazardous chemicals used in Beijing. Additionly BMEMC has undertaken research in standard materials, simple on-location monitoring methods and the development of instrumental facilities. EMERGENCY MONITORING 16 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING BMEMC helps investigate pollutant incidents in Beijing, and arbitrates pollution disputes. The monitoring stations in the area of the incident provide the arbitration with data and participate in the investigation. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS TASKS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS Basic Capability in Environmental Monitoring The basic procedures of monitoring environmental pollutants are monitoring, and analysis of collected field samples. Field Monitoring Pollutants in ambient air and water vary strongly with time and space. Direct field monitoring is crucial to timely evaluation of the ambient environment. Though pollution parameters measured directly in the field are limited, in the last decade many field monitoring techniques and equipment have been developed, rapidly reporting data from the field. Examples include the portable water quality monitor, which measures pH, humidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), reduction oxidation potential and turbidity; the portable water quality chemical examination case, which also measures these parameters, as well as halogea, nitrate, sulfate and some metal ions; the portable flue gas measuring meter, which measures SO2, CO, NO and darkness in stack effluents; the portable auto-exhaust measuring meter, which measures CO, HC, and particles in auto emissions; and the portable gas detector tube, which measures hazardous gases in factory smoke. The portable field monitors are particularly suitable for unstable parameters like DO or turbidity. The simpler portable meters are generally used, but their findings are often less than accurate and are not legally binding. These meters generally are used in preliminary pollution investigations, immediate investigations of pollution incidents and supplements to routine monitoring. Continuous monitoring by the Automatic Monitoring Systems The Automatic Monitoring System consists of stationary field monitoring stations (including sampling systems and continuous monitoring instruments) and a computerized communication system. The Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System continuously measures ambient SO2, NO,, CO and 03 and rapidly reports real-time data findings. The automatic water quality monitoring system continuously measures pH, temperature, conductivity, reduction-oxidation potential, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, COD, ammonia, nitrogen, nitrate and chloride in rivers from sewage treatment plant effluent, and rapidly reports real-time water quality data. Automatic monitoring systems are preferred because they offer better time and space resolution, and the data reported are far more accurate and reliable. However, investment and operating costs are high and the parameters which can be measured limited. Where it is possible to establish such a system, it is generally used to measure certain strategic parameters. Remote monitoring Remote monitoring and sensing samples do not need to be manually 18 ENVIRONMENTAL MONWFORING IN BEIJING collected, as the device directly collects pollution data from the water surface or atmosphere over an extensive region. Atmospheric smoke, fog, CO, NO2, SO2 and 03, aquatic thermal and petroleum pollution, vegetation changes, and salification, alkalization, erosion and desertification are measured by remote monitoring. The status of a sizable region can be quickly assessed. However, these techniques are limited: they only determine the relative concentrations of pollutants, not absolute concentrations; their sensitivity and the parameters that can be measured are limited; the collected data must be extensively analyzed. There is no indication that remote monitoring will completely replace manual sampling. Still, the broad range, high speed and low cost of these techniques make them very useful when surveying relative pollution levels across an extensive region and tracking the dispersion of emissions. Analysis of field samples Pollution parameters that can be directly measured in the field are limited, and automatic screening does not totally fill environmental monitoring requirements. For example, in 1977, USEPA identified 129 priority water pollutants, falling into 65 categories and stemming from 21 types of industrial point pollution sources. Of these, 114 were organic pollutants, 13 were inorganic metals and 2 were other inorganic substances. In the 1980s China issued "The Comprehensive Discharge Standard Of Sewage", establishing criteria for 31 pollutants, "The Environmental Quality Standard Of Surface Water", outlining criteria for 30 pollutants, "The Hygenic Standard Of Domestic Drinking Water", marking 38 pollution indices, and "The Water Quality Standard Of Farm Irrigation", establishing 22 indexes. With advances in industry and agriculture, explosive growth in new varieties of chemicals, increasingly thorough study in epidemiology and improved monitoring techniques, parameters monitored are increasing continuously. Laboratories with the skills and equipment to monitor these are crucial to monitoring and environmental impact assessment. The Environmental Monitoring Labs The main task of a regional environmental monitoring center is routine monitoring of ambient air, water, soil, solid wastes, pollutants from various sources, noise and electromagnetic radiation. The laboratory should be comprehensive and multifunctional, including an analytical chemistry lab, a biology lab, a physics lab and an electronics lab. Of these, the chemistry lab is the most important and should be able to quantitatively and qualitatively analyze different inorganic and organic matters, collect samples, pretreat these for storage, and undertake quality assurance. BMEMC is responsible for organization, technology and data acquisition, training, assessment, and quality control of the monitoring network, district and county monitoring stations, and .industrial monitoring units, as well as routine and emergency monitoring. BMEMC plays a leading role in developing technical competence in environmental monitoring. The environmental monitoring labs should therefore be sized and skilled as appropriate to their mission. BMEMC constituent labs include a water quality monitoring lab, an air monitoring lab, an ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 19 automatic ambient air quality monitoring lab (the System), an automobile exhaust monitoring lab, a solid waste monitoring lab, an instrumentation analysis division (a central lab containing large and sophisticated analytical instruments, which are shared with other labs and several other organizations), a biological monitoring lab, a noise, vibration and electromagnetic radiation monitoring lab, a quality control and monitoring network division, and a data collection and assessment division. Development Of The Environmental Monitoring Labs In 1974, there were no laws or regulations on environmental monitoring, technical specifications or standardized monitoring analytical methods. BMEMC was not established with a specific agenda, but evolved, falling into three stages: 1974-1980: The Establishment of BMEMC. Pollution status was unknown, and therefore the primary monitoring tasks were to determine the environmental status quo, initiate routine monitoring and monitor the most serious pollutants (atmospheric SO2 and TSP; aquatic BOD, COD, phenol, cyanogen, arsenic, mercury and chromium) in Beijing. BMEMC rented lab space and began investigations, developing their work plan, facilities, equipment and processes. The primary monitoring technique was in-lab chemical analysis of field samples. Investment emphasized civil engineering and the most basic water and air monitoring facilities, such as different kinds of samplers, glassware for chemical analysis, reagents, balance, colorimeter and acid analyses. Basic analytical instruments, such as a spectrophotometer, a gas chromatograph and an atomic absorption spectrophotometer were eventually acquired. This helped Beijing and China develop standard water and air monitoring analytical methods and technical specifications for monitoring point allocation, and sampling periods and frequency. 1980-1985 Creation of the Monitoring Network Based on the original BMEMC laboratory and the establishment of monitoring methods and technical specifications, the monitoring network was strengthened. District, county, department and enterprise monitoring stations were established, extending monitoring over a greater region. BMEMC improved its quality assurance and quality control work, and provided technical instruction, training, exams and assessments to the district and county monitoring stations. Parameters monitored continuously increased. In addition to air and water monitoring, soil, solid waste, biological and noise monitoring were added to BMEMC's responsibilities, and the appropriate labs created. With the increasing list of parameters monitored, more analytical instruments were needed. To avoid duplication of certain basic facilities, a central laboratory equipped with large and sophisticated analytical instruments was established, to be used for water quality, atmosphere, 20 ENVIRONMENTAL MONNORING IN BEIIING soil and solid waste monitoring. An automatic air quality monitoring system enhanced monitoring technology and further increase measured parameters. Investment focussed on the establishment of district and county monitoring station labs and acquiring additional basic facilities for BMEMC labs. 1985- Becoming a Research Center After a monitoring network of 18 district and county monitoring stations in and near Beijing was completed, and eight automatic ambient air quality monitoring substations were established, air and water was routinely monitored by this system. BMEMC's direct monitoring work was greatly reduced. Emphasis shifted to improving monitoring, tightened monitoring of emissions and increased awareness that environmental monitoring should serve environmental management. Additional monitoring facilities, including an emissions source monitoring group, an automobile emissions monitoring lab and a noise, vibration and electromagnetic radiation monitoring lab were created. The central lab acquired more sophisticated analytical instruments, additional facilities for spectral analysis of organic and inorganic matters, and, in the biological monitoring lab, toxicity test facilities. Investment focussed on acquiring additional basic facilities and lab devices, facilities and devices for pollution source monitoring and sophisticated analytical instruments (GC/MS, ICP etc). Investment in environmental monitoring research projects was also increased. BMEMC played a central role in developing technical skills in the Beijing environmental monitoring network. The Environmental Monitoring Labs' Tasks The Water Quality Monitoring Lab This lab carries out routine and emergency monitoring of surface water, groundwater, drinking water and industrial wastewater. More than 40 parameters in surface water are monitored, especially pH, conductivity, DO, SS, color, COD, BOD, TOC, trichloride, phenol, CN, AS, HG, Cr, phosphorus, heavy metal, and oils; groundwater is monitored for some 40 parameters, particularly hardness, heavy metals, AS, HG, phenol, pesticides, benzene, nitrobenzene, aminobenzene, developer, formaldehyde, and caprolactam. This lab conducts research on analytical methods for pollutants which are not presently monitored, on the laws of transport and transformation of pollutants and on total emissions control. It also prepares ambient water quality assessment and assesses the effect of control measures. This lab also carries out technical training and consultation for district and county monitoring stations. The Atmospheric Air Monitoring Lab More than 30 pollutants are monitored by this lab, including SO2, NOx, CO, F, H2S, CS2, HCN, HCL, NH3, sulfurous smog, phenol, benzene, formaldehyde, THC, non-methane hydrocarbons, BAP, TSP, dust, flue dust, fly ash, AS, Cr, Pb, Cd, Mn, Fe, Ni and Be. Rain is routinely monitored by this lab, for pH, conductivity, SO4, NO3, CL, NH4, K", Na' and Ca+2. This lab also conducts research on analytical methods and monitoring technology, total emissions control and emission dispersion. Assessment of ambient air quality assessment and the effects of control measures are prepared here. Technical training ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 21 and consultation for the district and county monitoring stations are also managed here. The Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Lab This lab carries out continuous real-time monitoring year round through the central station and the 8 substations. The automatic monitoring system measures 11 parameters, including atmospheric S02, NOx, CO, 03, IPIo, and meteorologic factors like humidity, temperature and wind direction and speed. This lab also researches pollution models and forecasting and develops monitoring instruments. The Automobile Exhaust Monitoring Lab This lab measures CO, HC, smoke, dust and Pb in motor vehicle exhaust, makes some highway examinations, and assesses auto emission reduction measures. The Soil And Solid Waste Monitoring Lab This lab monitors crops and investigates pollution caused by domestic refuse and industrial wastes. More than 10 parameters are measured, particularly soil pH, heavy metals in soil and pesticide residues. At the same time, research is conducted here on the background level of soil and grains, and on the environmental consequences of landfilling wastes. This lab also assesses the effect of waste disposal control measures. The Central Lab This lab, housing the more sophisticated instruments, provides technical support for monitoring water, particles, soil and wastes. It makes qualitative and quantitative analysis of multi-component organic and inorganic pollutants, and conducts research on analytical methods and monitoring technologies. Research tasks needing sophisticated analytical instruments are done here, as well as technical training and consultation for the district and county monitoring stations. The Biological Monitoring Lab This lab routinely monitors bacteria and colibocillus, investigates fish poisonings for water pollution and monitors organisms whose status reflects water quality. The Noise, Vibration And Electromagnetic Radiation Monitoring Lab This lab investigates and monitors ambient traffic noise, industrial noise, vibrations and certain types of electromagnetic radiation. Research on noise monitoring technology, the effects of noise and technical training and consultation for district and county monitoring stations are also conducted here. THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS' EQUIPMENT Principles for Selecting Lab Equipment The instrumental facilities selected for an environmental pollution analysis lab should provide a good level of productive use for the smallest reasonable investment. This is technically complicated, but the following principles help the process: 0 Determine the nature and scope of the lab's function: the parameters to be measured; 22 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING monitoring frequency and volume, including parameters mandated by national environmental standards; priority area pollutants; parameters not covered by national environmental standards but will be measured for another reason . * Analytical instruments selected should meet national, district or departmental analytical and reference standards. * Be aware of the present situation and emerging trends in analytical instruments, domestic and foreign, so that unobsolescent and reliable instruments can be selected. Reliability is the most important factor. * The lab's master plan should provide for buying the most basic instrumental facilities first, then increasing investment as the work plan develops. * New instruments must be compatible with older equipment to keep monitoring operations continuous; the instruments should also be compatible with national and international technical specifications. * Instruments should be considered in terms of their application to both routine monitoring and scientific research, to make full use their capabilities. * More sophisticated instruments should be purchased only once monitoring has been ongoing for some time, so that the amount of work needed from the instrument can be estimated (if this is not large, partners able to share the instrument should be identified). * The actual uses of the instrument are paramount. Perfection and complete modernity are unrealistic, although manufacturers are increasingly able to provide customized products. * Particular attention should be paid to what technical service manufacturer provides, to enhance its operational life. A reasonable number of spare parts should be kept on hand in case technical service cannot be gotten rapidly. * Careful consideration must be given to the instrumental purchasing schedule. At present, the rate of development and renewal of instruments is very fast; if instruments are purchased too early and cannot be put into operation immediately, capital lies idle and the instruments will become obsolescent before their useful life is over. Basic Laboratory Facilities And Devices In addition to the basic facilities and devices (Table 3-1), an atomic spectrometer (atomic absorption spectrophotometer, atomic emission spectrometer), a spectrophotometer (visible and ultra-violet spectrophotometer) and a chromatograph (gas chromatograph, liquid chromatograph and ion chromatograph) may be regarded as an environmental monitoring analytical lab's fundamental needs. With this equipment most pollutants can be measured. Investment In Lab Facilities ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 23 Since BMEMC began Basic Facilities And Devices Of The Environmental Monitoring Labs operations in 1974, Y8.26 million hasNo. Name Quantity been invested ii UNIVERSAL ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS equipment, of which' atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) 8 1-2 gas chromatograph (GC) Y3.22 million paidi-3 Liquid chromatograph (LC) f o r h ig h y ion chromatograph (IC) 2 g- uLtra-violet spectrophotometer (UV) 4 s o p h i s t i c a t e d1-6 fluorescence spectrophotometer (FR) 2 -7 infrared spectrophotometer (IR) analyticalinstruments,18 visible spectrophotometer (VIS) 6 and Y5.04 million 2 bought other special-1 HIGH-TECHNOLOGY INSTRUMENTS bogtote pcil21pLasma-induced emission spectrometer (ICP) 1 purpose instruments,2-2 gas chromatograph-mass spectroscope (GC-MS) 1 universal instruments3 SPECIAL-PURPOSE ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS and other devices. 3- water pollution meter for comprehensive parameters 1 3-2 turbidimeter 1 The large and3-3 dissolved oxygen meter 3 sophisticate d c analyzer 2 instruments are3-6 mercury meter 2 mainly used for TOC analyzer 1 mil usd 38SO2 analyzer (detector) 1 scientific research,3-9 NO analyzer (detector) 1 3-10 CO analyzer (detector) 2 but also used for311 fly ash monitor 2 s o m e o f t h e3-12 auto-exhaust analyzer 5 monitoring work,313 smoke density meter 5 especially monitoring4 BASIC LAB EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES polutoneerences balance, thermostat, refrigerator, vibrator several pollutionemergencies. The GC/MC (gassG 51noise meter 4 chromatograph/masss-2 and vibration meter 1 spectroscope) noise frequency analyzer setocp)i thi4electromagnetic radiation meter 1 central lab is mainlys-5 electronics meter several used fo r the6 SAMPLINGDEVICES separation and6-1 water sampler several 6-2 soil sampler several qualitative and;-3 biology sampler several quantitative analysessapler sever qunttaiv a 6-5e~: particle sampler several of unknown organiC6-6 gas sapler pollutants. The-7 flue dust sampler several G /MS can also7 DATA PROCESSING EQUIPMENT detect some 150071 personal computer (PC) 9 72chart recorder several water-borne organic7-3 duplicator 2 pollutants, and 40TABLE 3-1 kinds of poly-aromatic hydrocarbons in suspended particulate matter. This instrument was used for research on organic pollutants, and management of toxic and hazardous chemicals, which could not be done on other instruments. The high-frequency ion emission spectral analyzer (ICP) is mainly used for the detection and quantitative analysis of unknown inorganic metal elements. 60 elements can be simultaneously determined. This instrument was used for research on the soil background level of Beijing, and 24 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEING particle content, source and distribution analysis, which could not be done using other instruments. ICPs are noted for fast and simultaneous detection. When there is a great amount of routine monitoring work, an ICP can do some of the detection work done by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The proportion of investment by the labs varies according to the tasks and conditions for which an ICP is needed. It was not necessary to make a large investment in such sophisticated instruments like a GC-FIR or a fluorescent x-ray spectrometer, because other organizations in Beijing with whom BMEMC cooperates have these instruments. On occasion, BMEMC has rented a GC-FIR to detect organic pollutants, and a fluorescent x-ray spectrometer, a scanning electron microscope and an ion probe to examine the constituents of aerosol particles. Instrument depreciation maintenance expenses are not included in the total investment previously mentioned. Analytical instruments' useful life averages 15 years. About Y100,000 a year is also put into reagents, glassware and other disposable lab equipment, and Y300,000 a year is spent on the renewal of instrument spare parts and components. STANDARD ANALYTICAL METHODS "Careful analysis of false data" was the sarcastic comment common in Chinese environmental monitoring circles during the early 1970s. Monitoring data had been shown to be inaccurate, incomparable, and questionable. The major reasons were the lack of reliable national monitoring and analytical methods and no established quality assurance procedure. To solve this problem, NEPA commissioned BMEMC and the Environmental Chemistry Institute of Academia Sinica to develop standard monitoring and analytical methods. The Organization Responsible Authorities (NEPA) Expert Technical Conittee Technical Groups Participant Laboratories TABLE 3-3 * Management: Assign tasks, review and approve methods. * Technical Committee: Evaluate analytical methods and determine the criteria for their accuracy, precision and detecting limits. Review the verification results, validate the methods and report to NEPA. * Technical Groups: Assigned by the Expert Committee to each task. The group leader supervises the test plan design, the preparation of detailed testing procedures, the ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 25 preparation and distribution of the testing samples and reference materials, the collection of the measurement results from the participant labs, the calculation and processing of the data, and the determination of the accuracy, precision and detecting limit of the method. * Participating labs: Selected by the Technical Groups. Usually, 6-10 labs are involved in each task. The labs should be familiar with Technical Group test procedures, carry out the measurements accordingly, and report the results to the Technical Group. Standardization Procedures For Analytical Methods The standardization procedure for an analytical method involves five stages: 1) Identification of a new parameter to be monitored; 2) Identification and investigation of a promising monitoring method; 3) Testing and verification of the method by multiple laboratories; 4) Review and acceptance as a standard analytical method 5) Fine-tuning of the procedure as the science develops. Analytical Method Optimization The basic principles for the selection of analytical methods are as follows: 1. The method should be a) accurate and precise; b) free of interference, or interference, when present, should be balanced by an effective masking agent or pre-separation procedure; c) stable, to ensure reproducibility and accuracy. 2. The method should be sensitive enough to detect the pollutant at concentrations less than 1/3-1/10 of the legal standard under real-world conditions, to ascertain whether standards have been violated. 3. Equipment and reagents required by the method should be readily available to local labs throughout China. Each pollutant should be detectable by more than one technique providing comparable findings, to meet the different requirements of different labs. 4. New techniques and methods, foreign and domestic, should be promoted where possible to popularize them throughout China and raise monitoring technical levels. A set of analytical methods, some of which had been developed in foreign countries, some in China, were selected, based on these principles. Inter-lab Coordinated Tests Inter-lab testing is intended to determine the accuracy, precision and allowable error limits of a proposed analytical method, providing the basis for method selection, QC, and arbitration of analytical results. The test should be carried out in a representative sample of labs, using standard samples and procedures. 1. Test design: Test parameters are selected and their qualitative and quantitative requirements are defined based on factors affecting the method's precision, accuracy and statistical requirements, so 26 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING that the test results reflect the best representativity and applicability. * Labs: The participating labs should be randomly sampled according to statistical requirements. The Technical Group considers participating labs' regional and technical representivity. At least five labs should participate. * Types And Concentrations Of Samples: The standard samples should be homogeneous and stable throughout the testing period. Usually, three concentrations, low, medium and high, are prepared, as precision often depends on the sample concentration. At least five different concentrations of the sample should be analyzed if the relationship between precision and concentration is to be established. * Analysts: The lab should assign to the test analysts with moderate technical skills and practical experience in the method being used. * Analytical Apparatus: Each lab should use, as far as possible, equivalent apparatus. Equipment (excluding special instruments) should not be shared between two participating analysts. * Analysis Frequency: Each analyst should analyze the same sample at least twice on two different occasions. ** Determiation Times: At least two parallel samples should not be analyzed dunng one parallel determination. For each lab, at least six determinations should be carzied out for each sample concentration. Based on these requirements, a method verification procedure was designed, standard samples were distributed, and coordinated tests carried out by participating labs. 2. QC Of The Coordinated Test * Calibration of apparatus and measuring devices The analysts first plots a QC chart, then analyzes the sample and two parallel QC samples. The results are examined against the QC chart. * The Technical Group distributes a standard sample of a specific concentration to the participating labs. The labs analyze this, checking the detected concentration against that reported by the Technical Group. * The Technical Group may, if possible,. distribute a reference material to the participant labs so as to find their shortages and till up them6 accordingly. Handling of data obtained through the coordinated test The Technical Group arranges variance uniformity and average uniformity tests based on data collected from the participating labs. In-lab single-value uniformity tests should be carried out by the Er. Precision, accuracy, detection limits, and permissible errors are calculated from this processed data. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 27 Evaluation Of The Analytical Method The Technical Committee reviews and evaluates the verification results against the established criteria, decides whether to validate this method, and report this to the responsible agency for review and approval. The review cycle normally takes about two years. Achievements Analytical methods verified through these procedures were compiled into a book, Analytical Methods For Environmental Monitoring (1983). The 127 formal methods measuring 72 parameters and 27 tentative methods for 24 parameters included in this book have been endorsed by NEPA as national standardized environmental monitoring analytical methods. Since 1983, most of the water quality monitoring methods have been updated as technological and other advances have enhanced monitoring methods. There are three important steps in standardizing an analytical method: a) the choice of a sound analytical method, b) well-organized QC procedures at all stages and c) scientific assessment of the analytical method. Methods verified through standardized procedures play an important role in environmental monitoring and analysis in China. Their specific functions are: 1. Obtaining reliable and comparable monitoring data throughout the country. 2. Identifying a method's accuracies, precisions, allowable errors and detection limits, so that monitoring and QC are trustworthy. 3. Providing authoritative data, capable of supporting a court case. Pollution Source Monitoring Methods: Analytical Methods For Environmental Monitoring is suitable for environmental monitoring, but Unified Analytical Methods For Source Monitoring, compiled by NEPA, is more appropriate for emissions and effluents with high pollutant concentrations and multiple interferences. Source monitoring methods are hard to verify through the standard procedure, due to the unavailability of stable standard samples representing various industrial effluents. However, within one region, such as BMG, industrial wastewater can be considered standard samples during the brief period when it is stable. NEPA, the district and county EPBs and the industrial agency labs selected several representative enterprises from various industrial sectors in the Beijing region and organized coordinated tests. The analytical methods developed through these tests are suitable for monitoring industrial wastewater in the Beijing region. Analytical methods for new pollutants should be developed simultaneously with growing scientific knowledge of the pollutant's environmental effects. Analytical methods already established should be continuously improved to improve its sensitivity, low detection limits, high selectivity and rapid detection. A revised edition of standardized methods is published every 3-5 years. Monitoring And Analytical Methods For Water And Wastewater and Monitoring And 28 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING Analytical Methods For Air And Emissions have been issued in third editions. QA AND QC Monitoring data support environmental protection. Wrong data can lead to misjudgments and wrong conclusions; there is a common saying, "Wrong data are worse than none at all". A complete quality assessment (QA) system has been established to ensure that monitoring data are representative, complete, accurate, precise, comparable, and can bolster a court case. QA Organizations And Their Responsibilities QA management activities in China are handled at three levels: the national QA group under NEPA, the secondary QA groups at the provincial, municipal or autonomous region level, and the tertiary QA groups at the city level. In addition, special QA offices and labs have been established as part of monitoring stations. The BMG IQA Management Group comprises the BMEPB Deputy Director for Monitoring, the BMEMC Director, BMEMC QA experts and technicians, and representatives from district, county and enterprise monitoring stations. Monitoring network QA is managed by BMEMC. Daily management of QA activities is supervised by the QC & Network Office, operating out of a lab in BMEMC. In addition, other professional labs under BMEMC and monitoring stations under district, county and enterprise monitoring stations often undertake QA and QC activities in their fields. The responsibilities of the QA Management Group are: * Reviewing and approving QA regulations and work plans; * Developing QC procedures; requirements; * Compiling technical documents (monitoring specifications, manuals, guidelines); * Supervise the development of reference material and QC samples; * Manage technical support and personnel training for network monitoring stations; * Certify the network and its laboratory personnel; * Evaluate network labs; and * Supervise arbitration of monitoring data quality disputes. Responsibilities of the BMEMC professional labs' and district, county and enterprise monitoring stations' QA offices include: * Manage QA activities within their fields, review QA technical plans and organize their implementation, and review QC data; * Develop QA work plans and regulations and organize their implementation, and regularly report on QA activities to station management and the next level of monitoring stations; * Provide QA guidance to lower-level monitoring stations and organize technical training and quality examinations; and * Organize certification and lab evaluation. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 29 Working Contents Under QA And QC QA refers to the total quality management of all environmental monitoring activities, ensuring correct and reliable monitoring data. QC refers to the control of the quality of analytical operations at the labs, an important component of the QA system (Figure 3-1). THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING QA SYSTEM QA f ornortire QA for siting Ensure the material o o monitoring process and sampking a requirements of the labs Develop and use -reference materials QA for -Personnei transportation Technicat Select and standardize training and storage -support - analytica and of samples measurement methods Calibrate and modify -the instruments QA for Elaborate OC for -- InIa Control thebln environmental --conplete analysis &0C values monitoring quality -measurement management L abs: ' -system for environmental -Check the calibration -monitoring curves -Duplicate samples analysis Compi le relevant QA for data 4Itr pie apesaayi -docunents, manuats, -recording and t ab QC guidelines processing -Comparison analysis of reference materials Evaluation E_Fxamine the quality of high- of the tabs quality tabs Investigate the errors occurring at the tabs FIGURE 3-1 QA For The Whole Monitoring Process Environmental monitoring is a complex process including many factors, such as location of sampling sites, sampling frequency, transportation and preservation of samples, laboratory analysis, and the processing and recording of data. 30 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING Failure at any stage can contaminate the findings. The QA process was developed to ensure monitoring quality. 1. Sampling Sites And Samples Preservation Monitoring data quality depends on its representivity. Monitoring site location, sampling frequency, time during which samples are collected, and methods are determined based on the monitoring objective, parameters to be monitored, pollutant properties and analytical methods as stipulated by "Technical Norms For Environmental Monitoring" and "Technical Provisions For Source Monitoring". The temporal and spatial distribution of the sampling sites should reasonably reflect the concentration levels, variation ranges and patterns of the pollutants. The regular maintenance and calibration of sampling devices and instruments and the choice and maintenance of sample containers should be carried out according to technical provisions. Sampling personnel should closely adhere to operating rules, fill out the sampling records, and preserve and transport the samples according to technical provisions. A specific procedure should be established for each stage. A blank test should be made at the sampling site to identify any errors in collecting, preserving, storing or transporting samples. A random control check on the sampling procedure should be done to ensure that field personnel have followed all sample collecting provisions. Any deviations should be promptly corrected. 2. In-lab QC The purpose of in-lab QC is to ensure that monitoring and analysis errors are controlled within allowable limits and that results achieved are reasonably precise and accurate. In- lab QC includes the standardization and calibration of instruments and equipment, blank tests and and testing of the process, the plotting and review of the calibration curves, and the identification and review of the reference samples, to confirm the accuracy of analytical results. Blank test values, precision, and accuracy can also be controlled using the QC charts. These measures should enable the analysts to control analytical errors within a predictable range. 3. Inter-lab QC The purposes of inter-lab QC are to investigate systematic errors among the labs and find their source, to improve their monitoring and analysis levels. * All labs in the monitoring network should use national analytical methods to reduce systematic errors and ensure that the data obtained are comparable. Non-standard methods may be used if they have been tested and approved. All labs should monitor and review their analytical quality against the standard detection limits and accuracies. * Standard samples and QC samples prepared by each lab should be tested against institutional reference samples, to confirm the value of a quantity. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS 31 * All labs in the monitoring network should participate in BMEMC's annual examinations and analysis of unknown samples. Certificates will be given to qualifying analysts and uncertified analysts will be barred from monitoring, analysis or reporting data. * Systematic errors between labs should be promptly investigated. 4. Calculation And Processing Of The Monitoring Data The monitoring data should be calculated and processed according to "The Technical Norms For Environmental Monitoring" and environmental monitoring QA manuals. All labs should submit corresponding QC data to the QC managers simultaneously with reporting analytical data. The analytical data are validated only when the QC data pass. In addition to these QA measures, other QA activities include: Development of a complete quality management system. "The Quality Management System For Environmental Monitoring In Beijing Municipality", outlines the role of QA in the monitoring network and specifies standards for analysts, sampling, the preservation and transportation of samples, the management of labs, monitoring and analysis methods, the quantity and value transmission system for QA, the examination of labs' analytical quality, QC for regular monitoring and analysis, the review and management of regular analysis data, and reporting on QA. In addition, some individual labs have drafted their own standards for personnel, instrument management, lab safety, QA procedures, data review and reporting and sample maintenance. QA standards and monitoring have been enhanced by the development of these systems. Development Of Reference Materials Reference materials are materials whose values, characteristics and composition are known and can be directly used as reference standards to calibrate instruments and evaluate measurement methods; this helps labs to gather comparable and consistent data from different regions, industrial sectors, and labs. BMEMC has developed reference manuals for water quality, soil, crops and organisms, some of which have been adopted as national standards. In addition, BMEMC prepares QC samples for regular air and water quality monitoring. The basic prerequisites for national primary reference materials: * Certification Several labs test the material using the certified measurement method (or additional methods, if approved); * Consistent results should be reported from all labs.; * The material should be stable for at least one year; * Homogeneity should be within a specific range; * The material should be nationally certified and catalogued; and * The material should be composed according to national provisions. 32 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIING Certified reference materials can be used in instrument calibration, comparison analysis, and lab evaluations. BMEMC supplies lower level labs with national primary and secondary reference materials and QC samples. QA Manuals The publication of QA manuals and guidelines has helped implement of QA in environmental monitoring. BMEMC participated in the publication of a number of books: * Books on monitoring and analytical methods Analytical Methods For Environmental Monitoring (1983), including monitoring and analytical methods for water, air, soil, plants, and noise pollution. The book was a collaboration between 66 organizations. "Unified Analytical Methods For Source Monitoring: Wastewater", 1983. "Unified Analytical Methods For Source Monitoring: Waste Gases", 1982. "Analytical Methods For Water And Wastewater Monitoring", 1989. "Analytical Methods For Ambient Air And Waste Gases Monitoring", 1990. "Guidelines For Analytical Methods For Water And Wastewater Monitoring", 1990. * QA Manuals "QA Manual For Ambient Water Quality Monitoring", 1989. "QA Manual For Ambient Air Quality Monitoring", 1989. * "Technical Codes For Environmental Monitoring Surface Water And Wastewater" (Vol. 1), 1986. "Ambient Air And Waste Gases", (Vol. 2), 1986. "Noise", (Vol. 3), 1986 "Biological Monitoring (Water Quality)", (Vol. 4), 1986. "Strengthening The Technical Training of Monitoring Personnel" Rewarding High-quality Labs Labs may be judged high-quality in order to encourage and reward outstanding labs, share experiences, raise monitoring personnel quality and improve labs' monitoring quality and management. These labs are selected based on the results of quantitative examinations and assessments made by an expert examination panel, judging them on personnel quality, physical conditions, management, QA activities, and professional achievement. THE AUTOMATIC AR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM Coal is Beijing's major industrial and domestic energy source; as much as 24 million tons of raw coal is consumed annually. This is a significant source of air pollution, especially SO2 and TSP. Beijing's annual SO average is twice as high as WHO guidelines (60 lAg/m) and in winter may reach as high as 700 gg/n. The annual TSP average is three times higher than WHO guidelines (90 Ag/ml) and during winter has been as high as 1000 /g/ml. There are 490,000 motor vehicles in Beijing; NO, and CO pollution near major roads is significant. The daily NO2 average is approaching the WHO guideline of 150 tg/m. From May to October, there are 194 hours a year during which the hourly 03 average is higher than standard, with a peak value of 290 ug/ml. There is serious potential for photochemical smog pollution. Beijing is developing rapidly and air pollution is already very serious. Before the 1980s, only periodic manual sampling and laboratory chemical analysis of SO and TSP was done in Beijing. About one hundred persons were needed to carry out a city-wide air quality survey. This survey could be done only twice a year (once in winter, once in summer); during each survey period samples were only taken for four hours a day for five days, totalling 40 hours a year. Samples taken over such a limited period are temporally unrepresentative, and do not reflect maximum pollution levels or distribution patterns. Chemical analysis of the samples usually took two or three days, so pollution status was not promptly reflected and pollution control measures' effectiveness could not be assessed. These measures did not provide the timely, complete, accurate, or city-wide pollution monitoring crucial to environmental management and the implementation of environment protection regulations. In 1982 NEPA decided to study the feasibility of an automatic air quality monitoring system, and named Beijing the demonstration city. DESIGNING AN AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM FOR BEIJING Objectives The requisite guidelines for an automatic air quality monitoring system are: * Evaluation of the city's air quality and comparison of this against national environmental quality standards; * Observation of long-term variations in the city's air quality; * Assessment of impacts caused by air pollution; * Evaluation of pollution control measures' effectiveness; * Application of this information to city planning; and * Development of pollution diffusion and forecasting models. 34 ENVIRONMENTAL MONYORING IN BEING In order to realize these goals, a system that would accurately monitor the crucial parameters and achieve representive time and space resolution, for the least cost possible, was needed. Requirements Parameters Monitored Beijing's air pollution is characterized by coal burning and vehicle exhaust, so the most important parameters are: * SO2, TSP, NOx, CO, 03, and meteorological factors such as wind direction and speed, temperature, and relative humidity. * Time Resolution Five minutes is the standard time resolution for a continuous real-time monitoring system. The hourly average is derived from twelve five-minute values, and the valid annual data capture rate should not be less than 75 percent of the theoretical annual number of data. * Space Resolution BMG total land area is 16807.8 kn2, of which the city covers 87.1 km. Beijing's population is 10.668 million, of which 2.616 million live within city limits. This large an area calls for a great many monitoring sites for comprehensive space resolution, but the enormous investment needed makes this unrealistic. It was decided that eight sites would suffice for the core Beijing Municipal Air Quality Monitoring System (System), based on guidelines for number of sites and correction factors in WHO/GEMS Air Ouality Monitoring in Urban And Industrial Areas". Monitoring locations were chosen from data obtained from the 84 manual sampling monitoring sites of Beijing's 1970s monitoring network, and eight representative locations were statistically identified. Features The System, which began operations in 1984, was designed with the following features: * The System is a network of 8 stationary monitoring substations (three in permanent buildings, five in movable shelters) with standard monitoring parameters and instruments (Table 4-1). * It is a real-time monitoring system; the mainframe collects data from the substations every five minutes. The central station is informed of air quality status at any given time. * The System is operated continuously, year-round. Large amounts of monitoring data are obtained, long-term pollution patterns displayed and areas or times of the most serious air pollution problems are noted. * A radio/computer network controls the substations and immediately transmits data. Data is collected and processed continuously and various reports, tables, plots or other formats can be readily generated and used by administrative personnel. * A quality assurance (QA) and technical support lab helps the System to operate dependably. The substation microprocessors automatically calibrate and correct the monitoring instruments, ensuring that the data obtained are accurate, reliable, comparable, and trackable. THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM 35 * It is an automatic and unattended System needing minimal maintenance, saving large amounts of manpower. LOCATIONS AND FEATURES OF SUBSTATIONS LOCATION DISTRICT FEATURES SUBSTATION TYPE 1. Ming Tombs Scenic and Upwind of clean area; background Movable historic area site. shelter 2. Near BMEMC, No. 4, Boundary of Includes traffic from Xicheng & Movable West Chegongzhuang Haidian-Xicheng Haidian Districts; convenient for shelter road Dis. comparing data from various instrunents & making studies. 3. Qianmen Congdajie Dongcheng Dis. City center; near main roads; Movable commercially active; dense population shelter 4. Dongcheng Dis.; Dongcheng Dis. Commercially active; densely Stationary Dongsi Liutiao populated; many small heaters; building downwind area with serious air pollution 5. Tiantan Park Chongwen Dis. Downwind area; median & small Movable (Temple of Heaven) factories; densely populated; many shelter small winter heating stoves; serious air pollution. 6. Agricultural Chaoyang Dis. Northeast suburb; Large & median Movable Exhibition Hall factories; many new residential shelter blocks with central/district heating; residents will increase; 7. Haidian District, Haidian Dis. Northwest suburb; many cultural, Stationary Huangzhuang educational & scientific research building institutions; population rapidly increasing; 8. Shijingshan Shijingshan Dis. Western suburb close to Capital Iron Stationary District, Gucheng & Steel Corp., emitting coat-burning building funes and other gases TABLE 4-1 System Enhancement Data collected from 1984 to 1988 was used to revise each substation's representativity, using such techniques as space correlation analysis and cluster analysis. Upon completion of the study, sites will be adjusted to achieve optimal System layout. A mobile monitoring van was added to the System in 1990, to be used as an backup substation should a substation fail, as an additional substation if Beijing changes enough to make System layout suboptimal, or as a temporary substation in response to pollution concerns. This van played an important role during the 11th Asian Games in 1990. Industrial enterprises have been encouraged, through Governmental subsidies, to establish monitoring substations in their plant. The data obtained by these substations are shared, through on-line communication or exchange of data diskettes, with the System's mainframe computers. By 1990, substations had been established at the Yanshan Petrochemical Corporation, the Capital Iron & Steel Corporation, and the Beijing Coking & Chemicals Plant, giving the System three 36 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIJING additional off-line substations. CONFIGURATION AND INVESTMENT OF THE SYSTEM Configuration The System consists of three parts: local substations, the central station and a QA and technical support lab. Substations In each substation, air is continuously pumped through the sampling system manifold into the reaction chambers, where it is continuously monitored. Ten times every second the microprocessor at each substation collects the real-time data from each instrument and holds this data in temporary storage. Every five minutes the central station queries each substation, which sequentially transmits back the five-minute averages generated by the monitoring instruments and related information such as temperature and winds at the substation. If needed by the central station, the substation can transmit current real-time data, retransmit past data, and perform zero and span corrections, within a specified range, on the instruments. In addition to passively operating under central station control, if the central station or communication links fail the substation microprocessors can store the five-minute averages for 16 hours or more and transmit these to the central station with no data loss when communication links are restored. The Central Station The central station is equipped with a PDP- 11/44 minicomputer, running application software MONSYS under the multi-user real-time operating system RSX-11M. Real-time control: MONSYS, timed by RADIO and based on parameter ISTAST, signals to each substation, which, in turn transmit the first set of five-minute averages to the central station. The central station signals the substation if these data are received without trouble. The substation then deletes the successfully transmitted data set and transmits the next set of data. This process continues until the substation is emptied of five-minute data. All the data are flagged during transmission, indicating whether they are normal data, invalid data, zero- calibration data, span-calibration data or higher-than-standard data. The operator can control the substation through DIAG, read data from the substation, transmit the central station time to the substation, revise central station parameters, revise substation parameters and transmit these to the substation, transmit substation parameters back to the central station, and issue corrections and substation start and stop orders. RADIO, via LOGGER, can also display on the console status messages transmitted back from the substations, such as power, calibration or communication failure, or data storage full. There THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM 37 is a healthy transparency between the central station and the substations. Data Reports and Tables: Two data files are constructed when MONSYS is started. One is the five-minute data file, storing the five-minute averages of all parameters monitored at the 8 substations for 32 days. The other is the hourly date file, which stores the hourly averages of all parameters monitored for 367 days. REPORT produces various reports based on these files. The System regularly provides one hourly report, the three daily reports, seven monthly reports, five figures, and five retrievals. The reports and retrievals can be called up and displayed on the CRT terminal or printed. As the five-minute data are stored by the month and the hourly data by the year, last month's five-minute data and last year's hourly data of last year are transferred from disk to tape storage as the new month or year begins and the new files are opened. The files on tape can still be read and reports and retrievals still produced, through REPORT using the data on DL3 even if DL1 is being used by MONSYS for real-time data collection. Quality Assurance And Technical Support Lab The quality assurance and technical support lab (QA lab) is an important part of the System. A complete QA procedure for all components is of vital importance to the System's proper operation, especially technical support, preventative maintenance, rapid diagnosis and debugging, and an appropriate stock of spare parts. The QA lab is equipped with various primary standard gases (SRMs), working standard gases, flow rate calibration devices (including high-volume, medium-volume and low-volume), special monitoring instruments used for standard transfer, calibration devices for meteorological instruments, portable calibration devices for performance audits, electronic measurement and test apparatus, tools for special and general purpose, and spare parts. The main tasks of the QA lab are: * To minimize data loss from instrument failure or interference; * To establish a complete QA procedure to ensure that data obtained by the System are valid, accurate, comparable and trackable. Equipment Continuous air monitoring instruments are the backbone of the System. There are various commercially available monitoring instruments which such a System might use. The right choice of instrument is the key to the System's normal operation. Instruments selected should meet the following requirements: * Instrument design should be equivalent to internationally recognized standards as approved by authoritative organizations. * The instruments should operate continuously, automatically, and with minimal attendance for a long time. * The instruments should generate accurate and reliable data and be able to be checked and 38 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING calibrated for zero and span at pre-determined intervals. * Instrument measurement ranges and other specifications should meet national air quality standards. * Instruments should need minimal maintenance and replacement, and make problem diagnosis as easy as possible. * The instruments' long-term and continuous operation should meet national safety regulations. The most important feature is instrument reliability over long-term unsupervised operation. A careful survey, drawing on experience at home and abroad was carried out during the design of the System. Monitoring instruments using dry methods and approved by the USEPA were finally selected. The major equipment used in the System is listed in Table 4-2. A PDP- 11/44 minicomputer, produced by DEC, was originally selected as the System's central mainframe. It has since become possible to use less expensive microcomputers to replace the minicomputer. Investment Capital Investment The System comprises 8 substations, a central station, a communications network, and a QA and technical support lab. Investment in System hardware (excluding land acquisition and civil works) was US$1.3 million (1983). Operation of the System during 1984-1991 suggests that these figures are reasonable. Investment corresponds to the total number of substations; investment in other components will increase as the number of substations decreases. Investment in the QA and technical support lab is vital to the collection of reliable data. Beijing experience suggests a minimal QA procedure should account for 10 percent to 20 percent of total investment. When stocked spare parts account for 10 percent to 15 percent of the total investment, the long- term reliability of the System is ensured and the annual valid data capture rate should not be less than 75 percent. If prompt technical service from the instruments' manufacturers is available, investment in stocked spare parts may be safely reduced below this. As computer technology is developing rapidly investment in a mainframe and data communication system may be reduced to as little as 10 percent. Operation Costs These include replacement costs for spare parts and the costs of power, traffic, and other consumables (not including instrument depreciation and labor costs) (Table 4-2). SYSTEM OPERATION The System, put into operation in early 1984, has been continuously operated, 24 hours a day, THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM 39 SYSTEM OPERATIONAL COSTS (1984-1993) Cost AccunuLated Accunutated Annual Cost Investrent Cost (USSX1000) (USSX1000) (USSX1000) Cost of spare parts consuned 470 380 38 Cost of power, traffic and other consunables 110 110 11 Total 580 490 49 TABLE 4-2 365 days a year for 8 years. Zero and span calibrations are automatically carried out at each substation at predetermined times every day (the first three years) or every other day (the subsequent five years). Every day, the QA technicians print out the substations' calibration and status reports and submit them to the System manager. * The System manager orders scheduled adjustment or maintenance, based on the "Control Limits And Corresponding Activities Table". * Monthly preventive maintenance is done out at each substation and a report filed. * Each substation is cleaned and inspected annually, usually in autumn. * The instruments' standard transmissions (working standard gases and gas flows) and multi- point linear calibrations are inspected annually, usually at the same time as the substation cleaning. * A performance audit of each substation is done every other year. * Once a month experienced technicians review the validity of the collected data. * Each month's data is analyzed at the beginning of the next month and this is reported to BMEPB. * An analysis of the previous year's data is completed in January of the next year and an annual monitoring report submitted. All of these records are maintained in a complete technical archives. Valid Data Capture Rate The rate of valid data collected by the System is the major assessment of its reliability. Except for the off-line data obtained by IP10 particulate monitors, System data is collected on-line. Each substation reports every five minutes on ten parameters. 2880 five-minute data should be reported from each substation every day, 1,051,200 five-minute data in a year, and 8,409,600 data should be obtained from the 8 substations per year. (8409600 - Permissible Lost Data) - (Lost Data) Annual Valid Data = Capture Rate 8409600 - Permissible Lost Data Permissible lost data is data lost during daily substation zero and span calibrations, scheduled System maintenance, multi-point linear calibrations and performance audits, and a certain 40 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN EING percentage of data unavoidably lost. Lost data is data lost during instrument failures, unexpected instrument maintenance, repair or adjustment, and invalid data caused by calibration failures. Valid data capture rates for 1984- 1990 are shown in Table 4-3. Real-time Data Capture Rate (%) (1984-1990, 8 Substations) Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. JuL. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. AnnuaL Mean Year 1984 -- -- 97.0 96.7 93.0 91.0 91.3 88.1 94.6 93.6 94.5 87.3 92.7 1985 96.3 94.3 96.4 89.6 92.6 91.8 87.2 82.5 94.7 92.8 91.8 87.0 91.4 1986 87.3 87.0 90.0 91.5 95.4 94.7 93.6 90.9 80.9 87.5 87.7 93.6 90.8 1987 95.7 91.3 83.9 85.6 94.5 89.1 89.5 81.7 94.9 90.0 89.9 89.9 89.9 1988 91.8 75.8 84.7 73.3 87.0 86.0 70.9 81.7 75.9 71.6 85.4 85.5 80.8 1989 71.4 89.9 90.4 86.0 85.2 85.1 69.3 78.7 85.5 58.8 74.8 74.7 79.2 1990 64.3 85.8 88.3 69.0 68.1 63.5 69.6 83.5 88.7 85.9 73.3 85.0 77.1 TABLE 4-3 Data capture rates during 1984-1987 were higher than 90 percent and fairly stable, but have dropped to 80 percent since 1988. The monitoring instruments failure rates were relatively stable during this time. The computers failed less often than the monitoring instruments, but computer failure causes serious data loss. Only one parameter would be lost if a substation instrument failed, but ten parameters would be lost in a microprocessor failure. In recent years, due to rapid change in computers it can be difficult or even impossible to get replacement parts for computer models originally purchased. Reduced data capture rates since 1988 can be attributed to this. System experience indicates that if the System is equipped with well-chosen instruments and maintained by capable technicians, data capture rates reflect the supply of spare parts and the timely replacement of equipment. A large investment is needed to ensure this. Nevertheless, simpler means of improving the data capture rate should be sought out. In general, regional ambient air quality status is reflected reasonably accurately when the annual data capture rate is no less than 75 percent. This rate can be achieved with annual operation costs equivalent to 4 percent to 5 percent of the total capital investment. Instrument Failure Frequency Another reflection of System reliability is the average time between instrument failures (MTBF) during operation. Average Operation Time (Hours/Instrument*Year) M T B F ( H o u r s ) THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM 41 Average Failure Times (Times/Instrument*Year) 80 System instruments (not including those in the central station and the QA lab) are used daily. These failed 1067 times between 1984 and 1990, averaging 153 breakdowns per year or 1.9 times per instrument per year. On average a continuously instrument would operate for 4610 hours, or 192 days before it would break down. Statistical analysis of instrument failure and MTBF for major instruments over 1984-1990 are shown in Tables 4-4 and 4-5. Instrument Failure (1984-1990, 8 Substations) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Year 1984 11 8 7 15 14 9 16 9 29 16 15 11 160 1985 13 14 12 9 16 16 15 13 11 10 13 13 155 1986 14 13 10 14 5 7 11 8 12 19 15 14 142 1987 12 6 14 7 12 11 18 13 5 9 16 8 131 1988 11 22 12 24 14 12 9 10 8 11 10 10 153 1989 17 8 9 10 15 16 20 16 11 7 11 17 157 1990 11 13 16 12 9 12 25 10 24 11 16 11 170 Average 13 12 12 13 12 12 16 11 14 12 14 12 153 TABLE 4-4 INSTRUMENT FAILURE FREQUENCY AND MTBF (1984-1990) TECO Model 43 SO, Model 148/E NWO TECO Model 48 CO TECO Model 49 03 Failure Times Monitor Monitor Monitor Monitor (B Sites) (8 Sites) (8 Sites) (8 Sites) 1984 21.00 21.00 16.00 15.00 1985 26.00 16.00 13.00 23.00 1986 13.00 20.00 25.00 23.00 1987 17.00 15.00 13.00 14.00 1988 13.00 15.00 14.00 15.00 1989 15.00 23.00 16.00 11.00 1990 17.00 21.00 18.00 12.00 Annual Mean 17.40 18.70 16.40 16.10 Failure Times 2.18 2.33 2.05 2.01 (Times/Ins.Y) MTST (hs) 4018.00 3760.00 4273.00 4358.00 TABLE 4-5 Zero and span drifts in the instruments are caused by changes in electronic circuits and gas lines over the long-term operation of these instruments. According to QA control limits, the microprocessor will not automatically correct the drifts if they are greater than -±3 percent for 42 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIJING zero drift or ±-15 percent for span drift, and must be manually adjusted. Between 1984 and 1990 40 instruments were adjusted 817 times, or 2.9 times per year; an instrument could be operated for 3020 hours or 126 days before adjustment was needed (Table 4-6). Instrument repair or adjustment averaged 4.8 times per instrument per year; this reliability and maintenance level was found acceptable. INSTRUMENT ADJUSTMENT FREQUENCY 1984 TO 1990 ( 8 SUBSTATIONS) Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. JuL. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total 1984 10 15 11 15 5 15 9 9 12 3 11 13 128 1985 17 8 14 27 6 5 7 16 15 23 17 18 173 1986 9 6 3 5 6 6 7 9 18 9 8 6 92 1987 17 4 3 11 7 11 8 15 3 13 8 7 107 1988 14 17 10 11 7 7 13 13 9 7 5 9 122 1989 17 4 3 11 7 11 8 15 3 13 8 7 100 1990 9 4 8 5 5 10 11 8 11 5 7 12 95 Average 13 8 8 11 6 9 9 13 11 10 9 10 117 TABLE 4-6 QA AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE QA The System comprises many components, including the gas sampling system, continuous monitoring instruments, radio communication links and computer control systems. Problems caused by any one component can harm or even cripple the entire System. Instrument drift or failure due to changes in electronic circuitry, optical paths or gas lines during operations, fluctuations in regional power supply, weather changes or staff technical skills directly affect data accuracy. The System was designed to operate unsupervised and the time between substation inspection and maintenance tours is long. Great amounts of invalid data might be taken for valid if substation problems are not promptly identified. An effective quality assurance routine is therefore very important. Major procedures of Beijing's QA program, as based on the USEPA QA Manual, are: * Standard Transmission These include standard gas flow transmission and standard gas concentrations transmission. * Gas flow standard transmission The flowmeters used in the substations' multi-gas dynamic calibrator are calibrated at the QA lab through the following steps. First, the volume flows of the primary standard flowmeters (soapfilm and wet flowmeters) are calibrated using National Institute of Standards and Technology (U.S.) standard barometers, thermometers, and stop watches. Then the transmission standard-the mass flowmeter is calibrated using the primary standard flowmater. Finally, the two working standards-the mass flow controllers (0-10 L/min and THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM 43 100mg/min) used in the substation's multi-gas dynamic calibrator are calibrated with the transmission standard. QA lab transmission standards are recalibrated every six months and substation working standards are calibrated once a year. The acceptance indexes for flow calibration are very strict-the correlation coefficient of the calibration curve must be > 0.9999, the slope between 0.99-1.01, and the intercept < 1 percent of full scale. * Standard gas concentrations The QA lab is equipped with primary standard cylinders containing CO and NO (SRM). The primary standard gases concentration values are transmitted, using a set of special analyzers, into the QA lab transmission standard cylinders. Then the transmission standards are transmitted, using special analyzers, into the working cylinders for daily calibration at the substations. The errors of the calibrated concentrations should be within ±2 percent. SO2 is transmitted using SO2 permeation tubes. The permeation rate of a tube selected from a batch of commercially available products is determined at the QA lab. This permeation rate is then used as the transmission standard, against which the substation permeation tubes are measured. The substation 03 analyzer concentration values are directly calibrated against the QA lab's primary 03 UV photometer (TE49PS). * Instrument Calibration Instrument calibrations include multi-point (5-7 points) and single-point calibrations. The former are done while inspecting new machines that have not yet been used, or while examining instruments that have been repaired or had major parts replaced. Under normal circumstances, a multi-point calibration is done once a year. Single-point calibrations are done every one to three days, generally to correct zero drifts and span drifts. The calibration point for span is set at 75 percent of full scale. The QA lab transmission standard cylinders (CO and NO) and permeation tubes (SO2) are used for multi-point linear calibrations of the substations' monitoring instruments. Linear correlation coefficients are used as the major basis for acceptance of the instruments calibrated. For SO2 and NO analyzers, the coefficients should be higher than 0.999; for 03 and CO analyzers, they should be higher than 0.9999. * Data Corrections In addition to data collection, the substation microprocessors also correct data. After regular zero and span calibrations, the instruments, within specified control limits (5 +3 percent for zero drift and ±15 percent for span drift) for each channel, calibration parameter and correction mark, instrument drift may be automatically corrected by the microprocessors. Beyond these limits the correction function is disabled, and the data is flagged for calibration failure. The operators must then visit the substation and examine and correct the failed instrument. The instrument should be overhauled if its zero drift is 44 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEDING greater than +5 percent or its span drift +25 percent, and should not be used again until the failure is located and repaired and a complete multi-point linear calibration done (Figure 4-1). 0 Performance Control Limits For Zero And Span Drifts And Recommended Measures Audits Data invalid; maintenance & In addition to instrument recalibration required the regular ±5% t25% zero, span, and Instruments must be manually readjusted multi-point % linear calibrations of Zero Drift System automatically corrects itself Span Drift (% FuLL Scale) (% Fult Scale ) substation a o instruments, FIGURE 4-1 independent performance audits should be done periodically in order to establish System self-assessment guidelines so that the auditor can assess effectiveness during substation and QA operations, further verifying and improving the accuracy of the System. A set of portable gas calibrators and cylinders containing SO2, NO and CO mixtures are used for the audits. Audit concentration points and other criteria are taken from the USEPA QA manual. Assessment results are usually considered satisfactory if the correlation coefficient is within the range of 0.9950-0.9999, and unsatisfactory if it is less than 0.9950. Monitoring and calibration instruments and standard transmissions returning unsatisfactory results should be carefully examined in order to identify the problem. A System of this type needs a thorough and stringent set of QA procedures, in order to insure the precision and accuracy of the monitoring instruments and to control and improve the quality of the data collected. Equipment Maintenance High quality instruments should be chosen for the System in order to improve its reliability. Maintenance and management is very important. System management emphasizes: * Training, supervision and experience exchanges for maintenance personnel, who should be able to rapidly diagnose and correct instrument failure. * Strict implementation of preventive maintenance procedures. This is especially important during the windy and dusty days between winter and spring and humid and rainy days in summer. A detailed preventative maintenance program, including maintenance items, cycles, and requirements, is described in Table 4-7. BENEFITS OF THE SYSTEM The System has become an effective monitor of Beijing's ambient air quality. In the eight years THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALTY MONITORING SYSTEM 45 since its implementation, its major objectives have been fulfilled and measurable environmental benefits have been achieved. Comprehensive Assessment of Ambient Air Quality The System is a real-time, continuously operated monitoring system. Present and past air quality status, such as the ambient levels of SO2, CO, NOx, 03, TSP and related meteorological conditions in any Beijing district can be accessed by the control center at any time. The System collects great quantities of accurate and internationally comparable data; an "Annual Report On Beijing's Environmental Quality" is produced based on this information. These data provide a scientific basis for the analysis of Beijing's air quality and reflect the effectiveness of control measures and the development of Beijing's environmental management program. The System has become an important tool of Beijing's environmental management agencies. Air Quality Problems And Trends Beijing has gained a deeper understanding of its key air quality problems, such as the effects of SO2 and TSP pollution from coal-burning. In the urban districts, annual SO averages are twice as high as the National Secondary Standard and WHO guidelines of 60ig/m' (during winter daily SO2 averages top the annual average by 26.5 percent, and peak values have reached as high as 700ig/m' when meteorological conditions have prevented dispersion; annual SO averages are therefore determined by winter pollution levels). Daily SOz patterns reveal peaks in the morning and the evening, corresponding to patterns in heating and household cooking. The EPBs have therefore taken measures to control SO emissions from municipal furnaces and domestic stoves. Efforts have been made in recent years to change the energy structure. Fuel gases (coal gas, liquified natural gas) are being promoted; 165,000 families use these for heating and 85 percent of Beijing households use them for cooking. 19.3 percent, or 32.14 million m2 of the City of Beijing has been fitted with municipal heat. An improved coal briquette is being promoted for domestic use and heating boilers have been refitted accordingly. SO2 emissions have been controlled somewhat. The annual SO2 average over the past ten years has stabilized and slightly decreased, in spite of continuous growth in industry, population and energy consumption during the same period. Nonetheless, it will be difficult to meet the National Standard and WHO guidelines without large investments. The System found a gradual increase in NO,, from 93Ag/m3 in 1986 to 109Ag/m3 in 1990. In downwind suburban areas from late spring to early autumn, O peaks reached as high as 290gg/m3; during 1991 194 hours found 03 concentrations higher than standard. This forecasts potential photochemical smog pollution; BMG has strengthened traffic pollution control measures accordingly. Research Applications The System has excellent time and space resolution, and the data obtained can be used in various scientific studies. The following studies have been carried out during the System's eight years' 46 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIING operation. * "Predicting and Forecasting Air Pollution In Urban And Suburban Areas In Beijing". A study forecasting air pollution used data collected by the System, emission inventories obtained during the source survey, and background information on atmospheric physics from 1986-1988. Four sets of models were established: 1. "Forecast Model For Air Pollution Potential", forecasting wintertime SO2 pollutions and summertime 03 concentrations; 2. "Atmospheric Dispersion Model: SO2 Disk Model", which, in combination with the first model, forecasts daily and winter SO2 and 03 averages and their various sources; 3. "Atmospheric Model: Practical Model For Air Quality Assessment", assessing pollution status and contributions from various sources and forecasting the effectiveness of various control measures; and 4. "Patterns Of Photochemical Smog Pollution And Simulation Of The Pollutants' Behavior", providing a basis for further study of photochemical smog pollution. Based on these results, a study entitled "Long-term Least-Cost Environmental Management Strategic Planning", supported by the World Bank, is underway. * "Contributions From Various Particulate Sources And Their Control". Monitoring data indicates that TSP, a serious problem in Beijing, in winter is only 20 percent to 30 percent higher than that in summer. Other studies estimate that 60 percent of TSP comes from natural sources and 40 percent from coal-burning. Contributions from various sources have been studied since 1990, using System data, samples collected specifically for this study and the receptor model-chemical mass balance model combined with the dispersion model, to trace the contributions from various TSP sources and provide a basis for EPB decision- making. * "Air Quality Monitoring Siting And Monitoring Frequency Optimization". Representive monitoring of a region's environmental quality using the fewest possible monitoring sites is very important. Monitoring sites should be continuously adjusted to reflect industrial, population and traffic pattern changes. The present locations have been optimized through cluster analysis of System data. Areas outside System coverage are monitored using a mobile unit. Optimization options and a development program will be drafted based on the results of these activities. Due to Beijing's large area, manual sampling is still necessary in remote areas not covered by the System. Statistical analysis of historic data obtained by the System have found optimal frequencies for manual sampling. Study of SO2 sampling frequencies revealed that the relative errors were: 8 times per day (30 minutes at a time) = > 6 percent 6 times per day= = > 11 percent 4 times per day== > 14 percent 4 times per day (daytime only) => 20 percent THE AUTOMATIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM 47 A study of sampling cycles, showed that relative errors were: sampling every other week= = > 20 percent five days per month= = > 20 percent five days per quarter= = > 35 percent These results were used to determine the optimal frequencies and cycles for manual sampling. * "System Design Optimization". The System has been frequently reviewed and modified since its establishment. System hardware and software have been improved and operational experience accumulated. BMEMC supervised the design, installation, testing and operation of automatic air quality monitoring systems and personnel training for Zhengzhou City, Lanzhou City, and Anshan Iron & Steel Corp, and supervised the design, installation, and trial operation of air quality mobile monitoring units for Qingdao City and Beijing Municipality, as well as training technical teams capable of designing, installing, testing, operating, maintaining and managing these systems. About 20 research and assessment projects have been carried out with the help of the System, and its environmental benefits will be more apparent if more application and research projects are done using the large amount of data collected by the System. EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM During the 1960s, automatic air quality monitoring systems were established in many developed countries around the world, and these technologies matured during the 1970s. Long-term experience has proven these systems' effectiveness, but their cost/benefit ratio and how to obtain acceptable time and space resolution for the least possible investment are still being examined by environmental agencies around the world. Beijing's Automatic Air Quality Monitoring System has operated effectively for eight years, but is not the one critical measure for ambient air quality monitoring. The investment in such a system is large, but the cost/benefit ratio should be measured by whether monitoring objectives have been met and useful data are collected. If these data are then applied to a sound pollution control program, the cost of a computerized system would not necessarily be more than that of manual sampling methods. Beijing's System cost an initial capital investment of US$1.3 million and annual operating costs are US$49,000. Average annual costs will be US$135,000 if the System is operated for 15 years. The System generates not less than 525,600 hourly data and 6,307,200 five-minute data each year; each hourly data costs US$0.25 and each five-minute data only US$0.02. An air quality monitoring system could be broadly defined as any systematic program providing air quality data. A monitoring system may be relatively simple or very complicated; basic systems are shown in Table 4-8. Various hybrid systems may be composed from these basic systems, according to individual requirements. As Table 4-9 shows, different systems 48 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING correspond to different monitoring objectives. TYPES OF AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEMS SYSTEM TYPE SYSTEM STRUCTURE TIME RESOLUTION A. Manual sampling Chemical absorption candle Chemical analysis Continuous, t 30 days method + at lab Periodic, t 30 minutes Passive sampling method Chemical reaction film Periodic or t 1-24 Absorption tube method hours 8. Automatic sampler Automatic sampter Instrumental determination Continuous system + at tab C. Off-line continuous Continuous and automatic Computer Continuous, t 5 monitoring system instruments + (off-line) minutes D. On-line real-time Continuous and + Data communication Continuous, t 5 monitoring system automatic instrurents Computer (off-line) minutes TABLE 4-8 Type C and D Systems fill a wide range of objectives, but call for a large investment. Type A is simpler and its monitoring parameters are limited, but certain objectives may be achieved through a generous use of manpower. Type B fills many basic objectives, but its monitoring parameters are limited and time resolution is poor. The final selection will be determined by the seriousness of local air pollution, population distribution, progress in pollution control, monitoring tasks and objectives, and the available technical and financial resources. A careful study should be made to define the specific objectives and the usage of the desired monitoring data. The system's space and time resolution should be determined before the system is designed, as the requirements for each are different. Good space resolution needs sufficiant sampling sites, while good time resolution can only be achieved when sampling is done in appropriate intervals over a long period of time. Long-term continuous monitoring at many sites is needed if both good space and time resolutions are wanted. The large investment required makes this difficult, so many environmental protection agencies opt for either good space resolution or good time resolution. The goal of design optimization is to get acceptable time and space resolution for the least possible investment. Mixed systems (a certain number of continuous automatic substations located in strategic commercial, residential and industrial areas, measuring priority pollutants) may be economically reasonable when monitoring objectives and acceptable time and space resolutions have been determined. The ratio of the cost for single instrument used in different systems is as follows: Manual Sampler: Automatic Sampler: Continuously Monitoring Instrument = 1:10:100. The lifetime of the latter is significantly longer than that of the former. Prior to the 1980s, monitoring relied on manual sampling. Time resolution was very poor due to low sampling frequencies and long intervals between sampling. Manual sampling methods were greatly affected by the operators' skills and many factors could not be controlled through QA procedures. Later, much data proved invalid. It will be more cost-effective if more ATTAINABLE OBJECTIVES BY DIFFERENT MONITORING SYSTEMS H Monitoring Objectives Requirement For Times Objectives Attainable By Different Monitoring Systems Resolution I A. Manual Sampling B. Automatic C. Off-line D. On-Line SamLing Continuous Continuous Passive Absorption Monitoring Monitoring SampLing Sampling REGULAR MONITORING (1) Observation of long-term Daily mean or monitoring mean trend (2) Judgement of pollution Daily mean and concentration status from one measurement SPECIAL MONITORING 0 (3) Pollution forecast Hourly mean 9 (4) Assessment of health risk Hourly or daily mean (5) Assessment of Daily or monthly mean environmental impacts (6) Supply information for Hourly or daily mean city development (7) Verification of Five-minute data dispersion model (8) Survey of public Hourly mean or five-minute complaints against data pollution (9) EIA Daily or monthly mean TABLE 4-9 50 ENVIRONMENTAL MONTORING IN BEUING parameters are included when a continuous and automatic monitoring station is established. The necessity for a real-time, on-line system has been questioned. Obviously, the requirement for a real-time environmental monitoring system is not as urgent as that of a meteorological, fire-fighting or traffic control system. However, transparency between the control center and the substations helps insure that the substation status and the data quality can be confirmed at any time. If a mixed system must be established, it is important to ensure that the different monitoring techniques and analytical methods chosen will generate reliable data and that standardized QA/QC procedures will be adopted. Above all, an air quality monitoring system must be designed in accordance with prevailing local conditions. Preventive Maintenance Register Annex 4-1 Substation No. Location Year Maintenance Month Operator No. Maintenance' Frequency (Times/month) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1. General Substation Facilities 2. Sampling System 3. Monitoring Instruments (1) SO2 Analyzer (2) CO Analyzer (3) 4. Dynamic Calibrators 5. Microprocessor 6. Communication Radio Preventive Maintenance Record Substation No. Year No. Item Maintenance Month Cycle (Times/month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 SAMPLING SYSTEM 1 Replacement of dust filter 2/1 2 Cleaning of sampling manifold 1/1 3 Removal of water in the trap 1/2-1/1 bottle 4 Check the operation of the 1/1 blower 5 Check and clean pipelines and 1/2 connectors 6 Clean the outlet grid of the 1/6 blower 7 Clean the inlet grid of the 1/6 funnel CORRECTION SYSTEM I Remove the water from the 1/2-1/1 condensate filter of the air compressor No. Item Maintenance Month Cycle (Times/month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 Remove the water from the cold 1/2--1/1 trap at outlet of the air compressor 3 Check for any water trapped by 1/2-1/1 the pipelines 4 Check the pressure indicated at 1/1 111 front panel 5 Clean 111 fan filter 1/1 6 Remove the dust inside 111 1/6 7 Check the temperature indicated 1/1 at 146 front panel 3 Clean 146 fan grid 1/1 9 Remove the dust inside 146 1/6 10 Check the pressure indicated at 1/1 the inside pressure gage MONITORING INSTRUMENTS MODEL 43 1/1 I SO ANALYZER Check flow and pressure, clean the capillary if necessary 2 Check zero and full scale 1/3 3 Clean 5 VDC output 1/3 4 Clean fan filter 1/1 5 Clean fluorescent chamber 1/12 6 Remove the dust inside 43 1/12 7 Replace aromatics cutter 1/18 8 In humid season remove water July-Sep. trapped in the pipelines 14 BIE NO. ANALYZER I Replace the dessicator 1/1 2 Check the pressure in the Ill reaction chamber and clean the capillary and film as necessary 3 Check zero and full scale 1/3 4 Check 5 VDC output 1/3 5 Clean fan filter 1/1 6 Clean cooler fan 1/2 52 No. Item Maintenance Month Cycle (Times/month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 Clean the dust inside 14B 1/6 8 Check and replace the converter ef < 96% 9 Clean the reaction chamber and 1/12 PMT 10 Replace 0, remover 1/24 MODEL 48 CO ANALYZER 1 Check flow and clean the 1/1 capillary if necessary 2 Check zero and full scale 1/3 3 Check 5 VDC output 1/3 4 Check detector 1/1 Intensity I (KIF) Intensity 2(") AGC1 () AGC2 (") T (*C) P (mmHg) 5 Clean fan filter 1/1 6 Clean the dust inside 48 1/6 7 Clean optical path chamber INT < 15 KHz 8 Check correlation coefficients 1.14-1.18 MODEL 49 0, ANALYZER 1 Check flow and clean the 1/1 capillary if necessary 2 Check zero and full scale 11/3 3 Check 5 VDC output 1/3 4 Check the detectors 1/3 Detector A (KH7) a B ( ") Noise A() B() T P 5 Clean fan filter 1/1 6 Clean the dust inside 49 1/6 7 Clean the optical chamber f < 70 KHz 8 Replace the converter of 0, A,B balance remove < ±3% 53 No. Item Maintenance Month Cycle (Times/month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 METEOROLOGICAL 1 INSTRUMENTS 1/3 Check zero, full and semi-full scales 2 Check and clean the transducer 1/12 3 Clean or replace the bearing 1/24 WS WS I Check zero, full and semi-full 1/3 scales 2 Check and clean the transducer 1/12 3 Clean or replace the bearing 1/12 Hum/T 1 Check zero, full and semi-full 1/3 scale 2 Check and clean the transducer 1/12 3 Check and clean the fan 1/12 GENERAL FACILITIES 1 Clean the shelter 1/1-3 2 Clean the air conditioner filter 1/1 3 Clean the lobby fan 4 Check and clean exhaust outlets 1/6 5 Check the temperature and 1/1 power controls 6 Add oil to air conditioner and 1/6 instrument pumps Signature of the operator Date (Day/Month) 54 MANAGEMENT AND USE OF MONITORING DATA The achievements of environmental monitoring are reflected in the collected data. Conversely, the validity of monitoring data is the foundation of environmental management. BMEMC assembles data on water, air, noise, soil and biology gathered by the municipal, district and county monitoring stations, some of the enterprise monitoring units, such as the Capital Iron & Steel Corporation, the Tap Water Company, and the Hydrological & Geological Company, and results from a survey of the industrial sector and furnaces and kilns located in Beijing. All of these are important raw data. Foreign monitoring technology was introduced in 1983 and an Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System established. Since then, Beijing's ambient air quality has been continuously monitored, guiding environmental management and research. Procedures were developed for the analysis, storage and statistical application of this data, evolving alongside environmental monitoring activities. ANALYSIS AND STORAGE OF MONITORING DATA Monitoring data obtained from chemical analysis are reported only once they have been checked by the analysts according to quality control (QC) procedures. In addition, designated personnel review raw data collected from these sources. Data outside normal ranges must be rechecked and the reason identified in order to ensure the reliability of the data. Instrumental data errors from the automatic monitoring system have been virtually eliminated by BMEMC's complete quality assurance (QA) system, and standards ensure the accuracy and comparability of data obtained from different monitoring substations. Nonetheless, certain factors cannot be controlled through QA procedures; in these cases the data are analyzed for validity, processed by special data analyzers and stored for later use. Validation and Processing Of Automatic Monitoring Data In addition to comparing real-time data with zero-drift and span-drift control limits during regular corrections, it should be specially analyzed to remove data generated during abnormal operational conditions. This is the last and most important QC procedure. From the beginning BMEMC emphasized the importance of data analysis and processing, and ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 56 designates special technicians for the monthly analysis of all collected data. A computer program has been developed to assist this. The analysts, who are full-time technicians with an appropriate professional background, must have: * Theoretical and practical experience in environmental monitoring; familiarity with selecting sample sites, sampling methods for various pollutants, knowledge of pollutant sources how they affect sampling, and a quantitative understanding of concentrations and variation patterns of pollutants in different areas. * Knowledge of the monitoring system's data acquisition methods and QC procedures. * Some knowledge of basic statistics. * Attention to equipment status and varying trends. Checking the raw monitoring data includes: Diagnosis of Corrections to Zero And Negative Values Under zero drift control limits allow a small amount of drift. Monitors may indicate values dropping slightly below zero when ambient concentrations of the pollutants are extremely low; these values do not reflect actual conditions because it is impossible that the concentrations could be negative. Zero and negative values, therefore, are corrected to half of the monitors' minimum detectable limits (MDLs) during the hourly averages calculation. Negative values caused by monitor failure are invalid and removed from the hourly averages calculation. The analysts review the two different results and decide whether the data should be corrected or removed. The diagnosis procedure: * First, certify the results of zero and span calibration. If these do not qualify, delete data obtained during this period. * If they qualify, check for possible MDLs based on conditions at the monitoring site; check the data for any variation patterns and compare these to results from similar monitors at the same site or the same monitors at similar sites, to see whether the monitors have failed or reflect actual conditions. The data listed in Table 5-1, though very close to the MDLs, are valid data collected from one substation during high humidity conditions. Data Obtained During A Failure Correction If the values of zero-drift and span-drift are higher than those allowed by the control limits, the data are invalid and the substation microprocessor will not correct these. BMEMC analyzes correction failures in order to increase the data capture rate. Failure corrections may also be caused by inadequate supply of standard gases or a decrease in permeability. If this is found to be the case and the monitors are operating normally, the data MANAGEMENT AND USE OF MONITORING DATA 57 will be accepted and, after correction for POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS drift, included in the statistics of valid data. AT HIGH HUMIDITY JMg/r3) so, cc NO HUM Sudden-Change Values A sudden-change5 05 0.005 0.5 0.013 100 SudnCag 10 0.005 0.4 0.012 100 value occurs when the difference betweenis 0.005 0.4 0.010 100 two consecutive five-minute values is higher 0.005 0.4 0.010 100 tw 0.005 0.5 0.012 100 than half of the standard scale. Generally,30 0.005 0.5 0.011 100 35 0.005 0.4 0.011 100 pollution concentrations vary only slightlY40 0.005 0.4 0.011 100 over time. Abnormal values, such as the45 0.005 0.4 0.012 100 50 0.005 0.4 0.012 100 sudden occurrence of full-scale or zer055 0.005 0.5 0.013 100 values, are usually caused by instrument" 0.005 0.5 0.014 100 failure and are invalid. Sudden changes inTABLE 5-1 environmental conditions, such as a change in wind direction or a heavy emission of ABNORMAL SUDDEN-CHANGE OF CO (mg/rn3) pollutants, can also lead to drastic value so CO 03 N0, change. These values reflect an actual05 . .4 0.02 0.131 50 0.005 0.4 0.012 0100 change in environmental conditions and areii 0:161 3:2 0.002 0.118 valid. 20 0.151 12.2 0.002 0.097 25 0.142 2.5 0.002 0.097 30 0.148 4.5 0.002 0.138 Analysts consider the instruments' properties35 0.14 4.3 0.002 0.119 and local environmental characteristics.TABLE 5-2 Table 5-2 shows a sudden increase in CO but no change in other parameters. This CO NORMAL SUDDEN-CHANGE OF CO (mg/M3) value is thus presumed interference and So co 03 No, would be deleted. In Table 5-3, there is73 0:137 3.4 0:007 0.01 also a sudden-change value for CO, but at45 0.147 4.7 0.008 0.128 50 0.169 4.8 0.009 0.119 the same time, the S2 and NO values are55 0.182 16.8 0.002 0.143 also increasing and203 values decreasing.60 0.175 7.1 0.007 0.121 25 0.171 6.8 0.010 0.131 io0 0.178 5.6 0.009 0.140 of these pollutants and would be accepted. TABLE 5-3 Power Failures Temporary power failures may occur at substations. The microprocessors and radio sets will resume operations once power is restored, and data will be transmitted to the BMEMC. The monitoring instruments, however, require a warm-up period; data generated during this time are invalid. This period is calculated according to the instrument type and the impact of power failure on its performance. When the system was implemented, a computer program was written to boost working efficiency and help automate data checks. Key functions of the program are: An automatic fitration of all five-minute data Negative values are corrected to half of the instruments' MDLs; sudden-change values and fixed values are flagged; starting and ending times of failure corrections are recorded. Data invalidated by power failures and instrument recovery time is deleted. Five-minute data between the starting and ending times as input by data analyzers is deleted. The first two five-minute data for NO, NO2 and NO after the conversion from calibration to monitoring are deleted. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BELING 58 This program was established based on data analysis experience accumulated over the first several years of operations. The data derived are accurate and representative. In addition, problems revealed by data analysis have been used to examine the operating system, enhancing its operational reliability. For example, data analysis revealed that at one substation the concentration of certain pollutants followed a regular daily variation. Meteorological conditions and instrument calibrations were stable, but concentrations were lower than the base pollution status in the area. An examination of the site revealed a crack on the sampling manifold inside the shelter, blending air inside the shelter with samples pumped into the instruments, and monitoring data did not reflect ambient air quality. The data became valid after the sampling manifold was replaced. In an another example, one substation's hourly 03 concentrations were higher than standard for several successive days in October 1986, even though instrument calibrations were normal, sunny days were infrequent and the substation was in an area without significant 03 pollution. Data analysis indicated that these high 03 values were abnormal. A field survey then found that the ventilation pump had failed, so 03 emitted from the NO, monitor did not disperse but accumulated around the shelter, leading to increased 03 concentrations around the sampling intake. These data, though obtained from a normally operating 03 monitor, had to be deleted; results stabilized after the ventilation pump was replaced. It is very difficult for the checking program and QA procedures to identify abnormal cases of this type. These problems often only can be found by experienced technicians applying an understanding of environmental conditions, pollutants' variation patterns and a careful study of the actual circumstances. Data analysis is an important QA procedure to insure normal operation of the System. Following this review, the remaining five-minute data are correct, valid and can be used for the calculation of hourly averages. These data are stored for use if no errors are found on rechecking. Modes of Data Storage Disk and Tape Storage The five-minute averages are stored on the mainframe computer hard disk, as are the hourly averages derived from the average of the five-minute data. The hard disk's storage capacity is just enough for 32 days of five-minute data and one year of hourly averages from each substation, so at the end of each month the five-minute and hourly data are transferred onto tape backup for storage. The five-minute and hourly data are stored in data files, tagged by pollution code and date. The concentration data (valid and invalid, zero and span adjustment information) obtained through monitoring are stored in sequence, in the designated file. The data over a certain period for a certain pollutant can be called up by specifying time, code and record numbers. Storage in Report Form Generally, the data are not stored in report form. However, daily averages sometimes are used to analyze environmental quality, or individual daily averages may MANAGEMENT AND USE OF MONITORING DATA 59 be used for research or to compare different monitoring methods. In these cases it is more convenient to use the monthly reports. It is also more practical to print out monthly the daily averages over one month and monthly average for each parameter monitored at each substation. These reports are also an effective mode for data storage. These reports have been printed out monthly since 1984. If the daily averages are required they can be derived from the monthly reports. Otherwise, daily averages should be called after they have been dumped from the tape back onto the disk. Various reports are issued using the monitoring data. These are produced by data management technicians using specially designed computer programs. However, data stored in the report format are suitable for only limited applications. They are not suitable for sorted statistics and calculation, which find it more convenient to use the data on disks. Monitoring data obtained through manual sampling are also stored in this format and will be managed by and stored in the computer when the database is completed. Beijing Surface Water Quality Information Management System In Beijing there are 204 water quality monitoring sites, located at major waterways, lakes and reservoirs. Water samples are taken manually and analyzed in laboratories. More than 20,000 monitoring data are collected each year. The Beijing Surface Water Quality Information Management System was established using an IBM-PC/AT computer for more efficient use of these data. Data from previous years were also incorporated once they were collated and screened, the measurement units standardized and the monitoring and analytical methods identified. Water systems have been sequenced, coded, and stored in the computer for inquiry and recall. Water qualities are assessed in accordance with their function (drinking water, agricultural irrigation, etc.) using the Nemorow pollution index. The water quality database can produce reports, diagrams or tables detailing: * one-year data; * multi-year data; * monitoring methods; and * high values. REPORTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MONITORING DATA The System does not belong to WHO/GEMS/Air, so WHO report formats are not used. System reports are instead based on the format established by System software MONSYS. The statistical analysis methods and the diagrams and tables, however, are based on WHO's "Analysis and Interpretation of the GEMS Data". Major Reports ENVIRONMENTAL MONUTORING IN BEIIING 60 Hourly, daily and monthly reports, rose plot concentration curves and daily and monthly calibration tables are regularly generated by the System. Hourly reports: for each parameter twelve five-minute averages each hour and the hourly average are reported from each substation. Daily reports: Three reports are produced: * Daily average for each parameter at each substation; * Hourly averages, maximums, minimums, daily averages and standard deviations (SD) for all parameters at each substation; * Hourly averages, maximums, minimums and daily averages for one parameter at each substation. Monthly reports: Seven reports are produced: * Monthly average of each parameter from each substation; * Daily averages, maximum and minimum daily averages, monthly averages and standard- violation rates within one month for all parameters at one substation; * Hourly averages and daily maximums, minimums, averages and SDs within one month and daily hourly maximums, mininums, averages and SDs for one parameter at each substation. * Statistics on wind direction and speed at each substation; * Statistics of maximums, averages and their frequencies at various wind directions and speeds for each parameter at each substation; * Statistics of standard-violation rates within one month for all parameters at each substation; * Statistics of data capture rates. Rose plots: These are plotted using the five-minute data over one month at each substation. Three types are produced: * Wind roses; * Pollution roses for one pollutant; * Pollution index roses for one pollutant. Concentration curves: These are also plotted using the five-minute data, showing concentration changes each day for each pollutant at each substation. Daily calibration tables: Calibration time, calibration values for zero and span, and percentage of values higher than standard, for each parameter at each substation. Monthly calibration tables: Zero and span values during each calibration within one month; values higher than the given calibration values will be flagged for all parameters at each substation. Retrieval The System automatically retrieves the following figures: * Five-minute data exceeding the standard, and corresponding meteorological conditions (monthly); * Maximum five-minute values, and corresponding meteorological conditions (monthly); * Maximum hourly averages, and corresponding meteorological conditions (annually); MANAGEMENT AND USE OF MONITORING DATA 61 * Daily average values exceeding the standard, and the corresponding day (monthly); * Daily average values exceeding the standard and the corresponding day (annually); These tables, reports and retrieval results can be obtained from the database, and displayed on- screen or printed out. Pollutants may be measured in ppm or mg/M3. Statistical Processing And Comprehensive Expression Of Monitoring Data Air pollutant concentrations are characterized by great volumes and variations. Pollutant sources vary considerably during the year and consequently the data plot themselves over a large range. These data should be analyzed by scientific statistical methods before being used to judge pollution levels and changes. Statistical terms and methods used are consistent with WHO provisions and winter and summer data are assessed separately before being incorporated in the monthly and annual statistics. Furthermore, the eight System substation sites are classified based on their locations (urban, near, suburb, urban near-suburb, and rural) and their different environmental circumstances are factored into the analysis. Calculation Of The Central Tendency And Discrete Index Of The Data Maximums, minimums, averages (including arithmetic averages, geometric averages and medians), standard distributions (including mathematical and geometric SDs), percentiles, and standard violation rates are calculated. The averages and standard violation rates include monthly and annual averages, winter and summer season averages, urban, inner-suburb and urban near-suburb area averages. Test Of Data Distribution Data are grouped based on their range. Each datum is grouped, frequency and accumulated frequency distribution tables are plotted, and accumulated frequency percentages are calculated. Data distribution characteristics are determined through making plots on the logarithmic probability papers. Analysis Based on the above calculations, analyses are made of the pollutants' temporal and spatial distribution characteristics and the relationships between pollution and meteorological conditions and between pollution, geographical environment and pollution sources. The relationship between pollutant concentrations versus time and pollution roses are plotted. The confidence interval estimations, differential importance tests, and trend analysis are also carried out during the multi-year data statistics. MONITORING DATA AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Much environmental quality information has been provided for environmental management and decision-making since the foundation of BMEMC. The service is provided in several forms: Monthly Ambient Air Quality Reports Since 1985, monthly reports (Monthly Report On Ambient Air Quality In Beijing), based on ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 62 analysis of the statistical data obtained by the System have been circulated to environmental management and municipal agencies, other monitoring institutions, and large enterprises. These reports include: monthly averages of each pollutant at each substation; maximum daily averages; standard violation rates; comparisons with the previous month and with the same month in previous years; comparisons of pollution levels among the substations; analysis of special pollutant concentrations and a comprehensive assessment of monthly pollution status. Seasonal Reports On Environmental Quality A report is issued each quarter. In addition to System data, manual sampling data obtained by district or county level monitoring stations are incorporated into this report, particularly CO, NO,, TSP, dustfall, SO2, and sulphation rate data. Headings and agencies copied are same as for the monthly reports. Bulletins are issued after surface water monitoring during wet and dry periods. Concentrations of various pollutants occurring during these periods, standard violation rates and the reasons for these are counted and analyzed. Annual Environmental Quality Reports Annual reports on environmental quality have been issued since 1988, in preparation for the annual national environmental protection meeting. All data obtained through the environmental protection system and a basic statistical analysis are included in these reports. In addition to the annual reports, environmental quality reports will be compiled every five years. These reports will: review fundamental conditions, urban development patterns, construction and environmental statistics; evaluate environmental quality based on monitoring and statistical data; summarize the current status of pollution sources and emerging trends; and highlight achievements and countermeasures in the field of environmental protection. The data collected by the environmental protection institutions are inadequate for a comprehensive analysis as required by these reports. Therefore, more data are drawn on to compile these reports, particularly on waste gases, wastewater and solids discharge, treatment and comprehensive usage; modification of furnaces and kilns; discharge of priority toxic substances in industrial wastewater; investment in pollution control, and the implementation of pollution control simultaneously with industrial projects, and meteorological information like visibility, inversions, precipitation, temperature and wind speed and direction. Provision of Information to Administrative Agencies The information required by administrative agencies can be rapidly accessed from BMEMC's large store of information, particularly the real-time data generated by the System. Examples include: Service During the 11th Asian Games BMEPB officials paid close attention to environmental quality and changes and took measures to control pollution sources to ensure the success of the MANAGEMENT AND USE OF MONJTORING DATA 63 11th Asian Games, held in Beijing in 1990. BMEMC supplied average concentrations of various pollutants, their variation patterns at representative locations over the past several years, and monitoring data during the games. Monitoring sites and areas have been expanded since 1990 as Beijing hopes to host a future Olympic Games and wants to ensure the required environmental quality. This collection of monitoring data enables BMG and environmental protection agencies to strengthen abatement measures, control industrial pollution at the source, and greatly improve environmental quality. Monitoring During Severe Weather Conditions Beijing's environment deteriorates during the winter due to increased emissions from coal-burning stoves and meteorological inversions. Conversely in spring, windy and dusty days are common. At these times, BMEMC monitors related parameters and provides this data and its analysis to the appropriate agencies. Other Services Fireworks may cause both safety problems and environmental pollution. Environmental quality data from spring festival periods has been analyzed and ambient noise levels and relevant pollution parameters monitored for the last three years. Reports have been provided to administrative agencies to help them decide whether Beijing should designate special areas for firework displays. A serious ftihover accident occurred over the North China Power Network in February 1990. An analysis was carried out, using monitoring data from the time of the accident, and the results are being used to prevent future incidents. Data was provided to the World Bank mission during their study of China's environmental status. Environmental Impact Assessments For New Construction Projects According to current laws, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) is required for any new construction project or extensive renovation. A survey of the existing environmental status and an estimate, based on the nature and scale of the work to be done, of potential environmental impacts stemming from the investment must be prepared and submitted to the appropriate administrative agencies to help them decide whether or not to approve the project. Beijing Oriental Chemical Plant and Yanshan Cement Plant were constructed according to these requirements. Monitoring of Pollution Emergencies Special monitoring is carried out after a significant water or air pollution event. For example, special monitoring was carried out in 1974 when wastewater containing chloral was discharged from a pesticide plant, and when S02 was emitted from a dye plant. Complaints about noise pollution have increased in recent years. BMEPB has asked BMEMC to measure noise levels and pressed sources to control their noise by a given deadline. The effectiveness of these measures has been evaluated by BMEPB. ENVIRONMENTAL MONORING IN BEUING 64 ENVIRONMENTAL FORECASTING A study, headed by BMEMC, the Environmental Science Center of Beijing University and the Beijing Meteorological Science Institute, entitled "Air Pollution Predictions And Forecasting For Beijing's Urban And Inner-suburb Areas And Its Applications" was carried out during 1986- 1989. Many disciplines, particularly environmental monitoring, atmospheric physics, and meteorology were involved in the study, which incorporated much environmental monitoring and meteorological data, such as the temperature of the atmospheric boundary layer and the structure of the wind field. Major Contents Of The Study Survey Of Air Pollution Sources In Beijing A survey of pollution sources was a fundamental task of the study. A database of air pollution sources was established based on a survey of Beijing's furnaces, kilns, stoves, traffic patterns and hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline stations throughout the city. Beijing's Atmosphere The diffusion of atmospheric pollutants is affected by topographical and meteorological conditions. Diffusion factors were determined after analysis of the meteorological background of Beijing's air pollution and observation and analysis of the atmospheric boundary layer and diffusion characteristics over the city. A study of wind field patterns was carried out to determine their effects on pollutant transportation. Data from the Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System Monitoring data obtained over the previous four years were analyzed; the results indicated no significant difference in the data obtained in different years. In addition to assessing pollution status and general pollutant patterns, these data were also used to study the distribution of pollutant concentrations, to examine the distribution of monitoring substations, the processing of data, and the calculation of the optimal intervals for monitoring. Beijing Regional Atmospheric Dispersion Models Simple dispersion and practical dispersion models were developed for different pollutants and application areas. Study Results A series of air pollution prediction and forecasting models has been established based on the results of this study. Air Pollution Potential Forecast: Extensive analysis and statistical calculations of atmospheric circulations and major meteorological factors were carried out and equations for quantitative forecasts were established. This analysis and forecast of the weather's affect on serious pollution is extremely useful for preventing sudden pollution events. A short-term (24 hours) forecast system of SO2 concentrations in urban areas was established using the simple dispersion model combined with the pollution potential forecast. Practical Dispersion Model: This model is based on the multiple source Gaussian dispersion equation and can be used to assess current status, including the simulation of concentration field and contributions of various sources, such as in the analysis of the current status of and reasons MANAGEMENT AND USE OF MONTORING DATA 65 for SO2 pollution in Beijing. This model can also be used for total pollutant discharge quantity control. First, the average winter SO2 concentration from 1990 to 2000 was predicted based on the 1985 pollution sources survey. Then total quantity control targets for SO2 at various phases and optimal reduction rates for various area sources under different conditions were determined, using methods similar to those used in Japan and information obtained from continuous monitoring. The database of sources like furnaces, kilns, and stoves has supported the establishment of a complete, dynamic database for environmental management. The analysis and study of continuous monitoring data should help optimize System operations and statistical processing of monitoring data, which may have important practical values for resolving similar problems in air pollution monitoring elsewhere in China. This study has yielded highly useful measures for managing Beijing's air quality. The study, however, is still in the testing phase and its achievements have not been widely applied. In addition, the survey of pollution sources needs to be expanded and study of the atmospheric boundary layer should be intensified to provide even more accurate and effective air pollution forecasts. SERVICE TO OTHER RESEARCHERS Monitoring data are highly valuable to scientific studies, such as the relationship between the environment and human health, or between changing weather patterns and environmental pollution. Environmental monitoring data obtained by BMEMC have been carefully screened, making them accurate, valid and widely applicable, particularly in environmental management and forecasting. These data, if further developed, might play an even greater role in other fields, particularly in cooperation with other cities or countries. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEIJING 66 PERSONNEL TRAINING BMEMC was China's first environmental monitoring department, established as environmental monitoring was just beginning and there were no personnel specifically trained in the subject. Most of the staff first recruited for BMEMC were technical personnel, experienced in chemistry, biology, physics, geology, geography, meteorology or electronics, as well as a number of grass- roots laboratory technicians. Various professional training was given to the technical staff at different levels. Early on some highly trained technical staff were drawn into BMEMC. They had university- level and post-graduate training, research aptitude and practical work experience, but needed to adapt their expertise to the demands of environmental science. Their environmental monitoring skills were improved through environmental research, academic exchanges and visits within China and to foreign countries, collecting publications on environmental monitoring (generally not available in China at the time) and other supplementary education to enhance knowledge and skills. They came to master the overall theory of environmental monitoring and new developments in monitoring science and technology, and defined the domain and direction of the work to be done by their department and within their individual specialities. They gradually took lead in the their specialties' academic realm. Later, they often became heads of or advisors to technical offices, in charge of professional work. They developed professional work plans, set the course for scientific research, organized major comprehensive scientific research and instructed postgraduates and personnel in scientific research and technical work. BMEMC established the post of Graduate Student for young technical fellows possessing strong professional skills and expected to benefit from further studies. Upon finishing postgraduate courses, they research new environmental monitoring topics under the guidance of a tutor. BMEMC has guided 6 Graduate Students through to their masters degree. Over the past decade, BMEMC sent 23 core staff to America, Japan or Canada to enhance their scope and study advanced technologies, techniques and experiences; on their return most became the technical backbone of BMEMC. Because not all staff came from an environmental monitoring background and some personnel needed to enhance their knowledge, in the early 1980s BMEMC introduced training classes for technical staff at the assistant engineer level and PERSONNEL TRAINING 67 above. Examples included weekly classes in "Introduction to Environmental Monitoring", which lasted for half a year, in which technical personnel received extensive training, and studies in mathematical statistics. Computer applications and foreign language training were also offered, in order to supplement staff skills. Laboratory technicians and sample collectors undertake the most direct and routine monitoring tasks, so their technical skills directly influence the quality of the monitoring data. However, most of them do not bring to the monitoring stations a strong professional education. BMEPB, BMEMC and the district and county EPBs prioritize personnel training in their annual working plans. The training is formulated specifically for the district and county monitoring stations. BMEPB annually budgets Y20,000 to Y30,000 for training. Subordinate technical personnel are sent to training and experts are brought to the stations. Following NEPA regulations on monitoring quality assurance, in 1987 BMEPB developed the "Certificate of Technical Quality" for environmental monitoring staff and analysts, and stipulated that uncertified staff would not be allowed to report monitoring data. The technical proficiency parameters include basic theory, experimental operation skills and analysis of unknown samples. Through training of district and county monitoring staff, nearly 90 percent of samples collected qualify on first check. PURPOSES AND REQUIREMENTS OF TRAINING Only a small percentage of staff will enter colleges or universities to pursue formal schooling, which means most staff members will be trained only at their posts. For the laboratory technicians, the following goals are sought through training: Basic Analytical Chemistry Through studying basic analytical chemistry, laboratory skills, mathematical statistics, quality control and assurance, analytical principles, and typical analytical experiments, the students develop the ability to think independently and solve problems. Basic Operational Skills Through practice in the correct use of glassware and training in volumetric, colorimetric and gravimetric analysis and sampling technology, the students master basic operational monitoring skills. Use of Special-purpose Instruments Through use of the large special-purpose instruments, such as the GC, the AAS, the infrared oil detector and the automobile exhaust analyzers, the students learn the methods and principles of instrumental analysis, using the instruments for simple maintenance work. The purposes of training are: ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 68 * Raising the basic theoretical level by asking the students to integrate theory with practice; * Cultivating a practical work style, a serious attitude towards the sciences and a rigorous scientific approach; * Increasing the abilities of the technical personnel to carry out scientific experiments independently, analyze and solve problems when they meet with difficulties, and improve environmental monitoring quality within the system. TRAINING METHODS These methods are intended to enhance monitoring personnels' professional and technical training. * Promising young staff are identified and sent to colleges or universities for formal study. * Once BMEMC and a local university jointly held a two-year environmental monitoring program, equivalent to a technical secondary school. The students from this course since have become core staff at the city's environmental monitoring posts. * BMEMC provides local monitoring station staff with post-technical training in water, air and noise parameters. * BMEMC offers short-term training classes 3-4 times each year, inviting experts, professors and engineers to give lectures. This is the most common form of training. * Instrument manufacturers sometimes provide training. * BMEMC periodically sponsors competitions in environmental monitoring techniques and technologies. Training Plan And Content BMEPB budgets funds each year for training to cultivate technical personnel and enhance their monitoring ability, develop environmental protection capacity and better serve environmental management. Over the past decade BMEMC has held 50 training courses, training over 2000 staff. Personnel from other Beijing organizations and various industrial bureaus, factories, mines and other enterprises are often also admitted to these classes. Professional and technical training is developed very much in response to the basic skills needed for monitoring and analysis. After identifying the amount of training needed in the coming year and the amount of funds budgeted for training, classes are placed in the work plan. BMEMC conducts classes 3-4 times a year. These courses are normally completed with a written exam or exam plus hands-on test. PERSONNEL TRAINING 69 Training work already undertaken by the environmental monitoring network system includes: * Basic theory: Principles and experimental operational skill of volumetric, colorimetric and gravimetric analysis; water and air sampling methods and technology. * Monitoring methods: Measurement methods for SO2, NOX, CO and sulphation rate in air and BOD5 and NH3 in water. * Professional management: The directors of district and county EPBs and monitoring stations visit and study more advanced units and share experiences with them, to heighten awareness of service and enhance their management skills. * Special-purpose instruments: To understand the structural principles of the GC and the AAS infrared oil detector; to practice instrument adjustment; to know how to use analytical instruments; how to do sample analysis and measurement. * Quality assurance to learn quality control technology, to master quality control methods and the stipulations of quality assurance. * Pollution source monitoring: To master the measurement technologies of certain parameters, especially boiler flue dust and gas, auto exhaust, industrial wastewater and waste gas; * Computer applications: To learn BASIC programming language for data processing; to create a database; to use computers for scientific management; Training Offered by BMEPB (1982-1990) Annex 6-1 I Class Date Length Study Topic Numbe 1 (k i Ilk &I r Mzbig at Tg Traine d 1 3/1/82 2 Operation of Model 590 mercury detector 24 weeks I 2 3/22/82 2 Monitoring SO, NOx and dust 15 weeks 3 8/3/82 1 week Noise measurement methods and technology 35 dai 4 10/11/82 1 week Boiler flue dust measurement 35 8n midild pi 5 10/18/82 1 week Boiler flue gas measurement 30 6 12/24/82 2 Atmospheric SO, measurement by acidity test method 30 weeks 7 4/23/83 1 week Boiler flue dust measurement (emphasis on field monitoring) 23 8 10/10/83 4 GC analysis 29 weeks 9 10/19/83 2 AAS analysis 14 weeks 10 5/4/84 3 AAS analysis 24 4 in V& Gok R weeks 11 9/10/84 1 week Management (for BEPB and BMEMC managers) 35 12 1/22/85 1 day Use of Model 5100 calculator for processing monitoring data 35 13 7/29/85 2 Water monitoring QA 34 weeks 14 9/9/85 2 Basic laboratory principles 36 weeks 15 4/12186 1 week Pollution source monitoring methods 96 16 9/19/86 2 days Measuring water flow velocity 80 17 10/17/86 2 Measuring oil content with OCMA-200 oil detector 24 weeks 18 10/22186 1 week S-3001 noise meter 25 3 fmdrm dim d 19 11/18/86 4 days Flue gas darkness test 41 3 mf dff dpm 20 3/9/87 1 week Polarographic measurement of atmospheric benzene 40 21 6/22/87 1 week Environmental monitoring sampling technology 50 22 9/5/87 1 week Water monitoring and quality control technology 36 A 23 9/5/88 1 week Boiler flue dust and gas measurement 257 W fm idi a Class Date Length Study Topic Numbe # (k ha aIM r MN"g at Ti Traine d 24 5/18/88 2 Oil detector, DO meter 40 weeks 25 12/12/88 1 week Comprehensive data analysis 36 26 2/22/89 1 week Boiler flue dust and gas measurement 117 S fm dniWSA 27 7/3/89 1 week Monitoring server management 35 28 8/21/89 1 week Monitoring automobile exhaust 80 29 9/11/89 1 week Environmental noise test 54 30 11/13/89 1 week Atmospheric monitoring QA 36 31 2/22/90 1 week Boiler flue dust measurement 50 32 3/19/90 1 week Automobile exhaust management 60 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 72 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION BMEMC has carried out environmental monitoring for over 15 years, accumulating significant experience. A contingent of some 150 technical personnel has been established. BMEMC frequently conducts academic activities and technical exchanges with domestic and foreign environmental monitoring organizations and departments. In addition, BMEMC has an extensive history of cooperation with domestic and foreign equipment manufacturers. BMEMC is thus qualified to conduct the following international cooperation activities: DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEM Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System Project Design and implementation of automatic ambient air quality monitoring systems in urban and rural areas and industrial districts. * General design of monitoring systems. * Optimum allocation of monitoring stations. * Structural design of monitoring substations. * Selection, installation and adjustment of monitoring facilities and equipment. * Development of computer application software for monitoring systems. * Real-time and on-line adjustment and operational testing of monitoring systems. * Quality assurance and technical support for monitoring systems. * Technical training of operational personnel and maintenance of monitoring systems. * Experience in operational management of monitoring systems. Automatic Stack Emission Source Monitoring System Project * Design and implementation of continuous sample-extraction and non-sample-extraction monitoring of emission sources. * Overall design plan of monitoring systems. * Design of sampling and sample pretreatment. * Structural design of monitoring sub-stations. * Selection, installation and adjustment of monitoring facilities and equipment. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 73 * Development of computer application software for monitoring systems. * Real-time and on-line adjustment and operational test of monitoring systems. * Quality assurance and technical support of monitoring systems. * Technical training of operational personnel and maintenance of monitoring systems. * Experience in operational management of monitoring systems. Automatic Water Quality Monitoring System Project Design and implementation of automatic and continuous water quality monitoring systems for surface water, groundwater, industrial wastewater and effluents from sewage treatment plants. * Overall design plan of monitoring systems. * Optimum distribution of the monitoring network. * Structural design of monitoring sub-stations. * Design of sampling and sample pretreatment. * Selection, installation and adjustment of monitoring facilities and equipment. * Development of computer application software for monitoring systems. * Real-time and on-line adjustment and operational tests of monitoring systems. * Quality assurance and technical support of monitoring systems. * Technical training for operational personnel and maintenance of the monitoring systems. Mobile Environmental Monitoring Stations Design and implementation of monitoring stations for mobile ambient air quality, stack emission sources and dual-purpose mobile monitoring stations for ambient air quality, emissions, radioactive material and water quality. * Overall design of mobile monitoring stations. * Selection of vehicle, instrument and equipment of mobile monitoring stations. * Retrofitting of monitoring vehicles and installation and adjustment of instruments and facilities. * Development of computer application software for mobile monitoring stations, separate from or integrated with the monitoring systems. * Quality assurance for mobile monitoring stations. * On-line adjustment and operational links of mobile monitoring stations. * Technical training of operational personnel and maintenance of mobile monitoring stations. * Management of mobile monitoring stations. DESIGN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABS Design and establishment of environmental monitoring labs of the environmental monitoring organs at the various levels (state, province, municipality, region, etc.) * Determining the duties of the environmental monitoring organs. * Design of environmental monitoring facilities. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 74 * Technological and architectural design of the environmental monitoring laboratories. * Layout of the various labs, including chemical analysis labs, instrumentation analysis labs, auxiliary labs and computer facilities. * Selection of instrumental facilities for the environmental monitoring labs. * Installation and adjustment of the monitoring labs' instrumental facilities. * Quality assurance plan of the environmental monitoring labs. * Technical support of the environmental monitoring labs including the supply of standard gases, standard reference materials (samples) and samples for quality control assessment. * Technical training of environmental monitoring lab personnel. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SPECIALIST CONTINGENT * Provide various specialists for short-term or long-term international technical cooperation, exchange, discussion and consultation. * Design of environmental monitoring program * Design of environmental monitoring network. * Environmental monitoring technology (sampling, analytical methods, monitoring facilities, data processing). * Environmental monitoring quality assurance. * Environmental pollution investigation and assessment (assessment of present status, environmental impact, environmental risk). * Including air, water, soil, solid waste,biology, noise and vibration. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING * Cooperative research projects on regional and global environmental monitoring. * Research on environmental pollution dispersion and transportation. * Research on priority pollutants in the local environmental. * Research on the regional environmental monitoring network. * Research on critical global environmental projects. DISCUSSION STANDARD ANALYTICAL METHODS Why other countries' methods cannot be adopted directly: In China, a method can be approved only once it has been optimized according to standard principles. Some native standard analytical methods, internally tested and verified, equal international standards. The adoption of other countries' certain methods cannot invariably be ruled out. However, foreign methods should not be copied indiscriminately, but studied, analyzed, tested and verified, for several reasons: 1. The makeup of a sample is very complicated, and other factors may influence methods. For instance, industrial waste gas or wastewater varies according to different raw materials, production processes and environmental control measures applied. Any analytical process should be carefully examined to identify the method that will yield the most precise results. 2. China's conditions must be taken into consideration while selecting methods. For example, are the appropriate instrumental facilities and reagents available, are the labs qualified, are the methods convenient and feasible? If these factors do not fit China's circumstances, foreign analytical methods will not be used. 3. Methods selected have undergone a standardization procedure, in which representative samples are scientifically studied. Following experiments by an appropriate number of labs, a fairly accurate evaluation of the method and its permissible error range can be determined, which provide standard guidelines for quality control monitoring. The standard analytical method developed thus may be used during arbitration in settling monitoring data disputes, because its reliability is generally recognized. Experience has shown that some foreign methods cannot be directly used in China: 1. Some pollutants common in China, such as organic chloride, phosphorus pesticides, anilines or nitrobenzines, are not common in other countries, and therefore different analytical methods are necessary. 2. Other countries often have adopted more advanced instruments not yet common in China, such as automatic colorimetric analysis of organic and inorganic molecules. Abroad, the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN BEUING 76 atomic absorption technique of graphite crucible is commonly used for trace metal analysis and ultra-micro metal analysis; this is not in common use in China. Instead, the flame atomic absorption method and other chemical methods were adopted. The chemical method is still China's primary method of inorganic ion analysis, as ion chromatographs are not commonly available. Often because of the high price or unavailability of certain instruments, detectors, reagents or instrumental carriers, methods more suited to China's circumstances have been developed. 3. Some native analytical methods are better than those of foreign countries, such as the colorimetric measurement of arsenic. While the photometric method of silver diethyldithiocarbamate is commonly used abroad, the new silver salt method (spectrophotometric determination of trace arsenic by using silvernitratepolyvinyl alcohol absorbent solution) was developed in China. Its sensitivity is much higher than that of the former (the detection limit is 0.0004 mg/I, compared to ), while reducing secondary pollution from the reagent. This method is now commonly used for background detection in China. Quality Assurance In the 1970s, developed countries perfected environmental monitoring quality assurance. It has been suggested that monitoring data from the early 1960s cannot be used because of poor quality assurance. In the early 1970s, scientific research in environmental quality investigation was carried out in Beijing by EPBs, universities and several research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of China, all of which were technically capable. However, river pollutant monitoring found that pollution source data were contradictory, producing irrational data, because no quality assurance measures were taken. For example, the reported level of mercury varied considerably, in spite of stable discharge patterns and control measures in place. On review it was found that two different analytical methods were used with no quality assurance measures. Often funds were wasted because of inaccurate monitoring data: 1. Oils and fats were found in the effluent from an oil refinery. The refinery used freon as a solvent to analyze the greases in the effluent and concluded that both the oil and fat exceeded discharge limits. Different types of equipment were designed by the engineers to remove oil and fat from the effluent, but were not satisfactory. After investigating the analytical method, it was found that the substances taken for oil and fat were in fact another organic compound, dissolving both in water and freon. This could be removed by other methods, which meant that costs for de-oiling and de-fatting equipment could be reduced. 2. The initial analysis of suspended solids (SS) in a certain factory's effluent of indicated that SS exceeded limits. When compared to effluent from a neighboring sewage treatment plant, the turbidity of the factory effluent was the same as that from the plant, but the SS in the sewage treatment effluent was only half the legal limit. This showed DISCUSSION 77 that the SS in the factory effluent did not exceed the limit. It was later found that they were using two different glass-fibre filters for analysis, both of which were approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). After changing the filters, SS in the factory effluent met the quality index, saving US$90,000 in filter facilities. 3. The concentration of cyanogen ions (CN') in wastewater was 10 times the median lethal concentration for fish, according to ASTM detection methods, but in biological tests the fish thrived. Later, review of the method revealed that SCN' was inadequately screened out and that the wastewater contained much more SCN' than CN'. Because SCN' is less toxic, treatment costs were far less. Since the 1980s, quality assurance work has been increasingly carried out in China, improving monitoring quality. Assessment of technical proficiency has been made by the state on behalf of the monitoring departments and the provincial and municipal environmental protection research institutes, and the monitoring departments now get even better assessment results than the institutes. This is because they have implemented the principles of environmental monitoring quality assurance management. 1. To be determined by the operator according to the conditions of the instrunents. Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Environment and Natural Resources Division Asia Technical Department The World Bank 1818, H Street Washington D.C., N.W. 20433 USA Tel: 202-458-2726, 2729, 2747 Fax: 202-522-1664