E4386 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board Head Office: Shiva Marg, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu, P.O.Box: 12414, Kathmandu Phone: 00977-1-4003010, 00977-1-4003012, Fax: 00977-1-4003011, Email: khaskosh@rwss.org Web: www.rwss.org Draft Report Environment and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project (RWSSIP) Mr. Ram Kumar Sharma (Team Leader) Mr. Bimal Chandra Sharma Mr. Gun Raj Ghimire Mr. Laxman Neupane Ms. Prava Pokharel December 15, 2013 Preface The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (the Board) was established on March 14, 1996 by the Government of Nepal (GoN) with the objectives of promoting, streamlining and institutionalizing community driven, community owned and community managed approaches in rural water supply and sanitation (RWSS) sector in Nepal. With the main support of The World Bank/IDA, the government has been executing RWSS schemes through the Board. The Board with its distinct approach in the sector as well as addressing environmental and social issues at the scheme level has successfully completed First Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RWSSP-I:1996-2003) and Second Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RWSSP-II:2004-August 2012) benefitting more than 1.8 million people of Nepal. Since its establishment, the Board at the country level has been contributing considerably in water supply and sanitation sector which till the year 2012 shows 21.43 % in safe water supply and 18.21 % in sanitation facility. Similarly, the projected contribution of the Board for achieving the national universal access target (UAT) in water supply and sanitation by 2017 will be 23% and 21% respectively. Obviously, the proposed RWSSIP under the World Bank/IDA financing will have an added value in meeting the financial and coverage gap in WASH Sector targeting to serve the “un-served and marginalized communities”. In this regard, this Environment and Social Management Framework (ESMF) is prepared by the Board for implementing the proposed RWSSIP. The ESMF is expected to provide a systematic approach for identifying the various potential environment and social impacts at different stages of the sub-project cycle and suggest appropriate mitigation measures for addressing the identified environment and social impacts to minimize environment degradation as a result of either individual sub-projects or their cumulative effects. This eventually will enhance positive and sustainable environment and social outcomes associated with Project implementation. It was a pleasure for me to head the preparation team along with staff members from FB, naming Er. Manoj Kumar Lal, Deputy Executive Director, Division Chiefs Er. Sanjay Kumar Misra, Mr. Madan Jnavaly, Mr. Bhupendra Aryal, Mr. Harish Chandra Neupane and Mr. Tika Adhikari and Regional Managers Er. Dibya Khadgi and Er. Ramesh Sharma and Monitoring and Evaluation Officers Er. Narendra Singh and Pravesh Niraula. The Technical Advisor of the Board Mr. Raghav Raj Regmi has continuously supported the team. The Fund Board team was assisted by a team of consultants led by Mr. Ram Kumar Sharma (Resource-economist) comprising of Mr. Bimal Chandra Sharma (Institution and Capacity Building Specialist), Mr. Gun Raj Ghimire (Water Resource Specialist/Engineer), Mr. Laxman Neupane (Planning and Management Specialist) and Ms. Prava Pokharel (GESI Specialist) including a team of Research Associates. They have put their honest professional endeavor in bringing this framework into a workable document for the future implementation of RWSS schemes. The Board would like to extend a special thanks to Mr. Sharma and his team for the completion of this assignment in time. I would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to the respected Secretary Mr. Kishor Thapa of MoUD for his great endevour to take this Proposed RWSSIP ahead as well as professional inputs in the current study. I extend my sincere gratitude to Joint Secretaries Mr. Suresh Prasad Acharya, Er. Abadh Kishor Mishra and Er. Binod Chandra Jha (Member of the FB) at MoUD, MR. Dinesh Thapalia at MoFALD (Member of the FB) for their continuous support and valuable inputs in the process of this study. We are also grateful to chairperson and Board Members of the Board for their support provided in this process. I would also like to take note of the professional inputs from representatives of different sector stakeholder organizations from government, NGOs, INGOs, NGOs Network and International Development Partners and express our sincere thanks to all of them. The participation and inputs from the Board implementing partners like SOs, SAs, and the WSUCs have been a great factor to enrich this study. On the behalf of the Board, I would like to express special thanks to all of them. We would like to acknowledge the continuous guidance and support of the World Bank team of Mr. William Kingdom (Lead Water Supply and Sanitation Specialist), Shideh Hadian (Sr. Infrastructure Economist), Ms. Silva Shrestha (Water Supply and Sanitation Specialist), Mr. Drona Raj Ghimire (Environment Specialist), and Ms. Bandita Sijapati (Social Development Specialist), with special thanks to the World Bank Consultant Dr. BKD Raja whose sincere support has ultimately helped us to bring this ESMF document in the final shape. This framework, although prepared for the requirement of RWSSIP but we strongly believe that it will be also highly useful for other stakeholders of the WASH sector and any other development project having multiple sub-projects in different locations. This ESMF in English language along with a translation of the executive summary in Nepali language are placed at RWSSFDB web site and hard copies are kept at the Board. This ESMF will be updated from time to time as it is implemented duly taking into account of lessons learnt from the sub-project experiences. The ground reality and challenges that the WASH schemes face in the field on Environmental and Social aspects have been truly captured by this framework. The Board highly welcomes any professional inputs from the relevant stakeholders to improve this framework. Thank you, December 15, 2013 ______________________ (Maheshwar Prasad Yadav) Executive Director RWSSFDB Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7 1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 The Project Context ........................................................................................................... 7 1.3 ESMF Need and Objective................................................................................................ 11 Chapter II: Review of Policy and Regulatory Framework ..................................................... 19 2.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 19 2.2 Relating to Environmental Protection ............................................................................ 19 2.3 Relating to Social Protection ........................................................................................... 23 2.4 World Bank's Environmental and Social Safeguard Policies ...................................... 26 Chapter III: Baseline Environmental and Social Condition of the Project Area .................. 31 3.1 Location and Area ............................................................................................................. 31 Source: CBS 2011 .................................................................................................................. 32 3.2.2 Socio-economic ............................................................................................................. 34 3.2.2.1 Livelihoods and Poverty ............................................................................................ 34 3.2.2.1 WTSS /Jeevika ............................................................................................................. 36 3.2.2.3 Water Supply and Sanitation services ..................................................................... 37 3.3 Baseline -Environment ..................................................................................................... 40 3.3.1 Geomorphology and Physiography............................................................................. 40 3.3.2 Land Use Pattern............................................................................................................ 43 3.3.3 Soils and erosion Hazards ............................................................................................ 44 3.3.4 Climate and rainfall ........................................................................................................ 45 3.3.5 Water Resources ............................................................................................................ 47 3.3.5.1 Surface Water Availability.......................................................................................... 47 3.3.5.2 Ground Water Availability .......................................................................................... 48 3.3.5.3 Surface Water Quality................................................................................................. 48 3.3.5.4 Ground Water Quality ................................................................................................. 49 3.3.5.5 Water related diseases ............................................................................................... 50 1|Page 3.3.6 Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery.............................................................................. 51 3.3.7 Industries ........................................................................................................................ 54 3.3.8 Forest and Protected Area ............................................................................................ 55 3.3.8.1 Forest ........................................................................................................................... 55 3.3.8.2 Protected Areas .......................................................................................................... 56 3.4.2 Socio-Cultural Environmental Issue ..................................................................... 64 4.1.1 Primary Stakeholders .................................................................................................... 67 4.1.2 Intermediary Stakeholders ............................................................................................ 68 4.1.3 Secondary Stakeholders ............................................................................................... 69 4.2.1 Existing Organizational Structure................................................................................ 73 4.2.1.1 Board of Director ........................................................................................................ 73 4.2.1.2 Divisions ...................................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2 Roles in Implementing ESMF and Capacity Assessment ......................................... 74 4.2.3 Institutional Capacity Assessment and Gap Analysis .............................................. 75 4.2.4 Existing Training Programs Related to ESMF Implementation ................................ 75 Chapter V: Environment and Social Management Framework ............................................. 77 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 77 5.2 Screening ........................................................................................................................... 78 5.3 Categorization ................................................................................................................... 78 5.3.1 Environment ........................................................................................................................ 78 5.3.2 Social ..................................................................................................................................... 78 5.3.3 Environment Social Assessment (ESA) for E1/S1 Category Sub-Projects......... 79 5.4 Summary of Impacts and Categorization....................................................................... 79 5.5 Impacts and Mitigation ..................................................................................................... 81 5.5.1 E1/ S1 Category .................................................................................................................. 81 5.5.3 ESMF and Relevant Codes of Practice and Social Guidance as Part of Contract Documents ..................................................................................................................................... 81 5.6 Sub-project Cycle and Environment and Social Requirements .................................. 81 5.7 Monitoring and Evaluation ............................................................................................... 88 5.7.1 Environment Social supervision .................................................................................... 88 2|Page 5.7.1.1 Environmental and Social Parameters ...................................................................... 88 5.7.2 Quarterly Monitoring ......................................................................................................... 89 5.7.3 Monitoring Plan................................................................................................................... 89 5.8 Stakeholder Consultation ................................................................................................ 91 5.8.1 Stakeholder Involvement and Consultation ................................................................ 91 5.9 Disclosure .......................................................................................................................... 92 5.9.1National Level ....................................................................................................................... 92 5.9.2 District Level ........................................................................................................................ 92 5.9.3 Disclosure by the World Bank at the Infoshop........................................................... 92 5.10 Comprehensive ESMF Review and Updation .............................................................. 92 5.11 Grievance Redressal Mechanism ................................................................................. 92 Chapter VI: Social Guidance ..................................................................................................... 93 6.1 Land Acquisition ............................................................................................................... 93 6.2 Vulnerable Communities Development Plan ................................................................. 94 6.3 Women Empowerment/Gender Development ............................................................... 95 6.4 Community Consultation and Information Disclosure................................................. 96 6.4.1 Community Consultation Process ............................................................................... 96 6.4.2 Information Disclosure .................................................................................................. 96 6.5 Grievance Redressal Mechanism ................................................................................... 97 6.5.1 Grievance Redressal Mechanism at Scheme Level ................................................... 97 6.5.2 Grievance Redressal Mechanism at Project Level .................................................... 97 6.6 Institutional Arrangement for ESMF Implementation ................................................... 98 6.7 Capacity Building Plan ..................................................................................................... 98 Chapter VII: ESMF Execution Cost ..................................................................................... 100 3|Page List of Abbreviation AEPC : Alternative Energy Promotion Center BE : Bio-physical Environment CAP : Community Action Plan CCP : Climate Change Policy CLTS : Community Led Total Sanitation DAG : Disadvantaged Group DDC : District Development Committee DFID : Department for International Development DFO : District Forest Office DoLIDAR : Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads DWIG : District WASH Implementation Guideline EA : Environmental Assessment EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment EMAP : Environment Management Action Plan EMP : Environment Management Plan EPR : Environment Protection Rules ESMF : Environment and Social Management Framework FSP : Forestry Sector Policy GI : Galvanized iron GoF : Government of Finland GoN : Government of Nepal GRC : Grievances Redressal Committee GWS : Gorkha Welfare Society HHSE : Health Hygiene and Sanitation Education ICS : Improved Cooking Stove IDA : International Development Association IEE : Initial Environment Examination IGA : Income Generation Activity IP : Indigenous People IPDP : Indigenous People Development Plan IPM : Integrated Pest Management IPNS : Integrated Plant Nutrients System 4|Page JAKPAS : JantakoKhanePaniTathaSarsafaiKaryakram LACFC : Land Acquisition and Compensation Fixation Committee LAPA : Local Adaptation Plans for Action LGCDP : Local Governance and Community Development Program Lpcd : Liter per capita per day MACAPO : Meeting to Agree on Community Action Plan Outputs Masl : Mean altitude above sea level MCTG : Mother and Child Tap Stand Group M&E : Monitoring and Evaluation MoUD : Ministry of Urban Development MPFS : Master Plan for the Forestry Sector MPPW : Ministry of Physical Planning and Works NAPA : National Adaptation Programme of Action NBDP : Nepal Biodiversity Development Plan NBS : Nepal Biodiversity Strategy NBSIP : Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan NGO : Non Governmental Organization NEPAP : Nepal Environment Policy and Action Plan NEWAH : Nepal Water for Health NFP : National Fertilizer Policy NHSCC : National Hygiene and Sanitation Coordination Committee NLSS : Nepal Living Standard Survey NPLACR : Nepal Policy on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement NTFP : Non-Timber Forest Product NWP : Nepal Water Plan ODF : Open Defecation Free O&M : Operation and Maintenance RP : Resettlement Plan RVWRMP : Rural Village Water Resources Management Project RWSSFDB : Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board RWSSIP : Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project RWSSP : Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project SA : Service Agency SCE : Socio-economic and Cultural Environment SDAN : Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal SLTS : School Led Total Sanitation 5|Page SO : Supporting Organization SRLF : Sanitation Revolving Loan Fund VDC : Village Development Committee VHP : Village Health Promoter VMW : Village Maintenance Worker WASH : Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene WHO : World Health Organization WRSN : Water Resources Strategy Nepal WSS : Water Supply and Sanitation WSP : Water Safety Plan WSUC : Water and Sanitation Users Committee WSUG : Water and Sanitation Users Group WTSS : Women Technical Support Service WUMP : Water Use Master Plan 6|Page DRAFT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY BACKGROUND Since last three decades, Nepal has seriously been contemplated to the environmental issues into her development policies, programs, and projects. In this juncture, numbers of legislations, rules/regulations and policies have been framed to make development sustainable. Unlike in other development projects, social and environmental consideration is a vital for water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) initiative for its sustainable functioning. The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB, hereafter Fund Board) was established in March 14, 1996. Since its inception, the Fund Board has been accelerating demand driven and participatory approach for community managed sustainable rural water supply and sanitation facilities in the country with the support of World Bank/IDA. The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project (RWSSIP) have been envisaged jointly by the GoN and the World Bank/IDA for a period of five years (2014 to 2019) after the successful completion of RWSSP-I and II and lesson learned. The RWSSIP aims to: a) Increase access to improved water and sanitation services in project areas; and b) Develop and implement a pilot long-term support mechanism to promote the sustainability of community managed rural water supply schemes in selected Districts. The RWSSIP has the following four components with focus on: 1. Component I: Focusing to increase access to improved water supply and sanitation. This component aims continuing the Fund Board activities and ODF at VDC level. 2. Component II: Stresses on promoting long term sustainability of community schemes through the mechanism developed for promoting long term sustainability. 3. Component III: Focuses on capacity building support to; Project Management Unit (PMU) established at MoUD relevant to Component II and FB secretariat relevant to Component I. 4. Component IV: Allocates resources for contingency response in case of emergency WASH disasters As part of the preparation of the RWSSIP, FB required to prepare an Environmental and Social Management Framework for the project in order to allow the project to have preset process and framework for safeguarding the project in relation to its Environmental and Social effects at the community level. Therefore, this assignment to develop an ESMF for RWSSIP has been commissioned by the FB as part of its project preparation and negotiation process. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY OF ESMF The environmental and social factors are core elements to the sustainability of the water supply and sanitation schemes. In the previous projects FB has a practice of conducting Environmental and Social Impact assessment at the project level which were transferred at the individual scheme level through Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP), Indigenous Peoples Development Plan (IPDP), and Social Inclusion provisions to make sure the Dalit, Women and other marginalized communities are made part and parcel of the scheme governance. Considering the varying environmental and social context of each of the scheme areas, it has been felt to update the current practices in-order to capture the complete dimensions of Environmental and Social context of the scheme areas and a broader ESMF has been envisaged to provide adequate and complete guidelines to tackle the Environmental and Social safeguarding aspect of the project at macro level as well as the scheme (micro) level. In the mean time the WB as a policy matter have also moved from Environmental and Social Impact Assessment to ESMF. Therefore, this study to develop an ESMF for the project has been initiated together with WB support. Hence, the need of broad based ESM framework was felt for upcoming RWSSIP that could adequately address the proper management of environmental and social issues. The ESMF will lead towards ESMF Plan at the scheme level to replace the current EMAP and IPDP as well. DRAFT While the proposed project interventions are expected to result in overall environment and public health improvements in the state, potential adverse environmental and social impacts can occur if the schemes are not properly designed, sited, implemented, and maintained. Presently the project districts are identified, but not the villages and communities. These sub-projects will be identified and implemented in 4 batches during the project period. This time lag will lead to changes in the environment and social conditions of these sub-projects. The ESMF is considered an essential framework in the changing context that would assists to appraise the proposed RWSSIP. Accordingly, the ESMF has been formulated to set out the principles, rules, and procedures to screen, assess, manage and monitor the schemes for their environmental and social impacts through the ESMF plan at the scheme level. METHODOLOGY The ESMF has been prepared adopting following methodologies: Reviews of key documents and context: Acts, Policies, Rules, Regulations, environmental statistics of Nepal, CBS 2011 results Environmental and Social Assessment Studies of Fund Board, World Bank Guidelines, Previous Frameworks (Agriculture, Road etc.) were reviewed and relevant to water and sanitation provisions were incorporated in the ESMF. Sample Scheme Case Studies: A dozen of scheme documents from Pre-development Phase to Post Implementation were collected and analyzed to identify the issues, lessons learned and best practices. Stakeholder consultation: The first round consultation was held with a number of WASH stakeholders visiting their concerned officials and second round intensive stakeholder consultation workshop was held th on 13 December, 2013 where 40 representatives from primary, intermediary and secondary stakeholders participated and provided their views. Field Survey: Altogether 15 schemes representing different geographical and administrative regions and technology were selected and field teams were mobilized to rectify the environmental and social issues identified. CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS IN THE PROJECT AREA Socio-economic The proposed RWSSIP covers altogether 55 districts of Nepal, out of 75 districts. Among these districts, 22% fall in the mountain, 49% in the hills and 29% in the Terai ecological regions. The total household and population of the 55 RWSSIP districts are estimated to be 4,212,211 and 20,335,425, according to 2011 Census, occupying 77% of the total population of the country. The average household size and density are 4.83 and 190/sq.km which are almost similar to national average (4.88 person and 180 persons/sq km). Altogether 125 caste/ethnic groups are reported (CBS, 2011). Chhetri is the largest caste/ethnic groups constituting 16.6% of the total population followed by Brahman-Hill 12.2%, Magar 7.1%, Tharu 6.6%, Tamang 5.8%, Newar 5.0%, Kami 4.8%, Musalman 4.4%, Yadav 4.0% and Rai 2.3%.Similarly, a total 123 languages are spoken. Nepali language is spoken by 44.6%, Maithili 11.7%, Bhojpuri 6.0%, Tharu 5.8%, Tamang 5.1%, Newar 3.2%, Urdu 2.6% and Bajjika, Magar, and Doteli.by 3% each. A total of ten types of religion categories reported in the census with Hinduism as the highest among the population 81.3%, followed by Buddhism 9.0%, Islam 4.4%, Kirat 3.1%, Christianity 1.4% and others 0.3%. About 2% of the total population reported to have some kind of disability. About 2.32% of the country's populations are categorized as endangered and highly marginalized. According to NLSS III 2011, 25.16% of the Nepalese population fall below the poverty line. In terms of Development Region, Eastern Nepal has the lowest poverty level (21.4%), while the Far-west has the highest level (46%). Among the ethnic groups, the survey indicates that the Hill dalits and Terai dalits have the highest poverty level while the Hill Brahmins and Newars have the least. DRAFT About 80% of the people’s occupation is agriculture. The food availability and requirement status reveal that the mountain and hill regions are food deficit while the districts of Terai region are surplus areas. In the RWSSIP districts, tap/piped water is the main source of drinking water for 46% of the total households. Tube well/hand pump is the main source of drinking water for about 37%, while spout, uncovered well/kuwa and covered well/kuwa are the main source for 5.13%, 4.83% and 2.57% respectively. In case of sanitation 62.4% of the households in the RWSSIP districts have access to toilet facility. The sector functional status assessment report (2011) reveals that 51 % of the schemes are well functioning in the country. In the RWSSIP districts the number of well-functioning schemes ranges between 6% and 87%. The diverse socio-economic conditions of different scheme areas would have significant impact in terms of the ability of contribution (in terms of cash, kind, and labor contributions) by the local user communities in the RWSS services. Environmental Topographically, the country is divided into three major ecological zones namely; Mountain, Hill and Terai. These regions share 35%, 42% and 23% land area respectively. In the RWSSIP districts, almost 46% area is covered by forest, 29% by agriculture/grass land, 15% by barren land, 6.6% by snow, 0.4% water body and 1% by other. The environmental conditions and issues are different from one another among these three different ecological zones and will require different mechanisms and considerations to address the different environmental conditions and issues as well. According to LRMP 1986 survey, 14-soil group covering the 4 soil orders encountered in Nepal. They are mainly Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols and Alfisols. The country experiences five types of major climatic conditions, depending on the altitude, landscape and topography which includes sub-tropical, warm temperate, cool temperate, alpine and arctic. Temperatures tend to rise from east to west. The highest temperature recorded is 46°C (114.8°F) at Chisapani in Bardiya district and the lowest –26°C at Thakmarpha in Mustang district. The annual mean precipitation in the country is 1500 mm most of which (80%) occurs during Monsoon season (June – September). The highest mean rainfall of 5202 mm was recorded in Lumle of Kaski district whereas minimum was observed in Mustang (<500mm). The different climatic conditions (and the varying agriculture cycle in different climate zones) also affect the scheme implementation schedule. The annual surface water discharge in Nepal is estimated to be 224.5 billion m3 /year from more than seven major river basins. The estimated run-off is estimated to be 5,479 m3/sec from Nepal site alone. The dynamic Ground Water (GW) reserve in the Terai as of present situation is 8,800 MCM, abstraction for irrigation/Industrial purpose is 756 MCM, abstraction for drinking purpose is 297 MCM and surplus ground water balance is 7747 MCM. The RWSSIP project districts, occupy 8 Ramsar sites of international significance, 5 conservation areas, 3 wildlife reserve parks and 7 national parks. The existing protected areas include 39.62% of flowering plants, 84.53% of mammals, 95.73% of birds, and 70.59% of herpeto fauna of the country. The country shares 2.8% of the world's plant resources and 1.22% of the animal resources. It has altogether 118 total ecosystems and 80 protected areas within the different physiographic region of the country and most of them lie in the mid hills followed by mountains. The country has numbers of world heritage and archeological sites which have both religious and touristic importance. POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS/ ISSUES a) Environmental Issue Landslides, soil erosion and floods: Flood, erosion and landslide are the common phenomenon in the Project Area in hills. There are several evidences where the occurrences of landslide, erosion and floods have affected to schemes structures and swept away the schemes' intakes, pipelines and storage tanks. Source depletion and reduction in source discharge: Ironically, the water scarcity is at an increasing trend with growing dependence on ground water aquifers. Terai has lowering of water table among ground water schemes (shallow tube wells and dug wells) during dry periods and inadequate availability of water to the community. Significant reduction of the source discharge for the piped gravity flow system particularly during the dry season is also a major concern regarding the issues on water quantity. The types of quantity related DRAFT issues in the hills have scarcity of ‘safe’ drinking water, especially during the dry periods when supply is inadequate due to source depletion. The major causes for source depletion or gradual decrease in discharge are identified as follows: • Depletion due to flood and landslides • Sources located in agricultural field depleted due to digging, working near and around the source • Over-exploitation of vegetation at the catchment area and around the water source • Climate change effect Water quality issue: The water quality standard is affected by number of factors such as types of sources, surrounding source condition, biological water pollution due to leaves, insects, algae, etc. in the scheme components. The major water quality problems are related to fecal contamination and seasonal attributes (turbidity in rainy season) that this increase diarrhea incidences among children. The study done by RWSSFDB during Development Phase indicates that 5 % of the schemes are into high risk and 28 % are under intermediate risks among which most of the water sources are affected with fecal coliform. In most parts of the Terai region where ground water is the only source, arsenic is one of the serious problems. Arsenic concentrations in 1.6% tube wells of the 16 RWSSIP Terai districts have greater than 50 ppb. The percentage of tube wells with arsenic concentration ranging from (11-50) ppb is 5.7%. Environmental sanitation issues including drainage problem: Traditional practices of water handling and use at domestic or institutional level practice within the source of water and at point of use due to human and animal activities were causes water pollution problems, and emerge sanitation issues also. Inadequacy of provisions for silage and storm water drainage, and drainage around taps and wells, internal village roads without proper formations or pavements, low coverage of the household latrine or practice of open defecation, poor management of solid waste at household and public places, especially in source areas have created several environmental sanitation problems. Up to 31% of the population is suffering from different types of water borne diseases. b) Socio-Cultural Environmental Issue Water Use Right and Priority: The social and cultural concerns are related mostly with issues of conflicts over water source rights and priorities for use. In fewer cases such conflicts extends up to court/legal cases, unresolved and compel to drop the scheme. Land acquisition in case of sources and other structures remains to be one of the major social problems in infrastructure development of Nepal. However, in case of WASH this has not become a serious issue as small land area needed for the construction of structures and usually donated voluntarily. In some cases there are examples where the community had to purchase the water source for the schemes from the land owner or from a non user community. High demand of Water: Increased quality of life by remittance and other income generation has encouraged people to construct their own latrines and bathrooms, demanding more water. Similarly, increased number of animal size due to expansion of cooperatives/micro credit and Community Forestry projects, the demand of water for animal has also been increased over time and also demanding yard connection or private taps. Social Inclusion Issue: The inclusion issues are generally related with the access and participation of women, janjati/indigenous, disadvantaged and remote area people in WASH services and in its decision making processes. The representation of women and different ethnic groups in Fund Board WSUC is inclusive and proportionate to the population of the particular ethnic/caste groups in the country, although their effective role in the decision-making process is still to be enhanced. Other Issues: Construction of project components in the community forestry areas might create disturbances to the forest users and forestry resources. Similarly, lying pipeline in the lake water might cause disturbances to the lake water users. The inability to pay by the IP, poor and the women due to migration of their family member the upfront cash as per WASH Sector norms has prevented them from benefiting from water and sanitation services. DRAFT STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS The WASH sectors stakeholders are categorized into three groups: Primary, intermediary and secondary. The rural households and communities and their CBOs at the grass root level who are directly affected by the project are the primary stakeholders of the RWSSIP. The WASH related intermediary stakeholders at the regional and district level that have relevance to environmental and social sector interventions and outcomes of the Project include WSSDO, DWASHCC), VDC , VWASHCC, DPHO,DWDO, DTO , DEO RWSHCC, NGOs and private sector entrepreneurs etc. The related departments, ministries and central level committees who have executing and guiding role in the WASH sectors are indicated as the secondary stakeholders. These stakeholders will provide policy directives and coordination for the project implementation. All these stakeholders are likely to be benefited from the project, have a stake, role and potentially influence the project’s outcome, and are likely to influence the conflict and governance risk factors associated with the project. Capacity of Implementing Agencies for Management of ESMF: The existing organizational structure of Fund Board represents a hierarchical line management with different divisions and staff positions designated for specific roles and responsibilities; there is provision of board directors within the Fund Board. The Fund Board is functioning through five divisions (Project M&E, Planning and Operation, Program Development/HRD, Technical and Administrative) with a total of 48 staff positions of which 30 are professional positions including seven executive staff. There is also a provision of Technical Appraisal Committee (TAC) chaired by Executive Director, Deputy Executive Director as member secretary and comprising of all division chiefs as the members, which is mainly responsible for screening the schemes based on scheme selection criteria and recommending for implementation. The existing EMP activities within the Fund Board at present is being managed and implemented through the joint efforts of different divisions and partner organizations taking the lead role by Technical Division. Currently, the Technical Division including RMs, PMs and respective SOs/SAs are managing the EMP activities jointly and possess the capacity to do it. However, in the perspective of implementing and managing the proposed ESMF, Fund Board needs one Environment and Social Manager as a dedicated staff for the better management, implementation and monitoring of ESMF under RWSSIP. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK The project expected to yield in public health benefits in the rural communities, through improved quality and delivery levels of RWSS services. Some of the main environmental health benefits expected under the project include: increased and better quality water supply for drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and cleaning purposes; time and energy savings through providing water supply closer to homes; reduced drudgery to women and children, improvements in personal hygiene and community sanitation levels; and reduced fecal oral contamination of drinking water resulting in lower occurrence of diseases. This ESMF comprises of the following sections: i) Screening ii) Categorization iii) Impacts and Mitigation iv) Environment and Social Actions during Project Cycle v) Monitoring and Evaluation vi) Consultation and vi) Disclosure Screening: During the screening, as a first step, that compiles information on environment and social aspects of the proposed schemes. During the screening process, the sub-projects are also categorized in as E1/E2 and S1/ S2. To this effect the SA will make recommendations to the Fund Board for clearing the proposed categorization. Categorization: Scale and size of environment and social impacts, the sub-projects will be categorized. This categorization is required to carry out the appropriate level of assessments for different types of sub- projects based on the nature, scale and magnitude of their environment and social impacts. Categorization would help in focussing time and effort in sub-projects that have significant impacts and based on environment impacts the sub-projects are categorized into two categories; 1) E1, where there are significant adverse environment impacts 2) E2, where there are moderate to minimal adverse environment impacts DRAFT Similarly, based on social impacts the sub-projects are categorized into two categories; 1) S1, where there are more than 20 Project Affected Families (PAFs), 2) S2, where there are less than 20 PAFs Environment and Social Assessment (ESA) for E1/S1 Category Sub-Projects The E1/S1 category sub-projects require conducting a comprehensive Environment Social Assessment (ESA) and preparation of an Environment and Social Management Plan (ESMP) by SA prior to preparation of DPR for appraisal by Fund Board. This ESA and ESMP need to be disclosed before the start of procurement for that sub-project. Impacts and Mitigation: As a part of preparation, environment and social impacts was analyzed vis-à- vis the various sub-projects under RWSSIP. The sub-project categorization as E1 or E2 will be carried out on the basis of this analysis. However, each category of sub-projects needs to incorporate mitigation measures as given below: E1/ S1 Category: Those schemes fall under this category; SA will carry out an Environment and Social Assessment and prepare an ESMP. This ESMP needs to be shared with the SO for following the procedures and using the relevant information in their assessment and also needs to be disclosed before the start of procurement for that sub-project. E2/S2 Category: The SO would have to include the Codes of Practice and Social Guidance given in the ESMF in the DPR. Fund Board will share the ESMF containing the impacts and mitigation measures with the SO, for them to use in the preparation of the DPR. Fund Board will ensure that the Terms of Reference for the SO will include these. ESMF and Relevant Codes of Practice and Social Guidance as Part of Contract Documents: For all sub-projects, Fund Board needs to ensure that the ESMF and relevant Codes of Practice and Social Guidance are provided as a part of the contract documents to the contractor facilitating its integration into the main works. Sub-project Cycle and Environment and Social Requirements: The environment and social requirements to be fulfilled during the sub-project cycle; i.e., during pre-development, development, implementation and post-implementation (Operation and Maintenance (O&M) phases). Monitoring and Evaluation: The ESMF demands detailed supervision, monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the sub-project on the environment and social aspects. In order to carry out this, Fund Board will have specific arrangements made at national and district level. The Fund Board will be in charge of implementing the ESMF; Environment and Social Manager of Fund Board will assist and oversee the implementation of the ESMF at field level. The following provisions include the arrangements made for the effective implementation of the ESMF: Environmental and Social supervision, Environmental and Social Parameters Quarterly Monitoring: The concurrent internal environmental and social monitoring will be done as part of the regular monitoring by the SOs and SAs. However, Fund Board will do the quarterly environment and social monitoring of sub-projects for safeguards compliance. Monitoring Plan: Monitoring plan comprise indicators of project technology, monitoring indicator, frequency and agency that these need to be taken up by Fund Board in a regular manner. Stakeholder Consultation: Fund Board would engage SOs and SAs in preparing the sub-project DPRs. In the ToR for these consultants, there will be an explicit requirement for the consultants to carry out public/ stakeholder consultations at all phases of the sub-project cycle. This is a mechanism to ensure the upfront public/ stakeholder inputs in the preparation of the sub-projects. In these ToRs the public/ stakeholder consultations forms an integral part. For all sub-projects obtaining consent of the local agencies and necessary clearances from competent authorities is mandatory and should form part of the ToRs of SOs, SAs. During sub-project implementation WSUGs, VDCs, NGOs, CBOs, etc. will be involved. Project monitoring reports would be disseminated in the public consultation meetings in the WSUGs. The DRAFT stakeholder meetings would discuss the sub-project progress reports and make recommendations for sub-project control and modifications. These recommendations would be made use for future sub-project design. Consultations are required for preparation of all safeguards mitigation documents and these consultations should be an on-going activity over the life of the project. Disclosure and grievance redressal mechanism: The ESMF will be disclosed for the information of the primary, intermediary and secondary stakeholders of the project through an appropriate method. ESMF develops grievance-redressal mechanism, which will look into all aspects of sub-projects and their activities apart from environment and social grievances. The details of this grievance redressed Mechanism (GRM) is given under the Social Guidance section of the ESMF The grievance redressal mechanism both at scheme level and project level has already been developed and practiced in the Fund Board and also found quite effective and same mechanisms have to be continued in RWSSIP, which includes: a. Scheme level grievance redress through Social Accountability Committee (SAC) b. Project Level grievance redress through a committee formed at Fund Board Social Guidance Land Acquisition: Usually the land needed for scheme structure construction is provided on voluntary basis if it is in private land. However, in rare cases, where voluntary donation or acquisition is not possible the WSUCs purchase water source or private land by raising fund from among the users. In such cases the land ownership is legally transferred in the name of WSUCs. Fund Board is practicing a specific procedure and guidance for the SOs and SAs to cross check and ensure that the land donation is done on voluntary basis. All donations and purchases will be voluntary and such donations do not involve physical displacement or any significant adverse impacts upon incomes of the donor households. The procedures currently follow by the Fund Board regarding voluntary land transactions seem appropriate to continue in RWSSIP. In both cases of land acquisition FB intends to make sure that the WSUCs possess the legal authority to use the land. Vulnerable Communities Development Plan: The World Bank safeguard policy (OP 4.10) also requires that free, prior and informed consultation are held with indigenous people and steps be taken to enhance project benefits for them even as there may be no adverse impacts on them. In line with the World Bank safeguard policy from RWSSP-II a clear Indigenous People Development Plan (IPDP) has been developed and in practice. The IPDP lays out a set of actions to ensure that IP groups get equitable access to project benefits. The major actions are included: a. Ensuring inclusion and access of IPs under the project b. Concern on source and land acquisition and its impacts on livelihoods c. Communication and Dissemination on lP Issues d. Priority on Mobilizing the IP Organizations /Staff Women Empowerment/Gender Development: Fund Board is focusing on women empowerment and their livelihood promotion as a part of gender development from the very beginning. Empowering women has been taken as a cross-cutting theme in the planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of the project activities. Women Technical Support Service (WTSS) is a major component associated with the Board’s WSS program since its piloting project, which encourages the women groups especially targeting to the women from poor, deprived and indigenous families to utilize their saved time from fetching water to raise income through the initiation of livelihood promotion activities. The new initiatives such as jeevika and jagaran have demonstrated significant success results in capacitating and empowering the women groups suggested to be replicated in all RWSSIP scheme areas/communities. ESMF EXECUTION COST The ESMF execution Cost is based on the practice of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB) for current projects and additional recommended social and environmental mitigation measures for RWSSIP. Under the environmental mitigation measures at scheme level, VDC level, district level and Central level are proposed. The total estimated cost for the implementation of this ESMF is NRs. 741,132,863.00 (Seven hundred forty one millions one hundred thirty two thousands and eight hundreds sixty three only). DRAFT At the exchange rate of 04 December 2013 (1 US $ = 100.08 Nepalese currency), the estimated cost is equivalent to 7,405,404.00 (7.4 million), which is 13.36 percent of total cost (55.39 million US $) and 16.79 percent of IDA cost (44.08 million US $) of component 1. The scheme level cost for individual scheme will vary based on site-specific condition like scheme typology, geographic location, and size of scheme. Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background Integration of environment into development has been a part and parcel of environmental management for last three decades, in Nepal. A number of policies and legislations are in place to make the development programmes and projects environment-friendly and sustainable. Unlike in other development projects, environmental considerations are vital for water supply sanitation and hygiene (WASH) projects for its sustainable functioning. The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB, hereafter Fund Board) was established on March 14, 1996 with a view to bringing fundamental changes in the traditional supply driven approach to adopting demand driven and participatory approach to deliver community managed sustainable rural water supply and sanitation services in the country. The Fund Board has already designed a specific requirement of Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) and intensive social capital development program components for implemented schemes.Although, Fund Board is serious about addressing the environmental and social issues from the initial project stage, the review of environmental and social issues and design of Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) has been considered essential in the changing context to appraise the proposed Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project (RWSSIP). 1.2 The Project Context Drinking water and sanitary facility constitute the basic needs of people. Water supply and sanitation facilities are directly linked to improving the quality of life of the people and considered as a one of the basic rights. The access and quality of water and sanitation services have direct implications on the human wellbeing indicators such as infant mortality rate and life expectancy and ultimately socio-economic upliftment of the people. Realising this, a great deal of effort has been made by the Government of Nepal to develop the drinking water sector since the beginning of planned development from the 1960s.The present Three Year Plan (TYP) Approach Paper (2013-2015) of the Government of Nepal (GoN) has set targets to achieve 100% of coverage of water and sanitation by 2017. In order to achieve this target, GoN has formulated different strategies (Table 1.1) Table 1.1: National Strategy on Water and Sanitation Sector (TYP 2013-15) • Increment of Drinking Water and Sanitation services and access, quality and service level according to National Development Standard 2062. • Adopt technologies like water harvesting, solar or electric pumping, Hydraulic Ram in the dry zone where drinking water sources are not available. • Follow regional Drinking Water and Sanitation Concept. • Promote utilisation of local resources when constructing drinking water and sanitation related infrastructure and manage environmental friendly and climate adaptation approach. The TYP Approach Paper has set to achieve following targets within three Year Plan periods in order to achieve its target of 100 per cent coverage by 2017. • Access to basic water supply service- additional 8% • Access to medium and high quality water services- additional-9% 7|Page • Access to sanitation services- additional-23% Further, the GoN introduced the Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan in 2011 with broader commitment of all the concerned ministries and development partners. The TYP (2013-2015) indicates that Nepal had sanitation coverage of 62% and water supply coverage of 85%. Due to collective efforts of the government and the development partners, and especially after the promulgation of Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan, 9 districts, over 1000 VDCs and 8 municipalities, have been declared Open Defecation Free (ODF) by the August 2013. The International Development Association (IDA)/World Bank has been providing support to the government efforts in drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector in Nepal since early 1990s, and producing wide coverage of water and sanitation in the sector through a series of projects implemented via Fund Board. Accordingly, the Fund Board has been implementing a demand-led community based rural water supply and sanitation projects throughout the country. The Fund Board was established on 1996 under the Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW), recently renamed the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) as its line ministry after the successful piloting of The Peoples’ Water and Sanitation Project known as JantakoKhanePanitathaSarsafaiKaryakram (JAKPAS) from 1993 to 1996. The focus of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RWSSP-I and II) implemented by the Fund Board was to empower the rural communities using a demand-driven approach to service delivery and a participatory process in all stages from planning, implementation, operation, maintenance, and monitoring and evaluation of the water supply and sanitation schemes. Emphasis is also given on awareness creation, increase in the role of women in decision-making and project management. The overall objective of the Fund Board is to promote sustainable and cost effective demand led rural water supply and sanitation schemes with full emphasis on community ownership. Fund Board under RWSSP I and RWSSSP II has completed a total of 2,365 schemes benefitting 1,840,892 (around 2 Million) populations from 299,547 families across the country of which in the RWSSSP II alone, the Board supported 1,465 gravity and surface water supply schemes in 72 districts of Nepal benefiting 1,140,892 populations from 190,172 families, achieving 140% of original and 130% of the revised target (Table 1.2). Table 1. 2: Schemes Implemented under RWSSP I and II by Technology Completed in Completed in % by Types of Schemes Total RWSSP – I RWSSP – II Technology Gravity 719 1,191 1,910 80.8 Dug well 9 34 43 1.8 Sallow Tube-well 158 170 328 13.9 Deep Tube well/ Ground 6 10 16 0.7 Water lift Surface lift 3 47 50 2.1 Rain Water Harvesting 5 13 18 0.8 Total Schemes 900 1,465 2,365 100.0 Total HHs 109,375 190,172 299,547 Total Population 700,000 1,140,892 1,840,892 The scheme-wise details on source, size, structure, cost etc. covered under RWSSP- I and II are presented in Table 1.3. The average cost of the schemes is calculated to be Rs 2.33 million for gravity flow, Rs 1.8 million for shallow tube well, Rs 3.7 million for dug well and Rs 3.2 million for rain water harvesting. The ratio of hard ware and software cost is around 8|Page 15% and 85% respectively. Similarly, the development phase and implementation phase costs are at a ratio of 12% and 88% respectively. Table 1.3 Per scheme data under RWSSP by Technology Technology Description Gravity Shallow Tube well Dug well Rain water Harvesting Max Min Avg Max Min Avg Max Min Avg Max Min Avg Source Yield (LPS) 5 0.1 0.61 Size of Scheme (HHs) 377 19 109 365 60 226 418 100 256 134 46 99 Size of Scheme (Pop.) 2380 113 653 2244 360 1403 2187 871 1500 801 398 620 No. of Structures 75 4 26 55 8 27 30 7 18 246 4 117 Length of Pipeline in meter 31486 873 7640 Total Cost 8439364 564427 2336394 5111157 720668 1806523 6202106 1306280 3677185 4162286 1908647 3248915 Per Capita Cost in Implementatio n Phase 3317 964 2243 5622 The above information indicates that the water supply scheme implemented by Fund Board are of small sized and requires less source yield and also have less environmental adverse effect. Recently, there have been significant changes in the policies, plans and sectoral mechanisms which will be reflected in the approach to sanitation taken under this new project. Based on the lessons learned from the RWSSP I and II ,theRural Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project ( RWSSIP), was envisaged jointly by the GoN and the World Bank for a period of five years (2014 to 2019) after the successful completion of RWSSP-I and II. The development objectives of the proposed RWSSIP are to: (i) Increase access to improved water and sanitation services in project areas; and (ii) Develop and implement a pilot long-term support mechanism to promote the sustainability of community managed rural water supply schemes in selected Districts. The RWSSIP has four components with focus on i) increasing access to improved water supply and sanitation ii) promoting long-term sustainability of community scheme and iii) capacity building support and iv) Contingency response in the case of emergency WASH disaster Component 1 of RWSSIP will continue with the approach adopted in the previous project, except for few changes on scheme selection criteria, approach to sanitation issues, and rehabilitation and expansion of existing schemes in the selected Component II districts (Table 1.4). Table 1. 4: RWSSIP Component and Focus Component Focus Key Activity Proposed Investment in new schemes in fifty selected project Increasing access districts across the country (subject to meeting to improved water project selection criteria), including investment in Component 1 supply and rehabilitation of and expansion of existing schemes sanitation in five districts selected to participate in Component 2 9|Page Execution of innovation programmes : Risk Insurance Programme ii) Social Accountability Programme (JagaranKaryakram), and iii) Livelihoods Programme (JeevikaKaryakram) piloted in RWSSP-II Linked to a Grievance Redressal Mechanism (GRM) to be established and V-WASH-CC/D-WASH-CC to promote transparency, address grievances and increase good governance at village and district levels. Promoting long Institutional arrangements and capacity building for term sustainability Component 2 a long term support mechanism to community based of community rural water supply schemes in five selected districts managed schemes Technical Support to the project management units for assistance/ Component 3 management and administration of the project. building and project management Contingency response in the To support response and reconstruction following a Component 4 case of emergency major natural disaster. WASH disaster Map1: Districts to be covered under Different Components of RWSSIP Altogether 1,050 schemes covering different technologies (e.g. gravity, ground water and rain water harvesting) are proposed in the 50 districts (Map 1) of Nepal covering mountain, (22%), hill (48%) and Terai (30%) geographical regions ( Figure 3.1 and Appendix 1.1 and 1.2) . 10 | P a g e Figure3.1: Ecological and Technology Coverage of RWSSIP Of the total 55 districts.50 districts fall under Component 1 and 5 districts under Component II. The priority wise number of schemes in different ecological regions and under different technologies are presented in Table 3.5. Table: 1.5 Ecological Belt and Technology wise Scheme Coverage under RWSSIP Scheme Allocation by Priority Districts Component Description for Component I Total % II P1 P2 P3 Total number of 20 15 15 5 55 100 Districts Mountain 3 4 4 11 20 Hill 8 9 7 4 28 51 Terai 9 2 4 1 16 29 Total number of 630 263 157 1050 100 Schemes Gravity schemes 375 231 120 726 69 Ground 254 32 38 324 31 Schemes Note: The scheme size, number and location may change till the implementation phase. 1.3 ESMF Need and Objective The environmental and social factors are one of the most considerations for the overall sustainability of the water supply and sanitation schemes. Accordingly, the ESMF has been formulated to set out the principles, rules, and procedures to screen, assess, manage and monitor the mitigation measures of environmental and social impacts related to the project activities. The overall objective of this study is to develop a project level Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for the project as a basic guideline for the effective management of the social and environmental aspects of the project in general. The ESMF examines the potential environmental and social issues and impacts of a project and or series of sub-projects when the environmental and social impacts cannot be determined until the programme or sub-projects details have been identified. In case of RWSSIP, scheme typology is known, the project districts are known, but precise locations are not known. Therefore, framework is needed. 11 | P a g e The ESMF will provide a road map to address how the key environmental issues would be identified, assessed, managed and monitored by the implementing agencies into the main program planning execution operation and maintenance The ESMF, as was the case with the safeguards documents developed in the case of RWSSP I and II needs to have a screening checklist based on which the various action plans on indigenous people, etc., should be used. The most important point is to develop a framework that is in accordance with the laws of the country, and World Bank’s operational policies. In the case of social safeguards issues for instance, the World Bank’s Operational Policy 4.10 on Indigenous Peoples would be the key. 1.4 Methodology The methodology adopted for preparing this framework document includes the review/desk study of relevant documents; consultation with WB, Fund Board team, different national and international stakeholders involved in WASH sector and government officials, and field visits of selected schemes for scheme level observation and interaction with the community and related stakeholders on technical, environmental and social issues. In this regard, the ESMF is in compliance with the most recent policies of the World Bank and the GoN, and buildings on the recent approaches and incorporates learning and experiences from previous projects. The stepwise process followed for the preparation of ESMF is briefly described as follows: 1.4.1 Data Collection and review Various studies, report and data were collected from the Ministry, World Bank, Fund Board, Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and other stakeholders involved in WASH sector and reviewed carefully to identify the different environmental and social issues and prescribe the Environmental and Social Management Framework (Table 1.6). Table 1.6 Reviews of Key Document and Context SN Context Key Document Reviewed Generation of CBS (2011); Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011 Environmental and CBS (2008); Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2008 Social Baseline CBS ( 2012); National Population and Housing Census Information of the 2011, (Village Development Committee/ Municipality); Project Area British Geological Survey (2001); Natural Environmental Research Council, and Water Aid Koirala, MP and Ojha, G(2010); Foundation characteristics of the soils of different parts of Nepal; Journal of Nepal 1 Geological Society M0AC ( 2011); Statistical Information of Nepalese Agriculture 2010/11 MPPW (2011); Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector Status Report , Water Supply and Sanitation Division, Sector Efficiency Improvement Unit; May 2011 Pariyar, Dinesh ( 2008); Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles NEPAL; FAO 2008. 12 | P a g e Khatiwada, Nawa Raj (2002); Environmental Assessment for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project II, Final Report, RWSSFB October 2002. SAMANTA, (2002); Indigenous Peoples Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation ( RWSS-II); Volume II of RWSS-II Social Assessment, YogendraBahadurGurung, The World Bank Dec 2002. Bhatta ( 2009); Ramesh Prasad ; The Assessment of Identification of Quality, Adequacy, Appropriateness and Effectiveness of 2 Environmental and Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) in Batch – V Social Issues Completed Schemes; RWSSFDB (2012); Annual Report 2012, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project RWSSFDB (2013); Impacts of RWSSP to Efforts for Social Inclusion and Gender Equity, HariharAdhikari, 2011 SAMANTA, (2002); Indigenous Peoples Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation ( RWSS-II); Volume IIof RWSS-II Social Assessment, YogendraBahadurGurung, The World Bank Dec 2002. World Bank (2013); Interim Guidance for using Safeguard Frameworks in the World Bank; Operation Risk Management Department, September 2013. Ministry of Agriculture Development (2012); Social Management Framework, Nepal Agriculture and Food security Project, July 2012. Ministry of Agriculture Development (2012); Environmental Management Framework, Nepal Agriculture and Food 3 ESMF Preparation security Project, July 2012. Department of Drinking Water, Government of Uttaranchal( 2005); Environmental Management Frame Work Uttaranchal Rural water supply and Environmental Sanitation Project Department of Public Health Engineering Bangladesh (2011); Environmental management framework for Bangladesh Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project ( BRWSSP), October 2011 1.4.2 Sample Scheme Case Studies Different Fund Board scheme documents from Pre-development Phase to Post Implementations were collected, reviewed and analyzed the issues, lesson learned and best practices: (i) Pokhari WSS, Batch IX and Kai Khola WSS Batch VII Udyapur district; (ii) DahaBaseni , Dadeldhura district Batch VII (iii) Jadekharkha WSS , Jumala district Batch VII (iv) Pid WSS Darchula district Batch VI (v) Dangseli WSSS Baitadi Batch VIII, (vi) Kandadhar WSS Dailekh district, Batch VII; (vii) OkhareMul WSS Kalikot, Batch VII Scheme (viii) Tudegaira WSS Baitadi, Batch VIII; 13 | P a g e (ix) Tripureshwar WSS Ilam district Batch VII 1.4.3 Stakeholder Consultation The first round consultation was made with following WASH stakeholders visiting their concerned officials: Ministry of Urban Development, DWSS, SOLVE Nepal, UNICEF, CED Nepal, RED CROSS, DOLIDAR, Helvetas Nepal, Water Aid, Executive Engineers Consulting and Planner, GIS Society Nepal, Women Development Training Complex, ENPHO, WASH/ODF; World Bank Officials and Fund Board Officials. Consulted individual professional perceived to the environment as a composed of living and non-living elements of a particular area; these elements of environmental systems interact with each other. These biophysical and socio-cultural elements influence to survival, growth, development and reproduction of an organism(s) is an environment. There is an element of this relationship is changed or disturbed, influence is manifested in other part of an environment. Thus the environmental problems can be caused by natural or varieties of human decisions or their action. Similarly their understanding implies to current affair of water supply and social institution for sustainability and its proper management. They opined that environmental problems have emerged in Nepal from wicked decision and inadequate integration of environmental planning into development programs and their implementation in form of various schemes. Further, environmental problems have emerged from land degradation, depletion of forest resources, unplanned urban development and mismanagement of industrial effluents and domestic wastes causing pollution of water sources, air and soil. These professional highlighted health and environment issues are interdependent that problems related to water, hygiene, and sanitation, air, hazardous waste management, food safety, chemical safety, noise, etc. all these demand urgently to be addressed in an inclusive way. The ever-increasing population, centralization of opportunities in the capital or major cities and settlement have severely affected to environment, these caused health environmental problems. With these situations, an increase in environmental pollution but also the levels of certain pollutants have exceeded the national and international standards affecting entire spectrum of public health. Various environmental risks causing premature deaths and diseases, especially triggers to DAG; this leads to increased health expenditure. Poor quality of drinking water, low coverage of sanitary facilities, largest population rely on solid biomass fuel for cooking, lack of waste management systems are critical factors that put heavy social and economic burden on rural and urban population. Different categories of DAG communities are increasing in the urban areas such as squatter, slum, street children, rag pickers, and internally displaced population. Their numbers are growing with miserable living conditions, crowded poor quality housing, and minimal access to water, hygiene, and sanitation. i) Governance Opinions found toward the direction of wicked governance that has been yielded poor or unsustainable interventions like identification of water source, supply, selection, distribution, participation and operation & maintenance to the scope and locus of decision-making power. In recent practices, water supply must be viewed first as social goods then later commodities 14 | P a g e that accordingly governance system requires to adopt influencing individual and collective behavior
 beyond the exclusive remit of governments. Accordingly, level of social organization it may
take place, refers to conducting water supply an sanitation to the constellation of authoritative rules, institutions, and practices by means of which any collectivity manages its affairs. With changing context, limitation in budget, capacity building and required human resources triggers weak sustainability in water supply and sanitation schemes, opined by Mr. Regmi from DOLIDR. MrRegmi shared his experience of Alambhav, ChakyBhanjyang and KewarBhanjyang water supply schemes of Syanjya. Lack of transparency, accountability and participation in various stages of schemes created more conflicts and tension among the beneficiaries as well as services delivery institutions. Coverage and access is not only sufficient in changing paradigm, focused must be given on quality, sustainability, and behavioral changes while implementing water and sanitation programs, remarked by Mr. MuktiPokhrel of REDD CROSS Nepal. To address this paradigm, the governance system must be strong to address diverse issues and challenges. Similarly, service delivery institutions require setting public or citizen programs not governments or NGOs programs, this will assist to take ownership to the program by people. This will impact on creation of generic demand on health and sanitation facilities. Based on demand, appropriate technology needs to place. Governance is therefore an important aspect in the water and sanitation sector. Effective governance system must to develop with in monitoring system. ii) Social MrBhojendraAryal from DWSS remarked that water and sanitation services have lack of ownership that water and sanitation especially in rural context fail to generate generic demand. With this approach, supply oriented approach was in place which raised ownership questions. MrArayal raised questions that whose toilets, whose water sources etc. Similarly waste disposal, land for safety tank, treatment plant etc. water sources, protection was vulnerable due to poor ownership right from community. Gender, child, disable friendly initiatives were poorly focused so that sustainability of initiative was questioned. Further, lack of clear awareness on access and benefit sharing aspect, many conflict were emerged. Like water resources exist in community forests are, these water resources belong to one community but water need another community. There is no proper mechanism to access and share benefit. These sort of social are also critical for sustainability water and sanitation services. AS their long experiences, there is requirement of building social capital, awareness building and attitude change, which also require financial means for trade off. iii) Environment Changing pattern of environment has altered to the water sources. During monsoon, flood or rainwater damaged water supply and sanitation schemes from landslides, floods etc. Further during dry season, water sources are depleting which fail to supply required amount of water to the beneficiaries. In terai, monsoon causes severe problem in toilets that most of toilet were fill up rainwater, people face problem to going there for toilet. This could contaminate household environment and other water bodies. In Hill, landslide washed way water sources, pipe line etc. With lack of fund, users committee fails to operate the schemes even the toilet. Most of the individual expressed these problems in water and sanitation services sector. These factors have greater impact for water contamination, opined by Dr. Shakya from ENPHO. Household level, end point or sources point treatment require for delivery of clean 15 | P a g e and safe drinking water, suggested by DrShakya. Depended on population or area, solid waste and wastewater treatment is requiring for safety and healthy environment. Knowledge dissemination, awareness creation and monitoring mechanism are also contributing factors for sustainability of health and sanitation services; all individual stressed on this matter. The Fund Board Team based on their experience highlighted on the need of following activities with respect to improve social and environmental condition in the proposed RWSSIP: • Linking Solid and Liquid waste management and drainage management, • Promotion of gender, child and disable ( GCD) friendly school toilets and non-formal education ( NFE) matching with guideline of the Ministry of Education. • Representation of teacher in WASH Committee, • Provision of subsidy to pro-poor based on Poor ID and government guideline, • Monitoring of toilet programme, • Provision of WASH basket fund as per National Hygiene and Sanitation Master Plan, • Promotion of recharge pond • Introduction of emergency wash measures during natural calamities. • Minimization of air pollution during pipe trench digging and children accident • Promotion of Open Defecation Free Programme in the highway corridors and VDCs • Promotion of pit latrine by providing rings • Promotion of upstream sanitation programme to protect the source from the contamination • Preparation of rehabilitation guideline for the scheme sustainability • Provision of low cost technology at local level for water quality maintenance. • Continuation of health home ID • VDC, DDC coverage approach rather than community only • Pilot programme for the supply of safe water and preparation of 20 Year Community Safe Water Plan • Use of indigenous knowledge for source protection ( e.g plantation of Baish tree around source) • Representation of disadvantaged group in WWUC besides women. • Development of strong post monitoring mechanism IV) Policy and Sustainability The Ministry of Urban Development ( MoUD), noted that the Water and Sanitation scheme in general has less negative environmental and social impacts but more positive impacts such as improve in health and sanitation condition. However, the sustainability of an implementing institutions including Fund Board is an issue. So O & M study of each of the WASH implementing partners and its execution are essential. According to the MoUD, institutional and human resources issues are also important with respect to managing social and environmental issues. The over dependency on the NGOs and lack of regional level offices of Fund Board with respect to coverage have also raised the sustainability issues of WASH programme. 16 | P a g e The Ministry also urged that in the lack of Drinking Water and Sanitation Act, the enforcement of standards and provision have been insignificant ( e.g Water Quality Standard). In this regards, the MoUD, noted that under the Sector Efficiency Improvement Project supported by ADB, a draft of the Drinking Water and Sanitation Act is being prepared. The list of person met in different offices is presented in Appendix 1.3 to 1.7 The second roundstakeholder workshop was conducted on 13 December 2013, at Hotel Sangrila ,Lainchaur for half a day where representative from about 40 different state and non- state organizations were gathered. The workshop was chaired by the Acting Secretary/ Joint Secretary of the MoUD, Mr Suresh Acharya. On behalf of the Fund Board, the Consultant Team Leader Mr. Ram Kumar Sharma presented the draft RWSSIP ESMF Framework. After opening of the floor each of the participants expressed their view on the content of the framework (Table 1.7 and Appendix 1.8). Table 1.7: Summary of feedbacks/Comments from Stakeholder Workshop ( Dec 13, 2013) • Promote knowledge management (Research and Development) at RWSSFDB. • Incorporate modality of shifting to higher service level/ yard connection as demanded by the community. Need to review the basic service need (is 45 lpcdappropriate ?). • Consumers satisfaction should be given due consideration. In this context, cost sharing mechanism should be revisited. • Focus on ownership issue of the community for maintaining the water supply system. Metering could be the option for system sustainability. • Clarify and strengthen the coordination and linkage with the local government for better project implementation and to back up the user committee. • Integrate the disintegrated sector as umbrella sector. So, the PMU under MoUD (Component III) should work out on it. • Formulate the National Water Supply and Sanitation Sectororal ESMF considering as Umbrella concept and common approach avoiding duplication. • Emphasis to be given on sectoral coordination. DRR plan (LAPA/NAPA) need to be integrated with ESMF Climate change adaptation frame work needed. • Integrate the capacity building component and upgrade the training centers (CHRDU) under DWSS as a national training center on water supply and sanitation sector as a whole. PMU under component III (Capacity building) should focus on it. CHRDU can be promoted as a national level training center for RWSS sector. • Integrate the Sanitation and Solid Waste components in all Rural Water Supply programs. • Link CDM with bio-gas promotion and energy generation by recycling. • Incorporate adopting standalone sanitation in Fund Board. • Incorporate Sanitation and Gender in the program. GESI frame work/guidelines currently under preparation need to be harmonized. • Include covering whole VDC for ODF. • Give priority to reach the unreached people which have lesser access. • Focus to O & M cost recovery approach from beneficiaries for long term sustainability. • Avoid passive beneficiaries concept. • Standalone sanitation is a must. Also focus on solid waste management and fecalsullage management. 17 | P a g e • Make obligatory provision of third party Monitoring . • Provision to consider the in-migration from scheme construction and water availability during water demand calculation. Similarly, consider the rental population in demand calculation. • Consider the aspect of migration due to source depletion to district headquarter/KTM. • Give due consideration on climate change and source depletion and include in ESMF. • Consider the land acquisition issues (it is a challenge in development projects ) • Give due consideration for the disaster related issues and consider the disaster management aspect like earthquake in constructing structures like overhead tanks in lift schemes. ESMF should focus on Disaster Impact Assessment and Disaster Management Mechanism (Part- IP phase) LDRMP. • Give due consideration to social and environmental aspects and mitigation measures for long term sustainability. • Legal provision should address and tackle the source beyond the VDC/District boundary, sorting out the issue. • Establish the water code. • Encourage optimally utilizing available resources in other network s (i.e Laboratory for water testing) • WASH approach manual should be integrated with ESMF. • Need to outline and address the equity issue and reaching the unreached HHs. • Due attention to be given to transfer the national sanitation Plan to district WASH plan. • Due attention to be given in addressing the impacts on livelihood during the environmental study (i.g. Lokta, Nigaloetc) . Emphasize livelihood programs for IG of water users. • Give emphasis on outreach activities at school level for awareness raising on sanitation. • Emphasize on the timing of source measurement, If source is measured in rainy season, the system does not function well and therefore, user apply for another organization for new scheme. • Give emphasis on reliable permanent source rather than unreliable nearby source though it is cost effective. • Incorporate the PES (Payment for Environment Services) concept. 1.4.4 Site visits Altogether 15 schemes representing different geographical and administrative regions and technology are selected and field teams are mobilized to rectify the environmental and social issues identified (Appendix 1.9 to Appendix 1.13). 18 | P a g e Chapter II: Review of Policy and Regulatory Framework 2.1 Background The Government of Nepal (GoN) began to play active role in environment management when it nationalized forest in late 1950s. The fifth five year development plan implicitly considered environmental issues by introducing regional concept of development and divided the country in three eco-regions Viz Mountain, hills, and the terai. The plan advocated for development programs to exploit comparative advantages of those regions. However, the government began to play active role in environmental management only in late 1980s. This chapter highlights the relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral policies and legal provisions of Nepal including that of international financial agencies which attracts the water and sanitation sector of Nepal. The objective of the review is to ensure that the policy and legal instruments will be complied at all times during the project design and implementation. Apart from the policy and legal instruments reviewed in this section, other laws that attract the implementation activities of WASH. 2.2 Relating to Environmental Protection 2.2.1 Constitution and National Development Plan: Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007: The Interim Constitution of Nepal ensures that “every person has the right to live in a healthy environment.” In its State Policies the constitution expresses that "the state shall make necessary arrangements to maintain the natural environment”. The State shall give priority to special protection of the environment, and rare wildlife, and prevent further damage due to physical development activities by increasing awareness of the general public about environmental issues. Provisions shall be made for the protection of the forest, vegetation and biodiversity, their sustainable use and equitable distribution of benefits derived from them. Interim Three Year Plan (2013-2015):This Plan has devoted a separate chapter for environment and climate change. The Plan aims to promote the concept of “green development” by encouraging human and development activities to be environment friendly. The Plan also aims to maintain natural beauty of the rural areas. For this the programs include, among others, adoption of bio-engineering in infrastructure development projects for controlling soil erosion, safe disposal of harmful pesticides, and streamlining EIA procedures. Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal, 2003: The GoN prepared a sustainable development agenda in 2003 as a follow up to its commitments to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 and in 2002 on the World Summit, on Sustainable Development (WSSD). The SDAN aims to guide national level development plans and policies up to 2017. It requires environmental impact assessment and analyses of alternatives for all projects. It also argues for the protection of land against degradation, biodiversity conservation, conservation of rangelands, and promotion of sustainable harvest and management of non-timber forest products. 19 | P a g e 2.2.2Sectoral Policies, Plans and Strategies: Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy and Strategy, 2004: According to this Strategyan environmental screening/appraisal will be included in all projects to identify environmental concerns. Procedures will be prepared to ensure that all aspects are considered to minimize environmental damage. This strategy has also determine the role and contribution of local body, such as community contribution will be a minimum of 20% of total cost of water supply. (at least 1% in cash and 19% in kind contribution). The policy has defined the role and responsibility of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board as a regular WASH sector institution. National Water Plan, 2005: Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) has been adopted as one of the principle themes of the National Water Strategy and National Water Plan. It profess that water must be viewed from a holistic perspective, both in its natural state and in balancing the competing demands on it e.g. domestic, agriculture, hydropower, industrial, cultural and environmental. Water Resources Strategy Nepal, 2002: The Water Resources Strategy outputs will contribute to fulfil the basic needs and sustainable use of water resources through the achievement of short-term (5 yr), medium - term (15 yr) and long-term (35 yr) purposes. National Drinking Water Quality Standards, 2006: Ministry of Physical Planning and Works has developed National drinking water quality standards according to WHO water quality standards and has set parameters and prescribed frequency for water quality testing both for urban and rural water supply. Forestry Sector Policy, 2000: The objectives of the forestry sector policy include: contribution to food production through effective interaction between forestry and farming practices; and protection of land from degradation by soil erosion, landslides, desertification, and other ecological disturbances. This policy forbids conversion of forest, shrub, and grasslands into cultivation. The policy aims to manage and utilize land and forest resources according to their ecological advantage. Forestry Sector Master Plan, 1989: Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (MPFS 1989) provides a 25-year policy and planning framework in forestry in Nepal with a long-term objectives of i) meeting peoples basic need, conserve ecosystems and genetic resources, protect land against degradation and other effects of ecological imbalance and contribute to local and national economic growth. Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan 1993: Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP) is the major environmental policy initiative of the government of Nepal. It is part of the government endeavours to incorporate environmental concerns into the development process. The NEPAP is the first national document, which discusses the importance of wetlands and the causes for their deterioration, and provides recommendations for the conservation of wetlands. Finally, it recommends that some actions such as identification and protection of marshes, swamps and other water bodies should be taken for bio-diversity conservation. Climate Change Policy, 2011: This policy incorporates climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures. The policy advocates for the adoption of low carbon development path by encouraging use of renewable energy and increasing carbon sequestration through proper 20 | P a g e management of forests. Bridges, dams, river flood control and other infrastructures would be made resilient to climate change. Drought and flood resistant crop varieties would be developed and disseminated. A Climate Change Fund would be established and at least 80% of this fund would be allocated to programme implementation at community level. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, 2002: Nepal biodiversity strategy, adopted by GoN in August 2002, specifies the implementation of EIA process in accordance with the provisions of EPA 1997 and EPR 1997 to assess the impacts of development activities on biodiversity. The strategy has given emphasis in ensuring effective implementation of the existing laws regarding EIA. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan, 2006: This Plan (NBSIP) is a framework to materialize the vision of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (NBS) into practical actions for effective conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its resources. The overall goal of the NBSIP is to contribute to achieve the goals and objectives of NBS through its successful implementation of the conservation of biological diversity, the maintenance of ecological processes, and the equitable sharing of the benefits accrued. Environment Protection Standards:Ministry of Environment and Science and Technology has developed Standards relating to environment protection National Fertilizer Policy 2002: This policy recommends the adoption of Integrated Plant Nutrients System (IPNS) to prevent deterioration of soil fertility and minimize adverse impacts on environment caused by the use of chemical fertilizers. IPNS encourages farmers to make balanced use of chemical fertilizers based on soil test and encourages using organic manures. 2.2.3 Acts and Regulations: Water Resource Act, 1992: This is the umbrella Act governing water resource management. The Act defines the ownership of the water resources Vests in the State; grants right to use water by individuals, organizations and private sector and declare the order of priority of water use which includes the drinking water and domestic users in the first priority. The Acts mention that while utilizing water resources, it shall be done so in such a manner that no substantial adverse effect be made on environment by way of soil erosion, flood, landslide or similar other cause. Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 1982 and Soil and Watershed Management Regulations, 1995: This Act and Regulation authorizes the government to declare certain critical watershed as protected watersheds. Forest Act 1993 and Regulation 1995: This is applicable for the project if subcomponents require forest lands. The regulation stipulates that the project is responsible to pay compensation if it causes loss or harm to any local individual or community. Similarly, the entire expenses required for cutting and transporting the vegetation products in a forest area used by the project shall be borne by the operators of the project. Environmental Protection Act, 1997 and Regulations 1997: These Act and regulations are the main legislation guiding environmental management in Nepal. The Environment Protection Act requires projects to conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), or the Initial Environment Examination (IEE) depending on the size and scope of the projects. 21 | P a g e Aquatic Life Protection Act 1960: The legislation is fully devoted to the protection of aquatic life, which came in existence as early as in 1960. The Act bans the introduction of poisonous, noxious or explosive materials into a water body (Section 3) with the intent of catching or killing aquatic animals. Section 5B of the act mandates construction of fish ladder while developing a dam, diverting water for irrigation and water supply. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973: This acthighlights the prohibited activities in a project area. Activities are not allowed in protected areas (National Park, Conservation Area, Wildlife Reserve, Hunting Reserve, Strict Nature Reserve and Buffer zones) without a written permission from the authorized officials. In this regards, it is advisable to avoid such areas while developing a plan to implement the subcomponents of the project. The rule (Conservation Area Management Rule 1996) helps in screening the subcomponents of the project by assessing negative listings. Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization act 1987 with amendment in 1992: This Act describes the procedures for disposing solid waste. The act categorizes harmful hazardous wastes and provides information on several controlling measure. Auctions are the procedure usually followed to dispose these wastes. Land Administration Act, 1967: The Act is promulgated to maintain convenience and economic interests of the general public by maintaining inventories of the lands, landowners and tenants in a modern fashion and making timely improvements in the provisions pertaining to current cultivation of the lands subject to land revenue. This act abolishes the then existing land reform office and land revenue offices and bring these office under the Land Administrative office (Section 3 (2)). Section 4 of the Act mandates registration of the land with details of the land area, name of the owner, tenants if any, and the revenue paid by tenants etc. Land Acquisition Act, 1977, Land Acquisition Regulations, 1969 amended in 1992: empowers the government to acquire land for development purposes by paying compensation to the landowner. The land acquisition for subcomponents of this project can be acquired by means of these regulations. Local Self Governance Act, 1999: According to the act, DDC has authority to coordinate for screening and assessment of the subcomponents. The Local Self Governance Act 1999, which primarily deals with the decentralisation of government, also gives local bodies some responsibility in relation to the utilization, conservation and management of water resources and the maintenance of sanitation facilities and waste management. International Convention and Treaties: Ramsar Convention, 1971: The Convention on wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl habitat, known as the Ramsar Convention, has entered into force in 1975. It aims to protect the wetland ecosystems from further destruction. It urges the Parties to conserve wetlands, promote their sustainable utilization, and set aside special areas as wildlife reserve. 22 | P a g e Basel Convention, 1989: The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989. Nepal gives its accession to the convention in 1996. The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Biodiversity Convention, 1992: The Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 was opened for signature during the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Nepal signed this convention during the Rio Summit. The convention was ratified by the Parliament in 1993 and was enforced on 21 February 1994. Article 14 of the Convention urges Parties to introduce appropriate procedures requiring EIA of the proposed project that are likely to have significant adverse effects on biological diversity with a view to avoiding or minimizing such effects and, where appropriate, allow for public participation in such procedures. The convention also focuses on reducing trans-boundary impacts on biodiversity. 2.3 Relating to Social Protection 2.3.1 Constitution and National Development Plan: Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007: Under fundamental rights the constitution states: (i) All citizens shall be equal before the law. No person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws (ii) No discrimination shall be made against any citizen in the application of general laws on grounds of religion, color, sex, caste, tribe, origin, language or ideological conviction or any of these (iii) The State shall not discriminate against citizens among citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, tribe, sex, origin, language or ideological conviction or any of these. Provided that nothing shall be deemed to prevent the making of special provisions by law for the protection, empowerment or advancement of women, Dalits, indigenous peoples (Adibasi, Janajati), Madhesi or farmers, workers, economically, socially or culturally backward classes or children, the aged and the disabled or those who are physically or mentally incapacitated (iv) No discrimination in regard to remuneration social security shall be made between men and women for the same work. Similarly, the Interim Constitution commits for the protection and development of vulnerable communities. Article 21 on Right to Social Justice guarantees the rights of the economically, socially or educationally backward women, Dalits, indigenous peoples, Madhesi communities, oppressed classes, poor farmers and laborers to take part in the structures of the State on the basis of the principle of ‘proportional inclusion’. According to Article 35 (Policies of State) the State has compulsory obligation to pursue a policy of uplifting the economically and socially backward indigenous people, Madhesi, Dalits, marginalized communities, and workers and farmers living below the poverty line, by making a provision of reservation in education, health, housing, food sovereignty and employment, for a certain period of time. Three Year Interim Plan and Approach Paper: In line with the constitutional provisions, the successive national periodic plans (the Three-year Interim Plans for 2007-2010, 2011-2013, and 2013-15) provided policies and programs for inclusive growth and upliftment of the vulnerable communities. The specific policies for inclusive development of the vulnerable communities adopted by the government are: (i) creating an environment for social inclusion; (ii) participation of disadvantaged groups in policy and decision making; (iii) developing special programs for disadvantaged groups; (iv) positive discrimination or reservation in education, employment, etc.; (v) protection of their culture, language and knowledge; (vi) proportional representation in development; and (vi) making the country’s entire economic framework socially inclusive. 23 | P a g e 2.3.2 Sectoral Plan, Policies and Strategies: Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy and Strategy, 2004: This strategy determines the role and responsibility of the users towards scheme construction such as community contribution that should be a minimum of 20% of the total cost of water supply (at least 1% in cash and rest 19% in kind contribution). The policy also states that the community contribution in case of poor community will be minimum 10% and no cash contribution will be taken from the poor households. National Policy on Land Acquisition, Compensation and Resettlement, 2006: This policy aims to address gaps in the current resettlement, compensation, and rehabilitation practices in Nepal. 2.3.3 Acts and Regulations: Water Resource Act, 1992: The Act defines the ownership of the water resources; grants right to use water by individuals, organizations and private sector and declare the order of priority of water use. Local Self-Governance Act, 1999: provides more autonomy to District Development Committees (DDC) and Village Development Committees (VDCs) to implement rural infrastructure projects including water supply and sanitation serving less than 1000 population. The Local Self-governance Act has authorized the local governments to acquire land for development purpose. This act also focuses on equity and social concerns while implementing the water schemes. Land Act, 1964: This Act establishes the tiller's right on the land, which he is tilling. It specifies the compensation entitlements of registered tenants on land sold by the owner or acquired for the development purposes. The most recent amendment to the Act (2001) established a rule that when the State acquires land under tenancy, the tenant and the landlord will each be entitled to 50 percent of the total compensation amount. Land Acquisition Act, 1977:This Act is the core legal document to guide tasks related to land acquisition and resettlement activities in Nepal. It authorizes the Government which may, if it deemed necessary, acquire land for any public purpose, subject to payment of compensation. According to the Act, institutions seeking land acquisition may also request GoN to acquire the land under the regularity provisions subject to be compensated by such institutions' resources. The Act has provisions for land acquisition through the mutual agreement with plot owners, where the process of land acquisition as per Act is not required. The Act grants plot owner the right to choose between a mutual agreement and the formal process for land acquisition as per the Act. For acquiring land under the Act, GoN forms a Land Acquisition and Compensation Fixation Committee (LACFC) under the chairmanship of Chief District Officer (CDO) of the respective district.Any grievances and objections will be referred to the Grievances Redress Committee (GRC). The Act assigns the CDO as the sole responsibility to chair land acquisition activities and to address the grievances related to the Resettlement Plan (RP) implementation activities. Guthi Corporation Act, 1976: Land acquisition must also comply with the provisions of the Guthi Corporation Act, 1976. This Act states that Guthi (religious trusts) land acquired for a development purpose must be replaced with other land, rather than compensated in cash. 24 | P a g e Forest Act, 1993: The Act prohibits reclaiming lands, setting fires, grazing, removing or damaging forest products, felling trees or plants, wildlife hunting and extracting boulders, sand and soil from the National forest without prior approval. It also states that the government may permit the use of any part of government-managed forest, leasehold forest or community forest, if there is no alternative for the implementation of a plan or project of national priority without significantly affecting the environment. If any loss to persons or community is involved while permitting use of such land, it is required to compensate the loss. Ancient Monument Protection Act, 1956: This act has the objective of protection and conservation of the ancient monuments, temples, arts, paintings, etc. of age older than 100 years. The Act empowers the government to declare any such artifacts, temples, etc. under protection category by giving public notification. The act stipulates that any such artifacts, temples etc. declared under protection lists should not be disturbed or removed from their places without the consent of the government. The WASH related special provisions made in key policies, acts and regulations and gaps are presented in Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Provisions and Gap in Key WASH related Acts/Rules/Regulations Acts/Rules/regulation Key Provisions Gap s Water Resources Act Umbrella Act governing water General act, not and Regulation (1992) resources management specific to water supply Rural Water Supply and Defines roles and responsibilities of key government Policy unclear Sanitation National agencies about level of Policy, Strategies and upfront payment for Strategic Action Plan local O&M fund (2004) O&M fund to be created with upfront contribution at WUSC level 20% of national RWSS budget not Community contribution minimum of 20% (at least allocated for 1% in cash and 19% in kind) rehabilitation fund No working Community contribution for the marginalized and procedures on how poor communities will be a minimum of 10% and no to establish cash contribution from poor HHs rehabilitation fund An environmental screening/appraisal is suggested for all projects to identify environmental concerns. Local Self Governance Establishes a decentralized governance structure Not sector specific Act and Regulation (1999) Sets out the powers, functions and duties of DDC and VDC in relation to the planning and implementation of water supply and sanitation projects 25 | P a g e National Drinking Water Sets standards for water quality (defined water Unclear operational Quality Standards quality testing parameter for rural and urban areas) procedures for (2006) enforcement Focuses on Water Quality Improvement Plan Made service providers responsible for monitoring Local level offices of the Ministry of Health and Population responsible for surveillance Guidelines specify methods and frequency of sampling and testing National Sanitation and Sets milestones for achieving universal coverage Excludes water Hygiene Master Plan supply impacts and (2011) Defines guiding principles and strategies implications but mentions mainly on Establishment of WASH coordination committees at sanitation national, regional, district and VDC levels 2.4 World Bank's Environmental and Social Safeguard Policies The World Bank’s environmental policy is to prevent any adverse impacts on the environment. If adverse impacts are unavoidable the Bank aims to minimize or mitigate such impacts by adopting appropriate measures. Policy documents guiding World Bank’s policies on physical environment and human health that are relevant for WASH include: OP 4.01 Environment Assessment; OP 4.36 Forests; OP 4.04 Natural Habitats; OP 4.09 Pest Management; and OP 7.50 Projects on International Waterways in case of bio-physical environment (Table 2.2). Table 2.2 World Bank Operational Policies relating to Bio-Physical Environment SN Operational Policy Provision According to this OP, environmental assessment (EA) should include Environmental evaluation of the impact of the proposed project on the natural 1 Assessment (OP environment (air, water, and land), human health and safety, and trans- 4.01) boundary and global environmental aspects. Based on environmental screening, projects are classified into four different categories. This policy aims to promote rehabilitation of degraded natural habitats, Natural Habitats (OP 2 and prohibits WB’s support to projects that involve the significant 4.04) conversion or degradation of critical natural habitats. This policy favors the use of biological or environmental control methods for controlling pests. It recommends that the integrated pest management Pest Management 2 (IPM) be used for controlling agricultural pests with limited and safe use (OP 4.09) of pesticides when it is necessary. If a project leads to significant use of pesticides, a pest management plan is needed. 4 Forests ( OP 4.36) This policy prohibits the Bank from financing projects that “would involve significant conversion or degradation of critical forest areas or related critical natural habitats.” Projects on This policy requires the state proposing the project (beneficiary state) to International 5 inform all riparian states if the proposed project leads to adverse changes Waterways (OP in the quality, or quantity of water flows to the riparian states. 7.50) 26 | P a g e Similarly, the World Bank OP 4.12 Involuntary Resettlement and OP 4.10 Indigenous People in case of Social Safeguard Policies are attracted with regards to Social Safeguards policies, a brief description of which is presented below: OP 4.12 Involuntary Resettlement: The World Bank’s OP on involuntary resettlement is to avoid or minimize involuntary resettlement where feasible, exploring all viable alternative project designs. Where resettlement is unavoidable, people affected should be fully informed, and be compensated and assisted to improve or at least restore their livelihoods. The policy covers not only physical relocation, but any loss of land or their assets resulting in relocation or loss of shelter; loss of assets or access to assets; loss of income sources or means of livelihood whether or not the affected people must move to another location. The affected persons should be meaningfully consulted and should be given opportunities to participate in planning and implementing resettlement programs. The absence of legal title to land should not be a bar for compensation, resettlement, and rehabilitation assistance. Furthermore, the vulnerable groups such as indigenous people, dalits, women-headed households, and senior citizens should be entitled to special benefit package in addition to regular compensation and resettlement benefits. A full Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) must be prepared if more than 200 people are affected, and an abbreviated resettlement plan may be developed when less than 200 people are affected by the project. In situations where all the precise impacts cannot be assessed during project preparation, provision is made for preparing a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF). The RAP/RPF must ensure that all the bank’s policy provisions in the OP 4.12 are addressed, particularly the payment of compensation for affected assets at their replacement cost. Indigenous Peoples (OP 4.10): The World Bank policy relating to indigenous peoples (OP 4.10) aims to ensure: (i) indigenous people affected by the Bank funded projects have a voice in project design and implementation; (ii) adverse impacts on indigenous peoples are avoided, minimized or mitigated; and that (iii) benefits intended for indigenous peoples are culturally appropriate. The policy is triggered when there are indigenous people in the area and there are likely potential adverse impacts on the intended beneficiaries of the groups. When this policy is triggered an Indigenous Peoples Development Plan is to be prepared to mitigate the potential adverse impacts or maximize the positive benefits of the project interventions. On the basis of the social assessment and in consultation with the affected indigenous people communities, an Indigenous People Development Plan is to be prepared in a flexible and pragmatic manner, and its level of detail may vary depending on the specific project and the nature of effects to be addressed. A Comparison of GoN and World Bank Policies related to environment and social aspects concerning to WASH is presented in Table 2.3 to know the similarity, identify the gaps and prescribe the recommendations to bridge the gaps. 27 | P a g e Table 2.3 Comparison of GoN and World Bank Policies Gaps and Recommendations Recommendations to Category GON Policy World Bank Policy BridgeGaps A. Development Projects Environmental In order to fill the gap Environment falling under EPR criteria Assessment has to between WB and GON (Natural should be subjected to be carried out for requirements/approach, an Habitat , IEE/EIA for example identifying potential Environmental Management & Forest construction of water supply risks and adverse Plan (EMP) shall be including projects requires proposals impacts, mitigation prepared for each water terrestrial and for Initial Environmental measures and supply scheme during detail aquatic) Examination (IEE) for environmental survey design in the collection of rain-water in management plan Development Phase. The an area of not more than (EMP). When natural plan aims to identify and 200 hectares, and use of habitat and forest address the existing as well water sources (spring and policies are triggered as potential adverse wet-lands) located within environmental environmental impacts the same area for assessment and arising due to project processing of water at the environmental intervention. The project will rate of ten to twenty five management plan strictly follow catchment litres per second, up-to the will adequately area/source protection, displacement of one address the relevant conservation, plantation and hundred persons for issues. other necessary mitigation operating a water supply measures (such as gabion- schemes, up-to the wire, fencing etc.) as per the settlement of five hundred site specific condition. persons on the upper reaches of water sources, supply of drinking water to a population ranging between two thousand to twenty thousand (Environment Protection Rules, 1997). Depending on the location of proposed source area, Forest Regulation requires permission from related forest authorities (DFO, CFUG etc.) for any intervention in forest area. National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act, demands permission from Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation besides Ministry of Environment. 28 | P a g e Recommendations to Category GON Policy World Bank Policy BridgeGaps B. Social, It is mandatory under rule Environmental ESMP shall address such Environmental 17(e) of the Water assessment has to issues following GoN and and Economic Resource Regulation, 1993 be carried out in WB safeguard policies. Effects that any person or case such resources corporate body, who are found to be desires to obtain a license affected by the sub- for utilization of water project. resources must state in his application that appropriate measures will be taken to lessen the adverse effect due to the project on overall environment. Measures are to be taken for the conservation of aquatic life and water environment, and for mitigating social and economic effects of the project in the concerned area. Clause 28 of EPR states that physical and cultural resources shall not be disturbed or damaged without the prior approval of concerned authority. C. Land Land Acquisition Act, 1977 World Bank's The water supply sub- Acquisition with amendment in 1993 Operational projects are demand driven for deals about the acquisition Directive (OD 4.20) and voluntary. Due to small Scheme of land in the country. The that instructs Bank- amounts of land involved for Structures Land Acquisition Act 1977 supported scheme construction, there and the Land Acquisition operations to avoid has been general practice of Rules 1969 are the two or mitigate voluntary land donations. In main legal instruments that potentially adverse such cases a legal specify procedural matters effects on IPs and document for using the of land acquisition and involuntary private land for the project is compensation. resettlement or loss in practice which seems to of livelihoods be continued to minimize the Section 16 of Water possible conflicts in future. Resource Act 1992 also deals with the utilization and acquisition of the land. D. Indigenous The Interim plan Ensures free, prior, Project affected individual Community encourages each and informed and families including development program to consultation with the already existing vulnerable incorporate infrastructure affected indigenous communities will be and income generation people to obtain addressed by developing 29 | P a g e Recommendations to Category GON Policy World Bank Policy BridgeGaps program targeted to broad community ESMF. Such peoples will be indigenous community. support to the benefited through the project. implementation of water Rural Water Supply and supply and sanitation Sanitation National Policy, Social Assessment projects and linked with 2004 emphasizes the need will be carried out to livelihood programs. for rural water supply and identity potential sanitation services to be gender and socially effect and prepare inclusive and demand- plan to ensure that driven. Mentions the indigenous peoples provisions of women receive social and participation in decision economic benefits making, equity and social that are culturally inclusion appropriate. 30 | P a g e Chapter III: Baseline Environmental and Social Condition of the Project Area 3.1 Location and Area Nepal is a land locked mountainous country occupying an area of 147,181 sq.km from 26 D' to 30 D 27' north latitude and 80 D 4' to 88 D 12' east longitude and elevation range from 90 meters to 8,848 metre. Topographically, the country is divided into three major ecological Nepa zones namely; Mountain, Hill and Terai are major ecological regions. These regions share 35% 42% and 23% land area respectively (Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Area under different Ecological Region of Nepal SN Ecological belt Area ( Sq Km) % 1 Mountain 51,817 35.2 2 Hill 61,345 41.7 3 Terai 34,019 23.1 Total 147,181 100.0 Source: MoA 2011 For administrative purpose, Nepal is divided into five development regions namely eastern, central, western, mid-western and far western. Similarly, the country is divided into 14 zones, 75 districts. The districts are further divided into Village development Committees (VDCs) and municipalities. Currently, there are 3,915 VDCs and 58 municipalities. Each VDC is composed of 9 wards and the municipality ranges from 9 to 35 wards. The proposed Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Improvement Project (RWSSIP) covers altogether 55 districts of Nepal ( out of 75) of which 50 districts are proposed for Component 1 and 5 districts for Component 2. Among these districts, 22% fall in the mountain, 49% in the hills and 29% in the Terai ecological regions (Table 3.2 and Appendix 3.1). Table 3.2 RWSSIP project districts by development region and ecological zone No. of project Districts on Ecological Zone Development Region Mountain Hill Terai Total Eastern 3 8 5 16 Central 3 9 7 19 Western 2 5 0 7 Mid-western 4 5 3 12 Far-western 0 0 1 1 Grand Total 12 27 16 55 % 21.8 49.1 29.1 100 Source: RWSSDFB 2013 3.2 Baseline- Social 3.2.1 Demography The country's population stands at 26,494,504 showing population growth rate of 1.35 per annum, according to the CBS Population Census 2011. Similarly, total number of households in the country is 5,427,302 with 5,423,297 individual and 4,005 institutional households. Terai constitutes 50.27% (13,318,705) of the total population while Hill and Mountain constitutes 31 | P a g e 43% (11,394,007) and 6.73% (1,781,792) respectively. Population density (average number of population per square kilometer) at the national level is 180 compared to 157 in 2001.Female- headed households in the country have increased by about 11% from 14.87% in 2001 to 25.73% in 2011. Altogether 125 caste/ethnic groups reported in the census of 2011. Chhetri is the largest caste/ethnic groups constituting 16.6% (4,398,053) of the total population followed by Brahman-Hill (12.2%; 3,226,903), Magar (7.1%; 1,887,733), Tharu (6.6%; 1,737,470), Tamang (5.8%; 1,539,830), Newar (5.0%; 1,321,933), Kami (4.8%; 1,258,554), Musalman (4.4%; 1,164,255), Yadav (4.0%; 1,054,458) and Rai (2.3%; 620,004). As reported in 2011 Census,123languages are spoken as mother tongue. Nepali is spoken as mother tongue by 44.6% (11,826,953) of the total population followed by Maithili (11.7% 3,092,530), Bhojpuri (6.0%; 1,584,958), Tharu (5.8%; 1,529,875), Tamang (5.1%; 1,353,311), Newar (3.2%; 846,557), Bajjika (3.0%; 793,418), Magar (3.0%; 788,530), Doteli (3.0%; 787,827) and Urdu (2.6%; 691,546). A total of ten types of religion categories reported in the census with Hinduism as the highest among the population (81.3%-21,551,492) followed by Buddhism (9.0%;6,099), Islam (4.4%; 1,162,370), Kirat (3.1%; 807,169), Christianity (1.4%; 375,699), Prakriti (0.5%; 121,982), Bon (13,006), Jainism (3,214), Bahai (1,283) and Sikhism (609). About 2% (1.94%; 513,321) of the total population reported to have some kind of disability. About 2.32% of the country's population (615,314) is categorized as endangered and highly marginalized (Table 3.3 and Appendix 3.2). Table 3.3: Endangered and Highly Marginalized Ethnic Population of Nepal (2011) Classification Ecological Zone Ethnic Group Population Endangered Hill Hayu 2,925 Hill Kusunda 273 Hill Kuswadiya 3,182 Hill Lepchha 3,445 Inner Terai Raji 4,235 Inner Terai Raute 618 Terai Meche (Bodo) 4,867 Terai Kisan 1,739 Sub-total 21,284 Highly Marginalized Mountain Lhomi (Shingsaba) 1,614 Hill Chepang (Praja) 68,399 Hill Thami (Thangmi) 28,671 Hill Baramu 8,140 Inner Terai Bote 10,397 Inner Terai Danuwar 84,115 Inner Terai Majhi 83,727 Terahi Dhanuk (Rajbansi) 219,808 Jhagad/Danghad 37,424 Satar/Santhal 51,735 Sub-total 594,030 Total 615,314 Source: CBS 2011 32 | P a g e The total household and population of the 55 RWSSIP districts are estimated to be 4,212,211 and 20,335, 425, according to 2011 Census, occupying 77% of the total population of the country. The average household size and density are 4.83 and 190/sq.km which are almost similar to national average (4.88 person and 180 persons/sq km) (Table 3.4 and Appendix 3.3). Table 3.4 Household and Population Size of the RWSSIP districts Household Population Area Av Sex Population Total Men Women (sq km) Family Ratio density size 4,212,211 20,335,425 9,947,922 10,387,503 107,092 4.83 95.77 190 Source: population Census, CBS 2011 The project area is composed of different ethnic and caste groups1, mostly by upper caste (36%) followed by disadvantaged Janjati (28%), dalit (14%), advanced Janjati (11%), other excluded group (9%) etc., and they have to well covered and benefited by the project. The figure highlights inclusion and participation of ethnicity in the RWSSIP project (Figure 3.1 and Appendix 3.4). Figure 3.1: Ethnic Composition in the Project Districts Religious Brahmin/Chhet Minority ri Other Dalit 2% 36% Excluded 14% Group 9% Dis. Janjati Ad.Janjati 28% 11% Source: Appendix 3.4 Overall literacy rate (for population aged 5 years and above) has increased from 38% in 1995/96 to 61% in 2011. Male literacy rate is 71.6% compared to female literacy rate of 44.5% ( Table 3.5). 1 The indigenous group of Nepal, commonly known as Adivasi/Janjati include 59 caste group from different geographical region ( refer Appendix 3.2 for detail) 33 | P a g e Table 3.5 Literacy rate during different Survey Period Nepal Living Standards Survey Description 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11 Literacy rate of population 6 years and above 37.8 50.6 60.9 Adult literacy rate, both sexes (15 years and above) 35.6 48.0 56.5 Males 53.5 64.5 71.6 Females 19.4 33.8 44.5 Source: Nepal Living Standard Survey 2010/11; Statistical Volume Report Volume II; CBS ; National Planning Commission Secretariat; Government of Nepal; November 2011 3.2.2 Socio-economic 3.2.2.1 Livelihoods and Poverty A majority of the population of Nepal (65%) depends on agriculture and 35 % in non- agriculture. The livelihood condition of the population is assessed based on the number of living standard indicators such as housing conditions, access of services, household assets etc and poverty level as per Census results. As indicated in Table 3.5, about 90% of the households are dwelling in their own houses with a majority ( 28%) in galvanized sheet roof. Similarly, the population having access of basic services within 30 minutes of walking distance ranges between 33% to 99% ( Table 3.6) . Table 3.6 : Population with access to different Livelihood Indicators Household characteristics Nepal Living Standards Survey Description 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11 %of households who reside in their own housing units 93.8 91.6 89.7 Average size of dwelling (sq. ft.) 604 531 605 Percent of households living in structures with Cement bonded walls 10.7 18.3 26.1 Concrete roof 11.2 13.6 20.3 Galvanized sheet roof 5.7 21.0 28.4 Cement bonded foundation - -- 13.0 Percent of households within the reach of 30 minutes of Services/Facilities Health post/Sub-health post 61.8 Public hospital/PHC 44.8 61.8 33.6 Clinic/Private hospital 53.4 34 | P a g e Bus stop 33.1 53.0 66.2 Paved road 24.7 37.2 51.4 Bank 20.7 27.8 39.9 Drinking water in rainy season - 99.4 Drinking water in dry season - 98.3 98.8 Post office - 61.0 65.4 Telephone booth - 53.6 86.3 Police station - - 56.5 Internet - - 43.2 Community library - - 38.6 Source: Nepal Living Standard Survey 2010/11; Statistical Volume Report Volume II; CBS ; National Planning Commission Secretariat; Government of Nepal; November 2011 The most common assets that a majority of the population own are mobile phone ( 65%) followed by radio (51%) and television ( 36%), bicycle (33%) and cable television (19%) ( Table 3.7). Table 3.7: % of HHs having different Facilities Household facility Percentage of Households Nepal Urban Rural Radio 50.82 53.56 50.17 Television 36.45 60.67 30.66 Cable television 19.33 53.80 11.10 Computer 7.28 23.66 3.37 Internet 3.33 12.11 1.24 Telephone 7.37 22.66 3.72 Mobile phone 64.63 84.07 59.98 Motor 1.57 4.03 0.98 Motorcycle 9.58 23.62 6.23 Cycle 32.38 29.95 32.96 Other vehicle 0.68 0.65 0.69 Refrigerator 7.16 23.21 3.33 Source: CBS 2011 According to Third Nepal Living Standard Survey (NLSS III 2011), 25.16% of the Nepalese population fall below the poverty line, In terms of Development Region Eastern Nepal has the lowest poverty level (21.4%), while the Far-west has the highest level (46%). Among the ethnic groups, the survey indicates that the Hill dalits and Teraidalits have the highest poverty level while the Hill Brahmins and Newars have the least. The poverty index of the district ranges between 1.33 ( Dolpa district) to 100 ( Kathmandu district) ( Appendix 3.5). 35 | P a g e Table 3.8 Poverty Head Count by Development and Ecological region Poverty Head count Rate Distribution of the Poor S.N. Region 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11 1 Development Region Eastern 38.9 29.3 21.44 21 23.4 19.8 Central 32.5 27.1 21.69 26.9 32.2 30.8 Western 38.6 27.1 22.25 18.7 16.7 16.9 Mid-Western 59.9 44.8 31.68 18.5 17.7 16.4 Far Western 63.9 41 45.61 14.8 9.9 16.0 2 Ecological Belt Mountain 57 32.6 42.27 10.7 7.5 11.8 Hill 40.7 34.5 24.32 41.9 47.1 42.8 Tarai 40.3 27.6 23.44 47.4 45.4 45.4 3 Residence Urban 21.6 9.6 15.46 3.6 4.7 11.7 Rural 43.3 34.6 27.43 96.4 95.3 88.3 4 Nepal 41.8 30.8 25.16 100 100 100 Source : Central Bureau of Statistics (Nepal Living Standard Surveys,1995/96 and 2003/04, 2010/11) The decline in poverty level from 30.85% in NLSS 2003/04 to 25.16% in NLSS 2010/11 is due to rise in remittance flow according to development experts. According to NLSS III, 55.8% of the households receive remittance with each household receiving Rs 80,436/year. However, a significant portion of the remittance (78.9%) is being used in daily consumption. 3.2.2.1 WTSS /Jeevika Women Technical Support Service (WTSS)is a micro level institution of WSS that is envisioned by RWSSFDB for capacity enhancement of female members of beneficiary community from since its piloting project. It is provisioned that female can uplift their livelihood adding more funds and mobilizing it starting initial fund to be provided by RWSSDB. The WTSS is a major component associated with the Board’s WSS program, which encourages the women groups especially targeting to the women from poor, deprived and indigenous families to utilize their saved time from fetching water to raise income through the initiation of livelihood promotion activities. It essentially provides the modest support that is intended to link the women to the programs of other organizations and access to formal credit by which they will get themselves involved in poverty alleviation process. Thus, this program is directed towards the women’s social and economic empowerment and supports the theme of the poverty reduction strategy adopted by the government. The WTSS groups have been mobilizing a significant amount from their group funds to carry out kitchen gardening, livestock rearing, poultry, non-timber forest products, dairy products and retail shops etc. as the most preferred income generating activities to undertake. Apart from the income generation activities, from the very beginning of the development phase the women from the poor, disadvantaged and backward families are provided functional literacy activity for their social empowerment. Based on the learning from WTSS, in RWSSP-II Fund Board initiated the Jeevikakaryakram (Livelihood program) as an initiative aiming to strengthen the business linkages for women's groups in terms of both forward and backward linkages – access to soft loans from micro- finance institutions, commercial banks, technical assistance for their enterprise/s and 36 | P a g e marketing for their products - thereby ensuring guaranteed income for them. For further improvement of this, the Board is remodelling this initiative based on the learning's from BRLP’s activities in India under JeevikaKaryakram. The Board is linking Jeevika groups in Rural Self-Reliant Fund (RSRF), Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) for accessing financial services. In this connection, the Board is facilitating to those Jeevika groups to register their cooperatives and also to tie up with private sector insurance. Internet based remittance service is also recently started by the Jeevika groups. The Fund Board has also developed JeevikaKaryakram implementation guideline. Recent data shows that the baseline Jeevika Groups amount increased from NRS 1853551 to Rs 2654328. Out of total amount 67% is utilized for IGA (NTF/cash Crops/vegetables/livestock/herbal), 29% for household consumption and 4% for social activities. Similarly, employment increased by 30% compared to baseline data ( RWSSP Annual report 2012). JagaranKaryakram (Social Accountability Programme): In order to address the gaps and challenges in ensuring quality of the process and service delivery up to the satisfaction of the beneficiaries, the Board has initiated JagaranKaryakram stressing on accountability and transparency as factors for successful implementation of the project and acquiring effective and expected benefit by the communities. JagaranKaryakram has addressed to ensure downstream accountability and good governance in the projects for effective service delivery, community empowerment and supported to mitigate social issues. These new initiatives as demonstrated significant success results in capacitating and empowering the women groups is suggested to be replicated in all RWSSIP scheme areas/communities. 3.2.2.3 Water Supply and Sanitation services According to CBS (2011), tap/piped water is the main source of drinking water for 53% of the total households. Tube well/hand pump is the main source of drinking water for about 37%, while about 2% household use river/stream and other sources for drinking at the national level ( Table 3.9). Table 3.9: % Distribution of Households using Main Sources of Drinking Water, Nepal, Total Main source of Drinking water (%) Househol Tap/Pip Wel Tubewel Spoutwate River/strea Other Area d e l l r m s Nepal 4174457 52.9 9 28.4 6.4 1.5 0.9 Ecological belt Mountain 285217 72.2 6.2 0 17.1 3.4 0.4 Hill 1950345 72.2 12 2.4 10.1 2 0.5 Tarai 1938895 30.8 6.5 58.6 1.1 0.6 1.4 Development Region Eastern 10011121 35.3 9.3 48.4 4.6 1 0.7 Central 1465753 57.8 8.5 28.1 3.3 0.6 0.7 Western 863045 68.8 8.9 13.9 5.4 1.1 1.1 Mid- western 479009 51.4 11.4 13.3 14.1 4 0.7 Far Western 365529 46.4 7.8 23.1 15.8 3.6 2.1 37 | P a g e Place of residence Urban 664507 65.4 5.9 23.1 3.3 0.5 0.9 Rural 3509950 50.6 9.6 29.4 7 1.7 0.9 Source: CBS, 2011 In the RWSSIP districts, tap/piped water is the main source of drinking water for 46% of the total households. Tube well/hand pump is the main source of drinking water for about 37%, while spout, uncovered well/kuwa and covered well/kuwa are the main source for 5.13%, 4.83% and 2.57% respectively ( CBS 2011) Table 3.10: Source of Drinking Water Source of Drinking Water District Tubewell/ Covere Tap/Pi hand d well / Uncovered Spout River/ Not Total ped pump Kuwa well/Kuwa water Stream Others stated 55 district average 100 45.98 36.93 2.57 4.83 5.13 0.99 2.92 0.65 Source: Appendix 3.6 According to Fund Board (2013), 85% of the population is covered with the improved drinking water supply system (Table 3.11 and Appendix 3.7). Table 3.11: Household Covered with Improved Drinking Water Supply system in RWSSIP district Source of drinking water Total HHs Area Total HHs Tube well Covered Access to Percentage Tap/piped / hand well / Drinking pump kuwa Water Nepal 5,423,297 2,591,379 1,904,965 132,870 4,629,214 85.36 Rural 4,377,722 1,972,715 1,649,058 97,141 3,718,914 84.95 55 Project district 4,208,865 1,935,218 1,554,175 108,216 3,597,609 85.48 Source: Appendix 3.7. The functional status assessments record of the Fund Board reveal that 51 % of the schemes area well function in the country. In the RWSSIP districts the number of well-functioning schemes ranges between 6% and 87% (Appendix 3.8). In case of sanitation 62.4% of the households in the RWSSIP districts have access to toilet facility. In some the Terai districts more than 75% households lack toilet facility, according to 2011 Census ( Appendix 3.9 and 3.10). There are disparities in access to WASH services can be quite large if examined among different caste and ethnic group (Figure 3.2). 38 | P a g e Figure 3.2 Comparison of Access to WASH facilities (disaggregated by social Groups) The disparities are also notable within the ecological belt and administrative regions. As indicated in Table 3.12 Western Region has the highest water supply coverage (84.6%) and the Eastern and Mid-Western have the lowest coverage (76.4% and 76.3%.). Within the geographical region, water supply coverage is highest in Terai (81%), similarly, sanitation coverage is highest in Western Region (53%) and Hills (53%) and lowest in Far western (29%) and Mountain regions (34%). Table 3.12: Disparities in Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage with the Geographical and Administrative Region. Source: RWSSDFB, 2013 39 | P a g e 3.3 Baseline -Environment 3.3.1 Geomorphology and Physiography Nepal has the longest division of the Himalaya. Its extension is about 800 Km and starts from west at the Mahakali River and ends at the east by the Tista River. The Himalayan mountain system developed in a series of stages 30 to 50 million years ago and they are still active and continue to rise today. Himalaya is considered as a tectonically very active and vulnerable mountain system of world. Nepal occupies the central sector of Himalayan arc. Nearly one third of the 2400 km long Himalayan range lies within Nepal. Similar to other parts of the Himalaya, from south to north, Nepal can be also subdivided into the following five major tectonic zones. • Genetic Plain • Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone • Lesser Himalayan Zone • Higher Himalayan Zone • Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan Zone Genetic Plan The Gangetic Plain is also called as Terai Zone and it is the Nepalese portion of the Gangetic Plain that extends from the Indian Shield in the South to the Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone to the North. The plain is in less than 200 meters above sea level and usually has thick (nearly 1500 m) alluvial sediments. The alluvial sediments contain mainly boulder, gravel, silt and clay. The width of Terai Zone varies from 10 to 50 km and forms a nearly continuous belt from east to west. Exceptionally at two place, Chitwan and Rapti valleys, the Terai Zone is interrupted by Siwalik for 70 km and 80 km respectively. Terai Zone is a foreland basin and has sediment originated from peaks of Northern part. To the north, this zone is separated by an active thrust system called as the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) with Siwalik. At some places along MFT, the Siwalik rocks are observed to rest over the recent sediments of the Terai (Dahal 2006). The Terai is further classified into : • Northern Terai or Bhabhar Zone, • Middle Terai and • Southern Terai. Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) Zone The Sub-Himalaya Zone is also called as Siwalik Zone and is delimited on the south by the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) and on the north by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). It consists basically of fluvial deposits of the Neogene age (23 millions years to 1.6 millions years old). This Zone extends all along the Himalaya forming the southernmost hill range with width of 8 to 50 km. The Lesser Himalayan rocks thrust southward over the rocks of Siwalik along the MBT (Dahal, 2006). The general dip of beds of Siwalik has northward trend with varying angles and the overall strike is east-west. The Siwalik Zone has number of east-west running thrusts. Siwalik Zone is also rich with fossils. Fossils of plants, pisces, reptiles and mammals (Carnivora, Proboscidea, Artiodactyla, Rodentia and Primates) have been reported from Siwalik. According to three fold classification, Siwalik can be classified as follow. • Lower Siwalik • Middle Siwalik • Upper Siwalik 40 | P a g e Lesser Himalayan Zone The Lesser Himalayan Zone is bounded to the north by the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and to the south by Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). MBT can be traced out in whole Nepal Himalaya and it can be also well observed in aerial photographs also. The rocks of Lesser Himalayan Zone have been transported southwards in several thrust slices. Generally two types of sequences namely autochthonous and allochthonous can be distinguished in this Zone throughout the Himalayas. The both sequences of the Lesser Himalaya mainly have unfossiliferous, sedimentary, and metasedimentary rocks such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite, limestone, dolomite, etc, ranging in age from Precambrian to Eocene. There are also some granitic intrusions in this zone. From east to west, the Lesser Himalayan Zone of Nepal varies in rock type, age, structures, and igneous rock intrusion. Eastern Nepal is characterized by the development of extensive thrust sheets (allochthonous) of high grade metamorphic rocks (gneiss and schist) which have moved southwards. Below this sequence, due to erosion, large exposure of the low-grade metamorphic rocks (autochthonous) can be seen. In Central Nepal, a large thrust sheet called the Kathmandu Nappe (allochthonous) covers a wide area around the Kathmandu region. Whereas west of Kathmandu, between the BudhiGandaki and Bheri rivers, amount of transported high grade metamorphic rocks (allochthonous) is very low and the area is generally covered by autochthonous sequence. But in west of the Bheri River, up to the western border of Nepal (Dadeldhura-Baitadi) high-grade metamorphic rocks reappear and cover much of the terrain. The Higher Himalayan zone The Higher Himalayan zone mainly consists of huge pile of strongly metamorphosed rocks. Geologically, the Higher Himalayan Zone includes the rocks lying north of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and below the highly fossiliferous Tibetan-Tethys Zone. This zone is separated with Tibetan-Tethys Zone by normal fault system called as South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS). Higher Himalayan Zone consists of an approximately 10 km thick succession of strongly metamorphosed coarse grained rocks. It extends continuously along the entire length of the country as in whole Himalaya, and its width varies from place to place . The kyanite - sillimanite minerals bearing gneisses, schists, and marbles of the zone form the basement of the Tibetan-Tethys Zones. Granites are found in the upper part of the unit. The Tibetan-Tethys Zone The Tibetan-Tethys Zone lies in northern part of the country. It begins from the top of the STDS and extends to the north in Tibet. In Nepal, the fossiliferous rocks of the Tibetan-Tethys Zone are well-developed in Mustang, Manang and Dolpa area. In eastern part, amount of exposure of the Tibetan Tehys Zone is almost negligible and found only in top of the Mount Everest . Most of the other Great Himalayan peaks of Nepal such as Manaslu, Annapurna, and Dhaulagiri have rocks of Tibetan-Tethys Zone. This zone is composed of sedimentary rocks, such as shale, limestone, and sandstone, ranging in age from Cambrian to Eocene. This zone in some area is found as continuous deposits of Higher Himalayan Zone without normal fault. Each of these zones is characterized by their own lithology, tectonics, structures and geological history ( Map 3.1). 41 | P a g e Map 3.1 General Geological Map of Nepal Physiographic division of Nepal has been in practice since 1950s. It was 1969, Tony Hagen successively divided Nepal into eight well defined physiographic provinces from south to north. These provinces are E-W running and can also be incorporated in Indian Himalayan belt. The Hagen classification is the most appropriate classification and represents all characteristic physiographic zones of Nepal. Some geographer and geomorphologists also used fivefold classification in the general sense namely Terai, Churai, Middle Mountain, High Mountain and High Himalaya. Nevertheless, detail physiographical provinces of Nepal are given in Table 3.13. Table 3.13: Physiographical division of the Nepal Himalaya (modified after Upreti, 1999) SN Geomorphic Width Altitudes Main Rock Types Main processes for Unit (km) (m) landform development 1 Terai (Northern 20-50 100-200 Alluvium: coarse gravels in River deposition, edge of the the north near the foot of erosion and tectonic Gangetic Plain) the mountains, gradually upliftment becoming finer southward 2 Churia Range 10-50 200-1300 Sandstone, mudstone, Tectonic upliftment, (Siwaliks) shale and conglomerate. erosion, and slope failure 3 Dun Valleys 5-30 200-300 Valleys within the Churia River deposition, Hills filled up by coarse to erosion and tectonic fine alluvial sediments upliftment 4 Mahabharat 10-35 1000- Schist, phyllite, gneiss, Tectonic upliftment, Range 3000 quartzite, granite and Weathering, erosion, limestone belonging to the and slope failure Lesser Himalayan Zone 5 Midlands 40-60 300-2000 Schist, phyllite, gneiss, Tectonic upliftment, quartzite, granite, Weathering, erosion, limestone geologically and slope failure 42 | P a g e belonging to the Lesser Himalayan Zone 6 Fore Himalaya 20-70 2000- Gneisses, schists, phyllites Tectonic upliftment, 5000 and marbles mostly Weathering, erosion, belonging to the northern and slope failure edge of the Lesser Himalayan Zone 7 Higher Himalaya 10-60 >5000 Gneisses, schists, Tectonic upliftment, migmatites and marbles Weathering, erosion belonging to the Higher (rivers and glaciers), Himalayan Zone and slope failure 8 Inner and Trans 5-50 2500- Gneisses, schists and Tectonic upliftment, Himalaya 4500 marbles of the Higher wind and glacial Himalayan Zone and erosion, and slope Tethyan sediments degradation by rock (limestones, shale, disintegrations sandstone etc.) belonging to the Tibetan-Tethys Zone Source: Dahal R.K.( 2006). 3.3.2 Land Use Pattern Of the total land area of the country 21% is used for agriculture while forest including shrubs occupies 39.6%. Similarly, the grassland and pasture covers 12%, water bodies ( 2.6%) and uncultivated agriculture land occupy 7.5 % of the total land area. Other land use that includes basically the rock, land covered with snow etc. absorbs 17.8% (Table 3.14) . Table 3.14: Land use Pattern of Nepal (2011) SN Use Area ( ,000 ha) % 1 Agriculture land 3,091 21.0 Cultivated 2 Agriculture land Un 1,030 7.0 Cultivated 3 Forest (including 5,828 39.6 Shrub 1560) 4 Grassland and pasture 1,766 12.0 5 Water 383 2.6 6 Others 2,620 17.8 Total 14,718 100.0 Source: MoA 2011 In the RWSSIP districts, almost 46% area is covered by forest, 29% by agriculture/grass land, 15% by barren land, 6.6% by snow, 0.4% water body and 1% by other (Table 3.15 and Appendix 3.11). 43 | P a g e Table 3.15: Land use Pattern of RWSSIP Districts (2011) Agricultural Water Barren Snow Others Total Land Forest land/ grass bodies land Use including Shrubs 4,905,622 3,077,505 47,718 1,611,840 701,745 108,377 10,693,832 Total Area 45.8 28.8 0.4 15.1 6.6 1.0 100.0 % Source: Environmental statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS 2013 3.3.3 Soils and erosion Hazards There are different types of soil in Nepal. Various factors such as geology, climate and vegetation types have resulted in variations in soil properties. There is very limited research about soils in Nepal. So far, soils of Nepal can be divided into six broad types such as alluvial soil, sandy gravel soil, lacustrine soil, rocky soil and mountain soil. Alluvial soil is available in tarai and in river basins. It is formed by the materials deposited by rivers and it’s very fertile. The sandy gravel and gravel soil are found in churiya where gravel and conglomerate are predominately found. This is not fertile soil. There are various types of soil in the middle hill. But rocky soil is predominant. The lacustrine soil is found in the Kathmandu valley. It is formed by the deposited materials in the lake hence, it is fertile. The mountain soil is formed by where boulders, sands and stone brought by glacier are found. It is also not fertile soil. In 1986, a Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) carried out a countrywide survey and produced a soil classification report based on USDA soil taxonomy. It reported 14-soil group covering the 4 soil orders encountered in Nepal. They are mainly Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols and Alfisols. Soil orders Spodosols, Histosols, Ultisols and Aridosols are occasionally found. Their detail features are presented in Appendix 3.12. Soil colour can be used as a key distinguishing criterion by farmers. Some of the colour differences relate to the age of the soil, the origin or parent material, and the carbon content. The major topsoil colours used by the farmers to differentiate soils are shown in Table 2.6 alongside the scientific classification. The colour categories noted by the farmers are a partial indication of organic matter content in the soil. At higher carbon content the soil colours are usually darker, the moisture content and cation-holding capacity are higher, and the structural stability of soil aggregates is greater. In addition, the very old soils in Nepal are deeply weathered and contain significant portions of Fe and Al. the former gives rise to the red soils which have a significant portion of kaolinite and distinct physical properties. Because of the long leaching processes, the red soils are generally low in phosphorous ( Table 3.16). Table 3.16: Local soil colour classification. Local Colour Munsell Soil Colour Chart Classification Kalo (black) 10 YR 3/1-4/1 –dark greyish brown-very dark greyish brown Rato (red) 2.5 YR 4/6-5/6 - red Halukaratomato (light red) 5 YR 5/6-6/6-yellowish red-reddish yellow Khairomato (brown) 7.5 YR 4/2-5/2- brown-dark brown Phusro (grey) 10 YR 5/1-5/2- grey –greyish brown Kharanimato (light grey) 7.5 YR 7/10 YR 7/7- light grey 44 | P a g e Jogimato (yellow) 10 YR 6/6-7/6-8/8 – brownish yellow-yellow Source: Pariyar( 2008) The RWSSIP program districts are susceptible to landslide and erosion, particularly water erosion. Soil erosion rate is also quite high in different ecological belts. The sediment rate ranges between 8-80 ton/ha/year in large watersheds and between and 2-30 ton/ha/yr in small watershed areas. Hills especially Mahabharata, Chure and Siwalik are high-risk zones of landslide and soil erosion. Rate of erosion in foot hills of Kathmandu valley is 12500-57,000 ton/sq.km/year. Mahabharata Lekh of central Nepal has erosion rate of 6300-42000 ton/sq.km/year. Siwalik range of Shurkhet has erosion rate of 20,000 ton/sq.km/year (Table 3.17). Table 3.17: Soil Erosion Rate at selected area of Nepal Erosion rate Location and characteristics Land use (ton/sq.km/yr) Eastern Nepal, South aspect, sand Different land use ranging from forest to 780-3680 stone foot hills grazing I. Degraded land 2000 Far Western Nepal, South aspect II. Degraded forest, gullied land 4000 sand stone foot hills of Surkhet III. Severely degraded heavily grazed 20000 forest, gullied land Central Nepal, steep slope on I. Degraded forest and agriculture land 3150-14000 Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks II. Gullied land 6300-42000 I. Degraded forest & shrub land 2700-4500 Northern foot hills of Katmandu Valley II. Over grazed shrub land 4300 III. Severely gullied land 12500-57000 South of Katmandu Valley 75 percent dense forest 800 I. Protected pasture 920 Phewa Watershed , Western Nepal II. Overgrazed grassland 2200-34700 III. Gullied overgrazed grass land 2900 Source: Environmental statistics 2011; CBS 2013 Almost half of the erosion in the area occurs from water, wind erosion, chemical and physical erosion (Table 3.18). Table 3.18: Status of erosion and affected areas Types of Erosion Affected area (Million ha) Affected area in % Water Erosion 6.7 45.4 Wind erosion 0.6 4 Chemical deterioration 0.3 1.7 Physical deterioration 0.3 1.3 Total 7.9 Source: Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS, 2013 3.3.4 Climate and rainfall The country experiences five types of major climatic conditions, depending on the altitude, landscape and topography which includes sub-tropical, warm temperate, cool temperate, alpine and arctic. The High Himalayan region is always below freezing whereas the Terai and the low valleys are always warm. In winter mornings and nights in the 45 | P a g e hills are bitterly cold and days are chill whereas in the plains and the river valleys mornings and nights are chill and the days are pleasant. Temperature is directly related to altitude. For a rise of 100m, the mean annual temperature drops by 0.5°C. Latitude also affects the temperature. For every 3° north, the mean temperature would fall by 1 °C. Temperature falls slowly during the monsoon because of heavy clouds and rain and continues to drop as winter starts. January is the coldest month and June-July are the hottest months. Temperatures tend to rise from east to west. The highest temperature recorded is 46°C (114.8°F) at Chisapani in Bardiya district and the lowest –26°C at Thakmarpha in Mustang district (Table 3.19). Table 3.19: Types of Climate by Physiographic Zone of Nepal Physiographic Mean of Surface area (%) Elevation (m) Type of Climate 0 Zone temperate ( C) High Himalaya 23 above 5000 Tundra-type and Arctic < 10 High Mountain 4000-5000 Alpine 20 3000-4000 Sub-alpine 10-15 Mid-Hills 2000-3000 Cool temperate monsoon 30 1000-2000 Warm temperate monsoon 15-20 Lowlands Terai 500-1000 Hot monsoon and Subtropical and 27 Siwalik Hills below 500 Hot monsoon and Tropical > 20 Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS, 2013 Temperatures are lowest during winter and remain hot in the pre-monsoon period. In Terai, temperatures can go up to 44º C in summer and fall to 5º C in winter. The corresponding temperatures for hill and mountain areas are 41º C and 30º C respectively in summer and 3º C and far below 0º C respectively in winter. Annual pan evaporation rates of 1400 mm to 1900 mm are usual. Ramechhap, Manang, and Mustang are the places where typical high wind speeds of more than 30 m/s have been recorded. Average sunshine hours are varied between 4 – 8 hours per day. Rainfall: The annual mean precipitation in the country is 1500 mm most of which (80%) occurs during Monsoon season (June – September). The highest mean rainfall of 5202 mm was recorded in Lumle of Kaski district whereas minimum was observed in Mustang (<500mm).The monsoon enters Nepal from the east which receives the first rain; the west gets rain about a week later. The western part receives comparatively less rain than central and eastern parts. Most of the eastern and central hilly areas receive 1 500–2 500 mm; the west gets 1 000–1 500 mm. Seasonal distribution of precipitation varies from east to west. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is shown in Table 3.20. 46 | P a g e Table 3.20 Seasonal rainfall distribution Region Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Winter Terai 4–11% 80–98% 2–7% 2–5% Hill 2–20% 79–92% 1–11% 2–9% Mountain 8–24% 72–80% 1–9% 4–17% Source: Pariyar ( 2008) The annual precipitation record of the various parts of the project district is presented in Appendix 3.13. 3.3.5 Water Resources 3.3.5.1 Surface Water Availability High rainfall totals generally give rise to abundant surface water supplies, at least seasonally. The annual surface water discharge in Nepal is estimated to be 224.5 billion m3 /year from more than seven major river basins. The estimated run-off is estimated to be 5,479 m3/sec from Nepal site alone (Table 3.21). Table 3.21: Surface River Water Availability in Nepal SN River Total Drainage Area Estimated Run off Annual Length (sq Km) (m3/sec) discharge (km) Total Nepal All From (billion m3/year) Basins Nepal 247 18.0 1 Mahakali 223 15260 5410 698 1371 44.0 2 Karnali 507 44000 41890 1441 103 3 Babai 190 3400 3400 103 50.0 224 4 West Rapti 257 6500 6500 224 1409 5 Narayani 332 34960 28090 1753 178 6 Bagmati 163 3700 3700 178 45.0 878 7 SaptaKoshi 513 60400 31940 1658 Kankai 68 8 108 1330 1330 68 Other River 1001 1001 67.50 9 0 24921 24921 5479 224.5 Total 2293 194471 147181 7124 Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011; CBS 2013 Similarly, there are 3,723 lakes in different altitudinal height ranging from < 100 m to > 5000 m within these 55 project districts (Table 3.22 and Appendix 3.14). 47 | P a g e Table 3.22 Lakes in Different Heights of the RWSSIP Districts Total <100m 100-499 m 500-1999m 2000-2999m 3000-4999 > 5000m Lake NO. 3723 949 846 196 57 1004 671 % 100 25.5 22.7 5.3 1.5 27.0 18.0 Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011; CBS, 2013 Besides 20 glacial lakes, which are considered as potentially dangerous glacial lakes are also recorded in the six RWSSIP districts within different altitudinal range (Appendix 3.15). 3.3.5.2 Ground Water Availability Groundwater is abundant in the aquifers of the Terai and the Kathmandu Valley. About 50% of the water used in the city of Kathmandu is derived from groundwater. Groundwater availability is more limited in the populated hill regions because of the lower permeability of the indurated and crystalline rock types. Despite abundant rainfall, agricultural development is restricted by the limited development of irrigation. Shallow and deep aquifers are also present in the young alluvial sediments throughout most of the Terai Region (e.g. Jacobson, 1996). The shallow aquifer appears to be unconfined and well developed in most areas, although it is thin or absent in Kapilvastu and Nawalparasi (Upadhyay, 1993). The deep aquifer of the Terai (depth unknown) is reported to be artesian ( British Geological Survey 2001). As per the hydrological investigations carried out by Groundwater Resources Development Project (GWRDP) under Groundwater Resources Development Board (GWRDB), 7,26,000 ha. of land has good potential for STWs, 3,05,000 ha. of land has marginal potential for STWs & DTWs and 1,90,000 ha. of land has good potential for DTWs The dynamic Ground Water (GW) reserve in the Terai as of present situation is 8,800 MCM, abstraction for irrigation/Industrial purpose is 756 MCM, abstraction for drinking purpose is 297 MCM and surplus ground water balance is 7747 MCM. 3.3.5.3 Surface Water Quality The surface water quality data indicated that the sources where human activities are less prominent are found to be of chemically good quality and fit for direct drinking except bacteria, suspended solids, and in some cases iron have to be removed effectively. The study under Phase I indicates that more than 60% of the gravity water is undrinkable without treatment measures. Water quality test of 411 schemes during Batch VIII Development Phase reveal that 5.25% of the samples were categorized as into high risk and 28% intermediate risks among which most of the samples were found to be affected with fecal coliform. 48 | P a g e 3.3.5.4 Ground Water Quality The ground water qualities have specific problems such as Arsenic in Terai area. The arsenic text made in 1088937 in the Terai reveal that about 7 % of the tube well has arsenic level above 11 ppb ( Table 3.23). Table 3.23 Arsenic Level in Different Sources of Ground water Tube wells by Arsenic Concentration Level S. N. District 0 - 10 ppb 11 - 50 ppb Above 50 ppb Total No. % No. % No. % No. % 1 Deep Tubewell (DT) 4232 98.03 62 1.44 23 0.53 4317 0.40 2 Dug well (DW) 51412 98.97 431 0.83 104 0.2 51947 4.77 3 Shallow Tube well (SW) 958660 92.83 56088 5.43 17925 1.74 1032673 94.81 Total 1014304 93.15 56581 5.20 18052 1.66 1088937 100 Source: The State of Arsenic in Nepal, 2011 by ENPHO/GENESIS Chloride content in the ground Water of shallow aquifers (shallow tube) in the Eastern Terai from test sample of 7 different RWSSIP districts are found from 15.4 mg/l to 195.6 mg/l against the WHO standard 250 mg/l. Content of Ammonia ranges from 0.5 mg/l to 1.2 mg/l against the WHO standard 1.24 mg/l. Nitrate ranges from 0.2 mg/l-3.5 mg/l compared to 10mg/l of WHO guideline. Iron content ranges from 0.4 mg/l – 12mg/l against WHO standard of 3mg/l. Manganese content is from 0.4 mg/l – 1.3 mg/l against 0.5 mg/l of the WHO standard. Presence of Coliform should be nil as per the WHO guidelines. However, the content of coliform ranges from 0.5 cfu/100 ml to 45 cfu/100 ml ( Table 3.24). Table 3.24: Ground Water Quality of (ShallowTube ) Aquifers Eastern Terai districts Coliform Chloride Ammonia Nitrate Iron Manganese Site (District) (cfu/100 (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) ml) Panchgachhi (Jhapa) – P3 districts 15.4 0.7 0.2 6 0.8 1.1 Baijanathpur ( Morang ) –P3 districts 16.6 0.5 0.2 4.5 0.5 15.9 Bayarban ( Morang ) –P3 districts 17.6 0.5 2.4 6 0.6 0.5 Takuwa ( Morang ) –P3 districts 21 1 1 10.4 0.4 45.9 ShreepurJabdi (Sunsari) – Component 2 District 37.2 0.9 0.2 8 0.6 25.5 Bandipur (Sunsari) Component 2 District 195.6 0.7 3.5 0.4 0.4 1 Naktiraipur (Saptari) –P1 districts 45.6 1.2 0.3 12 1.3 16 WHO Guideline 250 1.24 10 3 0.5 nil Source: Environment Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS Presence of E.coli is found on all sources of water of Kathmandu valley, the highest (48-200) cfu/100 ml being in the water of wells. 49 | P a g e 3.3.5.5 Water related diseases Although the water related diseases are reported to be reduced during different censual period their magnitude of occurrence is still high as up to 31% of the population is suffering from different types of water borne diseases (Table 3.25). Table 3.25 : Occurrence of Water Borne diseases during different period Nepal Living Standards Survey Description 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11 Percent of population with chronic illness 6.5 5.4 11.7 Percent of population with acute illness 9.0 13.0 20.0 Percentage of acute illness type Diarrhea 15.5 17.0 11.4 Dysentery 1.7 Cold/fever 43.7 41.2 30.6 Other fever 23.5 Respiratory 5.2 7.7 2.4 Source: Third Nepal Living Standard Survey ( 2010/11), CBS 2011 The incidence of diarrhea/1,000<5 Yrs. children is reported to be 500 during 2010/11. Regarding malaria, the DoHS (2011) indicates that the annual Parasite Incidence (API) increased from 0.14 per 1,000 in 2066/67 to 0.16 in 2067/68. Proportion of P. Falciparum (PF) has been decreased by around 5%, from 20.5% in 2009/10 to 15.7 in 2010/11. The data revealed that imported malaria cases are remarkably high in number indicating need of more attention for cross border monitoring and surveillance of malaria. Two rounds of Indoor Residual Spraying were carried out in2010 in 15 districts that protected 716,572 people. Kala‐azar is a major problem in 12 districts of eastern and central Terai. Incidence of Kala‐azar is reported to be 0.94/10,0000 in areas at risk population in 2010/11 (excluding foreign cases). Out of the 12 districts five districts have an incidence of more than 1, while 7 districts have an incidence of less than 1 case per 10,000 areas at‐risk population. A total of 806 Kala‐azar cases were recorded and of them 802 (99.5%) improved after the treatment while 4 patients (0.5%) died in 2010/11. A total of 3,142 new leprosy cases were detected and 5,362 cases received treatment with MDT and 2,979 cases completed treatment and were made RFT (Table 3.26). 50 | P a g e Table 3.26: Health Service Coverage Fact Sheet Fiscal Year (2008/09 ‐ 2010/11) REPORTING STATUS (%) 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 DIARRHOEAL DISEASES Incidence of Diarrhea/1,000<5 Yrs. Children New 488 598 500 Cases Total Diarrhea Deaths 147 91 NA %of Severe Dehydration among Total New Cases 0.58 0.38 0.37 Case Fatality Rate/1,000 <5 Yrs. Children 0.08 0.00 0.00 MALARIA / KALA‐AZAR Annual Blood Slide Examination Rate(ABER) 0.75 0.68 0.66 per100 Annual Parasite Incidence(API) per1,000 0.18 0.15 0.16 Proportion P. falciparum (PF %) 22.18 20.48 15.71 Clinical Malaria Incidence(CMI)/1000 5.72 5.41 4.10 Incidence of Kala‐azar/10,000 Risk Population 1.33 0.95 0.75 TUBERCULOSIS Treatment Success Rate on DOTS 89 90 90 Sputum Conversion Rate 89 89 89 LEPROSY New Case Detection Rate(NCDR) /10,000 1.66 1.15 1.12 Prevalence Rate (PR) /10,000 1.09 0.77 0.79 Disability rateGrade2among newcases 3.90 2.72 3.50 Source: DoHS, Annual Report 2067/68 (2010/2011) 3.3.6 Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery Nepal is an agricultural country. About 80% of the people’s occupation is agriculture. Trade is also mainly of agricultural products. Agriculture provides raw materials for the industries. With the help of good manure, seeds, equipment and irrigation the growth of crops is increased in large quantity. Agriculture is known as the backbone of economy of Nepal. Agriculture occupation consists of three types: food crops, cash crops and mixed crops. Food crops: The crops that are used for food are called food crops. Rice, maize, wheat, millet, etc. are good crops. Rice and wheat are grown in the plain areas, in the river banks where the land is hot and wet. Maize and millet are grown in the dry land of hilly areas. Cash crops: The crops that are grown for sale to earn money are called cash crops. Jute, sugarcane, tobacco, tea, coffee, etc. are cash crops. Jute requires plain land with hot and wet climate. Sugarcane and tobacco are grown in the plain areas. Crops need water during their growing stage for a short time. Similarly, tea is grown in the slopes of hills which receive rainfall and the water does not stay for long. Tea is also grown in plains by providing favourable conditions for its growth. Mixed crops: In some places, varieties of crops are grown at the same time. When more than one crop is planted at the same time and at the same place, it is called mixed crops. For example, along with maize, soyabean, beans, etc. are also planted. Similarly, in the paddy fields, lentil (dal) is planted side by side and fish are also reared in the fields. Such system is called the mixed cropping. Horticulture: Horticulture means cultivation of fruits and vegetables. Mangoes, lichi, banana, pineapples, papaya, cucumber, lady fingers, brinjal, pumpkin are mainly grown in the terai and 51 | P a g e hilly parts of Nepal. Junar, oranges, lemons are produced successfully in the different parts of hilly region. Apples are mostly grown in mountain part of Nepal. The area, production and yield of major crops of Nepal is presented in Table 3.27. Table 3.27 : Area and Production of major Crops in Nepal (2010/2011) Cereal Crops Area (Ha) Production (MT) Yield (Kg/Ha) Paddy 1496476 4460278 2981 Maize 906253 2067722 2281 Millet 269820 302691 1122 Wheat 767499 1745811 2275 Barley 28461 30240 1063 Buckwheat 10304 8841 858 Total 3478813 8615583 2477 Cash Crops oilseed 213706 176186 824 Potato 182600 2508044 13735 Tobaco 1135 1238 1091 Sugarcane 62998 2718226 43148 Jute 10559 14418 1365 Cotton 135 135 1000 Pulses 334380 318362 952 Fruits 79184 794184 1003 Vegetables 244102 3203563 13124 Other High value Crops Crops Production (MT) Tea 17438 Cofee 402 Chilli 27203 Cardamom 12584 Ginger 216289 Garlic 39566 Turmeric 35295 Cacoon 26 Honey 1365 Source: Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture, 2010/2011, GoN, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Agri-Business Promotion and Statistics Division. The food availability and requirement status presented in Table 3.27 reveal that the mountain and hill regions are food deficit while the Terai region is surplus district ( Table 3.28). Table 3.28: Food Availability and Requirement Region Edible Production ( Mton) Requi. Balance Rice Maize Wheat Millet Buck Total Barley wheat Mountain 74,247 147,842 45,219 58,458 5,317 2,790 333,875 346,911 -13,036 Hill 612,347 1,018,752 192,125 426,702 3,939 2,461 2,256,322 2,306,476 -50,153 Terai 1,741,387 249,654 10,405 918,955 393 1,885 2,922,678 2,416,431 506,247 Nepal 2,427,980 1,416,248 247,749 1,404,114 9,649 4,266 5,512,875 5,069,818 443,057 52 | P a g e Source: Statistical Information of Nepalese Agriculture 2010/11; Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Agri-business Promotion and statistics Division, Government of Nepal Sing Durbar, Dec 2011. Nepalese agriculture is integrated with livestock. The number of population /sq km of land is estimated to be 123 for cattle, 85 for buffaloes, 156 for goat and 671 for fowl ( Table 3.29). There are large number of Livestock Farmers Groups and Daiiry Cooperatives to promote livestock business. Table 3.29 Livestock Population of the Country ( 2010/11) Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats Pigs Fowls Ducks p/lan Populatio p/land Populati p/land p/land Populati p/land p/land Populati p/land Population d* n * on * Population * on * Population * on * 7226050 123 4995650 85 805070 14 9186440 156 1093610 19 39530540 671 378050 10 Source: Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS Jan 2013*P/ land= Population/ sq km The country produces 1557 thousand metric ton of milk, 277 thousand metric ton of meat, 587 kg of wool and 704,000 thousand number of egg annually (Table 3.30). Table 3.30 Livestock Production in Nepal/annum Products Unit 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 Milk Production (000 mt) 1312 1352 1389 1445 1496 1557 Meat Production (000 mt) 219 227 234 242 249 277 Egg Production No (000) 600800 614848 631253 629940 643203 704000 Wool Production (000 kg) 587 588 585 584 580 587 Source: M inistry of Agriculture, cited by Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS Jan 2013 Fishery is very common in Nepal. Fishery is managed in natural rivers, lakes, reservoirs, marginal swamps ghols, irrigated field and man-made ponds. Ffish farming is considered as a profitable occupation. The fish farming is 887, 277 hectare of land and annually 52, 450 metric ton of fish is produced (Table 3.31). Table 3.31: Status on Fish Production in Nepal (2010/11) Production Yield S.N. Particulars No. of Pond Area (ha.) (kg.) (kg./ha.) Fish Production from Aquaculture Practices 1 Pond Fish Culture Mountain 82 4 5,000 1,250 Hill 1,525 190 337,000 1,774 Tarai 24,429 7,083 26,599,000 3,755 Total 26,036 7,277 26,941,000 3,702 2 Other area (ghols) 2,200 3,300,000 1,500 3 Paddycum fish culture 100 45,000 450 4 Cage fish culture 60,000 360,000 6 5 Enclosure fish culture 100 140,000 1,400 6 Trout Fish Culture in Raceway 7,000 140,000 20 7 Fish Production in Public Sector 24,000 Fish Production from Capture Fisheries 8 Rivers 395,000 7,110,000 18 53 | P a g e 9 Lakes 5,000 850,000 170 10 Reservoirs 1,500 385,000 257 11 Marginal/ Swamps / Ghols etc. 11,100 5,990,000 540 12 Irrigated Paddy Fields 398,000 7,165,000 18 887,277 52,450,000 8,081 Total Fish Production 26,036 Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2010, CBS Jan 2013 3.3.7 Industries About 32,326 small scales and 3446 manufacturing industries are reported in Nepal and most of them are located in Central Development Region and rural area ( Table 3.32). Table 3.32: Manufacturing Establishments in Nepal Number of Small Scale Manufacturing Establishments Region Manufacturing Establishments 2009/10 2007/08 Eastern 8,701 819 Central 14,456 1,618 Western 5,074 612 Mid-western 2,677 190 Far western 1,418 207 Rural-urban Rural 20,002 1,871 Urban 12,324 1,575 Nepal 32,326 3,446 Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2010, CBS Jan 2013 Similarly, some 187,778 small and cottage industries are registered in Nepal by the end of fiscal year 2011/12, according to the Department of Small and cottage Industries. Among such industries a majority ( 46%) are productive type and service oriented ( 37%)( Figure3.3). Figure 3.3 Type of Small and cottage Industries in Nepal (%) 46.3 36.7 8 3.2 4.6 0.6 0.6 54 | P a g e 3.3.8 Forest and Protected Area 3.3.8.1 Forest As indicated above 39.6% area of the country ( i.e 5,828, 000 ha) is occupied by forest and shrubs .The forest type of the project is mainly divided into six types, based on climate and topography namely, tropical, sub-tropical, lower temperate, upper temperate and alpine forests ( Table 3.32). Table 3.33: Types of Nepal's Forest Forest Ecological SN Features type region The southernmost physiographic region of Nepal, called the Terai-Bhaber region, has an average altitudinal range The Terai- between 150 and 300 m above sea level. It has a tropical Tropical Bhabar Region climate with the main forest type comprised of sal 1 forests (Shorearobusta) with smaller proportions of moist evergreen forest, dry deciduous forest, and khair-sisoo (Acacia catechu/Dalbergiasissoo) forest. The northern physiographic region includes the Siwaliks Hills and the Dun valleys (also called the Inner Terai in Nepal) and has an altitudinal variation between 300 and The Siwaliks 1000 m. It is characterized by a subtropical climate. The Hills and the Sub- major forest types in this region include Schima- 2 tropical Inner Terai Castanopsis forests on the northern slopes of the Dun forest Region valley; the subtropical pine ( Pinusroxburghii) forests on the Siwaliks ridges, dry scrubby forests on the southern slopes of the Siwaliks and moist Lauracea forests in the northern moist localities along with patches of sal forest. From 1000 m along the southern foothills of the Mahabharat Range (ridge tops up to 3000 m) to the hills of Nepal to an altitude of 2500 m is called the Middle The Middle Mountain Region. It has mostly lower temperate forests. Lower Mountain These are mainly broadleaved forests 4 Temperate Region with Pinusroxburghii up to 2000 m and Pinuswallichiana at forest the higher elevations. The river valleys in this region may be as low as 400 m. and sal forests (also called hill sal, a somewhat less luxuriant variety of Shorearobusta) and other subtropical broadleaf forests can occur here. This region extends from 2000 to 3500 m above sea level, The High mostly with upper temperate forests of Upper Mountain Quercussemicarpifolia, other broad-leaf forests composed 5 temperate Region mainly of Rhododendron spp., as well as coniferous forest forests of Pinuswallichiana, Abiespindrow and Piceasmithiana. There is also a narrow 55 | P a g e belt of Tsugabrunoniana. This region mainly has alpine forests of birch (Betulautilis) High Himal Alpine as well as bushy rhododendrons and junipers. There is 6 Region forest little cultivation here and a lot of snow- and rock-covered barren lands. Source: Forest Fire Situation in Nepal IFFN No. 26 - January 2002,http://www.fire.uni- freiburg.de/iffn/country/np/np_2.htm Under the Forest Act 1961 (modified in 1993), there are following five types of forest governance in place: a) Private forest b) Leasehold forest C) Religious forest d) Community forest and e) Government managed forest. Among others, community forest and leasehold forest managed by the local communities and poor households have been recognized as the successful models in Nepal increasing the bio-diversity and contributing to livelihood. As of September 2011, 1.65 million hectares of forest land is handed over to 17685 Forest User Groups, involving about 38% of the population and occupying 37 % of total national land (Table 3.33). Table 3.34 Status of CFUG by Sept 2011 Total CF area Ecological Region/District No of FUG No of HH Handed over ( Ha) . High Mountain ( 15 Districts) 2,830 266,007 291,415 Middle Hills (39 districts) 12,812 1,090,398 1,405,286 Terai/InnerTerai ( 20 districts) 2,043 296,249 481,157 Grand Total 17,685 1,652,654 2,177,858 Source: Community Forestry Division, Department of Forest, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2012 3.3.8.2 Protected Areas The RWSSIP project districts, occupy 8 Ramsar 2 sites of international significance, 5 conservation areas, 3 wildlife reserve parks and 7 national parks that may create difficulties in the implementation of water supply schemes, if the water sources have to be tapped and pipe laying activities to be performed within their catchment areas (Table 3.34). Table 3.35: Protected Areas in the Project districts Area (in SN Name ha) RWSSIP District 2 The global convention on wetlands of international importance, “The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat” commonly called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The treaty was adopted on 2 February 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar, and entered into force in 1975. Till now, nine wetland sites of Nepal have been included in Ramsar List covering total area of 34,455 hectares. Nepal joined the Ramsar Convention by enlisting the KoshiTappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) as the first Ramsar site of the country on December 17, 1987. 56 | P a g e A. Ramsar Site 1 BeeshazarTaal 3200 Chitwan 3 Gokyo Lake complex 7770 Solukhumbu 4 Gosaikunda Lake 1030 Rasuwa 5 KoshiTapu Wildlife Reserve 17500 Sunsari 6 SheyPhoksundo 494 Dolpa 7 Rara Lake 1583 Mugu 8 Mai Pokhari 12 Illam B. Conservation Area 1 Annapurna Conservation 7629 Mustanag 2 Gaurishankar Conservation 2179 Dolkha 3 Kanchenjunga Conservation 2035 Taplejung 4 Makalu-Barun Conservation 1500 Sankhuwasabha 5 Manaslu Conservation 1663 Nuwakot C. Wildlife reserves/Park 1 KoshiTappu Wildlife Reserve 175 Saptari/Sunsari 2 Parsa Wildlife Reserve 499 Parsa 3 SuklaPhanta Wildlife Reserve 305 Kanchanpur D. National Park 1 Bardia National Park 968 Bardia 2 Rara National Park 106 Mugu 3 Sheykphundo National Park 3555 Taplejung 4 Langtang National Park 1710 Rasuwa 5 Shivapuri National Park 159 Kathmandu 6 Sagarrmatha National Park 1148 Solukhumbu 7 Chitwan National Park 932 Chitwan Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS, 2013 The existing protected areas include 39.62% of flowering plants, 84.53% of mammals, 95.73% of birds, and 70.59% of herpeto fauna of the country. The Threatened animal species are well protected, whereas a large number of threatened plant species are not represented by the current protected area system. 3.3.9 Biodiversity and Endangered Species 3.3.9.1 Biodiversity Nepal is rich in biodiversity due to its unique geographical position as well as its altitudinal and climatic variations. The country shares 2.8% of the world's plant resources and 1.22% of the animal resources (Table 3.35). 57 | P a g e Table 3.36: Plant and animal species of Nepal and the World Source: http://www.forestrynepal.org/notes/biodiversity/status/Nepal The country has altogether 118 total ecosystems and 80 protected areas within the different physiographic region of the country and most of them lies in the mid hills followed by mountains ( Table 3.36). Table 3.37: Ecosystems and Protected Areas in Nepal Total Number of Protected S.N. Physiographic Zone Ecosystems Area 1 Tarai (Plain) 10 10 2 Siwalik Hill 13 5 3 Middle Hill 52 33 4 Highland 38 30 5 Others 5 2 Total 118 80 Source: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, 2002 (Nepal Biodiversity Strategy).cited by Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS, 2013 3.3.9.2 Threatened/Endangered Species A significant number of vertebrates, invertebrates, plans and fungi and protists are regarded as threatened, endemic and protected species in Nepal which are also available in the project area and need careful examination during pre-development phase of the RWSSIP (Table 3.37). Table 3.37: Number of Threatened/ Protected Species in Nepal3 S.N. Description/species Number Remarks 1 Endemic Fishes 12 2 Threatened medicinal and Aromatic Plants 60 3 Protected Flora Species 17 Protected Faunal Species in the National Park Mamals-27, Birds- 39 4 and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 9, Reptiles-3 128 Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal 2011; CBS, 2013 3 For detail list refer Environmental statistics of Nepal 2011, CBS 2013 58 | P a g e 3.3.10 Heritage/Archeological sites The country has number s of word heritage and archeological sites which have bith religious and touristic importance (Table 3.38 and Appendix 3.16). Table 3.38: Important Heritage, archeological and Cultural sites of the Project Area S. N. World Heritage Place of Establishment 1 Hanumandhoka Durbar Square Kathmandu 2 PatanDarbar Square Lalitpur 3 BhaktapurDarbar Square Bhaktapur 4 Pashupatinath Temple Kathmandu 5 SwayambhunathStupa Kathmandu 6 BouddhanathStupa Kathmandu 7 Changunarayan Temple Bhaktapur 8 Chitwan National Park Chitwan 9 Sagarmatha National Park Solukhumbhu 10 Lumbini Rupandehi 11 Muktinath Mustang 12 GosaiKunda Rasuwa 13 Devghat Chitwan 14 Manakamana Gorkha 15 Pathivara Taplejung 16 JaleshwarMahadev Mahottari 17 DolakhaBhimsen Dolkha 18 Swargadwari Pyuthan 19 Janki temple Dhanusha Source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal, 2011 CBS 2013 3.4 Key Environmental and Social Issue 3.4.1 Environmental Issue 3.4.1.1 Landslides, soil erosion and floods As mentioned earlier; flood, erosion and landslide is the common phenomenon in the Project Area in hills and there are evidences where the occurrences of landslide, erosion and floods have affected the scheme structures and swept away the schemes' intakes, pipelines and storage tanks (e.g. Khaiganpur (Ka) Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme (WSS) and Khaiganpur (Kha), Udyapur district Batch VI; Kharkahare WSS, Tanahu district, Batch VII). Similarly, in Terai the siltation, flood and river bank erosion are quite common in damaging the scheme structures ( e.g. Barahakunda WSS , Kanchannpur district Batch V). 3.4.1.2 Source depletion and reduction in source discharge Ironically, the water scarcity is at an increasing trend with growing dependence on ground water aquifers. The over-extraction of groundwater has led to depletion of water table beyond its recharging capacity in terai region, leading to water quality degradation, land subsidence, receding of rivers and drying of ponds. Further, rapid urbanization and industrialization, especially in urban areas has converted the rivers into sewerage, unfit for downstream consumers, resulting in numerous environmental and ecological calamities. In most parts of the Terai region where ground water is the only source, arsenic is one of the serious problems 59 | P a g e The major causes for source depletion or gradual decrease in discharge are identified as follows: • Depletion due to flood and landslides • Sources located in agricultural field depleted due to digging, working near and around the source • Over-exploitation of vegetation at the catchment area and around the source • Climate change effect Due to source dried up and depletion, there are cases where Fund Board schemes have been dropped out after development phase. Symptoms of source depletion are recorded in 33% of the schemes as per Batch III Sustainability Study Findings. Similarly, there are cases where the schemes have been dropped after Development Phase due to source dried/depletion in other batches of Fund Board schemes ( e.gPokhari WSS, Batch IX and Kai Khola WSS Batch VII Udyapur district; DahaBaseni , Dadeldhura district and Jadekharkha WSS , Jumala district Batch VII) Significant reduction of the source discharge for the piped gravity flow system particularly during the dry season is also a major concern regarding the issues on water quantity. However, this has been mentioned as a regular phenomenon and also anticipated during the design period. The types of quantity related issues in the hills and Terai are presented in Table 3.39. Table 3.39: Water Quantity Issue in Hill and Terai Region/Technology Issue Hilly area for gravity Scarcity of ‘safe’ drinking water, especially during the dry periods schemes: when supply is inadequate due to source depletion. Increase in water demand due to change in living standard of people and provision of yard and private tap connections in the community. Lowering of water table in ground water schemes (shallow tube Terai area for ground wells and dug wells) during dry periods and inadequate water schemes availability of water to the community. Due to depletion of point source (shallow tube well and dug well) as a result of low water table recharge 3.4.1.3 Waterquality issue The water quality standard 4 is affected by number of factors such as types of sources, surrounding source condition, biological water pollution due to leaves, insects, algae, etc in the scheme components. This indicates that the major water quality problems are related to fecal contamination and seasonal attributes (turbidity in rainy season). Different studies indicate that the types of water sources and the sanitation affecting the quality of water consumed are primarily responsible for increased or decreased diarrhea incidences among children. The surface water quality data indicated that the sources where human activities are less prominent are found to be of chemically good quality and fit for direct drinking except bacteria, 4 The parameter of Nepal's Drinking Water Quality Standard is Given in Appendix 3.17 60 | P a g e suspended solids, and in some cases iron have to be removed effectively. The study under Phase I indicates that more than 60% of the gravity water is undrinkable without treatment measures. Water quality test of 411 schemes during Batch VIII Development Phase reveal that 5.25% of the samples were categorized as into high risk and 28% intermediate risks among which most of the samples were found to be affected with fecal coliform. In the completed schemes there were incidents of occasional contamination from leaves, minute organic matters, insects, leech, algae, tadpole, small fish, Balu, RatoJuka and snail. This biological contamination could be due to the excessive growth of plants on the premises of scheme components (for example: intake site of Halede WSS), malfunctioning of the screen used to filter the water in case of stream sources, faulty slab covers (example collection chamber at Halede WSS), extensive natural activities in the catchment area and excessive dampness. Anthropogenic and natural activities may create chemical contamination (possibly ammonia, nitrate, fluoride, arsenic, iron, manganese). Another possibility could be due to pesticides or chemical fertilizer used in the agricultural fields at the upstream and around the source area. Similarly, contamination due to suspended solids especially during the rainy season (also on sources which either originates or pass through the bed of colloidal soil particles which create all the season turbidity) is also of serious concern. The first flush of the catchment area due to rainfall brings fecal matter dispersed due to open defecation and animal grazing. This might have severe consequences, for example the typhoid epidemic spread during June 2002 in Chitwan district and in 2011 in Achham districts of Nepal. Similarly, there are specific problems such as Arsenic in Terai area. Arsenic concentrations in 1.6% tube wells out of 1515917 tube wells of the 16 RWSSIP Terai districts have greater than 50 ppb. The percentage of tube wells with arsenic concentration ranging from (11-50) ppb is 5.7%. Likewise, 93% tube wells have the arsenic concentration 0-10 ppb. The terai districts having more than 10 ppb arsenic concentrations include: Rautahat (26%), Sarlahi (16%) Siraha (13%), Bardia( 9%) and Kanchanpur (12%) ( Table 3.40). Table 3.40: Households Exposed to Arsenic Level in RWSSIP Districts Households by Arsenic Concentration Level S. N. District 0 - 10 ppb 11 - 50 ppb Above 50 ppb Total No. % No. % No. % No. % 1 Banke 28929 97.22 644 2.16 184 0.62 29757 1.96 2 Bara 92630 91.29 5541 5.64 3297 3.25 101468 6.69 3 Bardiya 70285 89.17 3681 4.67 4856 6.16 78822 5.20 4 Chitwan 76601 99.72 165 0.21 47 0.06 76813 5.07 5 Dang 51431 99.26 300 0.58 82 0.16 51813 3.42 6 Dhanusa 90791 96.43 2845 3.02 520 0.55 94156 6.21 7 Jhapa 143103 99.34 888 0.62 69 0.05 144060 9.50 8 Kanchanpur 52119 88.7 4790 8.15 1851 3.15 58760 3.88 9 Mahottari 73455 99.18 574 0.78 32 0.04 74061 4.89 10 Morang 141623 97.88 2848 1.97 220 0.15 144691 9.54 11 Parsa 145334 94.51 6289 4.09 2158 1.40 153781 10.14 12 Rautahat 75970 73.56 23727 22.98 3576 3.46 103273 6.81 13 Saptari 94715 93.08 5447 5.35 1593 1.57 101755 6.71 14 Sarlahi 89500 83.96 15577 14.61 1520 1.43 106597 7.03 61 | P a g e 15 Siraha 85725 87.11 10303 10.47 2383 2.42 98411 6.49 16 Sunsari 92895 95.08 3720 3.81 1084 1.11 97699 6.44 Total 1405106 92.69 87339 5.76 23472 1.55 1515917 100.00 Source: The State of Arsenic in Nepal, 2011 by ENPHO/GENESIS There are contamination issues related to practices of water collection and use. The rope tied with a container which is used to collect the water from the dug well is frequently kept on the soil surface or floor. This transfers the contaminants from the soil to the rope and when it is used next time the contaminants get transferred to the well water. Similarly, improper handling ofcollected water ( e,g keeping in a dirty container, keeping in open vessels, easy access to fly and cockroach, using without washing hands) also contaminate the water. There are cases where the Fund Board schemes have been dropped out after serious issues of water quality such as high iron content, high arsenic content and high turbidity ( e.gJamunabari WSS, Jhapa district Batch VI-high iron content in the lift system; SukrasBastiGujarna WSS Bardiya district Batch VII--arsenic issue in Shallow tube well; Pipara WSS, Banke district Batch VII-high turbidity in lift system) The water quality issues by geographical regions and technology is summarized in Table 3.41 Table 3.41: Water Quality Issues by Technology Type Geographical Related Water Quality Issue region/Technology Hilly area for gravity Water quality problems, mainly relating to physical parameter i.e. turbidity and low schemes: PH in water sources; and chemical parameter i.e. calcium encrustation (scaling) Non–point sources of pollution in the catchments area, including those due to human activities and possible agricultural and surface run-offs, especially during the rainy season Inadequate testing monitoring of drinking water quality after post implementation phase. Testing and monitoring of the bacteriological contamination of drinking water supplies not reliable Lack of treatment of drinking water supplies Washing/bathing and other domestic activities carried out around the sources of water supply and water points. Terai area for ground Water quality problems, mainly due to chemical parameters such as arsenic and water schemes nitrates in shallow depth. Scheme failed due to high turbidity, iron and manganese in deep tube wells. Water logging specially during flooding contaminates the water in shallow tube well if not adequately raised and without platform and apron. Risk of ground water pollution due to non–point sources of pollution like maximum use of fertilizer, pesticide and insecticide in the catchments areas and close to water sources as during rainy season it infiltrates into ground and contaminates water. Use of number of submersible pumps and dug wells not covered creates risk for water contamination. Lack of facilities for testing and monitoring of the bacteriological contamination of drinking water supplies close to communities Lack of community manageable treatment plants Construction of pit latrine within 30 meter radius of shallow tube well and dug well. 62 | P a g e 3.4.1.3 Environmental Sanitation Issues including drainage problem The tendency of washing/bathing and other domestic activities around the sources of water and water points due to human and animal activities, inadequacy of provisions for silage and storm water drainage, and drainage around taps and wells, internal village roads without proper formations or pavements, low coverage of the household latrine or practice of open defecation, poor management of solid waste at household and public places , especially in source areas have created several environmental hazards. During scheme construction, the issues are associated with damage to the vegetation, pollution due to construction wastes, and loss of stability at the sand / stone query sites due to haphazard collection.According to Batch III Sustainability Study Findings 2007, lack of proper cleaning practices in and around the public places is reported in 66% of the schemes followed by lack of tap stand cleanings (20%), lack of protection measures in the reservoir tank (17%) and collection chamber (14%). The occasional contamination from leaves, minute organic matters, insects, leech, algae, tadpole, small fish, Balu, RatoJuka and snail are also the common issue related to environmental sanitation. The disposal of wastewater is the main issue related to environmental sanitation. According to the Environmental assessment Study 2002, the sources of different wastewater types are listed below: • used water - originating from the tap stand platform / drainpipe • storm water – house premises, surroundings of tap platform • gray water – bathroom ( if any), dish washing, vegetable washing, cloth washing • black water (effluent) – septic tank side wall and bottom, soak pit (if any) • black water (septage) – septic tank The existing practice for the disposal of wastewater originating from these sources is to dispose in the nearby areas and let it take the natural course. The problem due to non- engineered disposal is ponding, promoting mosquito breeding and contamination of shallow tube well, dug well and downstream sources or groundwater. Other environmental sanitation issues include development of facilities such as pavement and side walls in village walkways and place for animals to drink and bath. The problems created by unpaved roads are: difficulty in maintaining the smooth flow of traffic, difficulties from the muddy and dirty portions in the walkways, creation of water patches, erosion of the base and physical burden to refill the eroded portion In Terai area, where the shallow groundwater is extensively used, there is a possibility of contamination from the disposed black water (effluent) or gray water. Other environmental sanitation issues related to ground water are as follows:  Poor sanitary/hygiene conditions at the dug well and tube well areas, including poor drainage management and preventing contamination in the tube well and dug wells.  Proximity of toilets in the case of sallow tube wells and dug wells  Lack of proper cleanliness and management of household as well as institutional toilets and water points.  Lack of overall cleanliness of the community Besides, the sanitation environmental in Terai are affected by arsenic in ground water, drainage around tap stands (risks of vector-breeding), Seepage around wells (which in turn 63 | P a g e may pollute groundwater), household sanitations issues, Latrine/ septic tank effluents, Water pollution during use (water fetching rope, container, etc. In rural areas, open defecation, improper disposal of degradable or non-degradable household waste (like kitchen, human excreta and plastic etc.), livestock waste are remained traditional issues. Their proper disposal or collection has not yet realized by any sustainable approaches. Open defecation free (ODF) movement seems important but sustainability of ODF is also remained a challenge. Based on CBS 2011, the population with toilet facility is reported to be 62%. As of September 2013, 1030 (26%) of the total 3915 VDCs, 12 (21%) of 58 municipalities and 9 (12%) of the 75 districts have achieved 100% sanitation (toilet) coverage (Sanitation Country Paper 2013, SACOSAN). 3.4.2 Socio-Cultural Environmental Issue 3.4.2.1 Water Use Right and Priority The social and cultural concerns are related mostly with issues of conflicts over water supply rights and priorities. Such conflicts are often resolved with the mutual understanding and cooperation among local stakeholders. In fewer cases such conflicts extents up to court/legal cases, unresolved and compel to drop the scheme (e.gPid WSS Darchula district Batch VI; Dangseli WSSS Baitadi Batch VIII, Kandadhar WSS Dailekh district, Batch VII; OkhareMul WSS Kalikot, Batch VII Scheme). 3.4.2.2 Land acquisition in case of sources and other structures Land acquisition remains to be one of the major social problems in infrastructure development of Nepal. However, in case of WASH this has not become a serious issue yet due mainly to two reasons. Firstly, the peoples belief on philosophy of "Panidan (donation of water)" that is to provide drinking water is to earn "punya' or religious merit in the Hindu system. Secondly, whenever, land acquisition is involved, it is transferred in the name of Water User Committee. This process was developed by Fund Board through practical lessons learned and studies. However, in few cases the schemes have been dropped due to source dispute. A Fund Board Study (2011) conducted for the completed schemes under RWSSP I and II has indicated that 26% of the schemes had used private land for the construction of structures (like intake, RVTs and tap stands). The study revealed that the communities have practice of obtaining private land through permission of the owner in writing and/or local level understanding. In fewer cases, the source procurement practices have also been adopted by the users (e.gTudegaira WSS Baitadi, Batch VIII; Tripureshwar WSS Ilam district Batch VII). In such cases, the ownership right legally transfers in the name of WSUG. Although the water source located in the public land is often obtained free of cost, the consent of concerning authority ( e.gDoF, DDC,VDC) is essential which is dully addressed by the supporting agencies.. 3.4.2.3 High demand of Water Increasing awareness among the people to enhance their quality of life, increasing remittance income expansion of rural infrastructures has encouraged the people to construct their own latrines and bathrooms, demanding more water. Similarly, increased number of animal size due to expansion of cooperatives/ micro credit and Community Forestry projects, the demand of water for animal has also been increased over time. However, the present criteria of providing water with a minimum of 25 litre per capita per day ( lpcd ) where water source is 64 | P a g e scare and an average of 45 lpcd where water source is sufficient is reported to be inappropriate to meet the growing consumers' demand. 3.4.2.4 Possibility of discontinuation of traditional rituals and festivals in existing water points In Nepal, the traditional concepts of using the natural resources are interlinked with many festivals, rituals and group activities as they consider water to be a valuable resource without which the life and existence would be impossible. They consider the water sources as holy places which are protected, trees are planted and people have ethical, moral and spiritual obligations to not damage the resources. The Environmental Study for RWSSP II (Khatiwada 2002), however, indicates that there are possibilities of discontinuation of traditional rituals and festivals, discontinuation of the old values and beliefs, practices of conserving the source and catchment area by plantation etc after the project interventions. 3.4.2.5 Social Inclusion Issue The inclusion issues are generally related with the access and participation of women, janjati/indigenous, disadvantaged and remote area people in WASH services and decision making processes. The representation of women and different ethnic groups in Fund Board Water and Sanitation Users Committee (WSUC) is inclusive and proportionate to the population of the particular ethnic/caste group in the country, although their effective role in the decision-making process is still to be enhanced. The present status report of RWSSP (Annual Report 2012) reveals that the representation of women in different groups is as follows: WUSC ( 39%), treasurer (99%), VHP (99%). The ethnic composition of the household members of the completed schemes reveal that the ratio of Brahmin/Chhetri group and indigenous people is similar (37% each) while 16% are Dalit, 1.4% are religious minorities and 10% are from other groups. Similarly, the representation in WSUCs is as follows; Brahmin/Chhetri- 37.9%, Dalit (16.7%), Indigenous People (IP- disadvantaged) -32.9%, IP Advantaged (32.9%), Other excluded group ( 6.6%) and religious minority (1.02%). More specifically, the innovative programmes initiated under RWSSIP II such as piloting of Jeevikaprogramme have also empowered women and promoted social inclusion.The Jeevika initiative aims to strengthen the business linkage for women's groups in terms of both forward and backward linkages – access to soft loans from micro-finance institutions/commercial banks, technical assistance for their enterprise/s and marketing for their products - thereby ensuring guaranteed income for them. JagaranKaryakram (Social Accountability Programme): In order to address the gaps and challenges in ensuring quality of the process and service delivery up to the satisfaction of the beneficiaries, the Board has initiated JagaranKaryakram stressing on accountability and transparency as factors for successful implementation of the project and acquiring effective and expected benefit by the communities. JagaranKaryakram has addressed to ensure downstream accountability and good governance in the projects for effective service delivery, community empowerment and supported to mitigate social issues. Evidently, the schemes under RWSSP II are reaching to more remote communities, focused on women, IP communities, poor. 74% of the schemes are still within 10 km of the road head (RWSSP II, 2012 Annual Report) compared to 86% in RWSSP I (SAMANTA 2002). The 65 | P a g e schemes generally move to remote areas after the communities in road head have been saturated. Still, a majority of the schemes (62%) are within 5 km distance of the road head. 3.2.5.6 Other Issues Construction of project components in the community forestry areas might create disturbances to the forest users and forestry resources. Similarly lying of the pipeline (example – SimleKusunde WSS) in the lake water might cause disturbances to the lake water users. The inability to pay by the IP, poor and the women due to migration of their family member the upfront cash as per WASH Sector norms has prevented them from benefiting from water and sanitation services. Similarly, due to the significant involvement of youths in overseas for jobs, the community people (old and children) face problems in providing labour contribution for scheme construction. Due to this, few schemes were delayed for construction and some dropped. The provision of community contribution (minimum 20%) as per the policy has also created problems in Terai schemes especially in ST and DW where there is no/less unskilled labour work for kind contribution. Table 3.42 Summary of Positive and Negative Impact of WASH Services Region/Technology Impact Positive Negative Hilly area for gravity Unhygienic pit latrine has Availability of Clean water schemes increased flies and mosquitoes Awareness level on health, sanitation and hygiene Pollution around water points enhanced Time saving and use of saved Strained relationship among time for productive and users educational works Ability to grow and eat fresh vegetables Reduction in diseases and illness Terai area for ground High iron content( 9% in case of Access to safe water water schemes NEWAH project) Non-availability of spare parts (29% in case of NEWAH project) Improved health and Conflict over maintenance fund( sanitation knowledge 14% in case of NEWAH project) Failure of sanitation programme Improved sanitation and (19% in case of NEWAH project) cleaner environment Better relationship in the community Kitchen garden establishment and eating of green vegetable 66 | P a g e Chapter IV: Stakeholder Analysis 4.1 The Stakeholders The Project stakeholders are the rural beneficiary households, Water and Sanitation Users Group (WSUG), Water and Sanitation Users Committee (WSUC) at the local level. The government agencies, local bodies, private sector entrepreneurs (dairy, cooperatives, nurseries, local service providers), and NGOs have an interest in the project at district level. Similarly the departments and ministries have also relevance with regards to the social environmental interventions in the project. All these stakeholders are likely to be benefited from the project, have a stake, role and potentially influence the project’s outcome, and are likely to influence the conflict and governance risk factors associated with the project. The RWSSIP stakeholders are thus divided into three main groups: • Primary Stakeholders • Intermediary Stakeholders and • Secondary Stakeholder Figure 4.1: Major WASH Stakeholders and Management Structure 4.1.1 Primary Stakeholders The rural households and communities and their CBOs at the grass root level who are directly affected by the project are the primary stakeholders of the RWSSIP.Grassroots organizations are provider of services as well as users themselves. Examples are CBOs and Water and Sanitation Users Committees (WSUCs) of a water scheme. Registration of the WSUCs with district authorities is mandatory. They participate in the planning and construction, and are responsible for operation and maintenance of schemes. Similarly, the women technical support service ( WTSS), Jeevika (livelihood) Groups and JagaranSamitiformed under Fund Board Schemes are also the major local level stakeholders for the Project. 67 | P a g e The more effective grassroots organizations/institutions include the following: Women’s Group( Amasamuha) , Schools, Saving and Credit Organizations (groups or cooperatives), Political Parties, Village Health Workers, Health Centres and Local Clubs/CBOs. Particularly the promotion of hygiene and sanitation is considered to be more effective if it is launched coordinating these existing organizations. Currently, Ward Citizens’ Forums formed under Local Governance andCommunity DevelopmentProgramme/UNDP (LGCDP) are also active in the VDCs as a strong grassroots organization involved in planning and monitoring. 4.1.2 Intermediary Stakeholders The WASH related intermediary stakeholders at the regional and district level that have relevance to environmental and social sector interventions and outcomes of the Project include the Water Supply and Sanitation Divisional Office (WSSDO), District Development Committee (DDC),District WASH Coordination Committee ( DWSHCC), Village Development Committee (VDC), VDC WASH Coordination Committee ( VWASHCC), District Public Health Office (DPHO), District Women Development Office (DWDO), District Technical Office (DTO) and District Education Office ( DEO). The regional level directorates of DWSS, health and education offices and regional WASH Coordination committee (RWSHCC) are also the prime intermediary stakeholders. Similarly, local NGOs and private sector entrepreneurs have also some intermediary role and have important effect on the project outcomes. The key role and function of these stakeholders are presented in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Type and Function of Key Intermediary Stakeholders Stakeholder Key Function DDCs are autonomous state authorities and have coordinating role of all District Development development related activities in the district. The rules and regulations provide Committees (DDC)s the organizational structure for multi-sectoral coordination and define the process of integrated plan formulation DWASHCC is the planning and coordination body at district level headed by Local Development Officer (LDO) that is instrumental in launching WASH campaign such as ODF or district WASH program. DDCs have experience of implementing programs and projects – which they do through users District WASH committees, NGOs, private sector, or VDCs. They have considerable mandate Coordination Committee for supervision and monitoring of programs at the district level. DDCs in (DWASHCC) consultation with VDCs and other stakeholders including communities prepare District Strategic WASH Plan to improve water supply and sanitation situation of the distrct. VDCs are autonomous state authorities with their own plan and budget Village Development responsible for water supply and sanitation functions among other development Committees (VDCs) activities. VDCs can plan and implement WASH programs of their own. VDC WASH plans can include a number of WASH schemes on priority order. VWASHCC is the planning and coordination body at VDC level headed by VDC VDC WASH Coordination Secretary that is instrumental in launching WASH campaign such as ODF or Committee (VWASHCC) implementing VDC WASH program. DTO supported by Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Road (DoLIDAR) is the technical wing of DDC. Thus, DTO is responsible for preparation, planning and execution of the water supply and District Technical Office sanitation schemes for less than 1,000 beneficiaries. Water and Sanitation (DTO) Users Committee (WSUC) is responsible for overall implementation management and post construction operation and maintenance of the water schemes. WSSDO is the line agency of DWSS having responsibility for drinking water and sanitation project implementation for over 1,000 beneficiaries. It is very difficult Water Supply and sometimes to draw the line between the projects implemented by WSSDO and Sanitation Divisional DTO and therefore sector appear to be overlapping between the two. At the Office (WSSDO) moment WSSDO has the mandate to implement sanitation in the District. WSSDO Chief is the Secretary of the DWASHCC and responsible for WASH 68 | P a g e data management at the district level. The Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan anyhow proposes that a District “Sanitation Desk” as part of the DDC Secretariat would be established. The Desk would be headed by the District Sanitation Officer. 4.1.3 Secondary Stakeholders The related departments, ministries and central level committees who have executing and guiding role in the WASH sectors are indicated as the secondary stakeholders. These stakeholders will provide policy directives and coordination for the project implementation. Similarly, support for component 2 will be provided in forming Project Management Unit (PMU) and monitoring supervision of the implementation of the component. The nature and functions of key secondary stakeholders are presented in Table 4.2. Table 4.2: Type and Function of Key Secondary Stakeholders Stakeholder Key Function NPC is the advisory body for formulating development plans and policies National Planning of the country under the directives of the National Development Council Commission (NPC) (NDC). It explores and allocates resources for economic development and works as a central agency for monitoring and evaluation of development plans, policies and programmes including WASH. MoUD is the sectoral ministry responsible for water supply and sanitation for over 1,000 beneficiaries. In close cooperation with National Planning Commission (NPC)MPPW formulates policies and plans for the sector. MoUD has established M&E unit for rural water supply and sanitation sector in Nepal. The major objective of the M&E unit is to consolidate the investment made in the sector and establish a realistic picture at the sector for future investment. Rural water and sanitation policy states that the role of DWSS has been shifted from implementation to that of facilitation leaving construction, operation and maintenance of systems to Ministry of Urban local bodies, NGOs and users groups. Development (MoUD) MoUD is defined as Executing Agency for RWSSIP. It will provide policy directives and coordination for the project implementation. For Component 2 of RWSSIP, the MOUD will provide support in forming Project Management Unit (PMU) and monitoring supervision of the implementation of this Component. A Project Advisory Committee (PAC) is also proposed under MoUD comprising of representation from DOLIDAR, MoUD, DWSS, MFALD and Fund Board to achieve better coordination and harmonisation in implementing RWSSIP. DWSS is the lead agency for the drinking water supply and sanitation sector of Nepal under MoUD. It is working towards achieving the sector objective of Government of Nepal which is to achieve ‘sustained improvement in health status and productivity for Nepalese people as a Department of Water whole with particular emphasis on lower income groups through the Supply and Sewerage provision of adequate, locally sustainable water supply and sanitation (DWSS) facilities in association with improved personal, household and community hygiene behaviour’ It will have Coordination and linkages role for RWSSIP implementation For component 2 of RWSSIP the Department will provide support to form D-WASH Unit jointly with District Technical Office (DTO) and support the Project Management Unit (PMU) to be formed for Component 2. 69 | P a g e MFALD is a focal organization for promoting local development and decentralization in the country. It operates through local bodies i.e. District Development Committee (DDC) and Village Development Committees (VDCs). It contributes in the poverty reduction by mobilizing local means and resources, utilizing skill and technology to the optimum level and creating employment opportunity. MFALD is mandated to play a role to enhance access of socially and Ministry of Federal economically disadvantaged groups, region and community to the Affairs and Local service and facility delivered, promote local good governance through Development (MFALD). capacity building; empowerment of women, dalit, indigenous, Madheshi, Muslim, disable and ultra-poor people through social mobilization and their mainstreaming and ensure inclusive development by enhancing peoples' participation in decision making and planning process into the wave of development. It provides central level coordination for project implementation and district level coordination and linkages through DDCs and VDCs. Department of Local DOLIDAR under MFALD is responsible for the provision of all necessary Infrastructure technical and managerial support to local bodies, as well as for the Development and coordination of all infrastructure development activities within the Agricultural Roads framework of the MFALD. (DoLIDAR) Apart from the regular rural water supply and sanitation programme . being implemented through DTOs, two Finish supported WASH programs (RVWRMP and RWSSP-WN) are implemented under DoLIDAR through program DDCs and VDCs. Ministry of Finance MOF Allocates budgets for the sectoral ministries and also involved in (MoF) programme monitoring to ensure the effectiveness of fund utilisation.. MoHP plays a leading role in improving the condition of health of the people including mental, physical and social wellbeing, for overall national development with the increased participation of the private Ministry of Health and sector and non-governmental institutions. The Ministry is also Population (MoHP) responsible to make necessary arrangements and formulate policies for effective delivery of curative services, disease prevention, health promotion activities and mandated for water quality surveillance. MES is an apex body responsible for the formulation of education policies and strategies. It ensures the implementation of policy and programs through Regional Directorates and District Education Offices Ministry of Education throughout the country. Schools are formidable channels to change the and Sports (MES) sanitation behaviour of the children and then to influence the family in the rural communities. School Led Total Sanitation Programs have been implemented in many schools with the promotion of institutional toilets at schools. National Hygiene and Coordination at Central Level among the water and sanitation related Sanitation Coordination stakeholders such as related ministries, NPC, donors and INGO for Committee ( NHSCC) sector effectiveness. Besides the ministries, departments and committees, following national and international agencies also working in the Project area as a secondary organisations that support the WASH sector. So it is essential to know their role and function to eliminate the duplication of the WASH activities and optimize the available resources through linkages of WASH and livelihood programmes. 70 | P a g e United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) concentrates in Nepal on school-led total sanitation and water quality aspects, especially arsenic issues. The sanitation activities are undertaken in 23 districts of the country. The objective of the programme is to introduce an open defecation free zone (ODFZ) in one VDC in each district. UNICEF also supports GON in sector policies and water quality issues, and has developed plenty of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) material, which can be used by all stakeholders. World Health Organization (WHO) has no specific water and sanitation related projects in Nepal. WHO has published a handbook on rural water supply and sanitation and particularly promotes Water Safety Plans (WSPs) to be applied in remote rural areas, instead of laboratory analyses, which, in spite of their relatively high cost, cannot provide reliable on-time data on the safety of drinking water. The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHSP or UN-HABITAT) is currently implementing Global Sanitation Fund (GSF) program focusing on promoting sanitation in the program districts targeting ODF and total sanitation. Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF) envisages developing and implementing programmes that address the issues and problems of the lower rung of the society. Initially PAF has worked in 25 districts of Nepal but has recently expanded to all districts of the country. PAF has adopted a demand led community based approach to alleviate poverty. The target communities are encouraged to undertake initiatives to improve their livelihoods, incorporating small-scale village community infrastructure and water and sanitation. Water Aid Nepal, according to its strategy for 2005-2010, aims to directly help 31,000 beneficiaries to have access to improved water supply and 44,000 beneficiaries annually to have access to improved sanitation and hygiene education, and indirectly through its partners 32,000 additional people to benefit from improved water supply and 33,000 people from improved sanitation every year. Water Aid Nepal also lobbies and advices GON Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH), implements water and sanitation projects, in line with its framework for strategic intervention 2006-2010, focusing on infrastructure development and sustainable hygiene behavioural changes, together with livelihood opportunities, promotion of social equity, capacity development, IWRM, etc. NEWAH also conducts relevant research. NEWAH is one of the key partners of Water Aid Nepal. Helvetas Nepal is one of the most experienced supporters of rural water supply and sanitation as well as rural water resources planning and management. In RVWRMP Phase I Helvetas has a dual role: on the one hand it has been a member of the consulting consortium providing Project support and on the other a partner of RVWRMP through its Water Resources Management Programme (WARM-P). In 2009, Helvetas shifted its working area focusing on WUMP, water supply and sanitation and source conservation. The Federation of Drinking Water and Sanitation Users Nepal (FEDWASUN) is an umbrella organisation of drinking water and sanitation user groups in Nepal. It advocates the water and sanitation rights and aims at being the voice of water users, bringing people’s issues to the attention of policy makers and service providers. It also promotes good governance and organizes training and awareness campaigns. SNV Nepal (SNV/N) works in five sectors in Nepal: (i) renewable energy; (ii) WASH; (iii) smallholder cash crops; (iv) forest products; and (v) pro-poor sustainable tourism. SNV/N plans to support MLD/Dolidar in the development of capacities and WASH knowledge. 71 | P a g e International Development Enterprises Nepal (IDE) has been working in Nepal since 1992, mainly with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), on Smallholders Irrigation Market Initiative (SIMI) and the education for income generation (IEG) projects with its partners. IDE in Nepal has taken a leading role in developing and refining appropriate micro-irrigation technologies, e.g., drip systems and micro-sprinkle treadle pumps as well as water storage technologies manufactured in Nepal. Care Nepal has several ongoing projects in different districts focusing, e.g, on promoting equitable and sustainable livelihoods, water and sanitation, health and education. Plan Nepal: Water and environmental sanitation is one of the core support areas of Plan Nepal together with child development and learning, health and nutrition, etc. Practical Action supports the efforts of poor men and women to improve their livelihoods by providing, for example, appropriate technology options, associated information, knowledge, and skills. Recently, Practical Action has conducted a field study in six districts, including Doti and Kailali, to understand the community’s perception on climate change and the impacts of climate change on their livelihoods. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is an organisation devoted to the development and promotion of renewable and alternative energy technologies in Nepal. AEPC has an autonomous status under the purview of the Ministry of Environment. AEPC has mandate to support alternative and renewable energy solutions that provide up to 500 kW of electricity and TA up to 1 MW solutions. AEPC provides assistance and/or channels government subsidies to the following renewable energy technologies: biogas, pico-hydro and micro-hydro, biomass energy, improved cooking stoves (ICS), solar energy and wind energy. World Wildlife Fund Nepal (WWF Nepal) activities include landscape scale biodiversity conservation, integrated river basin management and climate change issues.. At the community level, Multiple Use Systems (MUS) are promoted in the farmland together with Water Smart Communities approach to ensure improved and sustainable local livelihoods. The Institute for Social and Environmental Transition (ISET) is an international partnership for implementation, education and research on natural resources and the environment. ISET Nepal and Nepal Water Conservation Foundation (NWCF) are both Kathmandu-based NGOs working together and conducting interdisciplinary research on climate change adaptation and interrelated issues that affect the use and management of water. Rainwater Harvesting Capacity Centre (RHCC) promotes rainwater harvesting through awareness raising, research, advocacy and capacity building. It supports construction of rainwater harvesting tanks in Bajhang and Dailekh. 4.2 Capacity of Implementing Agencies for Management of ESMF The institutional capacity is one of the vital components of any project for the smooth and effective program implementation and achieving the desired results. In this regard, a brief assessment of the existing institutional capacity of RWSSDFB to implement the ESMF of RWSSIP is presented in this section. 72 | P a g e 4.2.1 Existing Organizational Structure The existing organizational structure of Fund Board represents a hierarchical line management with different divisions and staff positions designated for specific roles and responsibilities (Figure 7.1). Figure 7.1: Existing Organizational Structure of Fund Board 4.2.1.1 Board of Director A seven member Board representing members from MoUD, MoFALD, Association of District Development Committees of Nepal (ADDCN), National Association of VDCs in Nepal (NAVIN), private sector and NGO is the apex policy making body governing the Fund Board activities. There is provision of Executive Director and Deputy Executive Director as the higher authorities for the day to day management decision making of Board’s activities. 4.2.1.2 Divisions The Fund Board is functioning through five divisions with a total of 48 staff positions of which 30 are professional positions including seven executive staff. Under the Project M&E Division headed by a division chief there is provision of two M&E Officers (comprising of one engineer and one sociologist). Instead of regular routine 73 | P a g e monitoring the Project M&E division is responsible in conducting specific monitoring for gaining lesson learning, involved in conducting different studies including Technical, Operational and Environmental Audit, Sustainability Studies and other case studies and documenting the learning. Under Planning and Operation Division headed by a division chief there is provision of three Regional Managers (RMs) with eleven Portfolio Managers (PMs) having their prime responsibility in managing SOs/SAs and schemes. The RMs and PMs comprises of both engineering and social backgrounds. Similarly, under Program Development/HRD Division headed by a division chief there is provision of one Program Development Officer (PDO) and one Training Communication Officer. It is mainly responsible in managing and facilitating a number of capacity building training activities being carried out by Fund Board directly and/or through different SAs. This division is also involved in managing the implementation of hygiene and sanitation education, livelihood promotion, women empowerment, social accountability and the publication and dissemination of information regarding the Board’s activities at large. In Technical Division under the division chief there is provision of two water supply engineers (WSEs) responsible for screening the proposed schemes based on scheme selection criteria, checking the design estimate of schemes submitted by SOs/SAs, review process for community procurement and material quality spot check, review the environmental assessment/screening of the schemes, water quality testing and monitoring of environmental management plan (EMP) prepared by the communities with supports from SOs. Finally, the Administrative Division is responsible mainly for logistic and day to day office management. There is also a provision of Technical Appraisal Committee (TAC) chaired by Executive Director, Deputy Executive Director as member secretary and comprising of all division chiefs as the members, which is mainly responsible for screening the schemes based on scheme selection criteria and recommending for implementation. TAC also focuses on the existing as well as potential environmental and social issues while screening the feasible schemes to undertake. 4.2.2 Roles in Implementing ESMF and Capacity Assessment In the perspective of implementing the environmental management plan (EMP) as termed till RWSSP-II, the Technical Division is mainly responsible to ensure the environmental screening carried out by the SAs during pre-feasibility site appraisal, ensuring the source adequacy, water quality, assessing the existing as well as potential environmental threats at the scheme level and the appropriateness of mitigation measures proposed by the SOs and SAs in the design estimate etc. Similarly, the Regional Managers (RMs) and Portfolio Managers (PMs) in association with respective SAs are responsible in monitoring and ensuring in the identification and mitigation of social issues such as source dispute, community conflict, inclusiveness and transparency in 74 | P a g e forming the Water and Sanitation Users’ Committees (WSUCs), social mapping and inclusion/safeguard of poor, dalits, indigenous and deprived households, land acquisition process (documentation for voluntary transfer), community procurement and transparency, quality and process of scheme level community action plan (CAP) preparation including EMAP and its endorsement by the mass meeting of the users etc. Hence, the RMs and PMs are also in practice responsible to ensure smooth implementation of EMAP at the scheme level both in technical and social aspects. 4.2.3 Institutional Capacity Assessment and Gap Analysis As mentioned above, the existing EMP activities within the Fund Board at present is being managed and implemented through the joint efforts of different divisions and partner organizations taking the lead role by Technical Division. Currently, the Technical Division including RMs, PMs and respective SOs/SAs are managing the EMP activities jointly and possess the capacity to do it. However, in the perspective of implementing and managing the proposed ESMF, apart from Technical Division which is already providing expertise in area of environmental aspect, Fund Board needs a dedicated professional staff for the better management and implementation on social aspect of ESMF under RWSSIP. 4.2.4 Existing Training Programs Related to ESMF Implementation While delivering the training Fund Board recruits competent Service Agencies (SAs) to build the capacity of SOs staff, which latter on impart similar training to the community people and make them capable in planning, implementing and managing the schemes taking the responsibility and accountability towards the project. From the development phase to post implementation phase the communities especially WSUC members, treasurers, WTSS members, Jeevika groups, VHPs and VMWs are educated and trained by the SO staff by organizing a number of community-level training in different aspects. The existing capacity building training/orientation being carried out by Fund Board to the community, SOs and SAs which are related to ESMF is presented in Appendix 4.1. Considering the new mitigation measures and activities proposed under ESMF for RWSSIP few additional training programs are deemed essential especially in areas of recharge pond construction, water safety plan (WSP), sanitation promotion (CLTS – triggering, ODF and Post ODF activities to achieve total sanitation) to SA, SO and community level and orientation on ESMP framework at all levels. Similarly, three new initiatives i.e. jeevikakaryakram (livelihood program), jagarankaryakram (social accountability) and scheme insurance policy successfully piloted under RWSSP-II seems to be replicated in all schemes in RWSSIP, hence, the proposed training program has also addressed training on these areas for SAs, SOs and community levels. Considering the new approach going to be adopted in sanitation promotion, some new interventions (recharge pond construction, water safety plan etc) under RWSSIP, the Board members and staff of Fund Board also needs some orientation on the basic concept and approaches in the above areas so that the project can benefit by gaining synergy from all 75 | P a g e levels. The details of proposed capacity building training/orientation related to ESMF are presented in Chapter VIII. 76 | P a g e Chapter V: Environment and Social Management Framework 5.1 Introduction This proposed RWSSIP will finance investments in rural water supply and sanitation improvements to serve the rural communities in Nepal’s selected 55 districts (50 districts under Component 1 and 5 districts under Component 2). As mentioned in earlier chapters, RWSSIP will have about 1100 sub-projects covering 1100 communities for water supply and sanitation services and around 400 Village Development Committees (VDCs) for Open Defecation Free in these 55 districts. The project interventions are, therefore, expected to result in public health benefits in the rural communities, through improved quality and delivery levels of RWSS services. Some of the main environmental health benefits expected under the project include: increased and better quality water supply for drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and cleaning purposes; time and energy savings through providing water supply closer to homes; reduced drudgery to women and children, improvements in personal hygiene and community sanitation levels; and reduced fecal oral contamination of drinking water resulting in lower occurrence of diseases. While the proposed project interventions are expected to result in overall environment and public health improvements in the state, potential adverse environment impacts can occur if the schemes are not properly designed, sited, implemented, and maintained. Presently the project districts are identified, but not the villages and communities. These sub-projects will be identified and implemented in 4 batches during the project period. This time lag will lead to changes in the environment and social conditions of these sub-projects. In order to ensure that the environment issues are systematically identified and addressed in the various stages of the implementation of subprojects, an Environment and Social Management Framework (ESMF) has been developed for this project. The specific objectives of the ESMF are as under: • To provide a systematic approach for identifying the various possible environment and social impacts at the different stages of the sub-project cycle. • To identify appropriate mitigation measures for addressing the identified environment and social impacts. • To minimize environment degradation as a result of either individual sub-projects or their cumulative effects. • To enhance positive and sustainable environment and social outcomes associated with Project implementation. • To protect human health. • To minimize impacts on cultural property. • To support the integration of environment and social aspects associated with the numerous sub-projects into the decision making process. • To devise an institutional arrangement for mainstreaming environment and social management in project implementation processes. This ESMF has the following sections: • Screening • Categorization • Impacts and Mitigation • Environment and Social Actions during Project Cycle • Monitoring and Evaluation • Consultation • Disclosure 77 | P a g e 5.2 Screening During the screening, as a first step, the environment and social impacts are identified through filling in an Environment and Social Screening Format. This format is attached as Appendix 5 The basic objective of the filling in this format is to collect information on environment and social aspects of the proposed sub-project. Further the ESMF requires that basic environment and social data pertaining to the proposed sub-project be compiled during the field data collection. The SO fills up these formats with the support of the WSUGs duly identifying the environment and social issues and concerns. Apart from filling the formats, when required, supplementary notes on environment and social concerns will also be added to these formats by the SO. The SA will screen these formats for each sub-project through field visits and collection of necessary filed data. These formats are attached in Appendix 5 During the screening process, the sub-projects are also categorized. The basic objective of this categorization is to ensure that sub-projects with potentially significant environment/ social issues are identified at an early stage for detailed environment/ social assessment. Evaluation of all the available information on environment and social aspects as provided in the formats through field visits and assessment of expected environment and social impacts will be taken up by SA. Based on this assessment, the proposed sub-project will be categorized as E1/E2 and S1/ S2. To this effect the SA will make recommendations to the Fund Board for clearing the proposed categorization. As a part of ESMF process the screening and sub-project categorization will be cleared by the Fund Board, before taking up any ESA. This is further detailed in the paragraphs below. 5.3Categorization In order to give an indication of scale and size of environment and social impacts, the sub- projects are categorized. This categorization is required to carry out the appropriate level of assessments for different types of sub-projects based on the nature, scale and magnitude of their environment and social impacts. Categorization would help in focussing time and effort in sub-projects that have significant impacts. The environment and social categorization of sub- projects is proposed to be as under: 5.3.1 Environment Based on environment impacts the sub-projects are categorized into two categories; 1) E1, where there are significant adverse environment impacts 2) E2, where there are moderate to minimal adverse environment impacts The E2 category sub-projects need not to conduct an EIA. The SO will have to make use of the Codes of Practice attached to this ESMF. This Codes of Practice becomes a part of the DPR (Detailed Project Survey, Design, Estimate, Drawings Report), which will be appraised by SA and Fund Board. If, under special circumstances, Fund Board identifies a need for a limited environmental assessment, then it needs to be conducted. 5.3.2 Social Based on social impacts the sub-projects are categorized into two categories; 1) S1, where there are more than 20 Project Affected Families (PAFs), 2) S2, where there are less than 20 PAFs The S2 category sub-projects need not to conduct Social Assessment but need to prepare a Social Management Plan (SMP). But need to include the Social Guidance given in this ESMF. 78 | P a g e This Social Guidance becomes a part of the DPR, which will be appraised by SA and Fund Board. If, under special circumstances, Fund Board identifies a need for a limited social assessment, then it needs to be conducted. 5.3.3 Environment Social Assessment (ESA) for E1/S1 Category Sub-Projects The E1/S1 category sub-projects require conducting a comprehensive Environment Social Assessment (ESA) and preparation of an Environment and Social Management Plan (ESMP) by SA prior to preparation of DPR for appraisal by Fund Board. This ESA and ESMP need to be disclosed before the start of procurement for that sub-project. 5.4 Summary of Impacts and Categorization A summary of likely impacts due to the sub-projects is given in below table for reference. 79 | P a g e Environment and Social Impacts on Sub-Projects Impacts: S – Significant M – Medium L - Low Table 5.1: Social and Environmental Impacts on Projects Sub-Project Type Social Envi. A B C DE F G H I J KL MNO P Q R Category* Category* 1. Gravity Schemes S1 E2 2. Shallow Tube wells S2 E2 3. Dug Wells S2 E2 4. Groundwater Lift Schemes S2 E2 5. Deep Tube wells S2 E2 6. Surface Water Lift Schemes S2 E2 6. Rain Water Harvesting S2 E2 8. Construction of Household Latrines S2 E2 9. Construction of Institutional Latrines S2 E2 10. Compost pits S2 E2 Code Impact Code Impact Code Impact A Land acquisition G Ground Water Quality M Smell B Involuntary Resettlement H Destruction of Habitat/Flora Fauna N Smoke C Land Use I Public Health O Disturbance to Other Services D Hydrology and drainage Pattern J Safety P Air Quality E Water logging K Bio-diversity Q F Surface Water Quality L Noise R * - To be decided, whether E1/ E2 and S1/ S2, based on the magnitude if impacts due to sub-project by Fund Board during screening. 80 | P a g e 5.5 Impacts and Mitigation As a part of preparation of ESMF, secondary research was undertaken to predict/ estimate the nature, scale, magnitude and scope of the environment and social impacts due to the sub-projects. The environment and social impacts were analyzed vis-à-vis the various sub- projects under RWSSIP. The sub-project categorization as E1 or E2 was done on the basis of this analysis. After identifying the impacts, the mitigation measures were also determined. These mitigation measures were included as Codes of Practice and Social Guidance in this ESMF. These have not been included here to avoid repetition. This guidance also includes information on whether these mitigation measures have to be undertaken in the planning/ design, construction and operation phases. However, each category of sub-projects needs to incorporate mitigation measures as given below: 5.5.1 E1/ S1 Category For E1/S1 category sub-projects, SA will carry out an Environment Social Assessment and prepare an Environment Social Management Plan. In this regard Fund Board needs to prepare a Terms of Reference (ToR) for the SA for ESA of this category of sub-projects. This ESMF needs to be shared with the SA for following the procedures and using the relevant information in their assessment. This ESMP needs to be disclosed at local level and national level to the concerning stakeholder before the start of procurement for that sub-project. 5.5.2 E2/S2 Category For E2/S2 category sub-projects, the SO would have to include the Codes of Practice and Social Guidance given in the ESMF in the DPR. Fund Board needs to share this ESMF containing the impacts and mitigation measures with the SO, for them to use in the preparation of the DPR. Fund Board will ensure that the Terms of Reference for the SO will include these. 5.5.3 ESMF and Relevant Codes of Practice and Social Guidance as Part of Contract Documents For all sub-projects, Fund Board needs to ensure that the ESMF and relevant Codes of Practice and Social Guidance are provided as a part of the contract documents to the contractor facilitating its integration into the main works. 5.6 Sub-project Cycle and Environment and Social Requirements The environment and social required to be fulfilled during the sub-project cycle; i.e., during pre-development, development, implementation and post-implementation (Operation and Maintenance (O&M)) are listed in the below table and the flow chart. 81 | P a g e Identification of Sub-Project Environment and Social ImpactsIdentification by SOs Filling of Environment and Social Screening Formats by SAs Category E2/ Sub-Project Category E1/ S2 Categorization S1 Codes of ESA conducted by SAs Follow ESMF Guidance Practice and Social Guidance as given in ESMF used ESMP prepared by SAs by SOs Review by The World Bank Environmental and Social Appraisal by Fund Board Sub-Project Approval by Fund Board Environmental and Social Compliance Certification Monitoring by SOs, SAs and Fund Board by WSUGs ESMF/ Codes of Practice/ Social Guidance/ ESMP Quarterly Implementation by SOs Figure 1: Environment and Social Management Flow Chart 82 | P a g e Table5.2: Environmental and Social Activities and Responsibilities to be fulfilled during the sub-project cycle Phase ESMF Activity Objectives Process Responsibility Result Pre-Development Identification To collect basic The ESMF requires that basic environmental and SO Formats filled and Environment and information on social data pertaining to the proposed sub-project be attached with the Social Screening environmental and compiled at the field data collection stage. For this project Pre- Format social aspects of purpose, a simple Environment and Social Format Feasibility Report the proposed sub- and a simple Socio-Economic Survey format were project. formulated. The formats are furnished under Appendix 5. The sub-project SO fills up these formats with the facilitation support of the WSUG duly identifying the environment and social issues and concerns. Supplementary notes on environmental and social concerns be added to these formats. Pre-Development Screening and To ensure that sub- SA will evaluate all the available information on SA Sub-project Categorization projects with environment and social aspects as provided in the classified as E1/E2 Environment and potentially formats through field visits and assess, based on the and S1/S2. Social classification significant level of expected environment and social impacts, As a part of ESMF of the sub-project environment/ social whether the proposed sub-project is E1/E2 and S1/ process the issues are identified S2. This categorization is cleared by the Fund screening and sub- at an early stage for Board. project detailed For E2 and S2, there is no need for further ESA. The categorization need environmental/ SO will use the Generic EMP attached to this ESMF. to be cleared by social assessment. Fund Board, before taking up ESA. Development Preparation To conduct For E2/ S2 category sub-projects for which detailed SA ESA done. EMP/ Environmental and Environment Social environment social assessment is required, this ESA RAP prepared and Social Assessment Assessment and and preparation of EMP/ RAP will be done by SA disclosed prior to and Management Prepare independent of the SO. start of procurement Plans Management Plans for that sub-project. for integration into sub-project DPR (Detailed Project Survey, Design, Estimate, Drawings Report) 83 | P a g e Phase ESMF Activity Objectives Process Responsibility Result Development Appraisal To ensure that For E2 and S2 sub-projects, there shall be no Fund Board Environment and Environmental and relevant separate environmental/ Social appraisal but Environment social appraisal of Social appraisal environmental and environmental/ social aspects shall be included in Social Manager the project is made social issues have the normal appraisal and evaluation process for the and approval of been identified and proposed sub-project, based on the formats included proposed sub- appropriate in the DPR. All these sub-projects need to follow the project, with decision mitigation mitigation measures detailed in the ESMF Guidance. to (i) accept scheme measures have This will be ensured by the Fund Board. as submitted, or (ii) been designed to accept scheme with address them. For projects requiring a detailed ESA, including modification evaluation of environment/ social impacts, risk suggested after assessment if needed, and design of mitigation environment/ social measures, will be done by the Fund Board appraisal by SA. Environment and Social Manager. Development Approval To ensure that For E1/ S1 category sub-projects, approval for the Fund Board Technical Sanction Environment and mitigation sub-project will not be accorded without the for sub-projects with Social approval measures and their appraisal by Fund Board and the review of ESA by environment and required cost are integrated The World Bank social mitigation in scheme design measures and and implementation accordingly its costs plans are integrated in sub-project design and implementation plans. Implementation Implementation To ensure that the The prescribed environment and social mitigation Fund Board, ICR with Implementation of prescribed measures (including construction stage measures) WSUG environment and Environment and environment and as identified through the environment and social social compliance social mitigation social mitigation appraisal process are adequately implemented. information. measures. measures Implementation Completion Report (ICR) ( (including Appendix 5) for sub-project will need to include an construction stage) Environment and Social Compliance Certificate are implemented. given by the WSUG indicating that the mitigation measures identified in the appraisal (including construction stage) have been implemented. Post- Supervision, To ensure that Monitoring of indictors will be conducted as per WSUG, SA, Fund Fund Board will Implementation Monitoring and environment and project monitoring protocol. Board, submit quarterly 84 | P a g e Phase ESMF Activity Objectives Process Responsibility Result Evaluation social aspects are Supervision will be conducted by the designated Environment Social reports to The World Environment and integrated in the SAs of the sub-projects Manager Bank on Safeguards Social supervision, Post All sub-projects will be monitored by Fund Board. Implementation. monitoring and Implementation Capacity building and IEC activities are undertaken Quarterly monitoring evaluation phase. to enable effective implementation of the ESMF reports by SA. IEC and capacity including assessment procedures, supervision, Periodic thematic building on monitoring, etc. as well as for community awareness environmental and environment and and sensitization. This will be done by the SA and in social supervision social issues. turn the SA will be trained by Fund Board. During the reports will also be Pre-Development phase of the project the Fund submitted. Board professional and executive staff, some chosen SO and SA staff and consultants will be Training and IEC given training in Environment and Social issues in activity reports will Rural Water Supply and Sanitation. be submitted to The World Bank. 85 | P a g e 5.7Monitoring and Evaluation The ESMF requires detailed supervision, monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the sub- project on the environment and social aspects. In order to carry out this, Fund Board will have specific arrangements made at center, regionaland district levels. This includes appointment of an Environment and Social Manager at Fund Board. Further the Fund Board will instruct the Field level implementing agencies on how to implement the provisions of this ESMF. At the field level, staffs of these SOs have experience of implementing water and sanitation sub-projects. Implementation of the provisions of ESMF is new to these staff and hence several orientations and trainings are proposed as a part of this ESMF to build their capacity. Capacity building and IEC activities are undertaken to enable effective implementation of the ESMF including assessment procedures, supervision, monitoring, etc. as well as for community awareness and sensitization. This will be done by the SO trained by SA and/or NGOs Network, and in turn the SA and/or NGOs Network, will be trained by Fund Board. During the Pre-Development phase of the project the Fund Board professional and executive staff, NGOs Network, some chosen SO and SA staff and consultants will be given training in Environment and Social issues in Rural Water Supply and Sanitation. In order to achieve the objectives of this ESMF and to ensure the safeguards are implemented in a proper manner, these provisions are made in this ESMF. The Fund Board will be in charge of implementing the ESMF. The Environment and Social Manager of Fund Board will guide and oversee the implementation of the ESMF at field level. This overall guidance will be given by her/him . Further the Fund Board will incorporate the provisions of this ESMF as actionable points in the Project Operations Manual or other similar document for the project. These will be non-negotiable and will have to be followed by all the field units of the implementing agencies. The Environment Social Manager will oversee the application of these provisions and guide the process, while at the same time building the capacity of the SOs. At the field level the designated Environment and Social Experts of the SOs/ SAs will ensure the implementation of the ESMF. The following provisions include the arrangements made for the effective implementation of the ESMF: 5.7.1 Environment Social supervision This is basically done by SA/NGOs Network and ensured by Fund Board. All the sub-projects will be visited at regular intervals by Fund Board /SA/NGOs Network to check if all safeguard requirements are met and to identify any issues that need to be addressed. Fund Board submits quarterly progress reports to The World Bank on safeguards implementation. 5.7.1.1Environmental and Social Parameters Once every year, the Fund Board will prepare a report of the environment and social situation in the project districts including data and analysis of relevant parameters as given below:  Environmental parameters o Groundwater availability o Surface water availability o Groundwater quality o Surface water quality o Soil erosion o Soil quality o Pollution in water bodies o Water related diseases occurrence and mortality rates o Changes in land use  Social parameters o Income 88 | P a g e o Literacy o Housing o Ownership of household assets o Water supply Coverage o Time Savings o Sanitation Coverage o Latrine usage o Women Empowerment, etc. o Satisfaction Levels o Time taken for land procurement o Number of grievances registered o Number of grievances resolved o Number of court cases This report also should give a listing of relevant new legislation and regulations that have a bearing on the environment social performance of the project. Fund Board will submit this report to The World Bank. The ESMF will be suitably revised annually on the basis of this document by the Fund Board. 5.7.2 Quarterly Monitoring The concurrent internal environment social monitoring will be done as part of the regular monitoring by the SOs and SAs. However, Fund Board will do the quarterly environment and social monitoring of sub-projects on sample basis or whole for safeguards compliance (Appendix 5). 5.7.3 Monitoring Plan Given in the table below are indicators for project investments, for which monitoring need to be taken up by Fund Board in a regular manner. 89 | P a g e Table 5.3: Indicators for project investments Project Components Monitoring Indicators Frequency Agency • ravity Schemes Environmental parameters • Quarterly • Fund • Shallow Tube wells • Groundwater availability by SOs/ Board • Dug Wells • Surface water availability SAs guiding the • Groundwater Lift • Groundwater quality • Annually collection Schemes • Surface water quality by Fund of • Deep Tube wells • Soil erosion Board information • Surface Water Lift • Soil quality on Schemes • Pollution in water bodies indicators • Rain Water • Water related diseases occurrence and • SOs Harvesting mortality rates • SAs • Construction of • Changes in land use Household Latrines • Water Availability in downstream • Construction of sources Institutional Latrines • Sand casting • Compost pits • Sedimentation in water bodies • Debris deposits on lands • Changes in land use Social parameters • Time taken for land procurement • Number of grievances registered • Number of grievances resolved • Number of court cases • Income patterns • Land holding status • Changes in occupations • Literacy • Nutrition • Housing status (area, floor, walls, roof, etc.) • Ownership of household assets • Water supply coverage (distance from source, quality, time savings, etc.) 90 | P a g e Project Components Monitoring Indicators Frequency Agency • Sanitation coverage (drains, roads, solid waste, public health, etc.) • Latrine usage • Empowerment of Women, Dalits and Janajatis (membership and positions in societies, group formation, linkages, etc.) • Satisfaction Levels Other • No. of training programs conducted • No. of personnel trained • Trainees’ understanding of the training content • Achievement of learning objectives • Application of methods, tools and techniques learnt during training • Adherence to contract conditions and standards (housing, sanitation, crèches, use of local labour, equal wages to men and women, avoidance of child labour, etc.) • Absence of inconvenience, nuisance and complaints • No. of sub-projects completed without time and cost overruns • Adherence to project guidelines 5.8Stakeholder Consultation As a part of ESMF preparation sample sub-projects that were identified for investments in the first phase were visited by the Fund Board and its consultants and stakeholders were consulted. The information gathered during these consultations was incorporated in the environment and social assessment, and in the ESMF as appropriate. Apart from the field visits, Fund Board has held several meetings with the stakeholders during which their experiences, views, opinions and perceptions were gathered and these were incorporated into this ESMF. The issues presented in these sections are the summary of those visits and discussions. Further a Stakeholder Consultation Workshop with the participating stakeholders is planned for 13 December 2013 to gather their feedback on the ESMF and accordingly the ESMF will be revised. 5.8.1 Stakeholder Involvement and Consultation Fund Board would engage SOs and SAs to assist them in preparing the sub-project DPRs. In the ToR for these consultants, there will be an explicit requirement for the consultants to carry out public/ stakeholder consultations at all phases of the sub-project cycle. This is a mechanism to ensure the upfront public/ stakeholder inputs in the preparation of the sub-projects. In these ToRs the public/ stakeholder consultations forms an integral part. For all sub-projects obtaining consent of the local agencies and necessary clearances from competent authorities is mandatory and should form part of the ToRs of SOs, SAs. 91 | P a g e During sub-project implementation WSUGs, VDCs, NGOs, Community Based Organisations (CBOs), etc. will be involved. Project monitoring reports would be disseminated in the public consultation meetings in the WSUGs. The stakeholder meetings would discuss the sub-project progress reports and make recommendations for sub-project control and modifications. These recommendations would be made use for future sub-project design. Consultations are required for preparation of all safeguards mitigation documents and these consultations should be an on-going activity over the life of the project. 5.9 Disclosure 5.9.1National Level Fund Board shall disclose this entire ESMF at their website www.rwss.org.np. The summary of the ESMF need to be translated into Nepali language and placed on the website. 5.9.2 District Level Fund Board has also arranged to disclose the final versions of the ESMF (English and Nepali) in all the District Development Committee offices. These would be in place once the final versions are ready. When this document is updated, then the copies at these different locations would also be updated. During the implementation phase, all the sub-project ESAs shall be disclosed by Fund Board both at the local level and at the Central level 5.9.3 Disclosure by the World Bank at the Infoshop The World Bank will disclose this ESMF and any future ESAs along with ESMP at the infoshop for downloading and reference by interested parties. 5.10 Comprehensive ESMF Review and Updation Fund Board would undertake one thorough/ comprehensive review of the ESMF during the project period. Based on the review, the ESMF would be updated if necessary. Fund Board would undertake this review and revision prior to mid-term review by the World Bank. Any revision of this ESMF will have the concurrence of the World Bank. 5.11 Grievance Redressal Mechanism Fund Board has developed a grievance redressal mechanism which will look into all aspects of sub-projects and their activities apart from environment and social grievances. The detail of this Grievance Redressal Mechanism (GRM) is given under the Social Guidance. 92 | P a g e Chapter VI:Social Guidance 6.1 Land Acquisition As the rural water supply schemes are moderate in size with few numbers of structures it requires small amount of land for the scheme structures. Usually, the structures are built with priority on selecting the public land. However, in some cases as the proposed water source to be used for the scheme or land appropriate for the construction of scheme structures belongs to private land. In such cases there is common practice that the land owner donates the land for scheme construction voluntarily and there are no specific problems related to land acquisition either in terms of involuntary resettlement, community dispute or loss of livelihoods of the family donating the land. However, in few cases where voluntary donation or acquisition is not possible the Water and Sanitation Users Committees (WSUCs) are also purchasing the water source or private land by raising fund from among the users/beneficiary households for scheme construction. In such cases the land ownership is legally transferred in the name of WSUCs. The Social Assessment of RWSSP-II (Indigenous People’s Plan for RWSSP-II) carried out in December 2012 has also concluded that there is no any specific problem found regarding the land acquisition for the scheme. To ensure that there are no any cases or possibility that the land owner is compelled to give up even a small part of their land for the scheme; Fund Board is practicing a specific procedure and guidance for the SOs and SAs to cross check and ensure that the land donation is done on voluntary basis. The Fund Board will not resort to any involuntary land acquisition. All donations and purchases will be voluntary and such donations do not involve physical displacement or any significant adverse impacts upon incomes of the donor households. The following procedures currently followed by Fund Board regarding voluntary land transactions seem appropriate to continue in RWSSIP: i. Land will not be accepted from such land owners whose holding will be less than the minimum economical viable stipulated size depending on the local context as decided by the community ii. Land to be used may also not be registered with government (Ailani) and the possibility that such land may have been occupied by landless (sukumbasi) is high. If Ailani land is occupied, it will not be accepted for the project. iii. All land transfers will be subject to registration (as per market transaction) under the ownership of community Water User Group that is involved in the project and will be done only after ensuring that water will indeed be available in that particular piece of land iv. Field verification will be arranged of all cases of land acquisition (purchases or voluntary donations) in such a way that land has not been taken under any psychological, social and economic domination. Where such land donation involves an IP household, the Fund Board may wish to seek assistance from local IP organization for field verification. v. Provision will be made in Fund Board procedures for redressal of any grievances related to the land acquisition Regarding the voluntary land acquisition, Fund Board has developed and practicing a legal document (Refer Annex 6.1) to ensure that the owner has donated voluntarily and with consent and the land transfer is made to the Water and Sanitation Users’ Committee (WSUC) rather than to any individuals. The status of consent letter provided by the private land owner or source owner for the scheme and possibility of disputes is also verified during the pre-feasibility site appraisal and the subsequent monitoring visits in development and implementation phases 93 | P a g e by the SOs/SAs and PMs. As this could be a serious social issue due attention needs to be given on this aspect, hence, the existing procedure and legal document for land acquisition seems better to be replicated in RWSSIP. 6.2 Vulnerable Communities Development Plan Based on the past experience and practices the RWSS project activities carried out under Fund Board are unlikely to have any major adverse impacts on vulnerable communities, which include indigenous people (Jjanjatis), dalits, deprived, ultra-poor and land less households. Due focus has also been given on the inclusion of such households under the scheme so that they can access benefit from the project. Similarly, priority has also been given to such households while selecting the participants for non-formal education, livelihood promotion under WTSS and jeevikakaryakram, hygiene and sanitation promotion and other social empowerment activities. Since the start of the project at Pre-feasibility and its site appraisal, Fund Board is adopting social screening procedure (social mapping) which attempts to identify such households residing near the water source areas and scattered along the community periphery and could be easily overlooked The World Bank safeguard policy (OP 4.10) also requires that free, prior and informed consultation are held with indigenous people and steps be taken to enhance project benefits for them even as there may be no adverse impacts on them. In case of any adverse impacts, special measures need to be outlined to mitigate these impacts. In line with the World Bank safeguard policy from RWSSP-II a clear Indigenous People Development Plan (IPDP) has been developed and in practice. The plan focuses on the inclusion of such households in the planning and implementation process through increased consultation, participation and specific interventions. Some specific measures the Fund Board has adopted includes the increased participation and appropriate representation of vulnerable and indigenous peoples in the water and sanitation users committees and other groups formed under the project at the scheme level. This is expected to mainstream them in the project activities so that their needs, priorities and interests will be reflected in the scheme design, location of the structures (especially tap stands/water collection points) and sharing other benefits and opportunities. The IPDP lays out a set of actions to ensure that IP groups get equitable access to project benefits. The major actions include: a. Ensuring inclusion and access of IPs under the project • Identification of social/ethnic groups with focus on coverage of dalits and janajatis households under the scheme (disaggregated status review to ensure the inclusion of marginalized groups under the project). This review is being carried out during compliance and process monitoring done at every phases of scheme implementation. • Identification of ultra poor households within the scheme area in consensus of the community (using participatory tools) and concern about their access, rights and equity under the scheme b. Concern on source and land acquisition and its impacts on livelihoods • Focus is given on identifying the dalit, janjati and marginalized households residing around the proposed source; ensuring their inclusion in proposed scheme; and concern on any negative impacts if any on their livelihoods due to use of proposed source and suggest mitigation measures • Practice of obtaining consent or agreement to use the proposed source if located in private land or the private land going to be used to construct other structures 94 | P a g e c. Communication and Dissemination on lP Issues • Focus given on the translation of WASH policies in nine IP languages and its dissemination at the program communities to make them aware on such policies and their rights • Production and Dissemination of information about the program through radio should be in major mother tongue (local languages). The IP/dalit issues are raised in these programs d. Priority on Mobilizing the IP Organizations /Staff • Mobilization of IP Organizations as SOs for community mobilization, managing disputes or conflicts and creating awareness among IP communities • Priority given to local individuals from IP families while recruiting the SOs staff who can speak local languages The present practices of IPDP will be continued in RWSSIP. 6.3 Women Empowerment/Gender Development Fund Board is focusing on women empowerment and their livelihood promotion as a part of gender development from the very beginning. Empowering women has been taken as a cross- cutting theme in the planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of the project activities. Fund Board encourages the active participation of women in the project activities in the decision making process and have made mandatory provision of minimum 33% women representation in the Water and Sanitation Users Committees (WSUCs) and at least one in the key position. In this regard, Women Technical Support Service (WTSS) is a major component associated with the Board’s WSS program since its piloting project, which encourages the women groups especially targeting to the women from poor, deprived and indigenous families to utilize their saved time from fetching water to raise income through the initiation of livelihood promotion activities. It essentially provides the modest support that is intended to link the women to the programs of other organizations and access to formal credit by which they will get themselves involved in poverty alleviation process. Thus, this program is directed towards the women’s social and economic empowerment and supports the theme of the poverty reduction strategy adopted by the government. The WTSS groups have been mobilizing a significant amount from their group funds to carry out kitchen gardening, livestock rearing, poultry, non- timber forest products, dairy products and retail shops etc. as the most preferred income generating activities to undertake. Apart from the income generation activities, from the very beginning of the development phase the women from the poor, disadvantaged and backward families are provided functional literacy activity for their social empowerment. Based on the learning from WTSS, in RWSSP-II Fund Board initiated the Jeevikakaryakram (Livelihood program) as an initiative aiming to strengthen the business linkages for women's groups in terms of both forward and backward linkages – access to soft loans from micro- finance institutions, commercial banks, technical assistance for their enterprise/s and marketing for their products - thereby ensuring guaranteed income for them. For further improvement of this, the Board is remodeling this initiative based on the learning's from BRLP’s activities in India under JeevikaKaryakram. The Board is linking Jeevika groups in Rural Self-Reliant Fund (RSRF), Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) for accessing financial services. In this connection, the Board is facilitating to those Jeevika groups to register their cooperatives and also to tie up with private sector insurance. Internet based remittance service is also recently started by the Jeevika groups. The Fund Board has also developed JeevikaKaryakram implementation guideline. These new initiatives as demonstrated significant success results in capacitating and empowering the women groups is suggested to be replicated in all RWSSIP scheme areas/communities. 95 | P a g e 6.4 Community Consultation and Information Disclosure Fund Board has adopted a community – led participatory approach in project implementation with due emphasis on good governance and transparency in every aspect of the project activities. Community is at the canter of program implementation with facilitation supports from Support Organizations (SOs) and obviously from the Fund Board. The community consultation and information disclosure process being carried out by Fund Board at different phases of the project implementation is mentioned below. 6.4.1 Community Consultation Process Community a consultation is held at different phases of the scheme cycle which includes the scheme identification or pre-feasibility, Pre-feasibility-site appraisal and environmental assessment for social and environmental screening during feasibility assessment of the scheme, during the formation of inclusive Water and Sanitation Users Committees (WSUCs) and other community groups, preparation and endorsement of community action plan (CAP) comprising of EMAP preparation including consultation on social issues for the development of Indigenous Peoples Development Plan (IPDP). Similarly, the community consultation is also practiced to identify and mitigate the hygiene and sanitation issues prevailing in the community. The milestone monitoring visits done at different phases of program implementation by SAs and Fund Board staff to the scheme area also involved intensive community consultation on the progress achieved and problems/issues faced by the community for the proper execution of the project. 6.4.2 Information Disclosure The project has developed and practicing a number of activities and process for the disclosure of relevant information and documents at all levels, which includes the information disclosure at the community/scheme level, to the concerned stakeholders at different levels and to the public at large. Under the information disclosure at community or scheme level the Fund Board is practicing the following activities: • Mass meeting of the users or focus group discussions with the concerned target group to consult and disclose relevant information about the project activities for example the scheme implementation modality, norms, process, approaches and roles and responsibilities of the different stakeholders (WSUC, SO, SA, FB) during scheme implementation and management. • Frequent community level meetings organized by WSUCs to disclose financial status, procurement of non-local materials and project implementation status including other problems/issues • Management of display board at public place in the community with information on scheme structures (technical features), demographic information and funding arrangement • Sharing issues and discussion at community level by the Jagaransamitee (social accountability committee) for grievance redressal and transparency on different issues • Different publications (e.g progress reports, case studies, evaluation reports, manuals, guidelines, IEC materials, newsletters, Board’s policy document in nine major IP languages etc) including audio visuals (documentary films, radio program in local languages etc) published and disseminated by Fund Board • Dissemination of information by Fund Board on scheme implementation, SO/SA hiring and other Boards activities on the website 96 | P a g e 6.5 Grievance Redressal Mechanism The grievance redressal mechanism both at scheme level and project level has already been developed and practiced in Fund Board under RWSSP-II and same mechanisms have to be adopted in RWSSIP too. 6.5.1 Grievance Redressal Mechanism at Scheme Level As a new initiative to address and maintain good governance and social accountability at community or scheme level the Fund Board has started JagaranKaryakram(Social Accountability Programme) in RWSSP-II. The Fund Board has developed a clear criteria and procedure in forming the Social Accountability Committee (SAC). The SAC consists of seven members who are other than the WSUC members. In order to address the gaps and challenges in ensuring quality of the process and service delivery up to the satisfaction of the beneficiaries and other issues the Board has focused on accountability and transparency as factors for successful implementation of the project and acquiring effective and expected benefit by the communities. This approach ensures downstream accountability and good governance in development projects for effective service delivery and community empowerment. The SAC uses community score card and other participatory tools and techniques to discuss on the issue and find out the community opinion. As the results demonstrated by SAC in many schemes are observed quite successful this programme seems better to be replicated in all schemes in RWSSIP. Moreover, this SAC can be further developed as the best Grievance Redressal Mechanism at the scheme level. Together with SAC the other best practices being practiced by Fund Board such as organizing mass meeting of the users at frequent intervals to discuss on program issues and progress, disclosure of financial status by WSUCs from time to time and the provision of display board with scheme features and financing details at public places are also considered as the Grievance Redress Mechanism at scheme level. 6.5.2 Grievance Redressal Mechanism at Project Level Under RWSSP-II, Fund Board has also developed and practicing an institutionalised, systematic and structured complaints handling mechanism at project level. The complaints received from formal and informal sources about the Board Operations and project related activities have been duly addressed in view of ensuring compliance to the principles of good governance, transparency and accountability. As a process the Complaints Handling Procedures, sets out process of handling complaints about Fund Board operations in a structured and systematic manner. This procedure covers handling for all sorts of Complaints (formal – complain registered/lodged by a person or an organisation; informal – anonymous letters, applications, written – complain letters/applications, faxes, e-mails, public notices, complaints in newspapers, verbal – reported to the authorities face to face, reported by telephone). The complaint handling process ensures compliance and adherence to the established practices as set forth in the existing rules and regulations, and standard operating manuals of the Fund Board; and to ensure transparency and promote good governance practices at all levels of Fund Board operations. Fund Board has defined the Complaints as any Internal and External feedbacks that raise negative question on issues related to the Board operations (integrity, transparency and compliance to the existing Board rules and regulations for decision making process, finance and administration system and HR management and recruitments, compliance to the personnel code of conduct), scheme cycles including procurement of services (SO, SA, Training and other Consultancy works), and all issues directly related to the Board facilitated activities. 97 | P a g e 1. Handling Processes in Practice a. Internal Complaints • Standard grievances handling process has been practiced (Appendix 6.2) b. External Complaints • Mediums of receiving complaints - Complaint box (maintained at Fund Board Office); Feedback room in the Website www.rwss.org , e-mails/faxes received at Fund Board Office, telephone received by Fund Board staff, letters/applications (including anonymous ones) received at Fund Board Office, news/matters about the Fund Board published in local/national newspapers brought to the notice of Fund Board Secretariat. o Frequency of taking complaints into notice: Complaint box – daily; Web feedback - daily; Other complaints – as an when they are received o Each case gets a Case ID: <0000-9999>/// ; This ID is used as key to follow through the issue throughout process. The person and/or organisation complaining gets a response from Fund Board with this IDand an indication of period by when s/he can expect a detail answer. In case of public complain (anonymous ones); the Fund Board’s response will be posted in Notice Board with subject line To Whom It May Concern. c. Further process of handling a registered Case will follow a structured process as shown in Flow Diagram. As the present complain handling mechanism being practiced by Fund Board seems quite effective it is suggested to be continued as the Grievance Redressal Mechanism in RWSSIP. 6.6 Institutional Arrangement for ESMF Implementation As mentioned in Chapter 7, the existing EMP activities within the Fund Board at present is being managed and implemented through the joint efforts of different divisions and partner organizations taking the lead role by Technical Division. Currently, the Technical Division including RMs, PMs and respective SOs/SAs are managing the EMP activities jointly and possess the capacity to do it. However, in the perspective implementing and managing the newly proposed ESMF, the Technical Division lacks expertise in social aspect. Hence, there seems a need to revisit the existing organizational structure and staffing positions including qualifications to adequately match it with the requirements of managing and implementing ESMF activities in RWSSIP. In this regard, as the Technical Division is already providing expertise in area of environmental aspect, for the better management and implementation of ESMF under RWSSIP the Fund Board needs to manage expertise in area of social safeguard. 6.7 Capacity Building Plan The Fund Board staff having significant experience in implementing the RWSSP-I and II projects are well aware of the environmental and social management issues. Hence, they need some refresher on the above training programs. However, for RWSSIP implementation especially in case of sanitation promotion the approach is changed from Sanitation Revolving Loan Fund (SRLF) modality which was confined sanitation promotion only in the water scheme community to VDC-wide sanitation approach using Community-led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach. Apart from this under ESMF for RWSSIP some new approaches and activities have 98 | P a g e been proposed such as water safety plan (WSP), recharge pond, and ECOSAN/Bio-gas promotion for which the Fund Board staff also needs additional training. Similarly, in case of SAs, the hiring of SAs and their staff changes overtime as the contract with the previous SAs are completed. Hence, the newly recruited SAs need the same training program to make them aware and capacitate in implementing the similar training to the SOs. Moreover, in case of SOs, as the scheme for a particular Batch is completed, most of the lower level staff of the SOs having received Fund Board related training and gained exposure in program implementation are usually unavailable for the subsequent Batches/projects due to low staff retention capacity of the SOs or high turnover especially in case of technical staff. It is thus unlikely to ensure that much of the capacity built in the earlier Batches/projects will be available for the RWSSIP. Similarly, the newly selected SOs and their staff obviously may lack exposure and orientation on environmental and social issues including ESMF. Thus, as a part of the institutional capacity building for the project as a whole, apart from the existing training programs, the Fund Board staff, field level team members and SOs/SAs needs to be trained in different aspects of the project, including the preparation and implementation of ESMF. Additional Training Programs for ESMF implementation is presented in Appendix 6.3 and 6.4. 99 | P a g e Chapter VII: ESMF Execution Cost The ESMF execution Cost is based on the practice of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB) for current projects and additional recommended social and environmental mitigation measures for RWSSIP. Under the environmental mitigation measures at scheme level, source/catchment protection, structure protection, landslides and flood protection measures, drainage provision, institutional toilets are being practiced on the existing programs. Light arrestor/earthing provision are recommended in each surface lift or ground lift schemes to protect the pumps during lightening and thundering. Similarly, at the VDC level provision of water quality field test kits, construction of recharge ponds to overcome the source depletion, and provision of 1 public toilet in one VDC of the project district are the additional recommended environmental mitigation measures. It is recommended to provide one water quality test kit to each VDC @ Rs. 20000/kit to ease the water quality testing in periodic manner. For the budget estimate, it is assumed 4 schemes in one VDC. Thus, the cost of test kits per scheme comes to Rs. 5000. Likewise, construction of 1 recharge pond is recommended in each VDC to protect the underground source depletion. Cost of social mitigation measures is based on the existing training programs and recommended training/orientation program for RWSSIP. Further, it is proposed to provide one arsenators to each DDC of program districts at the District Level for arsenic test in 15 Terai program districts. Under the ESMF implementation cost at the Central Level, estimate is based on the currently practiced and additional recommended various Capacity Development Training/Orientation workshops for SO and SA Staff, recommended research and studies, monitoring and quality testing. Five studies and research are suggested to carry out 7.1 below. The total estimated cost for the implementation of this ESMF is NRs. 741,132,863.00 (Seven hundred forty one millions one hundred thirty two thousands and eight hundreds sixty three only). At the exchange rate of 04 December 2013 (1 US $ = 100.08 Nepalese currency), the estimated cost is equivalent to 7,405,404.00 (7.4 million), which is 13.36 percent of total cost (55.39 million US $) and 16.79 percent of IDA cost (44.08 million US $) of component 1. (Reference: September 16- October 2, 2013, Aide Memoire) The scheme level cost for individual scheme will vary based on site specific condition like scheme typology, geographic location, size of scheme. Therefore, the present cost should be considered as preliminary (Refer to Appendix 7.1 for detail calculation of social and environmental mitigation measures). 100 | P a g e Table 9.1 Estimated Budgets for the Implementation of ESMF Number of S. Unit Cost Total Amount Item Schemes/ No. (NRs) (NRs.) Activities Scheme level cost for social and 1 environmental mitigation measures 1050 schemes 1 Gravity Schemes (704 Schemes) 704 36,053.00 236,581,312.00 2 Surface lifts (13 Schemes) 13 366,053.00 4,758,689.00 3 Rain water Harvesting (9 Schemes) 9 180,000.00 1,620,000.00 4 Deep Tube well/Ground Lift (162 Schemes) 162 334,440.00 54,179,280.00 5 Shallow Tube Well (129 Schemes) 129 201,500.00 25,993,500.00 6 Dug well (33 Schemes) 33 206,500.00 6,814,500.00 Total cost 329,947,281.00 VDC Level Cost Field test kits @ 1 test kit per VDC assuming 1 263 20,000.00 5,260,000.00 4 schemes per VDC (263 VDCs) Construction of Recharge ponds @ 1 2 recharge pond per VDC assuming 4 schemes 263 200,000.00 52,600,000.00 per VDC (263 VDC) Cost of Institutional and Public Toilets 3 Construction assuming 1 institutional and 1 526 270,000.00 142,020,000.00 Public Toilet construction in each VDC Total cost 199,880,000.00 District Level Cost Cost of arsenator for 15 Terai District (1 15 225,000.00 3,375,000.00 arsenator to each district) 2 ESMF Implementation cost Capacity Building Training/Orientation for SO and SA Staff (23 different a. 58,080,582.00 trainings/workshops to SO and SA staff as recommended) b. Research and studies Technical, Operational and Environmental 1 2500000.00 2,500,000.00 Audit Study Preparation of National Level ESMF 1 10000000.00 10,000,000.00 Conduct Immediate Impact Study of RWSSIP 1 2000000.00 2,000,000.00 Sustainability study of RWSSIP 1 2500000 2,500,000.00 Water Consumption pattern study (Q-quarc) 1 10000000 10,000,000.00 Total 27,000,000.00 Monitoring and Material/Water Quality c. testing Program implementation monitoring visits comprising 2 members @ Rs. 20000/visit per 1050 × 5 20000 105,000,000.00 scheme (total 5 visits) Material quality Testing monitoring visit (Based on 4 schemes per SO) @ Rs. 1050 5000 5,250,000.00 20000/visit i.e. Rs. 5000/Scheme Water sample testing @ Rs. 4000/sample test for 3 times to each scheme (Total 3150 3150 4000 12,600,000.00 tests) Total 122,850,000.00 Grand Total 741,132,863.00 101 | P a g e