99277 Cities Alliance Project Output Research Paper: Managing Peri-Urban Expansion Knowledge Support for PEARL Programme under JNNURM P121456 This project output was created with Cities Alliance grant funding. Managing Peri-Urban Expansion Research Paper Managing Peri-Urban Expansion A Study of Planning Approaches adopted in Delhi, Beijing and New York to Manage Regional Growth Research Paper List of Figures Figure 01: NCT Delhi, District Densities and its Sprawl Figure 02: Spatial Growth of Delhi (1950-2014) Figure 03: Statewise Percentage - population share, urban population and area share Figure 04: District-wise and Sector-wise GDP Figure 05: Mapping the Planning Process for the NCR Figure 06: Constituents of National Capital Region (NCR) Figure 07: Movement of Passenger Modes in NCR Figure 08: Urbanisation in China Figure 09: China’s Urban Centres Figure 10: Schematic Map of Beijing Figure 11: Mapping policies and events influencing China’s Urbanisation Figure 12: Schematic governance structure for PRC Figure 13: Regional Growth Centres Figure 14: Proposed Transport Strategy Figure 15: Population Density in Urban Areas since 1920 Figure 16: Metropolitan Area Planning Forum Map Figure 17: The Tri-State Region Figure 18: Impact of sprawl on regional resources List of Tables Table 01: Brief profile for the three regions Table 02: Slum Population in NCR (2001) Table 03: Agencies providing Housing in NCR Table 04: Modes of Transport used to commute to work in the NCR Table 05: State-wise Demand Supply gap in the NCR List of Boxes Box 01: Metropolitan Governance Systems in Asia Box 02: Portland case of Urban Growth Boundary List of Abbreviations APA American Planning Association BER Bohai Economic Rim CBD Central Business District CNCR Central National Capital Region COG Council of Governments CT Census Town DDPA Delhi Development (Provisional) Authority DMIC Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor FDI Foreign Direct Investment GBER Greater Beijing Economic Region GDP Gross Domestic Product HPEC High Power Executive Committee ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act IT Information Technology ITES Information Technology Enabled Service MAP Metropolitan Area Planning MoR Ministry of Roads MoUD Ministry of Urban Development MPO Metropolitan Planning Organisation NCR National Capital Region NCRPB National Capital Region Planning Board NCRTC National Capital Region Transport Corporation NCT National Capital Territory NCT-D National Capital Territory of Delhi NDRC National Development and Reform Commission NY New York NYC New York City NYCHA New York City Housing Authority NYMTC New York Metropolitan Transport Council PRC Peoples Republic of China PSU Public Sector Undertaking RPA Regional Planning Association RRTS Regional Rapid Transit System SEZ Special Economic Zone SPV Special Purpose Vehicle TCPO Town and Country Planning Organisation UA Urban Agglomeration UGB Urban Growth Boundary UMTA Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority UN United Nations UP Uttar Pradesh USA United States of America USD United States Dollar Contents Urban Sprawl ......................................................................................... 1 Managing Growth in the NCR ............................................................ 5 Greater Beijing Economic Region ................................................... 14 Tristate Metropolitan Region of New York.................................. 20 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 25 Annexure................................................................................................ 31 Foreword The peri-urban is a distinct phenomenon within the larger process of urbanization. Whichever way one defines it, whether as a place a concept or a process, the peri-urban continues to bat- tle the efforts of planners and administrators to establish spatial order and justice. It represents the spontaneous and seemingly organic transformation of rural to urban and the limits of both, as it becomes an unplanned, unaccommodated type of development, leaving a trail of over- burdened resources and uncontrolled growth. Similar to the other nefarious outcomes of poor planning and governance, such as socio-economic disparity and environmental degradation, the peri-urban expansion of the Indian metropolis delivers a heavy burden on the public realm. The only foil to this debilitating and unsustainable expansion of cities seems to be an improved framework for planning and management of metropolitan areas. With three mega-cities that are sprawling into mega-urban regions, and another five cities ex- pected to become mega-cities during the coming decade. India has already become the host to an urbanization story that will continue to interest and confound experts and administrators alike. Peri-urban expansion of Indian cities has assumed a peculiar form, with farm lands being converted into urban areas faster than can be planned, and governments are unable to contain this form of haphazard territorial expansions. Preparation, notification, monitoring and revi- sion of spatial and physical plans is unable to keep pace with growth, and the resulting chaos is inflicting huge hidden costs to economic and social transformation, which is the stated need of the hour. As a precursor to a more in-depth study, NIUA has attempted to explore the phenomenon of peri-urban expansion and efforts to manage it through planning and governance frameworks in three different locations and countries - Delhi, Beijing and New York. While the Chinese and American examples do not present clear analogies, they serve as cases that illustrate alternative frameworks with relevance to India. Whereas New York is located in a highly urbanized country, both Delhi and Beijing are in countries that are attempting large scale ‘induced’ urbanization by state-led and artificial means. Whether this form of induced growth is indeed the way to achieve a higher urbanization level and concomitant economic outcomes is a question that will probably find some answers in the Govt. of India’s new urban impetus to strengthen existing urban centres, through the Smart City and AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) missions. There are clear lessons to be learnt from the Chinese and American examples, which can inform our own. The distribution of socio-economic, spatial and functional planning respectively be- tween national, provincial and local government in China and the American approach of tracking socio-economic and employment data by designating Combined Statistical Areas for economic planning within metropolitan agglomerations are two such lessons that can yield better results from India’s urban interventions. In the context where both the Regional Plan proposals (2001 and 2021) for the National Capi- tal Region have only partially succeeded in driving planned outcomes, leading to sub-regional disparities and unplanned growth of the urban fringes, the paper aims to map the planning sys- tems employed by the collaborative setup for the four states. The cases of Greater Beijing with a ‘unified metropolitan government’ and the Tri-state region of New York, which is also a case of collaboration between states, help in understanding the key challenges and strategies, and, additionally, the institutional structures and planning methodologies formulated for effective management of growth in other global settings. What is clearly brought into question is whether ‘induced’ growth can produce any other out- comes than the somewhat unfair choice between China’s ‘ghost towns’ and India’s uncontrolled sprawls. While the ‘green field’ city is an option that can distribute urban population, the fact that such new towns in a democratic polity cannot be protected from speculative forces is a serious consideration, not to mention the fact that their horizons for development span over three decades and it is difficult to predict what outcomes they will actually present except in the limited forms of industrial townships which do not have the occupational diversity and economic vitality of the metropolis. There are many such issues that need further examination. This study is an attempt to tease out some such issues and open new lines of inquiry into one of urban India’s key challenges. This study is supported by the Cities Alliance, whose knowledge partnership for the PEARL (Peer Experience and Reflective Learning) has been crucial at a time when NIUA is called upon to support the Government of India’s new agenda for urbanization. We thank the PEARL Team comprising of Yogita Lokhande and Sridipta Ghatak for steering this research under the guid- ance of Dr. Debjani Ghosh, and Deep Pahwa, for providing graphic design support. We thank the experts and scholars who have given valuable inputs and assisted in framing this research. Jagan Shah June 2015 Urban Sprawl While there have been metropolises since ancient times, these remained confined to little more than the scope of ‘‘walking cities’’ until the emergence of modern transportation technologies, beginning with horse trolleys. And though the gentry has had its villas beyond the outskirts of the city since at least Roman times, it was only over the last two centuries that technological developments made suburban dwellings available to progressively broader segments of society. Railroads made possible the first remoter suburbs for the wealthy, electric trolleys the denser closer-in ones for the ‘‘common man,’’ and, finally, the unconfined automobile, with its steadily increasing affordability, allowed cities and suburbs to grow in all directions. Automobiles enabled the huge residential expansion of suburbs and, importantly, these were followed by trucks, which overwhelmingly enabled the commercial and industrial ‘‘sprawl,’’ which gave us 1 the complex metro areas of today. URBANISATION IN INDIA Central Delhi districts have lost one quarter and one- India has experienced several noteworthy demographic tenth of their population respectively, while the Mumbai changes over the last decade. Although by 2011 only district, comprising of the island city, has reported a 5 around 31% of its population was living in urban areas, decline of 0.6% per year during 2001-11. Clearly the for the first time in its history during the past decade growth has not remained confined merely to the urban (2001-11), the growth in urban population in absolute cores but has been distributed significantly to the numbers (91 million) had exceeded that of the rural peripheries. The demographic significance of the population (90 million). The 2011 Census also indicated peripheries in the UAs varies, around 33% in the case of that a large part of the urban population continued to be Mumbai UA and as much as 69% in the case of Kolkata concentrated in Class I (1 lakh and above) Urban UA. Expansion of the urban into the hinterland has Agglomerations (UA*)/Towns (70%), of which around resulted in expanding municipal boundaries, creation of 43% was in million-plus UAs/cities alone. Interestingly, larger UAs and rapid conversion of rural lands. while the growth rates of some of its mega cities (10 million plus population) especially Delhi, Mumbai and Future Estimates: The HPEC 2011 estimates that the Kolkata, reduced drastically in the last decade, the present urban population of 377 million (Census 2011) in number of million plus cities increased from 35 as per India, would surge to 600 million by 2030, adding the 2001 Census to 53, with 18 new UAs crossing the another 223 million. The United Nations World million mark, implying the rapid growth of other large Urbanisation Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights, 2 urban centres. Another important characteristic of also estimates that by 2050, India will add 404 million urban growth in the last decade was the significant urban dwellers and would account for 37% of the increase in the number of new Census Towns (CT†), world's urban population along with China and Nigeria. contributing to as much as 30% of the total urban Considering the present trends of urbanisation, a large 3 population growth. It is important to note that almost proportion of this growth may be expected to occur in rd 1/3 of these have emerged in close proximity (within and around existing UAs. For instance, according to the 4 50 km radius) of the million plus cities. same report, by 2030 the population of Delhi UA itself is estimated to rise to 36 million as against 16 million in Expanding Cities: While the large cities have 2011. experienced a spurt of demographic growth, most of the core areas of the million plus cities have recorded a CONCERNS REGARDING REGIONAL GROWTH AND THE significant decline in their population growth, for 'PERI-URBAN' : A CASE OF DELHI instance in the case of Delhi and Mumbai. In Delhi, the To understand what such demographic trends mean present growth rate is less than that of any decade and spatially, we consider the existing scenario of the half that of the 1990s. Similarly, the Mumbai suburban National Capital Territory (NCT) - Delhi and its defined district recorded a decline in its growth rate from 2.5% region the National Capital region (NCR). Two-thirds of to 0.8%. Both the cities have also shown a decline in the total urbanisable land for the city has already been population in absolute numbers. The New Delhi and built upon as per the latest Master Plan (MPD-2021). However, only about 30% of the total population lives in * Urban Agglomerations (UA): Census defines UA as a continuous urban planned areas with varying densities. In the case of the spread constituting a town and its adjoining urban outgrowths or two New Delhi district this density is as low as 4000 persons or more physically contiguous towns together and any adjoining per sq. km. The rest of the urbanised areas consist of outgrowth of such towns. † Census Towns (CT): Places that satisfy the following criteria have been unauthorised colonies, slum settlements and urban termed as Census Towns. (a) Minimum population of 5000 (b) At least villages that exhibit densities as high as 36,000 persons 75% of the male main working population employed in non-agricultural per sq. km. as seen in the North-east district. The Master pursuits (c) Density of more than 400 persons per sq. km. 1 Plan further states that the total population carrying city), universities and so on, besides being the primary capacity for Delhi UA would be a maximum of 22 million cultural and heritage attraction. Some of these areas of at the optimal density of 22,500 persons per sq. km. It is Old Delhi have been declared as slums due to old, evident that the Master Plan envisages a large dilapidated and obsolete structures and experience a proportion of the future population growth to be very poor quality of life with low access to basic services. absorbed by the peripheral areas of NCT. The outskirts, especially towards the west and north Spatial Structure of Delhi: The urban agglomeration area west are dotted with slum resettlement colonies, built has increased from a mere 43.25 sq km in 1901 to by the government. Most of the industries are located in 888.74 sq km in 2001 while the density increased from the north-east of Delhi, which again has dense housing 5501 persons per sq km to 14521 persons per sq km (formal and unauthorised), and slum settlements. The during the same period. Delhi over time has grown as a west, north west, north east, east and the central core borderless city.6 While some of these outward have extreme high densities with the highest density expansions (without densifying the existing areas) have over 36,000 persons per sq km in the north-eastern been planned, for instance pockets such as Narela and district. The figure 01 overlays district densities (census Rohini on the North and North-West and Dwarka on the 2011) with the spatial extent of urban sprawl (derived South-West, a substantial proportion of the sprawl from Google satellite imagery). The eastern extension remains unplanned. Two large trajectories seem to have sprawls along a 25 km stretch to Ghaziabad (Uttar emerged. The first is the growth of high density, mixed Pradesh). Similarly on the west to Bahadurgarh use areas and lower income housing with the innermost (Haryana). The second of the 2 trajectories is manifested old city area, as a nucleus of sorts. The old city is in the form of planned and unplanned (Sainik farms for characterized by high population density, dense instance) areas in the centre, south and east, where the residential areas mixed with trade and commerce, elite class or higher income groups are concentrated. wholesale markets, packaging industries, important This pattern continues into Gurgaon on the south west transport nodes (gateways from the hinterland into the and Faridabad and Greater Noida on the south east, Bahadurgarh Ghaziabad G. Noida Gurgaon Faridabad Figure 01: NCT Delhi, District Densities and its Sprawl 2 Figure 02: Spatial Growth of Delhi (1950 to 2014) Source: Dupont. V, IRD (2008), Google satellite imagery (2014) reflected mainly by the emerging high end luxury although such urban and rural governance systems are housing, corporate real estate etc. distinct, the maximising of the urban-rural interactions within the space of the peripheries, especially in Emerging Patterns: Beginning in 1962, the three master expanding urban areas, results in transformations that plans for the Delhi UA and two regional plans proposed are at times urban in nature but are governed by rural for the NCR, have included strategies for planned bodies. These are often ill-equipped to deal with the dispersal of growth to the surrounding region. However, attendant complexities of urban densities and land uses despite such efforts to control urbanisation, the spatial and provide the required urban infrastructure and growth of Delhi has largely deviated from such plans. A amenities in these areas. large proportion of the population growth has not remained contained within the boundaries of the NCT THE STUDY Delhi, but has overflowed (unplanned) into the Various studies investigating the Indian peri-urbanisation surrounding region showing distinct patterns of density conditions have defined ‘peri-urban’ as ‘a place, concept 7 and economic activities. Such dispersal of growth has or process’ . ‘Peri-urban’ refers to the urban fringe and manifested itself in peri-urban conditions involving the geographic edge of cities as a place. It refers to the conflicting use of land, extreme spatial fragmentation, movement of goods and services between physical emergence of new and complex forms and urban spaces and to the transition from rural to urban contexts conditions and varying infrastructural demands and as a process. And finally, as a concept, it refers to an conditions of access. The interstices between the Delhi interface between rural and urban activities, institutions 8 UA and the other large urban centres in the NCR, driven and perspectives. Such transformations are often highly by real estate development and speculation, have dependent on state actions and plans, including land experienced rapid transformation. These peripheral management policies, particularly land use and land areas, consisting of green belts and agricultural lands are acquisition determining land for agriculture, residential, now characterized by fragmented development, the industry, transport, and so on. In the case of Delhi and emergence of gated communities, sudden densification the other large cities in India too, the emerging of existing settlements to provide for residential and transformations in the urban peripheries can be seen, at commercial needs and the growth of a complex ecology least in part, as an outcome of the processes employed of industries (both formal and informal). Inadequate by the state for effecting urbanisation and its planned physical infrastructure, absence of public transport or dispersal. road connectivity, and a general lack of physical and social infrastructure are also characteristics of this The Regional Plan proposals (2001 and 2021) for the NCR growth. have only partially succeeded in substantially driving planned outcomes, leading to sub-regional disparities Governance Complexities: Peri-urban transformations and unplanned growth of the urban fringe. It is in this around Delh have also thrown up complex issues of context that the paper aims to study the state-led administration. At the macro level, the broad structure policies, planning instruments and institutional for planning and management is split between the arrangements deployed to manage regional growth and central government, the state government and the local urbanisation through the unique framework setup for body (urban or rural), supported by various regional the NCR. bodies and other technical institutions. At the local level, 3 The paper will map the systems of planning and with the institutional structures and planning managing urbanisation employed in the case of NCR methodologies deployed for effective management of Delhi, a collaborative effort by four states and the urban growth in these regions, and broadly understand central government, Greater Beijing with a 'unified the planning strategies adopted for the NCR and identify metropolitan government', and the Tri-state region of the potentials from the two case studies. New York which is a collaborative /cooperative approach between the three states. The New York region with a Although the paper acknowledges the wide discourse on planning area of 33,500 sq km, 20 million population and peri-urbanisation and the emerging conflicts between spread across three states is similar to the spatial extent the imagined/planned and actual conditions and of NCR and its planning complexities arising out of processes, this is not an attempt to map the 'peri-urban' collaboration between three states. The Tristate region condition or its dynamics. The scope of this paper is has adopted a sectoral approach towards development. restricted to understanding the various strategies Greater Beijing also covers two municipalities and a part adopted by the state for shaping growth in metropolitan of the neighbouring province and is almost double the regions as a basis for future investigations into the size of NCR and NY Region. It has been studied for the forms, networks and processes that characterize the complexities arising from the developing nations' peri-urban conditions emerging within regions such as perspective. Like most of our cities, Beijing too lays a the NCR. The paper thus hopes to be a basis for future significant thrust on the manufacturing sector, a heavy studies as well as act as a first level investigation into the dependence on agricultural activities and the newly policy and planning environments that shape the emerging IT and logistics sector. However, Greater imagination of metro regions. The paper relies Beijing unlike NCR and the Tri-state of NY, is governed by exclusively on data available through secondary sources a unified metropolitan government.9 By mapping the and is not supported by primary surveys for two cases, the paper hopes to highlight the key documenting present condition. urbanisation challenges faced in these regions, along National Capital The Greater Beijing The Tristate Metropolitan Region of Delhi Economic Region Region of New York Area(sq.km.) 34,000 70,000 35,000 Population 46 million 106.15 million 20 million % Urban 2011 21.75 62 65 (approx.) GDP (in For NCT Delhi For Beijing For New York Trillion USD) 0.0633 (2014) 0.0314 (2013) 1.33 (2012) Governance Centrally coordinated inter- Centrally coordinated Inter-state collaboration state collaboration municipality-province collaboration Planning Multi nodal growth 'Two Axis two belts' Polycentric growth approach with Strategy approach focus on Redensification of core city and environment degradation Economy · Model Industrial Estates · Create an economic · Emerging global economy · Special Economic Zones powerhouse for the North · New global markets East China · Information technology · Develop a mix of Services, · Finance business and personal industry and logistics services Housing · State Housing · Municipality and provincial · New York City Housing Boards/Authorities Government Authority (NYCHA) for low and · Private developers · Private developers moderate income · Private developers Transport · State Governments · Municipality and provincial · The New York Metropolitan · Central Highway and Government Transportation Council (NYMTC) Railway · Metropolitan Area Planning (MAP) Table 01: Brief Profile for the three region 4 Managing Growth in the NCR Time and again the need was felt to plan Delhi in the regional context under a suitable legislation which would control and regulate development in the region and finally Parliament enacted the National Capital Region Planning Board Act in 1985 with the concurrence of the constituent States to provide for the constitution of a Planning Board for the preparation of a plan for the development of the National Capital Region and for coordinating and monitoring the implementation of such plan and for evolving harmonised policies for the control of land uses and development of infrastructure in the National Capital Region so as to avoid any haphazard development of that Region and for matters 10 connected therewith or incidental thereto. INTRODUCTION Delineated in the 1970s, presently the NCR is the largest defined planning region in the country, around 34,000 sq. km. in area with an urban population of 21.75 million (total population of 46 million).** With the exception of the NCT Delhi, which is 97.5% urbanised, only 42.5% of the remaining region is urbanised. This indicates that a significant population resides in rural settlements with agricultural related employment. The NCR includes six districts of Uttar Pradesh (UP), nine districts of Haryana and one district of Rajasthan forming the three sub- regions. The figure 03 shows the percentage area distributed between the four states, the percentage population share and the percentage urban in each sub- region, with NCT Delhi with the highest urban population and the least area covered. The UP sub-region shows a total population almost as much as NCT Delhi but with just about 50% urban. The 'urban' component of NCR functions as a multi- Figure 03: Statewise percentage - population share, nucleated organism comprised of three million-plus urban population and area share cities of Ghaziabad (1.6 million), Meerut (1.3 million) and Faridabad (1.4 million) along with the mega city of Delhi million and a growth rate of around 20% since the past (16.3 million). Additionally, six large urban centres of three decades which dropped to just 12% for MMR and Gurgaon (0.8 million), Noida and Greater Noida (0.7 7% for KMA in 2001-2011. For the NCR, the UP sub- million), Alwar (0.31 million), Sonepat (0.27 million), region has displayed an increased growth rate from Panipat (0.2 million) and Bahadurgarh (0.17 million) dot 22.20% in 1961 to 29.2% in 1981-1991 and a sharp the region. The 2011 Census identifies 163 urban areas increase to 52.7% during 2001-2011, while the growth of within NCR with an average decadal growth rate of Haryana marginally declined while for Rajasthan it has around 35% till 2001 which dropped to 24.1% for 2001- remained constant. 2011. NCT Delhi till 2001 continued to experience an average decadal growth rate of about 50% since 1951, Major National Highways and Expressways link the NCR higher than any other urban centre in India despite the with other metropolitan cities of Jaipur, Agra, Lucknow reduced growth rate of the core city of Delhi which and Amritsar. A total of 16 districts from the states of dropped to about 21% in the decade 2001-2011.11 In Haryana, UP and Rajasthan form the region. Additionally, comparison, Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) with a Haryana has applied for the inclusion of Jind and Karnal total population of 18.4 million experienced an average 12 in NCR, while UP is pushing for Mathura-Vrindavan. decadal growth rate of around 30% and Kolkata Such expansions are intended to facilitate the further Metropolitan Area (KMA) with a total population of 14.1 dispersal of economic activities and reduce pressure on Delhi's health, educational and economic infrastructure ** The National Capital Region has undergone another expansion in leading to "balanced growth of the NCR". With no clear 2013 to add three more districts - Mahendragarh and Bhiwani (both in roles defined, such expansions need to be viewed Haryana) and Bharatpur (Rajasthan) bringing the number of districts in critically. the NCR to 19, with the total area increasing by 34% to 45,887sq km. However, since both the Regional Plans do not include the 2013 additions, the paper too has not included them in the discussions. 5 ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE REGION NCR is a major economic hub for the whole of North India and is rapidly transforming into an industrial base due to changes in policy, privatisation of public sector undertakings (PSUs), downsizing of government shares and elimination of subsidies and tax incentives for 13 industries. A number of existing and proposed industrial areas (especially as part of the proposed investment regions of the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor) are expected to have a significant impact on the economy of NCR, trends indicate that the tertiary sector, particularly value-added services, is fast emerging as an important source of employment in the NCR. The tertiary sector contribution to GDP (67%) ranks the highest followed by secondary (25%) and primary (8%) sectors for the year. While Delhi is the largest contributor to GDP in the NCR, the growth rate of GDP is the fastest in the Haryana sub-region amongst the states. Delhi has become the main centre for various services, Haryana sub-region is a mix of industries and service sector (with a fast growth of IT / ITES in Gurgaon), while Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan sub- regions are dominated by agriculture. In terms of Figure 04: District-wise and Sector-wise GDP districts, Bulandshahr has the highest portion of its total Source: Apex Cluster Development Service ( 2015) working population engaged in agricultural, livestock and forestry activities of. Gurgaon has the largest part of its total working population in the tertiary sector; Faridabad employ around 5 lakh persons. The diverse economic in manufacturing; and Alwar in the cultivation sector. environment has made NCR a potent region for investments and growth. Three investment regions for Rural infrastructure in the NCR, in terms of market yards, the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor are in the initial and cold storage has fallen significantly short of demand. stages of investment. All three are located to the south In 2001, the Haryana and UP sub-regions had around of NCT Delhi. Also, around 80 SEZ have been approved 43% of their total workforce involved in the primary for the NCR mostly focusing on IT/ITES. sector. Yet, strikingly, Haryana has a very high share of regulated markets and yards as compared to UP. Since PLANNING PROCESS this is extensively funded by state governments, it has The National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB) acts resulted in an uneven distribution of agricultural as the nodal agency to formulate planning strategies for infrastructure such as regulated markets, yards and cold the NCR, while the state governments of each storages. constituent district implement different proposals within its district development strategies keeping in line with In addition, the lack of regulation and the presence of the broader objectives set by the NCRPB. The powerful market forces in the Small Scale Industry (SSI) organisation and key functions of the NCRPB have been and micro industrial sector has led to the rise of a laissez- illustrated in figure 05. The NCRPB also provides loan faire situation thereby leading to mushrooming of small assistance up to a maximum of 75% of the project cost to industries especially in the unorganised sector with a the borrowing agencies (state government, development high concentration in NCT Delhi itself. The approximate authorities, ULBs and para-statal bodies) engaged in number of people employed in this sector is around 10 providing basic infrastructure. The states submit lakhs. respective sub-regional plans and proposals aligned to the Regional Plan. The NCRPB helps set-up NCR planning Two aspects are evident from studies, one, the region cells at the district-level state government offices. Since has a significant agricultural economy with over half the its inception in 1988, both the Regional Plan proposals population rural. And, two, while the existing industrial for the NCR have advocated "development of regional clusters employ approximately 15 lakh persons, while, settlements capable of absorbing the economic the small, medium, micro and household industries development impulse of NCT - Delhi" with provisions for 6 Figure 05: Mapping the Planning Process for the NCR comparable urban infrastructural facilities and growth policy imperatives and programmes. The plan mandated centres of varying sizes distributed across the region. A to deflect population from Delhi following a multi-nodal brief description of the key visions and achievements of regional growth structure to the identified Regional the first plan (Regional Plan 1989) and the strategies Centres or `Priority Towns' in the NCR by the year 2001. adopted for some of the sectors for the second (Draft The various plans for the NCR --- (Interim Development Revised Regional Plan 2021) have been described below. Plan (1986), Regional Plan (1989) and the related plans such as Sub- regional Plans; Uttar Pradesh (1992), Historical Context: The first exercise in planned Rajasthan (1994) and Functional Plans for Transport development was done through the Town Planning (1995), Power (1996), Telecommunication (1997), and Organisation (TPO), which prepared an Interim General Industry (1998) --- were exercises that were considered Plan (IGP) in 1956 for Greater Delhi. The study reported most expedient to achieve this common objective. This the emergence of the private developers for residential would be done through a set of policy initiatives, developments just outside Delhi State boundaries, planning for land uses and development of core regional 14 beyond the control of the D.D.P.A. Such developments infrastructure. However, despite this, population in Delhi just at the outer periphery of Delhi State triggered the continued to grow faster than anticipated. The Regional need for planning Delhi in a regional context and stated Plan projected a total population growth of 32.5 million that `serious consideration should be given for a planned for the region and 13.2 million for Delhi UT. To achieve decentralisation to outer areas and even outside the this, the Plan proposed an addition of 45,291 hectares to 15 Delhi region'. In this context, the NCR was then given the urbanizable area. During this period, however the specific physical contours in the early 1970s when its total built-up area increased more than 3 times this boundaries were defined in geographic terms allocation (see Table 02). encompassing a contiguous area of over 30,000 sq. km. An Act of Parliament in 1985 brought into being the NCR The Regional Plan 2021, in its analysis, states that the Planning Board, an autonomous body in which the main NCR experienced an increase of 166% in the built-up implementing agencies are the Central Government, the area between 1986 and 1999. More than 90% of this was three participating State Governments of Haryana, due to large scale conversion of agricultural land caused Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, and the Government of by industrial and urban development in the peripheries National Capital Territory of Delhi. of Delhi. Substantial urbanisable area, almost 61% of what was proposed, remained unbuilt in 1999, Regional Plan 2001 (RP 2001): The first regional plan, highlighting the comparatively low level of planned published in 1989 by the NCRPB, is a blueprint of various development in the NCR. On the other hand, the areas 7 proposed to be kept as green belts, immediately Category 1986 1999 outside the Delhi UA, have transformed rapidly after Area % Area % 1986 with 60% of the green belt demarcated as per RP 1 2 3 4 5 2001 having been built upon. Built-up 98,794 3.26 2,63,500 8.71 Agriculture 26,50,585 87.64 24,04,964 79.52 Draft Regional Plan 2021 (RP 2021): In view of the Forest 77,512 2.56 1,21,435 4.02 above, the NCRPB prepared the Regional Plan 2021 Wastelands 1,85,886 6.14 2,00,535 6.63 which was notified in 2005 and was revised in 2013. Water 3,235 0.10 24,217 0.80 The RP 2021 aims to promote growth and balanced bodies development for the whole region by developing an Others 8,200 0.27 9,549 0.32 appropriate economic base for future growth in the Total 30,24,200 100.00 30,24,200 100.00 identified major settlements, Metro Centres and Regional Centres, (see figure 06) in order to absorb the Table 02: Comparative Areas under different landuses in economic development impulse of Delhi. Additionally, 1986 and 1999 Source: RP 2021, NCRPB the plan makes proposals for developing an efficient transport network, developing physical infrastructure, rationalizing the land use pattern, and improving the environment and quality of life within the region. careful examination of natural features including The thrust areas for RP 2021 include: susceptibility to natural disasters and socio- 1. Laying down of Land Uses at the Regional level in economic activities terms of a harmonious pattern emerging from a 2. Development of Metro and Regional Centres as Figure 06: Constituents of National Capital Region (NCR) 8 powerful growth nodes to attract major activities industrial location policies are evident in the NCR. Cases 3. Provision of regional transport linkages and Mass such as Dharuhera and Bhiwadi are distinct as within a Commuter System span of 3 decades these rural settlements have been 4. Construction of peripheral expressways and orbital transformed into the most coveted destinations for rail corridor around Delhi industry and housing. 5. Development of core urban infrastructure (transport, power, water supply, sewerage, The study "Economic Profile of NCR" (2015) focuses on drainage) in NCR towns the existing economic scenario in the region especially 16 6. Development of the region’s economy through for the Metro Cities and Regional Centres. It highlights Model Industrial Estates, Special Economic Zones the need to strengthen rural infrastructure to promote outside NCT-Delhi agro based industries, provide better infrastructure in The plan proposes four policy zones to achieve industrial areas, address pollution and congestion in sustainable development: (1) the NCT Delhi, wherein no industrial towns, facilitate industrial revival of Meerut, new activity (formal and informal) resulting in job develop appropriate infrastructure to boost traditional creation can be located within the NCT, (2) the Central crafts in Ghaziabad, Khurja, etc., and, encourage NCR (earlier called Delhi Metropolitan Area) proposed to enterprises in districts showing slow growth rates like develop to its fullest potential - to enable this, plans by Jhajjar, Alwar, Bulandshar and Sonepat. The Delhi respective states are proposed to be made by the CNCR Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) has identified three Planning Group, (3) The Highway Corridor Zone, marking investment regions to boost the manufacturing sector in an area of 1 km along the highways with restricted terms of industrial output and employment, namely, activities and land uses, and (4) the rest of the NCR, Noida-Ghaziabad and a continuous 100 km stretch which is proposed to continue providing infrastructure adjoining Gurgaon consisting of Manesar-Bawal and and amenities to the various urban and rural settlements Bhiwadi-Neemrana. All of these regions lie to the south specifically for the identified Metro Centres or Regional of the NCR. With large investments planned for this Centres. region, it is crucial to take a critical look at the role of other Regional Centres to truly achieve decentralisation. KEY STRATEGIES ADOPTED IN THE NCR REGIONAL However an examination of the population for each of PLANS the growth centres over the last three decades shows To achieve the set objectives, the regional plans have discrepancies. While some of the Regional Centres have strategically proposed the development of adequate experienced very rapid growth within a single decade, transportation linkages and housing, distribution of some have remained stagnated. This highlights the economic growth opportunities through growth centres influence of factors not included in the regional planning in the region. strategies. Growth Centres: Within a proposed 6 tier settlement Housing in NCR: In the context of the Regional Plan system, a number of strategically located million plus policy of 'induced growth' of selected settlements in the centres termed as Metro Centres are located in the NCR, large-scale housing activities are essential elements CNCR region of the NCR, namely, Ghaziabad-Loni for the overall development programme to absorb complex, Faridabad-Ballabgarh complex and Meerut. The population and economic activities, thus achieving the RP 2001 as well as the RP 2021 have both proposed the decentralisation agenda of Delhi and balanced development of Regional Centres in the rest of the NCR, development for the entire region. It was estimated that as potential alternatives. While most of the population is the Regional Centres in the NCR would need a supply of concentrated within the CNCR, the expected population about 6.25 lakh dwelling units by 2001 (0.5 lakhs for growth in these proposed Regional Centres has been removing the current shortage, 1.75 lakhs to cater to the lower than expected. The Regional Centres have been normal population increase and 4 lakhs for absorbing the envisaged to host highly specialized secondary and additional population proposed to be deflected to these tertiary sector activities for providing job opportunities, towns). but presently, most of these towns are involved only in the manufacturing sectors (traditional and new). These Housing is generally provided by state development centres are proposed to have a concentration of authorities or housing boards involved in the delivery of administrative and higher order service functions and both developed plots and built-up dwelling units. The are expected to attract investments along with table below indicates the share of the various agencies in 17 favourable living and working environments for providing housing till 2001. The NCRPB has provided residents. Various cases of rapid growth induced by financial assistance to these public agencies for projects 9 facilitating over 1 lakh residential plots/flats, besides a Slum Population in NCR (2001) variety of other infrastructure facilities in different Sub- Population % of towns in the region till 2001. Despite this, the public region/Cities Total Slum Slum sector has not been able to deliver the requisite housing populat units in terms of numbers or costs, leading to a higher ion dependence on private developers. The real estate NCT-Delhi 98,17,439 18,54,685 18.89 market responsible for a large quantity of housing (MC-Urban) provided by both big and small private developers is thus Haryana 61,14,139 14,21,839 23.25 an important source. The core city of New Delhi has (Urban) added only marginally to the housing scenario as 1. Panipat 2,68,823 1,02,813 38.25 compared to the NCR. Investments in housing are much 2. Sonepat 2,25,151 75,454 33.51 18 higher in Gurgaon and Noida. Noida has been the 3. Rohtak 2,94,537 90,645 30.78 largest contributor in supplying residential development 4. 1,26,746 39,478 30.90 with good infrastructure, metro connectivity and road Bahadurgarh network, and real estate development. The Noida 5. Rewari 1,00,946 51,754 51.27 Extension area is emerging as a prime residential 6. Gurgaon 2,01,759 33,570 16.64 corridor with housing stock of varying prices making it a 7. Faridabad 10,54,981 4,91,131 46.55 preferred destination for many. This has acted as a pull 8. Palwal 1,00,528 15,589 15.50 factor. Upcoming major projects like the Export Rajasthan 1,32,05,444 12,06,123 9.13 Promotion Zones and Taj Economic Zone along the (Urban) Yamuna Expressway are likely to push the economic 1. Alwar 2,60,245 15,923 6.11 development of this region, consequently giving a Uttar Pradesh 3,45,12,629 43,99,005 12.75 further boost to real estate development.19 The presence (Urban) of this unregulated real estate market has further led to 1. Meerut 10,74,229 4,71,316 43.87 lack of affordable housing for different sections of the 2. Ghaziabad 9,68,521 2,58,834 26.72 population, resulting in the growth of slums and 3. Hapur 2,11,987 90,964 42.91 squatters even in the smaller towns of the NCR (see 4. Bulandshahr 1,76,256 50,292 28.53 Table 03). 5. NOIDA 2,93,908 26,824 9.12 Table 03: Slum Population in NCR (2001) With the focus on affordable housing, the NH-24 stretch Source: RP 2021, NCRPB in Ghaziabad, which already has a sizeable population in the developed residential corridors of Vaishali and Indirapuram, is being looked at as another destination. guidelines permitting FDI upto 100% for development of The Faridabad residential market has Greater Faridabad integrated townships, including housing, commercial (also known as Neharpaar) as a growth corridor. As per premises, hotels, resorts, city and regional level urban the report by a real estate advisory firm, upcoming infrastructure facilities. The Board has recommended in locations include Neemrana, Sohna etc. On the other the draft RP 2021 that the participating states of NCR hand low land prices and development potential could consider such integrated development with the continue to keep Yamuna Expressway an attractive help of FDI. The draft Plan also recommends the tenets destination for investors. As a further push to the real of the new National Housing and Habitat Policy 1998, estate market, the Government of India has issued wherein public agencies have been given the role of No. City/Town Dev. State Co. Op Pvt. Friends/ Others/Stat Total Authority Housing Group developers/ relatives e Housing GDA/ Board Housing builders Dev. NOIDA Society Authority HUDA 1. Ghaziabad 18.0 66.0 4.0 12.0 - - 100.0 2. NOIDA 74.0 - 16.0 10.0 - - 100.0 3. Faridabad - - - 18.0 - 82.0 100.0 4. Gurgaon - - 4.0 22.0 - 74.0 100.0 5. Bahadrurgarh - - - 86.0 2.0 12.0 100.0 Table 04: Agencies providing Housing in NCR Source: TCPO (2007) 10 facilitator rather than provider of these facilities. While this would boost availability of housing in the region, it would also be crucial for the state governments to draft policies for affordable housing. Infrastructure: The NCRPB has prepared functional plans for Transport-(2032) and the Functional Plan for Ground Water recharge while the Functional plan for Water is under preparation to determine the infrastructure needs for transport and water respectively. As part of the urbanisation pattern, it is essential to assess the existing infrastructure for the region. As seen in the case of Figure 07: Movement of Passenger Modes in NCR transportation, there is a very high dependence on Source: NCRPB (2013) private vehicles for daily commutation in the Metro- centres of CNCR due to the inadequacy or near absence of a public transport system. The existing urban sprawl Government of India (MoUD, MoR & NCRPB) and the highlights the concentrated growth (industrial and four states of the NCR (Delhi, Haryana, UP and residential) along the national highways and road Rajasthan) to facilitate high speed connectivity for Delhi corridors only. Also, for the Regional Centres in the NCR, with the Regional Centres within CNCR and the rest of the primary mode for commuting is private vehicles NCR. The lack of a high speed connectivity between the (refer table 05). As per figure 07, a very high share of the Regional Centres has been termed as the primary reason passenger movement within the NCT Delhi originates for the inadequate success of the multi-nodal regional from other areas in the NCR region.20 development strategy. The transport plan for the region identifies the lack of mass rapid and public transport Multiple agencies are responsible for planning, systems as the key reason for the failure of the planned implementing and maintaining transport networks growth centres to take off. A closer look at the functional within the region. This includes the National Highway plan for transport and the proposals for expressways and Authority of India for the national highways and integrated rail including rapid rail and metro rail expressways, the state PWDs, the development reinstates the sprawl structure for the region with NCT authorities, NCR Transport Corporation (NCRTC) set up Delhi as its core. Also, the transport plans and growth for the implementation of the Rapid Rail Transit System centres have been prepared to induce growth in the (RRTS), and the Unified Metropolitan Transport region assuming the regional centres to grow as per the Authority (UMTA) proposed to be set-up as a single demographic projections without considering the planning, co-ordination, management and monitoring existing or past trends of growth (refer Annexure 01). entity for the NCR under the Ministry of Urban This has been the most critical drawback of inducing Development (MoUD). urban growth through the tools of regional planning. A mass rapid transit system has been proposed as a In terms of water supply, major storage reservoirs, dams decentralisation and decongestion strategy in both the and barrages that provide water to NCR are located regional plans. While it did not take off in the earlier outside the region in the upper reaches of the plan, proposals for implementation of the RRTS have Himalayas. The NCRPB study has indicated that now been given an impetus with the setting up of the excepting Delhi, which has an average water availability NCRTC for coordinating its implementation in the four of 225 lpcd, per capita rate of water supply in the urban different states. This will be implemented through a centres of Haryana sub-region ranges from 45 lpcd in holding company with equal shareholding of the Sl. Name of the Communication to work place No. city/town Owned Pvt. Public Office Other Rail Total 1. Ghaziabad 66.0 6.0 26.0 2.0 - - 100.0 2. NOIDA 76.0 14.0 10.0 - - - 100.0 3. Faridabad 72.0 2.0 20.0 - 2.0 4.0 100.0 4. Gurgaon 60.0 16.0 24.0 - - - 100.0 5. Bahadurgarh 32.0 4.0 52.0 - 6.0 6.0 100.0 Table 05: Modes of Transport used to commute to work in the NCR Source: TCPO (2007) 11 Ganaur to 145 lpcd in Panipat, and 35 lpcd in Sub-region Total Total Total Shahjahanpur; 98 lpcd in Alwar in Rajasthan sub-region; Water Water Water and 28 lpcd in Phalauda and 142 lpcd in Meerut in the Available Demand Deficit Uttar Pradesh Sub-region. The status in rural areas MCM MCM MCM presents an even worse situation as many villages do not Haryana 5224 9775 - 4551 have local sources of water. Inadequate water supply for Rajasthan 1877 4523 - 2646 industrial, residential and agricultural uses has led to a Uttar Pradesh 4396 6730 - 2334 heavy dependence on ground water and over NCT-Delhi 2283 2438 - 155 exploitation of ground water resources. While the U.P. NCR 13780 23466 - 9686 sub-region has abundant ground water, the areas west Table 06 State-wise Demand Supply gap in the NCR of River Yamuna comprising the districts of Gurgaon, Source: NCRPB (2013) Rohtak, Sonepat, Jhajjar and most of Faridabad district in Haryana, Alwar in Rajasthan and a large part of NCT the regional proposals. The Development Authority for Delhi have insufficient ground water. As observed, the Delhi was set up in 1957 for managing growth for the concentration of residential and industrial development NCT Delhi, which experienced a very high growth (90%) as well as the identification of new investment regions in the previous decade following the Partition. One of along the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC), is all the urgent needs felt then was the dispersal of growth in southern Haryana along the Delhi-Jaipur corridor into a larger region to decongest the city further. which has experienced high rates of urbanisation (specifically, Dharuhera and Rewari). This has multiplied So the mandate of the NCRPB when it was set up was not the scarcity of water and proves to be a case of the focused on achieving regional balance and management, failure of the functional plans to inform regional planning but aimed at decongesting Delhi by ensuring dispersal of strategies. urbanisation into the region. Both the regional plans employed a multinodal approach (well suited to regional OBSERVATIONS: balanced growth) considering Delhi as the core for future Most of the metropolitan regions of Mumbai , Kolkata, expansions. However, while the development of growth Bangalore and Chennai were set up in the 1970s with the nodes were met with partial success, the further sprawl objective of management of urban expansions and of the core continued into the region. It has been dispersal of activities to the region. While KMA covers an observed that the CNCR, adjoining the NCT Delhi, has area of 1886 sq km and MMR 4384 sq km, the NCR with grown at a much faster rate than the Regional Growth its 34,000 sq km area is a peculiarly different case. Centres proposed in the other parts of NCR due a number However, despite the regional strategies focusing on of reasons. Lack of sufficient transport connectivity and a dispersal of population, most of the urban growth in the unified authority for implementation of transport plans is metropolitan cities has resulted in a sprawl and an considered to be a prime reason for this lopsided expanding UA. The NCR defined an even larger area to development. Instead, urbanisation has followed the disperse the population growth from the core to its multi continuous stretches along the highways providing nodes. However, the ever expanding footprint and the adequate connectivity than the proposed growth centres. complete urbanisation of the CNCR (refer figure 06) The case of the continuous urban stretch from Gurgaon raises crucial questions the ability to abandon the strong to Bhiwadi along the Delhi-Jaipur Highway is an example. core-periphery relationships for even larger regional The population growth for two of the urban areas Dharuhera and Bhiwadi have increased from a mere 5000 boundaries and thus the adequacy of our regional and 1000 to 2 lakhs and 1 lakh in the past three decades. planning strategies adopted. The forces of the real estate market also tend to append housing and commercial supply to the core in the region. While the urban and rural governance systems are (refer Annexure 1). Unfortunately, the Regional Plans take distinct, the maximum urban - rural interactions occur at no stock of the existing conditions and the impacts of the peripheries, especially for the expanding urban such sprawls. areas, resulting in transformations that are at times urban in nature but are governed by rural bodies. These metropolitan region thus depend on a technical Further, external policies interventions such as the three institution to strategise and manage expansions in the proposed investment regions of the DMIC have been region by setting forth a larger vision. In addition to identified to boost the manufacturing sector in terms of drafting regional level plans, these authorities as Special industrial output and employment in the NCR. These are, Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) also direct the local Manesar-Bawal and Bhiwadi-Neemrana that form a governments to implement projects in accordance with continuous 100 km stretch adjoining Gurgaon and the 12 third, Noida-Ghaziabad. While all three areas are already context specific core-periphery relationships and the highly industrialised, further induction of growth into factors influencing them. these regions and their proximity to the existing core city, challenges the core intent of the multinodal regional The stress on functional plans rather than strategy plans, growth strategy. lack of unified authorities responsible for planning and implementing sector specific projects, inadequate Inadequate water availability in the southern part of the interconnection developed between the different NCR is another factor that impacts the tendency to sectoral plans, a focus on developing and implementing sprawl. Whereas regions with adequate water and projects rather than comprehensive visions, and, the therefore predominant agricultural economy result in inability to follow evidence based planning methods for reluctance on the part of the farmers to sell their lands propagating induced growth have proven to be the for urban expansions. The spatial strategies adopted for crucial reasons for the failure of the regional plans. urban growth dispersal have weakly considered these 13 Greater Beijing Economic Region The rapidly increasing urban footprint in China, has led to a number of rural settlements to gradually transform into urban, albeit without the ownership of their land being transferred to the municipality. A patchwork of non-agricultural uses (was) apparent in these villages: industrial and commercial centres; new roads and bus lines; and local factories and small-scale industry established by outsiders and locals. Also evident (was) an increase in the importance of rental housing as a significant source of income for 21 villagers and an influx of outsiders, including factory workers, construction workers, and college students. INTRODUCTION China has experienced one of the highest rates of urbanisation in the past three decades. In 2010, the People's Republic of China (PRC) was home to 1/5 of the world's population with 1.3 billion people of which 22 almost 49% were urban. China's urban population (in about 600 urban areas with a population above 100,000) grew from 346 million (27% of its total population) to 477 million people (36%) between 2000 and 2010.23 China has five cities with population above 10 million, around 73 million plus cities and around 519 cities with a population of above 1 lakh. While the average population density in Chinese cities has dropped by more than 25% in the last decade, its urban land which was about 99,000 sq. km in 2000, increased to 127,000 sq. 24 km in 2010, an average growth of 2.5 % a year. This Figure 08: Urbanisation in China territorial expansion has included rapid conversion of Source: Karen Seto (2007) 'Urbanisation Growth in China: agricultural land located in the peripheries of large cities. Challenges and Prospects', Standford University Beijing and Tianjin are directly controlled municipalities of the Central Government. Beijing is spread over a total of 16,250 sq. km with a mere 1368 sq. km area urbanised and an urban population of 18.6 million surrounded by rural districts. Tianjin is around 11,760 sq. km with a 200 sq.km. urban area and an urban population of 11.5 million. The Greater Beijing Economic Region (GBER) has been demarcated for integrated development as a metropolitan area with Tianjin and autonomous 'satellite' areas in teh surrounding province of Hebei . This aims to serve three broad purposes: (1) It will provide an opportunity for creating the much needed economic centre to boost the economic growth 25 of the larger north-east region; (2) It is expected to boost the local economies of the Figure 09 China's Urban Centres region, and , Source: World Bank (2015) Urban Development Series (3) It will share the burdens of congestion, pollution and resources of the capital city of Beijing. Urbanisation Challenges: The impetus for rapid Through a brief discussion on the proposed development urbanisation in China dates back to the late 1970s when of the GBER encompassing Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei in the country through its early economic reforms led the the Bohai Sea Rim area, this section aims to study the decentralisation of its governance systems, shifting from key urbanisation challenges faced in this region, the a centrally dictated growth to a more localised one. opportunities and challenges arising from it along with Recently economic policies have reflected China's efforts the institutional and planning frameworks deployed for to rebalance its economy, shifting emphasis from strategizing the management of urban growth in the region. 14 investment for building production units towards increasing local consumption and inducing urbanisation in the rural and inland areas to achieve this. But critics are wary of such induced urbanisation as an instrument for creating sustainable economies. The frequent incidence of 'ghost towns' with less than 2% occupancy 26 in some of these further echoes these fears. Such a process of urban expansion in the absence of any market force or demand has led to peculiar patterns of suburban expansion and peri-urban conditions. The absorption of 260 million rural migrants into Chinese cities has led to conflicts with the urban hukou holders who perceive a decline in service quality.27 Presently, land laws for urban and rural areas in China are different, with significant uncertainties for farmland tenures. This makes acquisition of rural lands easier. Government policies in the 1990s allowed occupants of industrial housing to purchase homes at heavily Figure 10: Schematic Map of Beijing discounted prices and led to 84% of the households with Source: Yan Huang (2004) self-owned units. Across urban areas, prices doubled between 1999 and 2010; in some cities like Shanghai and Beijing, they increased more than five times—making As more land was annexed into the cities, the growth of the Chinese housing market unaffordable for many. On 28 businesses, industries and foreign investments attracted the other hand, Chinese cities are low density with low a large number of migrants into the cities. Migrant FARs and large under-utilised lands. Demand for workers made up more than one-third of the labour affordable housing for the low and middle income force in 2012. Two-thirds of China’s migrant workers live groups and the felt need for higher income groups to in the eastern provinces and two-thirds of these move away from congestion and pollution of the city and originate from the same provinces. Thus urbanisation is own luxury villas at affordable rates in the hinterland has merely concentrated in the eastern coast of China and led to expansion of residential developments in the remains distinctly separate without any of the positive peripheral lands. Formal and informal rental markets impacts reaching the predominantly rural provinces. Also provide an important source of housing, even in 'urban another cause for a further differentiation between the villages' within the cities and 'rural villages' in the urban and rural. Additionally, with a number of fresh peripheries. water rivers in the east, this is also the agricultural rich land. The unplanned increase in built up land, almost 87%, has resulted in loss of this arable land. Figure 11: Mapping policies and events influencing China's Urbanisation Source: McKinsey Global Institute (2009) 'Preparing for China's Urban Billion' 15 Governance Reforms and Urbanisation: With reference to figure 11 that charts the events and policies influencing urban growth. The substantial reduction of state budgetary commitment to local economic development since the 1980s and the reformation of the central-local taxation scheme since 1994, shifted the responsibilities of capital mobilisation and regional development from the central to the local level. With increasing inter-city competition to attract investments and jobs and the absence of any finance generating tools such as property tax, service charges, value added tax and market bonds, the empowered local governments heavily invested in infrastructure primarily through borrowings. One of the most significant aspects of this decentralisation of governance in China is the provision of acquiring land and subsequently processing it for development to the local government. In absence of land policies to methodically allow this, it has resulted in fragmented developments in the peripheries. Thus, much of the expansion of Chinese cities led to an official annexation of the rural peripheries into the cities. PLANNING PROCESS China has a centrally controlled planning system which consists of three kinds of plans: the Socio-Economic Development Plans prepared by the National Figure 12: Schematic governance structure for PRC Development and Reforms Commission (NDRC) and 32 departments under the national government known as the city level have to get central government's approval. the State Council; the National Spatial Plans prepared by Land use plans at the national, provincial, prefecture and the Ministry of Land Resources; and, the Urban and Rural township level are mandated by the Land Management Development Plans by the Ministry of Housing and Law which follows a complete top down approach and Urban-Rural Development. stipulates that the master plans for lower administrative · The Socio-Economic Development Plans bodies should follow those of higher administrative prepared by the NDRC provide broad political and bodies starting with the national land use plan. The ideological guidelines for economic development Master Plan, however, being static in nature, is gradually articulated through the Five Year Plans (the last was the being replaced by Strategic Plans that are dynamic and 12th Plan 2010-2015). This plan is politically driven and flexible instead on merely focusing on a rigid spatial plan. follows a top down approach, drafts an outline for the physical/geographical distribution of large-scale Metropolitan Planning or Planning for Economic construction projects, production centres and resource Regions: Since China's economic reform and opening allocation, and attempts to lay out a course for the up, there has been an attempt to break boundaries national economy. among different administrative regions and form a number of closely knit economic rims or belts that · Accompanying the Socio-Economic provide a vibrant and sustainable economy. These urban Development Plans, there are four categories of spatial agglomerations, each with a central core megacity, have plans. The Spatial Plans (land use plan) at the National become powerhouses for the country's rapid economic and provincial levels focus on equalising the allocation of development and are largely responsible for the land resources for different regions so as to have equal economic growth of the surrounding region. Ten such opportunity to promote their development. economic regions have been proposed to be developed in the 12th Five Year Plan. The largest three of these · Master plans at city levels are comprehensive distinct economic rims are the Pearl River Delta (urban plans for guiding development and are usually valid over population 42 million), the Yangtze River Delta (urban a 20-year period. Detailed plans further guide population 40 million), and the Bohai Economic Rim development at a township level. The plans prepared at (urban population 62 million).29 All of these large 16 metropolitan regions are spread across more than one administrative province and hence require special metropolitan plans which act as regional plans for these regions covering multiple administrative units. Metropolitan planning is directly coordinated by the national level ministries. However, the various concerned administrative units, provinces, counties, cities and municipalities are responsible for implementation, demanding higher regional cooperation. The plan for the Pearl River Delta has been approved and has been under implementation since 2005. Similarly, the Yangtze River Delta plan has been sanctioned in 2010. After decades of proposals for development the Beijing - Tianjin - Hebei region (the Bohai Economic Rim [BER]), the plan will finally be submitted to the State Council for approval this year in 2015. In 2005, the NDRC released a ‘2 + 8’ master development BOHAI ECONOMIC REGION: plan for the GBER, including Beijing and Tianjin and The plan preparation for integrated development of the eight prefecture–level cities in Hebei Province. In 2007 region is directly coordinated by the NDRC. The draft three more cities in Hebei were added, resulting in a ‘ 2 + 11’ plan. plan for the growth of the area is expected to take the form of "two centres, three axes and one belt", with Figure 13: Regional Growth Centres Beijing and Tianjin as two centres and coastal areas Source: Metropolis Congress (2008) Connecting Cities: forming an economic belt. The Hebei province, which is China primarily rural, serves as a key supplier of energy, as well as the constraints on — region-oriented electricity, steel, agricultural products and water to the development policy. With rich natural resources of oil two municipalities. Hebei benefits from the two cities and natural gas in the Bohai Sea and closely-knit core city insofar as Beijing and Tianjin provide ready markets for clusters, it's the most robust region in northern China its key products, especially agricultural produce and and was previously a base for manufacturing, heavy steel. Likewise, many of the most pollution-heavy industry and chemicals. Its strengths have also been seen industries have moved out of the two municipalities in in its well-developed communication network, shipping, recent years — particularly steelmaking — and has high-tech, S&T innovation and education. More than migrated to nearby cities in Hebei, providing important 3,000 enterprises, mostly heavy industries, have already sources of provincial government revenue and relocated to the city's fringe districts since the 1990s, 30 employment. including some in the surrounding Hebei province. The adjoining figure shows the identified growth centres and Key Strategies: the proposed settlement structure for the region. China plans to merge the urban centres in the Bohai Economic Rim (with about 62 million urban of residents Growth Centres: Two municipalities of Beijing and as on 2010) into one big Super City of 260 million Tianjin and 11 prefecture level cities in the Hebei population. A key strategy planned is a high speed rail province (refer figure 13) have been proposed to form connectivity to link the Beijing and Tianjin. The draft plan important growth centres. Beijing will be the focal point for the growth of the area envisions two main urban for high-tech and value added service industries, while centres and an economic belt of the coastal cities. Tianjin will leverage its port and manufacturing base to Unifying the hukou system for Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei has develop as a logistics and communications hub. Tianjin’s been proposed as one of the key triggers to the Binhai New Area has also been earmarked as an proposed Economic Development Plan. Another trigger international financial centre. The smaller Hebei is the shifting out of all government departments, state province cities offer lower land prices and large reserves owned firms and government agencies from Beijing to of land, allowing development of higher value–added 31 the Tianjin and Hebei region. industries that can be integrated with the region’s research and logistics capabilities. Regional Economy: The prospective Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei economic zone illustrates the need and potential for — 17 Transport Infrastructure: New and expanded transportation networks are planned to support the acceleration of connectivity between Beijing to Tianjin as well as the economic integration of the region as a whole. Expressways and a high-speed railway between Beijing and Tianjin plans to connect several major industrial zones, facilitating interaction between them. Additionally, as an extension to Beijing's ring road system, there is a seventh ring road that connects Beijing to the surrounding Hebei province, integrating the region through increased connectivity. It is in parts 175 km away from the city indicating the expanse of the future sprawl. The new networks propose to create a two-hour transportation circle encompassing some 76 million people. Enhancements to airport and port infrastructure will strengthen intra–regional and international links and with Tianjin Port as the focus, a comprehensive sea, land and air transportation network is planned for reaffirming Tianjin’s status as the BER’s logistics hub (refer figure 14). Figure 14: Proposed Transport Strategy Source: Metropolis Congress (2008) Connecting Cities: China Land Management: In peri-urban areas of Beijing municipality, forced re-contracting of farmland without individual consultation with land holders is common fire prevention and building quality of houses. Sub- practice. Besides, the practice of readjusting village standard living conditions are proposed to be prohibited. landholdings to reflect household population changes It aims to standardise leasing processes and encourage has been a feature of the rural land system in enterprises and industrial parks to provide workers with approximately 80 percent of Chinese villages. Added to dormitories. this, the prevalence of informal practices and lack of a land registration system for rural lands have proved to Challenges: This vision of regional growth, however be substantial impediments to the development of relies on cooperation and coordinated planning between efficient rural land transfer markets.32 This results in a the two major economic hubs, Beijing and Tianjin, and general disinterest in pursuing agricultural activities and though the two cities are just 120 km apart, they have makes a strong case for the need to migrate. Land long been uneasy neighbours, competing for resources management therefore in this case is used as an and investment. Both Tianjin and Beijing have a instrument for steering not just urban expansions, but dominant industrial economy, but their relative also forcing migrations. positioning is unclear and there is significant overlapping of industrial functions, resulting in scattered investments th The 12 Five Year Plan prioritises development of rural along the industrial supply chain. Since no central areas particularly along the urban rural borders. Planning authority has been empowered to enforce the proposed controls and urban administration are to be development guidelines, there is no means of compelling strengthened to avoid re-emergence of border area the GBER’s dominant cities to overcome their historical problems. While, the priority given to key cities is rivalry in order to fulfil their proposed roles. expected to be maintained, the new comprehensive and supportive cities are to be created to induce growth and OBSERVATIONS: advantages of urbanisation into the region. The urban- China follows a top-down approach in governance, function pattern is expected to rapidly shift from an over administration and planning. Economic growth plans as concentration of urban functions in Beijing to that of well as spatial growth plans are drawn at a national level multi-functional urbanised regions. which are then adopted by cities and regions. The policies and agendas set at the central level, attract Housing: The 12th Five Year Plan proposes to improve investments and industrial growth proposals by local living conditions for floating populations and migrants, level governments. mostly housed in the urban villages, through the management of household rentals and security services, 18 The rising competition amongst cities to attract The integration of economic and spatial planning investments, has resulted in high class infrastructure, adopted by the central governments determine the sprawling cities along with, high dependence on regional level approaches and plans. This has led to the automobiles, in pollution, traffic and environmental possibility of a better control by the city and central degradation. governments over land use, economy, and industry, and hence, a better alternative for inducing growth. The BER There is a clear distinction between urban and rural with is proposed as a leverage for reviving growth in the separate laws that administer them and separate entire northern region. identities that are associated with the place of origin (urban or rural) for every individual through the hukou A high consumerism encouraged by the central system. The hukou system is also the main cause of government policies, elite housing in distant suburbs, inequitable distribution of resources and opportunities resulting sprawling cities, and a greater dependence on and hence the primary cause of social unrest. The urban automobiles marks the newer expansions in China. The peripheries starkly manifest these distinctions and are Chinese urban sprawl in some senses emulates the subjected to fragmented growth and a cause of tension American suburbanisation, but instead of being demand between the urban and the rural. The need for induced driven, it appears to be highly state driven. urbanisation in the region has led to a supply driven approach, that has resulted in creation of sprawling towns with extensive housing, commercial, institutional and other areas with less than 6% occupancy. 19 Tristate Metropolitan Region of New York Rapid industrialisation and immigration from abroad led to the growth of urban centres (in the United States). The ability of city boundaries to keep up with the explosion of urban population and the expansion of urban land development proved a difficult challenge, with the main method being annexation by the city government of surrounding towns and villages, officially incorporating them within the city's newly enlarged borders through legal authority granted to the municipal corporation by the state government. Thus for a time, city growth kept pace with metropolitan growth. For example, cities such as New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago all grew through annexation and consolidation from their original boundaries of just a few square miles and an original population of a few thousand people early in the 19th century, to cities with hundreds of square miles and millions 33 of people by the end of the 19th century. INTRODUCTION With about 83% urban population, the United States of America (USA) is one of the most urbanised nations. The last century saw urban growth in the United States rise from a mere 30 million (in 1900) to 250 million (in 2010). In 1920 there were just 5 urban areas with a population above 1 million and 9 urban areas with a population of 0.5 million to 1 million. By 2010, this increased to 42 urban areas with a population above 1 million and 38 urban areas with a population of 0.5 to 1 million. New York and Los Angeles are two of the most populated and the most sprawling cities in the United States. While Los Angeles Metropolitan Area has a population of around 13 million spread over 12,500 sq km, the metropolitan region of New York has a population of 20 million Figure 15: Population Density in Urban Areas since 1920 Source: New Geography (2013) sprawled over almost 35,000 sq km. divide between those living in the city and the suburb. Urbanisation Challenges: The urbanisation processes in The city cores often decayed due to neglect and the USA through the entire period of the last century proliferated with slums and crime. Three key initiatives have been synonymous with the advance of as listed below caught the imagination of architects, suburbanisation. The roots of the suburban sprawl date planners, environmentalists, and the government as a back to the 1830s when the rise of industries in the cities response to the growing concern. brought with it issues of pollution, congestion, (1) The 'new urbanism' initiated by architects and overcrowding, reduction in sizes of city houses, and a physical planners, based on a movement that sought to decreased quality of life experience. To counter these bring back vibrancy into the dying city centres, led to the issues, the growing idea of 'suburbia' based on new establishment of the New Urbanism Congress in 1993. regional planning concepts similar to the 'Garden Cities' 'New Urbanism' principles call for organising in the UK, provided an opportunity to seek aspired development in cities, towns, and villages that are lifestyles.34 The introduction of assembly-line production compact, walkable, have mixed-use, and are transit- in automobile manufacturing, the post World War-II friendly, and contain a diverse range of housing. They are economic boom and federal legislations in the US made operated on a number of scales: buildings, lots and it cheaper for to construct a new home in the suburbs blocks, neighborhoods, districts and corridors, and than improve upon an existing structure in the city. The ultimately entire cities and regions. growth of suburbia, primarily in the 60s and 70s, was followed by the emergence of the 'edge city', which in (2) At around the same time, initiatives towards addition to housing and convenient shopping areas revitalising cities and urban life were taken up across the accommodated a CBD (Central Business District). Since it country. The term 'smart growth' was first used in lacked the compactness of the city, public transport and Massachusetts in the late 1980s to describe proposals to pedestrian facilities, these edge cities further improve its state and regional planning system.35 This led encouraged the use of motorised vehicles. to the second most significant initiative in the mid 1990s by the American Planning Association (APA), an Growth of the suburbs and the flight of the middle and independent body, through the project 'Growing Smart' higher income groups from the city, resulted not just in a that created a legislative guidebook. This model physical segregation but also a racial and economic promoted growth, particularly in and around the existing 20 city and town centres and sought to curb sprawl by corporations to address the growing challenges of promoting more compact, more transit and pedestrian- metropolitan regions for regulation of certain activities, friendly areas, and less resource, energy and land- eg, the port authorities, regional transport authorities, consuming patterns of development. and others. (refer figure 16) To create strategic plans focused on regional governance (3) A third initiative, called the 'Partnership for and coordination for implementation of the federal Sustainable Communities' setup in 2009, is a government initiatives, the Councils of Governments collaboration between three federal agencies, the (COGs) were initiated in the 1950s. These were replaced Environment Planning Agency, the Department of by a new federal programme under the transport Housing and Urban Development, and the Department legislation in the 1980s which mandated every urban of Transport. It aims to help improve access to affordable region to create a Metropolitan Planning Organisation housing, create more transportation options and lower (MPO) specifically for planning transportation transportation costs while protecting the environment in investments and policies. In some cases, the regional communities nationwide, and provides grants to city and COGs reconstituted themselves as MPOs. The 1991 state governments for implementing various project. Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) encouraged MPOs to take an integrated view of PLANNING PROCESS coordinating land-use, transportation, and air quality USA being a liberal democracy with federal systems of considerations, the first example of multi-sectoral governance, is dominated by a history of local self- planning decisions being made at the federal level. government. Institutions such as the Regional Planning Association (RPA), the American Planning Association In the absence of a clear regional planning authority for (APA), Strategy Association, and so on), university drafting comprehensive plans, numerous non- departments along with eminent individual urbanists government associations, institutions and individuals have been responsible for initiating relevant research have significantly helped in articulating the needs for and plan proposals periodically. Federal intervention is regional planning and comprehensive planning time and generally confined to indirect means for promoting again, and have also spearheaded people's movements management of urban regions. However, time and again, to facilitate this. While the federal policies have the federal governments have directly assisted the city promoted regional transportation planning, RPA in New governments to address sectoral gaps in the urban areas. York is one of the few organisations that proposes an Planning in the US is a state subject and state legislation integrated regional planning approach. The section plays a significant role in non-spatial regulatory attempts to document regional planning endeavours of intervention primarily through zoning and limiting of the RPA in New York since 1920s. development. State level planning qualifies the local governments to prepare land use plans. State plans and TRISTATE REGION OF NEW YORK regional efforts have shown a great variation across the The tri-state region of New York covers the MSAs of New country. York, New Jersey and Connecticut to with counties comprising Long Island and the Mid- and Lower Hudson The first few decades of the 20th century witnessed a Valley in the state of New York; the five largest cities in population explosion, equally in the city core and the New Jersey (Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth and peripheries. The main method of keeping pace with this Edison) and their vicinities; six of the seven largest cities urban expansion had been the annexation of in Connecticut (Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, surrounding villages and towns by the city governments, Waterbury, Norwalk and Danbury) and their vicinities. resulting in expanding boundaries. After a number of The New York metropolitan area with a population of cities stopped the annexation procedures, a gap more than 23 million and nearly 800 cities, towns and between the city and the metropolitan area was created. villages is spread across 34,000 square kilometres. To cope with this, the US Census created a new category, Known technically as a Census Combined Statistical Area the Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), consisting of a (CSA), it is a centre of many industries including finance, central city and a relatively contiguous urbanised international trade, media and entertainment, tourism, population within daily commuting range. This reflected biotechnology, and manufacturing, making it one of the the new reality of an urban region with many different most important economic regions in the world. local government jurisdictions. This was followed by the initiation of regional special purpose government 21 Planning in the Tri-State: Four key agencies are broadly responsible for planning in the Tristate Metropolitan region of New York. The City Planning Department at the local government level is responsible for planning for the city of New York. The New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (NYMTC), created in 1982 as the Metropolitan Planning Organisation (MPO) for New York City, Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley, provides a collaborative planning forum to address transportation- related issues from a regional perspective, plans for the future, and also makes decisions on the use of federal transportation funds. Established in 2008, the Metropolitan Area Planning (MAP) forum crosses the boundaries of New York, Connecticut and New Jersey and comprises of five primary MPOs in the tri-state New York City metropolitan area to address shared transportation challenges that stem from the region’s unique scale and population density and focus on goals which can be realistically achieved through sharing data Figure16: Metropolitan Area Planning Forum Map and models, coordinating on boundary projects, and Source: Federal Highway Administration (Regional Models regularly discussing current issues in a collaborative of Cooperation Case Study model. However, except the inter-state transport authority, the MAP that addresses shared transportation challenges for the region, there is a glaring absence of an integrated authority for addressing environment, employment, growth, housing, infrastructure and quality of life concerns for the tri-state region. The RPA, an association of professionals, planners, architects and other has been involved in proposing integrated plan since 1929 (First Regional Plan). For lack of any statutory planning body, most of the plans and proposals are designed such that they are easily adopted by the concerned local government departments and service district authorities. Based on rigorous surveys of ground conditions, mapping of issues and public aspirations, future projections of environment, infrastructure, economy, and social needs and support of Figure 17:The Tri-State Region the community, RPA has since 1929 proposed three Source: Regional Planning Association plans for the integrated tri-state region. The fourth is in progress. This initiative was the first to recognize a New released during the 1960s, RPA identified and quantified York metropolitan region — one that encompassed New the alarming trends caused by sprawl, including Jersey and Connecticut. RPA has been enormously environmental degradation and decline of older urban successful in advancing the implementation of its centres. These findings led RPA to propose a polycentric recommendations to the various city and regional structure for the region that proposed Manhattan to authorities functioning in the region. This section briefly become a commercial, financial and cultural capital on a describes strategies adopted by the Third Regional Plan national scale; and for regional centres, including and follows a brief description of the unique approach Jamaica, in Queens; Downtown Brooklyn; Newark,N.J..; for the Fourth Plan. and Stamford, to absorb most of the growth. A severe economic downturn in the early 1990s led to a loss of Third Regional Plan (1996): The first plan (1929) prosed 770,000 jobs by 1996, eliminating virtually all the a dispersal of key activities such as airport, seaport and region’s growth during the prosperous 1980s. industries to the surrounding region to ease the urban Meanwhile, the trends of suburbanisation had only pressures of New York City. In the second regional plan, accelerated. From the 1960s to the 1990s, the region’s 22 population grew by 13%, but the suburban land grew by congestion which meant reducing travel times and 60%. From 1970 to 1995 the region’s highway network transfers to employment centers and airports, improved gained 482 kms, while the transit network continued to freight connections, and an efficient use of the road shrink with decreased ridership in the subways. In the system with less congestion. The campaign promoted a third plan, for achieving economy, environment and Regional Express Rail network to support the centers of equity, RPA proposed three key strategies propogated as commerce and provide fuller access to major (1) Centers Campaign, (2) Mobility Campaign, and, (3) employment sites. The campaign also proposed to Governance Campaign. institute market-based transportation pricing measures that recognized the full public and private costs of Key Strategies Adopted in the Third Regional Plan transportation to add efficiency through market (1996) incentives. Economy: The Tri-state region, marked with diverse economies ranging from research and academia, as a Governance: The region is comprised of 20 million centre of marketing, media, world governments, and people living in 13,000 sq. miles governed by over 2,000 with an unparalleled diversity of people, interests, ideas units of government, including counties, cities, towns, and approaches, has been recognised as the world's service districts, and authorities. Each of these political financial capital. Following the recession, the region entities is funded almost exclusively through property experienced sluggish growth. Low-skilled workers were tax, and the majority of them control their own budgets particularly vulnerable to this transformation, as independently. The result is fiscal imbalance and automation, rising skill requirements and corporate inefficiencies, in the form of duplication of efforts, downsizing have depressed wages and job opportunities. depletion and degradation of natural resources, self- The region is now seen as an emerging global economy serving and short-sighted decisions, cumbersome land with new global markets and information technology, use regulatory processes, and inadequate delivery of finance business and personal services. The need for new public services. investments in infrastructure, communities, environment and the workforce for better quality of life The Governance Campaign proposed to restructure was judged in competition with other regions in the existing state government and regional authorities and nation and the world. strategise inter-agency cooperation, to build and manage world-class infrastructure and reduce regulatory Growth Centres: Post-recession (in the 2000s) it was burdens and tax inefficiencies. Reforming governance important to induce growth into the region's main CBD was necessary for the region’s economy. Governance is area of Manhattan as well as develop CBDs of Newark, critical for providing greater equity in the region, in Poughkeepsie, and Bridgeport to their full potential to public education, land use and service delivery, as well as encourage a more efficient use of resources through for protecting environment. Through reform of taxation reduced land consumption and reduced costs for the and land use regulations, the RPA proposed to promote entire regional economy. And because they are more faster and better delivery of public services with less accessible to less-advantaged communities, investing in duplication, fewer layers of bureaucracy, and a reduction and bringing new employment to centres brings new in conflicting mandates. The plan proposes strategies to opportunities to the residents who need them most. The reform tax systems by providing user fees for a Centers Campaign planned to direct as much job growth significant share of the estimated $75 billion in new as possible to CBDs (Central Business Districts) in the capital investments needed to implement the plan, and region's major downtowns to maintain around 50% of an equivalent amount of new investments in education the region's employment. New public-private and workforce. investments, creative planning and zoning, expansion of arts and cultural activities that foster the kind of Housing: Eighty percent of the 1.7 million housing units desirable mixed-use communities and attract jobs and built since 1970 were constructed in the region's outer residents to centres, were sought. The goal of the ring, as residents sought affordable housing, lower taxes, Centers Campaign was to attract half of the region's and escape from the problems of cities and inner expected 2 million jobs by 2020 in the Manhattan CBD suburbs. From 1970 to 1995, core urban counties lost and 11 regional downtowns. more than 300,000 jobs while the outer suburban ring gained 2 million. At the same time, the region has Transport: The Mobility Campaign had three principal abandoned urban areas, hollowing out cities that components: improved transit service, a transformed historically have been the focus for jobs and residences. freight system, and a highway network with reduced By 1980 the majority of the region's residents did not live 23 in a city. Proposals for reversing this trend to develop OBSERVATIONS mixed-use mixed group communities was advocated for The role of RPA has been unique with the ability to rejuvenating the downtowns of 11 regional centres in prepare an evidence based plan for the integrated tri- addition to New York. The New York City Housing state region. RPA is an example of a the advantages of a Authority (NYCHA) is responsible for providing low and city support institute with an ability to transcends moderate income housing for the city of New York. political boundaries, election-year cycles and status quo Approach to the Fourth Regional Plan (2013) thinking to make far-reaching proposals about the The on-going proposed plan process begun in 2013, has policies and investments that will shape the region. As an undertaken a complex and far reaching participation for external support institution, RPA can have a broader plan preparation and aims to address issues such as mandate to propose strategies that seek coordination climate change, equitable distribution of resources and and collaboration of the concerned agencies. However opportunities and most importantly a need to alleviate the lack of a statutory status results in delayed adoption the debt loads of public institutions. The Fourth Regional of ideas and implementation of proposed strategies. Plan sets "a long term vision for the New York Metropolitan Area and focuses on four major challenges: The ability to modulate between individual expanding economic prosperity and opportunity; neighbourhoods and the overall region has been one of creating communities that are more secure and liveable; RPA’s significant achievements and sets an important reducing our vulnerability to severe weather and climate example for successfully identifying the issues and change; and, improving our financial, institutional and linking it to citizens aspirations. Citizen-engagement at regulatory structures so that smart solutions can be all stages (mapping issues to project implementation) implemented." The approach to preparation of this plan creates a sense of ownership for the plan. Also has largely involved research and dialogues with importantly this can develop consensus through citizen- different groups and individuals, also the use of social engagement, essential for plan adoption in its entirety. media to compile issues and aspiration and identify priority areas. For the preparation of this plan, RPA has The presence of sector related authorities from special worked at two levels the community or the authorities at neighbourhood level, city level and neighbourhood level, and at the regional level, creating regional level and state or federal level has helped in unique models of civic engagement and action strategies clearly demarcating needs, projects and finances, ultimately resulting in implementation of crucial projects essential for regional balance. 24 Conclusions URBAN SPRAWL CHALLENGES Urbanisation in the twentieth-century is marked with limiting, necessitating a focus on underlying features and expanding urban boundaries manifested through the involved processes. The juxtaposition of rural and urban phenomenon of 'sprawl' resulting in an increased characteristics, an ever increasing demand of land for blurring of the 'urban' and 'rural', and varying core- housing, commerce and industries, the mushrooming of periphery relationships. Sprawling cities have not just cheaper housing for the middle & lower income groups become a serious challenge for managing transportation and sprawling mansions for the rich, rapid but pose a threat to environment and efficient use of transformation of rural settlements into congested natural resources (see Figure 20). These large, 'urban villages', a persistent deficit of urban services and overgrown and growing cities are distinctly characterised transportation infrastructure, dynamic demographics by their size, economy, expanse and functional linkages and social & economic diversification, result in existence with the surrounding region and other larger cities of non-descript urban boundaries that characterise outside its immediate region. urbanization in the peripheries. Urban sprawls are generally linked with transformations Various concepts have emerged to describe the of the 'rural' into 'urban' resulting in the formation of phenomenon of urban sprawl, its causes and impacts at transient urban peripheries. These peri-urban conditions different points in time in the last century. Some of these 36 have been defined as ‘a place, concept or process’. terms are crucial to understand the functional linkages ‘Peri-urban’ thus refers to the urban fringe and the developed between the core and the periphery for urban geographic edge of cities as a place, it refers to the sprawls. The phenomenon of 'Conurbation' (coined by movement of goods and services between physical Patrick Geddes in 1915) described is a polycentric urban spaces and to the transition from rural to urban contexts agglomeration, in which transportation has developed to as a process and finally, as a concept, it refers to an link areas to create a single urban labour market or interface between rural and urban activities, institutions travel to work area. The conceptualization of the and perspectives.37 Also as illustrated in the figure 18 'megalopolis' (Jean Gottaman in 1954), creating a new sprawl has two primary impacts on the available scale of geography which is a result of expanding resources. It not only increases the urban footprint metropolitan regions leading to blurred boundaries, leading to the per capita land development, increases interlocking economic systems, shared natural resources distances and per capita vehicle travel, but also reduces and ecosystems, and common transportation systems the farmlands, natural resources, increased urban heat linking these population centres together. The island effects and the larger climate change issues. megalopolis concept provides cities and metropolitan regions a context within which to cooperate across A geographical perception of the peri-urban could be jurisdictional borders. The continuous stretch from Figure 18: Impact of sprawl on regional resources Source: Littman Todd (2015) Analysis of Public Policies that Unintentionally Encourage and Subsidize Urban Sprawl, LSE Cities 25 Boston to Washington (BosWash) is an example of one of land, extreme spatial fragmentation and varying such defined conceptual region. infrastructural demands, resulting in a governance and planning nightmare. Moving towards a more functional concept of the sprawl is the citistate (coined by Neil Pierce and Curtis Johnson TRIGGERS FOR URBAN SPRAWL in 1993) that defines a region consisting of one or more The urbanization pattern in NCR, as in other central cities surrounded by cities and towns which have metropolitan regions in India, has shown a relatively a shared identity, function as a single zone for trade, higher growth in the urban peripheries through the commerce and communication, and are characterized by emergence of new towns. Most of these, are a result of social, economic and environmental interdependence. A the transformations occurring in the region impacted by citistate is organic such as a labor market, a commute- impulses known as 'centrifugal forces' with strong shed, a broadcast area, the circulation area of the lead linkages to the core reinstating the core-periphery newspaper, etc. and isn't defined by any political or relationship. Industries and infrastructure are the main administrative boundary. drivers that direct these transformations. Additionally, residential projects, catering to the housing demands of With reference to Neil Brenner's concept of 'planetary the rich and the middle income groups requiring larger urbanism' which holds no distinction between rural, peri- residential spaces and affordable housing and the state- urban and urban and terms everything as urban, the initiated forced relocations of the urban poor, contribute sprawl could be understood as a manifestation of a to spatial expansions in the region and are an outcome 'metropolitan informal urbanization', the term used to of the pull-push factors causing urban growth. describe the dynamic rural/urban interfaces that are constituted through differentiated forms of informality, Some settlements in the NCR region also grow 38 including the flows of labour and types of housing. The organically through internal forces, on the one hand due 'semi-urban' areas in the urban periphery are today to natural increase in population and better agricultural characterized by high levels of economic diversity and or (traditional) industrial output, and on other are forced interaction, a high percentage of non-farm employment to urbanize and take on newer economies due to poor (over about 50 per cent), and a penetration of global agricultural produce, inadequate quality of life, 39 market forces into the local economic systems. These opportunities etc. These varying causes have led to have also resulted in marginalisation as seen in the case different patterns of urban growth in the Haryana sub- of the NCR as highlighted by the case of Dharuhera. . region to the west and the Uttar Pradesh sub-region to 'The landless inhabitants of emerging urban centres like the east of the Yamuna river for the NCR. The resultant Dharuhera (and surrounding villages) were traditionally urban growth concentrated towards the south and the engaged in menial or agricultural labour. They have not east of the Delhi UA is a continuous urban sprawl with a greatly benefited from the urbanization process. spatial cover larger than that of NCT Delhi. Employment opportunities on farming land have reduced and jobs are not easily found in the industrial In the case of GBER, the integration of 2 large area, either because of lack of education or the strong municipalities and 1 part province has led to the creation reluctance of industries to employ local labour. This of a large mega-region. While such an integration population group appears to be both socially and provides economic opportunities, coordination and 40 spatially trapped'. management would be a challenge specially with the existing inter-city competition to attract private The growth of new industrial landscapes in the peri- investments. Annexation of surrounding rural land by the urban partly a result of the relocation of industries from municipality, setting up of economic activities such as the core cities and the growth of newer types and forms industrial estates and Special Economic Zones and of economies, impact the socio-economic profiles of the opening up of lands for residential sprawls. region. The growth of small, micro and household industries linked to the dynamic forward and backward In the case of New York, with maximum sprawl occurring linkages give rise to a constantly shifting landscape and till 1980's and resulting in moving out of population and its shifting impacts on landuse, transport and economy from the core cities, led to extreme infrastructure in the region. These unforeseen fragmentation of the region and a loss of the core. The developments manifest, at times, through conflicting use subsequent efforts in planning and urban growth 26 Box 01: Metropolitan Governance Systems in Asia (i) Autonomous urban authorities, where cities, towns and municipalities within a city-region are distinct from each other both functionally and territorially. Every local authority is in charge of its own planning, policymaking, regulations and programme/project execution. (ii) Mixed systems of regional governance, where authority and power are vested in formal structures such as central government departments, regional authorities, metropolitan bodies, special-purpose authorities, cities, towns and villages. Each of these government bodies is responsible for functions such as policy setting, financing, planning and implementation of programmes and projects. Specific functions can be carried out by separate agencies operating at different levels. These functions can also be shared by a number of government bodies. (iii) Unified metropolitan government, where city-regions come under a single governing body which plans, manages, finances, supports and maintains services in an area-wide territory. Any local authorities within the city-region are subordinated to the unified government. This approach has been used mainly in national capitals where the central government’ s authority is dominant (e.g., Seoul). Historical and cultural factors have influenced the evolution of each type of governance system. Each type also comes with specific benefits and shortcomings. Source: Japan, UN-HABITAT (2010)The State of Asian Cities 2010/2011 Part 06: Urban Governance, Management and Finance [online] available at http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=3078 [accessed on 17 July 2014]. management focused on reversing the suburbanisation future growth. The NCRPB acts as a planning body that trends and redensifying the inner city cores. drafts regional proposals for development of the NCR region with minimal engagement with the local GOVERNING THE SPRAWL neighbourhoods and people. These are implemented by In recent decades, most Asian governments have various departments of the state governments, the state focused on planning and governing the rapidly urban development authorities and the local urbanising cities and regions. These urban sprawls are governments. usually governed by a plurality of bodies and suffer from administrative fragmentation among central and The GBER, delineated as an economic mega region, provincial/state departments and agencies. Lack of comprises of two directly controlled municipalities, cooperation or coordination among urban authorities Beijing and Tianjin, and the surrounding region of the and central and provincial/state bodies poses major Hebei province. The various ministries of the national challenges to metropolitan planning and governance. In government are responsible for the economic and spatial general, Asian governments currently resort to three planning of the region. The concerned administrative types of approaches for the governance of metropolitan units, provinces, counties, cities and municipalities are areas and city-regions as elaborated in Box 01. responsible for implementation. Similar to the case of NCR, there is practically no involvement of the citizens. In India, local governance involves a three tiered In the case of the Tristate Region, RPA is involved in structure as per the 73th (for rural settlements) and 74th preparing a comprehensive plan for the region with a (for urban settlements) Constitutional Amendments of high degree of participation by citizens, professionals elected representatives supported by administrative and businesses. services and technical authorities with two separate types of local bodies governing the 'urban' and the Similar to India, planning in the US is a state subject and 'rural'. The peri-urban interface, where the urban and the role of the state legislation is significant in non- the rural juxtapose, is maximized at the peripheries of spatial regulatory intervention primarily through zoning the expanding urban centres creating physical and regulations for limiting development. State level transformations that are urban in nature but are planning authorizes the local governments to prepare governed by rural bodies. This interface has not been land use plans. However, the various Federal recognised and most of the governance efforts have Government interventions, through policies and federal consistently focused on the 'urban' or the 'rural' (like the funded schemes have contributed largely to the planning census distinctions, the separate infrastructure schemes strategies and frameworks adopted at the city and or the decentralization efforts) except the setting up of regional level. the urban development authorities as SPVs by the state governments in the 1980s. In addition to drafting In the case of China, the integration of economic and Regional level plans, these Authorities are mandated to spatial planning has led to the possibility of higher acquire land, develop housing/commerce/industry, control over landuse, economy and industry. Besides, a develop infrastructure, finance projects and provide for 27 complete central government control has made plan control over landuse, economy and industry. Besides, a implementation efficient. complete central government control has made plan implementation efficient. Plan as a Governance Tool: Planning is adopted as a key strategy to govern the urban sprawls. With the While sprawl has been identified as a problem globally, a traditional top-down approach, city planning poses a polycentric regional approach could hold the potential challenge in the rapidly transforming regions, for urban for providing solutions for a contained sustainable city and regional planning exercises. Globally, in addition to and region model. The mandate of the NCRPB when it (physical) landuse planning, a need has been articulated was set up adopted the multinodal growth model and for integration of strategic plans, economic visions, identified counter growth magnets outside its planning environmental plans, transportation plans, through jurisdiction. The focus of the NCR was less on achieving evidence based planning approaches for proposing a regional balance and management, but more towards feasible plan. This approach towards planning integrates decongestion of Delhi and dispersal of urbanisation into the social, economic and physical for the city and the the region. As a result, even though both the regional metropolitan region and connects the neighbourhood, plans employed multinodal growth approach, the urban region, nation and globe. expansions in the region have been lop-sided resulting in sprawl towards the south of the main city. Various issues Some key aspects the three cases highlight are such as the time taken to assimilate the Regional, Sub- discussed: Regional and Functional Plans; the lack of unified coordinating agencies for the individual sectors; The NCRPB proposes Regional Land use Plans supported uncontrolled sprawl, varying agendas set by multiple by Functional Plans (sector plans) and detailed Sub- agencies such as the investment regions proposed by Regional Plans but confirms more to the idea of spatial DMIC, and, an unregulated real estate market have also plans. Besides, the time taken for preparation of plans contributed in the inevitable sprawl. and their implementation, renders them obsolete. While in the case of the Tristate Region of NY, RPA is involved Inability to enforce planning strategies is seen as a in preparing a collaborative plan for the region with a predominant challenge faced by the NCR. The Regional high degree of participation by citizens, professionals, Plan states the lack of an integrated mass transit system and businesses. The presence of integrated sectoral as the cause for failure of the Regional Centres to authorities provide an opportunity to identify regional achieve the targeted growth. However the lack of an issues and provides solutions equally across jurisdictions. integrated transport authority for all the four states In the case of China, the integration of economic and similar to that of the MAP in the Tristate region. The spatial planning has led to the possibility of higher multi-state region thus requires different strategies for Box 02: Portland Case of Urban Growth Boundary The Growth Concept states the preferred form of regional growth and development and includes the Growth Concept map. The preferred form is to contain growth within a carefully managed Urban Growth Boundary (UGB). Growth occurs inside the UGB in the form of infill and redevelopment with higher density developed in areas where it is appropriate. Expansions of the UGB are done carefully to allow for the need for additional land. This concept is adopted for the long-term growth management of the region including a general approach to approximately where and how much the UGB should be ultimately expanded, what ranges of density are estimated to accommodate projected growth within the boundary, and which areas should be protected as open space. Mixed-use urban centers inside the UGB are one key to the Growth Concept. Creating higher density centers of employment and housing and transit service with compact development, retail, cultural and recreational activities in a walkable environment is intended to provide efficient access to goods and services, enhance multi-modal transportation and create vital, attractive neighborhoods and communities. The Growth Concept uses interrelated types of centers: · The central city is the largest market area, the region’s employment and cultural hub and accessible to millions of people. · Regional centers serve large market areas outside the central city, connected to it by high-capacity transit and highways and are accessible by hundreds of thousands of people. · Connected to each regional center, by road and transit, are smaller town centers with local shopping and employment opportunities within a local market area and accessible to tens of thousands of people. Source: Livable Portland, Trimet, November 2010, Climate Action Plan, City of Portland and Multnomah County, Published in 2010 28 implementation and can take clues from the American The lack of any strategy to contain a city has resulted in multi-state regions. sprawls across the three cases. The case of Portland with an Urban Growth Boundary needs to be propagated The multi nodal regional planning strategy for the NCR strongly. uses the concept of Regional Centres to induce growth in the region. However the existing situation and the An interesting variant of this approach is the Growth projections are incoherent resulting in some settlements Concept adopted by the metropolitan region of Portland, with inflated populations (like Dharuhera) while some Oregon, which advocates a newer approach based on like Khurja showing a steady population. Thus, such efficient management of the Urban Growth Boundary induced growth strategies are possible to be achieved (UGB). The key strategy adopted has been elaborated in only in the case of greenfield cities. This puts forth the Box 02. Experiments such as the Portland one will need need to examine the robustness of this policy. In the to be studied closely to provide the basis for evolving case of China, the induced growth strategy is supported future strategies for managing polycentric growth as with economic growth strategies instrumented by the envisaged within the NCR. Central government. 29 Annexure: Population Growth and nature of Economic Activity for Metro Cities and Regional Centres in the NCR Name of Town Population (Person) in Millions Average Decadal Growth (%) Projected Assigned Actual Presently acting as (in terms of activity) Residential Population Population Population real estate 1981 1991 2001 2011 1981-1991 1991-2001 2001-2011 in 2021 in Regional in 2001 as (Millions) Plan 2001 % of (Persons in Assigned Millions) Population (Millions) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 NCR 19.018 26.446 37.100 46.05 39.05 40.29 23.85 48.619 32.5 11.415 - NCT-Delhi 6.220 9.420 13.850 16.75 51.45 47.02 20.93 19.3 11.2 12.367 Capital city, Educational Hub, Manufacturing, Business, Commerce NCR excluding 12.798 17.025 23.249 44.375 33.03 36.56 90.86 - 21.3 10.915 - NCT-Delhi 1. Bahadurgarh 0.037 0.057 0.131 0.181 52.68 130.50 38.16 6.596 0.2 6.596 Educational hub CNCR (DMA) Towns 2. Faridabad 0.330 0.617 1.055 1.405 86.70 70.94 33.08 10.559 1.0 10.559 Central Govt. Offices, Manufacturing, Existing Chemicals, Electrical engineering equipments, Textiles 3. Gurgaon 0.100 0.135 0.228 0.876 34.70 68.39 284.21 3.269 0.7 3.269 IT, Manufacturing, Food, Services, Existing Automobiles, Electronics and Electricals, Leather and Fur products 4. Ghaziabad 0.297 0.548 1.089 2.148 84.35 98.64 97.24 9.902 1.1 9.902 Major Industrial Hub, Chemicals, engineering Existing incl. Loni equipments, Pilkhuwa textile printing, Plastic packaging 5. NOIDA 0.037 0.146 0.305 0.642 295.98 108.21 143.27 5.547 0.55 5.547 Media, Manufacturing, Automobile, IT, Auto Existing and engineering item, Garmets, packaging material, Plastic products 6. Kundli - - - - - - - - 0.15 - Proposed IT and Educational Hub Upcoming TOTAL 0.803 1.505 2.810 5.097 87.35 86.69 81.38 7.597 3.7 7.597 - Regional Centres/Priority Towns 1. Panipat 0.137 0.191 0.354 0.442 38.63 85.21 24.85 7.083 0.5 7.083 Cotton Industry and Handloom, Home furnishing cluster 2. Rohtak 0.166 0.216 0.294 0.373 29.58 36.32 26.87 5.892 0.5 5.892 Cotton Industry and Agri 3. Palwal 0.047 0.059 0.100 0.131 25.02 70.23 31.00 3.357 0.3 3.357 Cotton Industry and Agri 4. Rewari 0.051 0.075 0.100 0.138 46.12 33.64 38.00 9.153 0.11 9.153 Traditional Metal industry 5. Dharuhera 0.005 0.010 0.018 0.030 106.00 74.15 66.66 2.519 0.075 2.519 Manufacturing and Food Industry Upcoming 6. Meerut 0.536 0.849 1.161 1.45 58.36 36.70 24.89 7.495 1.55 7.495 Major Industrial Hub, Auto components, gas cylinders, power loom, Rubber products, Transformers and voltage regulators 7. Hapur 0.102 0.146 0.211 0.262 42.23 44.93 24.17 4.711 0.45 4.711 Paper and Handloom 8. Bulandshahr 0.103 0.127 0.176 0.222 22.98 38.70 26.13 3.529 0.5 3.529 Pottery cluster, Khurja chemicals 9. Khurja 0.067 0.080 0.098 0.142 19.65 22.79 44.89 3.287 0.3 3.287 Traditional Ceramic Industry 10. Alwar 0.145 0.210 0.266 0.341 44.14 26.68 28.19 5.324 0.5 5.324 Auto components, Silk, Jute, Hemp products, Wood work 11. Bhiwadi 0.001 0.015 0.033 0.104 784.04 121.64 215.15 2.946 0.115 2.946 Industry (DMIC) TOTAL 1.366 1.981 2.817 3.791 45.03 42.20 34.57 5.751 4.9 5.751 - Source: RP 2021, NCRPB References changing-urban-landscape-measuring-a-decade-of-spatial-growth (accessed: April 2015) 1 22 Ulf Zimmermann (2006), 'Metropolitan Governance', Encyclopedia of Public Administration Song Y., Ding C. 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