76134 Textbooks in the Developing World Seminar Series Economic Development Institute of The World Bank Textbooks in the Developing World Economic and Educational Choices Editors Joseph P. Farrell Stephen P. Heyneman The World Bank Washington, D.C., U.S.A. © 1989 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development I THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1989 The Economic Development Institute (EDI) was established by the World Bank in 1955 to train officials concerned with development planning, policymaking, investment analysis, and project implementation in member developing countries. At present the substance of the Em's work emphasizes macroeconomic and sectoral economic policy analysis. Through a variety of courses, seminars, and workshops, most of which are given overseas in cooperation with local institutions, the EDI seeks to sharpen analytical skills used in policy analysis and to broaden understanding of the experience of individual countries with economic development. Although the Em's publications are designed to support its training activities, many are of interest to a much broader audience. ED! materials, including any findings, interpretations, and conclusions, are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The backlist of publications by the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which is available from Publications Sales Unit, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A,. or from Publications, Banque mondiale, 66, avenue d'Iena, 75116 Paris, France. Stephen P. Heyneman is chief of the Human Resources Division. Economic Development Institute, World Bank. Joseph P. Farrell is professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Ontario, Canada. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Textbooks in the developing world : economic and educational choices I editors, Joseph P. Farrell, Stephen P. Heyneman. p. em. - (ED! seminar series) Based upon a seminar held at the Economic Development Institute of the World Bank in Washington, D.C., April 9-25, 1986. Bibliography: p. ISBN 0-8213-1219-7 1. Textbooks-Developing countries-Congresses. 2. Textbooks- Cross-cultural studies-Congresses. I. Farrell, Joseph P. II. Heyneman, Stephen P. Ill. Economic Development Institute (Washington, D.C.) IV. Series. LB3048.D44T47 1989 379.1'56-dc20 89-9144 C!P EDI Catalog no. 135/031 Contents Preface ix Definitions xi 1 Introduction 1 Joseph P. Farrell and Stephen P. Heyneman World Economic Crisis 2 Macroeconomic Effects on Education 2 Reading Materials and Learning 4 Key Issues and Choices 8 Summary 13 Notes 13 References 13 PART I THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TEXTBOOK PROGRAMS: AN OVERVIEW 15 2 The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 17 Barbara Searle \\tbat the World Bank Has Financed 17 Alternative Mechanisms for Providing Books 18 Evidence from Ongoing Projects 25 Recommendations 28 Note 35 References 35 3 The Design of Textbook Projects 36 Anthony Read Preparation for Project Design 36 Institutions and Management Capacity 40 The Development of Books 42 Decisions for a Publishing Program 44 Book Selection, Distribution, and Storage 48 Book Use 49 Other Considerations 51 Reference 51 4 Using Textbooks to Improve the Quality of Education 52 Adriaan M. Verspoor World Bank Assistance for Improvement in Quality 52 Textbooks and Stages of Educational Development 53 Designing the Implementation Strategy 55 Management Systems 56 Conclusions 56 References 57 v vi Contents PART II POLICY ISSUES IN TEXTBOOK PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 59 5 And Shall the Twain Meet? Public and Private Textbook Publishing in the Developing World 61 Savaranan Gopinathan The Importance of Textbooks in Education 61 The Relation between Textbook and General Publishing 65 A Typology of Public-Private Relations 68 Conclusion 70 Notes 71 References 71 6 Textbook Development in the United States: How Good Ideas Become Bad Textbooks 72 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein Some General Concepts 72 Historical Background of the Textbook Enterprise 74 Textbook Manufacturing Standards 77 Scientific Management of Curriculum 77 Readability Formulas and the English Language 78 The Textbook Selection and Adoption Process 79 Positive Trends 86 Annotated Bibliography 87 7 Copyright in the Developing World 88 Philip G. Altbach The Concept of Copyright 88 Historical Perspectives 89 The International Copyright System 91 Current Issues and Compulsory Licensing 91 The Context of Inequality 92 The Issue of Piracy 94 Technology and Copyright 95 Textbooks and Copyright 97 The Future of Cooyright in an Unequal World 98 Notes 99 References 99 8 The Raw Material: Paper 102 Paul Eastman World Paper Supply 103 World Paper Demand 105 Prices and Marketing 107 Tapping International Sources of Paper 109 References 112 PART III PROVISION OF TEXTBOOKS: DEVELOPED SYSTEMS AND INFANT INDUSTRIES 113 9 Publishing for Schools in the Federal Republic of Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States 115 Peter H. Neumann Germany 118 France 120 The United Kingdom 122 The United States 125 Sources of Additional Information 129 10 The Indian Textbook Industry 130 Narendra Kumar New Educational Policy 130 Current System for Publishing Textbooks 131 Contents vii University Books 134 Handicaps and the Future of Private Publishing 135 11 Mexico's Free Textbook Program 137 Peter H. Neumann and Maureen A. Cunningham Investment in Education 137 General Principles 138 Criticisms 139 Bibliography 139 12 The Philippines: A Textbook Case 141 Alfonso de Guzman II The First Phase, 1978-81 141 The Second Phase, 1982-85 142 Why Textbooks? 143 The Government as Publisher 143 Impact on the Private Sector 145 The Future of Government Publishing 146 Institutional Issues 147 Publication Planning 148 Manuscript Origination and Preparation 148 Editorial Functions at the TBS 150 Problems in Textbook Development 151 Production of Books 153 Manufacturing of Books 157 Distribution of Textbooks 164 Teacher Training 166 Evaluation of the Project 168 Summary 170 Notes 171 References 171 13 The Textbook Project in Lesotho 173 Albert Aime and John Overton Background and Planning 173 The Educational System 173 Planning for the Textbook Project 174 Implementation 176 Choice of Textbooks 177 Production and Manufacturing 179 Distribution 180 Finances: the Revolving Fund 183 Achievements of the Project 184 14 Regional Development of Textbooks: The English-Speaking Caribbean 185 Pat E. Malone Background 185 Evolution of the Project 186 Process 188 Contact with Ministries of Education 190 Publishing Process 190 Distribution 191 Use of Books 191 Conclusions 192 Ghana Twinning Project 193 PART IV THE FUTURE: WILL NEW ELECTRONIC MEDIA MAKE THE TEXTBOOK OBSOLETE? 195 15 Will Textbooks Be Replaced by New Information Technologies? 197 L. R. Fernig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert Ohlman Mass Communication Techniques 198 Electronic Media 199 viii Contents Strategies for the Future 204 Bibliography 205 16 Computers in the Classroom 206 Paul Olson and Edmund Sullivan Computer Technology in Two Canadian Schools 208 Conclusions 213 Note 214 References 214 Participants in the Seminar 215 Consultants to the Seminar 217 Contributors to this Volume 219 Preface This book is based on a seminar sponsored by the Eco- de Guzman, Peter Neumann, John Overton, and An- nomic Development Institute of the World Bank which thony Read-were present throughout most of the met in Washington, D.C., April 9-25, 1986. The sem- seminar and helped lead the discussions. inar was directed by the coeditors of this book; the book During the seminar, all aspects of textbook provision consists of an edited selection of the background papers were examined, from obtaining raw materials for paper prepared for the seminar and records the main out- production to delivering tested texts to remote schools comes of discussion among its participants. The sem- and from training teachers to establishing a system for inar, which lasted seventeen days, brought together evaluating, revising, and resupplying books. At each twenty-five participants from twenty-two developing na- step, seminar participants and consultants examined tions, eighteen consultants, eight members of the World alternatives and their consequences and drew upon their Bank staff, and many observers to consider what had own experiences and the background papers. been learned from roughly two decades of developing Participants were first provided with an overview of and implementing large-scale national textbook pro- the total textbook provision process which identified grams. The immediate objective of the seminar was to the primary decision points and issues to be discussed help the participants make economically and pedagog- during the remainder of the seminar. At this stage, ically sound policy decisions about their own national participants also shared information about the main textbook programs. The longer-term objective was to features, accomplishments, and problems of each na- share-through this book and a slide-tape presenta- tional system to provide textbooks. Next, papers which tion-seminar discussions with a much wider audience dealt in detail with many of the specific issues and of national textbook officials, international agency staff, decisions were discussed. Several national case studies, and educational officials and scholars who are working written to highlight the consequences of different sets to improve the quality of education in developing na- of decisions in real situations, were then considered. tions. This was the first seminar on this broad theme Finally, participants worked through two decisionmak- held by the Economic Development Insitute (or to our ing simulation exercises designed to reflect conditions knowledge any other agency), and this book thus is a in a small, very poor nation and in a large, middle- record of what we believe to have been a unique and income nation. important event. The chapters of this book follow the general flow of The names of the twenty-five participants attending the seminar curriculum. Chapter 1 provides the eco- the seminar are listed at the end of the book. They were nomic and pedagogical context in which textbook de- all senior officials of governments or parastatal agencies cisions are made and an overview of the main issues with large responsibilities for their national systems to and policy choices identified during the seminar. Part provide textbooks. The twenty-two nations represented I (chapters 2-4) is an overview of the complex, inter- ranged from small (such as Honduras and Lesotho) to related issues and decisions involved in the design and very large (such as Brazil and China) and from very implementation of a national textbook program. In poor to middle income. Both market economies and chapter 2 Barbara Searle outlines the characteristics of centrally planned economies were represented, as well the textbook projects with which the World Bank has as all regions of the developing world. The depth and been involved and identifies their main problems. In broad experience of the participants was one of the most chapter 3, Anthony Read provides a detailed account of important resources available to the seminar. The con- the alternatives available at each step in the textbook sultants who prepared material for the seminar are also provision process and notes the elements to be consid- listed at the end of the book. Four of them-Alfonso ered in making each decision. In chapter 4 Adriaan ix x Preface Verspoor looks at textbook programs from the point of exports to other nations in the region. The argument view of the theory of implementing large-scale educa- is advanced, however, that a powerful state presence in tional innovations-and especially discusses the ability textbook provision has inhibited the development of of teachers to use textbooks at various stages in the private publishing. The Mexican case, discussed by Peter development of an educational system. Neumann and Maureen Cunningham in chapter 11, is Part II (chapters 5-8) is a detailed discussion of four an excellent example of how a carefully developed com- particularly difficult policy issues in the development bination of public and private initiatives has produced of textbook programs. In chapter 5 Savaranan Gopina- an unusually successful national textbook provision sys- than deals with the complicated and often conflicting re- tem. The textbook project in the Philippines is one of lations between private firms and the public. Although the most complex, large-scale, and well-known pro- he draws primarily on his experience with book devel- grams in the developing world. In chapter 12 Alfonso opment in Asian nations, he raises issues that are salient de Guzman provides a detailed account of the problems throughout the world. In chapter 6 Harriet Tyson-Bern- encountered, the solutions devised for them, and the stein illustrates how in a rich nation such as the United successes and failures of this massive effort. In chapter States the political conflicts that inevitably accompany 13 Albert Aime and John Overton analyze the devel- textbook programs have led to unsatisfactory books. opment of a successful textbook program in a small, This is a cautionary tale of problems which developing very poor nation, Lesotho. Of particular interest is the nations must try to avoid if they are not to invest in effective implementation of a revolving fund through producing textbooks which are politically acceptable but which parents pay to support the long-term continua- pedagogically unsound. In chapter 7 Philip Altbach ex- tion of a program which the government could not amines national and international copyright provisions possibly finance from its normal revenues. In chapter which, if not carefully attended to, can create severe 14 Pat Malone describes regional cooperation among problems. In chapter 8 Paul Eastman looks at how the very small states in the West Indies to develop textbooks seemingly simple task of acquiring the paper for books with low-cost assistance provided by a nongovernmental has created serious problems for many programs. He organization. This unusual model, which relies heavily analyzes the causes of the problems and possible so- upon volunteer effort, is being adapted for use in West lutions in varying national circumstances. Africa. Part III (chapters 9-14) is a series of national case Part IV (chapters 15 and 16) looks to the future. More studies to illustrate the problems which have been en- and more, one hears claims that soon new technologies, countered in textbook programs and the solutions which in particular the computer, will render the textbook have been devised. Peter Neumann's comparison of the obsolete. If these claims turn out to be correct, current textbook provision systems of France, the Federal Re- expenditures on the development oflarge-scale textbook public of Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United provision systems could turn out to be very bad in- States (chapter 9) shows the variety of options that rich, vestments of scarce resources. In chapter 15 L. R. Fer- free-market states have. He demonstrates that although nig and others present the case for the new technolo- there are common issues among nations, there are no gies. In chapter 16 Paul Olson and Edmund Sullivan, universal prescriptions. Authorities in each nation must drawing upon ethnographic work in schools in Ontario, devise solutions according to their own particular cir- Canada, suggest that the effect of computers on text- cumstances. The Indian textbook industry is the subject book use will be minimal. of chapter 10 by Narendra Kumar. This very large but Finally, we thank Hugh Oliver and Linda Perry for very poor nation has developed a domestic book indus- their valuable contribution in a preliminary editing of try which serves not only its national market but also the papers. Definitions Billion equals 1,0000 million. All dollars are U.S. dollars. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) comprises Aus- tralia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Federal Republic of Ger- mariy, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan; LUxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States. The World Bank consists of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA). The Bank has one central purpose: to promote economic and social progress in developing nations by helping raise productivity so that their people may Jive better and fuller Jives. IDA provides assistance to the poorest developing countries-those with per capita incomes of less th~m $400 a year-on terms that would bear less heavily on their balance of payments than IBRD loans. The International Finance Corporation (IFc) is a World Bank affiliate that works specifically with the private sector in developing countries. The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) is also a World Bank affiliate. xi 1 Introduction Joseph P. farrell and Stephen P. Heyneman The contribution of education to economic growth has and eventually maintained in retirement. A correspond- long been recognized, although its specific effects are ing increase has been required in school furniture, still subject to debate. The demand of parents for more equipment, and reading materials. For instance, be- educational opportunities for their children, coupled tween 1960 and 1980 the number of book titles available with the economic and political incentives for author- increased by 15 percent in Latin America and by 33 ities to provide them, account for the recent unprece- percent in Africa. But despite such signs of progress, dented expansion of schooling. there are problems of such magnitude that the stability Since World War H, universal primary school en- and productivity of these countries are at risk. rollment has been achieved in thirty-five of the richer developing countries, including Argentina, Gabon, Ma- laysia, and Trinidad and Tobago. In the thirty-six poor- est countries-those with a per capita gross national Figure 1-1. The Expanding World of Learners product (GNP) of $265 a year or less-average enroll- ment in primary education increased from 48 percent 6.2 billion of the school-age population in 1960 to 70 percent in 1977. Moreover, about 50 percent more children are enrolled in grade 1 than in grade 4, so this 70 percent enrollment figure significantly understates the propor- tion of children who begin school. Indeed, school en- rollments in developing countries have been growing so rapidly that the balance of the "educational enter- 4.0 billion prise" has shifted from developed to developing regions. In 1950, about a third of the world's school population 80 percent was in the industrial countries; by 1975 this proportion had slipped to a quarter; and by the year 2000, it will have slipped again to about a fifth (figure 1-1). By 2000, 2.5 billion 75 percent there will be 6.2 billion students in developing coun- tries. Developing Maintaining this rapidly expanding enterprise is ex- regions pensive. In the typical developing country, education 66 percent usually accounts for 15 percent of recurrent public ex- penditures but can be as high as 30 percent. There are Developed 25 percent 20 percent twice as many elementary school teachers today in de- regions veloping countries as there were in 1960. There are 2.5 34 percent times as many secondary school teachers and almost 1950 1975 2000 4.5 times as many tertiary-level teachers. Each teacher needs to be trained, placed, paid, retrained periodically, Source: United Nations (1981). 1 Z Introduction World Economic Crisis Table 1-2. Average Real Spending per Student in Latin America, 1965-78 In developing countries, government resources have Year Primary Secondary Tertiary been severely strained by the fluctuation of oil and en- 1965 71.8 168.4 1133.5 ergy costs, slumping commodity prices, recession-plagued 1970 90,2 166.1 970.4 export markets, high interest rates, and the inflated 1978 50.2 81.8 361.2 value of the U.S. dollar. This confluence of factors has Source: Heller and Cheasty (1984). generated a severe economic crisis. In 1982, for in- stance, 62 percent of the foreign exchange earnings from Brazilian exports had to be allocated to servicing the national debt. In Chile, the corresponding . (igure ference of45 percent; spending perstudent for secondary was 53 percent; in Ecuador, 48 percent; in Morocco, education fell by 51 percent, and for tertiary education 43 percent; in Cote d'Ivoire, 32 percent; in Zambia, 22 by 63 percent. Declines have been even more precipi- percent; and so on throughout most of the developing tous in Africa. In Somalia, the share of government world. And in many developing countries the situation · spending on education had to be halved between 1975 has deteriorated since 1982. and 1983, falling from 12 to 6 percent of the national The reaction to this crisis has been one of "adjust- budget. During that period, Nigeria was forced to cut ment." Developing countries have begun to reform their its education budget from 16 to 9 percent and Kenya economies, often with surprisingly quick results. For from 19 to 15 percent. instance, in 1981 the balance of payments as a propor- Between 1970 and 1980, spending per student in the tion of GNP of the oil-importing developing countries least developed countries fell by an average of 34 percent stood at about -5.1 percent (table 1-1). Three years (figure 1-2). Because of the relative prosperity of coun- later, this deficit had been cut in half-to -2.1 per- tries in East Asia and of those belonging to the Orga- cent. Similar changes can be observed with national nization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), accounts-from -3.9 percent in 1981 to -2.1 percent spending per student among middle-income countries in 1984. actually rose by 25 percent. And in countries belonging These fiscal improvements, however, do not come to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and De- free of cost. They are the result of sacrifices across all velopment (OECD), spending per student rose in that levels of government and across all sectors. Highways same decade by 46 percent-from $1,229 in 1970 to are no longer maintained as they once were and as they $2,257 in 1980. In other words, the gap in educational ought to be. Pharmaceuticals can no longer be found spending between the world's richest and poorest coun- in rural health centers. Subsidized fertilizers and pes- tries has widened (figure 1-3). In 1960, OECD countries ticides are no longer available to farmers. Hardest hit spent fourteen times more on each of their elementary of all is the largest public sector-education. school students than did the world's poorest countries. By 1970, however, that gap had grown to twenty-two times more. And because of the fiscal crisis between Macroeconomic Effects on Education 1970 and 1980, the gap became a gulf, increasing to fifty times. Because of fiscal pressures, the proportion of the GNP Where have educational reductions occurred? Al- allocated to education has been on the decline, as has though salaries of teachers often have not kept up with the share of education spending in government budgets. inflation, salaries have not been the main source of In one study of Latin America, for instance, spending reductions (table 1-3). In Latin America, for instance, per student fell by about 45 percent in real terms be- salaries of teachers were almost constant with infla- tween 1970 and 1978 (table 1-2). Spending on elemen- tionary trends between 1960 and 1979. In other middle- tary education fell from $90 to $50 per student, a dif- income developing countries, teacher salaries were about Table 1-1. Current Account Balance as a Percentage of Gross National Product in Selected Countries, Basis Countries 1981 Balance of payments All developing -4.9 -1.8 Oil-importing developing -5.1 -2.1 National accounts All developing -3.9 1.8 Oil-importing developing -3.9 2.1 Source: World Bank (1985). Introduction 3 Figure 1-2. Total Recurrent Expenditures per Table 1-3. Average Salaries per Teacher Student as a Percentage of Per Capita Income 1960 1979 Constant 1980 U.S. dollars Actual 2,500 $2,257 Latin American and Caribbean 297 298 Other middle-income developing countries 303 349 2,000 Indexed (1960 100) Latin American and Caribbean 100 100 115 1.500 Source: Lee (1984). a Low-income $1.229 e Middle-income contrasts with such highly developed countries as Swe- 1,000 A Industrial den, which can afford to spend $300 annually on equip- ment and reading materials for each student. 500 In Uganda, in 1970 there was an average of one book $135 $180 for every three elementary schoolchildren. But over the 0 l___$~I~22~::~========~$g8~1______ next ten years, there were no new reading materials 1970 1980 available, and by 1980 the ratio had slipped to one book for every twelve students. In 1960, the United States Source: Fuller and Heyneman (forthcoming). published five times more titles (per million inhabit- ants) than Africa (table 1-5). Twenty years later, the three times the national GNP per capita in 1960 and United States published seventeen times more titles than about 3.5 times in 1979, a rise of 15 percent. Africa, eight times more than Asia, and five times more Reductions have largely been imposed on that cate- than Latin America. gory of the education budget-nonsalary expendi- What will be the outcome of this crisis? What effect tures-which cannot as easily defend its interests: money is it having on the schools? First, students in developing for chalk, maps, furniture, laboratory equipment, and countries are learning significantly less than students textbooks. As a share of education budgets, nonsalary in those countries where reading and other materials items fell in half of the Latin American countries be- are more abundant. Figure 1-5 presents elementary stu- tween 1965 and 1970 and in all (non-OPEC) Latin Amer- dent academic achievement in general science in nine- ican countries between 1970 and 1978. By 1979, non- teen countries. The figures represent percentages of a salary expenditures in elementary education represented standard deviation above or below the international av- only 4 percent of recurrent expenditures in Africa and erage (Z scores).lndian and Chilean children are almost only 9 percent in Asia-compared with 14 percent in 2 standard deviations below the mean; Bolivia is more the OECD countries (table 1-4). than 1 standard deviation below. This compares unfa- In the 1980s, Bolivia has spent only 80 U.S. cents on vorably with Japan and Hungary (2 standard deviations nonsalary inputs for each of its elementary school stu- above the mean) or the Federal Republic of Germany dents (figure 1-4} and Malawi has spent only $1.24. This (1 standard deviation above) or the United States and Sweden (0.5 standard deviations above). Figure 1-3. Education Spending Gap Levels of available reading material strongly deter- mine the kind of educational experience a country is Ratio of spending per year per student 50 able to provide. Countries able to spend about $1 per student on classroom materials are at the lowest level - International Development in the quality of their education. Their students are Association countries l!ll!m Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries Table 1-4. Allocation for Nonsalary Resources 22 as a Percentage of Total Recurrent Expenditures 14 Region or country group Primary Secondary Tertiary ~ Africa 3.8 12.7 13.1 Asia 8.8 13.8 22.7 Countries in Organisation 1960 1970 1980 for Economic Co-opera- tion and Development 14.4 14.8 25.5 Source: Heyneman (1983). Source: Unesco (1982). 4 introduction Figure 1-4. Spending on Classroom Materials and Table 1-5. World Book Production by Region, Other Nonsalary Recurrent Expenditures per Student 1960-80 Enrolled in Primary Schools Titles per million inhabitants, (dollars) Titles per ratio of United Bolivia (0.80) million States to other inhabitants regions Region 1960 1980 1960 1980 North America 91 468 Africa 19 28 4.8 16.7 Asia 53 56 1.7 8.4 Latin America 79 93 1.2 5.0 - Not applicable. Source: Unesco (1982). recovery in the near term. With few exceptions, com- modity prices are in a semipermanent slump; prices of industrial necessities do not appear to be on the decline; the U.S. dollar is still very strong; and the world appears to be heading toward an era of protectionism rather than greater free trade. All in all there is little likelihood that more resources for education will come from in- creased levels of public spending. If countries are going to halt the decline in the quality Hungary of education, they will likely have to find the resources from within the education sector itself. They are going ·:t,'::·:· . •~ •.........:.•. ··':····. •... .:'.;"" ···:·'>. w· :.t>=·:··~ •• to have to spend more wisely than in the past, and they are going to have to challenge some widely held tra- ditions in attempts to achieve their most important objectives. In textbook production and distribution, there will be new challenges. Authorities will have to find ways of producing more materials for less cost. This may mean getting suppliers through (sometimes interna- tional) competitive bidding, rather than using public 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 monopolies, and adopting a more realistic range of sub- and over ject matter. Specific cost-cutting measures could also Source: Heyneman (1984). include seeking a different means of financing, accept- ing fewer local languages, using fewer colors in illus- likely to be limited to rote memorization of simple, trations, and using thinner covers. Textbook authorities often inaccurate information (table 1-6). Countries able should recognize one basic principle: out of adversity to spend about $3 per student are able to provide sig- comes invention. That the macroeconomic environ- nificantly more versatile and capable educational ex- ment is adverse is incontestable. Whatever invention periences. Countries able to spend from $40 to $300 will be displayed by developing countries in textbook per student may anticipate producing students who typ- production remains to be seen. ically are able to investigate new ideas, recognize strong and weak supporting arguments, and become fully pro- ductive participants in a rapidly changing economy. Reading Materials and Learning What then is to be done? How can developing coun- tries stem the decline in educational quality? How can Evidence from the United States suggests that the they acquire more materials for classroom use? How inputs of a school-including quality of physical facil- can they diminish the increasingly wide educational gap ities, availability of educational materials, and levels of between themselves and OECD countries? teacher education-are not strongly associated with It is not clear whether there is a single solution to student achievement (Coleman and others 1966; Jencks this crisis, but if so, it is unlikely to be a major economic and others 1972). A growing body of data from the Introduction 5 Figure 1-5. Primary School Science Achievement in Nineteen Countries Z scores -~ ~ !ili •X ·:( ;)i :::I ci. ::::: ~:·. ~ ·~: 0::: ;j: V) -ci ~ V) 1:l ~ " c .s r:n """ :>. " c .::: ~ ;: " c " c c .!3 -;;; ~ "' :2: 0 u ..!3 c (\) " c c "' (\) " ..!3 "' E l::: "' 'Ct c "' ~ .:< ;>, ·;;:; <)) ..c ..... "N "' c: \5( "~ <)) .~ 0 ,_ c "' :.a V) :.0 ,_ ,_ ...5 u 0 co <)) :<:: ~ ...c: E- 'Of) -< z ~ "' CQ ~ c w r:n c :::J u r:n 0 <)) ;::! -< ;::! ::r: 0. ~ -. Source: Heyneman and Loxley (1983). developing world, however, indicates that the situation it seems, are an important and consistent contributor there is different. Variations in inputs appear to be re- to improved quality in schools. liable predictors of student achievement. The correla- tion between variance in science performance explained Responses by classroom quality and national per capita income is approximately 0.37, which suggests that the poorer the As evidence about the importance of textbooks to the country, the higher the impact of classroom quality on educational process has accumulated, more and more student achievement. 1 This finding may be explained nations have mounted major textbook development and by a much higher variance in the quantity and quality provision programs. For example, in the 1982-83 school of school inputs in low-income than in high-income year, just over 4 million textbooks covering 94 titles countries. were produced for the schools of the Yemen Arab Re- What inputs can be expected to raise student achieve- public; three years later, the figures had risen to over ment in the developing world? Information is relatively 11 million textbooks covering 275 titles. In the mid- scarce. A careful search of the literature located fewer 1970s, the Philippines embarked on an ambitious mul- than thirty studies on the cognitive impact of teacher tiyear program to produce roughly 150 million text- training in low-income countries compared with almost books, aiming to provide one book for every two primary four hundred such studies published in the United States students in each of the core curricular areas. Over two in one year. 2 Similar imbalances of information exist decades, Mexico has carefully built up a system for pro- with respect to textbooks, duplicating machines, audio- viding free textbooks to all of its primary school stu- visual aids, radio, television-in fact, with respect to dents. Even a nation as poor as Ethiopia managed, be- all school resources. Furthermore, results from avail- tween 1975 and 1985, to print and distribute almost 40 able studies are ambiguous. Smaller dass size and longer million school textbooks. At the top of the scale, the teacher-training programs are not always associated with most populous nation in the world-China-produces higher levels of student achievement. and distributes more than 2 billion school texts each One of the more consistent indicators of higher year. 3 achievement is the availability of textbooks and other International agencies have also been :ncreasing their printed materials (see Heyneman and others 1978; support for textbooks. The United Nations Educational, Heyneman and Jamieson 1980). Among nineteen recent Scientific, and Cultural Organization (Unesco) bas been assessments of the relation between the availability of sustaining a major international effort through its Di- printed material and student outcomes in developing vision for Book Promotion and International Ex- nations, sixteen reported a positive relation. Textbooks, changes-see, for example, the works published in their 6 Introduction Table 1-6. Stages of Development in School Quality Annual cost per primary student in classroom Less than $1 One textbook per class. With some Rote memorization of unsophisticated Uganda, Liberia, exceptions, the teacher has the only and poorly interpreted information. Haiti available book. Pupils expected to copy the text from the blackboard and memorize. $3 One textbook per student. Each Major expansion of information and Philippines, China student has access to one book in the efficiency of presentation. Little each subject. Comparatively little progress on self-generated skills of required teacher skills beyond those investigation. required at the above stage. $40 Several different textbook titles Latitude of educational programs Malaysia available for each student. Pupils in based upon individual student ability. lower grades work on locally designed Significant increase in the mastery of exercises. Teacher picks and chooses cognitive skills. from among the best or most appropriate available materials. Requires significant intellectual independence on the part of teachers. $200 Fifteen titles per student in Self-generated habits of learning. Japan, United supplementary reading material or Ability to investigate new ideas and to States, Sweden forty books total per student in recognize strong and weak addition to a wide variety of supporting arguments. Major curriculum packages, reference books. improvement in cognitive creativity. maps, dictionaries, film strips, lesson Wide exposure to culture as well as tapes, documentary films, and science. computer-assisted instruction. Significant managerial skills required on the part of teachers at all levels of Source: Stephen P. Heyneman (unpublished). series "Studies on Books and Reading." In a recent books have been produced, and millions of schoolchil- report prepared by the World Bank, it was noted that dren who would previously have had to learn without between fiscal 1979 and 1983, one out of three Bank books now have access to them. This is a considerable education projects (29 of 90} had textbook components. accomplishment. Nonetheless, millions of schoolchil- In fiscal 1983, almost half the education projects in- dren in the developing world still have no textbooks at cluded textbook components, with total costs of about all, or an insufficient number of books, or books which $50 million (Searle 1985: 3). are inappropriate for their age level. Furthermore, many In some cases, textbook provision is one part of a of the existing programs to provide textbooks have en- major educational reform effort. In others, provision of countered serious problems. It has become apparent textbooks is the project. In almost all cases the contri- that mounting and sustaining a national textbook pro- bution of the international agency represents ouly a gram is far more complex than had been imagined a small proportion of the total cost of a textbook program, decade ago. Much has been learned, however, and it is and where the international contribution represents a a major purpose of this book to review and systematize high proportion of the total cost, the project is in an experience to date so as to improve the provision of early stage of developing a provision system which the textbooks in developing nations in the future. national government is committed to sustaining from its own resources over the long term. The Complexity of the Task Thus, over the past ten to fifteen years, nations throughout the developing world have been investing It has become evident that mounting a large-scale scarce resources in providing textbooks with assistance program to provide textbooks in a developing nation is from international agencies. As a result, billions of text- an extremely complicated and risk-prone venture, with Introduction 7 implications well beyond the educational sector itself. What has proven to be critical is a view of textbook Creating, producing, and distributing textbooks in- provision not as a one-shot arrangement but as a long- volves many parts of a nation's infrastructure, including term investment in a total system. The range of issues the publishing industry, the educational establishment, which have to be addressed and for which responses writers, and government departments. International or- have to be coordinated is indicated in the following list ganizations and multinational publishing corporations of questions which we sent to the authors of each of are frequently involved. Copyright laws-seldom well the national case studies included in this book. understood or obeyed-further complicate matters. The 1. On what grounds (financial, pedagogical, philo- production of textbooks requires substantial amounts sophical) was the decision taken to mount a major pro- of imported paper and technologically advanced print- gram to provide textbooks? ing facilities. It also requires planning, development, 2. What provisions have been made to ensure that funding, testing, and distributing, as well as the coor- the program continues beyond the first round of book dination of educational, governmental, publishing, and distribution? Is there a permanent organizational entity printing resources. As Philip Altbach (1983) has noted: within the Ministry of Education or within another part The keys to effective textbook development are not of the government? Why was this particular structural massive fiscal expenditures or crash programmes, but arrangement chosen? How is the program financed to rather careful co-ordination, attention to the artic- ensure its long-term sustainability? Is there an annual ulation between the educational system and the pub- appropriation from general revenues, a special pro- lishing industry, linking curricular development and tected fund, or a revolving fund based upon parent or the expansion of enrollments to textbook require- student payment for books, foreign assistance, or some ments, and the involvement of the necessary expertise combination of the above? in the development of relevant and high-quality text- 3. How are textbook manuscripts developed and ap- books. The textbook situation in any country depends proved for use in schools? What mechanisms are used on the state of the publishing industry (including to ensure correspondence beb.veen curriculum guide- printing capacity, the availability of paper, and the lines and textbook content? Who sets the guidelines and distribution network), the presence of competent au- how are they communicated to textbook developers? thors (and the research and testing facilities to ensure Who are the textbook authors- practicing teachers, relevant textbooks), and the educational system (Alt- university faculty, curriculum specialists, or others? What bach 1983: 316). are the mechanisms for editing, field-testing, and eval- uating manuscripts? What are the mechanisms for final Developing a sustainable textbook provision system approval of manuscripts for publication? is much like developing a complex new industrial sec- 4. \Vhat is the language (or languages) of publication? tor-and the complexity is equally forbidding, whether If there is more than one, which books are published the system is managed by the public sector, the private in which languages and why? sector, or a combination of the two. One must establish, 5. Was the decision made to (a) import books, (b) train, and administer (or hire) separate teams of people publish locally, (c) print locally, or some combination to undertake each of the following general classes of of a, b, and c? If a combination, which books are im- activity and establish an administrative system to co- ported, which are published and printed locally, and ordinate them: why? • Design and write books-starting with curriculum 6. For locally published or printed books, is the work guidelines and finishing with copy ready for man- done by a state agency, a parastatal agency, private ufacture. commercial firms, or a combination of the above? On what grounds were these decisions made? • Manufacture books-including acquisition of raw 7. How are books distributed to students? What were materials (such as paper, ink, film, binding ma- the physical transport and storage problems, and how terials), printing, and binding. have they been resolved? Is final distribution through • Distribute books-getting them from the point of schools, commercial outlets, or some other entity? manufacture to all the classrooms in the nation, 8. Who pays for the books? Are they supplied free by even the most remote, on time and in good con- the government, paid for or rented by parents, or is dition. there some other arrangement? • Provide ancillary support-including complemen- 9. What evidence is available about the use and ef- tary teaching materials (for example, chalk, lab fectiveness of books in classrooms? Are students able supplies, and so forth) and training teachers how to take books home with them or are they kept in the to use the books. school? What is the expected lifetime of the books? • Evaluate and resupply or revise books as required. 10. What is the program's management structure? 8 Introduction What is the range of responsibilities of the central co- Another Unesco study concluded that there was a lack ordinating office, and where is it located administra- of awareness of basic economic facts of book publishing tively? What provisions are there for coordination and in many developing nations, sometimes even among control between the central office and other agencies publishers themselves (Smith 1977: 7-8). involved in textbook design, production, and distribu- One central lesson can be derived from all the ex- tion? What problems have been encountered in man- perience to date: providing books to schools where there agement, coordination, and control, and what has been is little or nothing to read may seem like a simple done to solve the problems? undertaking, but it is not. Every developing country- 11. What provisions are there for training classroom from China to Guinea-is concerned to design, man- teachers, textbook authors, editorial staff, publishing ufacture, and distribute its own textbooks. But this con- staff, graphic artists, designers, manufacturing staff, and cern needs to be analyzed carefully. Instead of produc- other staff? ing books locally from scratch, it may be much cheaper 12. How are paper supplies obtained? Have there been to import technical experience, equipment, and raw any serious difficulties obtaining paper? material (particularly paper) from Western Europe or 13. What is government policy about copyright on North America. The publication process demands sub- locally produced textbooks and on copyrighted material stantial experience in editing, production, printing, from other countries? Have there been any serious prob- testing, and distribution. Six to ten years is normally lems or conflicts over copyright? required to develop a new generation of textbooks for 14. What provision is there for regular evaluation and primary school grades 1 to 6. Given the necessary skills, revision of textbooks? Who evaluates and how often? this may be economical for books on local history, civ- What kinds of evaluation are used? How are the results ics, and literature; but in mathematics and the sciences fed back to textbook developers? it may be cheaper to adapt already published materials. Given this complexity, it is not surprising that major Furthermore, it is often more economical for countries problems have been encountered in many textbook pro- to publish their own textbooks than to print them. vision programs. A review of World Bank experien~e Printing in large quantities requires specialized and ex- noted the following general classes of difficulty (Searle pensive machinery, a constant supply of raw materials, 1985): and various maintenance skills; publishing requires ed- itorial and design skills, but the hardware for manu- • Inadequate attention to the financial feasibility of facture need not be local. the systems for providing books • Providing support for book purchases or printing without concomitant support to ensure suitable Key Issues and Choices educational content, adequate teacher training, or effective distribution In the course of the seminar upon which this book • Failure to establish appropriate institutional ar- is based, a set of major issues and choices were identified rangements for managing the full system for pro- and discussed. Brief consideration of them at this point viding books. will provide the reader with a conceptual roadmap In a review of textbook publishing organizations through, and a context for, the varied papers which throughout the developing world, a Unesco study noted follow. the following common shortcomings (Pearce 1982: 20- 21): An Overriding Constraint: Readership Size • Underestimation of the size and complexity of the A fundamental condition which constrains almost ali task other choices is the size of the prospective readership • Lack of adequate publishing advice in planning for a given textbook. In private commercial publishing, operations this is referred to as "market size," but we have used a more general term because the basic principles apply • Inadequate management resources equally to government publishing in a nonmarket set- • Confusing the functions of printer with those of ting. Simply put, the larger the readership for a par- publisher ticular book, the greater will be the total cost of pro- • Lack of understanding of the difficulties and time ducing it, but (all else being equal) the smaller will be required to produce educationally satisfactory the cost per book (unit cost). manuscripts related to prescribed curriculums Readership size is itself influenced by a number of • Failure to consider textbook publishing as an in- distinct factors. First, obviously, is the total school-age tegral and basic part of a total national book pub- population of the nation. Second is the enrollment ratio lishing industry. at any given grade level. Even in developing nations Introduction 9 which enroll almost all age-eligible children in first tiona! boundaries and adapting foreign texts. For ex- grade, there is typically a high dropout rate during ample: primary schooling; thus the readership size for a sixth • Three small West African nations-Cote d'Ivoire, or seventh grade text may be half (or less) that for a Senegal, and Togo-share textbook publishing and first grade text, and the readership for secondary level printing costs. Their Nouvelle Editions Africains texts may be very smalL Added to this is the degree of are used in all three nations. specialization of the book. In most nations, the curric- ulum is common throughout primary schooling and • Several Commonwealth nations have negotiated often through at least part of secondary schooling. In with an international publisher to provide history such cases, the readership for a given textbook is the texts. The books for all of the nations contain a total enrollment at the particular grade level. But at standard set of chapters dealing with international some point the curriculum becomes diversified--dif- history, combined with chapters which deal with ferent students study different subjects-and then the each nation's history. The resulting books are both readership for a given book becomes a fraction of the locally relevant and low cost, even in very small total grade-level enrollment. This frequently produces markets. serious difficulties and hard choices at the upper sec- • Malone's chapter demonstrates how the small is- ondary level and even more serious difficulties at the land states of the English-speaking Caribbean com- university level. At this point, the total population of bined efforts to produce economically manageable the nation becomes very important. For example, a uni- texts even in so specialized a subject as home eco- versity-level physics textbook serves a very specialized nomics. audience, but in a large nation such as Brazil or India • Many small nations (Sierra Leont is an example) the total readership may still be large enough to justify have successfully combined local development and locally produced texts; by contrast, a small nation may production of general primary texts with adapta- have no choice but to use imported texts. tion of foreign texts for more specialized subjects Another factor affecting readership size is language with small readerships at higher schooling levels. of instruction. Clearly, the greater the number of lan- guages in which books must be produced, the smaller A Basic Macroeconomic Decision: State versus the readership for any given language version, and the Private Sector greater the cost per book. Small multilingual nations face very difficult choices from the early primary level In all nations, government tends to intervene strongly on. But even large multilingual nations frequently find in the textbook provision process. Even in the most that at the secondary level, where enrollment ratios are market-oriented economies such as the United States low and the curriculum diversified, a switch to single- and the nations of Western Europe, government and language publishing is the only economically viable op- government agencies (whether at the central, state or tion. provincial, or local level) attempt to regulate and con- The problems created by failing to consider reader- trol textbook provision. In other words, in the area of ship size are illustrated by the case of Lesotho in the textbook provision there is no such thing, empirically, early 1970s. This nation's total population is less than as a wholly free market. Nations differ in the degree of 3 million. The government set high-quality specifica- state intervention, the locus of state intervention (that tions for textbooks, which were published and manu- is, centralized or decentralized), the mechanisms of state factured by local private firms. Because of the small intervention, and the extent to which the state formally market and the high standards, the book prices were owns (directly or through parastatals) the various agen- high, beyond what most parents in a poor nation could cies of textbook production and distribution. The range afford. Consequently, few schoolchildren had books. of choices available to a nation regarding private and Dropout rates were high and enrollments declined. public sector participation is very wide. In her review Moreover, because sales were low, the commercial pub- of textbook provision programs assisted by the World lishers could not recover their costs. The chapter by Bank, reported in the following chapter, Searle notes Aime and Overton describes how in Lesotho a subse- "the diversity of patterns in which alternatives are com- quent textbook program, which has taken readership bined. This diversity is an important finding because size into account, is successfully overcoming these the existence of such a variety of possibilities compli- problems. cates the task of designing or modifying a book provi- Generally, the larger (or more affluent) a nation, the sion system." Even more significantly, this diversity less difficult are the constraints imposed by readership indicates that there are few predeterminable choices size. In some cases, however, even very small and very between the private and public sectors. poor nations have found imaginative ways to work within Table 1-7 describes the patterns of state and private these constraints, such as pooling resources across na- sector participation in the preparation, printing, and 10 Introduction Table 1-7. State and Private Sector Participation ganized state intervention has assisted the development in Three Stages of Primary School Textbook of the private sector. It was noted that private sector Provision among Twenty-one Developing Nations publishing is frequently cheaper than government pub- Number of cases lishing (although government publishing sometimes State and State and State and appears cheaper because accounting systems disguise private private private 5 some costs), but in other cases government publishing State State State 4 was clearly the cheaper alternative. Again, one must Private Private Private l judge in terms of the real alternatives available at a State State and State and given time and place. In short, pedagogical and eco- private private 1 nomic pragmatism should be the guide rather than State State and State 2 ideological predisposition toward either the private or private the public sector. State State and Private private State Private State 1 Local versus International Publishing: To Protect or State and Private State 3 Not? private State and State and State 2 All nations insist upon state influence on school cur- private private riculums and consequently on textbook content. A nat- State and Private State and ural extension of this normal public prerogative is often to assume that textbook design and manufacturing should Source: Country reports from seminar participants. be done by local firms. 4 The line of reasoning is similar to that for any other enterprise in which there is per- ceived to be a national interest-namely, that local jobs distribution of primary school texts in twenty-one na- are at stake; that a local enterprise has a comparative tions represented at the seminar. There are ten distinct advantage; that local capacity (not currently extant) re- patterns among these nations. The most common pat- quires experience and therefore "protection" in its in- tern (five nations) is a combination of state and private fant stages; and that foreign contracts consume scarce sector participation in all three stages. The next most foreign exchange. Such arguments are put forward in common pattern (four cases) is exclusive state partic- many domains of manufacturing and commerce, often ipation. In only one case was the private sector exclu- with great passion: the nation's future "depends" on sively involved in all three stages, and here the govern- having these products manufactured locally; its culture ment exercised considerable control through regulation and its pride are at stake; and so on. of the private sector. These three patterns account for It became clear during the seminar that local control just under half (ten) of the twenty-one nations. The is distinguishable from local ownership. Many nations remainder are scattered across seven other patterns or have opted on economic grounds for offshore publishing combinations of state and private sector participation. or printing of textbooks (indeed much of the manufac- Clearly, the empirically viable policy questions have turing of both textbooks and general books for devel- to do with the appropriate degree of, locuses of, and oped nations is done in developing nations) while main- mechanisms for state control or regulation in a given taining a satisfactory degree of control over textbook set of national circumstances. Thus understood, the content and design. Given such experience, the choice question of the appropriate balance between state and between local or international publishing and printing private sector in textbook provision was a central theme should be based upon economic analysis. In some cases, of the seminar. No universally applicable pattern was full origination or adaptation by an international firm sought or found. Cases were examined in which the is the most sensible alternative. In others, the use of state presence was overwhelming, either because a po- local publishers and printers is either the economically litical-economic decision had been made which disal- most sensible approach or the only available alternative, lowed the development of a private sector or because a especially when the language of instruction is unique private sector textbook enterprise was not seen as viable. to a nation. If the decision is made to use local industry, Where the two sectors coexist (as happens most fre- the question of whether or not to protect that industry quently), there are many instances in which a strong inevitably arises. state presence has clearly inhibited the growth of the Protection can take many forms: taxes on foreign private sector. In many nations, the development of a imports, incentives for local production (contractual viable local general publishing industry is dependent advantages and the like), subsidies (for instance, use of upon private sector access to the textbook market. There government postal services for distribution), or outright are other instances, however, in which strategically or- prohibition of foreign products. If protection is re- Introduction 11 quired, it implies that local sources are not competitive ternational textbook manufacturing. To protect or not with international sources. Whatever form protection to protect is not simply a north-south issue. may take, and however good the reason for it, protection The most problematic question is that of "cultural has a monetary cost. The relevant questions are: How control" -the assumption that to control content, the much is that cost? Who is asked to pay? Is the justifi- product must originate locally. If it is a question of the cation for the additional cost acceptable? One Gther quality or appropriateness of the product itself, inter- general principle needs mention: there is never enough national firms, whether in other developing countries money in an economy to accept all claims for protection or in industrial countries, can be responsive to demands simultaneously-those from industry, manufacturing, by curriculum authorities. But sometimes the product agriculture, services, and so forth. If all claims for pro- is declared unacceptable for political reasons. The ques- tection were to be accepted, it would bankrupt any econ- tion then becomes one of expediency. If the education omy. Consequently, when is protection justified in the budget is fixed or in decline, how much of a sacrifice production of textbooks in developing countries? are locally produced materials worth? If the unit cost In addressing this question, countries are likely to of a textbook is increased by 30 percent, is it worth 30 find that the case for protecting local publishing is usu- percent of the children not having access to a book? ally stronger than that for protecting local printing. In some countries, local printing is above international The Advantages and Disadvantages of Copyright market costs because of the separate protection of local paper manufacturing industries. In these instances, the Although national and international copyright pro- claims of the Ministry of Education for permission to visions are an essential incentive to the production and use international printing can be pitted against the claims dissemination of knowledge, they are viewed by many of the Ministry of Agriculture or of Industry in favor of people in developing nations as symbols of existing in- local manufacturing. It doesn't matter which ministry ternational inequalities and as impediments to their causes the protection; what matters is the magnitude acquisition of knowledge. National attitudes toward co- of its effect-namely, the increased cost of the text- pyright change over time, however: as a nation develops books. its own publishing industry, it tends to view copyright In other cases, particularly small economies, the pur- provisions more favorably. Empirically, the number of chase of international paper is in such small quantities nations which do not belong to an international co- and the cost of maintaining expensive equipment is so pyright convention is decreasing, but at the same time high compared with its level of utilization that a com- "piracy" of books is increasing-that is, fewer nations parative advantage is unlikely in relation to an inter- engage in piracy, but they are doing so on a greater national printer. Therefore the two procedures (pub- scale. International copyright law is extremely complex. lishing and printing) should always be analyzed separately In any international negotiations about textbook pro- for their costs and benefits. vision, developing nations should acquire specialized Even local publishing is not always the most cost- legal advice. effective. There are more Bahasa authors in Jakarta than in London, and so books in Bahasa are more likely to U1w Pays? be cheaper, as well as better, if published locally. But this is not inevitable. International publishers in Lon- In most developed and many developing nations, it don can also find good Bahasa authors, as can good is assumed without question that textbooks should be local publishers in neighboring countries. And it is often provided free to students. However, it was discovered an open question whether design and layout experts, that in many nations (including, to the surprise of many also necessary for publishing, are at a comparative ad- at the seminar, China) students or their parents are vantage simply because they are local. expected to pay for their books and that in some coun- There is also the question of subject matter. Certain tries even very poor parents are willing to pay at least subjects (such as science and mathematics) "travel" a small sum for textbooks. Indeed, in some nations a better than others (such as local history or geography). revolving fund or student fee is the only possible way Readership size is important. There is more likelihood to finance a sustainable textbook provision system. Em- of developing a local publishing capacity (and therefore pirically, experience with revolving funds has been mixed: more "infant industry" justification) with large read- some appear to be working well, others have failed. erships. Some nations, such as Colombia, India, and Investigation of the conditions necessary for success is Mexico, have developed such a thriving publishing in- warranted. However, the question of equity remains: dustry that books have become an export product. It what does one do about children whose families are so would be in the interests of these developing countries desperately poor that they cannot afford even a very to reduce protective barriers on the importation of in- modest book fee? Partial subsidization may be appro- 12 Introduction priate. Thus, some nations successfully operate com- differences in shipping costs are taken into account; bined systems, selling or renting books in wealthier furthermore, there are times when certain types of pa- areas and providing them free in poorer regions. per are very difficult to find on the international market. Careful planning of paper acquisition could result in The Politics of Textbook Content significant cost savings and so help to reduce book prices. Particularly important is to buy in large lots. Some Educators tend to regard their work as apolitical. This experiments are under way with "paper buyers' clubs" is far from the truth. Decisions about curriculum con- to realize the savings that arise from bulk buying. Sav- tent, and therefore textbook content, frequently reflect ings from such buying, however, can sometimes be deep-rooted political conflicts within a nation. In rel- squandered by increased warehousing costs or by losses atively open political systems, textbook content often due to improper warehousing. In some nations, local represents delicate compromises among groups with paper production has proven to be an economically vi- different ideological positions, different religious beliefs able alternative, but in a few cases has resulted in prices and practices, or different ethnic and tribal back- higher than those on the international market. Devel- grounds. The U.S. experience documents the pedagog- oped nations may be able to play a useful role in as- ical and economic difficulties this can create even in a sisting with paper acquisition by jointly establishing very rich nation. Inappropriate or insensitive decisions some form of paper bank, perhaps along the lines of can provoke political conflict or lead to rejection of the Paper Support Programme t1nanced by the Canadian textbooks by some groups. In one-party states, textbook International Development Agency and managed by the content is usually carefully shaped to reflect the pre- Canadian Organization for Development through Ed- vailing ideology. In such cases, sudden political shifts ucation. or changes in regimes can render suddenly obsolete a large part of a nation's stock of textbooks, requiring Textbooks as Part of a Package of Interventions massive and expensive rewriting and production. Although an adequate supply of textbooks is essential Potential Conflicts between Curriculum Developers for effective learning, simply placing books in schools and Textbook Publishers will have little effect if teachers have not been trained how to use them and if there is a shortage of ancillary Although curriculum development and textbook pub- learning materials (for example, workbooks. exercise lishing are distinct enterprises, there is a general need books, pencils, chalk). An effective system for providing for closer collaboration between them. Those respon- textbooks must take into account all of the elements of sible for curriculum development often have little idea a total instructional package. Beyond this, it is clear of the cost implications of the specifications that they that if children learn to read effectively in school but develop for textbooks and other teaching materials. In- have nothing to read when they leave school, literacy stances can be found in which the formal specifications will soon decline; consequently, the investment in text- for types and quantities of texts, exercise books, and so books, and indeed much ofthe total national investment forth are way beyond what the nation could possibly in education, will be lost. Programs to provide textbooks afford. Frequently, specifications are laid down for book should be conceived as part of an overall "reading ma- length, paper quality, book size, and type and quantity terials development strategy." In the words of a spokes- of illustrations which greatly magnify the cost of pro- person from one of the nations which has successfully ducing the textbooks or which require technology un- pursued such an overall strategy: "We have created a available locally. Early and continuous collaboration be- nation of readers." Those responsible for textbook pro- tween curriculum developers and textbook publishers vision systems should never lose sight of the fact that is required to produce books which are both pedagog- "a nation of readers" is the ultimate goal. ically sound and economically affordable. Paper Supply The Future of the Textbook Contrary to what was believed a few years ago, there Despite claims of the more optimistic proponents of is no worldwide shortage of paper, nor does it appear computers and other new teaching technologies, the likely that one will develop. Compared with prices for evidence examined during the seminar (including care- other products, paper prices over the past several years ful studies of schools in which computers are exten- have tended to remain stable or decrease slightly. None- sively used) suggests that for the foreseeable future, theless, developing nations frequently pay more for pa- textbooks will continue to be the principal mechanism per than do customers in developed nations, even after for instruction. Applications will be found for com- Introduction 13 puters, but they will be limited compared with the use velopment are not always the most cost-effective. Al- made of textbooks. though improvements can be made in developing and OECD countries alike, it is our contention that solutions to the crisis in educational quality in developing coun- Summary tries cannot be restricted to seeking resources from outside. Solutions must come from within as well as Coupled with population growth and with expanding from without. This book is an exploration of the areas educational opportunity, the decline in national finan- of textbook policy which require examination in the cial resources has had a double impact on the class- light of this crisis. room. Students are increasing in number at a time when resources per student are declining. Salaries of teachers and other educational personnel, while not Notes lavish, are often the only part of the education budget being maintained. Decline in student resources is par- 1. There is, moreover, some evidence that in developing ticularly evident in the nonsalary budget categories- countries, the quality of a primary or secondary school is a in other words, just those ingredients which have proven good predictor of a person's success in the labor market- to be most effective in the achievement of learning substantially better, for example, than an individual's socio- objectives. The availability of reading materials may be economic status. These studies, however, are too recent and the single most consistent correlate of academic too few to generalize from the results with confidence. achievement, and yet the availability of reading mate- 2. The Educational Resources Information Center system rials appears to be the category of the educational budget lists 388 titles published on this subject in the United States most at risk. So what is to be done? in 1977. A recent review of the evidence from low-income In any such fiscal or management crisis, there are countries located 23 studies published between 1963 and 1977 basically two options. One is to generate additional re- (Husen and others 1978). A subsequent review, which made a specific effort to locate studies published in non-European sources by instituting savings elsewhere. Since in- languages, found a slightly higher number; see Avalos and creases in national revenues are unlikely and the reor- Haddad (1981). dering of intersectoral priorities tends to be idiosyncratic, 3. All figures are taken from background papers and dis- perhaps savings can be found within current educa- cussions at the seminar on which this book is based. tional allocations. Can they be found within educational 4. Although they are related, the issue of whether pub- salaries? Can parents or communities finance a higher lishing and printing should be local or international is sep- proportion of the revenue? Can the curriculum be nar- arate from whether they should be public or private. Here we rowed down so that it includes only the most important are referring only to the decision on whether to protect a subjects? Can the time in school be reduced or the class local private industry. We are assuming that the public sector size increased? These are possibilities. has already made the decision not to monopolize and that The other option is to seek savings within the budget local private enterprises exist. category at risk. To do this requires an analysis of the way in which textbooks are conceived, developed, man- ufactured, and distributed. It requires that previously References held assumptions-for example, about the appropriate role of the public sector-be questioned if other alter- Altbach, Philip G. 1983. "Key Issues of Textbook Provision in natives are less costly. It requires questioning whether the Third World." Prospects (United Nations Educational, local production is a necessity and whether reading Scientific, and Cultural Organization quarterly review of materials should be distributed free. It requires that all education) 13, no. 3: 315-25. phases of the process be open to scrutiny and profes- Avalos, Beatrice, and Wadi Haddad. 1981.A Review of Teacher sional debate. Effectiveness Research. Ottawa: International Development Before such questioning occurs, agreement needs to Research Center. Coleman, James S., Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, be reached on the normal objectives of the textbook James McPartland, Alexander M. Mood, Frederick D. Wein- enterprise- namely, that all students should have ac- feld, and Robert L. York. 1966. Equality of Educational cess to effective materials which were (as far as possible) Opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing developed locally and delivered on time at an affordable Office. cost. But there are tradeoffs within these objectives, Fuller, Bruce, and Stephen P. Heyneman. Forthcoming. "School and their implications need to be clarified. Quality in Developing Countries: Current Collapse, ruture The point is that developing countries have a scarcity Potential." Educational Researcher. of reading materials not only because of economic crisis Heller, Peter S., and Adrienne Cheasty. 1984. "Sectoral Ad- but also because current policies toward textbook de- justment in Government Expenditure in the 1970s: The 14 Introduction Educational Sector in Latin America." World Development Bane, David Cohen, Herbert Giotis, Barbara Heyns, and 12, no. 10 (October): 1039-49. Stephen Michelson. 1972. Inequality: A Reassessment of Heyneman, Stephen. 1983. "Improving the Quality of Edu- Family and Schooling in America. New York: Basic Books. cation in Developing Countries." Finance and Development Lee, Kye Woo. 1984. "Structural Adjustments in the Educa- 4 (March): 18-21. tion Sector in Latin American and Caribbean Countries." 1984. "Research on Education in Developing Coun- World Bank Education Division, Latin America and the tries." International Journal of Educational Development Caribbean Region. Processed. 4: 293-304. Pearce, Douglas. 1982. Textbook Production in Developing Heyneman, Stephen, Joseph Farrell, and Manuel Sepulvt-..ia- Countries: Some Problems of Preparation, Production and Stuardo. 1978. Textbooks and Achievement: 1112at We Know. Distribution. Paris: Unesco. World Bank Staff Working Paper 298. Washington, D.C. Searle. Barbara. 1985. "General Operational Review of Text- Heyneman, Stephen, and Dean Jamison. 1980. "Student books." World Bank Education and Training Department Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Fac- Discussion Paper EDTl. Washington, D.C. Processed. tors." Comparative Education Review 24, no. 3: 206-20. Smith, David. 1977. The &anomies of Book Publishing in Heyneman, Stephen, and William Loxley. 1983. "The Effects Developing Countries. Paris: Unesco. of Primary School Quality on Academic Achievement across Unesco (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Twenty-nine High- and Low-Income Countries.·· American Organization). 1982. Unesco Statistical Yearbook, 1979. Journal of Sociology 88 (May): 1162-94. Paris: Unesco Office of Statistics. Husen, Torsten, Lawrence Saha, and Richard Noonan. 1978. United Nations. 1981. Population Estimates and Projections, Teacher Training and Student Achievement in Less De- 1980 Assessment. New York: United Nations Department veloped Countries. World Bank Staff Working Paper 310. of Economic and Social Affairs. Washington, D.C. World Bank. 1985. World Development Report 1985. New Jencks, Christopher, Marshall Smith, Henry Alland, Mary Jo York: Oxford University Press. Part I The Design and Implementation of Textbook Programs: An Overview As noted in chapter 1, the World Bank has recently per is a practical planning and decisionmaking guide become a worldwide force in developing systems to pro- for those who wish to avoid the difficulties and pitfalls vide textbooks in the developing world. As part of its highlighted in chapter 2. It can be viewed as a checklist ongoing review of this work, the Bank commissioned of issues, information, and decisions that must be taken Barbara Searle to evaluate the textbook projects in which into account. it has been involved and to prepare an operational re- Although textbook projects are internally complex view of textbook programs. Chapter 2 is an edited ver- and difficult to design and manage, they are also part sion of that evaluation. It identifies the difficulties which of a broad set of educational innovations to improve have been encountered and the lessons which have been educational quality. There is a considerable research learned by Bank staff and officials of borrowing coun- literature and much practical experience regarding ed- tries as they have worked together to design and im- ucational innovations generally. In chapter 4, Adriaan plement national textbook provision systems. Verspoor draws upon that general literature, plus the Designing a satisfactory textbook program is a very experience of the World Bank in implementing edu- complex undertaking. Many separate decisions must be cational innovations, to demonstrate how the type, size, made-each in itself complicated and most of them and scale of a textbook program is constrained by the interrelated. In chapter 3, Anthony Read draws upon level of development of a national educational system; years of experience in designing and evaluating textbook and how the size and scale of textbook programs con- programs in developing nations. He provides a detailed strain possible strategies for implementation. An im- outline of each step in the chain of decisions and dis- portant lesson is that although different nations require cusses the relative advantages of the major alternatives different types of textbook programs and different strat- at each step, the kinds of information required to take egies for implementation, some form of textbook pro- sensible decisions at each step, and the ways in which gram is appropriate at all stages of educational devel- different sets of decisions constrain each other. His pa- opment. 15 2 The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank Barbara Searle Teachers and other school personnel have long recog- 350 million books have been printed. Many projects, nized the important role of the textbook in providing however, have experienced one or more of the following education of good quality, and recent research has pro- shortcomings: vided empirical support for this view. Altbach (1983), • An incapacity to supply books continuously in reviewing crucial issues, notes: • Adequate provision for only a part of the textbook Nothing has ever replaced the printed word as the system (usually printing), and neglect for other key element in the educational process and, as a re- parts of the system (such as distribution or teacher sult, textbooks are central to schooling at all levels. training) Yet textbooks are seldom taken into account by those • Inadequate attention to the quality and appropri- who plan educational reforms or expansion of school ateness of the books provided systems ... In situations where there is a shortage • Underestimation of the difficulties associated with of teachers and where teacher training is sometimes procurement of paper or books limited in scope, textbooks are crucial in maintaining standards of quality and [giving] direction to the cur- • Poor distribution because of insufficient flow of riculum. information between the periphery and the center • Inadequate institutional arrangements and system Textbooks began to be included in projects financed by coordination the World Bank almost twenty years ago. Since 1973, about forty-five projects have financed some aspect of the provision of books (see tables 2-3, 2-4, and 2-5 at What the World Bank Has Financed the end ofthe chapter). But the textbook enterprise has turned out to be far more complicated than envisioned, From 1965 to 1983, the World Bank helped to finance for it involves: forty-eight projects involving the preparation, provi- • Specifying learning objectives sion, or distribution of textbooks. Three of these-one • Establishing curriculum content and organization in the Philippines and two in Indonesia-were exclu- sively textbook projects. In addition to these forty-eight • Preparing, pilot testing, and editing manuscripts projects, the Bank has financed activities that have had • Designing book formats a peripheral association with textbooks: textbook fea- • Making decisions about paper and binding quality sibility studies, buildings that housed textbook offices, • Manufacturing or procuring books related technical assistance, and the production of sup- • Distributing and storing books plementary educational materials. This chapter focuses • Ensuring proper use of the books in the classroom exclusively on the core group of forty-eight textbook projects. • Replacing books as necessary. The proportion of textbook projects has been increas- Considering the numbers of books provided, Bank ing steadily, from about 6 percent of all education proj- financing has had a substantial impact. Most projects ects before 1974 to 32 percent in the period 1979-83; exceeded production targets, and in just three projects in 1983, almost half the education projects (43 percent) (in Ethiopia, Indonesia, and the Philippines), more than included textbook components, with total costs of about 17 18 Barbara Searle $50 million. Four regions have been responsible for • Policy change. Includes innovations in control over almost all the textbook components: East and West Af- content (including copyright issues); regulations rica, Latin America and the Caribbean, and East Asia regarding book utilization, replacement, and con- and the Pacific. 1 With the exception of the three text- ditions of use; language of instruction; book pric- book projects in the Philippines and Indonesia, textbook ing and financing. components have been only one component among sev- • Strengthening of institutions. Includes the crea- eral. Many have been relatively small-the textbook tion of new institutions and the reorganization of components accounted for less than 10 percent of costs existing ones, staffing, provision of specialist ser- in half the projects, and between 10 and 40 percent in vices, and training for technical staff. the other half. The size of components has increased • Monitoring, evaluation, and studies. Includes the with time, but not dramatically. Almost all textbook development of management information systems, components still represent less than 25 percent of proj- monitoring book utilization in classrooms and book ect costs. distribution processes, evaluation of the impact of textbooks on student achievement, and assess- Grade Levels Supported ments of systems to provide textbooks. Projects differed widely in how many of these subcom- Projects have supported the provision of texts at all ponents they included. Ninety percent of the projects grade levels, but most commonly at the primary level. under review financed the provision of textbooks (pur- Most projects (thirty-seven of forty-eight) have targeted chase or printing), but fewer than half included teacher support to one level of schooling. The exceptions are training, monitoring, evaluation of texts, or policy change. mostly projects that supported institutional develop- Half the projects that provided books also financed ment rather than the provision of texts for specific sub- manuscript development and book distribution, but only jects and grade levels; in the case of Uganda, which half of these (eleven projects in all) financed teacher received a reconstruction loan, the project involved the training. Only ten projects dealt explicitly with the in- purchase of replacement texts for the entire system. stitutional structure of the system to provide textbooks Frequently, when support is provided for only one level, and modified it in some way. no coordination is established with entities producing books for other levels. Alternative Mechanisms for Providing Books Subcomponents The objective of a system to provide textbooks is to This chapter identifies seven subcomponents of proj- provide books that are suitable and effective for both ects for the provision of textbooks that have each re- students and teachers on a timely and sustainable basis ceived substantial financial support: development of through mechanisms that support the growth of both manuscripts; manufacture or purchase of textbooks; new and existing ventures for publishing and selling distribution of textbooks; training of teachers; policy books. Even a cursory examination of systems to provide change; strengthening of institutions; and monitoring, textbooks indicates the wide variety of alternative mech- evaluation, and special studies. anisms countries adopt to attain this objective. Here I consider some of the reasons for choosing among these • Development of manuscripts. Entails writing, ed- alternatives. iting, field-testing, revising of textbook manu- scripts, and development of curriculums specifi- Key Participants cally related to textbook production. • Manufacture or purchase of textbooks. Includes The provision of textbooks involves a diversity of those projects that supply only equipment or paper, groups: the children and their families; teachers and as well as those that supply a wider range of items other school personnel; the Ministry of Education and essential to the provision of books. related institutions; the government and political or- • Distribution of textbooks. Includes construction ganizations; private publishers, printers, and authors; and renovation of warehouses and other storage and booksellers. Table 2-1 identifies major concerns of facilities, provision of vehicles, and development each of these groups. The effect on private publishers of distribution systems. and booksellers, often neglected, is critical because in • Training of teachers. Includes all pre- and in-ser- many developing countries textbooks provide the sales vice training activities for teachers and supervisors volume that supports what is usually a small market related to the use of texts. for general books. The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 19 Table 2-1. Major Concerns of Participants lists the major alternatives in each category and gives in Textbook Provision the frequency of occurrence in the twenty-five countries Group Major concerns surveyed. Students and Availability of books In most cases, book preparation was carried out either families Cost (if any) by the ministry of education (MOE) or by private pub- Appropriateness lishers or by both (in that some books were prepared School Availability of books one way, some the other). Overwhelmingly, printing personnel Appropriateness was contracted to private printers. Distribution was usu- Ease of use ally carried out or managed by the MOE. Most govern- Availability of support (guides, training) ments distributed books free. Ministry Management demands Much more interesting than the commonalities, how- Skilled labor requirements ever, was the diversity of patterns in which these mech- Recurrent cost requirements anisms were organized. For the t\venty-five countries Specialized equipment requirements examined, there were nineteen different patterns of the Government, Political acceptability of content four aspects under consideration. Only t\vo patterns political groups Equity in distribution recurred: Servicing the needs of special groups Private Profitability • Preparation by the private sector; printing by a publishers, Import restrictions private firm; delivery to schools by the MOE; books printers, and Quantity of services, products needed fully subsidized by the government-found in the authors Skilled labor requirements Central African Republic, the Comoros, the Solo- Specialized equipment requirements mon Islands, Tanzania, and Uganda Booksellers Profitability • Preparation of some books by the MOE, some by Literacy rate private publishers; private printing; delivery to Level of demand for general books Opportunity to sell textbooks schools by MOE; books produced under the project Size of (or by the MOE) fully subsidized; others for sale- Source: World Bank. found in Brazil and Colombia. In these latter two countries, the books financed by The Alternatives the project are being given to schools free, while other books must be purchased. Such a dual system also exists Table 2-2 focuses on four aspects of the provision of in Botswana and Malawi. In Paraguay, books are given books: book preparation (preliminary publishing tasks), free to rural schools, but students in urban schools must manufacturing, distribution, and financing. The table purchase (different) books from private publishers. Distribution Ministry of Education (MOE) Unit/department within MOE Delivery to schools by MOE Books completely subsidized or within its jurisdiction (9) jurisdiction (4) (16) by government (14) Managed by MOE; part or all Other government printing Delivery to schools managed Books produced by project contracted to private sector facility (0) by MOE. partially or fully fully subsidized, others for (1) contracted to private sector sale (3) (3) Private publisher, local or Private printers, local or Delivery to schools or Books produced by project foreign, without MOE foreign (17) outlets by or through other partially subsidized (4) participation (8) government agency (3) Private publisher, local or Combination of public and Delivery to outlets for sale Books sold by government foreign, in collaboration private printers (2) to individuals (1) for profit (1) with MOE (1) Parastatal (1) Parastatal (1) Parastatal (1) Books sold by publishers for profit (2) MOE for some books, private Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate how many countries. out of twenty-five, had adopted each alternative at the time of project appraisal. Source: World Bank. 20 Barbara Searle Three countries have similar systems except for or- the specification of learning objectives and the super- ganization and distribution. In El Salvador, Guatemala, vision of book use-are handled by public education and Papua New Guinea, manuscripts are prepared by a agencies. For the remainder, every combination of al- bureau associated with the MOE; books are printed by location of tasks to the public or private sector occurs. the private sector (in Papua New Guinea, printers are A government seeking to establish or strengthen a sys- both local and foreign); and schools receive books free tem to provide books must decide whether to manu- (in a ratio of one book to two students in El Salvador, facture books itself or to purchase them locally or abroad. one to one otherwise). In El Salvador, the ministry itself Usually the lack of adequate locally published books distributes books; in Guatemala, this is contracted to leads the government into the publishing business. For the private sector; and in Papua New Guinea, respon- example, in the Philippines in the early 1970s, the local sibility rests with the National Department of Works industry produced books judged to be of low quality. and Supply. These may appear to be minor variations In response, the World Bank financed government pub- on a theme. Each of these alternatives, however, poses lishing, rather than strengthening the local industry. different problems of coordination and control. In par- This decision resulted in conflicts with local publishers, ticular, the Papua New Guinea arrangement requires which the Bank is striving now to resolve. interministerial collaboration, which is often difficult Regardless of whether the books are published or to achieve. (The difficulty may not show up until there purchased, decisions must be made about the source of is a conflict of schedules-until books have to be de- manuscripts. They may be written completely by local livered at the same time as a high-priority activity of authors, either in the public or in the private sector; the other ministry is expected to take place.) written essentially by foreign authors, perhaps with mi- Three countries have similar schemes except for cost nor modifications (usually changes in vocabulary and recovery. In Benin, Burundi, and Ethiopia, all publish- illustrations) to suit local needs; written through a col- ing and distribution is handled by the MOE or its agen- laborative process, across national boundaries, as oc- cies. In Burundi, books are free; in Ethiopia, students curred under the auspices of the Regional Organization are charged a lending fee, which only partially recovers for Central America and Panama; or written through a book costs; and in Benin, books are sold at slightly above joint effort by a government and a foreign publisher, cost. In Haiti and Liberia, books are sold to students at as is happening in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Swaziland. a profit: in Liberia, books are sold by the government; Decisions about publishing or purchasing are ex- in Haiti, books are published and sold by local private tremely difficult to make. Government publishing may publishers. In Haiti, the ministry purchases additional be more or less expensive than purchasing; externally books (one for each four students) to be used by poor produced books may or may not be suitable; govern- children in project schools. Lesotho also charges a lend- ment publishing may smother private sector publish- ing fee that is meant to cover the cost of books. ing; and so on. There is relatively little knowledge or These brief descriptions convey some sense of the systematically gathered comparative experience to as- diversity of patterns in which alternatives are combined. sist governments in making these decisions. This diversity is an important finding because the ex- Apromising strategy for a country lacking an existing istence of such a variety of possibilities complicates the publishing capacity is to proceed in stages. The im- task of designing or modifying a system to provide books. mediate need for books can be satisfied by purchases from abroad (perhaps with some adaptation) while local Issues capacity (perhaps in collaboration with the foreign pub- lisher) is built up to handle the variety of publishing The issues to be addressed in establishing or im- tasks, with the possible exception of printing. Lesotho, proving a system to provide books are legion. For pur- Liberia, and Sierra Leone, with Bank support, are pur- poses of discussion, it is useful to classify them into suing this strategy. three groups: policy issues- including the choice be- Regardless of how books are procured, the govern- tween publishing and purchasing books, standards of ment must decide whether books are to be available provision, and book ownership and financing; institu- through only one source (for example, bookstores or tional issues-including coordination of the system, schools) or through multiple sources. In Haiti, private management of resources, and staffing; and educational publishers sell books, but the government also buys and issues-including the language of instruction, book distributes them to needy children. In Sierra Leone, the quality, and the effective class use of books. project plans free distribution and use in schools as well as sales through bookstores; this will allow parents to Policy Issues purchase books for their children to use at home. To Publish or Purchase. Of the tasks comprising the Standards of Provision. Decisions about provision ra- provision of books, those at either end of the process- tios have crucial cost implications. A two to one ratio The ProiJision of Textbooks by the World Bank 21 of books to students is a highly effective cost-reduction Lack of coordination is a common pitfall. It seems strategy with apparently little adverse educational ef- to occur most frequently between the development of fect. Research in the Philippines showed that in the curriculums and the preparation of manuscripts, in lower grades, student achievement was about the same meshing the book procurement schedule with teacher for book ratios of one to one and two to one and sub- training and supervision, and in distributing books. An stantially higher than for a ratio of ten to one (Heyne- effective distribution system depends on reasonably re- man, Jamison, and Montenegro 1984). Four recent Bank liable transportation and a flow of accurate and timely projects (in the Comoros, El Salvador, Philippines, and information bet\-veen schools and central authorities- Sierra Leone) have adopted a two to one ratio on the both of which are very difficult to organize in many basis of the Philippines research. countries. Implementing a workable system is a serious Whether a single text (for a grade and subject) is challenge. adopted or whether schools and teachers chose from a Book publishing requires many specialities. Man- list usually depends on whether books are produced agers must determine which tasks to contract out; how publicly or privately. The number of texts at each grade to share resources between training and technical as- depends on the level. Few (two to three) are required sistance; whether to grant authors fixed fees or royal- at lower grades. Attempts to combine subjects in one ties; how to retain staff and build staff capacity; and book have generally been unsuccessful. Texts for lower how to structure information gathering, analysis, and grades frequently contain too much material, which is use so that the organization learns from experience. too densely arranged on the page. Evidence from re- Finally, a crucial issue is the permanence and legal search does not indicate that there is an educational status of the institution providing books. Because of the payoff for elaborate production standards. \\~ben stu- institution's unique status in relation to the public and dents purchase books, one year can be planned for (al- private sectors, establishing an appropriate degree of though books may be reused). Otherwise, the tradeoff autonomy often has political implications. between initial book costs and replacement costs (which includes distribution) must be considered. When books Educational Issues are allowed to be taken home, they provide a visible token of government support; however, book life is much Key educational issues are concerned with the lan- shorter. guage of instruction and its relation to other languages used in the country, the quality and suitability of the Book Ownership and Financing. The situation is clear books, and teacher capabilities leading to effective use when students purchase books privately. Otherwise rules of books in the classroom. In many countries, the in- must be established about whether books are to be given structional language is not the mother tongue of the or lent to students and how loss and damage are to be children. This is a complex issue which requires reex- handled. All combinations are possible. Students can amination in each particular setting. The implications pay book fees, yet the books can remain the property for the provision of textbooks are often overlooked. Books of the school. Sometimes fees are deposited in a dedi- in all subjects, and especially for teaching languages, cated account. Some countries have a self-defeating pol- must be appropriate to the language facility of the chil- icy of requiring teachers to finance the replacement of dren using them. In countries where some children books (or equipment), a substantial disincentive to their speak the language of instruction at home and others use. Other countries shift this burden to the student do not-for example, Ethiopia or Nepal-early lan- or, more commonly, make no provision for replace- guage textbooks which may be suitable for the native ment. speakers will be completely inappropriate for the others. Another issue that is rarely raised is the suitability Institutional Issues of the instructional strategy embodied in the textbooks under consideration. Some books are prescriptive, with Most developing countries lack trained and experi- highly structured text, exercises, and activities. Others enced people to run a system to provide books. There- are more loosely constructed, on the assumption that fore, in these countries it is particularly important to the teacher will use the book as a resource to be fitted establish institutional frameworks to make efficient use into his or her own instructional program. Inadequately of these scarce human resources. Rather than several trained or inexperienced teachers are likely to make institutions, authority should be centralized in a single better use of the first type of book. institution, which should supervise and schedule all The support provided to teachers through training tasks; allocate tasks to implementing agencies (public and supervision can be crucial in assuring the effective or private, according to their capacities to produce on use of books in the classroom. If teachers have been schedule; and shift resources as necessary to meet trained to use textbooks, short sessions to familiarize schedules. them with new content may suffice; otherwise training 22 Barbara Searle in how to use books will also be necessary. Teachers' The Indonesian project recognized the need for co- editions that have on one page a copy of the student ordination among diverse groups with an interest in text page and suggestions to the teacher on the facing textbooks. The project established a high-level com- page are effective. mittee with representatives from teacher training in- stitutes, universities, and teachers associations as well Two Case Studies as the ministry. The committee was expected to approve manuscripts and program plans; however, it was dis- In this and the next section of this paper, completed banded in the first year of the project, and its approval projects and projects still under way are respectively functions were subsequently performed by ad hoc com- considered. mittees. In summary, the Indonesian project, while rec- A review of World Bank-sponsored textbook devel- ognizing the need to integrate textbook production and opment suggests that the likelihood of a textbook com- teacher training, failed to establish an entity with the ponent attaining its objectives is directly related to the authority and resources to manage this integration. extent to which the project design addresses all aspects The Philippines project, by contrast, supported a much of the system to provide textbooks. It is not crucial that more integrated organizational arrangement for text- a project finance every component. The analysis of the book production, partly because a coherent structure system must, however, include all aspects to make sure already existed and also because the project was ap- that the entire supporting system is in place and func- proved three years after that in Indonesia and no doubt tioning well. benefited from the experience gained by Bank staff there. Two Bank-sponsored education projects in Indonesia Prior to the project, the Philippines had a Textbook and the Philippines represented major early efforts to Board that was responsible for approving manuscripts, finance textbook publishing. Each included, at least to which were then published by the private sector. Under some degree, all the important subcomponents. Both the project, the board was given responsibility for man- had significant successes and significant problems. The aging all textbook development activities-from initial Indonesia project was approved in 1973. Its objective planning of textbooks through the manufacturing and was to better the quality of primary education in In- distribution of books to schools-and was provided with donesia through an integrated program of textbooks, a secretariat to carry out the work. The board was rec- teachers' guides, in-service teacher training courses, ognized as the single entity in the Philippines respon- and special courses to upgrade supervisory personnel. sible for textbooks and was given sufficient resources The project in the Philippines, approved three years to carry out its work. later, had a slightly different objective: to develop the The organizational differences between the projects institutional capacity for the continuous development were important Both projects encountered similar and supply of relevant textbook material in the Phil- problems with scheduling, quality control, and so on; ippines. The difference in objectives is significant. The but in the Philippines the Textbook Board (with its Philippines project was much more successful, and most greater independence, staff resources, and full-time of the difficulties in the Indonesian project can be traced managers) was better able to diagnose and respond to to inadequate organizational arrangements. the problems. As a result, performance improved sig- Both projects exceeded their quantitative targets for nificantly during the life of the project. By contrast. in printing books and training teachers; however, both Indonesia performance did not improve significantly as projects (to differing degrees) had difficulty with insti- a result of experience gained during implementation, tutionalization, quality of book content, physical stan- and despite persistent efforts, the staffing and manage- dards of books, and coordination and scheduling. ment issues were never resolved. Although the Philippines project made significant Institutional Aspects. In Indonesia, a center was es- progress in establishing an appropriate structure, there tablished as a separate entity within the MOE to manage were three problems still unresolved. First, the Text- the publishing activities financed by the project. The book Board's authority did not extend to curriculum project was one of twelve to fifteen publishing entities development, and there were serious mismatches be- within the ministry, and it was staffed at the senior tween curriculum specifications and the content of text- levels with ministry personnel who had other respon- books produced under the project. Second, the distri- sibilities and were not able to give consistent attention bution system, consisting of a central warehouse and to textbook production. (It was supposed to have full- 152 provincial warehouses, was financed with the time top managers, but these were not provided.) Al- understanding that support would be gradually assumed most all the remaining staff were technical. Thus there by regional education authorities. By the closing date, were three problems: too few staff, absence of full-time however, this had not occurred, and more than 400 top managers, and absence of middle-level managers to field staff were still functioning on a temporary basis. direct the day-to-day work of the technical staff. Finally, although the Textbook Board and Secretariat The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 23 (TBS) functioned well, its status and future role had not did not have textbook editors and did not establish ef- been decided by the time the project was completed. fective procedures for gathering and using feedback Two organizational studies recommended the transfor- information. mation of the TBS into a governmental corporation to enable it to run more efficiently and effectively on a Physical Standards of Books. Difficulties with phys- long-term basis, protected from the political atmo- ical standards of books included problems with paper sphere of the ministry. It was expected that the TBS procurement, storage, and inadequate quality control would be transformed into the Instructional Materials procedures exercised by private printers. In the early Development Corporation. But the presidential direc- stages of the Philippines project, printers were expected tive to establish the new body was still pending as of to handle the purchase of paper. Most paper was im- 1983. One particularly difficult issue that remains to be ported, however, and had to be consigned to the project resolved is the relation of private sector publishers to to qualify for tax exemption. This system proved un- the new corporation. workable. As a result, paper procurement was separated from printing. In the Philippines Quality of Book Content. Both projects struggled with TBS was totally unprepared in staff, equipment, ex- the problem of producing books of good quality. They perience, and expertise for the complex management recognized the need for providing information to writ- of thousands of tons of paper shipped in from foreign ers to serve as the basis for revision, but both initially ports for distribution to various printers. Further, misunderstood the kind of information needed and es- delays in editorial and art activities and also in pro- tablished elaborate programs for testing student cessing printing contracts, from bidding through achievement. The result was large amounts of data which evaluation, award and Bank and presidential approv- did not provide clear guidelines to writers about what als, resulted in the project's having to house up to to change. In the Philippines, the TBS recognized that 10,000 metric tons of paper ... printers often com- information was needed instead on such things as ap- plained of delays in paper releases, damaged and un- propriateness of the reading level, adequacy of content usable paper released to them, shortages, or issuance for one full year, difficulties teachers encountered in of wrong stocks. The question of accountability fre- using the textbooks, and their suggestions for improve- quently arose, as printers used more stock than es- ment. As a result, the TBS substantially revised the field- timated, claiming spoilage, and as they returned un- testing procedures: they asked teachers to make mar- used stock and spoilage. (World Bank Project ginal notes on an extra textbook; they interviewed teachers Completion Report 1984) frequently; and they assisted teachers in sending com- ments to the TBS between visits. This redesigned feed- Ultimately, the TBS used its own staff to supervise pro- back system generated information directly about spe- duction work at individual printing plants. cific lessons and pages and put manuscript revision back The Indonesian project had even more severe prob- on schedule. lems. The project's preparation document did not dearly Another problem-that of effecting editorial im- spell out technical specifications for paper weight, provements late in the production schedule-was solved strength, opacity, and brightness. Nor did it have proper by involving the textbook editor in the production of specifications for binding (type of wire or quality of the book from the planning stage so that changes could adhesive). As a result, uncertainty prevailed about be made chapter by chapter early in the writing cycle. standards to be used in monitoring. Other problems Building on experience, the TBS was able to develop, were that procurement control was inadequate, inven- over the years, publication criteria governing textbook tory control was rudimentary, subcontracting by print- content, readability, book length appropriate for the ers diluted quality control, and paper was damaged in school year, legibility (including size of type, phrase storage. grouping, word spacing), and type of illustrative ma- The Philippines project seems to have been more terial. They determined that three years was the abso- successful at establishing quality control mechanisms, lute minimum time for properly producing a text- but neither project was able to solve adequately the book-one year for research and preliminary writing, problems of paper procurement. storage, and distri- one year for tryout, and a year for revision and printing. bution to printers. The Indonesian project was far less successfuL The textbooks produced were criticized, and there is no Coordination and Scheduling. Both projects faced evidence that book content and quality improved over severe problems with late delivery of books to schools time. Among the defects noted in Indonesian books and to teacher training programs, and both suffered were inappropriate levels of vocabulary and difficulty, mismatches between the official curriculum and book poor integration of illustrations with written text, and content. In Indonesia, book distribution was first the inadequate teachers' manuals. The Indonesian project responsibility of the printer; subsequently the project 24 Barbara Searle employed private distributors. These were reasonably gathering by project and Bank staff. As already noted, efficient, but inadequate storage facilities at the point the projects differed in their ability to deal with the of delivery caused damage. The Philippines project es- information. In Indonesia, no corrective action wa.;; taken tablished a network of provincial warehouses and also because temporary staff assignments made it difficult used commercial freight forwarders. The system for fi- to build on experience and part-time managers were nancing the transfer of books to schools was, however, unable to devote their attention fully to project activities ill-suited to the somewhat erratic delivery schedule (it- and problems. The Philippines project tells a different self a result of production delays). In both countries, story: field visits revealed substantial mismatches between The learning gains by project institutions involved in school enrollments and the number of books delivered. textbook development were considerable. By 1981, The TBS in the Philippines ultimately established its own the various cocs (Curriculum Development Centers) system for collecting and maintaining enrollment data had identifiable working groups, counting specialists because ministry data proved inaccurate. It should be among them for research and writing. The TBS had noted that both countries were up against exceptionally evolved by then the basic publication criteria ... The difficult distribution problems because they are large textbook development cycle had been tested ... Re- and comprise many islands. Perhaps the most important sponsibilities had been carefully delineated among conclusions are that schedules should pay more heed authors, editors, copy editors, graphic artists, and to these difficulties and that more effort is needed to other production specialists. The project progres- improve the efficiency of the flow of information from sively produced books, each better than that preced- the periphery to the center and the flow of books in the ing it: the first book produced by the project was a other direction. straightforward, single-color elementary science book Late delivery to schools was not the only problem with text and simple line drawings; the last was a associated with distribution. Both projects at first de- complex high school teacher's edition, with two-color veloped schedules for teacher training on the basis of text and full-color cover, featuring the textbook pages planned delivery dates for books, but book delivery was reproduced in facsimile and integrated with instruc- frequently late- by as much as two or three years. tive material and photographs for the teacher's con- Indonesia maintained its schedules and trained the venience. (World Bank Project Completion Report teachers without the books, because they wanted the 1984) teachers trained before the books reached the class- rooms. The Philippines eventually took the other tack The Bank's Project Completion Reports (PCRs) clearly and did not train teachers until books were actually indicate that the two project implementation organi- delivered to schools. This approach missed opportuni- zations-the TBS in the Philippines and the project ties to train before use but made sure that the books implementation unit (PIU) in Indonesia-differed in their were available for the training exercise. capacity to manage change. It is evident that this dif- Both projects had difficulty coordinating curriculum ference was related directly to differences in the quality and book content, but the problems were better doc- of the books they produced and in their capacity to umented and analyzed in the Philippines. Among the maintain themselves as viable organizations. Beyond complicating factors in that project were: remarks about levels of staffing and other resources, the PCRS do not help us analyze why the TBS was a • An advisory body that was supposed to coordinate "learning organization" and the PIU was not. One can, book content across subjects and grades did not however, speculate that, staff shortages apart, some of function because it was not given legal status the crucial elements were: • Manuscript development was handled by Curric- ulum Development Centers, which had no official • Degree of managerial competence at the outset connection to the Curriculum Department of the • The expectation that operating procedures would ministry be codified, reviewed, and changed as necessary • Development of curriculums was undertaken by • Flexibility with regard to procedures so that man- the ministry without any kind of coordination with agers could make changes they considered nec- textbook development and essentially in competi- essary tion with the teacher training activities of the TBS. • Sufficient stability of staff so that both individuals and the institution could learn from experience Lessons from the Two Projects. The shortcomings • Mechanisms to upgrade the professional qualifi- reviewed here became increasingly apparent through- cations of staff as such needs emerged. out the implementation of the project, as evidenced by both formal evaluation efforts and informal information The PCR for the Philippines does not discuss these The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 25 elements explicitly, but the text provides clues that some, pervision reports, and in some cases, conversations with if not all, existed. In particular. it is clear that proce- Bank staff. dures were regularly reviewed and changed, that train- ing was provided when an apparent need arose, and that Common Pitfalls at least some flexibility existed. It is also clear that some problems-for example, difficulties with distribution There follows a discussion of some of the more com- or inadequate coordination with the Curriculum De- mon pitfalls that the projects have come up against in partment of the ministry--persisted because the man- the provision of books-with suggestions as to how agement of the TBS did not have the authority to take they might be avoided, combined (where possible) with corrective action. examples of helpful procedures. On the whole, projects that finance book purchases deal less well with problems than projects that finance publishing. Conclusion Failure to Provide for the Sustainable Provision of The Bank has been providing serious support for text- Books. Schools in the developing world are littered with books for ten years. This chapter makes clear that at odd copies of books that are the result of externally least some of the early projects recognized that textbook financed projects that provided books for one time only. publishing is complex and highly technical; that it re- This chapter takes the view that such an outcome is quires professional competence in many specialties; and not acceptable in this period of scarce resources, that that developing a good textbook takes time (three years projects must aim for the sustainable provision of books. at a minimum). Yet even with this recognition, projects Providing books on a continuing basis requires appro- underestimated the difficulties (see table 2-3). Of the priate institutional arrangements and feasible financial nine projects surveyed, only three (two in Ethiopia and support. Of the projects under review, those that finance one in the Philippines) left behind functioning systems publishing are more than twice as likely to address the to provide textbooks. Beyond this, the completed proj- issue, but most projects consider either institutional ects provide evidence of shortfalls in every aspect of the arrangements or financing but not both. provision of textbooks: poor quality books, inadequate Usually, sustainability is not mentioned, although one distribution systems, inability to establish and maintain Status Appraisal Report (SAR) points out that if the gov- production schedules, inadequate procedures for han- ernment wants to ensure continued provision of books dling paper procurement, teacher training activities out after the project ends, it will have to seek further ex- of phase with book publication, poor coordination be- ternal assistance or start charging for books. Another tween curriculum and manuscript development, and project, through a covenant, required the government above all, failure to establish institutions able to con- to prepare a plan for financing textbooks after the proj- tinue to provide good books after project completion. ect. According to supervision reports, the covenant is While ten years is a short time in Bank life and there satisfied. But the report prepared by the government to has been, until now, no systematic attempt to sum- satisfy the covenant provides only projections of the marize the project experience with textbooks, one would numbers of books needed and estimated costs. Regard- nevertheless expect some institutional learning so that ing financing, it says, "a problem in accounting has the design of new textbook projects could address these arisen because, as textbooks have been paid for on the problems more effectively. The next section examines development account since the beginning of the IDA recently appraised projects and documents both sub- [International Development Association] textbook proj- stantial improvements and continuing shortfalls in the ect, all school fees have been released for consumable design of projects. items other than books, hence releasing pressure on an othervvise static income." In other words, the funds from the recurrent budget (collected as school fees) that Evidence from Ongoing Projects used to be spent on texts have now been allocated else- where and so not even these are available for sustaining Between 1979 and 1983, there were twenty-six proj- book purchase after the project ends. ects that financed provision of textbooks for the primary The textbook component of Lesotho has addressed or secondary levels-thirteen financing book pur- both the institutional and the financing issues. A Book chases, eleven financing book publishing, and two both Supply Unit has been established in the ministry which (see tables 2-4 and 2-5). Seventeen of the projects were is responsible, in the short term, for purchasing and approved before 1983 and therefore have at least a year distributing books. Lesotho expects to develop its own or two of implementation history. Information on the books within a decade, and under the project the ex- projects has been gathered from appraisal reports, su- isting Instructional Materials Resource Center and the 26 Barbara Searle Figure 2-1. Organization Chart for a Textbook Agency Minister Approval of national textbook policy Approval of budget Approval of contract Appointment of staff Advisory council Formulation of textbook policy Approval of manuscript Review of budget and contract Recommendations for staffing Executive director Management of textbook program Formulation of operating policy Management of budget Preparation of contract Education coordinator Administration Preparation of budget Training of teachers Procurement and coordination of evaluation Accounting of impacts Cashiering I I Manuscript development Production Distribution Planning of textbooks Typesetting, art, page makeup Management of statistical files Contracting of authors Specification of paper and printing Operation of central warehouse Supervision of writing Printing for tryout Preparation of delivery lists and field-testing Supervision of printing contract and Dispatching and field inspection Revision and editing of quality control Inventory control manuscripts (Three editors) (Two production specialists) (Two distribution specialists) existing National Curriculum Development Center are three major functions of manuscript development, pro- being reorganized to start on this task. By 1986, three duction, and distribution are under one roof, managed books had been produced. Finally, a procedure for col- by an executive director. Teacher training falls within lecting book rental fees has been designed that, if suc- the purview of the director as well, but the mechanism cessful, will make the provision of books self-support- for coordinating curriculum development with manu- ing. script preparation is less well spelled out. Poor Coordination of Constituent Activities. Earlier Poor-Quality Books. All textbooks for use in class- sections discussed the importance of coordinating the rooms should be reviewed by experts and by teachers different pieces of a system to provide books and the and should be field-tested in classrooms. The purpose variety of means countries adopt to do this. The most of field-testing is to determine whether the books are straightforward is to assign all the functions to a single suitable for the children who will use them-whether agency. Figure 2-1 displays the organization and func- the language, the illustrations, and the level of difficulty tions of a textbook agency similar to one being estab- are appropriate. These are judgments that are not al- lished in a Bank-financed project. In this structure, the ways made satisfactorily by experts. The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 27 Perhaps field-testing of purchased books is neglected but only for short periods, so that it is difficult to hire because of pressure to get books into classrooms. This people who have them. Printing in nonstandard lan- may be acceptable in the short term, but a longer-term guages is difficult to supervise because the printing plan, even for book purchases, should survey the ex- experts do not have the requisite language skills. Test- perience of teachers and children using the books. ing that paper, inks, and other supplies meet specifi- cations requires both instruments and knowledge that Breakdowns in the Book Distribution System. Dis- are in short supply. Most of these problems are beyond tribution failures are of at least three types: delivery of the expertise of the Bank's procurement specialists and the wrong number or type of books because of inade- to date have not been dealt with systematically. quate information from schools or mistakes in pack- aging; damage to books because of the absence of stor- Insufficient or Poorly Organized Teacher Training. age facilities at transition points; and bottlenecks All too many projects ignore teacher training or fail to (stoppage of book flow) because of wrong assumptions address the potential pitfall identified in the projects in or inadequate financing-for example, an assumption Indonesia and the Philippines: namely, the (likely) cir- that district education officers will, without a budget, cumstance that books will not be ready as scheduled. deliver books to schools. Projects should plan for suc- Here, above all, contingency plans are necessary so that cess (by meticulously organizing the distribution sys- training can be delayed until the books are available. tem) and plan against failure (by installing a monitoring But the SARs under review do not leave one optimistic system to report to the center timely and accurate in- that effective and timely teacher training will be pro- formation about breakdowns). vided to help teachers use the textbooks in ways that Virtually all projects have recognized the importance enhance student learning. of distribution, but not all have appraised the details, and fewer still have included arrangements for moni- Project Design. Available evidence suggests two im- toring. Thus it seems unlikely that many in this group portant factors of project design: whether the project of projects will avoid this common pitfalL has been preceded by another project supporting text- books and whether there was a textbook expert on the Schedule Slippages. The problem of schedule slip- appraisal mission. In this context, one can also find page seemed to be universal in the earlier projects. evidence (in the details presented in SARs) that there Indonesia took an important step forward in allocating has been sharing of experience within regions but little four years for the development of each book title, but between regions. Clearly, the adequacy of textbook com- even this has not proved adequate because the com- ponent design could quickly be improved if regions did mittee responsible for approving manuscripts held up no more than share their experiences. But even greater the first batch for over a year. Current projects do not improvements can be anticipated from the participation seem to be handling the problem much better. of experts, especially those from borrowing countries that have been successfully executing project textbook Procurement Problems. The three types of procure- components. ment that cause difficulty are books, paper, and print- ing. Frequently the argument is made that because of Conclusions their specialized nature, textbooks cannot be procured through international competitive bidding. In Sierra This review of recently approved projects suggests Leone, however, books are being procured competi- the following: tively on the basis of weighted scores for six criteria: conformity to curriculum, pedagogic suitability, pres- • On the whole, textbook components are more thor- entation and design, local content, production quality, oughly and carefully designed in these later proj- and cost. The first four criteria are weighted approxi- ects than in the early projects reviewed in the last mately 20 percent, the last tvvo 10 percent. Books are section. assessed against the first four criteria using question- • Although components that finance publishing or naires completed by specially trained local experts. purchasing differ in detail, they share many po- Paper and printing procurement are problematic chiefly tential pitfalls. Project components approved re- because they involve many technical details, some of cently vary greatly in the extent to which they which are specific to regions (for example, varieties of guard against these potential pitfalls through care- ink and paper specifications) and about which little is ful design. known by most of the active participants-Bank staff, • Experience, even unsuccessful experience, is a good borrower staff, and even many publishing consultants. teacher. First textbook components should not be Bid evaluation, in particular, requires these scarce skills- too ambitious and should be regarded as the first 28 Barbara Searle step in a long-term effort to create capacity for the Conclusions about Implementation. A first conclu- provision of textbooks through either publishing sion is that a desk study cannot give an adequate picture or purchasing. of how a textbook component is faring. Routine doc- • The provision of textbooks is highly technical. Usu- umentation available in the Bank simply does not pro- ally neither borrower organizations nor Bank staff vide enough information. Conversations with sector staff have the requisite skills to ensure that the tech- suggest that failure to document often reflects lack of nical aspects of the provision of books are being knowledge: when information in supervision reports adequately addressed. Thus consultant expertise may was sparse, follow-up conversations rarely provided sub- well be crucial. stantially more data. A second conclusion is that pitfalls await even well- Implementation designed components; it may even be the case that the more comprehensively the project attempts to address The seventeen projects appraised since 1979 provide the provision problem, the more likely it is that diffi- a good basis for examining implementation. The text- culties will occur-because the more comprehensive book components, however, are covered poorly in su- the solutions, the greater the coordination required and pervision reports, making it difficult to track progress. the more high-level involvement and approval needed. Only six projects regularly report the number of books Thus a serious attempt to establish a well-functioning procured or printed. system to provide books, particularly when it involves Nevertheless, information gathered from supervi- publishing, should be seen as a long-term effort, prob- sion reports and from project staff suggests that ably lasting a decade or more. most components are being implemented without sub- stantial difficulties or delays. The following projects are Recommendations exceptions: Project Difficulty This chapter has surveyed experience with textbook Indonesia X The textbook approval committee components in Bank-financed projects, both those that took more than a year to approve have been completed and those still under way. The manuscripts. chapter has provided evidence of solid achievement and Philippines VII The government has not yet estab- of substantial learning and increased sophistication on lished the Instructional Materials the part of both the Bank and its borrowers. It has also Corporation. highlighted the technical and complex nature of the systems to provide books and the importance of adopt- El Salvador IV Difficulties were experienced with ing both a comprehensive and long-term perspective in the bidding process for printing project planning and design. And, finally, it has iden- contracts. tified weaknesses and problems that need specific at- Paraguay IV There is a shortage of counterpart tention during the course of project preparation and funds. implementation. The major recommendations arising Benin II The contract with the cofinancier from the study are presented here, with some discussion is not yet signed. and justification for each. Interestingly, four of these five projects are follow- To Publish or Purchase on projects which were identified earlier as likely to have good design. In fact, both Indonesia X and Phil- The most difficult decision facing governments seek- ippines VII took what must be considered adequate pre- ing to improve the provision of books is whether to cautions against the very problems they have encoun- publish books or to purchase them. I noted earlier some tered, including getting explicit government agreement. of the considerations that affect this decision: the level In Indonesia, however, there was a change of minister, of existing publishing and printing capacity in the coun- and in the Philippines a general law against the estab- try, special requirements such as language, and the lishment of any new public corporation has superseded relative cost of books under the two possibilities. The the earlier agreement regarding the establishment of present state of knowledge regarding the tradeoffs is, the Instructional Materials Corporation. Of the five proj- however, inadequate. Therefore: ects, only El Salvador IV is suffering from a design failure, and it is the only first effort on the list. Another Recommendation la. By sponsoring case studies and commonality in the list (which may be coincidental) is plumbing the experience of experts in the field, the that all these projects are financing publishing, not Bank should gather information on the costs and purchasing, of books. benefits, both monetary and nonmonetary, of alter- The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 29 native schemes for providing books, taking into ac- provision of textbooks, and changes that appear nec- count both political considerations, such as the drive essary should be made with the government during to attain self-sufficiency, and financial considera- the processing of projects. tions, such as the economies of scale for book pro- Significant efforts at producing and distributing books duction. have been undermined because the books were too far In the meantime, project justifications should explicitly removed from the mandated curriculum or too difficult address the choices supported by the project. Hence: for students or suffered from poor paper. In conse- quence: Recommendation lb. Alternative mechanisms for ob- taining books or services (including printing-pri- Recommendation 3c. Whether books are published vate or public, national or foreign) should be costed privately or publicly, locally or abroad, specific at- out, and explanations should be provided in project tention should be given to quality control-in par- briefs or appraisal reports justifying the alternative ticular to monitoring the adequacy of book content, chosen. the quality of paper, and the adequacy of printing and binding. When necessary, appropriate corrective The Period of .Investment action should be taken. Whereas purchase arrangements must be entered into Replicabz1ity of the Scheme to Provide Textbooks carefully, a ministry is likely to gain the necessary ex- perience relatively quickly. Publishing new titles is quite Regardless of the funding agency, the most frequently different. As the chapter has documented, publishing encountered shortcoming of textbook projects is that is a complex enterprise. Above all, establishing appro- books are produced and distributed under the proj~ct­ priate institutional arrangements is difficult and lengthy. but never again. This is not the intention, and project Publishing a single title takes at least three years; closer agreements always include clauses about the govern- to seven or eight years is likely to elapse from initial ment's continuing to provide books. But repeated fail- development until the first cycle of revisions is com- ures require that lending agencies become more real- pleted. A publishing enterprise cannot be considered istic about what the provision of books entails and more fully experienced until it has handled the entire cycle cautious about what they finance. Therefore: of development and revision. Hence: Recommendation 4a. Recurrent cost estimates for Recommendation 2. Projects that finance the pub- the proposed scheme and for its nationwide imple- lication of textbooks where no publication capacity mentation for a period of at least a decade should be of this kind has existed before should plan for several presented in the SAR and reviewed with the govern- follow-on projects. ment during project processing. Recommendation 4b. Apart from exceptional circum- Adequacy of the System to Provide Books stances, the Bank should finance a scheme to provide books only if appraisal indicates that at the end of Many of the projects surveyed, especially (but not the period of support (which may span more than only) the earlier ones, financed one aspect of the pro- one project), the institutional arrangements will be vision of books but failed to achieve the ultimate ob- in place, and local funding arrangements will be ad- jective because the system was inadequate in some other equate, to continue supplying books without external regard. Therefore: support. Recommendation 3a. Preparation and appraisal of a Several projects reviewed here financed the free dis- project component that finances any aspect of the tribution of texts in one region or in selected school provision of textbooks should include a survey of the subjects or in particular grades while the books supplied status of the entire system and measures to overcome outside the project had to be purchased either by stu- important bottlenecks. dents or by schools. The SARs for these projects rarely Frequently diagnosed problems include lack of co- dealt adequately with the implications of such proce- ordination between the agencies responsible for differ- dures, including the cost to the government of extend- ent stages of the provision of books, lack of managerial ing the scheme beyond the selected groups or the po- authority to reallocate or otherwise marshal resources, litical problems likely to arise from maintaining a dual inadequate numbers of specialist staff, and so on. Thus: scheme. This situation suggests that: Recommendation 3b. Particular attention should be Recommendation 4c. The Bank should not support given to institutional arrangements for managing the a dual scheme (usually free distribution only of proj- 30 Barbara Searle ect-financed books) except as a transitional measure recovery, but many in the Bank see it as an essential in the context of an agreed long-term, financially ingredient of a sustainable scheme to provide books. feasible plan. Therefore: One mechanism for assuring book replacements is Recommendation 4d. The feasibility, both adminis- to recover costs. Except for selling books on the open trative and political, of any cost recovery scheme should market, cost recovery schemes are relatively new in the be carefully assessed, and where cost recovery is to countries surveyed. Experiences have been mixed. In be employed, the details of the scheme should be one country, 90 percent of the books published under agreed with the government. the project remained undistributed because an (appar- ently) inappropriate cost recovery scheme had been Recommendation 4e. Projects that finance cost re- put in place. Furthermore, collection of book-lending covery should provide for monitoring the implemen- fees may be administratively difficult. Bank-financed tation of the scheme and for assessing its financial projects do not yet provide evidence about cost impact on families and on the education budget. Table 2-3. Summary of Completed Textbook Components 1965 Develop textbook adapted to needs Apparently none. Textbook development did not Halted because of shortage of of country and region. take place. funds. 1967 Jamaica I Prepare and test textbook adapted None Intended local program for No specific comments. to local needs. textbook production not developed. However, some procurement undertaken. 1973 Thailand Ill Establish a National Curriculum $0.9 million (3 percent of base New materials, including lesson Audit says only "efforts at Development Center to design, costs) for civil v1orks. technical plans, textbooks, supplementary textbook production need to be publish, and distribute textbook, assistance. readers, flip charts, and teacher's strengthened ... among other things. guides developed, tried before nationwide use. No quantitative data provided. Total of 70,000 teachers and others trained. 1973 Indonesia Ill Strengthen existing arrangements $31 million !100 percent of base Printed 280 million books: trained Textbook publishing was assigned for preparation and testing of texts costs). Operating costs. paper. 1.5 million teachers and to a PIU; quality control of and learning aids; produce and printing, vehides, equipment. supervisors. printing and binding was poor; distribute 138 million textbooks: technical assistance. pilot testing of books was train 350,000 teachers and 28.000 inadequate: problems with supervisory personneL distribution system. The complexity of book production process was underestimated. 1973 Ethiopia Ill Produce 3.5 million textbooks a $0.95 million (9 percent of base Total of 39 million books printed, "Adequacy of budget provided year by 1980. costs) for civil works vehicles. 11 million in 1980; 175 new titles; attests to government's serious teacher training improved, new commitment to textbook field-testing mechanisms adopted. production." 1975 Ethiopia IV Produce revised. more appropriate $1.37 million 17 percent of base Total of 150 new titles produced. "Curriculum development was textbook. costs) for operating expenses for Total of 20,000 teachers attended systematic and took into account manuscript development and 2-week seminars; 5,000 teachers needed complementarides such as teacher training. attended shorter workshops. New training of teachers, development curriculum and books used in of tests, and provislon of physical preservice training. facilities." Revisions were made based on tryout of texts in experimental schools. 1976 Liberia II Preparation of plan for textbook Total of $0.72 million 03 No progress in preparing plari, few "When implementation of a production; establishment of a percent of base costs! 2 man- textbooks produced: preparation of component requires appropriate replenishment fund. book years foreign. 6 man-months plan made condition for World policy decisions. such policies distribution system. local specialists; 7 man-years Bank financing of textbook in should be promulgated before fellowships; equipment, minor fourth project. project is launched." civil works. 1977 Paraguay Ill Total of 300,000 books printed. Total of $0.41 million !3 percent Total of 300,000 books printed: 90 (a) World Bank should have sold. of base costs) 6 man-months percent unsold: no technical addressed distribution problem at technical assistance, paper. ink. assistance used. appraisal. materials. (b) Bank should have insisted on use of technical assistance. 1976 Philippines Ill Develop institutional capacity for Total of $30 million 185 percent Printed 33 million books. Problems have arisen with continuous development and of base costs) civil works, distributed 32 million. established establishing a pennanent supply of textbooks; produce and operating costs, equipment, 152 provincial warehouses. trained institution for textbook provision; distribute 27 million textbooks; paper, technical assistance, about 320,000 teachers, 50,000 curriculum reform and textbook establish a national distribution vehicles. supervisors. production remained system with I 07 warehouses; train unsynchronized throughout the 250,000 teachers and supervisors. life of the project; difficulties persist with integrating the private-sector into the system; paper procurement and storage The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 31 Staffing and the Use of Consultants Recommendation 5b. The World Bank Education De- partment should organize a systematic training pro- Project experience makes clear that the provision of gram and prepare support materials to upgrade the books is a highly technical enterprise and that adjusting capacity of sector staff involved in the provision of the details of project design to a particular country's textbooks. circumstances is usually outside the capacity of gen- Finally, some publishing enterprises established with eralists in the education sector. Therefore: Bank financing have acquired substantial experience that is directly related to the problems of developing Recommendation Sa. A specialist with professional countries. The nationals who manage these enterprises experience in the relevant aspects of the provision of have a uniquely valuable set of qualifications for advis- books should be included in the preparation and ap- ing others. Therefore: praisal of projects with textbook components. Recommendation 5c. The Bank should make greater Even with specialist assistance, however, sector staff use of experts from developing countries who have will still be involved in identifying the need for textbook had extensive experience with implementing text- support and in supervising projects under way. There- book components in Bank-financed projects, drawing fore the capacity of the staff to handle these more gen- upon them as consultants for project preparation and eral functions must be increased. appraisaL Table 2-4. Fiscal1979-82 Projects that Finance Provision of Primary and Secondary Textbooks Fiscal Comments and Resources 1979 Malawi III Provide 2.2 million $3.32 million (16 As of March 1984, As requested, the textbooks over three percent of base most students were borrower prepared a years. costs) for purchase reported to have "plan for financing of books from local. textbooks. textbooks after the project." The plan gives only projected costs, however, and does not indicate how the government will cover these costs. 1979 Swaziland III Produce and dis- Total of $0.66 mil- As of December The borrower is tribute 1.1 million lion (5% of base 1983, 70 percent of expected to prepare textbooks and 78,000 costs) for publishing textbooks had been a plan for financing teacher's guides to of books by local distributed. textbooks after the 110,000 primary national publishing project is complete. school students over house under an This covenant has four years. agreement with a not yet been com- private international plied with. publisher, and distri- bution. (Teacher in- service training would be financed by alternative mecha- nism.) 1979 Pakistan IV Provide about Total of $0.4 million As of September Neither SAR nor 150,000 textbooks (37 percent of base 1983, 45 percent of supervision reports and teacher's guides costs) for local pur- books had been pro- provide details about to selected target chase of textbooks. cured. where books come areas over 1-3 from. They are a years. small component of a large experiment in primary school reform. (Table continues on page 32.) 32 Barbara Searle Table 2-4 (Continued) Fiscal Comments and Resources 1979 El Salvador IV Provide adequate Total of $3 million As of December Slow progress is due facilities for the (12 percent of base 1983, plans for inte- to lack of organiza- Textbook Division of costs) for civil rior of textbook tiona! and manage- Ministry of Educa- works, equipment, building had been rial experience in tion; produce and furniture, technical reviewed. Construe- textbook unit. distribute about 1 assistance, and oper- tion was scheduled Because of compli- million texts and ating costs. to start January cated procedures, teaching guides over 1984. Printing of only two of seven- four years. Train textbooks had not teen printing firms teachers in their yet started because eventually submitted use. Evaluate the of problems pre- bids. Coordination effect of inputs on paring bidding docu- between PIU and student perfor- ments. other project weak. mance. U.S. Agency for International Devel- opment is financing primary school text- book independently. Coordination between the two recently established. 1980 Brazil IV Produce and dis- Total of $11.7 mil- As of February 1984, Supervision reports tribute about 4.8 lion (17 .5 percent of about 41 percent of do not describe how million textbooks, base costs). No books produced had books are being pro- workbooks, and breakdown of been distributed. cured, whether teacher's guides and expenses presented Percentage of target requirements for about 2 million in SAR. Funds can be reached, by state, field-testing are teaching/learning used by states to ranged from 8 to being met, what materials packages develop and print 170 percent. roles states and over four years; books or to purchase FENA.ME are playing strengthen school these from FENAME in procurement. and teacher supervi- (Federal Learning sion system. Materials Agency). 1980 Bangladesh IV Supply books to stu- Total of $3.5 million As of October 1983, dents. (9.8 percent of base 1.2 million books costs) for book pur- had been distributed. chase. 1981 Papua New Guinea II Develop an institu- Total of $5.4 mil- As of December Some staffing prob- tiona! capacity for lion, which includes 1984, manuscripts !ems still exist; pro- continuous supply of related components for field trial were duction schedule textbooks; prepare, (16.8 percent of base under preparation; delayed by difficul- field-test, print, and costs) for civil writing teams had ties created by move. distribute about 0.5 works, furniture, been organized and million textbooks equipment, paper/ moved into new over seven years. printing, and tech- facilities; detailed nical assistance. production plan had been prepared. 1981 Philippines VII Establish the Total of $18.4 mil- As of November Delay in establishing (sector loan) Instructional Mate- lion plus paper costs 1983, plans were Ii\1DC because of con- rials Development (6 percent of base under way for ware- flict with presiden- Corporation (IMDC) costs) for operating house construction; tial decree banning as the successor to costs and materials, 7 million books were new government the Textbook civil works for pro- printed and distrib- corporations. Agency; produce and vincial warehouses. uted in 1982. distribute 110 mil- lion textbooks over The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 33 Table 2-4 (Continued) Fiscal Comments and year Project Targets Resources Accomplishments problems 10 years (time slice financed by World Bank); improve dis- tribution system. 1981 Paraguay IV Print and distribute Total of $0.54 mil- As of November Implementation of about 230,000 pri- lion (3 percent of 1983, curriculum entire project behind mary textbooks and base costs) for mate- and textbook manu- schedule because of about 85,000 sylla- rials and technical scripts had been lack of counterpart buses and guides for assistance. developed as planned funds. Printing con- primary and sec- and paper procured. tracts cannot be ondary teachers over Prequalification of awarded until funds about three years; printing firms was available. prepare manuscripts under way. Con- for lower secondary sultant in textbooks textbooks was in place. 1981 Ethiopia V Provide adequate Total of $2.5 million As of October 1983, This project builds facilities for National (6 percent of base civil works and field- on earlier projects Curriculum Develop- costs) for civil testing program that have helped ment Center; field- works, equipment, were proceeding develop a govern- test manuscripts and furniture, and oper- according to ment capability for prepare prototype ating costs. schedule. meeting Ethiopia's materials for ten textbook needs. Most subject areas over of the important three years. developments occurred in earlier projects. 1981 Lesotho Ill Establish a perma- Total of $2.63 mil- As of December Nationwide imple- nent textbook supply lion (28 percent of 1983, regulations for mentation was pre- infrastructure; pur- base costs) for pur- the establishment ceded by a pilot chase and distribute chase and distribu- and operation of the phase in one district. about 1.9 million tion of textbooks and Book Supply Unit Many potential prob- books over four about $0.25 million were finalized; policy !ems were identified years. for technical assis- statement prepared; and solved. Enroll- tance. As of October revolving fund estab- ments in pilot dis- 1983, civil works, lished; pilot phase trict grew faster field-testing program complete (90 percent than predicted (7 -14 proceeding of fees collected); percent rather than according to lockers distributed 2-3 percent), per- schedule. nationwide, nation- haps because cost of wide book distribu- books was lower. tion under way. Some teachers, how- ever, asked students to purchase addi- tiona! books. 1981 Tanzania Provide textbooks Total of $4 million As of December Project is two years and other teaching (includes furniture) 1983, procurement behind schedule materials to sixteen for purchase of of educational mate- because of lack of rural districts (about books; $3.5 million rials was proceeding funds. It is being 448,000 pupils); for civil works, fur- satisfactorily. Ware- restructured. Ware- improve the system niture, equipment, house had not been houses will probably for distributing vehicles, technical built. be retained, but school materials. assistance for reduced in scale. improving distribu- tion system (19 per- cent of base costs). (Table continues on page 34.) 34 Barbara Searle Table 2-4 (Continued) Fiscal Comments and year Project Targets Resources Accomplishments problems 1982 Botswana III Provide 200,000 Total of $0.5 million As of December Consultant advice on textbooks and teach- (2 percent of base 1983, procurement book tendering is er's guides over five costs) for purchase of about half the being sought. years. of books. books had been approved. 1982 Comoros I Provision of about Total of $0.57 mil- As of February 1984, Consultant advice on 59,000 textbooks, lion (12 percent of about half the books book tendering is (one book for each base costs) for pur- had been ordered, being sought. The two students), 4,000 chase of books, and procurement of French are financing teacher's guides, and paper, and printing the remainder was a substantial portion 235,000 workbooks, materials. under way. Local of the textbook pro- over five years; production of work- curement. 100,000 workbooks books was to begin would be prepared soon. locally. 1982 Benin II Produce and dis- Total of $.'3.54 mil- As of December The textbook com- tribute about lion (16 percent of 1983, manuscript ponent will be 970,000 textbooks base costs) for con- preparation was financed by the and teacher's guides struction, furniture, under way; six manu- German govern- per year. Establish equipment, and con- scripts were being ment, but the agree- the textbook unit as sumable materials to field-tested, and four ment has not yet a legal entity. establish a print were being prepared. been signed. shop; technical The textbook unit assistance and salary had been officially allowances and fel- established as the lowships; construe- Centre National de tion, furniture, and Manuels Scolaires. equipment for ware- houses. 1982 Indonesia X Strengthen the Inte- Total of $80 million As of April 1984, 29 Approval of manu- grated Textbook (100 percent of base manuscripts had scripts by the Coor- Project (ITP) as a costs) for manu- been prepared; gov- dinating Committee permanent organiza- script preparation, ernment had estab- on Textbooks tion; strengthen book manufacture lished the ITP as a delayed over a year. curriculum develop- (including paper and permanent organiza- Hence, printing not ment center; develop printing), distribu- tion within the edu- possible and books or revise 112 manu- tion (including cation ministry. will not begin to scripts. Print and warehouses). moni- flow to classrooms distribute 82 million toring, evaluation, until 1985. textbooks over five and studies. and a half years. 1982 Solomon Islands I Purchase 150,000 Total of $0.4 million As of March 1984, Remainder of pro- textbooks and teach- (6 percent of base about 20,000 books, curement not er's guides, and sup- costs) for book pur- also dictionaries and expected to begin plementary teaching chase. atlases, had been until after July 1985. materials, over five ordered. Remaining years. procurement was to occur after currie- Source: World Bank. The Provision of Textbooks by the World Bank 35 Table 2-5. Fisca/1983 Projects with Textbook Components Project Targets Resources Burundi III Produce 800,000 textbooks, 120,000 teacher's Total of $1.95 million (13 percent of base guides; upgrade printing. costs) for paper, printing materials, equip- ment, and vehicles. Uganda III Replace primary and secondary books; quan- Total of $9.1 million (31 percent of base tities to be established to provide balance costs) for book purchase. among subjects and text, auxiliary and library books. Central African Republic II Supply books, guides to 54,000 students and Financing for book purchase: costs for text- 800 teachers. book components not broken down in SAR. Guinea II Print 1.2 million textbooks and teacher's Financing for civil works, furniture, equip- guides. ment, consumable materials, specialist serv- ices, fellowships, and incremental operating costs for textbook components not broken down in SAR. Liberia IV Establish a national textbook program. Pur- Total of $2.9 million (15 percent of base chase and sell to students about 1.8 million costs) for book purchase and distribution. textbooks. Sierra Leone III Procure and distribute about 1.3 million texts Total of $2.0 million (9.8 percent of base and teacher's guides; establish a task force to costs) for civil works, specialist services, book manage textbook provision. purchases. Colombia V Provide about 0.3 million textbooks to all Total of $0.98 million (3.5 percent of base (subsector project) schools qualifying for assistance under sector costs) for purchase of existing local books. project. Guatemala III Develop an institutional capacity for textbook Total of $8.5 million (37 percent of base production and distribution; produce and dis- costs) for book development, paper, distribu- tribute about 6 million texts, workbooks, and tion, teacher training and civil works, equip- teacher's guides over five years. ment, and specialist services. Haiti III Produce and distribute about 3 million texts Total of $0.8 million (10.8 percent of base and workbooks. costs) for development costs including staff, specialist services, equipment, materials, and Source: World Bank. Note References 1. Most of the countries in North Africa and the Middle Altbach, Philip G. 1983. "Key Issues of Textbook Provision in East have established relations with European publishers which the Third World." Prospects (United Nations Educational, produce books adapted to local requirements. Quite recently, Scientific, and Cultural Organization quarterly review of some Middle Eastern countries-for example, the Yemen Arab education) 13, no. 3: 315-25. Republic and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen- Heyneman, Stephen P., Dean T. Jamison, and Xenia Monte- have opted to develop their own textbooks, and the latest negro. 1984. "Textbooks in the Philippines: Evaluation of project is financing part of this effort. the Pedagogical Impact of a Nationwide Investment." Ed- ucational !!.'valuation and Policy Analysis 6, no. 2: 139- 50. 3 The Design of Textbook Projects Anthony Read The experience of the World Bank outlined in the pre- Humidity, dust, and proximity to salt water can affect vious chapter, as well as the experiences of many other the operation of printing equipment. Book storage at national textbook development programs and projects, central, district, and school levels should be designed clearly demonstrates the need to plan very carefully with three problems in mind: dust (as in Burkina Faso across a wide range of technical and policy issues if one and Niger); humidity, which can cause fungal damage is to avoid the common pitfalls and problems of de- unless adequate ventilation is provided; and dampness, signing textbook projects. This chapter is a detailed which is a major cause of book destruction. practical planning and decisionmaking guide. It starts Insects frequently attack paper and are attracted to by discussing preparation for project design and then some kinds of glue. The correct choice and treatment analyzes institutional and management capacity, book of raw materials and the choice of design features and development, book production, and book use. For each manufacturing processes are thus very important. Ter- of these major steps in the decision chain, it briefly mites are a major problem in some areas (for example, outlines the salient policy issues and technical consid- Ghana), and although there are chemical treatments erations, the main alternatives available, the advantages available, the best solution is good warehouse manage- and disadvantages of each, and the information required ment, including the frequent cleaning and moving of to make informed choices among them. The chapter book stock. can be read as an extensively annotated checklist of the Topographical features-such as river crossings, is- elements which must be considered in designing a sys- lands, and mountains-and transportation networks tem to provide textbooks. determine the choice of warehouse locations and the nature of a distribution system. In Indonesia, for ex- ample, the large number of islands and the difficult Preparation for Project Design access cause special problems. Essential preparation for the design of a textbook Policy Issues project includes consideration of the environment, es- tablishment of clear agreement on policy issues, col- The choice of language for the texts, funding, and lection of essential statistical information, and appraisal textbook requirements are issues on which clear agree- of the existing textbook provision system. ment as to policy must be established. Legal issues related to copyright and contract should also be care- Environment fully considered. Rainy seasons affect distribution schedules, the choice Choice of Language. The choice of language will be of transportation, storage requirements, and even on affected by decisions related to the language of instruc- occasion the timetable of the school year. A severe rainy tion. These decisions will be determined by political, season immediately before school opening (as, for ex- cultural, pedagogic, economic, and sometimes techni- ample, in Sierra Leone) poses a problem when books cal criteria. Political and cultural issues are internal to have to be moved up-country to rural areas in prepa- government and are not necessarily a direct concern of ration for the opening. a textbook project. Nevertheless, government prefer- 36 The Design of Textbook Projects 37 ences must be recognized and taken into consideration particular locations. Purchases and subsidies can be at the earliest possible stage. limited by grade or by subject. Learning is most effective in a mother tongue. In a Distribution, storage, management. supervision, and multilingual situation, however, there will probably be transport may be neglected because MOE funding is con- a need at some point to switch from the mother tongue centrated on book purchase and subsidy. The result is to a more widely accepted language of instruction. The that books are available but are not distributed. In the pedagogic, financial, and organizational problems as- midst of an acute textbook shortage, Sierra Leone had sociated with this should be taken into account. quantities of books deteriorating in storehouses for want Except where individual language groups are large of an effective distribution mechanism. enough to carry the cost of textbooks economically, Textbook costs can sometimes be so high that the single-language production is cheaper than multi- MOE cannot provide adequate quantities or parents enough lingual production. Each language edition has to be money to purchase them. Book costs may be high for individually typeset and incurs additional film and plate a number of reasons. The content and design specifi- charges. This is less significant for highly illustrated cation may be too sophisticated. The production spec- books: at the lower primary level, for example, one set ification may be too ambitious- too many pages, too of illustrations can normally serve for all language much color, or an unnecessarily high quality of paper. variants, and the proportion of text to illustrations is High costs may result from too much choice among usually low. But where there are widely differing cul- many titles, so that economies of scale in bulk purchase tural backgrounds-for example, Islamic and Chris- and large print runs are lost. High costs are also in- tian-illustrations may not carry across to different curred by poor management of production-usually editions, increasing artwork costs substantially. but not necessarily associated with locally published and Other cost factors favoring single-language produc- manufactured titles. Poor management of procurement tion include size of print run, authorship costs (either of commercially produced titles and high profit margins unique language authorship or translation), editorial can also result in expensive books. costs, and warehouse and distribution requirements. Frequently no provision is made by the MOE for reg- The conclusion to be drawn is that whereas mother ular book funding, even where income is generated tongue editions of textbooks are usually preferable on from book sales, loan charges, or school fees. Income pedagogic grounds, they can create--if there are sev- thus generated may be used for other purposes. In Latin eral different editions involved-economic, technical, America, however, textbook projects have been designed and management problems which are particularly se- to include legislative provision for minimum levels of vere in low-income, heterogeneous countries with funding for books and materials. underdeveloped educational and publishing infrastruc- The basic funding objectives of any textbook project tures and small populations (for example, Guinea). But should be to keep prices down and to move toward these problems are not necessarily inhibiting when lan- continuity of provision. Prices should be kept down as guage groups are large (as in India and Nigeria). far as is consistent with predetermined standards of Possible compromises for small countries may mean editorial and production quality. This can be achieved mother tongue editions in lower primary grades only by appropriate selection criteria (of which price should or a reduction in design and production standards; or be a significant feature), sensible quality specifications, a higher cost of books may simply be accepted as nec- and professional procurement and production manage- essary to implement a mother tongue policy. ment. As regards continuity of provision, if ministry financing is unreliable, continuity can be achieved only Funding. The provision of textbooks may be funded by some form of specifically protected revolving fund. in four ways: by the ministry of education (MOE), by Many textbook projects require some form of impor- commercial outlet<>, indirectly by loan fees, or as part tation~ finished books, raw materials, or film. Projects of school fees. Mixed funding is both possible and com- cannot work unless specific provision is made for this mon. Parents may purchase books from the MOE at requirement by the project or the government in the subsidized prices. Or elementary schoolbooks may be form of foreign exchange allocations. Postproject con- provided free and secondary books purchased by par- tinuity requires long-term recognition of this require- ents. ment. There are a number of problems associated with MOE In Liberia, an International Development Association funding. Financial resources available for textbooks can (IDA) project reduced textbook prices by approximately vary widely from year to year, so that book supply can SO percent-but even so, prices were still beyond the be unreliable. MOE funding may be too limited to supply reach of most parents. Prices must be calculated in a whole system. Only a token number of books may be terms of price per student per year for all books required supplied to each school, and supplies may be limited to in a grade-not as prices per book. For example, a 38 Anthony Read parent may be able to afford $5.00 a year for all books to the consumer is the major limiting factor and must but not six books at $5.00 each. The average cost per be carefully considered and calculated. pupil per year to provide five textbooks in Sierra Leone was approximately $0.75 in 1985. Market research on Textbook requirements. At the primary level, a book- acceptable prices-particularly in rural and poor urban student ratio of 1:2 for course books produces economic areas-is an absolute prerequisite for the identification savings for poorer countries without drastically affect- of production specifications, formulation of funding ing achievement. For reading texts, a ratio of 1:4 to policy, all "parent purchase" type projects, and any re- 1:6 has been chosen in some countries (Sierra Leone), volving fund operation. with decreasing ratios at the upper primary level. Ref- A revolving fund is a system whereby income gen- erence books such as dictionaries and atlases can be erated from MOE book provision plans is used to fund provided at minimum levels of one or two per class at future book requirements and cannot be used for any lower primary levels, rising to four or five per class at other purpose. The income should be sufficient to cover top primary levels. Ratios of more than one textbook the costs of purchase or production (and freight), pro- to three students present usage problems. Three stu- curement, distribution, accounting, supervision, and dents can have a reasonable view of a book simulta- management. It should also take account of deprecia- neously; four cannot. At the secondary level, there is tion, inflation, and likely replacement costs. Thus retail no available evidence on minimum ratio requirements. prices, fees, and loan charges can only be fixed once There is, however, a widespread assumption that 1:1 realistic estimates of these costs have been made. ratios are desirable and necessary. Books distributed by Loan charges or school fees can be calculated to re- a ministry can better achieve desired book-student ra- coup costs over a two-, three-, or four-year period, de- tios. Commercial sales by and large cannot, for the pending on estimates of book life and replacement pol- ratios are then a matter of the effectiveness of sales icies. These in turn are related directly to production penetration. specifications and to distribution and storage facilities. Where teachers' manuals are produced, it is impor- The cost of books sold to parents must be recouped in tant that copies are available for every teacher, for teacher full because the MOE cannot reissue or resell them in training institutes, for inspectors, and for subject ad- the following year. Book sales do, however, create sec- visory staff. Many projects based on parental purchase ondhand book markets which reduce costs to parents. of books make provision for teachers' manuals to be There are a number of common difficulties with re- provided free to teachers, teacher trainers, and inspec- volving funds. Prices and fees may be incorrectly cal- tors. Regardless of book shortage, efforts should be made culated to cover costs. In Liberia, for example, prices to ensure that every teacher has a copy of all the stu- were cut because books were too expensive, but income dents' and teachers' books recommended or prescribed was then insufficient to maintain the fund. Sales (and for his or her grade or subject. thus income) may be overestimated and be insufficient Textbook replacement varies according to production to cover the cost of purchases. Stock remaining unsold standards, environmental conditions, and storage ar- is thus a loss to the fund. Parental purchasing and fee- rangements. Assuming that adequate production stan- paying ability may be overestimated-because books dards have been achieved and that students and teachers are too expensive or too many books are prescribed per have been given basic information on book care, a grade. Sales may be lost and no income accrue to the student's book in tropical Africa would reasonably last revolving fund because poor distribution has kept books three years if loaned and perhaps longer if purchased from arriving at the point of sale. Poor cash collection, by the student. Loss, accidental damage, and theft are especially in rural areas, can be a major problem. Other significant, however. Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso problems include stolen, lost, or damaged books, bad are both working on a 30 percent replacement allow- debts, and school fees which are stolen. And sometimes ance over three years. Replacement allowances are the revolving fund is used for purposes other than book usually much lower in parental purchase projects be- purchase. cause parents are unwilling to buy a book twice if it is Revolving funds (which can also be extended to ma- lost or damaged. Making teachers financially respon- terials such as pencils and paper) work best when they sible for replacing lost or damaged copies has led to are tested and established on a small scale first. Re- severe underuse of textbooks, even when adequately volving funds based on sales income are frankly com- provided (as in Indonesia). This practice is therefore not mercial operations, requiring high-level skills in pro- recommended. motion, sales, distribution, cash collection, accounting, Other criteria for deciding the suitability of textbooks and management. Revolving funds based on fee collec- include conformity to curriculums, pedagogic suitabil- tion require no entrepreneurial skills and are generally ity for local conditions, the level of content, and the more straightforward to operate. In both cases, the cost attractiveness of design. The Design of Textbook Projects 39 Legal issues. Copyright is a complex and frequently Textbooks distributed by the MOE are frequently or- emotional issue involving concepts of ownership and dered and delivered on the basis of information provided exploitation rights. For a brief introduction, see de Frei- by the system. A normal channel for statistical infor- tas (1984). The existence of adequate local copyright mation on book requirements would be as follows: The legislation could affect the contractual relationship be- school prepares schedules of the requirements. These tween the author and the MOE in a local publishing are collated at the district level and passed to the re- project and between the MOE and the local or foreign gional office, where they are collated and passed to the publisher in a joint publishing venture; it could also central office. Having been collated at the central office, affect the ability to exploit financially a successful local they are adjusted for available funds and supplies, and or foreign publication. the books are then ordered and supplied. All the steps Contracts involving copyright and publication rights up to ordering and supplying the books can be efficiently always need scrutiny by a professional. This does not performed in a few months but do depend on a well- necessarily mean a government legal department: wher- managed school system with adequate communica- ever possible, lawyers specializing in copyright matters tions. The sequence described above can equally take should be used. Agreements on matters such as pro- several years to operate and still provide distorted in- curement, printing, and distribution are usually less formation. problematic, but if possible professional advice should Demand-inspired book provision occurs where the be sought. MOE identifies class by class the requirements of every school and attempts to satisfy these precise demands. Statistical information It is effective only if the information provided is accu- rate, fast, reliable, and repeatable year after year-and Statistical information is needed to establish print if the system has sufficient money to meet require- runs, distribution schedules, transportation networks, ments. Frequently the cost of discovering demand so warehouse location, storage in schools, and systems for precisely is very high, and the information is returned inspection, supervision, and management. For any text- so slowly that the demand pattern has changed when book or education project, it is essential to collect sta- the supplies actually arrive. tistical information on student enrollment by class, age, Supply-inspired book provision is based on sensible sex, and by the smallest available administrative sub- estimates of requirements by the central office, target division. Growth rates in enrollment levels over a rea- ratios agreed to by the MOE, and available finances; it sonable base period and the proportion of the available is usually adjusted annually on simple feedback from or target catchment population actually enrolled are the district office. It is easier to operate, manage, and also essential. Future projections must be based on past maintain, and it has not been demonstrated to be sub- evidence, on agreed governmental assumptions about stantially less effective-particularly in systems with- the future development of the school (and school-age) out the finances to maintain full supplies. In simple population, and on agreed targets. terms, this approach does not attempt to meet actual Information is required about the numbers, sizes, demand but concentrates on equitable distribution of and types of school; their religious denomination; and what can realistically be supplied. whether they are public or private, main or feeder. Their locations should also be recorded in terms of time and Existing Systems to Provide Books distance. Information should also be collected about schools that are difficult to reach. Schools that are ac- An evaluation of the system to provide books in op- cessible by head porterage or canoe only, or those cut eration before the launching of a textbook project is off by rains at key distribution periods, must be iden- essential as a foundation for any future decisions on tified-and at the district rather than central govern- new or upgraded systems. Key information required ment level. comprises book titles in use at each grade; method, False or incomplete declarations at school and district procedure, and criteria for selecting books; the origin or provincial levels and incomplete compilation mean of titles in use; and the method of distribution and that much educational statistical information from funding. Information on the method of selection should underdeveloped systems is very inaccurate. This can indicate whether there is free choice or a list recom- also be due to poorly structured questionnaires and to mended or prescribed by the MOE. (See section below the extrapolation of statistics from old and out-of-date on selection, distribution, and storage.) information. Sometimes no reliable information is There are four broad categories of selection proce- available. A simple school visit questionnaire can be dure: commercial submission to an institutionalized used to compile a subjective view of the system and to selection system, lobbying, MOE publication (where there check the accuracy of much statistical information. is no choice), and tendering. The origin of titles in use 40 Anthony Read may be state publication, local commercial publication, collection, teacher supervision and inspection, building imported commercial publication, or a mix of state and maintenance, and statistics collection. commercial copublication. Information on the method As regards levels of education, ministries are often of distribution should show whether this occurs through divided into primary (elementary), secondary (high the commercial book trade or through direct distri- school), and higher education (college and university) bution by the MOE or other government agency. sections. These sections may be interrelated with geo- If funding is based on parental purchase, there is a graphic management or may be virtually separate. Re- need to know whether supply is from booksellers or sponsibilities could include teacher training, recruit- from the MOE, what the costs to the parents are, and ment and employment, curriculum development, whether there is any subsidy. Information is also re- publications, recommendation or prescription, pur- quired as to whether the network of outlets gives suf- chase of materials, inspection of teachers, and building ficient geographical coverage and whether prices are maintenance. geographically uniform and acceptable. Subject management can be part of level manage- Free MOE distribution may take several routes: direct ment or separate (if there is a separate curriculum de- from central warehouse to school, from central ware- velopment department). Responsibilities could include house via district warehouse to school, or from central supervision, teacher training, curriculum development, via provincial and then district warehouse to the school. selection and purchase of materials, or staff develop- Information on storage arrangements should differen- ment. tiate between books owned and maintained by students Procurement and storage can sometimes be outside and those owned and maintained by the MOE. the MOE completely. At least one textbook project has It is important to identify actual as well as official run into problems because it failed to spot that book figures relating to book-student ratios and book life. procurement was not a function of the ministry with The coverage of the system should give the number of which it was working and accidentally created two par- copies of each title distributed and available as well as allel and competing systems. Distribution and trans- the proportion of market coverage targeted and achieved. portation can also be in another ministry. Gaps in coverage should be noted by reference to sub- ject, level, area, or socioeconomic group. Related Institutions In relation to parent purchase, prices should be as- sessed by reference to the average retail price per grade Ministries other than the MOE may have considerable and the total retail price per student per grade. Esti- impact on policy development. Only specific country mated target prices considered affordable should also experience can provide answers, but the common sources be known. of external policy influence are as follows. Information on policy related to budgets, the availability of finance, and foreign exchange allocation should be sought from Institutions and Management Capacity the ministry of finance and central bank. The ministry of trade can provide information on tariffs and duties. The Ministry of Education Political party officers are engaged in lobbying for con- stituency preferences. Religious agencies are often re- Within a ministry of education, management func- sponsible for a significant proportion of school funding tions are frequently spread over different departments and management. University departments of education and divisions. Understanding how these departments are frequently outside the authority of the MOE but are are interrelated and identifying the precise location of sometimes responsible for secondary teacher training each function is essential if a project's management and for curriculum development. Other aid agencies structure is to take account of the complexities. Im- may be financing alternative textbook projects or proj- portant in textbook projects is the management of geo- ects which may be related to textbook provision (for graphic areas, levels of education, and subjects, together example, the U.S. Agency for International Develop- with curriculum development Equally important are ment, International Efficiency of Learning in Liberia, the functions of the inspectors, particularly those re- the Unesco (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and lated to procurement and storage, distribution, and ac- Cultural Organization) Bunumbu project in Sierra Leone, counts. the Educational Development Foundation in Uganda, Management of geographic areas is frequently scaled the Canadian International Development Agency in Li- out via regional or provincial and district or even sub- beria and Uganda, and the Swedish International De- district offices. Responsibilities are usually administra- velopment Agency in Tanzania). The views of parents, tive but could include distribution, transportation, fee of parent-teacher organizations, and of village and tribal The Design of Textbook Projects 41 and ethnic associations should also be assessed. The of finance, the process of budgetary formation, and the timing of the school year can often be related to external cash collection systems should be assessed. Senior line examination dates. The interrelation of curriculum and managers' knowledge of the quantity and whereabouts examinations should be taken into account by reference of physical supplies and equipment is an important gauge to examination boards and systems. of resource control. Effective management also de- mands a clear knowledge of school and classroom con- Administrative Effectiveness of the MOE ditions and outstanding maintenance requests. There should be a system for prioritizing construction deci- Evaluating whether an MOE is capable of taking on sions. and running a complex management activity such as a textbook project is always necessary even when a special Inspectors and Supervision. The inspectors should textbook unit is proposed-because that unit will still have clearly defined job descriptions and terms of ref- have to use the existing systems of the Mor:. Thus the erence, and the split between pedagogic support and management effectiveness of the MOE has to be assessed school and classroom management needs to be speci- in terms of its resources (including staffing), organi- fied. It will be necessary to determine whether there is zational structures, management systems and proce- a clearly stated and operable system of school and class- dures, and inspectors and supervision. room management covering attendance, student rec- ords, stock and supplies, cash transactions, and school Resources. Budgetary provision for staffing, buildings history. The collection of such information will demand and maintenance, equipment and vehicles, supplies, in- regular visiting of the system, even at the most distant spection, and supervision should be assessed. Because and isolated points, and will require in turn sufficient salaries are usually the last elements in the budget to qualified staff. be cut back, if a growing proportion of an educational If there are substantial areas of deficiency-for ex- system's total budget is being spent on salaries, it is ample, lack of classroom management systems-the usually a clear indication that the system is coming textbook project must make provision for the basic up- under financial pressure. Similarly, a lack of transpor- grading of this deficiency before implementation. There tation facilities and traveling expenses that are delayed is, after all, no point in providing relatively expensive or seldom allowed are frequently signs of the ineffective resources if they cannot be adequately looked after, operation of the system. The physical mobility of the managed, and used in the classroom situation. inspectors is vital both in the supervision of the system and in the implementation of a textbook project. Institutional memory is critical to the success of a Curriculum and Syllabus. The existence, age, and textbook project. The qualifications, training, experi- relevance of curriculum and syllabus should be checked ence, commitment, and permanence of key staff are and qualitatively assessed. Pedagogic requirements should therefore all crucial elements. Two key ratios in the coincide with existing expertise in the classroom. Con- classroom should be noted: the number of students per tent should be satisfactorily covered in the time allo- teacher and the proportion of untrained to trained cated. The curriculum may be in the process of revision teachers in the system. There is an increasing dispo- or updating or there may be more than one curriculum. sition in many countries to allow student-teacher ratios The project should ensure that it is concerned with the to rise to a level of about forty-five students per teacher. correct curriculum. In situations where there are significantly high student- teacher ratios or where the number of untrained teach- The School. The project needs to assess the school ers in the system is increasing, the quality and the management system, the staff, and the school's contact regularity of inspection, supervision, and the delivery with the inspectors, the district office, and headquar- of supplies are crucial in maintaining the effectiveness ters. The physical condition of the school and factors of the system. such as weatherproofing, storage facilities, security, and accessibility all need attention. The number and ade- Management System5 and Procedures. The effec- quacy of desks, chairs and benches, blackboards, and tiveness of the !'v10E can be judged by its control of (in secondary schools) laboratory equipment are all im- finance and resources and the way in which it responds portant elements. (The average desk-top space per child to construction or maintenance needs. Clearly, basic can affect the design of textbook format, so that school statistical information, which should already exist in furniture has implications for both book design and the system, must be up-to-date and accurate. pedagogy.) Clearly, the availability of basic resources The effectiveness of the MOE's monitoring and control and equipment- textbooks, armboards, paper, pencils, 42 Anthony Read chalk, exercise books, and (in secondary schools) chem- terms of reference. A sufficient lead-in time for project icals and apparatus-must be noted. staff is needed for preproject training. The technical Information concerning the training, qualifications, assistance required throughout the life of the project and experience of staff is necessary to assess the ped- should be correctly assessed and acquired in advance. agogic practicability of materials. Staff-student ratios Detailed, well-designed management systems are needed should be noted, together with attendance and admis- for controlling and monitoring progress. Suitable prem- sion records. ises, equipment, and transport are fundamental. Proper Contact with the inspectors, district office, or head- financial systems are important, together with clearly quarters may be a monthly visit to collect salaries (when understood financial accountability. The project must textbooks could also be collected). The frequency of establish good communications with all other ministry curriculum and pedagogic contact may provide oppor- departments through regular meetings. Clearly under- tunities for training in the use of new books. Frequent stood limits of authority go hand in hand with clear inspection of school management systems indicates, objectives (including the timing and sequence of events) among other things, whether book storage and fee col- understood by everybody. Moreover, all policy should lection can be managed by the schools. have been thoroughly discussed and agreed in advance by all parts of the ministry of education involved in the Management of Textbook Projects project and confirmed in writing by the minister or senior official. The organizational location of textbook project man- Ideally, every project should be run by an experienced agement is a vital decision. Project management may professional capable of supervising and managing all be located in an existing ministry department. Some the aspects of publishing described below. Whether the caution is needed, however, together with considerable unit is a state publishing organization, a parastatal, a detailed knowledge of local ministerial organization. commercial joint venture between local and foreign ele- Several projects have suffered because the textbook ele- ments, or an independent commercial publisher, the ment had been misplaced within the MOE and was either existence of experienced publishing management is subject to competition from existing ministry depart- probably the single most important factor in making ments or placed at the wrong level (usually too low so certain that good books are delivered on time within that key decisions took too long to achieve) or was the budget. The choice of organizational approach de- isolated from support it desperately needed. pends on government policy (for example, whether gov- Because a textbook project requires diverse MOE in- ernment requires monopolistic state publishing or pri- puts, all parties must be aware of the overall plan, be vate enterprise, and whether the government will allow in agreement with it, see their own role in it, and have foreign investment and involvement), local publishing agreed on management systems to cope with the nec- capacity, the size of the market, and the reliability of essary liaison. Thus an average textbook project will procurement funding. frequently require the cooperative working of a curric- ulum unit, a supplies department, a finance depart- ment, teacher training institutions, subject and re- The Development of Books gional inspectors, a legal department, and the government printer. This is a complex set of interrelations, all of The development of a book begins with its writing which must be examined and tested for effectiveness or adaptation and ends with its publication. Many spe- before implementation. cialized skills are involved. Because of the problems involved in complex inter- relations in textbook projects across departments of an Methods of Developing Materials MOE, a common solution is to establish a special text- book unit. This textbook unit, because it cuts across Origination. Originating a book requires artwork, de- existing MOE activities, is frequently deeply resented. If sign, color separation, filmmaking, plate making, and in addition it is provided with buildings, facilities, so on in addition to the writing and is the most expen- equipment, and financing which are not available else- sive way to provide teaching material. It is frequently where in the MOE, jealousy and demotivation can fre- necessary for such subjects as primary social studies, quently develop. local history, geography, politics, and similar subjects Effective project management requires the correct for which adaptation is not feasible. It is less necessary number of staff having adequate seniority to make de- for subjects of more universal application such as math- cisions and with sufficient experience and qualifica- ematics and science. Fully original works require all tions. Project staff need to be sufficiently well rewarded publishing skills and should not be attempted unless to be permanent, and senior members need detailed these are available or the MOE is willing to acquire them. The Design of Textbook Projects 43 Origination is more likely to be needed where national and negotiating ability is necessary.l\'Iany countries (for or local languages are the medium of instruction or example, Jamaica and Nigeria) have a considerable body where local elements are a dominant requirement for of commercially produced material by local authors and content. based on local curriculums. but this material is often unavailable because of financial problems. In these cir- Adaptation. Adaptation of an existing work is a re- cumstances, the initiation of a completely new project alistic option when the language of publication is the only adds to the sum of locally available material with- same as that of the original text. Adaptation combined out attacking the crucial issues of funding and financ- with translation is possible but is more expensive and ing. requires sophisticated skills. Depending on whether ad- Materials can usually be purchased from commercial aptation is heavy (changes to more than 30 percent of publishing sources (either local or foreign) if there is the original text and artwork) or light (about lO per- a large enough market and if reliable funds are available. cent), there are considerable cost savings in adapting (Some foreign exchange is almost certain to be required existing course material for local use when no language for almost any textbook to pay foreign publishers, for- change is required. Cost savings can be used either to eign printers, or foreign suppliers of raw materials.) If allow higher production specifications (more color, bet- no specific materials exist, they can be commissioned ter paper and binding) or to reduce the price. Adaptation from commercial sources by negotiation or by ten- is particularly suitable for relatively universal subjects dering, developed as a joint venture between the MOE (for example, mathematics and science) and at the sec- and a commercial publisher, or developed by commer- ondary level (for which print runs are smaller and con- cial suppliers hired by the MOE on a service contract. tent is likely to be less locally specific). Adaptation al- lows smaller countries to redesign materials to suit local Local Publishing Capacity circumstances. Adaptation can include local names. dress, customs, and examples, and if done properly is rarely Commercial Publishing. The involvement of local obvious. The main savings occur on authorship, art- commercial publishing in school materials is important work, typesetting costs, and film. The level of publishing in developing wider publishing ability. If local com- skill required locally is less than for full origination but mercial publishing is excluded from school publishing, is still considerable. Adaptation provides useful training all publishing development is restricted and in smaller opportunities for local staff to work with professional countries is probably killed off completely. publishers. The exact size of a market at which competitive com- mercial publishing becomes possible is a function not Special Editions of Existing Texts. If a suitable text so much of population but of the amount of money is available, an edition can be negotiated with no con- which a government makes available to sustain com- tent alterations but with different production specifi- mercial interest. Thus countries with smaii populations cations suitable for local usage (for example, paper cover but high per capita incomes (for example, Denmark) rather than case binding, lower paper weight, different can sustain commercial publishing activity, whereas format, and so on). Special reprints can be done either countries with large populations but low per capita in- locally or overseas depending upon available manufac- comes have found the task much more difficult. In turing facilities. Substantial cost savings can be achieved broad terms, a total disposable primary school expen- by this method, with the disadvantage (should this mat- diture of approximately $1 million per year returning ter) of loss of local application if an overseas text is a net profit margin of about 10 percent probably pro- used. This method requires no particular local publish- vides sufficient inducement for a commercial publisher ing skiiis, but some production knowledge is required. to maintain a minimum permanent staff and develop some editorial expertise and skills. This, of course, is a Commercial Purchase of Existing Text. In countries purely theoretical calculation that could be influenced with small populations, the free choice of available texts by numerous other factors-for example, outside com- can lead to splintering of print runs and unnecessarily petition, requirements for state-dominated publishing, high costs. If the ministry prescribes texts, it can ne- lack of foreign exchange, and the unreliability of pro- gotiate bulk deals either for its own distribution or for vision of funds by the MOE. onward sale to commercial outlets. Obviously prescrip- Local companies (private or state) should be surveyed tion restricts free choice, but this can be advantageous to see whether their list of publications includes good where the qualifications and experience oflocal teachers educational texts of the type required. If so. the exact are limited and in tum limit the pedagogic benefits of level of involvement of the local company should be teacher involvement in text decisions. Although local checked. It is also worth noting text publication dates publishing skills are not required, some procurement to make certain that they were undertaken recently and 44 Anthony Read that current staff were involved. Staffing should be in- or joint ventures is that the profits from school business vestigated-in particular, the number, length of ex- will stimulate other kinds of publishing. Competition perience, qualifications, and permanence of editorial, will increase quality, and publishing skills will be de- design, and production staff. veloped locally. Against this, development of local com- The costing and estimating department should be mercial or joint ventures may seem more expensive checked, and samples of previous quotations requested. than state publishing because of the profit margin. Lo- These quotations should be compared with known cal commercial or joint venture publishing incurs rel- professional samples. The availability of local authors atively high costs in small countries where competition should be noted, together with their subject mastery, creates costly small print runs. adequacy of language, past experience, and commit- ment. The production quality of books, price, and re- liability of delivery should all be checked. If there are Decisions for a Publishing Program no existing publishing organizations, it is unlikely that a local publishing capacity could be brought into ex- Printing and publishing are not the same thing. Pub- istence quickly and without substantial professional lishing is the ability to create books. Printing is one of guidance. the manufacturing processes in their production (see next section on production). The existence of local man- State Publishing. State publishing normally implies ufacturing does not guarantee that of local publishing. a monopoly, but it is possible for state and commercial Books are not necessarily cheaper if local manufactur- operations to exist side by side. It is argued that state ing facilities are used. (All too frequently they are con- publishing promotes local book development, lower prices siderably more expensive.) Many countries with sub- (because of lower profit requirement), and economies stantial international publishing industries (for example, of scale. The disadvantages of state publishing include Australia, New Zealand, Nigeria, and Spain) do much MOE control over content and production, the adverse manufacturing in other countries where it is cheaper. impact on other local book development, lack of com- Most school publishing in the United States takes place petition (resulting in the perpetuation of bad books, domestically because of national preference legislation, high costs, and poor-quality production), and the fact which overrides price factors. that the real costs of operation are frequently hidden. Although it is desirable to be able both to publish Local state publishing does not necessarily imply local and to manufacture in home territory, the two activities printing or manufacture or ministry distribution or even should not be confused. It is much more important to free distribution. develop local publishing-which reflects the cultural, educational, intellectual, and scholarly life of a coun- Parastatal Publishing. If textbook publishing skills try-than an arbitrary manufacturing ability. A pub- are not available to a state publishing organization, it lishing industry depends upon a steady flow of activity, can form a partnership with commercial companies that and this in tum depends upon regular funds to purchase have the skills. Parastatals can be formed with local or existing books and develop new books, supplementary overseas commercial companies (most examples are with material, teachers' guides, and so forth. For example, overseas companies, although Nouvelles Editions Afri- a local publishing capacity cannot survive on the basis caines in Senegal is an exception). The parastatal is of a major effort completed ten years ago. Since then, normally operated for profit and as a result can be more the staff, which acquired much experience in author- cost-effective than state publishing. Parastatals in- ship, editing, design, and production, have most likely tended to help develop local publishing should always passed on to other activities, and their experience require expert staff to be based in the country, and thus has been lost. A Central American publishing specifically identified training functions should be built project in the 1970s was reported to have lost the vast into the terms of partnership. majority of its staff and institutional memory by the time a new development program was considered in the Joint Ventures. If the market is large enough to sup- mid-1980s. port local commercial publishing, joint ventures be- An ongoing program requires considerable planning, tween local and foreign publishing companies can inject a long view of the benefits to the country by both gov- high-level skills and rapidly upgrade local industries. ernment and funding agencies, and a reasonable cer- Indigenous requirements (for example, in Nigeria) or tainty of regular funding. If all these conditions exist, requirements that school textbooks be published by lo- the foundation of a publishing program can be laid. The cal companies (for example, in Mexico) can be used to textbook projects of the past ten years, however, suggest ensure the creation of local publishing skills. that at least two project periods (that is, ten years) are An argument in favor of local commercial publishing necessary before a full publishing capacity is likely to The Design of Textbook Projects 45 develop from scratch. During this time, professional the next section. Distribution, another function of pub- training, regular technical assistance, and high-grade lishing, is discussed later in conjunction with book se- supervision are required to develop good publishing lection and storage. skills. Authorship. Textbook authors at both primary and Acquiring Publishing Skills secondary levels must have not only writing ability but also teaching experience. They must of course know A country that lacks adequate publishing skills may their subject, and they should be able to make a realistic acquire them in a number of ways: by providing profes- assessment of teacher abilities and requirements. At the sional training; by hiring people with the required skills; primary level in particular, they should be able to work by developing joint ventures or parastatal arrangements with illustrators and within cost and design constraints. (as described above); or by contracting for a publisher Good writing either by individual or committee is to provide finished books. rare. Manuscripts are often too long or pitched at too Professional training and attachments are not rec- high a level. An overly pedagogic approach may place ommended as the primary way to acquire skills. Few too many demands on the teacher. Illustrations and (or no) courses can adequately provide the full range text may not be properly integrated. Authors may be of publishing skills. Publishing skills in general and too rooted in good urban rather than in poor rural school publishing skills in particular are heavily de- conditions. Some authors are unable to accept advice pendent on practical experience over, say, five to ten or criticism. It is unrealistic to expect a high proportion years. Formal training (and related professional attach- of good manuscripts from teams of new and untried ments) should therefore be regarded as a supplement authors. Furthermore, the occasional nature of much to on-the-job training rather than as a main method of original writing for textbook projects means that the skill acquisition. writing skills developed by a project are frequently wasted Contracting with a publisher to undertake services because of the lack of an ongoing program. For example, for a fee is well established. All costs of authorship, the Ghana textbook project of 1974-75 had lost a high editing, raw materials, and manufacturing can be paid proportion of the original writing team when the revised directly by the local MOE so that all financial interest editions were undertaken in 1984 because there had in the outcome of the project is in their hands. The been little or no work for the authors in the intervening disadvantage of contract publishing is that it is unlikely period. to attract the interest of suitable publishers because most of them would be reluctant to extend services at Editing. Various editorial skills are required in a reasonable price with so little control over the project. schoolbook development. Editorial policy must be for- In addition, because the professional work is identical mulated in such a way as to keep materials in line with for both large and small print runs, the fee for small the MOE curriculums and with pedagogic and economic countries could be disproportionately large. The essence requirements. This policy must be communicated to of contracting for finished books is that the MOE awards the individuals involved. Editors must identify and com- a contract to a chosen publisher (the choice could be mission illustrators and authors and brief them on the via organized tender) to deliver finished books, film, or presentation and content of the work. They must eval- camera-ready copy. The MOE maintains ownership and uate the work and give advice and guidance on writing controls decisions over content, presentation, format, and rewriting. They must supervise work load and main- cost, and authorship. The contract must specify the tain deadlines. They must check copy for content, style, delivery date, quantity, quantities and procedures for consistency, accuracy, level, and presentation. They must reordering, price (or price formula), agreed design, liaise between authors and illustrators, and coordinate content, and authorship approval conditions (such as design and production specifications. Editors are re- the amount to be paid to the author, who will hold sponsible for obtaining permission to use quotations the copyright, and whether the MOE or the publisher and art from other sources, and they also negotiate has the right to approve prospective authors). The con- contracts and fees with authors and artists. tract can also include training requirements for local Schoolbook editors must have broad publishing staff. knowledge and experience in editorial, design, and pro- duction work. They should have the relevant education Publishing Functions and pedagogic background and possess detailed knowl- edge of and experience with target students, teachers, The four basic publishing functions are authorship, and school conditions. Good editors are rare, and pre- editing, design, and production. The first three are dis- vious schoolbook experience is essential for major orig- cussed below; production, a large topic, is discussed in ination or adaptation of textbooks. 46 Anthony Read Design. There are 1:\vo interrelated but separate as- book life. But the effectiveness of a textbook is not pects of schoolbook design: physical design, covering necessarily limited by its format. format (size and shape), length (number of pages and If books are sold to students and are thus transported words), choice of raw materials, and binding; and lay- from home to school each day, a durable format is more out, covering choice of typeface, number of colors, type important than if books are provided on loan and are and quantity of illustrations, appearance of the page kept in school. Parental purchase often generates better (including chapter, running, and subsidiary headings), care of books, however, and this can offset the greater and so on. In the adverse conditions in rural schools, amount of handling. Books for secondary schools, which physical design elements which determine the durabil- generally have better physical conditions and standards ity of a book deserve (but often do not receive) the same of book care, have much more flexible requirements for weight as page layout. Textbook design is a highly spe- format. cialized activity and cannot be undertaken by inexpe- rienced graphic designers. Length. Books should be short rather than long. The amount of work that an inexperienced schoolteacher Book Production can get through is generally overestimated, and short books are cheaper (a significant factor in schoolbook In large publishing projects, separate production de- provision, which can be measured in millions of dol- partments are responsible for monitoring work with lars). manufacturers, maintaining work flow, meeting dead- lines, checking for quality control, and so on. In smaller Binding. Properly bound paperback books will last at projects, an editor is frequently required to undertake least three years with good care, even in quite adverse these functions. In this situation, there is a danger that environmental circumstances. Hardbound books are production control passes from the publishing unit to considerably more expensive, and it is doubtful whether the manufacturer. Inexperienced editors frequently do they are cost-effective. Some production specialists even not know whether the delivered books are of acceptable believe that the weight and rigidity of hard bindings are quality or whether additional charges are valid. Thus unsuitable in tropical rural areas and may shorten book good production management, either as a permanent life. For primary schools, wire-stitched bindings are part of the textbook project or as a consultant skill, is generally acceptable on compact books of up to ninety- essential to maintaining standards, meeting deadlines, six pages. For longer books, sewn bindings are desirable. and operating at optimum costs. Glued-only bindings are considered unreliable in hot or The production specifications and associated produc- humid climates. tion decisions arise out of design decisions. These in Water-resistant covers (which are laminated or var- turn are the function of a difficult mix of pedagogic and nished) are desirable where books are likely to be stored economic requirements. The production specifications or used in damp conditions. In Liberia, where varnished should cover format, length, binding, paper weight, and unvarnished books were stored side by side in damp number of colors, origination processes, choice of sup- conditions, books with varnished covers suffered sub- pliers, choice of raw materials, layout (see above under stantially less damage. Some laminations lift and bubble design), print run, production timetable, and delivery in tropical climates; mechanical varnish can stick in deadline. humid climates. Chemically bonded (catalytic) or ul- traviolet varnishes are slightly more expensive but prob- Format. The life of a book is likely to be longer if its ably best. format is compact (a maximum of 220 by 140 milli- meters) and of portrait type (that is, bound down the Paper Weight. There are two schools of thought about long edge). Where numerous students crowd around paper weight. The use of 48-55 gsm (grams per square too few desks, they find it easier to use small portrait- meter) newsprint reduces production costs consider- shaped books than large landscape-shaped ones. This ably. It also shortens book life-especially in damp or ease of use also applies when there is no classroom wet climates where many types of newsprint will not furniture and students sit on the ground. Compact books support even their own weight. Wood-free book paper are also more easily carried by students, fit more easily of 70-80 + gsm is widely used and stronger, and it and with less damage into bags, and are more easily provides greater probability of acceptable book life (pro- stored. viding that sensible binding and format decisions are Unfortunately, this format limits designs and page- made). There are plenty of examples of sewn paper- layouts. As a result of curriculum pressure, larger and covered books using this paper weight lasting up to more vulnerable page formats are used in the most eight years, even in adverse conditions. An average life adverse physical conditions, which unacceptably shorten of three years is therefore not unrealistic. Good book The Design of Textbook Projects 47 paper is also more opaque and will take type and illus- capable of producing the specified quality of work and trations (particularly color) very much better. It thus has the right equipment to handle the quantity of work has distinct pedagogic advantages. in the time available. The supplier must be able to guarantee delivery when Color. It is generally accepted that color is an im- required. When local suppliers are under consideration, portant ingredient in books for children, particularly at access to raw materials, availability of spare parts, re- lower primary levels where an attractive presentation liability of power source, availability of necessary main- can considerably improve learning. Nevertheless, four- tenance facilities, and the priority given to the task are color books cost much more both to originate and to all key factors. When suppliers in another country are manufacture than one-color ones. Good design can make under consideration, the regularity, reliability, and cost cost-effective use of one or two colors or can combine of freight services are additional factors. four-color with one- or two-color printing. A "request-for-estimate" pro forma should be used both for accurate project costing and budgeting and for Origination Processes. Origination processes include putting together preliminary information to enable broad typesetting, drawing of artwork, separating colors, and decisions to be made on local versus overseas origina- filmmaking-the production stages up to the point tion and manufacture. Wherever possible, the supplier printing begins. should be asked to break down estimates into raw ma- Typesetting consists of retyping (or converting from terials costs and process costs, and with many local a computer diskette) all the text of a manuscript in a potential sources it is often useful to ask for a schedule selected typeface of a specified size and line length. of essential spare parts and maintenance necessary to Artwork denotes all the illustrative matter-photo- guarantee on-time delivery. graphs and drawings-treated or redrawn by artists so Estimates should always be requested from state or that it will be suitable for reproduction. Color separa- parastatal sources, domestic commercial manufactur- tion must be performed on all color artwork, including ing sources, and reputable international manufacturing color photographs, in order to be able to print in more sources. International sources should always include a than one color. Filmmaking is necessary to make plates err (cost, insurance, and freight) estimate in addition for lithographic printing. To prepare the plates, the to the job quotation. entire typeset text and all the pieces of artwork (with any colors separated) must be arranged exactly as they Choice of Raw Materials. The basic raw materials are to appear on the pages of the finished book and required for book production are text paper, cover board, then be photographed. binding material (wire, glue, or thread), ink, laminate All these processes are separate and can either be or varnish, film, and plates. The cost of raw materials contracted to separate organizations or be done by one is affected by five main factors: selected printer. The quality of the finished book will depend heavily on the skill with which these processes • The quantity purchased. Countries with small pop- are performed and combined. And a cost-effective choice ulations that have low-level requirements probably of suppliers will materially affect final costs. The costs pay considerably more for paper than large coun- of the origination processes described above, plus all tries or large multinational publishers. research and development costs, constitute "first costs," • The source of purchase. Large quantities of paper which are costs incurred whether or not a copy of the can be bought at cheaper rates direct from paper book is ever printed. First costs are less significant for mills. Smaller quantities are usually bought through large print runs than for small ones-hence the first- paper merchants and may be restricted to available cost savings of adaptations (described above) for projects stock in standard sizes. in smaller countries. • The regularity of purchase. Regular customers Choice of Suppliers. The choice of a particular sup- usually get better terms than occasional cus- plier or process for origination and for printing and tomers. binding- the two basic manufacturing processes- is • Creditworthiness of the customer. Long delays a skilled production function. The simple existence of in payment while waiting for foreign exchange a local printer does not mean that there is suitable allocation are not conducive to negotiating better machinery for a particular book job or that the ma- prices. chinery is effectively maintained and run. • Storage facilities. The effective cost of raw mate- The criteria for selecting manufacturing and origi- rials is considerably increased when storage facil- nation suppliers are quality, capacity, reliability, and ities are poor and there are stock losses either cost. Factors to consider are whether the supplier is through inadequate security or deterioration. 48 Anthony Read Book Selection, Distribution, and Storage be determined by access to book-sale outlets and by the parents' ability to pay. Mandatory book ownership gen- erally has not worked as a requirement of primary school Book Selection attendance. Mandatory ownership is easier to enforce at secondary schools because the motivation to attend There are four methods of book selection: by pre- is higher. scription, by recommendation, by free choice, and by Purchase by parents depends upon good national cov- ministry of education issue. erage by sales outlets. At the primary level in rural areas, this can be very difticult. With limited purchasing power, Prescription. If books are selected by prescription, foodstuffs and basic hardware are more attractive in- the MOE decides which course will be used. This implies vestments to petty traders than books, and markups a single course adoption. Decisions are frequently made will tend to be very high. Commercial wholesalers are on a cycle (every three to five years) by a formal selection frequently unwilling to extend credit because of diffi- process, an MOE committee, or a curriculum panel. Pre- culties of collection. Under these circumstances, MOEs scription implies sales to parents through MOE or com- might have to consider direct involvement to achieve mercial outlets. It is more common at the primary than equality of opportunity. secondary level. Implications of Ministry-Controlled Distribution. Recommendation. If books are selected by recom- Costly storage facilities are required for MOE-controlled mendation, the MOE provides a list of approved courses. distribution. Stock control and stock movement sys- Selection can be annual or periodic, and both formal tems are needed, requiring trained storemen. A distri- and informal selection procedures are equally common. bution system must be capable of moving supplies from The recommendation process involves sale to parents, central stores to individual schools. Distribution to ru- usually by the school from limited options. This method ral primary schools is, in many countries, a major un- is more common at the primary level in larger countries dertaking. The assumption that a distribution network and at the secondary level in small and medium-sized exists already for other supplies may only be theoreti- countries. cally true and always needs to be checked. School management systems need to maintain and ~Free Choice. If books are freely chosen, there is no record supplies permanently issued and loaned to stu- MOE intervention at all. This is rare at the primary level dents. Other school supplies are usually consumable; and more common at the secondary level-particularly only books are normally subject to issue and return. in larger countries. Texts at the secondary level are usually selected by schools, depending upon their avail- Elements of MOE Distribution Systems ability. Warehousing. Ail warehouse premises should be se- Ministry Issue. If books are issued by the MOE, there cure, with ceiling bars, steel window bars, cement floors, may be either a single set or several alternative sets (as, steel doors with interior hinges and locks nd day and for example, in the Philippines). The major differences night watchmen. Warehouses should be weatherproof between this option and those cited above is that min- and well ventilated to prevent fungal damage. Racks istry-issued texts are distributed by the ministry rather should be used to keep the stock off the floor. Clearly, than by the commercial sector, and generally remain warehouses must be large enough to cope with fore- the property of the ministry rather than of the parent seeable maximum usage and growth. or student. Most systems will need permanent central ware- housing so that stock can be accumulated and organized Book Distribution arul Storage for onward dispatch. But except in very small countries, the number of primary schools to be served makes direct Implications of Parent Purchase. When books are distribution from a central warehouse expensive and owned by parents and students, they normally will be impractical. It is common to have a "two-link" system stored at home. Thus there is less need for classroom (central-district; district-school). It is rare to have four- storage, and MOE involvement in distribution and stor- link systems except in the very largest countries (for age normally will be greatly reduced. Distribution will example, China and Indonesia). The number of links is be either entirely through commercial outlets or to a function of both the size of population and the ac- ministry distribution points. The need to distribute to cessibility of schools. The number of links increases the individual schools exists only if books are supplied to complexity of the distribution operation, and the cost schools for sale to students. The MOE loses control over per unit distributed therefore increases with the num- the level of book provision in schools because this will ber of links built into the chain. The Design of Textbook Projects 49 Distribution from district to primary school (nor- example, has basic storage facilities at this level in most the last link) is often done by teachers because schools; Sierra Leone does not. transport is costly and many primary schools are ex- Basic school storage problems likely to be encoun- tremely inaccessible. It is probably realistic to rely on tered are poor weatherproofing and nonexistent secu- teachers to collect supplies if stores are located at a rity. Loss can be caused by fungus, insects, weather, place which teachers visit regularly-for example, dis- and theft. Poor storage conditions endanger the pro- trict offices where salaries are paid. Secondary schools vision of physical resources, which is expensive. Heavy are frequently supplied via MOE distribution systems. It loss dramatically increases the cost of such provision. is common for secondary supplies to continue efficiently A solution is the construction of school storage systems through an MOE system even when primary supply sys- and the provision of cupboards and lockers. tems have broken down. This is because secondary schools The construction of school storage systems is likely are larger, not as numerous, and generally in relatively to be a major construction undertaking- both expen- accessible locations. sive and slow. Cupboards and lockers can be provided cheaply (at the end of 1984, a steel locker measuring 6 Transportation. Two basic options for transportation x 3 x 1 feet cost about $75) and quickly. The delivery exist: MOE-owned-and-operated vehicle fleets or hired and erection of lockers in large numbers of primary commercial transport. The disadvantage of the former schools is, however, a substantial logistical problem and is that the transportation system-and therefore the should not be underestimated. distribution system-frequently ceases if MOE vehicles break down or are not available. The disadvantage of Distribution via Commercial Outlets the latter is often the lack of a regular budget for hiring vehicles. Even with ministry fleets, there can be prob- The commercial sector can distribute books on behalf lems with budgets. Some commercial trucking com- of the MOE, with payment for distribution made when are also unwilling to provide services to rugged confirmed delivery slips are produced. Or the MOE can areas or at difficult seasons. sell books to the commercial sector at fixed discount An overriding advantage of a commercial trucking and resale prices. The commercial sector can then sell operation (assuming such an operation exists) is that to the schools. distribution is unaffected by vehicle maintenance and There are arguments in favor of commercial involve- operational problems. Additionally, commercial truck- ment in MOE distribution. Increasing the book market companies are generally more experienced and re- increases the number and quality of bookshops liable in up-country distribution. throughout the country. A competitive element can also lead to faster and improved service. The MOE will be Control Systems. Two basic control systems must be relieved of a substantial administrative burden and will operationally effective: stock record systems (for quan- save on distribution, warehousing, storage, transpor- tity and location of stock) and record systems for stock tation, staff, and record-keeping costs. movements. No stock should enter, move around within, There are also several arguments against commercial or leave any warehouse, storeroom, or school without involvement. The existing commercial networks are an effective record of movement. There are numerous concentrated in urban areas and do not reach inacces- other relevant but subsidiary control systems to cover sible rural areas. Additional inducements have to be reordering, payment, returns, damages, and so on. All offered to encourage commercial operations to serve control systems should be as straightforward as possible difficult areas, and there are enormous problems in and geared to the ability of the staff who operate them. monitoring and controlling activities. An alternative to Regular monitoring and random checking of systems the commercial supply for difficult areas is a mixed should supplement detailed annual reports of govern- system whereby commercial operations are supple- ment auditors. mented with MOE operations. School Storage. Some form of storage space is needed in schools whether books are owned by the MOE or Book Use parents. In general, secondary schools are more likely to have adequate storage space for books and other Training school supplies. Actual conditions do, however, need checking in every country, and newly established schools Any program for improving the availability of books in remote areas need particularly careful checking. Well- and materials in schools clearly has important impli- developed primary systems traditionally have store- cations for teacher training. The most obvious of these rooms attached to head teachers' rooms, and cupboards is that teacher trainees must be given the opportunity are commonly provided in every classroom. Ghana, for to become fully conversant with the materials which 50 Anthony Read they will be using in the schools. It is thus essential the quality and performance of the school. This is an that relevant textbooks be either free or provided as extremely difficult task when standards of accommo- cheaply as possible to all trainees. In many projects, dation and materials provision are low. Declining stan- free sets of books, particularly at the primary level, are dards in school and classroom management lead to the costed against the whole project. In addition, provision deterioration of education and unacceptable wastage of of books to libraries of teacher training institutions physical resources. The first priority in upgrading them should be seen as an essential feature of every project. is to design and establish a clear and effective system Beyond the provision of resources, however, specific of school management. units need to be built into preservice teacher training Once a system is designed, it can be explained in a to make certain that the curriculum ideas contained in simple booklet distributed to every teacher and trainee textbooks and the management skills involved in using in the country and to relevant administrative staff. Units the textbooks are provided on a continuing, long-term on school management can be included in all teacher basis. Preservice training, of course, is slow to take training at both the primary and secondary levels and effect. A more immediate and widespread impact re- in the training of educational administrators (usually quires sustained programs of in-service training for ex- through a series of high-level seminars). An in-service isting teachers. In large countries, this can be a daunt- training program can be developed to transfer the school ing task, but there are numerous examples of effective management system to teachers in the field. Adequate high-density training programs being developed and ex- supervision by the inspectors is desirable-to make ecuted quickly and relatively cheaply (for example, in certain that management systems are being maintained Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sierra Leone}. A con- and to provide help, encouragement, and assistance to venient and relatively cheap procedure is to run a lim- teachers in the early days. ited number of seminars for central inspectors, advisers, The development and maintenance of a system of teacher college lecturers, and district education officers. school management at the secondary level is every bit A second series of seminars can then be organized by as important as at the primary level. But as with teacher the inspectors and district officers for key teachers and training, it is frequently ignored. Several projects have teacher supervisors at the district level. The final stage revealed that the perceptions, priorities, attitudes, and will be the organization of a large number of school- administrative style of the secondary school principal based seminars, grouped according to accessibility. are crucial in determining what facilities and resources In-service training should concentrate both on cur- are allocated to a given academic subject. Such allo- riculum and pedagogic issues as well as on the man- cation in turn influences the quality of the work in agement of books and materials. All training programs these subjects. should include the subject of basic book care, partic- The use of books in classrooms, their physical main- ularly for rural environments. Very substantial sums of tenance in schools, and their effective distribution can money can be saved for the education system if book be maintained efficiently only through MOE supervision life is extended by even one year. and regular inspection. Transportation availability and Teacher training as a support for book use is much the mobility of inspectors thus are key factors. less developed in the secondary sector. This position is unacceptable, and an increased commitment to in-ser- Editorial, Pedagogic, and Curriculur.n Feedback vice training for secondary teachers should receive high priority in any textbook project for secondary schools. Continuous contact between editors, authors, and Experience indicates that this increased commitment designers, on the one hand. and inspectors, teacher is frequently best achieved by concentrating on man- trainers, teachers, and schools, on the other, is partic- agement training for head teachers. Preservice training ularly necessary when courses are being introduced for should, however, also pay specific attention to the cur- the first time. Specific evaluation schedules should be ricular, pedagogic, and managerial aspects of books and developed. A combination of structured interviews, sim- materials used in the classroom. ple questionnaires, and classroom diaries is recom- mended. Writing and editorial teams (or, at the sec- Schoolftfanager.nent ondary level, textbook selection boards) can build up a picture of the strengths and weaknesses of particular The improvement of school resources is the ultimate materials in the context of a particular country situa- aim of any textbook project, and the person with final tion. This will enable revisions and corrections to be responsibility for managing these resources day to day made and will assist in the selection of recommended is the head teacher. He or she must organize the school's or prescribed texts. Attention should also be paid to the delivery of the curriculum, motivate the teachers, help physical durability of books, and this should be included them to develop professionally, and constantly monitor in evaluation schedules. The Design of Textbook Projects 51 Other Considerations The evaluation of negotiations or bids is again a com- plex process. As a basic principle, all bid documents Procurement, Tenden'ng, and Evaluation should be matched by an evaluation schedule. There is typically a variety of procurement require- Other School Supplies ments in textbook projects- including producing fin- ished books, securing licensing rights for the adaptation This chapter has been concerned primarily with text- of basic texts, providing editorial services, developing books. It should always be borne in mind, however. that manuscripts, procuring origination services, supervis- school classrooms also require exercise books, pens, ing printing and production, and getting raw materials. pencils, chalk, and other basic supplies. Distribution In addition, related services frequently need to be pro- and storage problems for these supplies are very similar cured. These are international freight consolidation to those described for books. In other aspects, however, services (when a variety of materials coming from a their procurement and funding are significantly differ- variety of overseas sources requires bulking-up or pack- ent. All projects concerned with supplying books should aging), internal distribution services, and construction take into account the availability of other related sup- (of warehouses, other storage facilities, and schools). plies. The exact procurement requirements for each project will often vary considerably, and professional assistance Provision of Libraries may be needed to distinguish precisely what services are required. Thus in Uganda a procurement exercise In countries where even the most basic textbooks are was delayed for almost a year because the local man- unavailable, the first priority must always be to supply agers did not have the expertise to perceive the differ- textbooks. As soon as a textbook project has been de- ence between a printing tender for books for which the veloped, however, there is pressure to develop sensible MOE owned the copyright and an adaptation tender for school-based library systems. Encouraging the reading books for which the MOE was trying to acquire the print- habit requires additional supplementary material, and ing rights. this in turn implies provision of basic libraries. In many The basic methods of acquiring services or goods are countries, a national school library service providing direct negotiation, limited competitive bidding, and in- supplementary materials to rural schools on loan has ternational competitive bidding. Direct negotiation can worked very well. School library services, however, frequently be allied with a requirement that the sup- whether national or school-based, are not susceptible pliers seek competitive prices in the manufacture of to easy cost-recovery systems and must always be seen their product. Thus in the procurement of finished books as a charge on education budgets. the MOE may have decided on pedagogical grounds which Library development at all levels is crucial for every books it requires, but the final price it negotiates may second stage in a book development project and can be well depend on evidence that the suppliers have sought used as an effective emergency measure, particularly at competitive printing quotations either for the stock cur- secondary and vocational levels, in severe cases of book rently available or for any reprint which might be pro- starvation. Library loan schemes (book banks) which duced for the project. use multiple textbook sets and are casted to recoup Limited competitive bidding is used for local sup- investment out of loan charges or school fees can also pliers, for suppliers with known specialist services, or be satisfactorily initiated. for suppliers with particular local knowledge and con- This final point is most important. Those responsible tacts. One of the fundamental problems with all book for textbook projects must continually bear in mind procurement projects is the many variables to be taken that their objective is not simply to get satisfactory into account and the fact that some of the variables books into schools but also to assist students to develop produce contrary effects. For example, it is fairly ob- a habit of reading which they will carry with them vious that although low price is attractive, high (but beyond their school years. not expensive) production quality will lead to longer- lasting books. The book with the best value in produc- tion terms may not necessarily be the book most suited Reference to the local curriculum. The balancing of these variables in the procurement of finished books is a skilled profes- de Freitas, D. 1984. Copyright and the Developing Countries. sional task. London: Commonwealth Secretariat. 4 Using Textbooks to Improve the Quality of Education Adriaan M. Verspoor Educational investments in developing countries have the considerable contribution that textbooks and other been successful in achieving their quantitative objec- instructional materials can make to effective teaching tives. Two decades of World Bank lending for education and to improving the quality of education. have provided 4 million school places in the developing In this chapter, the textbook issue is explored from world. The record for qualitative objectives is not so two angles-first, the choice of intervention strategy; favorable, however. The evidence is less concrete, but second, the choice of implementation strategy. Con- the impression is that many projects have experienced straints imposed by a country's stage of educational considerable difficulty attaining their anticipated qual- development are vital considerations in both choices. itative performance levels. Recent reviews of Bank-sup- This chapter suggests a typology of projects and sketches ported. projects highlight these concerns. briefly the key features of an implementation strategy Romain (1985), in a review of World Bank lending for each. A close fit between the stage of educational in primary education, found that "little is known of how development, the nature of the intervention, and the effectively the new curricula are being applied ... im- implementation strategy is essential if textbook projects plementing large-scale national reforms of primary ed- are to contribute to the improvement of educational ucation, especially in regard to practical subjects, has quality. proven to be quite risky ... The search should therefore be intensified for reforms which are replicable." Hawk- ridge (1985) reviewed the World Bank's experience with World Bank Assistance for Improvement in distance education projects-usually for informal adult Quality education projects. He found no convincing evidence of the cost-effectiveness of these add-on projects, and Nearly 80 percent of the education projects financed the experiences typically were not replicated. Haddad by the World Bank between 1964 and 1984 included (1985) reviewed the Bank's experience with teacher components designed to improve the quality of edu- training: "Most of the teacher training components with cation. The total cost of these components amounted qualitative objectives were not assessed. The few that to $6.3 billion-nearly 60 percent of Bank lending for were fell more on the unsatisfactory side, either because education during that period. human and physical resources were not adequate or A review of programs to improve quality supported because the attitude of trainees was negative." Searle's by the World Bank found that a number of methods review of World Bank textbook projects in chapter 2 were effective in increasing students' success both in found substantial achievements and significant short- academic performance and in the employment market. comings. The principal method of improving quality was curric- The questions raised by these reviews are crucial. ulum change, which figured in 85 percent of the change Without improvement in quality, many of the potential programs. Teacher training was recognized as the next benefits associated with the tremendous growth of en- most important method, figuring in 65 percent of the rollment in developing countries may never reach fru- change programs. Other important strategies to im- ition. Research evidence and Bank experience indicate prove quality were organizational strengthening (50 52 Using Textbooks to Improve the Quality of Education 53 percent), the provision of textbooks (32 percent), and sionals. Bank experience clearly demonstrates that suc- instruction through distance education. cessful interventions to improve quality have nearly al- In the first decade of Bank lending for education, ways resulted from comprehensive programs addressing textbooks and educational materials were considered most, if not all, the change elements in table 4-1. Such relatively insignificant and were rarely linked to broader interventions are designed to begin at the existing stage programs to improve quality. Often the provision of of educational development and to progress through textbooks was an isolated, unsupported input. Such un- more advanced stages. supported inputs have now virtually disappeared, and at present textbooks are almost always provided in con- Size and Scale of Textbook Projects junction with other elements of educational change such as curriculum modification, organizational strength- The fit between a textbook project and the develop- ening, and teacher training. mental stage of the educational system depends on a number of variables. Textbook projects can be classified according to the size of the innovation and scale of the Textbooks and Stages of Educational program. The size of the innovation is the extent of the Development deviation from routine classroom procedures and prac- tices. The scale of the program refers to the number of Textbook projects vary tremendously in their specific schools affected by it. Table 4-2 illustrates different educational objectives. For example, in a country such combinations of size and scale. as Sierra Leone where there are no books in the class- The high-low distinctions in table 4-2 do not repre- rooms and where many teachers have no professional sent clear-cut divisions but rather a continuum along qualifications, the immediate objective will be to intro- which projects can be placed. A low-scale-low-size case duce simple, relatively structured books and teachers' such as equipping new project institutions is very manuals. Considerations of curriculum and content will straightforward; but although this size and scale of op- be secondary in these early stages of improving quality. eration present few problems, such efforts cannot achieve By contrast, in a comparatively advanced country such broad improvements in quality. The low-scale-high- as Malaysia, the provision of diversified reading mate- size case is often used as a first step toward more am- rials is a key element of a comprehensive program to bitious high-scale-high-size operations. The high-scale- improve quality by improving both curriculum content low-size will often be appropriate in desperate situations and teaching methods. In short, the design of a textbook where supplying the schools with textbooks is the top project reflects a country's level of educational devel- priority. opment. Beeby (1966, 1986) has conceptualized educational The Role of Textbooks in Improving Quality development as a four-stage growth process. His model can be adapted and broadened to include the role of Stages of growth relate to both size and scale of change textbooks and educational materials as ingredients in (see table 4-1). For programs designed to move an ed- improving quality. Table 4-1 illustrates the four-stage ucation system from the unskilled to the mechanical growth process in which Hall's (1978) empirical re- stage, the high-scale-low-size variation is often appro- search t1ndings and the suggestions of Heyneman (1984) priate. Such an approach fits the situation of many are combined with Beeby's model (1986). African countries, where teachers are often untrained Improving educational quality is a comprehensive de- and poorly motivated, isolated in rural areas, and lack- velopmental process. Beeby (1966) estimates that "it ing any kind of professional support. There even the might take ... a decade or two to make the most of most minimal resources of textbooks and materials are new buildings, new equipment and hardest of all, new conspicuously absent, curriculum subtleties are irrel- freedom." World Bank experience confirms this view. evant, and teachers have no experience with either ex- In Haiti, the Bank has been supporting reform of pri- perimentation or innovation. In these situations, deliv- mary education since 1978, and the reform is expected ery of even the fundamentals is a step toward to continue until well into the 1990s. In Ethiopia, the improvement in quality. Bank has been supporting continuing primary educa- Once the fundamentals-a minimum of teacher tion reform programs since the early 1970s. training, essential instructional materials, and a basic All elements of a program-teachers, texts, curric- operational structure for discipline and supervision- ulums, and teaching methods-must be congruous and have been taken care of, the system has moved into the at the same developmental stage. It is a certain recipe mechanical stage. At that point, attention can be paid for failure to expect unskilled teachers to use textbooks to introducing some diversity in instructional tech- designed for use by teachers who are full-fledged profes- niques. Textbooks and teachers' manuals are essential 54 AdriaanM. Verspoor Table 4-1. Sta,qes of Improvement in Quality Teachers Curriculum support change Unskilled Narrow subject con- One textbook per class Recitation. rote Sporadic; focused on Ignorance. confusion. Simplify structure and III-educated. untrained. tent. emphasis on 3 used by teacher; near learning. and memo- adm1nlstrative control and nonapplication. provide structured questionable mastery of Rs; low standards; total absence of rizing; students copy and compliance with teachers' guides, text- subject content or high wastage instructional mate- off blackboard; no regulations. books, and minimal teaching techniques; accepted. rials. individualization. instructional mate- often isolated and rials; train teachers in poorly motivated. subject matter and a few basic teaching techniques; help teachers perceive need for improvement. Mechanical Highly structured. One or two textbooks ~temorization: slavish Occasional; focused on Uncertain about use: Broaden curriculum. Lower secondary edu· emphasis on three Rs; per student in core adherence tu currlc- compliance: in-service focused on personal increase subject mas~ cation. little profes- standards imposed by subjects. ulum. short-term training infrequent- mastery; dilution of tery training; intro- sional training: examinations: repeti- activities and objt:c- focused on dissemina- innovation to adapt to duce a few simple moderate subject mas- tion accepted as a. lives: rigid application tion of structured pro- personal, professional techniques; teachers· tery; incidental contact means to maintain of une instructional grams: emphasizes capacity and motiva~ guides and textbooks with colleagues uniformity. technique. standardized applica- tion. set standards enforced through in-service tion of curriculums by exams; increase training; some interest and materials. confidence of teachers in professional through training and improvement but easily school-level support. discouraged. Routine Curriculum goals Several textbooks Memorization strll but Supervision more fre- Skeptical about imme- Teaching more Secondary education; begin to broaden. but available; deviations increasin~ attempts to quent and less ori- diate effects; willing focused on under- trained; adequate sub- syllabus still heavily and selective use of introduce ··Jearning by ented toward and able to make standing: some diver- ject mastery; incidental dommated by exami- available text: supply doin~··: medium-term compliance: in-service honest effort; will try sity and flexibility can contact with col- nation: in principle. of materials adequate: planning usin~ text- training more fre- to adapt innovation be introduced to the leagues: interested in opportunities for small school library. books and materials in quent. emphasizes the for ease of classroom curriculum: objectives improving student per- adaptation and experi- a more goal-oriented application of mana~ement and can be broadened to formance if adequate mentation exist; little way: limited variation; teaching; role of prin- standardized applica- include attention to incentives are provided. attention to emo- some tracking of stu- cipal as source of tion. emotional and creative tlonallcreative devel- dents. knowledge becomes development; promote opment of child; more important. professional exchange concern is prevention betv.,.ecn teachers. of failure. Professional Meaning and under· Broad availability of Self-generated habits The principal becomes Needs of students is Innovation becomes Well-educated, well- standing stressed in textbooks. supplemen- of learning; ability to source of pedagogical central focus; willin~ permanent feature: trained, good subject wider curriculum; tary reading m~teria!s. investigate new ideas: support; external sup- to try and test alter- teachers can be mastery; frequent con- allowance for variety and reference books: longer-term instruc- port and assistance native approaches; encouraged to behave tact with colleagues; of content and well-stocked school tiona! planning allows are available on a con- confident about own and perceive them- reader of professional methods; considerable library; variety of teacher to adapt use tingent basis; training ability to master and selves as professionals. publications; interested attention to emotional instructional mate- of materials and cur- emphasizes the devel- adapt innovation to fit in improving student and creative develop~ rials. riculum sequence to opment of profes.sional needs of particular performance. ment of students. student needs; indi- skills, allowing group of students. vidualized or multi- teacher to select group instruction. appropriate instruc- tionai approach in instruments in helping teachers overcome their un- diversity can be considered, and multigrade teaching certainty and become more confident about their mas- (probably not more than two or three grades) can be tery of the subject and their dealings with students. introduced. Gradually, more ambitious innovations can be tried, When the teachers have developed sufficient subject mastery and self-confidence to attain the upper levels Table 4-2. Innovation Profiles of the mechanical stage, objectives to improve quality Scale of Size of innovation can become more ambitious. As the basic teaching tech- innovation High Low niques become increasingly routine, the focus of efforts High Textbooks produced Textbooks supplied to to improve quality can shift from the teacher to the and distributed to all all schools, using an student. Within the constraints of a system that tends schools as part of new existing curriculum. to be heavily dominated by examinations, the intro- national curriculum. duction of flexibility and variety in the teaching process Low Books and materials Textbooks supplied to allows teachers some latitude in adapting to the needs developed for new a few schools, using of groups of students. At this stage, teachers will have curriculum as a pilot an existing curric- become sufficiently self-confident to handle diversity in few schools. ulum. the classroom. The availability of textbooks and instruc- Source: Author. tional materials will also need to become much more Using Textbooks to Improve the Quality of Education 55 diversified. A small school library meets the instruc- licable. A few test runs will often be sufficient to get tional objectives of this stage very well. the bugs out of the system, and supervision focuses on At the higher levels of the routine stage, curriculum following standardized procedures. Nevertheless, un- objectives shift gradually from memorization and pas- foreseen local complications often crop up and obviate sive learning to investigation and the discovery of mean- the implementation of the best-made plans. When the ing. Instruction in the classroom can become increas- local task environment is particularly unstable, an ef- ingly individualized, with teachers demonstrating fective response is the creation of an autonomous agency, professionalism in diagnosing individual learning po- with a stable source of funding to sustain the program. tentials and problems, providing learning opportuni- Furthermore, the achievements of the program need to ties, and helping students overcome difficulties in ways be effectively communicated to decisionmakers to de- suited to the particular needs of each. A large supply velop and maintain commitment. Actual textbook pro- of textbooks, reference books, and instructional mate- curement can be carefully scheduled and handled in rials from which the student and teacher can choose large volume through international competitive bidding has to be available at this stage to accommodate a variety in order to reduce costs. of immediate learning needs. At the other end of the spectrum are the textbook Clearly, textbooks make an important contribution projects which are integral parts of ambitious educa- to improving the quality of education in all stages of tional reforms (high-size-high-scale). Such projects educational development. They can be effective across typically make considerable demands on the profes- the size-scale continuum and can be designed to fit the sional capacity and motivation of teachers and are usu- specific stage of educational growth prevailing in each ally feasible only at the higher levels of educational country. To move from the uryskilled to the mechanical development-toward the upper end of the routine stage stage, a low-size-high-stale type of project will often or into the professional stage. For such projects, de- be the most appropriate. To move from the routine stage tailed operational planning at the central level is seldom to the professional stage~or to make progress within possible, and the field experience of local implementers the professional stage~high-size-high-scale opera- must be incorporated into the project design. Super- tions must be envisaged. A pilot is often necessary to vision is largely performance-oriented. Both the task test the effectiveness of a particular intervention in a environment and the effectiveness of the educational particular setting. Teaching is a very idiosyncratic ac- intervention are specific to the local setting, and they tivity at every stage of educational development, and vary accordingly. The design of such projects will usu- there are few general recipes for effective teaching that ally have to be open-ended and flexible, with consid- have universal applicability. erable learning by doing arid extensive testing of cur- riculums and supporting materials. Management of such projects will need to be close Designing the Implementation Strategy to the implementation process, and local institutions with real authority to adjust resource allocations are vital to success. Central management can monitor stra- A well-designed implementation strategy addresses tegic issues and should be informed of the progress of four issues: implementation by simple and rapid feedback systems. • Delivering the program As in the low-size-high-scale project, sustainability wHI • Sustaining the program be heavily influenced by effective communication of • Dealing with uncertainty achievements. In this type of project, obtaining the text- books can present complex problems. Many attempts • Procuring the inputs. to implement programs to improve quality have faltered For each type of project discussed above, the strategy on the rocks of textbook procurement. Bulk procure- will be different, as summarized in table 4-3. ment is often difficult, and the adjustments and changes The two critical elements for implementing a text- during project implementation call for frequent ten- book project are funding and commitment. As dis- dering and contracting. cussed, a noninnovative program that simply provides Progress in both the mechanical and the routine stages textbooks is often appropriate in countries in the early makes new demands on teachers. Evaluating the impact stages of educational development. Such a project is on student achievement and the reaction of teachers to characterized by careful operational planning and the newly developed curriculums is essential in every pro- dissemination of detailed instructions to local imple- gram of any substance. The educational professionals menters. Because the technical details of the tasks are managing the projects are typically in close contact with clear-cut, the process can be standardized and is rep- the local implementers. Uncertainty is high, and pro- 56 Adriaan M. Verspoor Table 4-3. Implementation Strategies Low scale Project type. Providing textbooks for Testing new textbooks for Providing new textbooks, existing curriculums. innovative curriculums. introducing innovative cur- riculums. Implementation task of Centralized; dissemination of Intensive central manage- Operational management delivering the program. well-structured directives to ment by specialized profes- decentralized, allowing for local implementers; supervi- sionals; monitoring and participation of local imple- sion of compliance with evaluation crucial; less direct menters. work procedures. supervision of local imple- menters. Implementation task of sus- Developing competent cen- Increasing cost-efficiency of Developing competent cen- taining the program. tral agencies: building grass- program; piloting larger- tral and local implementing root support with rewards scale applications; attention agencies; building support for compliance; publicity for to stability of commitment systems for local implement- achievements. to project goals of key sup- ers; frequent publication of porters; building professional results. support group. Dealing with uncertainty. Insulating project from Solve problems as they Open-ended design; flexible unstable environmental occur; frequent personal implementation strategy; influences; more detailed contact between managers local-level authority to adjust planning and instructions and implementers; readiness resource allocation; rapid handled by local imple- to revise objectives and data feedback system; menters. implementation strategies. learning by doing. Input procurement. Standardized, large-scale Small scale and cost mar- Crucial precondition for often done by specialized ginal to project success. project success; batch pro- staff; dominant task of curement with changes as project implementation unit. implementation proceeds; specialized staff nearly always required. Management system. Mechanistic. Organic. Input procurement: mecha- nistic: program manage- Source: Author. gram revisions are frequent and expected. The cost of Conclusions these experimental and pilot operations is often modest, and so procurement problems are less problematic. Textbook projects represent a flexible and effective way of improving the quality of education in developing countries. Texts serve a variety of objectives under a Management Systems variety of conditions and at all stages of a country's educational development. Textbooks are familiar and Implementation strategies are important in the de- nonthreatening to teachers. They are relatively inex- sign of management systems. (Verspoor 1985 discusses pensive and require little or no maintenance. They are issues relevant to the management of quality-improve- ideally suited to progressive diversification and individ- ment projects.) Table 4-4 illustrates the main features ualization in the classroom, which is the dominant ob- of two organizational prototypes: mechanistic and or- jective of most programs to improve quality (yet the ganic. The low-size-high-scale project is typically man- one presenting teachers with the most difficulty). Im- aged by an organization with heavily mechanistic char- provement in quality is a gradual and continuing pro- acteristics; the small-scale-high-size project is typically cess. Textbooks play a critical role in supporting this managed by a strongly organic organization; and the process at the classroom level. Ultimately, stable fund- high-size-high-scale project has features of both. ing and strong institutional management of textbook Using Textbooks to Improve the Quality of Education 57 terns." In Stephen P. Heyneman and Daphne Siev White, eds., The Quality of Education and Economic Develop- Tasks are broken down into Employees contribute to ment, pp. 37-44. A World Bank Symposium. Washington, specialized, separate tasks. common task of depart- D.C.: World Bank. ment. Haddad, Wadi. 1985. "Teacher Training: A Review of World Bank Experience." World Bank Education Department Ed- Tasks are rigidly defined. Tasks are adjusted and rede- ucation and Training Series Report EDT21. Washington, fined through employee D.C. Processed. interactions. Hall, Gene E. 1978. "Concerns-Based Inservice Teacher Train- Strict hierarchy of authority Less hierarchy of authority ing: An Overview of the Concepts, Research and Practice." and control. Many rules. and control. Few rules. Paper presented at Conference on School-Focused Inservice Knowledge and control of Knowledge and control of Training, March 2-3, 1978. Bournemouth, U.K. Processed. tasks are centralized at top tasks are located anywhere Hawkridge, David. 1985. "General Operational Review of Dis- of organization. in organization. tance Education." World Bank Education and Training De- Communication is vertical. Communication is lateral. partment. Washington, D.C. Processed. Heyneman, Stephen P. 1984. "Improving the Quality of Ed- Source: Author. ucation in Malaysia." World Bank Education and Training Department. Washington, D.C. Processed. Romain, Ralph. 1985. "Lending in Primary Education: Bank development, manufacturing, and distribution are nec- Performance Review, 1962-1983." World Bank Education and Training Department, Education and Training Series, essary to support the process of improving educational Report EDT20. Washington, D.C. Processed. quality. Searle, Barbara. 1985. "General Operational Review of Text- books." World Bank Education and Training Department, References Education and Training Series, Report EDTl. Washington, D.C. Processed. Verspoor, Adriaan M. 1985. "Project Management for Edu- Beeby, Charles E. 1966. The Quality of Education in Devel- cational Change." World Bank Education and Training De- oping Countries. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. partment, Education and Training Series, Report EDT12. - - - . 1986. "The Stages of Growth in Educational Sys- Washington, D.C. Processed. Part II Policy Issues in Textbook Program Development The four chapters in this part analyze in more detail a legislators of "scientific" educational principles (for ex- selected set of the policy issues or problems outlined ample, readability formulas), has produced a situation in part I. in which seemingly good pedagogical and social ideas As noted in chapter 1, an overarching policy choice are often converted into educationally inferior textbooks relates to the balance between public and private activity by publishers who, if they are to remain in business, in textbook development. In chapter 5, Savaran Gopi- have no choice but to bow to all the conflicting pres- nathan discusses the complex and often conflicting re- sures. Chapter 6 describes patterns which poorer na- lations between private and public textbook publishing. tions would be well-advised to avoid as they develop Although the illustrative material is drawn from Asian their own textbook systems. It also indicates that the nations, the general issues and patterns appear to be choices and problems discussed in this book are not common throughout much of the developing world. unique to the developing nations; they must be faced Gopinathan notes the historical reasons for the great at all levels of development. increase in public activity in recent years in developing One of the most complex and least understood prob- nations and the problems and constraints that this has lems in textbook development is national and inter- produced among private publishers. He discusses the national copyright. In chapter 7, Philip Altbach thor- advantages and disadvantages associated with each kind oughly discusses the current status and historical of publishing and printing, and he argues for a balance development of international copyright arrangements, between the two. which are seen by some developing nations as imped- In the United States, textbook publishing is the re- iments to the free flow of information and a means by sponsibility of the private sector. As Harriet Tyson-Bern- which the already powerful creators of knowledge main- stein points out in chapter 6, however, even in this tain control over its production and distribution. At the strongly market-oriented and wealthy nation, indirect same time, participation in and respect for international government control of textbook content and design is copyright conventions are important for the develop- pervasive. Because of the highly decentralized, multi- ment of viable domestic publishing operations. Altbach layered U.S. educational system, private textbook pub- notes that national attitudes toward copyright tend to lishers are caught in the middle of social and ideological change over time, that there are several distinct models conflicts which are played out in the political arena. of copyright legislation with different underlying under- This, along with the misapplication by educators and standings of the appropriate balance between private 59 60 Part ll and collective rights and obligations, and that fewer and cantly increased their costs. In chapter 8. Paul Eastman fewer nations are ignoring copyright provisions. At the reviews the current and predicted world supply and technical level, both domestic and international copy- demand for paper, notes the difficulty that many de- right laws are highly complex and evolving. Specialized veloping nations have encountered in acquiring ade- legal advice should be sought about copyright law when quate, timely, and least-cost supplies of paper for their embarking on a textbook development project. textbooks, and outlines several strategies for overcom- Paper supply problems have seriously interfered with ing these problems. the schedules of many textbook programs or signifi- 5 And Shall the Twain Meet? Public and Private Textbook Publishing in the Developing World Savaranan Gopinathan In developing countries, the relation between the pri- The Importance of Textbooks in Education vate and public sectors in the production and dissem- ination of textbooks is a complex one. 1 The increasing In spite of the changes in educational philosophy, participation of governments, in some instances with aims, and pedagogy that have permeated school systems the support of multilateral agencies, is an important in the developing countries, the central importance of force in the provision of textbooks. This participation the textbook has not been seriously diminished. Indeed, has not been universally welcomed, however, and in there appears now to be a renewal of interest based on some countries there exists a state of misunderstanding empirical evidence of the importance of textbooks in and even confrontation bel:\veen public and private of- academic achievement. As Heyneman, Farrell, and Se- ficials. A more collaborative effort is required to meet pulveda-Stuardo (1978) stated: "From the evidence so effectively the enormous challenge of providing text- far, the availability of books appears to be the most books. consistent factor in predicting academic achievement. This chapter addresses three topics. The first section It is positive in 15 out of 18 statistics (83 per cent). focuses on the various factors that influence textbook This is, for example, more favorable than the 13 out of production and distribution in developing countries. It the 24 (54 per cent) recently reported for teacher train- is not possible to understand present-day publishing ing." Aprieto (1983) cites a Philippines Textbook Board problems without reference to historical, educational, study indicating that children who use books achieve cultural-political, and economic factors and, more im- more than those who do not, and children who use portant, how they interact. Naturally, these factors dif- project textbooks consistently achieve more than those fer from country to country, and recommendations for without this advantage. change must be sensitive to this variation. Governments know that history and civics textbooks The second section is concerned with the relation are valuable for promoting national identity. In many between textbook publishing and general publishing. developing and some developed countries, the govern- Broad policies related to publishing need to consider ment has assumed control over the publishing and both domains, bearing in mind that the needs, require- printing of textbooks so as to ensure that they serve a ments, and forces impinging on each domain differ (for nationalistic purpose. example, the government is far more interested in text- Several developments in the recent past have thrust books than in general publishing). Yet the two domains the preparation, printing, and distribution of textbooks are linked, and policies proposed for one will likely into the forefront of educational debate. Education has influence the other. attained the status of a universal human right, and in The third section provides a scheme for analyzing the developing world, educational systems have greatly public-private relations together with a typology of re- expanded. As a consequence of such expansion-of lations and the consequences likely to flow from them. swelling numbers and curricular diversification-con- Illustrative examples are drawn from different coun- siderable pressure has been imposed on textbook pro- tries. duction. And because governments are more and more 61 62 Savaranan Gopinathan concerned with qualitative improvements in education, In attempting to solve these problems, there are few they must also be concerned about textbooks. analytical studies that offer guidance, hardly any em- Clear policies must be developed about textbooks and pirical data to draw upon, and no appropriate models their place among other educational resources. In many to borrow from. 2 (The textbook publishing industry in countries, lack of coordinated planning has left the text- the United States and the United Kingdom evolved under book industry in a sorry state. The textbook has been different historical conditions and sociopolitical as- challenged by instructional innovations- radio and sumptions from those pertaining in developing coun- television, programmed learning, multimedia packages, tries.) and language laboratories, among others. All these in- Textbook production has many dimensions-histor- novations have failed to hold their own against the text- ical, educational, cultural, political, economic, tech- book as the prime pedagogical tool in the classroom. nological, and international. At the same time, the health As Pearce (1982) has noted, they "have stimulated fur- of the publishing industry is of consequence far beyond ther the demand for textbooks rather than replacing the education sector. The process of providing books them." for a population depends on what is administratively The advent of the computer, however, poses new ed- feasible and nationally acceptable. ucational challenges. In some city schools in the de- veloping world, computer-assisted instruction is being The Historical Context introduced and computer studies have become part of the curriculum. Funds earmarked for the library are In most colonial territories, particularly the British being redirected to purchase computer systems and and French, textbooks became important with the in- software. The computer's versatility in both educational troduction of the colonial educational system. This sys- and recreational contexts presages an even greater fu- tem required the mastery of a body of knowledge con- ture impact on the classroom. What consequences will tained in textbooks and measured achievement by annual the computer have for the textbook? Will the floppy disk examinations. The annual examinations regulated pro- ultimately provide a cheaper medium than paperbound motion to advanced grades where new content had to materials? Is this the time for heavy investments in be learned, and new textbooks were required. The in- printing capacity or software production to meet future troduction and adoption of this educational system is educational needs? Developing countries must make the historical basis of the modern textbook industry in realistic long-term plans and keep their options open. the developing world. (These questions are considered in detail in chapters The colonized territories possessed little capacity for 15 and 16.) writing or producing textbooks, especially because most Finally, the new infusion of funding from multilateral available presses were devoted to printing newspapers agencies for textbook production needs to be carefully and religious tracts. Almost all the textbooks for use in examined. For example, between 1979 and 1983 the the system had to be imported. In many of the British World Bank funded twenty-nine projects with textbook colonies, such publishing houses as Oxford University components. World Bank loans to the Philippines for Press, Longman, Heinemann, and Macmillan were es- textbook projects exceed $100 million and have resulted tablished essentially as importers of the textbooks used in the manufacture of 33 million copies of eighty-four in Britain. With some variation, many of the British new titles. The funding of government agencies at these texts of the early 1950s-like Durell's General Math- massive levels, together with the importation of print- ematics, Ridout's English Course, or Mckean's Biol- ing equipment and the development of new distribution ogy-were used without adaptation well into inde- networks, naturally has considerable impact on national pendence. There were several reasons for their continued publishing and printing infrastructures. Few countries use: the inferiority of texts produced indigenously, the have contingency plans for coping when the aid pro- lack of text writing expertise, the continuance of the grams come to an end. Cambridge University Overseas Examination system, and The textbook production and distribution industry in the use of expatriate personnel at the ministry of ed- the developing world is confronting major changes and ucation (Gopinathan 1976). Foreign publishers (gen- challenges. Government involvement is not always wei- · erally branches of publishers based in the first coloniz- come and is not automatically efficient. Although many ing countries) continued to dominate and control the improvements have taken place-most impressively the textbook market, even when school curriculums were development of an indigenous capacity to write, edit, revised, often with the aid of expatriate educational ad- publish, and distribute textbooks-many serious prob- visers. For an inordinate period, British textbooks adapted lems remain, particularly in the relation between public with scissors and paste were promoted and eagerly ac- and private publishing. cepted. The links between expatriate curriculum advis- And Shall the Twain Meet? 63 ers and foreign textbook publishers were often very close, is more blurred than the distinction between printer and these links could be and often were exploited for and publisher. Many indigenous publishers remained commercial gain. small and undercapitalized, whereas a few went on to Although foreign publishers reaped vast profits (even develop considerable expertise. today, major British textbook publishers depend for their This pattern of evolution has contributed to the trou- survival on exports), they were also responsible for in- bled relation betvveen government and commercial pub- troducing the needed expertise in the indigenous pub- lishing. Essentially the foreign publishing houses have lishing industry. These publishers trained the early writ- the most to lose from government intervention. A sur- ers, editors, illustrators, and printers in the finer points vey conducted in India found that at least half the pub- of textbook production. In addition they initiated both lishers surveyed felt they could survive without textbook general and academic publishing with childrens' books publishing (National Council of Applied Economic Re- and postgraduate dissertations. Such was the role of search 1976). In Malaysia, even when the Dewan Bahasa Oxford University Press, Heinemann, and Longman in dan Pustaka (Language and Literary Agency)3 controlled both Malaysia and Singapore. But few publishers paid the core textbook market, many enterprising indige- much attention to general publishing and even fewer nous publishers developed strengths in peripheral areas to publishing in indigenous languages. (for example, teacher manuals, test materials, work- The entry of government and commercial publishers books, and supplementary readers). In general, how- into textbook publishing was determined by other con- ever, the few indigenous publishers in developing coun- siderations. After the departure of the colonists, inde- tries serve only limited markets, and any loss of market pendent governments became involved in providing books share has serious consequences for them. to schools, preparing teachers, establishing national ex- aminations, and revising curriculums. National prior- The Educational Environment ities included encouraging enrollment, sustaining ex- pansion, and maintaining quality. In the early phase, The provision of textbooks is affected by changes in there was little textbook production, because the funds the educational environment. In the last two decades, were not available. At first, the concern was to impose education has been dramatically transformed in the de- some form of supervision over textbooks used in the veloping world. By the early 1960s, many newly inde- schools. One result was approved book lists, which cited pendent countries recognized the inadequacy of the lib- both imported and local titles that had been vetted and eral arts curriculum and introduced technical-vocational found suitable for schools. education. Because training had to relate to the partic- Several factors triggered more extensive government ular country's emerging industrial infrastructure, to involvement. Among these were the introduction of a available materials (timber, cane, and so on), and to the second-language curriculum to reflect the changed so- equipment in school workshops, curriculums and text- ciopolitical circumstances and ethnic or regional pres- books had to be country-specific. In Malaysia and Sin- sure for educational representation. Textbook prices, gapore, some of the early textbooks for industrial arts availability, and distribution to rural regions became were written by local teachers. Equally significant were political issues. Commercial publishers made few efforts the changes in history and civics, depending upon the to improve quality, and some were seen as indulging circumstances under which independence was won. in corrupt practices. There were many motives for greater Where independence came as a result of struggle, as in public involvement-some honorable, some forced by India and Indonesia, the changes were more extensive. political and economic expediency. In most instances, Understandably, the ministries of education were closely government decisions addressed the immediate prob- involved, and manuscripts were locally written and lems rather than the long-term implications. printed. Indigenous commercial publishers entered the text- Another element in curricular change was the rec- book market largely for profit, encouraged by the suc- ognition of widespread inadequacy in the structure of cess of the foreign publishers and seeking to carve out the curriculum. This recognition was the result of sev- lucrative niches for themselves. Many Indian publish- eral factors: new guidelines from examination author- ers, for instance, began business as printers or book ities, major curriculum reform projects in foreign coun- importers. Typically, they began in primary-level pub- tries (as with the reform in science education following lishing, with practicing teachers as their authors and Sputnik), changes in methodology in traditional sub- with sympathetic consideration from their govern- jects such as English language teaching, and the grad- ments. Many of them were also involved in library and ual introduction of a national literature. Sometimes, stationery supplies or in running the school bookshop. too, new subjects were introduced to accommodate new The distinction between book publisher and bookseller educational needs-for example, domestic science was 64 Savaranan Gopinathan introduced to cater to the large numbers of girls who Economic Constraints entered the educational system from the 1960s onward. Although such changes were often introduced before The capacity of a nation to provide adequate textbooks the textbooks were available, they provided an oppor- to meet the needs of its educational system depends on tunity for local writers and local publishers to enter the its level of economic development, in particular the textbook market. capacity and sophistication of its printing industry. Al- Another momentous curriculum change reflected the most all developing countries need to import paper, new approach to language education. In some countries printing equipment, and inks-a drain on foreign ex- (for example, Malaysia), the indigenous language came change. Financial resources also determine how much to be used as the medium of instruction, whereas in writers are paid for preparing manuscripts and whether other countries (for example, Singapore), it was taught publishers and booksellers can secure adequate credit as a second language. In countries such as the Philip- facilities. Only in the larger countries, or those with pines and India, decisions involved a number of indig- better than average economic growth, do publishers enous dialects as well. In countries such as Thailand exist in strength, and there only a handful of companies (where the indigenous language was always the main are capable of producing an adequate range of titles. medium of instruction), recognition of the importance The recent decade has not been kind to textbook of English led to the demand for relevant English lan- production efforts of developing countries. As enroll- guage texts. Although there were many national vari- ment has increased, the priorities have been schools ations, the common factor was the need for new ma- and teachers. Government involvement in textbook pro- terials. duction belongs to a later stage of educational devel- New markets were created for publishers, but these opment. Malaysia, for example, has schemes to make generally were small (for example, the market for Tamil- free textbooks available to large numbers of students to language books in Singapore). Producing books in these overcome the major problem of their high cost. There languages presented both pedagogical and technical is understandable reluctance to allow commercial pub- problems. In some instances, scientific vocabularies had lishers and printers to profit from such a policy. to be developed in these "new" languages and new type- faces created. The International Factor With the adoption of colonial educational institutions Cultural-Political Influences came one-way commercial and ideological traffic in ed- ucational materials-from the center to the periphery, The desire to set history straight and to utilize in- from the former colonial power to the former colony. digenous languages represents the outward manifes- Such traffic has only slightly diminished in intensity. tation of a new nationalism in education. In many de- Although developing countries have been able to sub- veloping countries, independence presented a huge stitute locally written materials at the elementary and political challenge, with governments having to fashion secondary levels, the growth in literacy and the expan- a unified political and cultural identity out of disparate sion of higher education have sustained demand for ethnic groups. Political leaders sought to control ed- imported books. In addition, developing countries con- ucation as a means of creating a national identity. In tinue to rely on the educational expertise available from many countries that meant control over private and more advanced countries, and often when educational ethnically separate schools. Textbooks were seen as a innovations are transferred (for example, modern math- means of instilling common histories and experiences, ematics or science), educational materials are trans- and nationally administered examinations as a means ferred as well. of ensuring uniform quality and standards. For in- Other examples of internationalism in the production stance, in India and Malaysia, the concern was not (as of curriculum materials are the efforts of the United in the West) to maintain choice and plurality but rather States, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.S.R. to sub- to emphasize the commonalities of the national expe- sidize inexpensive editions for higher education in the rience and to promote unified national goals. (In many developing countries. The U.S. scheme has resulted in countries, this is something that has yet to be achieved.) the publication of 12 million copies of U.S. titles in Concern is heightened by the fact that high book prices, fifty-seven languages. In 1983, the Soviet Union ex- late delivery, or (in the case of outlying regions) no ported 24 million copies of books in English, and it delivery can become political embarrassments. Such currently prints more than 2 million books a year in facts have to be considered when questioning govern- thirteen regional Indian languages. Though such schemes ment involvement in textbook publication. resulted in a variety of cheaply available books, they And Shall the twain JIJeet? 65 were criticized for their impact on the development of In the few instances where such investment was made, an indigenous publishing industry. it was marked by hesitancy and abandoned when prob- Recent World Bank initiatives in assisting textbook lems arose. schemes in selected countries have led to the intro- The constraints in publishing textbooks drive some duction of new elements in production and distribution. publishers in developing countries into general pub- The issues of copyright and book piracy have triggered lishing. But general publishing has its problems too: it confrontations between publishers of various nations. requires a high level of skills; markets are small; good Finally, there is the concern of U.S. establishment cir- manuscripts are few; and general books lack a clearly cles to make books a major tool in the ideological war defined market. between the capitalist and socialist political systems. 4 In free-market or semisocialist economies, it is the private publishers who venture into general publishing. There the government generally confines its direct pub- The Relation between Textbook and General lishing activities to textbooks and a small range of of- Publishing ficial publications. Such ventures can be successful- in Singapore, for instance, a Ministry of Culture pub- Both cultural and economic factors are pertinent to lication entitled Singapore: An Illustrated History, 1941- textbook and general publishing. In countries such as 1984 sold more than 20,000 copies within a year. It is. Malaysia and Indonesia where cultural identity and in- however, generally the private publisher who is attuned tegrity have been ravaged by the colonial past and by to market needs and willing to take the plunge. Often contemporary cultural neocolonialism, the publishing the contacts established with school librarians while industry is a vital aspect of cultural recovery and na- selling textbooks and reference materials alert the pub- tionalistic sentiment. In Malaysia, for instance, the de- lisher to market needs and the profits to be made by cision to make Bahasa Malaysia the national language imported books. A monolithic government publisher and major medium of education led to several other lacks the flexibility to produce a small but varied range consequences. The Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka was es- of titles on diverse topics in response to subtle market tablished to help develop the national language, produce trends. It is the commercially oriented publisher who textbooks and reference materials, and promote liter- translates the broad cultural objectives of the govern- ature in the national language. As a result, both text- ment into books on history, politics, religion, fine arts, book and general publishing have benefited. The De- and biography. wan's language development work has influenced Library facilities are another important factor. In de- scholarly discourse, and its dictionaries have helped veloping countries, institutional purchases are vital to standardize the language-a boon to textbook writers. general publishing, and here government support is Many of the textbook writers and editors who were first essential. Once again government and private interests employed by the Dewan have gone on to other pub- and actions are closely interwoven. lishing houses to develop both textbook and general publishing programs. The conscious effort to promote Features of Public and Private Publishing literature has had an enormous effect in both educa- tional and literary spheres. The best literary works soon The prime reason for government involvement in became recommended school literature texts, and the textbook production is control over the educational sys- exposure of a large number of young Malaysians to such tem. The ministry of education is responsible for the works created a demand for other works in their lan- educational goals of the nation. The deficiencies in some guage. Writing, reading, and publishing in the national private efforts prompted greater government involve- language in Malaysia is on the increase, and both ed- ment in textbook production. In Singapore, greater gov- ucational and general publishing are benefiting. ernment involvement in education resulted from a ma- National economic limitations apply to the develop- jor report which recommended comprehensive changes, ment of general publishing. The need to publish text- new textbooks, and retraining of teachers in order to books in quantity led to the development of the infra- achieve the revised education goals. In Malaysia, the structure for general publishing. It was textbook introduction of an indigenous language created chal- publishing that provided the writers, editors, illustra- lenges that the existing publishing infrastructure could tors, printers, designers, and so on to the industry. not meet. In the Philippines and Indonesia, the expan- General publishing, more demanding of skills in writing sion of the educational system caused massive demands and production, attracted the best of them. When for- for textbooks which could not be met without govern- eign publishers dominated the textbook market, they ment involvement. Beeby (1979) has noted that in In- seldom used their profits to develop general publishing. donesia, "even in Grade 6 where textbooks would seem 66 Savaranan Gopinathan to be completely essential, only 40 per cent of the stu- into school textbook schemes by governments in wcs dents in the poorer provinces had a book of any kind." but insufficient thought has been given to how school Aprieto (1983) comments that a review of textbook pro- leavers would maintain their literacy, how libraries vision in the Philippines found: would be established, what the effect of the textbook program would be on private-sector publishers, and Supply was irregular, insufficient and the quality often what the role of the bookshops is in the community. poor. Development of new textbooks for publication took an average of six years. It was estimated that in Conversely, commercial publishers are small scale, able the public schools in any subject, there was only one to be flexible and responsive to changing needs, and book for every 9.8 pupils in Grades 1-4, one for every able to handle small runs for specialized markets, main- 11.5 pupils in Grades 5-6, and one for every 8.5 tain low overheads, and keep prices down. Their profit pupils in secondary school ... Most available text- motivation gives them a strong incentive to be efficient, books were substandard physically and pedagogically and their diversity ensures a varied output. ... illustrations were often more than 10 years old. Successful commercial publishers often discover and expand an export market for their books. Several pub- Furthermore, the greater demands on the educa- lishers in Singapore and Malaysia have turned multi- tional system and the poor economic growth in the national in just this way. One Singapore publisher who 1970s combined to make the situation worse. What was began as a bookseller and small-time Chinese publisher needed was a coordinated response to the problem: in- was later successful at English-language publishing and tegrated planning and the systematic growth of pro- has been involved overseas through branch offices in duction, printing, and distribution infrastructures. Both Malay- and Tamil-language publishing. Such expansion the printing and the distribution of massive numbers is possible for private companies able to establish le- of textbooks are large logistical problems. For example, gitimate branches in another country, whereas govern- India's yearly requirement of200 million textbooks calls ment-sponsored books tend to travel poorly. for immense paper stocks, high-speed printing and binding capacity, and an efficient distribution system. In many developing countries such capacity simply does The Interaction between Public and Private not exist. In the Philippines, the Textbooks Board Sec- Publishing retariat had to establish separate provincial warehouses in addition to the central Metro Manila warehouse to The interactions among many elements and insti- ensure that the books were efficiently distributed. tutions make the relation between public and private There are, however, disadvantages to government in- publishing very complex. One way of mapping textbook volvement in the publishing and distribution of text- preparation, production, distribution, and use is indi- books. A large bureaucracy tends to be slow-moving cated in figure 5-l, which identifies nine processes and and cumbersome. Linking publishing to the national fifteen stakeholders. economic plan can make it vulnerable to fluctuations The relative influence of the stakeholders depends on in the budget. It may become necessary to adhere strictly the peculiarities of the national context. In Singapore, to government rules on expenditure (for example, tender for example, parent-teacher associations and subject as- systems). Although certain economies of scale favor the sociations exert little influence, whereas the influence coordination of printing and distribution, there are many of educational administrators and curriculum devel- hidden costs to government involvement. For example, opers is considerable. In Malaysia, where the medium the wages and overhead of government employees and of instruction is both an educational and a political departments employed in publishing, printing, and dis- issue, institutions like the Dewan and the universities tribution may not be included in the cost accounting. can exert considerable pressure. If figure 5-1 is adapted Another limitation is that government publishing of- to the particular national context, it can be useful in ficers are remote from their colleagues in the com- analyzing the situation and teasing out the linkages. mercial sector and may be ignorant of current trends The textbook provision process can be disaggregated and realities. Pearce (1982: 6) has summed up the lack into four core stages and two supplementary ones. The of integrated planning in government publishing: first stage involves the establishment of educational pol- icies and guidelines for curricular materials. Such It appears that government TPOS (textbook publishing guidelines could be related to the use of various lan- organizations) have not always been planned as a guages in education, teaching methods, schemes to pro- component of a program to produce all the books vide textbooks free or on loan, funding levels for school needed for life-long education, or as a well-defined library purchases, and procedures for the vetting and integrated part of the book publishing industry as a approval of textbooks and supplementary materials. In whole. Often enormous resources have been poured addition to official specifications for curriculum ma- Figure 5-1. Factors and Processes in Textbook Preparation, Production, Distribution, and Use Administrative Language association, Education I Parent- 'I Schools/ teacher ISubject I I Writers, Teacher writers' I administrators teachers association association trainers association Illustrators I I Pupils Printers, printers' I I Research Aid IPublishers' association findings agencies association creative writers' Libraries I Booksellers I association 1. Establishment of education and curriculum policies, for example, me· dium of instruction, selling of text- hooks, pupil-textbook ratios, book loan schemes. 2. Specifications for curriculum male- rials. 3. Preparation of core and supplemen- tary materials ~ Selection of content, approaches, format Selection of writers and illustrators Editing 4. Printing: quality, delivery dates, technical expertise, printing supplies. 5. Pricing 6. Vetting 1. Distribution Centralized Decentralized 8. Evaluation, revising, updating 9. Teacher training 68 Savaranan Gopinathan terials (in some countries there are detailed physical influenced by the roles, needs, and wants of a large specifications), there are concerns about their utiliza- number of institutions and associations. To take just tion. The orientation and retraining of teachers are sig- one example, decisions about the role of the private nificant matters involving the ministry of education sector in education influence the roles played by various (MOE) and curriculum development committees. Train- other institutions. Where the government alone deter- ing in the use of the new materials is generally the mines the curriculum, a tender system is used to select responsibility of teacher training institutions. publishers. Often both the individual publishers (as In chronological order, the four core stages in the competitors) and their trade association (representing provision of textbooks are preparation, printing and the members' interest) will be involved in regulating pricing, distribution, and evaluation and revision. Prep- the tender system. Similarly, the price constraints on aration entails the selection of content to meet curric- publishers will influence printers or printers' associa- ular goals, the choice of methodology, the recruitment tions where large quantities are required. The particular and supervision of writers and illustrators, and decisions national context determines the optimal public-private on format and final editing. This stage, like the eval- relation. uation and revision stage, is concerned with issues of educational quality and appropriate, up-to-date peda- gogy. In countries that do not have a large and devel- A Typology of Public-Private Relations oped educational infrastructure, foreign consultants may be used. At the preparation stage, cultural and educa- Three broad types of public-private relations exist- tional issues dominate. Disputes over examples, illus- public monopolies, private monopolies, and a combi- trations, fair representation of minority groups, or the nation of the two. Table 5-l displays the complex re- quality of language in the texts typically occur. lations in a small sample of countries. Most countries In the printing and pricing stage, economic concerns tend toward greater rather than lesser public involve- dominate. In many countries, printing is more efficient, ment in textbook production, with Viet Nam being the perhaps because some of the basic skills can be learned best example of extensive government involvement. Most on the job and because equipment has been upgraded countries fall into the mixed category, with different for commercial printing. There are often more training patterns of interaction at different stages. opportunities for printing industry personnel than for illustrators or writers. Even so, the huge demand for Public Monopolies textbooks and high cost of paper stocks are beyond the capacity of most printers in developing countries. Text- In a public monopoly, the government controls the book pricing depends on both guidelines from the MOE production of textbooks. Almost complete control is and printing costs. The vetting stage varies from coun- likely to be exercised over curriculums and curriculum try to country; most MOEs must approve all texts for materials. Printing and distribution are also likely to school use. In some countries, the fully printed text is be centralized, but some private involvement may be required; in others a sample printed section and manu- permitted under strict supervision and cost controls. script is sufficient. In some instances, there is a charge Teachers and schools in the educational system will be for review, depending on the education level. required to take on such additional responsibilities as The printing stage is followed by distribution. The writing and illustrating textbooks (with little prospect magnitude of the distribution problem is determined of royalty) and assisting in their distribution. There is by the size of the country, difficulty of access, and the little scope for professional or industrial organizations, transportation network. Because printing presses are such as teachers' unions and writers', printers', and generally located in the urban centers, distributing books publishers' associations. to outlying areas may present a problem. The distri- Public control has both benefits and disadvantages. bution system is also affected by schemes to lend books; Benefits are great in the development of textbooks, and when the books are not sold through bookstores, they disadvantages are great in printing and distribution. can be shipped directly from printer to school. Close control over the curriculum and content of texts Finally, there is the evaluation-revision stage. This can lead to a closer fit between educational objectives is without doubt the most neglected. Very few publish- and teaching materials. A systematic program to train ers, public or commercial, recognize the value of sys- teachers in the use of new pedagogy and curriculum tematic evaluation. When books are replaced, it is usu- materials is more likely. The public sector draws on ally because the curriculum has changed rather than more specialists-curriculum specialists, teachers, because evaluation has indicated flaws. teacher trainers, evaluation specialists, and the like. The complexities of the book provision process are Although lower costs may result from economies of And Shall the Twain Meet? 69 Bangladesh National Curriculum NCTB NCTB NCTB Directorate NCTB (Directorate and Textbook Board General of Primary General of Primary (NCTB) Education according Education) subject to policies laid down committees by MOE (including teachers and headmasters) Maldives Education ECD ECD, MOE ECD, MOE teachers ECD (Principals, Development Centre headmasters, (ECD) teachers) Nepal Curriculum, Textbook crsc and Janak Government School Advisory Inspectorate, MOE Educational printer, Services Department Subject Specialist Material Centre Department of inspector Education Republic MOE, Board of MOE, KED!,and of Korea Education, and National Korean Educational Textbook Development Institute Compilation (KED!) Company (KTCC) VietNam Department of Educational Textbooks Department of Textbooks Evaluation General Education Publishing Distribution General Education, Board of the House Agency teachers Ministry of Education Sri Lanka Educational Publishers, EPD Chief editor, Circuit education Curriculum Publications distribution unit officers, principals, Development Centre Development (EPD) teachers (CDC) Thailand Office of National Department of Kurusabha and DCIC, OPEC, and DCID Primary Education Curriculum DCID ONPEC Commission (oNPEC) and Instruction and Office of Private Development Education (DCID) and Laid down by MOE Commission (oPEC), Kurusabha MOE Printing Enterprise Malaysia Central Curriculum Publishers Publishers CCC Textbook Bureau and Committee (ccc) subject specialists Singapore Curriculum cms. publishers Publishers MOE l'lOE, CDIS Development Institute of Singapore (ems), Source: Adapted from Unesco (1985). scale and centralized purchase of paper, in many de- Private Monopolies veloping countries public printing capacity is grossly inadequate. Bureaucratic rules, competing government Because education is so important to the state, com- priorities, and general mismanagement cause delays and pletely uncontrolled private textbook production does result in insufficient book quantities, all of which can not exist. Within each stage of textbook publishing, outweigh the cost advantages of centralized printing. there are areas of most and least private enterprise. In The same problems are likely to arise in distribution. predominantly private situations, the government con- Government transportation facilities are prey to con- tinues to control curriculum decisions while commer- flicting needs and cannot always be relied upon. Where cial publishers make the major editorial and production there is a public monopoly, private facilities will be decisions-which levels (primary, secondary, postsec- poorly developed and unable to take up the slack. ondary) to concentrate on, which languages to publish 70 Savaranan Gopinathan in, and the range of supplementary materials. Teachers distribute books; however, private publishers may com- (as writers), illustrators, and designers are recruited on pete with the government agency. Private publishers a competitive basis, and a free market in the offer and must still run the gauntlet of the vetting process and purchase of skills exists. However, commercially pro- price their books in relation to subsidized government duced materials need to pass vetting boards before being publishers. Often the competition is not equal because accepted in schools. In some instances, governmentally school administrators tend automatically to choose books imposed price ranges constrain commercial publishers. prepared by the government agency. Active participation by professional and industrial or- 3. A government-sponsored board uses committees ganizations in the whole process of textbook production to prepare, print, and distribute books up to a certain is characterized by more finely tuned decisionmaking grade level (usually lower grades are of most concern structures. to governments). Commercial publishers are allowed to With private dominance, printing and distribution provide materials for grades 8-10, but the government operations and facilities are decentralized and are dis- receives a 7.5 percent royalty and also vets manuscripts tinct from (although still controlled by) the publishing before publication. This is the system in Bangladesh. operation. A competitive free market in printing ser- The mixed private-public model is the norm. The vices exists. Though the printing capacity of single com- degree of government involvement varies according to panies may not always be adequate, flexible commercial national circumstances but may change with the intro- arrangements can be made. Distribution is likely to take duction of new policies (as in Singapore) or with the place through both school bookshops and other retail involvement of multilateral agencies (as in the Philip- outlets. pines and Indonesia). In the mixed model, both sectors The greatest benefits of avoiding extensive govern- need to work together, acknowledging their respective ment involvement in the textbook process are the avail- roles. ability of a range of curriculum materials, less curric- ulum orthodoxy, and a lack of heavy-handed bureaucratic involvement. An efficient private publishing industry Conclusion results in a variety of supplementary reading materials. The private sector demands efficiency and innovation Public-private relations in the textbook production and must respond to markets. Publishers, printers, and process vary considerably. In India, the pattern even booksellers may need to develop a leaner, more cost- varies from state to state. There are, however, six gen- effective operation. eral principles: There is, however, no guarantee that private pub- 1. National textbook production should provide ped- lishing always has such happy consequences. The pur- agogically sound, attractive, well-printed books on suit of profits can lead to high book prices so that schedule and in sufficient quantity. Agencies respon- although a variety of titles is available, they may cost sible for textbook policy should recognize the value of more than individuals can afford. Printers can pursue a variety of supplementary materials and enable them more lucrative commercial options, and demand can to be produced. escalate general printing costs. There is also less sys- 2. In each country, different sociopolitical principles tematic pilot testing of materials and revision based on govern national policy. In all countries, however, there feedback-often because schools under government is a need to make short- and long-term plans for the control will not cooperate. publishing and printing industries within larger eco- nomic plans. Textbook agencies should be staffed with Mixed Patterns personnel able to undertake the complex estimation and planning required. In the middle of the continuum between complete 3. Where national policy includes private textbook public control and private dominance are a range of publishers, clearly defined areas of responsibility are intermediary models. Three such combinations are de- necessary. Given the power and resources available to scribed in the following paragraphs. the government, private firms are at a disadvantage. 1. The government is responsible for both curriculum The government should strengthen private firms (in- and the preparation of manuscripts; however, the gov- cluding printing firms and booksellers) rather than re- ernment does not print or distribute the books. Instead, place them. Where it is necessary to establish govern- publishers tender for the editing, publishing, and selling ment-run units, ample time and opportunity should be of books within a predetermined price range. There is given to private companies to shift to other areas of the an opportunity for shared involvement in running work- textbook industry. shops for teachers to use the new materials. 4. Government control and supervision is compatible 2. A government agency prepares, prints, and may with private involvement. Professional standards of service And Shall the Twain Meet? 71 can be achieved by strict controls, rewards for good 3. The Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka was established by the performance, and assistance to weaker participants. Malaysian government in 1957 to promote the development Governments should abandon the hostile view that and use of the national language, Bahasa Malaysia, in all commercial publishing is flawed because it is profit- spheres of national life, but especially educationally and cul- driven and should encourage more collaborative efforts. turally. The Dewan is today a major publisher and printer and 5. Large government investment in publishing and is involved in research, journal publication, preparation of printing can lead to expansion from education into other textbooks, dictionaries and glossaries, and translations, and promotion of literature in the national language. areas. Government then encroaches on the private pub- 4. See report in the Bookseller, March 16, 1985. lishing domain. Where a government agency has ful- 5. The term is used loosely. Quite clearly, research findings filled its original mandate and there are private insti- are not in themselves a factor; it is the use made of them by tutions capable of continuing the service, the government various stakeholders that makes research potentially signifi- agency should either be disbanded or undertake new cant. responsibilities- for example, providing model texts, performing evaluation services, or researching5 text- books. 6. Where government has a large role in textbook References production, it should maintain high standards of effi- ciency and be responsive to its impact on the private Aprieto, Pacifico N. 1983. "The Philippines Textbook Project." sector. Government textbook agencies should combine Prospects (Unesco quarterly review of education) 13, no. 3: the virtues of both public and private organizations. 351-59. The public sector has emerged as a powerful force in Beeby, Charles E. 1979.Assessment ofIndonesian Education: textbook production. Rather than dwelling on inade- A Guide in Planning. Wellington: New Zealand Council for quacies in the public and private sectors or adopting a Educational Research and Oxford University Press. confrontational attitude, there is an urgent need for Gopinathan, Savaranan. 1976. "Publishing in a Plural Society: The Case of Singapore." In Philip G. Altbach and Sheila each side to acknowledge the different capacities of the McVey, eds., Perspectives on Publishing. Lexington, Mass.: other and to work out long-term, stable arrangements Heath. to promote collaborative achievements. - - - . 1983. "The Role of Textbooks in Asian Education." Prospects 13, no. 3. Heyneman, S. P., J. P. Farrell, and A. Sepulveda-Stuardo. Notes 1978. Textbooks and Achievement: l112at We Know. World Bank Staff Working Paper 298. Washington, D.C. 1. The chapter uses the term "developing countries" in a National Council of Applied Economic Research. 1976. Survey general way. Much of the data and many of the examples are of Indian Textbook Industry. New Delhi. drawn from the Asian experience, and although the comments Pearce, Douglas. 1982. Textbook Production in Developing may well be generalizable, there may be important exceptions Countries: Some Problems of Preparation, Production and in the African and Latin American contexts. Distribution. Paris: Unesco. 2. An exception is National Council of Applied Economic Unesco. 1985. Textbooks and Related Teaching/Learning Ma- Research (1976). terials for Primary Classes. Bangkok. 6 Textbook Development in the United States: How Good Ideas Become Bad Textbooks Harriet Tyson-Bernstein The quality of public schools in the United States has Although the federal government has intervened to pro- become the subject of an intense national debate in the tect the civil rights of children who were unserved be- past several years. Although there have been other eras cause of local prejudices and has sometimes offered when the U.S. public was dissatisfied with its schools money to states as an incentive for some kind of im- and when reforms were made, the present debate seems provement, it has been careful to refrain from dictating much more intense than those in the past. curriculums or prescribing textbooks. The current movement for educational reform is fo- The second important concept is that the states have cused on the quality of teaching and the standards for less direct control than local school districts. Although entry into the teaching profession. As more is learned the U.S. Constitution gives the authority to the states, from research about the factors that help children learn that authority has been delegated, by long and cherished or that hinder them from learning, textbooks come to tradition, to local school districts. State departments of the forefront in the national debate about how to im- education may pay for some portion of the costs of prove education. running the schools, but generally each local school This chapter describes how the U.S. textbook enter- district taxes its own citizens for most of the cost. State prise has developed over the past 130 years, how the boards of education are usually appointed by state gov- present system works, and why it is producing textbooks ernors, but the local boards tend to be elected by the that students find boring and confusing. Despite the citizens in that district and are therefore more powerful good intentions of all the parties involved-publishers, because they have the support of a large number of legislatures, state and local boards of education, com- people. Americans are generally proud of their local mittees of teachers and parents who select textbooks schools, even if they complain about them, and they for students-good intentions have produced bad text- resist mandates from remote government officials. But books. textbooks are another matter and an important excep- The story is very complicated because the United States tion to the tradition of local control. has a complicated system of government and is large The third important concept is that in the United and diverse. Although both largeness and diversity are States, tvventy-two of the states assumed direct control blessings, they are also the cause of many difficulties. over the selection and purchase of textbooks for all their local districts (see figure 6-1). These states, most of them in the South, are called adoption states. The other Some General Concepts hventy-eight states are called open territories. In open states, the state authorities honor the tradition of local Although many will be familiar with the system of control and permit local school districts to select their school governance in the United States, it is worth re- own textbooks. viewing the seven important concepts that delineate the The fou:th important concept is that textbook pub- political and geographical structures of its public schools. lishing in the United States is a profit-making, free- The first important concept is that the U.S. Constitution enterprise system. Publishers receive no subsidy from delegates responsibility for the schools to the fifty states. governments at any level. They produce whatever will 72 Textbook Development in the United States 73 Figure 6-L Methods for Selecting Textbook and Instructional Materials, by State New Jersey Delaware District of Columbia Maryland A ~ =~... ~ !]ill State adoption; local choice from list of textbooks Hawaii • lfll Dual selection, state and local • State adoption; local choice limited Source: Author. return a profit. Although most executives of textbook is their economic power that if statewide authorities do publishing companies are former educators, they are not like a word, a sentence, a paragraph, or a chapter, not free to pursue their highest educational ideals. Most they can force publishers to make revisions. companies are owned by larger companies, and the ex- Following on that point is the sixth concept, which ecutives of those parent companies insist on profit, not is crucial to understanding textbook production in the academic excellence. United States. Publishers cannot afford to produce a The fifth concept, and a key one, is that the typical separate edition for Texas and California and Florida. idea of free enterprise does not apply to the production They operate on a thin margin of profit and must sell and sale of textbooks. Most industries produce products, in as many markets as possible. They produce one text- and many individuals decide whether or not to buy the book designed to please as many states and localities as products. With textbooks, pure market capitalism is they can. Thus if Texas wants something removed and distorted by the state monopoly in the twenty-two adop- California wants something added, those deletions and tion states. Three of those twenty-two adoption states- additions appear in the textbook offered for sale in all California, Texas, and Florida-are large and populous. parts of the United States. Winning or losing an adoption in those three states can The seventh concept is that the United States is a make or break a textbook company. Instead of pleasing nation in the process of profound cultural change. It is many individual teachers, the companies must please still emerging from the political turmoil of the 1960s a political committee which has been given the power and 1970s concerning the civil rights of blacks, His- to choose textbooks for an entire state. Elected and panics, women, and the disabled. It is in the grip of an appointed bodies in those powerful states can dictate intense struggle between liberals and conservatives, be- the content of textbooks and can even force publishers tween a secular vision and a religious vision, between to submit drafts of books before publication. So great nationalism and internationalism. At the moment, there 74 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein is no national consensus about what kind of nation the against free textbooks, and there were arguments for United States is. All these hard-fought issues are re- and against uniform textbooks. flected in the schools and in the content of textbooks. Politicians at the national, state, and local levels, from Arguments for Free Textbooks. Those who favored general government as well as school government, want free textbooks offered the following arguments: their beliefs reflected in the school curriculum. Thus, textbooks have become part of the national struggle • If education is free, then textbooks should be free over cultural identity. as well because they are essential to good educa- tion. • Free textbooks remove the stigma from poor chil- Historical Background dren whose parents cannot afford to buy the books. of the Textbook Enterprise (One scholar speculated in 1891 that 10-20 per- cent of the population was excluded from education Before 1850, students in the United States brought by the cost of textbooks.) whatever books they had at home to school. Most stu- • Free textbooks allow the school district to change dents attended a one-room schoolhouse, and instruc- the curriculum when necessary. When the school- tion was ungraded and was individualized according to owned books are out of date, the district can buy the books at hand. revised editions without placing a financial burden After 1850, educators began to pressure local gov- on the parents. ernments for graded, group instruction. Local author- • Free textbooks make possible a uniform starting ities passed laws and regulations which authorized local time at the beginning of the school year. (When schools to determine which books were needed and to parents had to buy the books every fall, it took direct parents to buy a particular school textbook. weeks for them all to get around to it.) In the 1850s, the United States was still a developing • The textbooks cost less because of volume pur- country. Families moved from one place to another in chases and the reuse of books from year to year. search of land or jobs, and most families were poor. When a family moved from one place to another, the parents found that the textbooks they had bought for Arguments against Free Textbooks. At the time that their children in one school district were not the same free textbook legislation was being debated by local school as those required by the school in another district. Be- boards and state legislatures, the idea was opposed with cause a family usually could ill afford to buy new text- the following arguments: books every time it moved, students often came to school • Free textbooks deplete tax dollars. without books. Educators then began to demand from • Students do not take proper care of books that are local authorities uniformity of textbooks across larger owned by the school because their pride of own- geographical and political boundaries. The state was the ership is removed. logical and legal unit for that expansion. • Reused books might be unsanitary and lead to the The Free Textbook Movement spread of disease. • The handling and distribution of books is burden- At the same time as educators were demanding uni- some to teachers. form textbooks across political boundaries, they were also asking local authorities to provide free textbooks. Arguments for Textbook Uniformity. Because the idea In 1818, in Philadelphia, the first free textbook legis- of free textbooks went hand in hand with the idea of lation was passed. By 1884, the Commonwealth of Mas- uniform textbooks, there were also arguments on both sachusetts and 19 of the largest cities had enacted free sides of the uniformity issue. The advocates of uniform textbook legislation. By 1902, 93 of the 150 largest cities textbooks made the following points: were providing free textbooks, probably because those cities had the highest rates of student mobility. By 1915, • Statewide uniformity addresses the needs of a mo- 15 states had enacted free textbook laws, and in other bile population. When children move from one place states, there were laws which required local school dis- to another within a state, their education is not tricts to provide free textbooks for poor parents. By interrupted by a change of curriculum. 1940, 60-65 percent of the students in the United States • Uniform textbooks make for a uniform course of received free textbooks, and by 1950, 34 states had free study and, therefore, cultural unity. textbook legislation. As in any democracy, these changes • Uniform textbooks compensate for the weaknesses did not come easily. There were arguments for and of teachers. Textbook Development in the United States 75 • Statewide selection is more expert than selections that suited their particular needs. According to critics made at the local level. of the system, the enforcement of state standards • Statewide purchasing reduces the costs of text- of uniformity overlooked specific local needs and books because of volume purchasing. concerns. Arguments against Statewide Uniformity. Opponents The laws that developed in the twenty-two adoption of statewide uniformity offered these arguments: states have also shaped U.S. textbooks. Once the states had decided to adopt textbooks for all the local districts, • Textbook uniformity violates the principle of local they began to develop a mechanism for bringing control. adoption about. Although there is some variation among • The stature of teachers is reduced when they are the twenty-two states, the following summary helps no longer in control of the tools of their trade. explain how seemingly good ideas have created bad • No single course of study is best for all students. textbooks. • The span of time that state-owned books are sup- • State legislatures in the adoption states give state posed to last- usually five or six years- means boards of education the power to define the cur- that local districts are unable to change to a new riculum. book when they consider it necessary or desirable. • Every adoption state delegates textbook approval These were the arguments advanced at the time much to some group. Alabama, for example, gives the of the statewide legislation was being debated. In more power directly to the appointed State Board of Ed- modern times, new arguments against statewide uni- ucation. Texas, on the other hand, allows its State formity are being advanced, and scholars have disputed Board to choose members for the State Adoption some of the assumptions on which statewide adoption Committee, thus providing them with the oppor- of textbooks was originally based. These new arguments tunity for political patronage. are: • The state legislatures specify the composition of • Statewide uniformity of textbooks does not really adoption committees. For example, some states protect mobile students because most of the mo- appoint a member of the statewide adoption com- bility patterns in the United States are between mittee from each federal congressional district. states, not within a state. Other states specify that the textbook committee • For two reasons, the argument about reduced costs be composed of a certain number of teachers, ad- no longer makes sense. As time has gone on, cities ministrators, and parents. and towns in the open-territory states have passed • The laws in these twenty-two states also specify the regulations requiring publishers to sell books to number of years that an adopted book should be them at the lowest price charged anywhere else in used-called an adoption cycle. The length of such the United States. These regulations, called most- a cycle is usually five or six years. favored-nation provisions, have forced publishers • Many adoption states provide for public partici- to charge the same price to everyone, negating the pation in the textbook adoption process. Publishers advantages of volume purchasing. The other ar- are required to establish a depository-one or more gument against the cost-savings claim was first locations within the state-where interested cit- advanced by John Dewey, who pointed out that izens can inspect the books being considered. Also, cost had nothing to do with the educational merit many states permit citizens or representatives of of the book. The difference in cost betvveen a good organizations to give public testimony about books and a mediocre one is usually a matter of pennies, under consideration. and such trivial savings are irrelevant to the quality • Many states have what are called social criteria for of textbooks and to the quality of education. textbook adoption. Books must not portray U.S. • The argument that statewide uniformity allows states heroes in an unfavorable light; books must men- to enforce curriculum standards has also been tion all minority groups in U.S. society and avoid challenged in modern times. In the early days of negative stereotypes. California insists that un- statewide adoption, states would pick just one text- healthy foods not be mentioned in textbooks, and book for each grade or subject, but as time went so publishers avoid stories about a child's birthday on state authorities yielded to proliferating de- party because these stories would necessitate hav- mands from local educators for books with various ing to mention ice cream and cake, both consid- philosophies, pedagogies, and information. States ered by California to be unhealthy foods. Then, began to approve several books, or even dozens of with the growing awareness of the importance of books, and local boards could then choose the book protecting the physical and natural environment, 76 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein liberal states like California insist that publishers on the basis of politics and geography than on the basis try to reinforce positive ideas about environmental of scholarship and pedagogical expertise has prompted protection and treat topics like acid rain from an many researchers and textbook critics to question the ethical standpoint. Conservative states such as Texas whole system. In short, why is a state committee any want females portrayed in traditional roles-mother, wiser or smarter than a local committee when the basis wife, nurse, and teacher-and resist books which for their selection has little to do with their knowledge portray women in unconventional occupations. of instructional materials? At the time it began, and Often, the social criteria of the various states con- even today, parental participation in education seemed flict with one another-what is required by one a good idea. But when so much money is involved in state is prohibited by another. Publishers have been a major adoption state's decisions, the parents who tes- forced to make textbooks increasingly bland and tify about textbook choices are no longer simple parents neutral so that no one in any state will find reason but representatives of powerful, national organizations. to criticize them. Textbook adoption has become subject to the veto of • All the adoption states have some kind of legisla- powerful special interest groups-minority groups, tion which attempts to control textbook publishers women's organizations, religious groups, and political and their sales people. There are restrictions on groups representing the extremes of left and right. Surely the amount of time that a salesperson can spend the judgments of experienced educators would be pref- with an adoption committee or with individual erable to the opinions of those who do not teach and teachers. There are limits on entertainment of cus- are not held accountable for children's learning. Yet the tomers, although such limits are difficult to en- statutes of only three adoption states require that the force. There has been a long history of bribery and adoption committee be comprised either totally or pre- kickbacks which continues to the present day. dominantly of educators, and only five states require educators on these committees to have subject matter • Many adoption states have laws requiring publish- expertise. ers to post bonds. This provision was designed to The overall effect of the adoption state laws has been protect the state from unscrupulous publishers who, to politicize the selection of textbooks, to deprive in- having been awarded a contract, failed to deliver dividual teachers of the professional responsibility for the books. In modern times, this requirement has textbook selection, and thus to contribute to the cyn- forced small publishers out of competition for an icism of teachers about the political process and to adoption because they cannot afford to pay the weaken the pride of teachers in their professional re- bond costs. Only large publishers can afford the sponsibilities. The educational needs of school districts costs of doing business in the major adoption states. in the open-territory states have been held hostage to In addition, some states require publishers to pro- the decisions of the major adoption states. And because vide hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of free the costs of doing business in the large adoption states samples before the adoption, and this provision too are so great and because the loss of business in those has forced small companies out of these major states has caused many publishers to go out of business, markets. there are fewer publishers and fewer choices available. All these typical laws in the adoption states seemed Most textbooks look just like all the competitors' text- good ideas at the time they were enacted. Originally, books, and adoption committees must choose from a posting bond was essential to protect school districts mediocre selection that has been designed more to avoid against sharp business practices. Now, however, the criticism from special interest groups than to educate provision eliminates healthy competition. children. It may have seemed, at the time, that there were no California, an adoption state, is the largest single special knowledge requirements for service on a text- purchaser of textbooks. Texas, also an adoption state, book adoption committee. Adoption committee mem- is the third largest purchaser. Even though New York bers were seen in the same light as a jury in a court of is second in volume purchases, it has little or no influ- law-a number of representative citizens who would ence on textbook content because it is an open-territory render a commonsense judgment. But now, with the state (see table 6-1). enormous advances in educational theory and with a It can be said that the U.S. textbook is truly the great expansion of knowledge in a variety of subjects, creation of public agencies, not of individual authors common sense and political representativeness are no who set out to write an excellent book. Although there longer adequate credentials for the selection of text- are exceptions to this general rule, these are few. The books. problem has been further complicated by two more The fact that adoption committees are chosen more recent developments, as discussed below. Textbook Development in the United States 77 Table 6-1. Estimated Industry Sales of Elementary Textbook Manufacturing Standards and High School Textbooks by State, 1983 In each of the tvventy-two adoption states, there is a person in the state education agency called the textbook California $110,698 10.10 officer. This person is responsible for overseeing the New York 78,922 7.20 mechanics of the textbook selection and adoption pro- Texas 65,139 5.94 cess, for relaying the bid specifications of each of the Illinois 64,226 5.86 Pennsylvania 48,558 4.43 states to the publishers, and for executing the purchase Ohio 47,753 4.35 orders. This person is the state business agent for text- Florida 46,092 4.20 books. The twenty-two states once had many different Michigan 43,435 3.96 standards for the physical characteristics of books- the New Jersey 43,020 3.92 quality of the binding, the quality of the paper, the type Missouri 28,096 2.56 of print, and the pictures and illustrations. Publishers Georgia 26,013 2.37 complained bitterly about the cost of meeting so many Virginia 25,695 2.34 different standards. These twenty-two officers have la- North Carolina 23,760 2.17 bored long and hard over many years to arrive at a Wisconsin 23,720 2.16 common standard. In recent years, they have developed Indiana 23,661 2.16 the Manufacturing Standards and Specifications for Massachusetts 23,281 2.12 Minnesota 21,972 2.00 Textbooks. The standards are so stringent that the books Oklahoma 21,030 1.92 can withstand an avalanche. Paperback books cannot South Carolina 20,797 1.90 even be considered in the adoption states. Kentucky 20,298 1.85 In recent years, a lot of people have proposed that Louisiana 19,717 1.80 inexpensive paperback books could be the solution to Arizona 19,355 1.77 many problems. Cheaper books could be developed for Oregon 19,013 1.73 states and cities with different curricular standards, and Washington 17,458 1.59 all the books would not have to be alike. Students could Maryland 16,812 1.53 write in the margin, underline, and keep some of the Iowa 15,924 1.45 books at the end of the year. In rapidly changing dis- Connecticut 15,117 1.38 ciplines like the physical sciences, textbooks could be Colorado 14,728 1.34 Tennessee 12,917 1.18 kept up to date because the school district could afford Kansas 12,670 1.16 to replace them quite frequently. West Virginia 11,095 1.01 All such suggestions, however, have failed to produce Mississippi 10,999 1.00 any change in textbooks. No publisher would dare risk Alabama 10,290 0.94 sales by putting out a book that would not meet the Arkansas 9,438 0.86 rigorous standards of the twenty-two adoption states, Nebraska 8,696 0.79 and no publisher wants to bear the cost of putting out New Mexico 8,287 0.76 two separate editions-one hardback and one paper- Utah 7,457 0.68 back. Furthermore, teachers and administrators gen- South Dakota 5,539 0.51 erally prefer the ten-pound hardback book to any al- Maine 5,486 0.50 ternative. Hardback books are easier to store, and the Hawaii 5,458 0.50 Rhode Island 5,070 0.46 school does not have to cope with ordering new books Montana 5,007 0.46 each year. District of Columbia 4,454 0.41 New Hampshire 4,440 0.40 Scientific Management of Curriculum North Dakota 4,408 0.40 Wyoming 4,083 0.37 Nevada 3,885 0.35 Another recent development, one which has had a Alaska 3,783 0.34 more devastating impact on the quality of textbooks, is Idaho 3,336 0.30 the concept of scientific management of curriculum. Delaware 3,240 0.30 For the last two decades, there have been increasing Vermont 2,219 0.20 pressures from the U.S. public for evidence that stu- Source: Association of American Publishers. Industry Statistics, dents in school are really learning what they are in- 1983. tended to learn. The scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) declined for many years, and an evaluation 78 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein of the U.S. school system on the basis of those scores have a chapter on molds in order that the books can would conclude that the schools were losing ground. be sold in the State of Tennessee. Even though other Certainly that is what the public concluded-largely more reputable chemists and science educators might on the basis of test scores reported in the newspapers. say that such a topic has no place in a first-year chem- So the decline in test scores, particularly the SAT, has istry book, the publishers will pay little attention as increased the pressure on schools to produce better long as Tennessee's bid specifications for chemistry books results. But the more deeply educators looked into de- include that topic. clining test scores, the more they became aware of this The idea of a scientifically managed curriculum- simple fact: students do better on tests if they study the notion that students should be tested on what they what is going to be tested. So if the schools were to have studied-is a good idea in theory. But when it improve their test scores, the curriculum had to match comes to textbook publishing, it has been a disaster. the tests. And because textbooks generally turn out to Publishers simply add up the topics on every state and be the curriculum, educators began to insist on text- city's curriculum list and pack all the required topics books that covered all curriculum material. This is called into the confines of a textbook of about 600 pages. As "scientific management of curriculum" because it leaves pressures continue to add more topics to the curricu- nothing to chance. lum (and with nobody willing to delete any), the books States and cities recently have tried to ensure a match have become so overstuffed and so little space is devoted between curriculum, textbooks, and tests by making to each topic-even to very important ones-that the long lists of goals and objectives for each subject and students often fail to understand the point. Facts have grade level. These lists are strongly influenced by the crowded out concepts. Concepts are the glue that hold national tests. The lists-which are called curriculum the facts together, but they have had to be sacrificed to guides or scope-and-sequence charts-then become the make room for everybody's required tidbits of knowl- bid specifications for textbooks. Publishers receive these edge. bid specifications from school districts all over the United Researchers who have analyzed current textbooks call States. Each political jurisdiction will adopt only the this problem "mentioning" -because each idea or fact textbooks that match its curriculum. is barely mentioned. There will be one sentence devoted Over time, the lists have gotten progressively longer to the Thirty Years' War and one sentence about the and longer. As new social crises have emerged, curric- Nixon presidency. The facts have no surrounding con- ulum leaders have experienced pressures from citizen text. There are few examples or explanations. Not sur- groups to add more material to the curriculum. As prisingly, the researchers have found that students re- science has expanded its knowledge, scientists and busi- member very little of what they read in textbooks. So ness people have insisted that students learn newly dis- what, in effect, state and school districts are buying are covered material. As technology has advanced, citizens textbooks that read like laundry lists and that students have come to expect students to learn about new tech- cannot understand. nology- particularly computers. The curricular demands of school districts differ. Even though each district considers the tests when making Readability Formulas and the English Language up its curriculum, there are many differing interpre- tations of what students need to know in order to score Another more recent development that has had a very well on the tests. In addition, there are regional differ- negative impact on the quality of textbooks concerns ences. For example, a large state like California can the level of reading difficulty and the way in which insist that textbooks for junior high school science con- teachers and adoption committees decide whether a tain information about the fauna and flora of the State book is too hard or too easy for students at a given of California. And because California is such an impor- grade or age. More than fifty years ago, in a time when tant market, this regional information is included in it was generally believed that science could be applied national editions of junior high science books. Thus to all human problems, educational researchers began children in Maine will be studying about the seal and to look for an objective way to estimate the reading the ice plant rather than the moose and the potato. difficulty of textbooks. Their intention was noble. No When a group of chemistry professors was assembled children should be given books so easy that they are in the State of Tennessee to help education officials bored or so difficult that they are frustrated and give decide what should be in the first-year chemistry cur- up. At that time, the researchers believed that long riculum, one local professor thought that every student words and long sentences were the primary cause of ought to know something about molds, and out of good- reading difficulty. So if the words were short and were will the other professors did not object. Thus the chem- familiar to the average child at a given age and if the istry books used by all students across the United States sentences were simple and did not have too many words, Textbook Development in the United States 79 then children would be able to understand the material. formulas to write or edit text, it has the paradoxical On this premise, formulas were developed to measure effect of making the material harder, not easier, to reading difficulty. Syllables in words were counted and understand. To give a simple example: averaged. Words in sentences were counted and aver- John didn't buy Mary a birthday present aged. A numerical score could be derived from these because he didn't have any money. calculations, and books could be assigned grade levels and given to students at the appropriate grade. That sentence might exceed the readability score be- This was a harmless enough activity fifty years ago. cause it is longer than the average number of words When educators were selecting books, they might per- permitted for a third-grade book. Thus, the editor would form a readability calculation, but they would also use probably change it to read: common sense and experience. If a book's readability John didn't buy Mary a birthday present. score was a little too high but the teacher knew from He didn't have any money. experience that the book was so interesting that chil- dren would love reading it, then the teacher might not The child who reads the second version does not have pay much attention to the numerical score. But as time the benefit of the word "because" to signal cause and passed, there were more and more hard-to-teach chil- effect. He or she has to infer the cause, and being young dren in U.S. schools. There were waves of immigrants and inexperienced might not get the connection. Thus, whose children did not know English very well and who in this example, the easier version (according to the therefore had difficulty reading textbooks. And as black formula) is really harder to understand. children were integrated into white school systems and The use of readability formulas to write and edit text began to stay in school longer, white teachers began to has done violence not only to good sense but also to complain to policymakers that the books were too hard good English style. And style, according to researchers, for disadvantaged black children. is not a trivial matter. It turns out that children prefer Teachers comprise a substantial voting block in any reading well-written prose to badly written prose, and school district election, and school boards are usually they remember more of what they read if it is both looking for ways to please the teachers. When elected beautiful and interesting. Formula prose is choppy, stilted, policymakers began looking for a way to ensure that and extremely monotonous. The cadence goes Ta-da, textbooks were easy enough for all students to read, Ta-da, Ta-da, period. Ta-da, Ta-da, Ta-da, period. It they found readability formulas. One state and city after would put even a highly motivated adult to sleep, not another began to require textbooks to pass a readability to mention children who often do not want to be at check and to yield the proper score before it could be school at all. adopted for that jurisdiction. As can be seen from a Combine the effects of the "mentioning" problem- typical textbook rating sheet, readability is the first hur- too many topics covered too superficially-and the in- dle for a textbook to negotiate (see figure 6-2). What fluence of readability formulas on language and one can had once been an informal evaluation procedure became see why children do not profit much from the expensive a legal requirement. Before a book could be considered and beautiful textbooks produced in the United States. on its merits, its content, and its capacity to interest You cannot judge a book by its cover-as the old students, it first had to pass over the hurdle of a read- saying goes. And yet judging a book by its cover, and ability formula. many other superficial features that have little to do When enough important states and cities had legis- with good teaching and good reading, is exactly what lated the use of formulas, publishers responded in the is happening. The mechanics of the textbook review and only possible way. Instead of using the writings of their selection process focus on these superficial character- authors, they began to edit text according to the rules istics rather than on the ones that ensure the selection of readability formulas. Long sentences were chopped of good thinking and writing. That is the next part of in two. Long words, even if they were necessary to the the story-how educators in the United States select sense of the material, were eliminated, and short words textbooks, what they look for, what is important to were substituted. Instead of reading the beautiful, tra- them, and why they are willing to purchase books which ditional stories which have stood the test of time and have been demonstrated to be poor by the most re- which represent our heritage and culture, young chil- spected scholars. dren were reading contrived, "scientifically" designed stories. Scholars know much more today about language and The Textbook Selection and Adoption Process reading than they did fifty years ago. It is now very clear that the premises of the readability formula are naive. In the twenty-two adoption states, after statewide It is also clear that when publishers use readability committees have selected several books on a particular 80 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein Figure 6-2. Rating Fomz for Textbook or Textbooks Series Name of Textbook or Series------------------------~---------- Author(s) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - P u b l i s h e r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Copyright date(s) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Price of book(s) Cost of supplementary materials - - - - - - - - - A. Readability 1. Approximate reading level(s) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. Formula used to determine level(s) 3. Reading level is realistic for students using the book(s) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - B. Authority Yes No N/A 1. Author is well-qualified and reliable in the field. 0 0 0 2. Publisher has reputation for high-quality publications. 0 0 0 C. Vocabulary 1. Key vocabulary is printed in bold or italicized print for easy detection. 0 0 0 2. Key vocabulary is listed before or following the chapter. 0 0 0 3. Words are defined either within the text or in the glossary. 0 0 0 4. Definitions are readable and easily understood. 0 0 0 5. Students could be expected to learn vocabulary with a reasonable amount of preteaching by the teacher. 0 0 0 D. Concepts 1. Main concepts presented support instructional objectives of the school district. 0 0 0 2. Major concepts are presented logically and skills are sequenced. 0 0 0 3. Major concepts are sequenced at a pace appropriate for most students. 0 0 0 4. Format of the text separates main concepts with headings or in sections. 0 0 0 5. Text provides sufficient detail to make concepts and ideas meaningful. 0 0 0 6. Concepts are appropriate-challenging but not frustrating-for students using the text. 0 0 0 7. Text is not so limited in scope as to be inadequate. 0 0 0 8. Text supports instructional management concept of the school. 0 0 0 9. Study guide questions accompany text. [} 0 0 10. Material and concepts can be related to student needs. 0 0 0 E. Presentation of material 1. The book is well-organized and deals with material: 0 chronologically 0 by units 0 by category 0 by topic 0 sequentially 2. Bibliography of supplementary material is presented at the end of chapters or at the end of the book. 0 0 0 3. Material can be related to other content areas and supports the total instructional program. 0 0 0 F. Ancillary material 1. Exercises relate to basic concepts and are not "busywork." 0 0 0 2. Directions are clear and easy to follow. 0 0 0 3. Pre- and poststudy questions stimulate thinking and are not all at literal level. 0 0 0 4. Practice exercises follow the sequence of skills. 0 c 0 5. Enrichment materials are available for superior and gifted students. 0 0 0 6. Appropriate materials are provided for average and below-average students. 0 0 0 7. Most students can do the practice materials with a minimum of teacher help. 0 0 0 Textbook Development in the United States 81 Figure 6-2 (Continued) Yes No N/A G. Graphics 1. Graphic materials are sufficient in number to help students understand materials. c c c 2. Illustrations, charts, maps, and graphs are clear and meaningful. 0 0 0 3. Photographs and pictures help clarify the text. 0 0 0 4. Illustrations help motivate student reading and stimulate class discussion. 0 0 0 5. Illustrations help students in thinking and problem-solving. 0 0 c H. Freedom from bias 1. Text presents minorities (races, religious groups, nationalities, sexes) without stereotype or bias. 0 0 c 2. Materials portray racial, religious, and ethnic groups in a way that will build understanding, appreciation, and acceptance. 0 c 0 I. Parts of text 1. Table of contents is complete, easy to use. 0 0 0 2. Glossary definitions and pronunciation key are simple and understandable. 0 0 0 3. Index is easy to use. 0 0 0 J. Teacher's guidebook 1. Teacher's guidebook is available. 0 0 0 2. Teacher's guidebook provides needed assistance. 0 0 3. Answer key is available. 0 0 0 4. Goals and objectives of text are clearly stated in guidebook. 0 0 0 5. Alternative materials are suggested for use with students. 0 0 0 K. Formal 1. Binding is durable and soil-resistant. 0 0 0 2. Paper is of good quality. 0 0 0 3. Print is appropriate size. 0 0 0 4. Print is clear and readable. 0 0 0 L. Cost 1. Cost is realistic for school district. 0 0 0 2. Cost of supplementary materials is reasonable. 0 0 0 topic for inclusion in the state-approved adoption list, So there is a bewildering array of materials to examine. the local school districts choose from among the ap- Just choosing an elementary reading series for kinder- proved books. Many districts will purchase only one garten through the sixth grade could be a task that book for each grade or subject, and so a similar process would take weeks of concentrated analysis if the job of screening is repeated by local textbook adoption com- were to be done conscientiously. mittees in each school district. But if teachers work overtime, they expect to be paid, Although they do not have as many alternatives to and few school districts have the money to pay for much choose from, the local adoption committees neverthe- overtime. What happens, then, is that a committee of less face a daunting task. Not only must they choose teachers is assembled after a full day of teaching. They from among the textbooks; they must also make deci- sit down at a table with an enormous pile of books and sions about all the extras that come with a textbook. other materials. They are given a checklist with hundreds In recent years, publishers do not just sell the student of items. The checklist, intended to help them remem- text; they sell a teachers' manual, workbooks, maps, ber all the points they should consider, has usually been slides, sample letters home to the parents, tests, and developed by some other committee of teachers and all kinds of other supplementary material. The publish- administrators, sometimes with the help of parents or ers no longer provide textbooks but textbook programs. representatives of political pressure groups. Everyone 82 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein wants the points he' or she considers most important ulum specifications of the cities of Detroit, Sioux City, on the checklist. and Houston and the whole state of North Carolina. Yet Just as the lists of curricular objectives are really too the bid specifications from those different places are long for any student to accomplish reasonably in a school almost certainly quite different. Detroit might have a year, so the lists of criteria for textbook selection are thousand objectives for elementary mathematics and really too long for any adoption committee to accom- North Carolina might also have a thousand objectives plish in an afternoon, which is usually the time allotted for elementary mathematics, but they will not be the to this process. Even worse, the checklists, like the same thousand. readability formula, concentrate on things that can be So what does the publisher do? It hires people to sit counted or observed. A book might get ten points on a down with the district's bid specifications and the text- rating sheet just because it has a table of contents, even book, and those people look for the merest shred of if the table of contents is inappropriate or misleading. evidence that the publisher's book "covers" all the points For the most part, the checklists fail to register any required by the state or city. These documents some- qualitative differences. And even if it were possible to times involve hundreds of pages, and according to pub- record differences in quality on the typical rating sheet, lishers nobody in the school district actually reads them there would not be the time to do a serious, qualitative or checks to see whether they are accurate. Yet pub- analysis of four or five different textbook programs. lishers freely admit that the correlational analysis is a What happens, then, is that the teachers on the local matter of smoke and mirrors. A single word or sentence adoption committees make their decisions on the basis in the textbook, the teachers' guide, or the workbook of factors that have little to do with textbook quality. will justify a citation that the topic has been covered. They tend to put a lot of faith in pictures and illustra- One publishing executive told me that he regarded cor- tions. A typical question on a rating sheet will be, "Are relational analysis as "merely an exercise to be per- the pictures and illustrations attractive?" This is the formed." Some central requirements of the curriculum kind of question that can be addressed between three have been met, and the document provides symbolic and five in the afternoon. The teachers literally flip proof. through the pages of the book, looking at the pictures. Further down the list of items under section I, figure Publishers know how the system works, and so they 6-3, is item E-"suitability to maturity level and read- put all the most attractive pictures on the right-hand ing level" -calling the readability formula into play. side of the book so that it will pass what they call the Adoption committees will sometimes send their mem- flip test. bers home with the books to calculate the "readability Another standard question on rating sheets is, "Is the level" according to the formula. In general, teachers binding sturdy?" Now there is no way in the world that are no longer willing to exercise their personal judg- school teachers can tell by thumping the cover whether ment on this matter because they have been convinced the binding will last for six months or six years. That that something "objective" is better than their subjec- is a technical and scientific question, and they do not tive opinion. Publishers know how the world works, have the knowledge to answer it. Yet teachers enjoy and they will use the readability formula for writing answering the question because it is one that can be texts as long as adoption committees use it to judge answered quickly. In fact, the question (and answer) is textbooks. If a single passage or page should fail to irrelevant because the twenty-two adoption states have obtain the proper score, an adoption might be lost. established technical standards for book bindings, and Item Lin figure 6-3-"Up to date" -is typical. Judg- all publishers abide by those standards. ing whether the book is really up to date requires a In figure 6-3 (a typical checklist), the first item- great deal of specialized subject-matter knowledge which "Fits our curriculum needs" -is really quite important. teachers typically do not have. They are after all teach- To respond to that item thoughtfully, the curriculum ers, not scholars. They do not have time to keep up guide must be matched point by point against the ma- with changes in their own subject disciplines. So the terial in the textbooks. One report was that it took five quick and easy way to judge up-to-dateness is to check hours of serious work just to go through one volume the publication date. There was a time many years ago of a textbook series. when a current publication date meant that the pub- Clearly, adoption committees do not have that kind lisher had produced a new, revised edition with up-to- of time when they are confronted with a stack of text- date content. But for some time publishers have been books. So what do they really do? They ask the publisher allowed by law to change only a few pages in an entire to provide a document called a correlational analysis. book and still qualify for a current publication date. So In other words, the publisher is expected to do the labor a current date no longer means that the knowledge has involved in proving that its book matches the currie- been updated. It may mean that the publisher has changed Textbook Development in the United States 83 Figure 6-3. Textbook Rating Checklist Name of b o o k / s e r i e s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Author(s) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Publisher Date of publication Price-------- Name of person making evaluation Total of points awarded I. Organization and content Ill. Authors A. Fits our curriculum needs A. Experience with this age group B. Adapted to specific needs of students B. Education C. Quality of content C. Training D. Adequate coverage of material E. Suitability to maturity level and reading level Maximum credit: 10 points Examiner's credit F. Vocabulary level G. Not enough or too much stress on detail IV. Teaching aids H. Teaching of values A. Suitable aids to learning (maps, pictures, charts) I. Interest level B. Suitable helps and aids to instruction J. Correct standards and ideals in use of English C. Suitable end-of-chapter activities K. Method of presentation D. Suitable testing materials L Up to date E. Index (quality and usefulness) M. Use of sequential development F. Table of contents N. Inclusion of chapter summaries G. References and bibliography 0. Adaptable to time limit of course H. Glossary I. Appendix Maximum credit: 60 points Examiner's credit _ _ _ __ J. Teacher's edition 1. Background information II. Physical features 2. List of activities to lead student beyond textbook A. Attractiveness 3. Concepts and generalizations of and clearly stated B. Illustrations 4. Suggestions for methods of motivation C. Dimensions of book D. Durability of book Maximum credit: 20 points Examiner's credit E. Size and style of type F. Arrangement of page V. Resources already available in district resource center Maximum credit: 10 points Examiner's credit----· Comments: Describe special features of the book you liked and/or objectionable features which might prohibit adoption of of the book. some pictures or titles-pictures and titles that might be the titular authors. And because both of those states please adoption committees. Thus this method of as- have large Hispanic populations, publishers like to se- suring up-to-dateness is not up to date and has not been lect a professor with a Spanish last name. There are so for many years. also lists of ''consultants" who have supposedly helped Another anachronism that still has a firm place in the authors by reviewing the books, and those must the adoption process can be seen in the third category- now include women, rank and file teachers, and edu- "Authors." Adoption committees are asked to judge the cators with national recognition. credentials of the authors, and so publishers print those \Vhat really happens, though, is that the authors listed credentials at the beginning of the book. The truth is, on the title page do not very often really write the book. though, that those authors are not really the authors. They are not really writers, and they are busy. Often They are selected for their credentials so that the book they fail to deliver a manuscript, or when they do it is will have a better chance of selling, but they are not in unusable. Young people hired by the publishers do the most cases the people who actually wrote the book. writing, or else the publisher resorts to a production Because Texas and California are so powerful, publishers shop. Often, the production shop receives the assign- typically select an education professor from the Uni- ment at the last minute. A publisher might find out a versity of Texas, the University of California, or both to few months before the publication date that the named 84 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein authors cannot produce the material, and the produc- children-is Dickens's A Christmas Carol. No prudent tion shop will be expected to come up with text in a publisher would include that story in an anthology of very short time. children's stories, however, because some group of se- Not only are the real writers limited by time, but they nior citizens in California could appeal to the adoption also must follow outlines provided by the publishers. committee to reject the book. In Shakespeare's Mer- The outlines consist of the combined topics that all chant of Venice there is the miserly Jewish merchant, jurisdictions insist upon and the social issues that must Shylock, and Jewish pressure groups in California and be included or avoided-usually avoided. These real elsewhere have tried to get that play eliminated from writers have very little freedom to write a coherent the public school curriculum. book. They are tied in knots by all the requirements In literary classics from the last century, women are and prohibitions, and they are constrained in their use often portrayed as helpless, uneducated people whose of language by readability-formula requirements. Thus only function is to serve their husbands and raise the although innocent teachers across the land are reading children. Powerful groups of feminists have often tried information about authors of textbooks and making to get textbook adoption committees to reject literary judgments based on that information, the publishers selections, however great, because those selections were are creating illusions that will enhance sales. written at a time when women were not considered the equal of men. Pressure Groups and Bias Publishers have been caught in the cross fire between black pressure groups with different viewpoints on how "Freedom from Bias" (item H in figure 6-2) raises blacks should be portrayed in textbooks. On one side another issue. Because of the struggle to overcome prej- are those black Americans who object to lengthy dis- udice against minority groups-particularly black peo- cussions of slavery because they believe that such ma- ple and more recently women-textbooks have become terial contributes to a negative image of blacks. On the the target of those groups which want society to become other are those who believe that white Americans need more fair and those which do not. to be confronted with the cruelties that slavery imposed There has been progress. Only ten years ago, some on black Americans. U.S. textbooks portrayed blacks, women, or ethnic mi- Curiously, conservative Protestants in Texas do not norities in stereotypical ways. For the most part, these want textbooks to mention death because they think it stereotypes have been eliminated because publishers is too depressing for young children to know about. The understood that they risked loss of sales. But the re- power of these groups was so great about ten years ago quirements of minority-group representatives have gone that publishers dared not present any stories that in- far beyond the removal· of negative portrayals. Fairness volved death. The religious fundamentalists also do not is the main consideration, and often the method of want textbooks to contain stories that show conflict assuring fairness is quite mechanical. Thus each picture between parents and children, and yet such conflicts must have equal numbers of blacks and whites or males are the stuff of great fiction. For nearly a decade, Texas and females. Three seated females are not considered forced publishers to eliminate the theory of evolution equal to one active male. Minority-group members- from biology books because the fundamentalists believe for example, female Hispanics-must not be shown it undermines Christian belief. always as peasants or mothers but also as professionals. Publishers have tried to avoid such controversies and The thought behind such a requirement is that students prevent their books from being rejected by school dis- who are female Hispanics need role models of women tricts responding to pressure groups by contriving happy, of their own kind who have achieved status in this bland, empty stories that have no conflict, no sadness, society. and no imperfect people. But it is clear that children Although every reasonable American knows that text- do not like to read such stories. Stories that lack con- books once treated minorities and women unfairly and flict, that do not present life as it really is, are boring. nearly everyone is glad that textbooks no longer present Even worse, the great literary works of the past have such negative images, there has been an enormous price had to be set aside, and history and biology books have to pay as a result of the mechanical way in which fair- had to be severely edited. ness has been interpreted. California, for example, says Although the bias item appears to be a simple and that elderly people cannot be shown in a negative way. reasonable part of the checklist, the way in which it is And yet one of the great classic writers of the English interpreted has been a mixed blessing. Although chil- language, Charles Dickens, portrayed a number of old dren are no longer exposed to biased textbooks, they people as bad tempered and selfish. One of the great are also no longer exposed to the common culture of classic stories-and one that is entirely appropriate for the English-speaking world. And fear of militant, con- Textbook Development in the United States 85 servative Christian groups has blocked children from phasis on curriculum reinforces the problem of "men- important scientific knowledge as well. tioning" or too many topics. There are now counter-pressures from cultural critics In practice, because the task of textbook selection is and reading experts to include more natural literature, so overwhelming, people usually select books on the true history, and good science in children's books. Even basis of what they do not want rather than what they though publishers have begun to respond to those do want. Teachers skim through the pages to find evi- counter-pressures, they are still afraid of the anger of dence of bias or inaccuracy or lack of coverage of some special-interest groups and still aware that most adop- point. and that is the basis of elimination. tion committees continue to judge books by political Once in a while, a conscientious publisher takes a standards. As long as powerful adoption committees in big risk. The publisher will put out a textbook that meets major states continue to count races and genders and a high standard and that reflects modern knowledge to eliminate good material because of sentences or pic- about sound textbooks. But in nearly all cases, these tures that offend them, publishers will continue to pro- risky ventures have been very costly. When those high- duce books that avoid the deepest issues of the human quality books have been put through the current se- condition. lection process, their virtues have not even been no- The basic cultural issue at stake is the historic strug- ticed. Sometimes principled publishers have been forced gle between those who want children to know about out of the business. Few are willing to take such risks life as it is and those who want them to know about anymore. Until they believe that quality is a serious life as they wish it were. The current conflict is more issue with those who purchase books, publishers will exaggerated because the media seek out controversial continue to place emphasis on coverage of topics, even issues and publicize the angry, crusading, colorful lead- at the expense of good writing; on pretty pictures, even ers of pressure groups. if the pictures bear little relation to what is written in the book; and on the sensitivities of political groups, Other Choices even if knowledge is falsified. In summary, the textbook enterprise in the United In item F of figure 6-2, "Ancillary Material," the re- States has become a comedy of errors. The economic viewers are asked to consider some aspects of quality. lure of the large adoption states has distorted the free- This calls for a judgment about whether the workbook enterprise market, and in the process the corrective exercises are just busywork or related to basic concepts effects of free competition have been stifled. Further, the children should be learning. It asks whether the the laws designed to solve the problems of a bygone era directions are clear and easy to follow. in U.S. history have remained and have had an unin- Those particular questions are there because of the tended and negative impact on the current textbook deterioration in the quality of workbooks. A recent anal- market. State legislators-generally less concerned about ysis of workbooks showed that most workbooks were education than other public issues-have passed laws merely busywork. Furthermore, her examples, drawn which have had the opposite effect of those intended. from the leading publishers' workbooks, showed that For political gain, they have yielded to pressures from even a skillful adult would have trouble understanding special-interest groups, and in the process they have the directions. The publishers, to save money, had been made laws which have helped in some ways but done hiring other companies to compile the workbooks. Often harm in others. the people who compiled the workbooks neither read Publishers, in their pursuit of profit, have sacrificed the student textbook nor collaborated with the author. academic integrity and literary quality because buyers They wrote workbooks in complete isolation and under are concerned about other matters. The salespeople who severe time pressures, and often they produced essen- represent publishing houses have wined and dined teacher tially the same workbook for several major publishers. committees, bribed adoption committees with free text- Because the publishers have been so embarrassed by books or workbooks, flattered influential teachers by the scholarly criticism of their workbooks, they have putting them in charge of pilot studies of new textbooks, begun to take them more seriously, and the workbooks and generally promised everybody to make teaching are beginning to improve. easier and easier. Teachers are told that the book will Few checklists take account of important new knowl- produce amazing results on tests, that lesson plans are edge about effective textbooks. They seldom ask the included in the teacher guide, that the tests are self- reviewers to consider seriously either the quality of writ- scoring, and that the workbooks will help them manage ing or the depth of treatment required for student the class by cutting down on discipline problems. understanding. The emphasis in most checklists on Teachers are becoming more and more dependent on readability actually reinforces bad writing, and the em- textbook programs. The ready-made lesson plans and 86 Harriet Tyson-Bernstein tests mean that they do not have to spend their evenings intentioned. But the curious effects of this fragmented preparing for the next day at school. The teacher guide system of school governance as it comes up against the tells them exactly what to say and even provides alter- national free-enterprise production system has caused native plans for students who do not understand or good intentions to become bad textbooks. those who understand too quickly and need something The developing countries are concerned with a much else to do. Although some of these features may help more basic set of problems: how to get enough text- beginning teachers or correct the weaknesses of poor books produced; how to get the textbooks to the stu- ones, they threaten to deprive all teachers of their pride, dents; how to protect the books from moisture, mold, their creativity, and their autonomy as professionals. and insects; and how to find the money to buy them. But only 130 years ago, the United States faced many of the same problems. In that short span of time, Amer- Positive Trends icans have managed to create a system that is too con- cerned with trivial matters and not enough concerned In the last several years, textbook quality has sud- with culture, scholarship, or student understanding. denly become a political issue. The press has been put- Every country has its unique problems, and every ting the spotlight on research findings related to the culture and language requires its own special consid- quality of writing, the depth of treatment, and the dis- eration. But I would offer the following advice to any tortions brought about by the political process. A few nation on what not to do as it moves forward in the states have begun to train their adoption committee development of textbooks: members and to allocate more time for the review of books. Some states are beginning to rewrite their adop- • Do not try to regulate authors and publishers too tion codes. California recently refused to purchase sci- closely. Good books are written in an atmosphere ence textbooks because none of them paid enough at- of relative freedom. tention to evolution, human reproduction, or ethical • Do not use checklists to tell publishers what to issues related to the environment. California has also write or teachers what to buy. Checklists and other demanded that elementary reading books contain more bureaucratic rituals have a way of crowding out high-quality literature. thought. It is too early to tell whether any of these changes • Do not allow modern ideas to deprive children of will spread to other states and school districts or whether the myths, stories, and historical events that are they will be lasting. The forces keeping the present part of their cultural heritage. Maybe it is only system in place are very powerful. Of more importance, Americans who would do such a silly thing, but it the enterprise has become so absurdly complicated that is worth noting that the education of any people few people fully understand it. When legislatures treat suffers when it tries to cut its ties with the past, the symptoms without fully diagnosing the disease, they even if the past is less than beautiful. often make things worse, not better. Florida, for ex- • Do not take all the decisions away from the teach- ample, recently passed a law that all textbooks adopted ers. Even if those teachers are not as well trained there must be on grade level. The legislator who intro- as they should be, they will not become stronger duced the bill believed he was going to reverse the trend if they are not trusted to make important decisions toward "baby-talk" in textbooks and ensure that stu- about the tools of their profession. dents got books that were challenging instead of boring. He failed to understand that his law would have the • In the total costs of schooling, textbooks form a relatively small item. Too much attention to cost opposite effect. Florida also recently passed a law that textbooks must and not enough attention to effectiveness is short- match all the items in Florida's curriculum. Unfortu- sighted. The difference in the price of a mediocre nately, Florida's curriculum is highly specific, with book and a good book is small and not worth the saving. Old books are both better than no books thousands of bits of knowledge and skill included in every subject area. Publishers will now have to stuff and better than bad new books. more and more tidbits and gimmicks into already over- • The student should be seen as the ultimate user crowded books in order to attract Florida sales. Thus of the book. If the book appeals to politicians, pro- through failure to understand cause and effect and un- fessors, administrators, or even teachers but stu- willingness to understand how selection committees dents find it too simple, too advanced, boring, frus- work or why publishers respond to laws in an exagger- trating, or unclear, then the book is not a good ated fashion, the Florida legislators have made serious book, regardless of what anybody else thinks. problems even worse. • Schools should provide free textbooks to all stu- Nearly all efforts to improve textbooks have been well dents. When students have to buy their own books, Textbook Development in the United States 87 the poor are penalized and the goals of a public Journal, January 3. Houghton-Mifflin and Columbia Uni- education system are defeated. versity historian Henry F. Graff's efforts to create a "block- buster" high school history textbook. Annotated Bibliography Textbook Selection Recent Critiques of Textbooks Bowler, Michael. 1978. "Textbook Publishers Try to Please All, but First They Woo the Heart of Texas." Reading Teacher, Brewer, J. A., L. Jenkins, and B. Harp. 1984. "Ten Points You February. The crucial role of the Texas state adoption in Should Know about Readability Formulas." School Admin- determining the content and quality of textbooks. istrator, June. An excellent overview of the uses and abuses English, Raymond. 1980. "The Politics ofTextbookAdoption." of readability formulas in textbooks. Phi Delta Kappan, December. Political factors contributing Elliott, David L., Kathleen Carter Nagel. and Arthur Wood- to poor textbook quality. ward. 1985. "Do Textbooks Belong in Elementary Social Farr, R., and M. A. Tully. 1985. "Do Adoption Committees Studies?" 1!,(/ucational Leadership, April. A review of ten Perpetuate Mediocre Textbooks?" Phi Delta Kappan, March. recently published elementary social studies series that raises Recommendations for improving textbook selection. questions about the adequacy of content and skills instruc- Kirst, M. W.l984. "Choosing Textbooks. Reflections of a State tion. Board President." American Educator, Summer. The pros, FitzGerald, Frances. 1979. America Revised. New York: At- cons, and pitfalls of state versus local adoption of textbooks. lantic-Little Brown. A stinging and convincing critique of high school history textbooks as bland and unexciting. Textbook Reform The Publishing Industry and Textbooks Bernstein, Harriet Tyson. 1985. "The New Politics of Textbook Bowler, Michael. 1978. "The Making of a Textbook." Learning Adoption." Phi Delta Kappan, March. Overview of the dif- 6. A discussion of the economics, politics, and pressures ferent forces influencing textbook reform. that go into producing a textbook and that hinder the pub- Doyle, D. P. 1984. ''The 'Unsacred' Texts: Market Forces that lishing of innovative materials. Work Too Well." American Educator, Summer. "As a so- Bragdon, H. W. 1978. "Ninth Edition, Adventures with a Text- ciety, we have lost sight of what it is we want our children book." Independent Schoo/7, no. 3. A noted textbook au- to know" -and consequently the bland, simplistic text- thor describes the compromises and changes he made in books now published. writing his popular high school history. Honig, Bill. 1985. "The Educational Excellence Movement." Broudy, Eric. 1975. "The Trouble with Textbooks." Teachers Phi Delta Kappan, June. General discussion of educational College Record 77. The inside story of textbook publishing reform and the need to improve textbook quality. by a former editor of a major textbook company. Osborn, J. H., B. F. Jones, and M. Stein. 1985. "The Case for Davis, Barbara H.1985. "Scholastic Work: Many Forces Shape Improving Textbooks." Educational Leadership, April. ~What Making and Marketing of a New School Book." Wall Street research tells us about instructionally sound textbooks. 7 Copyright in the Developing World Philip G. Altbach The distribution of knowledge requires a complex set copyright in the context of the distribution of knowl- of relations among publishers, journals, multinational edge. The issues raised here have deep philosophical corporations, governments, educational and academic importance and go to the very heart of the control of institutions, and individual scholars. A controversial and knowledge and creativity, to the right of the individual important element in those relations is copyright. It over his or her work, and of course to the sometimes affects every aspect of the knowledge business, from the conflicting needs of society to have access to knowledge rewards available to an individual author and the con- whether for school textbooks or for advanced scientific trol exercised over intellectual works to international research. There are no easy answers. What seems philo- relations among large corporations and nations con- sophically clear in one context may raise problems in cerning the distribution of knowledge. another. Definitions are also a problem. As photo- International copyright-the control over the inter- copying has grown into a major industry, the concept national distribution of knowledge and the rules that of "fair use" has become a matter of considerable con- govern the flow of printed materials across borders- troversy in the industrial nations (Weinberg 1975; see is a key concern because developing nations use knowl- also Leavens 1981). edge from abroad and are generally dependent on for- eign books. Copyright necessarily has an impact on how knowledge is distributed, on who controls it, and on The Concept of Copyright the development of the publishing industry. I am con- cerned here largely with books, the most traditional There are at least three basic approaches to copyright. means of distributing knowledge, and not so much with The first stresses the moral right of the individual to the new nonprint modes of distribution and commu- his or her. creative property and to his or her essential nication, although copyright has significant implica- control over that property, be it a work of art, an in- tions for them as well. The impact of copyright on vention, or a book. This approach is reflected in most knowledge in the developing world is my main concern, of the European copyright laws and in the Berne Con- along with the related theme of the relation of textbooks vention, the oldest and largest of the two major inter- to copyright in both national and international frame- national copyright arrangements. Copyright might be works. To discuss these themes, it is necessary to con- summarized as either a natural right or an inherent sider the context of copyright in the modem world. moral right of the individual (Ploman and Hamilton What follows is not a discussion of the legal aspects 1980: chap. 1). The second approach, nicely summa- of copyright, although the bulk of the literature on rized in the U.S. Constitution, holds that copyright is copyright is related to copyright law and its applica- intended to stimulate creativity and invention and that tions. Copyright law, a recognized specialty within legal it is a privilege granted to individuals for the benefit of studies, has become increasingly important as a result society (Ringer 1974: 19-28). The U.S. approach can of the reinterpretations necessary to deal with the com- be summarized as a commercial view of copyright and, plex issues raised by the new technologies such as re- in general, as a way of encouraging intellectual crea- prography (photocopying), advances in computer-based tivity. The third approach is the societal theory exem- composition, and new techniques of printing. Although plified by the Soviet copyright system. In this system, legal issues will be mentioned, my concern is with the the society has certain basic rights over creative work, political, economic, and intellectual implications of and the copyright laws reflect a compromise between 88 Copyright in the Developing World 89 personal rights and the rights of the collective enter- have moved slowly to make their copyright laws indig- prise. The concept of copyright as property, which is enous. Furthermore, there has been a good deal of con- the key to the market economies and is basic in both troversy concerning the appropriate orientation to the U.S. and European approaches to copyright, is ab- copyright. Current thinking in developing countries on sent from the societal theory (Ploman and Hamilton copyright reflects elements of all three of the basic ap- 1980: 123; for a broader perspective, see Walker 1978). proaches discussed above and may in the long run con- Not everyone, of course, agrees that copyright is a tribute to a synthesis of theoretical perspectives on good thing. One of the classic anti copyright statements copyright and the distribution of knowledge. is Thomas Macaulay's that copyright is "a tax on readers The emergence of the developing nations since World for the purpose of giving a bounty to writers." 1 Philo- War II has added a dimension to the concept of copy- sophical arguments have raged over the centuries con- right. Discussions in developing countries of the cre- cerning the nature of copyright, the justification for it, ation, dissemination, and use of information in the global and the appropriate limits when balancing the interests village have stimulated debates in meetings of Unesco of the individual with those of society. The controversy and other organizations on the "New World Information has grown more complex in the past few decades as Order" and on issues of equity and control over the copyright has been applied to nonbook products such means of dissemination (Olian 1974:81-112; see also as computer programs. The argument concerning reg- McFarland 1982:100 and Bortnick 1981}. But virtually ulations governing photocopies is a good example of everyone who writes about copyright accepts the basic the complexity of copyright in recent years. The ar- premises on which the concept is based; the debates guments revolve around the rights of individuals and are predicated on a common understanding and ac- publishing firms, on the one hand, and those of the ceptance. public, on the other, to knowledge and to the dissem- Textbooks have not been considered as a separate ination of photocopied material. issue in copyright debates. It is generally assumed that Copyright stems from particular historical and so- textbooks can be treated as other publications and be cioeconomic circumstances. It emerged and gained subject to the same copyright regulations as other books. strength in Europe as printing and distribution grew In the international context, however, textbooks have more sophisticated, industry developed, and a mass been recognized as belonging to a special category that market for cultural goods assumed importance. As lit- should not be limited solely to commercial considera- eracy became widespread, newspapers, magazines, and tions and should be permitted to cross borders without books became artifacts of contemporary culture. The the same restrictions as other books. Textbooks are mode of economic organization was capitalist, and ar- therefore considered to be partially exempt from rigid tistic creation was increasingly linked with an emerging copyright protection because of their importance toed- industrial revolution and the attitudes and institutions ucation in developing countries. that grew up alongside this key transformation of the nineteenth century. The role of the artist and writer that copyright protects is based on a capitalist relation Historical Perspectives between culture and profit. The idea of the artist and writer as an individual creator who profits from his or Although copyright has a long history, it did not her work and who is engaged in a competitive enterprise emerge as an important concept until nations began to with other individual creators is the key to the European build up their own cultural infrastructures and felt the and U.S. ideologies of copyright. This concept of copy- need to systematize and protect authors, publishers, right functions in a market system where intellectual musicians, and the panoply of new knowledge indus- goods can be bought and sold and are assigned a mon- tries. The United States, as will be illustrated, was one etary value. Edward Ploman argues how surprising it of the world's first major pirates until it securely de- is that copyright has gained such wide acceptance in veloped its own cultural industry in the late nineteenth societies with quite different economic orientations and century. The needs, concerns, and indeed the issues value structures (Ploman 1985: 27; similar themes are which are now of concern to the developing countries discussed in Mattelart 1983 and in Mattelart and Sie- have become only very recently part of the discussion gelaub 1979). Stripped of its idealistic claims, copyright of copyright and the distribution of knowledge. As Ed- is a way of bringing the world of intellectual creativity ward Ploman succinctly put it (Pioman and Hamilton into the world of contemporary commerce. 1980: 8): Historically, most developing nations inherited the European approach to copyright, because most of the Copyright evolved in response to specific changes. Its copyright laws were patterned on the colonial regula- origin is Western and its parentage multiple: the in- tions that were in place at the time of independence. vention of the printing press and the advent of the Given other development priorities, developing nations Industrial Revolution, the philosophy of the market- 90 Philip G. Altbach place and that of natural rights, the rise of bourgeois lishing industries and only later observing the niceties society and the spread of literacy, new social attitudes of copyright. Both of the world's current superpowers, toward art and the artist. The resulting notion of the United States and the Soviet Union, were quite late intellectual property is a European invention but is in joining the international copyright system. Imperial now used in diverse economic and social systems to Russia did not strictly adhere to copyright rules, and structure the flow of information and cultural prod- the revolutionary Soviet regime followed that tradition, ucts. joining the international copyright community only in 1974 (see Cramer 1965; Lottman 1975; Schwartz Historically, copyright developed in England in the 1975). The U.S. attitude toward copyright is in many sixteenth century-not as a means of protecting au- ways a classic example of how copyright has been both thors and intellectuals, but as a means of maintaining flouted-and utilized-in the process of developing order and discipline in the emerging book trade (Pat- an independent literature, culture, and publishing terson 1978: 222; see also Whale 1970). As England infrastructure. became a key center for intellectual products and for The United States in the nineteenth century was a publishing (not only for its colonies but also for the developing nation and looked to Europe for cultural United States), the evolution of copyright there followed and intellectual cues.2 The first U.S. copyright act, passed a rather twisted path and was informed by the concerns in 1790, specifically permitted pirating of foreign pub- of the marketplace, of book publishers, and eventually lished works (Patterson 1978: 197). The general thrust of the British book trade to protect its export interests of the 1790 act was that copyright was a privilege and (Parsons 1974). Copyright in England was also linked not a right and therefore could be significantly re- to the laws of press control and censorship, and it func- stricted. The U.S. printing and publishing industries tioned for more than 150 years as a means of main- grew up with the practice of freely printing foreign taining a monopoly in the book trade. Thus in England works and selling them in the United States without the rights of authors and artists had relatively little to obtaining permission from the overseas authors and do with the early development of copyright; such con- without paying any royalties. Some of the best-known cerns emerged later and were in some respects stim- U.S. publishers prospered by obtaining popular fictional ulated by thinking in France and elsewhere in Europe. works in England and quickly printing copies in the Despite this rather murky beginning, the world's first United States. Charles Dickens, among many other Brit- copyright law (the Statute of Anne, passed in 1709) did ish authors, frequently complained about his economic recognize the right of the author to his or her work as losses due to U.S. pirating. In many ways, the U.S. well as regulate the printing trade. printing and publishing industries benefited signifi- Early copyright discussions were remarkably similar cantly from a system that depended on freedom to pub- to those heard today. There was a concern about how lish, without payment, the unprotected works of foreign to deal with revolutionary technological develop- authors (Tebel 1975). It is also significant that even ments- in this case, the printing press and its immense when the United States began to offer copyright pro- impact on culture and commerce. How to control the tection to foreign authors and to participate in inter- number of copies and keep track of distribution were national copyright activities, it retained in its copyright also topics of considerable concern in the eighteenth law a manufacturing clause that demanded books by and nineteenth centuries. The rights of authors, on the U.S. authors be printed in the United States in order one hand, and the control of knowledge, including cen- to enjoy U.S. copyright protection. This clause was the sorship, on the other, entered into the equation. Finally, subject of considerable controversy in the debate con- the rights of others involved in the business of culture, cerning the 1968 copyright revision; in 1986 it was including both booksellers and publishers, were very allowed by the U.S. Congress to expire, thus removing much part of the debates. Each of these concerns has one of the last special provisions in the U.S. copyright its analogy in current discussions of copyright. law (Ringer 1968: 1054). Nations have always used copyright for their own The first significant U.S. participation in interna- purposes-a fact that is easy to ignore in the idealistic tional copyright was in 1891. But the United States did rhetoric that has characterized copyright discussions not formally participate in any of the established inter- since World War II. The fact is that the nations which national copyright conventions until the Universal basically control the world system of knowledge-the Copyright Convention (ucc) was established in 1952- Western industrial powers-have convinced the rest of and the ucc was, in fact, set up largely to bring the the world that their version of contemporary copyright United States and most Latin American countries which is the correct and universal standard. This was not al- followed the U.S. lead into the fold of international ways the case. Nations historically have been most con- treaties. In some respects, the unwillingness of the United cerned with first developing their own culture and pub- States to offer protection to foreign authors until quite Copyright in the Developing World 91 recently contributed to the buildup of independent U.S. tection from its date of creation whether or not it is publishing and printing industries (Oiian 1974: 93). In formally registered with a national copyright office. This other respects, it retarded the growth of U.S. authorship protection is offered only to nationals of the signatories and made it difficult for Americans to earn a living by of the convention. The length of copyright protection, writing, because publishers could easily publish foreign an issue of considerable controversy, has been gradually (mostly British) authors without paying royalties. It is extended so that it is now the author's lifetime plus fifty quite clear that the United States used copyright for its years. own purposes and that the Americans in the nineteenth The second major international copyright treaty was century were the worst pirates in the world. established in 1952 under the auspices of Unesco, which currently administers it. 3 The Universal Copyright Con- vention was developed largely to bring the United States The International Copyright System and a number of Latin American nations into the in- ternational copyright system. It was, simply stated, a International copyright protection is a recent devel- compromise between the Berne Convention and the opment, and it too resulted from the growth of tech- U.S. view on copyright (Pioman and Hamilton 1980: nologies, from more international use of such languages 58). U.S. copyright law traditionally has offered signif- as English, French, German, and Spanish, and from the icantly less protection to copyright holders than Eu- emergence of international centers of book publishing ropean rules, and the ucc similarly is less inclusive than and scholarship (Ringer 1968: 1051). By the mid-nine- the Berne Convention, although both treaties provide teenth century, the web of copyright treaties in Europe basic rights and many countries are members of both was so confusing that an international conference was the Berne Convention and the ucc. The ucc sees copy- called, resulting in the International Convention for the right in a larger context that includes such issues as Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, popularly known the development of literature and the dissemination of as the Berne Convention, in 1886 (Unesco 1981; see knowledge. As a result, factors other than simple pro- also Ploman and Hamilton 1980). It is the oldest copy- tection of the rights of authors enter into the equation. right treaty in the world and has gone through several Unlike the Berne Convention, which stipulates that all revisions, the most recent of which directly concerned original works have basic copyright protection regard- developing nations and aroused a good deal of contro- less of whether they are formally registered, the ucc versy. As of 1979, there were seventy-one states in the insists that nations have registration procedures and Berne Convention, with the notable exceptions of the spells them out. The ucc also offers a shorter term of United States, China, and the Soviet Union (de Freitas copyright protection: the life of the author plus twenty- 1983:5). The Berne Convention is administered by the five years. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which helps to solve disputes, provides interpretations, and keeps records and statistics. It reflects the Western Eu- Current Issues and Compulsory Licensing ropean concept of copyright and was developed to pro- tect the interests of the European nations as publishing The copyright agencies, international organizations and printing became major industries because of the like Unesco, and the major publishing nations have industrial revolution, mass literacy, and public educa- pressed for the widest possible adherence to the copy- tion. The national copyright laws of the European pow- right system. They have also been quite successful in ers were altered to place them into conformity with the convincing many developing nations to draft or requirements of the Berne Convention. strengthen their own national copyright legislation and The basic commitment of the Berne Convention is to adhere to one or more of the international treaties. to protect the rights of individual authors, and its philo- There has also been pressure from developing countries sophical orientation is toward the "natural-right" ap- on the copyright agencies to make it easier for them to proach to copyright. The treaty set a minimum standard obtain rights to translate or reprint books from abroad, of copyright protection that was then binding on all the and they have had some success (Krishnamurthi 1968). signatories. Countries can provide more protection than In addition, there is constant litigation and debate con- stipulated by Berne, but they cannot offer less. In 1948 cerning the scope and meaning of copyright, the defi- a revision of the convention gave it even stronger pre- nition of "fair use" in the age of the photocopying rev- cedence over national copyright regulations. The Berne olution, and the appropriate limits to copyright protection Convention requires its participants to conform in con- in the face of pressures for equity in the international siderable detail to its rules, and it has been generally system. The copyright agencies have sponsored anum- successful in obtaining this conformity. Under the Berne ber of full-scale conferences on copyright revision and Convention a work (written, artistic, or other) has pro- have in fact made some substantive changes. 92 Philip G. Altbach Some of the most heated debates on international were in the end successful in establishing the basic copyright after World War II were the Stockholm con- concept that there must be some flexibility in the in- ference of 1967 and the follow-up Paris meetings in ternational copyright system; but the major copyright 1971, when developing nations demanded significant powers were also successful in limiting the scope of the alterations in the copyright system. They stressed a reforms and in binding the developing world to the loosening of copyright protection in the interests of international copyright system. They were able to limit equity in the distribution of knowledge and to permit the reforms to educational books and books used for speedy reprinting and translation of books related to advanced scientific purposes. General books, fiction, educational and scientific development. The end result magazines, and the like are not subject to compulsory was a compromise. As one observer put it: "The major licensing at the present time. publishing nations recognized the needs of the devel- Although there were serious debates about the basic oping countries for inexpensive textbooks and measures nature of the copyright system before the reforms, vir- that would enable them to publish such editions. But tually everyone is now committed to the system and is they regarded the proposals of Stockholm as too drastic willing to work within it. Those countries which are and refused to go along with them. The conflict en- currently outside the international copyright system dangered the very existence of the international copy- (such as China and Malaysia) are moving, albeit slowly, right system" (Unesco 1981: 23). to join. Copyright is a curious amalgam of ideology, The developing countries were attempting to loosen belief, and pragmatism (Barker 1970). Copyright, with copyright protection for educational and scientific books few exceptions, protects the haves; it is a form of mo- by introducing a mechanism of compulsory licensing nopoly that gives basic control over knowledge to the that would permit publishers in developing countries creator of that knowledge or the designee (usually a to reprint or translate material at a specified time after publisher or, these days, a software company) (Chafee its original publication once permission to reprint had 1945). Indeed, it was developed more than three cen- been sought from the original publisher, even if that turies ago in England precisely to protect monopolistic permission was not in hand (India 1967; see also de practices (Parsons 1974). Copyright has also been used Freitas 1983, Olian 1974, and Unesco 1973). They were for censorship, and in its early days it was seen by the also forcing a debate about the meaning of copyright authorities as a means of controlling knowledge. in the context of North-South inequalities and in the face of the domination of the copyright system by the major industrial nations. The heated Stockholm dis- The Context of Inequality cussions resulted in an agreement which provided sig- nificantly liberalized rules for developing nations. This Copyright functions in an interdependent interna- agreement proved to be quite controversial. Britain re- tional system of intellectual and commercial relations. fused to go along with it; other major Western pub- There are specific problems in developing indigenous lishing nations expreszed reservations. After further cultural and educational systems and the infrastructure protracted discussion and another conference (under that goes along with them. The nations of the devel- Unesco auspices in Paris in 1971), which included rep- oping world find themselves at a considerable disad- resentatives of both the Berne Convention nations and vantage when building their own knowledge systems in the ucc, a solution was found which provided some this network of inequality. Copyright is but a small part liberalization but which prevented books obtained under of a much larger international system that controls compulsory licensing procedures from being used for resources, trade, foreign assistance, and many other commercial profit and from being exported from the factors. By looking at copyright as a microcosm of the country of publication (Unesco 1981: 23). larger system, it is possible to see in some detail the Although it is now possible for developing nations to nature of the disadvantages faced by the developing obtain compulsory licenses to reprint or translate text- world. books and other educational books, there are still sig- The international network for distributing knowledge nificant limitations that reflect compromises between is one of considerable complexity. Book publishers, film the industrial book-producing nations and the devel- distribution enterprises, news networks, and (recently) oping consuming countries. For example, it generally data bases and computer firms are all part of the system takes at least three years for a compulsory license to by which knowledge is distributed throughout the world. 4 become available for publication in English, French, or Academic and scientific institutions play a role not only Spanish; less universal languages require only one year. in the creation of knowledge but also in its distribution. Each license is issued only for the country in which it Individual scholars and intellectuals are themselves very is to be used, and the books are not to be exported (de much a part of the system. Freitas 1983: 61ff.). Thus developing-country interests The fact of inequality is clear. The bulk of the world's Copyright in the Developing World 93 scientific research is done in a few of the industrial guages creates problems of finding the technical ex- nations-notably the United States, the United King- pertise to do the translations, mustering the ability to dom, Japan, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, publish those translated works, and functioning in the and the Soviet Union. It has been estimated that close framework of the international copyright system so as to one-quarter of the world's expenditures for research to secure permission to do the translations in the first and development are made in the United States. The place. major universities, with their well-equipped libraries The infrastructure for disseminating knowledge is and laboratories, are located in a handful of industrial basically controlled by the industrial nations. The prom- nations. These institutions attract the best scholars and, inent publishing firms are located in those nations, and incidentally, train a significant portion of the highly they control the production and the distribution of books educated personnel from the developing world. 5 By every around the world (K. Smith 1975). There is a large measure, the bulk of the world's productivity in re- trade in the export of books from the industrial nations search and scientific development is to be found in the to developing countries. The major publishers have industrial nations. 6 This fact has many implications. branches throughout the developing world and are in The research needs of the industrial nations are natu- fact multinational enterprises. Indeed, about half the rally those served by this research, and the channels of sales of the British publishing industry are dependent dissemination are geared to the producing nations. Most on overseas trade, much of it to the developing world, of the markets for scholarly books and periodicals are and the French have a similar export market. The Amer- in the industrial nations, and this fact further skews leans, with only 10 percent of their publishing output the network for disseminating knowledge. The largest exported, are more insular; but they too have had a academic libraries are located in the industrial nations growing interest in export sales-for political and cul- and constitute the main purchasers of scientific books tural as much as for commercial reasons. Book exports and journals. A large academic profession and student and the impact of books from the industrial nations on population are a further source of both the production the developing world are not only matters of profit but and consumption of intellectual material. also directly linked to the foreign policy goals of the Language is a key factor in the international knowl- major industrial nations (see Benjamin 1984). It is edge networkJ English is the first language of 345 mil- therefore very much in the interest of the major book- lion people and the second language of another 400 exporting nations to continue their role as centers for million, and it is the native language of twelve nations the creation and distribution of knowledge. and the semiofficial tongue of another thirty-three na- Not only are the physical means of book creation and tions (U.S. News and World Report 1985). This gives distribution (that is, publishing) in the industrial na- English a considerable advantage as a language of schol- tions but also the decisionmaking apparatus for sci- arly communication and research. Along with Spanish, entific and educational knowledge in general. The major French, and (to a much lesser extent) Russian, English journals are edited in a few nations-largely the United dominates the network for distributing knowledge. A States, the United Kingdom, and, for the francophone large majority of the world's major scholarly journals world, France. Much of the rest of the world is in a and academic books- the key means of distributing peripheral relation to these major intellectual centers. knowledge-are in English, and most of the rest are The decisions made by journal editors, book publishers, in the other three major international languages. Even and others who are gatekeepers of knowledge reflect in Europe, scholars in countries such as the Nether- the intellectual and scientific environment in which lands, Sweden, and even Germany frequently publish they function (Coser 1975}. their work in English to achieve the maximum inter- Although the basic technologies of book. produc- national exposure. tion-typesetting and printing-are widely dissemi- Developing countries are dominated by the major nated throughout the world (in fact, several developing international languages, and this dominance places a nations, including Hong Kong, India, and Singapore, further strain on limited publishing and other re- do a significant amount of printing and typesetting for sources. It also makes these countries dependent on the publishers in the industrial nations, sometimes with nations which publish in the major international lan- the latest technologies), the basic technological inno- guages. The vast bulk of the world's translations are vations and developments occur in the industrial na- made from the major international languages into a tions and are in general controlled by them. Developing variety of other languages, including such widely used nations must import (often under license) these new but scientifically less-developed languages as Chinese, technologies or purchase machinery abroad, which makes Hindi, Bengali, and Portuguese. The necessity to trans~ them dependent on the industrial nations. Even such late material from English or the other international a basic element of book production as paper, the tech- languages into a variety of developing-country Ian- nology for which is simple and widely disseminated, is 94 Philip G. Altbach basically controlled by a few industrial nations, with the pressure not only on developing-economy pirates but consequence that prices are high (Becker 1982). also on their own governments in an effort to link fa- The impact of the very newest technologies on the vorable foreign trade terms or economic aid to the erad- developing world will be considerable, and the devel- ication of piracy. Sometimes this effort has been effec- opment and control of these innovations are also in the tive. For example, the government of Singapore is hands of the industrial nations. Data bases in the West currently revising its copyright law and stepping up are tied into the major international languages and use enforcement in response to pressure from the United material generated from Western sources. Satellite States, Singapore's largest trading partner. Book piracy transmission systems for international communication has its ups and downs in the major pirating economies are similarly centralized, although several developing (currently located mainly in South and East Asia), but nations, including India and Indonesia, have their own largely for economic reasons, the practice continues. satellites for educational and other purposes. The hard- Taiwan, for example, has been probably the largest book ware for the new technologies, such as the newest re- pirate and still engages in the practice, but the scope prographic machines, is manufactured in the industrial of the piracy has declined significantly. This decline is nations and is usually expensive to buy and difficult to partially due to external pressure but perhaps more to repair. This situation, too, creates problems for devel- the Taiwan economy's growing sophistication, which oping nations. makes it in its interest to respect copyright, patents, The network for creating and disseminating knowl- and the other legal regulations of the transfer of knowl- edge is both complex and unequally structured. The edge and technology (Kaser 1969; Bookseller 1970). copyright system is very much a part of this system of What is piracy and literary theft from the point of relations. In part, the sheer weight of market forces, view of the industrial nations is something else to pub- the major languages of publication, the location of the lishers in developing countries. Although few in the basic infrastructure, and the nationality of most sci- developing world are currently willing to support pub- entists and authors dictate that the industrial nations, licly the violation of international copyright laws, there and particularly the major publishing nations such as are some arguments to be made against copyright reg- the United States, the Soviet Union, the United King- ulations in general and as they apply to the developing dom, and France, are the major centers for creating world in particular. There is of course a line of argument and distributing knowledge. The structure of the in- in opposition to the concept of copyright which claims, ternational network also plays a role. The multinational among other things, that a system that creates a mo- publishers are well established, and their vested interest nopoly and limits access to knowledge on the basis of in maintaining the status quo is considerable. Finally, who originally produced the knowledge is unfair and the policies of the industrial nations protect the status unwise. 9 As one spokesperson for the developing world quo because frequently it is in the interest of those put it: "We in South-east Asia and the Third World are nations to maintain control over the structures for dis- the countrysides of the urban-industrial publishing cen- seminating knowledge. 8 It is hardly surprising that ters of the West. And just as with most countryside copyright should be enmeshed in this powerful system populations, we are perennially treated to avowals of and that those nations on the periphery, the nations of concern for our development from the metropolitan the developing world, should wish to extricate them- powers-to no avail" (Valdehuesa 1980). There is a selves from it. clear difference of opinion concerning piracy, although at the present time few openly espouse violation of copy- right rules. What is not discussed, however, is done in The Issue of Piracy many countries on a large scale. As one Western pub- lisher stated, a large number of economies (including Piracy is big business. It is estimated that $1 billion a few industrial ones) are known to be pirates. In 1980, worth of books and another $1 billion of tapes and the following were among the economies mentioned as cassettes are pirated annually (Alikhan 1984). These significant violators of copyright: Taiwan, Korea, and alarming statistics do not include unauthorized pho- the Philippines (as the three largest), China, the Do- tocopying, which !s also a major problem for copyright minican Republic, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Hong holders. Piracy is usually defined as the unauthorized Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Peru, Singapore, publication of a book, tape, cassette, or (recently) com- and Thailand. Countries in which piracy occurs occa- puter software for commercial sale. Piracy occurs in all sionally include Colombia, Germany, India, the Islamic countries, but it has become a key issue among pub- Republic of Iran, Iraq, Japan, the Netherlands, and Syria lishers in relation to the developing world because the (Asser 1980). bulk of large-scale commercial piracy occurs in devel- Book piracy occurs in many different ways. In Taiwan, oping economies. The publishers of the industrial na- for example, unauthorized reprinting of books from tions are very disturbed about piracy and have applied abroad is a significant part of the publishing business. Copyright in the Developing World 95 Taiwanese pirates specialize in producing English-lan- tuned to the export market to be able to handle it ef- guage book titles and selling them in East and Southeast fectively and that British publishers, dependent on the Asia and occasionally in the West. Popular trade books, market, prefer to export their own books rather than reference books (including the A'ncyclopaedia Britan- grant rights. nica), key medical books, university texts, and many The issue for textbooks and scientific books is some- others (in editions looking exactly like the original but what different because, in general, mass markets are generally printed on poor paper) are widely sold at prices not involved. Book people in developing countries have well under half the original cost. 10 Publishers, or often argued that the West already dominates the creation of free-lance printers, reprint a few titles which they think knowledge and should not be able to prevent its dis- can be sold quickly. These books are frequently best- tribution. It should therefore be possible to reprint freely sellers from the West, which have a brisk sale in many or to translate educational books in the developing world developing nations. without undue delay from Western publishers or the There is also the business of unauthorized transla- payment of high fees. Furthermore, many developing tions from Western languages. Either through lack of nations lack foreign exchange to pay for book imports effort or because negotiations with Western publishers or reprint rights, and this is another reason for an open break down or costs are too high, many publishers in market for reprinting books, particularly for educa- developing countries fail to obtain formal permission tional purposes. to publish translations of Western books. There are no The discussions of compulsory licensing revolved statistics on unauthorized translations, but the volume mainly around the need for educational books in the issued must be significant. All kinds of titles are trans- developing world. It is probably the case, although sta- lated, but especially educational books. There is a ready tistics do not exist, that since the liberalization of the market for translations of school and college textbooks, rules for compulsory licenses, the amount of unau- and the Western publishers of such books are some- thorized reprinting or translating of educational and times the least informed about the needs of the devel- scientific books has diminished significantly. Western oping-country book industry. Indeed, the call by de- publishers have been engaged in a major campaign to veloping nations for compulsory licenses stemmed from eliminate book piracy, and although there has not been this dilemma, and the campaign proved to be most complete success, there has been a definite incr£-ase in successful with regard to school and college textbooks. copyright consciousness in the developing world. A recent development in piracy, stimulated by the It is also the case that what is piracy to one nation rapid growth of technology and the increasing sophis- is fair use to another. China does not now belong to tication of a number of developing economies, is the any of the international copyright agreements and thus unauthorized reproduction of computer programs, soft- is not bound by them. The Chinese engage in extensive ware of all kinds, and microcomputers and computer translations of books from the major Western languages parts. A mini-industry related to computer technology (and from Japanese) and publish them without paying has developed in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. royalties or obtaining permission. Such actions are not The pirating of tape cassettes and phonograph records illegal under current Chinese law. China, however, is has long been a problem in Southeast and East Asia. in the process of drafting a copyright law and will join It can be argued, on the one hand, that pirated books one of the international copyright treaties. A number rob the original publishers (and of course the authors) of other developing nations have enacted far-reaching of their fair share of royalties and prevent the authors compulsory licensing laws which permit them to use from controlling when and where their work will be materials published in other countries fairly freely. Pub- published. On the other hand, the editions brought out lishers in industrial nations claim that this is piracy, in developing countries constitute a very minor share but under local laws it is not. Although it is likely that of the world market for most books: the profits earned book piracy is on the decline as a result of liberalized by the original publishers from such editions or from copyright rules and a greater spirit of compliance in export sales to those countries represent a tiny fraction the developing world, the phenomenon of computer- of the total. It can also be argued that the pirate is based piracy is no doubt on the increase. frequently creating a market for the book, because an imported version would be too costly for local book buyers. Publishers in the developing world have fre- Technology and Copyright quently complained that Western publishers are slow to respond to requests for reprint rights, that they charge One of the most important challenges to copyright too much, and that they are uninterested, preferring to in a long time is posed by contemporary technology. export a small number of copies at high prices rather For the developing world, the new communications than to grant rights for a larger, low-cost edition. It is technologies hold both promise and problems, but it often said that U.S. publishers are not sufficiently at- can be argued that the problems outweigh the promise. 96 Philip G. Altbach It is not possible to discuss all the technological chal- developments are products of Western technology and lenges facing the dissemination of knowledge here, but are for the most part manufactured in the industrial it is useful to focus on those aspects of the technological nations, they give developing nations with small-scale revolution that directly affect copyright and that have publishing industries the possibility of building up their special implications for the developing world. 11 local capability at relatively low cost. Computer-assisted The new technologies, such as data bases, computer- photocomposition of text material has stimulated small- assisted composition and printing techniques, and the scale publishing and has lowered the cost of producing rapidly growing field of reprography, are all developing short-run publications and books in the West. This tech- in the context of the global inequalities described ear- nology can also help the developing world, where print- lier. Although developing nations may be able to make ings for scholarly and educational materials may be use of some of them, these innovations originated in small. the industrial nations and are, with few exceptions, pro- Offset printing, a widely used printing innovation, duced in them and controlled by them. The developing has also been a boon to pirating and to reprinting ma- world is a consumer of the new technologies, generally terial in general. This fact, of course, has major impli- on terms set by the industrial nations. The innovations cations for copyright because it reduces the cost, and are frequently but not always expensive, and they are therefore the economic risks, of piracy. It is unlikely inevitably "high tech," meaning that developing nations that the Taiwanese printers would have been so active do not have the infrastructure to manufacture these in reprinting Western books if the technology for quickly items and frequently have problems in assimilating them reproducing material without setting it into type did into the existing technologies. One commentator re- not exist. cently argued that the new technologies will permit the One of the most significant technological challenges developing nations to leapfrog the traditional technol- to copyright is the photocopying revolution-a revo- · ogies and move directly into the twenty-first century. lution that continues to improve ways of quickly, in- Certainly the new technologies are a continuation of expensively, and expertly photocopying printed material the pattern of inequality and keep the developing world of all kinds. In the United States, photocopying of pub- dependent on the industrial nations-even exacerbat- lished material now runs into billions of pages annually, ing the situation by introducing very complex and ex- and a significant part of this photocopying takes place pensive technologies that are difficult to assimilate (D. in clear violation of the copyright laws. The concept of Smith 1975). fair use. included in the new U.S. copyright law, is being Virtually all the new technologies have implications constantly defined in the courts, but nevertheless it is for improving the distribution of knowledge and for ignored by most individual copiers and by many insti- copyright (see Rodwelll985). The development of data tutional users as well (Weinberg 1975). The intricate, bases, for example, has the potential to bring the latest yet very important, issues involved in photocopying li- knowledge from sources all over the world to developing brary copies of journals are beyond the scope of this countries, but it also will inevitably tie users to the chapter; but as recent litigation in the United States principal international language for the dissemination indicates, the issues are at the heart of the survh'al of of Western knowledge (English), to the hardware pro- academic journals (one of the key means of distributing vided by the corporations which have developed and knowledge), the role of libraries, and the implications own the data bases, to the concepts of knowledge and of dissemination networks in a technological age (Henry research which are used by the owners, and to the high 1975; see also Ladd 1983). In a number of countries, costs of obtaining material through the data bases. This copyright authorities and the courts have been trying technology also will exacerbate the split between the to accommodate copyright protection to the rapidly ad- urban centers in the developing world, which are more vancing techniques of photocopying, thus far with only likely to have access to these new technologies, and the modest success. 12 Technological developments have far rural peripheries, which are not. The copyright system outstripped the capabilities of the copyright system, means that the collectors and disseminators of data- both within nations and internationally, to control the base knowledge will have control over it. The developing situation. Some have argued that authors and publish- nations will be consumers of knowledge created and ers would survive perfectly well without strict controls distributed by Western sources in the English language. over copying and that in fact photocopying contributes Indeed, large parts of the developing world will simply more to society by giving easier access to knowledge be cut off from data-base knowledge systems altogether than it takes away by limiting the economic benefits to because of the cost or because the local infrastructure the producers of knowledge (Leavens 1981). is inadequate to absorb and use the new technologies. In many ways, photocopying has been a boon to de- Technological innovations in printing and composi- veloping nations. The basic technology is not very com- tion also have mixed, though generally more positive, plex. Some developing nations produce machines; others implications for the developing world. Although these import them. Although there are no adequate data, it Copyright in the Developing World 97 seems that there are fewer controls on the use of pho- system. Without adequate textbooks, the effectiveness tocopying and that users of knowledge have easier ac- of the school is hampered. Many researchers argue that cess to photocopied materials than in many industrial textbooks are among the most important elements in nations. It is possible, for example, to obtain photo- ensuring success for students (see Heyneman and others copies of books in a number of developing nations at 1978; see also Wagner 1979). Most nations recognize prices well under those of the original publications. that textbooks must meet the educational needs of school The technological innovations in communications, students and that they should reflect national values printing, and copying of the past few decades have come and orientations. This presents special problems for a at the same time as the efforts of many developing number of small countries that import textbooks, fre- countries to build up a basic knowledge industry (O'Brien quently from the former colonial power. 1980; see also Bell 1969). The possibilities of using the Who should produce and distribute textbooks is also new technologies to develop an efficient and cost-effec- a key issue in the developing world. Textbooks were tive knowledge industry are considerable and have been frequently imported during the colonial era and after exploited by several countries-mainly those with highly independence were published by local affiliates of mul- trained personnel capable of mastering the new tech- tinational publishers (or imported). The traditional fa- nologies, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, which cilities for production and distribution continued to be have become major printing and publishing centers. used-perhaps to the detriment of any indigenous pub- Other developing nations have combined old technol- lishing industry. Later, many governments in devel- ogies with elements of the new. But many nations have oping countries moved to nationalize textbook publish- found entering the new age of the production of knowl- ing by establishing agencies to write, edit, produce, and edge to be very difficult; they have remained dependent distribute school texts. Although this arrangement did on outside agencies, usually the Western-based multi- produce indigenous books, it also created problems. national publishers, for their book needs, including quite Very frequently the efficiency of these operations was often school textbooks. low and the cost high. Furthermore, when the most The international system that tries to control the lucrative and steady part of the publishing business was dissemination of knowledge- namely, copyright- has removed from the private sector, independent publish- struggled to keep up with the new technologies as well ers found it very difficult to build a business by tapping as with the other challenges that have been discussed only the general and library markets in their countries in this chapter, and the result has been confusion. The (see Altbach 1975). Thus unanticipated consequences basic protections provided to authors and publishers of the nationalization of the textbook business included under the copyright agreements are difficult to interpret weakening the indigenous publishing industry and in the light of some of the technological innovations causing unnecessarily high production costs for school and are even more tricky to enforce. texts. Copyright plays an important role in developing- country textbook publishing. The international aspects Textbooks and Copyright of copyright are relevant, because many books or seg- ments of books include imported materials. National The production and distribution of textbooks for copyright regulations are also important because they schools and postsecondary institutions is an important govern the publication of all books within a country. but specialized part of the total process of distributing On the international level, the provisions of the Berne knowledge. In the developing world, textbooks consti- Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention tute the dominant segment of the publishing enterprise. cover all books, including texts and educational books. In some smaller developing countries, textbooks are Thus educational publishers are covered by the same virtually the only indigenous books published. In many restrictions that affect publishers generally. The one nations, as already discussed, textbook publishing per- important exception to the broader copyright coverage mits other kinds of publishing to occur because it pro- is compulsory licensing, which permits publishers and vides the economic base for the industry. Even where educational agencies in the developing world easier ac- primary-level text publishing is in government hands, cess to books and journals published in the industrial which is increasingly common in the developing world, nations. The specific regulations governing compulsory secondary-level text and educational publishing is a licensing are complex and do not permit completely mainstay of commercial publishing. In the United States, free access to overseas material, but the arrangement, textbook publishing is the largest single segment of the which is now part of the international copyright system, publishing business, accounting for 30 percent of the permits easier access and also, in some instances, re- income of U.S. publishers. duces the cost of using foreign materials for educational Textbooks are not only a key element in the publish- purposes. ing industry but also crucial for a nation's educational Many developing-country textbooks are adapted, in 98 Ph!1ip G. Altbach whole or in part, from educational materials developed istry of education is responsible for text development in industrial countries. The legal copyright protection and publication, it is often easy to surmount copyright afforded to such adapted material is less clear than for problems, because much of the needed local educational other material. The copyright treaties deal with the material is very likely in the hands of other government broader questions of appropriate quotations from copy- agencies. Where the private sector is involved, restric- righted works, but the free adaptation of material is not tions may be greater. In most developing countries, covered. Furthermore, national copyright laws vary on copyright problems stem more from the need to adapt these issues, and it is sometimes difficult to understand and use foreign materials than from national copyright the ramifications of the legal restrictions. There is wide- regulations. spread adapting (and sometimes simple reproduction) Textbook publishers in the developing world have had in developing-country textbooks-because the pressure to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of reprint- to publish textbooks is intense and there is frequently ing, translating, and producing locally written texts a dearth of qualifi-:d local writers and curriculum ex- (which are frequently based on foreign material) or im- perts. It is particularly common for textbooks published porting books. Copyright considerations enter into this in some of the less widely used developing-country lan- equation in a significant way, because the flow of knowl- guages to adapt or copy foreign materials freely without edge is controlled by the international copyright system. regard to copyright restrictions. The legal, as well as Multinational publishers, officials of the ministry of ed- the moral, political, and educational consequences of ucation, private publishers in developing countries, and such adaptation and reproduction are issues which have frequently school officials have important roles. Both not been fully addressed. cost-related issues and questions related to educational National copyright regulations also have a consid- and social policy enter into the equation concerning erable impact on textbook development. Textbooks, like decisions about textbook production. Copyright is very other books, are subject to national copyright laws. much part of the situation as well. It is an aspect which Developing-country copyright regulations stem largely frequently delays textbook production and means that from the laws put into place by the colonial powers or textbook authors and planners must modify their ed- borrowed from the major Western copyright laws. Thus ucationally generated plans to meet commercial and there is no special approach to copyright in the devel- legal mandates. oping world, and the laws found in developing countries resemble one of the three major ideological currents in thinking about copyright. Few developing nations have The Future of Copyright in an Unequal World modified their copyright laws to reflect their specific national needs. Textbook development must therefore Copyright is well-entrenched. It is powerful as an idea fit into the context of national laws patterned on foreign and as a set of legal mechanisms for controlling the models. international flow of knowledge. There seems to be a Textbook publishers must be aware of the copyright strong international consensus, which includes most rules that apply to their work. Legal restrictions on the developing nations, in favor of the basic international use of copyrighted materials (for example, illustrations) copyright system as it has developed since the late nine- in books, on the length and use of quotations, on the teenth century and particularly as it has been modified duration of copyright protection, and on translation since World War II. The adherence of the United States rights must all be kept in mind by textbook authors in the nineteenth century and of the Soviet Union in and publishers. In general, national copyright laws do the mid-twentieth century (after both nations flouted not provide any specific rights to educational publishers copyright as they built their own national publishing or educational books. Copyright laws protect authors industries) means that all major publishing nations, and publishers and make the use of copyrighted ma- except China, are part of the system. After considerable terials subject to the interests of the copyright holders. controversy during the 1960s, the industrial nations It is usually possible for textbook publishers to observe have provided some of the modifications that the de- national copyright laws and still publish good textbooks. veloping nations demanded and a workable compromise Of course, such compliance may add to the cost of seems to have been struck. textbook development because copyright holders may The problems facing copyright, however, are quite require payment for permission to use or adapt mate- formidable and can be summarized as follows: rial. Copyright also adds a layer of bureaucratic pro- Technological. The adaptation of the concept of copy- cedure as well, because materials can be used only with right and of the international copyright system to un- appropriate permission. authorized photocopying and to data bases is perhaps The development of textbooks in developing coun- the most difficult problem facing copyright now and in tries is handled in many different ways. Where a min- the coming decades. Copyright in the Developing World 99 Legal. The drafting and implementation of national 2. For a general elaboration of this point, see McVey (1975). and international codes to regulate the copyright system For a broader perspective, see Lipset (1964). in the face of new challenges are a considerable task. 3. With the recent departure of both the United States and Control. An issue frequently ignored, but particularly the United Kingdom from Unesco, the future of the Universal important to developing countries, is who controls ' Copyright Convention's administration is unclear, as is the important statistical work done by Unesco in the field of books knowledge and what this control means. Copyright in and copyright. many respects works to the advantage of the haves over 4. For a broader discussion of these issues, see Altbach the have-nots. At the present time, most developing (1977). See also Altbach (1976). nations have decided not to pursue this question, pre- 5. For further discussion of the implications of foreign ferring to work in the context of the copyright system study, see Altbach (1986). as it exists and recognizing that the control over the 6. There are some significant, although as yet fairly minor, flow of knowledge rests with the industrial countries. countertrends as some developing countries build up indig- Size. Knowledge is expanding at an ever-increasing enous scientific capacity and use it for local purposes. See rate and, assisted by the new technologies, is being Gopinathan (1984). disseminated ever more widely. Both the expansion of 7. See Mazrui (1975). For a different perspective, see Quirk knowledge and the new means of disseminating it create and Widdowson (1985). 8. These controls are not only evident in the area of books problems for copyright. and publishing but also in such fields as mass communica- Equity. The North-South arguments over the control tions. See, for example, Fenby (1968) and Tunstall (1977). of and access to knowledge are continuing the heated 9. Macaulay stresses the monopoly argument in his classic debates of the 1960s concerning the developing world's anticopyright treatise. See also Leavens (1981) and Breyer unequal access to knowledge in all its forms. This in- (1970). equality is an underlying contradiction in the inter- 10. David Kaser states that more than 4,500 titles were national copyright system. pirated over a twenty-year period in Taiwan (Kaser 1969: 123). Critics of arrangements for controlling the flow of 11. For two informative overviews, see Schiller (1981) and knowledge made their major thrust in the 1960s by Nordenstreng and Schiller (1979). applying pressure on the international copyright system 12. The reproduction of videocassettes, tape recordings, and and sounding their opinions through agencies like computer software raises the same issues related to the control of unauthorized copying of written material from books and Unesco, where calls for a New World Information Order journals. There is if anything more pressure on nonbook copy- were heard (McBride and others 1980; see also O'Brien ing because the demand for such material is greater and the and Helleiner 1980). The debates within the interna- potential profits higher. tional copyright system and the departure of the United States and the United Kingdom from Unesco seem to have silenced the critics, at least for the present. There is an international consensus, regardless of References political ideology, economic organization, or position in the knowledge hierarchy, that anarchy in the creation and distribution of knowledge must be avoided. For the Alikhan, Shahid.1984. "The Problem of Piracy." In 0. P. Ghai present, most people agree that the international and N. Kumar, eds., International Publishing Today. Delhi: Bookman's Club. copyright system, despite its inequalities, provides the Altbach, Philip G. 1975. Publishing in India: An Analysis. New best means of controlling the situation, especially in Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press. the light of massive technological change. Whether the - - . 1976. "Literary Colonialism: Books in the Third World." significant internal contradictions in the copyright sys- Harvard Educational Review 45 (May): 226-36. tem will stimulate dissent and questioning at some fu- - - . 1977. "Servitude of the Mind?: Education, Depen- ture time is not clear. Despite the stresses, some piracy, dency and Neocolonialism." Teachers College Record 79 and the lukewarm adherence of some developing na- (December): 197-204. tions, the international copyright system appears to be --.1986. "The Foreign Student Dilemma." Teachers Col- accepted as the basic structure to regulate the inter- lege Record 87 (Summer): 589-610. national flow of knowledge. Asser, Paul Nijhoff. 1980. "Piracy, 2nd Part." STM Newsletter 53 (April). Barker, R. E. 1970. "Copyright Concessions for the Developing Countries." Bookseller 3364 (June 13): 2598-602; 3365 Notes (June 20): 2678-84. Becker, Jorg. 1982. "The Geopolitics of Cultural Paper: In- 1. Breyer (1970: 281). Breyer's is one of the best contem- ternational Dimensions of Paper Production, Consumption porary analyses of copyright, and his arguments are, overall, and Import-Export Structures." Background study for the not sympathetic to copyright. See also Strong (1981). Unesco World Congress on Books, London. 100 Philip G. Altbach Bell, Daniel. 1969. "Communications Technology: For Better emy of Political and Social Science 421 (September): 67- or for Worse." Harvard Business Review (May-June): 1-8. 80. Benjamin, Curtis G, 1984. U.S. Books Abroad: Neglected Am- Mattelart, Armand. 1983. Transnationals and the Third World· bassadors. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. The Struggle for Culture. South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Bookseller. 1970. "In Taiwan, a Cool Look at the Courteous Garvey. Pirates." No. 3358 (May 2): 2202-06. Mattelart, Armand, and Seth Siegelaub, eds. 1979. Commu- Bortnick, Jane. 1981. "International Information Flow: The nication and Class Struggle 1: Capitalism, Imperialism. Developing World Perspective." Cornell International Law New York: International General. Journal 14 (Summer): 333-53. Mazrui, Ali A. 1975. The Political Sociology of the English Breyer, Stephen. 1970. "The Uneasy Case for Copyright: A Language. The Hague: Mouton. Study of Copyright in Books, Photocopies and Computer Nordenstreng, Kaarle, and Herbert I. Schiller, eds. 1979. Na- Programs." Harvard Law Review 84 (December): 281. tional Sovereignty and International Communication. Chafee, Zachariah, Jr. 1945. "Reflections on the Law of Copy- Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. right-!." Columbia Law Review 45 (July): 503-29. O'Brien, Rita Cruise. 1980. "Technological Factors in Inter- Coser, Lewis. 1975. "Publishers as Gatekeepers of Ideas." An- national Communication." Communication 5:89-106. nals of the American Academ.IJ of Political and Social Sci- O'Brien, R. C., and G. K. Helleiner. 1980. "The Political Econ- ence 421 (September): 14-22. omy of Information in a Changing International Order." Cramer, Allan P. 1965. "International Copyright and the So- International Organization 34, no. 4 (Autumn): 445-70. viet Union." Duke Law Journal: 531-45. Olian, Irwin A., Jr. 1974. "International Copyright and the de Freitas, Denis. 1983. The Copyright System: Practice and Needs of Developing Countries." Cornell International Law Problems in Developing Countries. London: Common- Journa/7 (May): 81-112. wealth Secretariat. Parsons, Ian. 1974. "Copyright and Society." In A. Briggs, Fenby, Jonathan. 1968.InternationalNewsServices. New York: ed., Essa.IJs in the History of Publishing, pp. 29-60. Lon- Schocken Books. don: Longmans. Gopinathan, S. 1984. "Intellectual Dependency and the In- Patterson, Lyman. 1978. Copyright in Historical Perspective. digenization Response: Case Studies of Three Disciplines Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press. in Two Third World Universities." Ph.D. diss., State Uni- Ploman, Edward W.l985. "Copyright: Where Do We Go From versity of New York at Buffalo. Here?" In P. G. Altbach, A. Arboleda, and S. Gopinathan, Henry, Nicholas L. 1974. "Copyright, Public Policy and In- eds., Publishing in the Third World: Knowledge and De- formation Technology." Science 1983 (February): 384-91. velopment. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann. - - . 1975. Copyright: Information Technolog.y and Public Ploman, Edward W., and L. Clark Hamilton. 1980. Copyright: Policy. 2 vols. New York: Marcel Dekker. Intellectual Property in the Information Age. London: Rou- Heyneman, Stephen P., Joseph P. Farrell, and Manuel A. Se- tledge and Kegan Paul. pulveda-Stuardo. 1978. Textbooks and Achievement: lthat Quirk, Randolph, and H. G. Widdowson, eds. 1985. English We Know. World Bank Staff Working Paper 298. Washing- in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and ton, D.C. Literatures. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. India. Ministry of Education. 1967. International Copyright: Ringer, Barbara. 1968. "The Role of the United States in Needs of Developing Countries. New Delhi. International Copyright: Past, Present and Future." Kaser, David. 1969. Book Pirating in Taiwan. Philadelphia: Georgetown Law Joumal56:1050-58. University of Pennsylvania Press. - - . 1974. "The Demonology of Copyright." Publishers Krishnamurthi, T. S. 1968. "Copyright: Another View." wpy- Weekly 206 (November 18): 19-28. right Society of the USA Bulletin 15 (April): 217-34. Rodwell, Susie.1985. "World Communications Crisis?" Com- Ladd, David. 1983. "Copyright and the International Tech- pare 1:53-66. nologic Environment." Copyright Bulletin 17, no. 3: 17- Schiller, Herbert I. 1981. Who Knows? Information in the 24. Age of the Fortune 500. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. Leavens, Thomas R. 1981. "In Defense of the Unauthorized Schrader, Dorothy M. 1971. "Armageddon in International Use: Recent Developments in Defending Copyright In- Copyright: Review of the Berne Convention. The Universal fringement." Law and Contemporary Problems 44 (Au- Convention and the Present Crisis in International Copy- tumn): 3-26. right." Advances in Librarianship 2:309. Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1964. The First New Nation. London: Schwartz, Alan U. 1975. "Publishing Detente: The Time of Heinemann. the VMP." Publishers Weekly (March 3): 28-31. Lottman, Herbert R. 1975. "Inside VMP." Publishers Weekly Smith, Datus, Jr. 1975. "The Bright Promise of Publishing (September 8): 28-34. in the Developing Countries.'' Annals ofthe American Acad- McBride, Sean, and others. 1980. Many Voices, One World: emy of Political and Social Science 421 (September): 130- Communication and Society Today and Tomorrow. Paris: 39. Unesco. Smith, Keith. 1975. "Who Controls Book Publishing in An- McFarlane, Gavin. 1982. A Practical Introduction to Copy- glophone Middle Africa?" Annals of the American Academy right. London: McGraw-Hill. of Political and Social Science 421 (September): 140-50. McVey, Sheila. 1975. "Nineteenth Century America: Publish- Strong, William S. 1981. The Copyright Book: A Practical ing in a Developing Country." Annals oftheAmericanAcad- Guide. Cambridge, Mass.: ~IT Press. Copyright in the Developing World 101 Tebel, John. 1975. A History ofBook Publishing in the United Wagner, Susan. 1979. "Textbooks and Third World Education: States. Vol. 2. New York: Bowker. The World Bank's Changing Role." Publishers Weekly 215 Tunstall, Jeremy. 1977. The Media Are American. London: (March 26): 41-43. Constable. Walker, Gregory. 1978. Soviet Book Publishing Policy. Cam- Unesco. 1973. Records of the Conference for Revision of the bridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. Universal Copyright Convention, 5 to 24 July, 1971. Paris. Weinberg, Louise. 1975. "The Photocopying Revolution and - - . 1981. The ABC of Copyright. Paris. the Copyright Crisis." Public Interest 38 (Winter): 99-110. U.S. News and World Report. 1985. "English: Out to Conquer Whale, R. F.l970. Copyright: Evolution, Theory and Practice. the World." February 18: 49. London: Longmans. Valdehuesa, M. E., Jr. 1980. "Need to Stop and Listen: Copy- right and Piracy at the 21st IPA Congress." Asian Book Development 12 (October): 11. 8 The Raw Material: Paper Paul Eastman The manufacture of reading materials-typesetting, Nationally, and particularly in countries where for- printing, and binding-can be the most costly part of eign exchange reserves are limited, the importance of the complex publishing process. The cost of paper, in paper takes on broader implications. The value of im- turn, is the single largest manufacturing expense-and ported paper (for writing and printing only) rarely ex- often places the greatest demand on foreign exchange ceeds 1 percent of the total import bill of most devel- reserves. Table 8-1 provides a typical breakdown of man- oping countries. Although 1 percent may seem ufacturing costs. immaterial, when translated into currency terms its Paper quite commonly accounts for about 30 percent importance becomes more meaningful. For example, in or more of the total manufacturing cost. As the number 1984, Jamaica spent more than $9 million of foreign of copies per title increases, the proportion of the total exchange for paper destined for printing and writing. manufacturing cost attributed to paper also increases. Such an expenditure is equivalent to approximately 15 For example, when 10,000 copies are printed, the paper percent of total public spending on education. Fur- costs account for more than 50 percent of the manu- thermore, Jamaica also has a current account deficit of facturing costs. Although many experts consider ex- more than $337 million (World Bank 1983). penditures for authorship and physical plant to be large, In summary, paper is an important ingredient of eco- even when they are included, paper costs account for nomic, social, and political development. It is the foun- 7 to 15 percent of the total cost of a publishing venture. dation for many educational methodologies and strat- Furthermore, after the initial costs of writing, editing, egies. Paper is a significant cost in any publishing typesetting, and layout are paid by the first printing, venture-and often requires the use of scarce foreign the cost of paper becomes an even larger proportion of exchange. Yet despite the facts, the need for a guar- recurrent expenditure for reprintings. At an informal anteed, low-cost paper supply is often overlooked. Paper group meeting with several Unesco officials, it was agreed users therefore should have a basic working knowledge that paper supplies represent probably the major hin- of paper-and more specifically of how to get the best drance to book production in the developing world. possible product at the lowest possible price. Despite their importance, paper supplies are over- looked in most organizations. In a survey of approxi- Table 8-1. Breakdown of Manufacturing Costs for mately ten agencies in developing countries, it was found Printing 5000 Copies of 200-Page Booklet that paper costs rarely accounted for more than 1 to 3 percent of total spending (including capital costs, sal- aries, and so forth). Quite understandably, 1 to 3 percent Editorial services 9 of a total budget pales beside the 60 to 70 percent which Typesetting 16 Layout and assembly 2 is commonly allocated to salaries. Yet the training Film and plates 17 methodologies of all the surveyed organizations were Printing 16 predominantly based on paper. None of the organiza- Binding (saddle-stitched) 13 tions could function, let alone exist, without paper. Yet Paper none of the surveyed organizations had anybody on staff Text (offset) 23 with a sound understanding of paper terminology, spec- Cover (one side coated) 4 ifications, or prices. Source: Personal correspondence and analysis. 102 The Raw Material: Paper 103 World Paper Supply the most part, growth is dictated by national demand. One reason the Scandinavian countries have been able to retain a significant market share is that they have Current Situation encouraged the production of high-value papers which tend to have a greater profit margin, which in turn The most comprehensive estimates of world paper allows significant investments in more cost-efficient supply can be found in production, import, and export equipment. Production levels of cultural paper in the figures made available through the U.N. Food and Ag- Soviet Union have been comparatively stagnant, with riculture Organization (FAO), Unesco, and industry pub- the output catering to the domestic market. Exports lications. The statistics on supply for cultural paper (a from the U.S.S.R. are limited and tend to be confined term which includes newsprint and other printing and to Eastern Bloc countries and other allies. The relatively writing paper as opposed to paper for packaging, san- low Soviet output is caused by competing demands on itary, or construction purposes) are comparatively re- forest reserves, the severe climate (which results in liable. In 1984, world industrial capacity was estimated small tree species and hence greater unit costs), higher to be approximately 31 million metric tons of newsprint priorities on other industries, and inefficient opera- and 51 million metric tons of printing and writing pa- tions. per; actual output was 11 to 13 percent less. The leading pulp and paper companies in the world Production of cultural paper is concentrated in a few (on the basis of sales figures) are given in table 8-3. In countries. Fourteen countries are responsible for al- most Western countries, paper-making industries have most 90 percent of global newsprint production; sixteen undergone major changes during the past decade. The countries account for about 90 percent of all output of trend has been toward increased vertical and horizontal printing and writing paper. Canada and the United States integration. For example, 80 percent of the timber alone produce more than half of all newsprint and about concessions in Quebec are controlled by only five com- 40 percent of all printing and writing paper (FAO 1984; panies. A Swedish corporation produces paper and owns Pulp and Paper Intemationa/1985). The major paper- the world's largest axe factory-both of which rely on producing countries and their respective outputs are forest reserves. Very close links between publishing houses given in table 8-2. and paper concerns are commonplace, particularly be- Canada's dominance of the newsprint market is ex- tween U.S. newspapers and Canadian newsprint com- plained largely by its free access to the U.S. economy- panies. In Canada, there has been a tendency for large high tariffs have in part meant less investment in, and paper-making companies to acquire smaller paper-con- a smaller market share for, the fine paper industry. The verting and -marketing operations. Many companies are U.S. industry caters mainly to the domestic market. For diversifying their product lines and geographical bases Printing and writing (1978) Thousands of Thousands of metric tons Percent Canada 9,015 33.0 United States 13,374 34.6 United States 5,030 18.4 Japan 3,416 8.8 Japan 2,550 9.3 Germany, Fed. Rep. 2,525 6.5 Finland 1,543 5.6 China 2,270 5.9 Sweden 1,533 5.6 Finland 1,906 4.9 U.S.S.R. 1,400 5.1 France 1,886 4.9 Norway 799 2.9 Italy 1.718 4.4 Germany, Fed. Rep. 714 2.6 Canada 1,316 3.4 Australia 383 1.4 U.S.S.R. 1,205 3.1 South Africa 301 1.1 United Kingdom 1,034 2.7 New Zealand 299 1.1 Sweden 907 2.3 France 267 1.0 Brazil 633 1.6 United Kingdom 235 0.9 Austria 598 1.5 Korea, Rep. 227 0.8 Spain 585 1.5 Netherlands 541 1.4 India 540 1.4 Sources: Canadian Pulp and Paper Association (1985) and FAO (1984). 104 Paul Eastman Table 8-3. Leading World Pulp and Paper Producers, Figure 8-1. Regional Trends in the Production of Paper for Printing and Writing, 1967-79 Sales Company Country (millions of dollarsj Millions of tons Georgia Pacific United States 6,682.0 40 World Weyerhaeuser United States 5,549.7 Champion United States 5,121.1 30 International International Paper United States 4,715.6 North America Boise Cascade United States 3,816.8 20 Europe Kimberly-Clark Crown Zellerbach Scott Paper Reed International United United United United States States States Kingdom 3,616.2 3,094.5 2,847.3 2,826.7 0J 10 ---------==== -.,~~~~~==:===::==~South Africa America Asia Mead Corporation United States 2,720.2 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 James River United States 2,492.0 Corporation Source: Unesco (1983). Oji Paper Japan 2,252.3 Fletcher Challenge New Zealand 2,001.0 Union Camp United States 1,973.7 captured a greater share of the world output of news- Container United States 1,900.0 print and printing and writing paper. It is estimated Corporation of that the developing market economies will be respon- America sible for about 8 percent of the world's capacity to pro- Great Northern United States 1,873.3 duce newsprint in 1988, compared with about 4 percent Nekoosa in 1978. Similarly, it is estimated that the developing Jujo Paper Japan 1,862.7 countries will increase their share of the world's ca- Hammermill Paper United States 1,854.9 1,766.3 pacity to produce printing and writing paper from about Westvaco United States Corporation 7 percent in 1978 to about 9 percent in 1988. Much of Bowater Industries United Kingdom 1,692.4 the increase in the production capacity of developing Abitibi Price Canada 1,650.2 countries has come from large expansions in South MacMillan Bloedel Canada 1,642.8 America. Recent forecasts predict stagnant growth in Domtar Canada 1,578.5 Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Honshu Paper Japan 1.547.3 In the major producing countries, expansion plans Sweden have been numerous and of considerable magnitude. Note: To help compare the relative size of some pulp and paper Following a three-year decline in announcements of the producers, 1981 cops for a selection of developing countries (in mil- construction of new mills, plans to increase newsprint lions of dollars) are: Bangladesh, $11,910; Burkina Faso, $1,080; Ethiopia, $3,870; Haiti, $1.590; Indonesia, $84,960; Jamaica, $2,960; capacity in North America doubled between 1984 and Nicaragua, $2,590; Peru, $23,260; Sri Lanka, $4,120; and Tunisia, 1985. Even larger expansions are expected for printing $7,100. and writing paper. European capacity is scheduled to Source: World Bank data. increase at an even greater rate. Hence over the next few years there will be a significant increase in the of operation through mergers, acquisitions, and inter- nal growth. Several large companies dominate and will Figure 8-2. Regional Trends in the Production of likely increase their domination of the world paper mar- Newsprint, 1967-79 ket. The intensity of the industry has been the object of several legal cases: cartel and merger investigations Millions of tons have been debated both before the European Commis- 30 World sion and within specific countries (Federal Republic of Germany, Canada, and so forth). In recent years, merg- 20 ers rarely have been outlawed and cartels rarely have North America been proven to exist. 10 Europe Trends in Supply o JL§~~~~~~~~~~;~Asia South America Africa 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 Regional production trends are shown in figures 8-1 and 8-2. Since 1967, developing countries have slowly Source: Unesco (1983). The Raw l'4aterial: Paper 105 world's capacity to produce cultural paper-for some The use of waste paper also is receiving increasing experts an excess capacity. Other experts suggest that attention-albeit more often for the production of in- the apparent overcapacity is simply part of the usual dustrial and sanitary paper. In fact, many small mills long-term cycle and will disappear in about five years in India depend on imported waste paper as their pri- or as soon as demand catches up. mary source of fiber. Although a recycling plant is a viable first step in a new paper-making industry, sig- Production Potential in Developing Countries nificant obstacles remain to making greater use of do- mestically available waste papers. For example, an ex- Predictions differ on the importance of developing- tensive collection facility must be available. In the country production potential. Some experts suggest that developing world, with some notable exceptions, there new investment in the developing market economies is is simply not enough waste, and that which does occur limited because the industry (primarily controlled by is widely dispersed, making collection prohibitively ex- Western nations) is more concerned about increasing pensive. Furthermore, in the developing world waste productivity per unit of investment. Generally, this has paper has important alternative uses such as packaging. resulted in larger and faster machines with a very high When it ultimately does become available for recycling, capital cost, requiring that plants run at full capacity the fibers often have been so seriously damaged that it under very controlled conditions and turn out a limited is no longer a viable raw material. product range. Such characteristics are often at odds An abridged version of the FAO survey of projected with needs and conditions in the developing world. (1983-93) pulp and paper mills in the developing world By contrast, some experts suggest that, because of is shown in table 8-4. Although the number of entries economic constraints, the drive for import substitution, in the survey is reassuring, the total anticipated increase and pressures to create employment, more developing throughout Africa or South America is similar to the nations are contemplating the construction of their own planned increase in output in Canada alone. mills-even if the cost per unit of paper is higher for Obviously, some individual developing countries are domestic than for imported products. Some countries . striving to become self-sufficient in the production of have introduced protective tariffs to encourage local cultural paper. But after the most optimistic projections industry. India is a prime example. More recently, Ar- for developing-country production are compared with gentina, to encourage its own paper industry (based on current and predicted increases in capacity in Europe bagasse and willow fiber), has banned imported news- and North America, the output of the developing world print. Other nations are forging ahead with new mills. is and will continue to be relatively modest. With few Argentina and Mexico each expect 100,000-metric-ton exceptions, there appears to be limited opportunity for mills to begin producing this year, whereas Brazil will the developing world to break into the international commission a 130,000-metric-ton mill and Nigeria will paper market. Most industry experts agree that over the start up a plant capable of producing 50,000 metric tons. next five to eight years the world will likely experience India has plans for a 50,000-metric-ton mill, and con- sufficient capacity both for newsprint and for printing sideration is being given to more new mills in Brazil and writing paper. Because of the large investments (70,000 metric tons), Indonesia (100,000 metric tons), required for a pulp and paper industry, the Jack in some the Republic of Korea (140,000 metric tons), and Thai- cases of an acceptable and accessible source of fiber, land (100,000 metric tons). the competing demands on national economies, and India is now virtually self-sufficient in printing and the presence of strong international competition, de- writing papers and is making considerable efforts to veloping-country consumers likely will continue to de- reduce its reliance on imported newsprint. The most pend on imported paper products for some time into significant increase in output from the developing world the future. is in Brazil. Brazil's success is tied to the availability of low-cost timber reserves (large plantations of fast-grow- ing eucalyptus trees) and the recent discovery of sub- World Paper Demand stantial deposits of relatively inexpensive oil supplies. Between 1975 and 1984, paper production doubled to Although figures for world production levels are both approximately 3.5 million metric tons. In 1985 alone, available and reliable, actual and forecast figures for five new paper mills came onstream. demand are more difficult to find and are often suspect. In some developing countries (Bangladesh, China, On occasion, a country's official data contain unex- India, and Peru), considerable progress has been made plained inconsistencies. For example, one government in the utilization of nontraditional sources of fiber. Ba- document gave newsprint imports as 28,000 metric tons; gasse, agricultural wastes (straw), rice, bamboo, and in another official publication, the total was 14,500 met- even banana fibers can be and have been incorporated ric tons. The price per metric ton also varied from $600 into pulp and paper making. to $474. 106 Paul Eastman Table 8-4. Projected Paper Output in the Developing total and per capita consumption of cultural paper is World, 1983-93 low in the developing market economies. Tons of newsprint and printing and World consumption in 1983 (versus production and Region and country writing paper produced capacity given above) was 25,300 million metric tons Africa 512 for newsprint and 41,400 million metric tons for print- Algeria 50 ing and writing paper. North America and Europe ac- Egypt, A.R. 180 counted for more than two-thirds of the intake of cul- Ghana 50 tural paper. Although developing countries account for Kenya 15 more than half the earth's population, they consumed Madagascar 38 only 7 to 9 percent of all cultural paper. The United Malawi 11 Morocco 100 States alone consumed 50 percent of the world's news- Sudan 35 print. Each year since 1974, Japan has consumed more Tanzania 30 newsprint than all developing market economies in Af- Zambia 30 rica, Asia, and Latin America combined. Central America and the Globally, consumption is about 5 kilograms per capita Caribbean 325 for newsprint and 8 kilograms per capita for printing Cuba 70 and writing paper. There are huge disparities in per Hondurasa 100 capita consumption between developing and industrial Mexico 150 countries (table 8-5). The significance of such discrep- Nicaragua 5 ancies is unknown. South America 859 Argentina 110 Consumption Trends Brazil 426 Chile 151 Over the past decade, the rate of growth in con- Colombia 87 sumption of cultural paper in Europe and North Amer- Ecuador 50 ica has been slowly easing because of recent economic Peru 35 downturns and changes in data-processing methods. Asia 3,093 Thus the rate of overall growth in newsprint consump- Afghanistan 5 tion is greater (5 percent a year) in developing market Bangladesh 15 economies than in industrial economies (3 percent). Burma 30 China 6 Despite rather modest global growth rates, there has Indiaa 1,180 been a significant increase in per capita consumption Indonesia• 523 of newsprint only in Japan and, to a lesser extent, in Iran 270 the centrally planned economies and in the Far East. Korea, Rep. 198 In addition, total newsprint consumption in the United Malaysia 178 States increased significantly (8 percent) in 1984 as a Nepal 43 result of a strengthening economy. Pakistan 72 Although world newsprint consumption has qua- Philippines 158 drupled since the 1940s, the magnitude of international Sri Lanka• 75 Thailand 120 Turkey 175 Table 8-5. Consumption of Cultural Paper VietNam 45 (kilograms per capita) Total 5,0ll Region or Printing and country group Newsprint writing paper Canada 729 a. Includes a small but identified amount of noncultural paper World 5 8 products. Developed market Source: FAO (1984). economies 35 54 Developing market economies 1 Current Situation North America 45 61 Western Europe 22 50 Consumption levels in most developing nations are Africa, Less than 1 1 below the levels set by Unesco as the minimum amount Asia 2 3 considered necessary to maintain educational and social Oceania 25 15 development (that is, 40 kilograms per capita). Both Source: Unesco data. The Raw Material: Paper 107 trade has remained relatively stable. The primary reason been shown that national income has no effect on con- for such stability has been the large and guaranteed sumption. supply of newsprint from Canada to the United States. Because there are few substitutes for cultural paper, One industry expert (Graff 1984) has predicted that price changes are thought to neither encourage nor the United States and Europe will reach their newsprint discourage consumption over the short term-at least consumption peaks in or slightly before 1990-95. In in the industrial countries. But price plays a very sig- the centrally planned economies (particularly those be- nificant role in smaller countries which have limited longing to the Council for Mutual Economic Assis- (or no) production and are dependent on imports. Price tance), consumption reached its maximum in 1980 and increases (and associated importation costs such as has been on a plateau or even decreasing since. Growth freight, insurance, customs, and so forth) can have a in consumption in the developing world is strongest in serious dampening effect on consumption, especially in Asia and to a lesser extent Latin America. Restricted low-income countries. In some developing countries, consumption is expected throughout Sub-Saharan Af- lack of foreign exchange has an identical effect-low- rica. Thus over the next fifteen years, world newsprint ered consumption. consumption is expected to increase by no more than Obviously, in many developing countries, the extent 1 percent a year. of literacy is a very significant indicator of paper con- The rate of growth in consumption of printing and sumption, especially for printing and writing paper. A writing paper is also greater in the developing (11 per- Unesco report states that a correlation between news- cent) than in the developed market economies (7 per- print consumption and literacy cannot be proven. But cent). Of all regions of the world, the most significant with the increasing use of newsprint in mass literacy relative growth in total consumption is in Sub-Saharan and education programs (in Ethiopia, Jamaica, and the Africa, yet in absolute terms the region is responsible Philippines) and with the increasing number of newly for only a very small part of world paper use. literate people and their demand for reading material, In summary, despite a few cyclical variations, there certainly a linkage must exist. has been a continuous and unbroken growth in the In summary, the factors which seem to influence the world's consumption of paper and paperboard. The av- consumption of cultural paper in the developing world erage annual growth in the consumption of cultural are price (including the availability of foreign exchange paper throughout the world ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 in importing countries) and literacy rates. Although percent. Over the past twenty-five years, consumption income is significant in the industrial countries, ap- of newsprint has grown at a slower pace than that of parently it is not important in the developing world. printing and writing paper. Total and per capita con- Similarly, price and, especially, literacy indicators are sumption levels in the developing world are substan- noteworthy in the developing world but are of minor tially lower than levels found in the industrial econo- importance in the industrial economies. mies. Although the rate of growth in consumption has Most predictions now suggest that up to 1990, the increased (due in large part to increases in South Amer- growth in consumption of cultural paper will be slower ica and Southeast Asia). little of the world's stock of than in the past. Still, the growth rate of the developing cultural paper is consumed by the developing world. world is expected to be about twice the rate anticipated in industrial countries. Demand prospects are strongest Predicting Consumption of Cultural Paper in Asia and to a lesser extent in Latin America and North Africa and the Middle East. Modest increases in con- Although it is difficult to predict precisely future lev- sumption are expected in Sub-Saharan Africa. By 1990 els of consumption of cultural paper, various attempts the FAO predicts that the developing market economies have been made. In Europe and North America, data will consume between 11 and 15 million metric tons on historical trends and elaborate mathematical models of cultural paper-or about 12 to 13 percent (versus 7 are available to help forecast future market prospects. to 9 percent at present) of total world output. Figure For the most part, factors which have been used to 8-3 depicts anticipated levels of world consumption to explain levels of paper consumption are often related 1990. to the state of a nation's economy (gross domestic prod- uct, income per capita, and so forth). For example, in industrial economies, as national income grows so usu- Prices and Marketing ally does paper consumption. In buoyant economies, manufacturers invest in advertising, thus increasing pa- Prices per use. In the developing world, however, the corre- lation between national income and paper consumption Between the 1930s and the 1970s, the price of most is not so straightforward, and in several instances it has paper products increased three to four times-similar 108 Paul Eastman Figure 8-3. Outlook for Consumption of Newsprint Table 8-6. Examples of Average Prices of Newsprint, and Printing and Writing Paper, 1973-75, 1980, 1984 1985, 1990 Price Millions of tons Jamaica 532 80 Dominican Republic 356 70 Barbados 417 Windward and Leeward islands 566 60 Central America 483 50 United Kingdom 435 40 450 ;{O Printing and a. Exported from North America. writing paper Source: Canadian Organization for Development through Educa- 20 Newspaper ---=<='-~ tion data. Printing and 10 writing paper Newspaper 0 individual orders which make up each total-that is, 1973-75 1980 1985 1990 if a national total consisted of only a few large orders, the average price would be considerably lower than if Source: Unesco (1983). the national totals included numerous small purchases. Another possible explanation for relatively high costs to price increases for most commodities. After deduct- may be the absence of competitive bidding. For ex- ing inflationary effects, the FAO has concluded that for ample, in one case, a Caribbean buyer continued to most grades of paper, absolute prices have actually de- place orders with a traditional supplier in the United clined over the past twenty-five years. Yet a price surge Kingdom, despite the fact that much better prices could did occur in the mid-1970s because of escalating energy be obtained from a North American source. Also, high costs: newsprint prices increased by 27 percent and costs may be due to import taxes. prices of printing and writing paper increased by 33 The market for printing and writing paper is much percent as measured in constant dollars. Since the en- more fragmented than the market for newsprint. Ma- ergy-led increase, paper prices have tended to resume nipulation of the market seems less apt to occur. As their traditional pattern of rising, on average, 3~to 5 with newsprint (but to a lesser extent), there is a sig- percent a year. nificant amount of variation in price between one coun- Although paper manufacturers are often accused of try and another (see table 8-7). acting as a cartel, there is little concrete evidence of Unfortunately, disaggregated information is not this. Yet one cannot completely dismiss suspicions that available, but it must be assumed that the reasons for world paper prices have little to do with the cost of the price variations are similar to those given earlier: production-that they are not determined by market the size of individual orders, the lack of competitive forces and instead that prices are set through informal bidding, and the imposition of tariffs. A wide array of agreements among the major mills. printing and writing papers is available, however, and For newsprint at least, regional pricing seems to be each paper has a corresponding price. Sources of data commonplace. FOB mill prices given to paper users in often do not distinguish one quality and grade of print- North America are usually different from prices quoted ing and writing paper from another. Hence with the to consumers in other parts of the world, despite the fact that the same paper satisfies both markets. Regional pricing works both for and against consumers in de- Table 8-7. Examples of Average Prices of Printing veloping countries. and Writing Paper, 1984 (dollars per metric ton) Actual selling prices routinely fluctuate. In a recent Price sale to a Caribbean consumer, the CIF price was ap- proximately $460 a metric ton (ex-mill $315 a metric Jamaica 794 ton) compared with the published North American mar- Dominican Republic 719 Barbados 800 ket price of $515-40 a metric ton. Rarely do published Windward and Leeward islands 732 prices apply, and as noted below it is quite common to Central America 1,023 find domestic North American newsprint prices in the United Kingdom 400 range of $450-500 a metric ton. The variation in price United States 672-832 from destination to destination is evident in table 8-6. a. Exported from North America. Although disaggregated information is not available, Source: Canadian Organization for Development through Educa- some of the variation must be due to the size of the tion data. The Raw Material: Paper 109 information on hand, it is impossible to explain the tations are often equal to or better than prices quoted price differences fully. from the parent company in, for example, North Amer- Despite industry statements, it must be concluded ica or Europe. that the price paid for cultural paper depends on three Paper brokers can be found throughout the world. factors: They receive orders and then identify a source of supply. Brokers' prices are often relatively good because they • The negotiating ability of the buyer have access to many sources. • The size of the current inventory held by the sup- Many businesses are established simply to import goods plier and, in many respects, act as brokers. But importers • The volume of the order. are often linked to only one or two sources of supply. Paper is one commodity for which price is very de- On the one hand, importers include a significant profit pendent on volume. For example, as a relative measure, margin in their prices; on the other hand, they are if the wholesale price is set at 100 units, a minimum nearby should problems arise, and they usually have a bulk order of, say, 18 metric tons may cost 105 units; stock of paper available at short notice. an order of 4 or 5 metric tons may cost 150-160 units; whereas a carton may cost 200-300 units. Tapping International Sources of Paper Paper Marketing The situation can be summarized as follows: Paper products are marketed in a number of ways. The most important channels are paper manufacturers, • Future paper production will continue to be con- company representatives or agents, brokers, and im- centrated in a few countries and to be dominated porters. by several large companies, mostly in Europe, North Although it cannot be proven, there is evidence to America, and Japan. Globally, in the short to me- suggest that some paper manufacturers have introduced dium term, there will be no shortage of cultural marketing territories whereby one mill has influence paper. in a given country while a competitor assumes respon- • Paper production and consumption are small in sibility for a neighboring country. Some buyers there- developing countries, and the short-term prospects fore find it difficult to obtain comparative quotations for growth are modest. from a variety of suppliers. For example, it is known • There is some potential for local paper making in that a North American supplier brought pressure to bear specific locations, but for the most part, the de- on a competitor to withdraw from a tendering process veloping world will continue to be dependent on in a Caribbean country- the implication being that the supplies imported from North America and Eu- previously agreed-to marketing jurisdictions would be rope. threatened. Although it might be suspected, there is no • World prices for paper should remain fairly stable concrete evidence that the lack of competition has caused over the next few years. The customary price in- excessively high prices. Because markets are small in crease of 3 to 5 percent a year will continue, al- the developing world, the existence of selling territories though competition for nontraditional markets may may be an efficient allocation of resources for the sup- lower prices. pliers and may have a neutral effect on the buyers. • Because of the limited demand, paper users in de- Given the limited demand in the developing world, veloping countries command little attention from some producers (particularly those of North American the major suppliers. origin) have not been greatly interested in developing offshore markets. The United States is a net importer With the above in mind, paper buyers in developing of cultural paper and has been more concerned with countries should concentrate in the short term on ways the domestic market. In Canada, 70-75 percent of to tap more effectively and creatively the world stock newsprint is dispatched to a steady and guaranteed out- of cultural paper. let in the United States. As a rule of thumb, most manufacturers will not Paper Donations quote on (let alone supply) orders below a minimum of about 18-20 metric tons. Generally, provided an In addition to entering the marketplace, paper users order is of reasonable volume, the best prices are avail- in developing countries can try to secure free paper able directly from the mills. supplies from a variety of bilateral, multilateral, gov- Some ofthe larger mills appoint local company rep- ernmental, and nongovernmental agencies. It must be resentatives or hire their own staff to sell paper prod- stressed, however, that a dependency on donations is ucts. Given the likelihood of regional pricing, local quo- extremely hazardous and may be debatable on ideolog- llO Paul Eastman ical grounds. More specifically, users in developing national marketplace. When paper consumers in de- countries who depend on donations are at the mercy veloping countries enter the paper-buying arena, their of the changing priorities of the granting agency. Rightly primary goal is to obtain the best possible product for or wrongly, some development agencies believe that the the lowest possible price. The attainment of this goal private sector should be the driving force behind de- is confounded by the following realities: velopment. As such, funds which might have been avail- • With notable exceptions, most paper orders from able in the past are now likely to be used to encourage developing countries are too sporadic and too small individual enterprise. Furthermore, although some so- to expect suppliers to offer competitive prices or cial programs must be subsidized from the global bank to extend services such as credit. account, more attention must be given to recovering costs wherever possible-whether through general tax- • Paper users are seldom experienced with paper ter- ation or through user fees. If beneficiaries are to gain minology and specifications. They do not know (often materially) through their participation in a proj- what options exist and simply accept the advice ect, should they not also be expected to make some offered by suppliers and printers. tangible contribution? Generally, paper users in the developing world lack Most often, paper donations are made for specific the necessary purchasing power and influence to be- projects-for example, for textbook production or for come legitimate buyers rather than simply "takers." To a literacy campaign. Rarely has there been an ongoing help overcome such constraints, potential paper buyers program specifically addressing the paper needs of the might consider the following three points of guidance. developing world. (The Paper Supply Programme, fi- First, as discussed, paper prices are very responsive nanced by the Canadian International Development to volume. The best prices are usually quoted by the Agency for many years to direct paper supplies to de- manufacturers, but only on an order of 18-20 metric veloping nations, is an exception.) Donations of paper tons or more. Therefore, cost savings can be realized if have tended to be sporadic and have originated from annual needs are ordered at one time or if orders from within the bilateral and official government agencies of several smaller users can be consolidated into one. paper-producing countries (Canada, Norway, Sweden, Second, buyers should request quotations from at U.S.S.R., and so forth). Multilateral agencies (for ex- least three suppliers. Potential suppliers can be iden- ample, Unesco and the U.N. Children's Fund) have also tified by consulting a number of published directories. been involved in sizable paper donations to developing (The most common list of North American suppliers is countries. Finally, numerous nonprofit, nongovern- the Lockwood Directory, available from Vance Publish- mental agencies have, over the years, supported edu- ing, 122 E. 42d Street, New York, New York 10168.) cational projects in the developing world by supplying Tender instructions should specify clearly not only the small amounts of paper. type of paper required but also who is to be responsible For some unknown reason, rarely have bilateral and for shipping, freight, insurance, any overland trans- multilateral donations of paper been considered (al- portation, and (if applicable) brokerage costs. though there are support programs for other commod- Third, consumers should become conversant with the ities such as food and iron ore); nor have they been common generic names for different grades of paper. used in the form of balance of payments support. Some Quite commonly, consumers order a higher quality and donor agencies are attempting to link aid with trade. heavier weight paper than is necessary. Regardless of As such, several new programs are offered whereby loan the multitude of brand names and despite the selling guarantees are extended to suppliers of home-produced features claimed by the various producers, printing pa- commodities in order to encourage exports. pers are of the following basic grades: In summary, paper donations are available from a variety of agencies and under a range of terms and • Newsprint. Newsprint is the lowest grade of un- conditions (loans, grants, and so forth). But one must coated printing paper. It tends to discolor over time be cautious about adopting a false sense of economy when exposed to sunlight. It is the least expensive when tapping philanthropic contributions. Ultimately, paper available. more thought must be given to making most paper- • Writing paper. The most common types of writing using projects self-sustaining and self-supporting. Do- papers are referred to as bond and duplicating pa- nor support is neither infinite nor eternal. per. Bond is used primarily for writing. Often peo- ple will specify bond for a printing job when less Paper Purchases expensive grades (for example, offset and tablet) would suffice. Duplicating paper has been specially The other major source of paper supply is through treated to resist the penetration of ink from spirit outright purchases-whether locally or in the inter- and other duplicating equipment. The Raw Material: Paper 111 • Book paper. Book papers consist of those papers thetics of the publication but also the mechanical re- (except newsprint) used for practically everything quirements of the press. If the printed material is com- which is read. Uncoated book paper is the most patible with the printing equipment and with commonly basic. Coated book papers have a day coating which available paper dimensions, the cost will be reduced. gives the stock a glossy appearance. Unless detailed Most first-time buyers in the international market color reproduction is required, coated papers are will be expected to pay in advance. Many suppliers in an unnecessary expense. Europe and North America are reluctant to extend credit • Cover stock. Cover stock includes relatively stiff, to new clients. In the past, many suppliers have shipped heavyweight types of paper. Because the cost of goods and have never been paid. To encourage suppliers cover stock can be as much as all the paper used to extend credit (and hence save money), however, some inside the book, care must be taken to select the consuming organizations have prepared a short profile least expensive yet the most presentable. For most which includes financial records and letters of endorse- purposes, paperback-type cover stock (heavy- ment from a bank or other major supplier. After are- weight, uncoated book paper) will suffice. lationship has been established between buyers and sell- ers, some form of credit should be expected. In most In summary, if costs are to be minimized, most printing cases, credit will be extended for thirty days. For larger jobs in developing countries can be satisfactorily done and more regular buyers, terms of forty-five and even with one or more of the following: newsprint, uncoated sixty days can be negotiated. book paper, duplicating paper, and uncoated cover stock. When ordering sheeted stock, many consumers in Paper users should not be overwhelmed by the ways developing countries specify that their supplies are to in which cultural papers are described. An important be ream-wrapped and boxed. Although ream wrapping yet confusing concept is that of basis weight, the weight may provide additional protection against damage and in pounds of a ream (500 sheets) of paper cut to a given may make inventory control easier, it also adds to the standard size for that particular grade. The metric cost. Extra time (and hence cost) is incurred in indi- equivalent to basis weight is grammage and is measured vidually wrapping and boxing and in unwrapping and in grams per square meter (gsm). Grammage is a much unboxing paper. A less expensive alternative may be simpler and more useful concept. Measurements in gsm ream marking, in which sheets of paper are stacked allow for a comparison of basis weights of any grade of several reams high and a colored marker is inserted at paper because they refer to the same unit area. Tables each interval of 500 sheets. are available to convert basis weights to grammage. Customarily, damage to international paper ship- To ensure both the availability of supplies and the ments should not exceed 3 to 5 percent, although larger best possible prices, industry standards for sheeted stock losses are not uncommon. To avoid the inconvenience should b.e used wherever possible. and the unnecessary cost of damaged paper, some at- Paper'can be supplied in rolls or as flat or sheeted tention should be given to packaging and insurance stock. Cost savings of 10 to 15 percent can be realized coverage. if rolled stock is purchased. Although the cost of sheet- Paper can be sent in containers (full or part) or by ing must be accounted for, there is no reason to pay break-bulk. When shipping by break-bulk, extra care for sheeting costs in foreign exchange. If presses cannot must be taken in packaging. Supplies should be shrink- accommodate rolls, then one should investigate the pos- wrapped in heavy-gauge plastic, stacked on wooden skids, sibility of ordering rolls and sheeting it locally. and then plastic-wrapped again. A piece of wood should If presses will not accommodate rolled stock and if be placed on the top-with metal or wooden strapping sheeting facilities are not available, flat stock will have applied to the sides to give added strength and protec- to be ordered. Again, as a cost-saving measure, better tion. Wood or heavy cardboard corner pieces should prices are usually available if the dimensions of the also be attached. required paper are consistent with industry standards. Several types of insurance are available for paper ship- Specialty cutting to odd sizes adds to the cost. Industry ments. Despite the added cost, the only policy that should standards for sheeted stock are (sizes in inches): be considered is one which contains an all-risk clause. Most other types of policy provide very limited coverage. Newsprint 24 36 X All insurance policies are subject to a deductible. For Duplicating 8.5 11 X 8.5 X 14 most paper products, the deductible is 1 percent, but 17 X 22 17 X 28 because newsprint is more susceptible to damage, the Uncoated book 23 X 35 standard deductible for it is 3 percent. For the same (Offset) 25 X 38 38 X 40 26 40 reason, the premium on a policy covering newsprint is Cover stock 20 X 26 X also slightly higher than that for other types of paper. Book designers should consider not only the aes- International shipping costs vary enormously. As might 112 Paul Eastman be expected, the larger the volume shipped, the lower to light, it too can be stored without problem for a the per unit cost. Charter rates are the lowest of all, considerable period of time, although it will deteriorate but in order to qualify, between 5,000 and 12,000 metric more quickly than printing and writing papers. tons must be shipped per vessel. Part-charter or parcel In summary, although many nations may aspire to shipments are slightly more expensive but also require having their own pulp and paper industry, for a con- a minimum volume of between 1,000 and 3,000 metric siderable time in the future, most supplies will originate tons. Break-bulk shipments are somewhat more expen- offshore. Apart from receiving periodic donations of pa- sive than charters or parcels but usually less expensive per, most consumers in the developing world will de- than containerized shipping. In sum, volume has a sig- pend on the international market to acquire their paper. nificant bearing on per unit and total costs and offers A better awareness of the paper industry plus a few an additional reason to consolidate orders. simple and practical steps should guarantee a steady Shipping costs will also depend on whether the vessel and low-cost supply. Immediate savings can be realized is a conference carrier. Conference carriers are shipping on purchases if orders from individual small buyers are companies which join together to fix prices and to re- consolidated, if the variety of paper grades and types is cord a common tariff which all participating members simplified, if rolled rather than sheeted stocks are bought, must follow. Conference carrier prices are often rela- and if competitive bids are solicited, particularly from tively expensive but are negotiable pending approval by brokers or mills. a majority of the participating member companies. Non- conference carriers can set their own rates and need References not consult with other companies. The flexibility in price of nonconference carriers can work both against Alexander, Leigh, and John Summers. 1975. The Determi- and for buyers. nants of School Achievement in Developing Countries: The Improper documentation has caused considerable de- Educational Production Function. World Bank Staff Work- lay in many paper shipments. If customs and excise ing Paper 201. Washington, D.C. authorities have not received all the required docu- Canadian Organization for Development through Education. ments at the port, buyers can experience many unan- 1981. "Unesco Trip Report." Ottawa. Processed. ticipated and costly surprises. In most ports, goods can - - . 1982. A Study into the Establishment of a Paper be left with the authorities for seven to fourteen days Assistance Programme. Ottawa. without incurring any storage charges. After the grace - - . 1984, 1985. Proceedings of the First and Second period, demurrage costs begin to accumulate. Cumu- Workshop on Paper Supply Management. Ottawa. lative demurrage charges can be so high that they ex- Canadian Pulp and Paper Association. 1985. Newsprint Data: ceed the value of the paper shipment. Statistics of World Demand and Supply. Montreal. FAO (U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization). 1984. Pulp and Obviously, when paper stocks arrive, they must be Paper Capacities 1983-1988. Rome. carefully stored to minimize damage and changes in Graff, Paul. 1984. "Newsprint- TV's Belated Victim?" Pulp the paper characteristics resulting from high temper- and Paper International, March: 46. ature and humidity. Preventative measures are straight- Hall, Charles. 1985. "Brazil's Potential Expansion." Pulp and forward. Storage facilities must be clean, well venti- Paper International, September: 56. lated, and above all dry. Supplies must be tightly stacked Pulp and Paper International. 1985. "Top 100." Vol. 73 (Sep- on a secure foundation. Most suppliers wrap their paper tember). (whether rolls or sheeted stock) in a moisture-proof Smith, Douglas C. 1977. Economics of Book Publishing in covering. Where relative humidity levels exceed 45 to Developing Countries. Paris: Unesco. UNDPIFAO Pulp and Paper Industries Development Programme. 50 percent, the moisture barrier must be left intact until 1977. Report on the UNDP/FAD Pulp and Paper Industries the paper is going to be used. Any damage to the wrap- Development Programme. FAO Forestry Paper 4/1. Rome. ping should be repaired. Unesco. 1983. Statistical Digest. Paris. With little effort and cost, ideal storage conditions --.N.d. Cultural Paper. Part l· Consumption of Cultural can be easily created in which printing and writing Paper in the World. Paris. paper will remain in good condition for many years. World Bank. 1983. World Development Report 1983. New Provided newsprint can also be protected from exposure York: Oxford University Press. Part III Provision of Textbooks: Developed Systems and Infant Industries The six chapters in this part illustrate how several na- educational policy decisions form a constraining envi- tions at various stages of development have dealt with ronment for the provision of textbooks. the many policy issues and technical problems discussed In chapter 9, Peter Neumann compares the provision in the previous chapters. The chapters demonstrate that of textbooks in four highly industrialized market econo- each nation must judge its options in terms of its own mies. These rich nations are able to afford a relatively particular circumstances because there is no universally lavish quantity and quality of textbooks and other learn- best resolution to any of the issues or problems; that ing materials, and all rely on the private sector for errors of policy or administrative mismanagement at textbook supplies. But their policies and administrative any of the decision points discussed earlier can create arrangements are quite different, reflecting the unique serious problems for the entire operation to provide traditions of each nation. textbooks precisely because all the points are part of a The experiences of these nations also show that, al- total system; and that in spite of difficulties and mis- though the policy issues discussed throughout this book takes there have been significant accomplishments in are particularly present in poor nations, they are not the provision of textbooks. Perhaps most important, all unique to them. An increase in national wealth through the cases discussed in this part show significant insti- development may make it easier to deal with many of tutional learning. Policy errors or technical mistakes the issues, but it will not make them disappear. And, made at one stage are corrected at a later stage. Whether as Tyson-Bernstein's analysis of the U.S. experience in establishing or improving the provision of textbooks, chapter 6 clearly demonstrates, even a very high na- one is dealing with necessarily imperfect human sys- tional income is no guarantee against bad policy choices tems. The most that one can hope is that nc,tions (and regarding textbooks. the international agencies which assist them) learn from India faces awesome difficulties in developing a sat- their mistakes and from others' experiences. isfactory textbook publishing system. It is one of the The first three chapters in this part deal principally poorest and most populous nations in the developing with macroeconomic policy choices, particularly the world, with a very large number of languages and di- question of whether the private or public sector should alects and a history of strong regional, language-group, be preferred. They demonstrate how a nation's history and religious tensions. In chapter 10, Narendra Kumar and culture, stage of educational development, and broad chronicles the development of textbook publishing- 113 H4 Part III mainly by the public sector-in the postcolonial epoch. discussion, which is available from the World Bank and His discussion of the constraints that this heavy reliance the distributors of its publications around the world on the public sector has placed on private publishing (see the reference list at the end of their chapter). is a good illustration of the argument for the blending The remaining three chapters in this part are detailed of public and private activity made by Copinathan in accounts of the step-by-step development and operation chapter 5. Clearly, the appropriate public-private bal- of systems to provide textbooks in three quite different ance to service effectively this vast market for textbooks settings. The chapters demonstrate how all the prob- has still to be worked out. It is significant that because lems and decision points discussed in part II have been of the size of the nation, its private textbook publishing dealt with in a variety of countries: the Philippines, a industry has developed a capacity-even under its con- large, populous, multi-island nation with a relatively strained situation-to export books to neighboring na- developed educational system and a long history of text- tions. book use; Lesotho, a small, very poor nation that only Mexico is one of the most successful examples among recently became independent and has a less developed develop:ng nations of the blending of public and private educational syst<>m and little history of textbook use; activity to provide textbooks. In chapter 11, Peter Neu- and the very small but educationally advanced island mann and Maureen Cunningham give an account of the nations of the English-speaking Caribbean. The chap- development of this unique and successful system. Their ters present three quite different models for the rela- chapter is a summary of a World Bank Staff Working tively successful provision of textbooks, each adapted Paper. The Mexican experience is very instructive, and to the special circumstances in which it was developed. interested readers should acquire the original detailed 9 Publishing for Schools in France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States Peter H. Neumann Publishing for schools depends for direction on the ed- little support and financial aid for textbook purchases. ucational establishment and relies in whole or in part Most school systems in the developing world therefore on public funding. In the Federal Republic of Germany, are faced with scarce supplies of often poorly conceived France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, it materials. is done by private companies and governed by a nec- This chapter outlines those practices and procedures essary but tangled web of laws, regulations, and cus- of governments, educational authorities, the general toms. Under favorable conditions, the diverse interest public, and educational publishers that influence and groups that support, produce, and use textbooks work control the supply of textbooks to students in primary for a commmon purpose. A system of checks and bal- and secondary schools of France, Germany, the United ances ensures that schools receive an adequate supply Kingdom, and the United States. My sources were gov- of instructional materials and that these materials per- ernment reports and statistics, information available form their assigned tasks. In times of social or economic from publishers' organizations, and information from stress, the issues that need to be resolved among gov- interviews. My analysis is based on first -hand experience ernment, teachers, parents, the general public, and pub- with publishing for schools in these and other industrial lishers tend to lead to confrontations that put the sys- nations, as well as in Asia, Latin America, and parts of tem in jeopardy. Africa. Government and private institutions form an essen- In France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the tial part of the process of publishing for schools. In the United States, as in most Western nations, textbooks industrial nations, the relation between them has de- traditionally are produced by private publishing com- veloped over a long time. They have created a network panies. They are purchased, however, by public agencies that is not perfect but has managed to supply schools and paid for out of public funds. Dependence on public with a variety of educational materials at a public ex- funds, together with the often highly charged political pense of 1 percent or less of national budgets for .ed- atmosphere that surrounds public education, creates ucation. unique characteristics in the school textbook industries It is important for officials and others responsible for of these countries and of others that follow the same providing textbooks in developing nations to be aware pattern. Textbook publishing everywhere is contained of the complex socioeconomic systems required to ini- in a complex triangle of laws, regulations, and customs tiate and sustain the process of publishing for schools. which are applied to the selection, content, purchase, The conditions for evolving similar systems exist in and pricing of textbooks. most developing nations. Professional expertise is re- Among the questions asked in preparation for the quired, however, to choose from among the many eco- writing of this chapter were: nomic alternatives. At present, governments in the de- veloping nations, unaware of the alternatives, either • What are the basic systems of education and gen- attempt to undertake the full burden of producing and eral policies for providing textbooks? supplying textbooks for their schools or offer the schools • Are textbooks currently the main tools for teaching 115 116 Peter H. Neumann and learning, or are they being displaced by newer To what extent do textbooks reflect a national cur- media? riculum, the input of special-interest groups, or the • To what extent do textbooks reflect a national cur- pressures of politics? Only one country in the group riculum, the input of special-interest groups, or studied (France) has a national curriculum. In Ger- the pressures of politics? many, each of the eleven Lander has its own curricu- • Who approves the content of textbooks? How are lum, with differences so great that moving from one to they selected? Who pays for them? another may create problems for children attending school. In both France and Germany, textbooks must • What is the role of the school textbook industry? conform closely to the prescribed curriculum. In the How free is the competition? How good are the United States, regional differences between curricu- textbooks? lums, which are a state responsibility, rarely prevent • What are the links and areas of cooperation be- textbooks from being accepted throughout the country tween textbook publishers of developed and devel- by a majority of school systems. There is no national oping nations? or state curriculum in primary or secondary school in What are the basic systems ofeducation and general the United Kingdom. Secondary school curriculums are policies for providing textbooks? The countries surveyed determined by the types of examinations the students offer kindergarten plus twelve years of public education, intend to take. subdivided into primary school, middle school, and high Special-interest groups and political pressure exert a school. Various types of education can be chosen, such considerable influence on the publication of textbooks. as a combination of general education and technical- Publishers often find themselves in the middle of ac- vocational preparation or of general education and a rimonious debates between the political establishment more academic preparation for those going on to col- and teachers, parents, and citizens (often united in sin- lege. Except in France and in certain German states gle-issue organizations) about the goals and effective- (Lander), textbooks are supplied on loan and free of ness of basic education. Consensus has become more charge to ali students in public schools. France does difficult to achieve following the social, scientific, and not supply free textbooks to students in high school technical revolutions of the last few decades. Organi- (lycee), whereas some Lander combine free textbooks zations and individuals concerned with many causes- with payments, at certain levels, from parents. civil rights, women's rights, the rights of minorities, Are textbooks currently the main tools of teaching religious revival, East-West confrontations, the new bi- and learning, or are they being displaced by newer ology, population control, the aspirations of new na- media? The answer is unanimous. It was well expressed tions, satellite communication-all clamor to be fairly by the national minister of education in France in March represented in textbooks. The pressures result from a 1985: "The book remains, in spite of the appearance of conviction, not readily supported by the facts, that text- newer devices, the principal support of teaching." A books are one of the most powerful tools for forming wide-ranging survey entitled "Books in the Curricu- the minds of the young. The truth may be less dramatic: lum," recently carried out by a committee of educators textbooks mirror the values currently acceptable to so- in the United Kingdom, came to a similar conclusion: ciety and document the changes that occur. Textbook "The majority of teachers regard textbooks as the prime publishers, too, are neither the heroes nor the villains teaching aid which can play both a central and supple- they are made out to be. They view themselves as an mentary role." The study included field research and a industry that serves the educational establishment, that survey of textbook usage in the United Kingdom and will produce on demand what is considered acceptable United States. Students in primary and secondary schools, by the majority of school systems. it was found, spend on average 70-90 percent of their Who approves the content oftextbooks? How are they time with books. Home study depends on books. Books selected? Who pays for them? In only one country in are among the most effective, and probably the most the group, Germany, are textbooks required to be sub- cost-effective, tools for teaching and learning. mitted for approval before publication. Once approved Questioning the effectiveness of textbooks is not new. by the ministry of education of a state, the books then Twenty-five years ago, responsible educators in the United become part of an approved listing from which schools States pronounced the textbook dead, overtaken by in that state may make their individual selections. But teaching machines, programmed instruction, film loops, the same textbooks are rarely adopted by any other of and audiocassettes. Teaching machines as then con- the eleven states. ceived are now dead, and those other media sound al- In France and the United Kingdom, schools and in- most antiquated beside the computer and videocassette dividual teachers traditionally have the right to make player. More and more use is made in schools of new their own selections from publishers' lists without prior media. They are expensive but very effective in certain approval by a ministry. In the United States, so-called areas of instruction. adoption states select and approve a limited number of Publishing for Schools 117 textbooks and basal series from which schools in the Complex formats and designs, profuse illustrations, and state must make their selection. So-called open states eye-catching layouts demand specialist services. "Im- have a system similar to that of the British-namely, possible" schedules made necessary by changes in cur- each school district or individual school makes its own riculum, deadlines for statewide adoptions, and basic unrestricted choice from publishers' lists. The process shifts in teaching strategies call for such tight control of textbook selection in the nations surveyed varies from by the publisher that outside authors, mostly teachers formai evaluation of state adoptions (with hearings that or researchers, find it difficult to comply. may be open to the public) to simple decisions of a local Textbook publishers are not printers and, unlike textbook committee or teacher. newspapers, usually do not own printing plants. They Textbook purchases are mostly financed from taxes are responsible for the editorial development of edu- raised by the local community. These taxes are aug- cational materials, design and illustration (often pro- mented by state (or provincial) funds, which may be cured from outside sources), warehousing, shipping, used to subsidize the poorer communities in the state. and billing, and the marketing and promotion of their The central government is seldom a major source of materials. The range and the quality of textbook ma- funds for textbooks. A consequence of local and state terials (together with their audiovisual and software funding is a discrepancy-based on variations in local supplements) are impressive in countries with devel- wealth and commitment to education-between the oped textbook industries. Nevertheless, justified criti- funds available for textbooks in different parts of the cisms remain, and there is no easy answer to the ques- same country. tion, "How good are the textbooks?" Under favorable What is the role of the school textbook industry? conditions, implying consensus of what educators ex- How free is the competition? How good are the text- pect and what administrators are willing to pay for, books? Textbook publishing is an important branch of textbook publishers should have few problems creating any national publishing industry. In the early stages of materials responsive to the educational system. In the a country's development, the opportunity to publish real world, however, it is often necessary to compro- textbooks for schools may be an essential element in mise. creating a national publishing industry. Because it is In most developed nations, including those surveyed tied to public education, the market for textbooks is for this chapter, an uneasy balance, but a balance none- more predictable than the market for general books. theless, prevails most of the time between the various This, however, does not necessarily mean that it is sta- interest groups that govern textbook production, selec- ble. Nor is it without risk for the individual publisher. tion, and purchase. Customs and traditions, supported More than in other mature industries, leadership among by laws and regulations, change relatively slowly; ad- competing textbook publishers can shift dramatically justments to curriculums are incremental; and the range from one adoption period to the next. Changes in school of materials combined with freedom of choice for teach- enrollments from baby boom to zero growth to actual ers and schools have provided a measure of stability. decline affect the textbook publisher. Worse, textbooks, Although textbooks continue to be the main support unlike teachers, have neither a union nor a unified for teaching and learning, their purchase with public constituency that will lobby the legislature on their funds has seriously declined over the past decades. But behalf. In times of economic recession and tight bud- funding has not been reduced because-as some may gets, textbook purchases are often the first to feel the suspect-money has been spent on computers, video, pinch. Simply using available textbooks, even though and other new media. Rather, the causes of the reduc- they may be outdated or worn, is tempting for school tion are economic recessions, pressures on educational administrators faced with rising teachers' salaries and budgets from larger salaries for teachers, and the oil costs of maintaining their plant. In all the countries crisis, which spawned inflation and higher costs for surveyed, allocations for textbooks as a percentage of plant maintenance. Perhaps, with the reduction of in- the national budget for education have recently de- flation and the economic recovery that seem under way, clined-in some instances by more than 50 percent. the pendulum will once more swing toward more rea- Textbook publishers learn to live with such changing sonable levels of public expenditure for educational ma- fortunes. Large publishers continue their heavy invest- terials. If this happens and consensus similarly emerges ments in major series; smaller ones find their niche in on the role and content of public education, it seems regional publications or supplementary materials. The likely that a highly developed and professional publish- school textbook industry differs from general publishing ing industry will produce even more effective materials. and professional publishing in that it depends less on YVhat are the links and areas ofcooperation between outside authors and more on its own in-house com- textbook publishers of developed and developing na- petence for the development of materials. Modern text- tions? Publishing for schools is clearly the most polit- books are complex teaching tools. They require a team ically sensitive area of educational publishing-an area of contributors with differing abilities and backgrounds. where it is instinctively felt that each country should 118 Peter H. Neumann develop its own unique materials. Yet paradoxically, the cess. Revisions are introduced annually by various com- publishing of school textbooks is more derivative than mittees within each state. Sometimes new curriculums most other types of publishing because each successive are used experimentally and are subject to further re- textbook or series builds upon previously published ma- vision after more extensive classroom testing. Accord- terials, while radical departures in curriculum result in ing to a chart published by the Institut fUr Bildungs- new materials that are quickly plagiarized. In fact, the medien, between 257 and 320 new syllabuses were exchange of rights, adaptations and translations, co- introduced nationwide each year from 1979 to 1984. operative editions, and more or less outright imitations A new textbook may be developed by a publisher for have long been common. This happens most frequently a number of reasons; nowadays it is generally the result with mathematics and science and with dictionaries, of a sweeping curriculum change introduced by one of school atlases, foreign language materials, and the like. the ministries of education. Political concerns are likely The necessary conditions for effective cooperation and to exert considerable influence on the content of text- for adapting materials to different cultures and school books, especially in the social sciences and geography. systems are professional competence and knowledge of It is not unusual, after state elections, for a change of the required process. the ruling political party to be followed by curriculum In the developing nations, lack of appreciation of the changes in these and in other subject areas. Because advantages inherent in using tested methods and ma- education in Germany is a jealously guarded prerogative terials to create textbooks, combined with a lack of local of the individual states, there is no national curriculum. publishing skills to contribute to the process, have stymied Each state demands its own version of state-approved the growth of national textbook resources. Exceptions textbooks. School curriculums may vary so much from have resulted from the involvement of British publish- state to state that a student moving from one state to ers with textbook publishing in English-speaking Africa another could be set back by as much as one year. and of French publishers in French-speaking Africa, where existing relations have formed the basis of on- Approval and Selection of Textbooks going cooperation. American publishers have worked more actively with the emerging publishing industries With few exceptions such as dictionaries, all school- of Latin America. Nevertheless, publishers and govern- books have to be submitted for approval before publi- ments responsible for providing textbooks need a much cation-that is, before they may be offered for sale to better understanding of the opportunities and respon- schools. Because each state reserves to itself this right sibilities that are part of such cooperative efforts. of approval, it becomes necessary to submit textbooks in each subject and grade level to all eleven state min- Germany istries of education. Because curriculums vary consid- erably from state to state, chances are small that the same text will be approved in more than one; thus Basic Educational System publishers are forced to produce regional editions, which often serve fairly small markets and thus have additional In Germany, education is the responsibility of the costs and uncertainties. BWldeslander (individual states). The eleven Lander have To obtain official approval from a state ministry of a combined total of 10.4 million students in 33,000 education, the publisher has to submit the finished primary and secondary schools supported by 585,000 printed and bound book (or series of books at the pri- teachers. mary school level) to a review commission appointed The traditional educational system in most German by the ministry and composed mostly of educators. These states consists of four years of comprehensive primary commissions usually take an average of several months school, followed by an examination leading to a choice to decide whether to approve a textbook that has been of secondary education: five years of Hauptschule (mid- submitted. dle school), six years of Realschule (vocational high A book or series may be approved without change by school), nine years of Gymnasium (classical high school), a review commission; it may be approved for use during or six to nine years in Gesamtschule (comprehensive a limited time only-for example, two years; changes, high school). additions, or deletions may be proposed as a condition of approval; or the book may be rejected. Major criteria Curriculum for evaluation of a text are: Curriculums are determined by the ministries of ed- • How well it agrees with the curriculum ucation of the eleven states quite independently of one • Its use of approved didactic, pedagogic, and sci- another. Curriculum development is a continuous pro- entific findings and methodology Publishing for Schools 119 • Its appearance-quality of presentation and read- figures for some states are estimates. Comparisons be- ability tween states on per-student expenditure are further dis- • Its price. torted because of the varying amounts that parents con- tribute to textbook purchases. In 1984, a combined total Once schoolbooks have obtained official approval, they of approximately DM78 billion was spent on education may be selected and purchased by individual schools by the federal government and the states. This included under the so-called free textbook schemes (Lemmit- about DM400 million (or 0.0051 percent) for textbook telfreiheit), which vary significantly from state to state. provisioning for some 10.6 million students (or an av- erage of DM37.74 per student per year). The national Provision of Textbooks average of DM37.74 per student spent on textbooks re- flected a low of DM11.50 and DM12.64 in two of the The various German states operate their textbook states, between DM23.19 and DM40.13 in five of the systems in different ways, which include: states, and a high between DM42.57 and DM86.64 in the four remaining states. • Lending systems under which the state pays for the books selected by the teachers; the books are Educational Publishing Industry then loaned free of charge to the students • Lending systems combined with book purchase by Seventy-two textbook publishers account for 98 per- parents; the state pays for a certain percentage of cent of textbook sales. Total sales of all schoolbook schoolbook supplies, and the parents pay for those publishers for 1985 were estimated at DM360 million. books that are required but not supplied by the As table 9-1 shows, total sales of textbooks and ex- state penditures for textbooks per student have declined sig- • Subsidy systems which provide financial support nificantly since reaching a high in 1981. Most publish- for buying schoolbooks for children from low-in- ers publish books in all the subjects taught in the 100 come families different school systems throughout the eleven Lander. • No state support for schoolbook purchases except Of necessity, these publishers serve a fractured mar- for those parents on welfare programs. ket. City-states such as Bremen, Hamburg, and Berlin each have fewer than 300,000 students enrolled in their Expenditures for school buildings and maintenance, school systems but are spending more money per stu- as well as textbook purchases, are financed by state dent on textbooks than the larger states, which have taxes. This causes significant differences in the amounts enrollments ranging from 1.33 million to 2.99 million. allocated per student for textbooks, depending on state Since 1980, the publishing industry has been faced policy and wealth. Teachers' salaries, by contrast, appear with both declining enrollments and more and more to be similar throughout Germany. insistence by individual states that textbooks closely reflect their own unique views on education and the Textbook Budget curriculum. The recent economic recession has re- sulted in deep cuts in state budgets for textbooks, com- Exact figures for schoolbook purchases in Germany pensated for insufficiently by a greater expenditure on are difficult to find and may not exist. The available schoolbooks by parents. Table 9-1. The Schoolbook Market in Germany Number of School Newly Total sales of schoolbook enrollments introduced schoolbook publishers Average expenditures Year publishers• (millions)b curriculumsc (millions of deutschmark)d per pupil (deutschmark) 1956 56 8.0 100 12.50 1969 70 10.1 380 37.62 1979 81 12.0 306 500 41.67 1981 84 11.5 320 520 45.21 1982 80 11.1 257 470 42.34 1983 75 10.9 219 420 38.53 1984 74 10.6 302 380 35.84 360 -Not available. a. According to information from the Association of Schoolbook Publishers (Des Verbandes der Schutbuchverlage). b. From statistical yearbooks. c. Data available since 1978. d. Estimates. 120 Peter H. Neumann In spite of these difficulties, the schoolbook market ucation. Thirty-six thousand municipal divisions make in Germany offers a wide selection of educational ma- up the basic units of the system. In 1984-85, total terials produced in competition by individual publish- enrollment in primary and secondary schools was 12.84 ers. New textbooks are generally produced in response million students. More than 10 million of these students to the demands of the Lander. Many titles are printed were in public schools, and the remaining 2.18 million in relatively small editions. Nevertheless, the situation attended private schools. Preprimary and first-level stu- has been called drastic by its critics. States' rights and dents numbered 6.98 million, and second-level stu- the resultant divergencies in the goals of education, the dents, 5.52 million. School is compulsory to the age of required approval of textbooks by each state, and the 16. In 1984-85 the school system employed a staff of politicization of the educational process are issues that 904,483-739,867 (81.8 percent) in teaching positions have all come under more and more scrutiny by the and the rest in administration. press and the public. And obviously the same issues The educational system consists of five years of pri- have complicated the task of publishers and of their mary school, followed by four years of middle school authors, increasing the cost of textbooks-in extreme (college) and three years of high school (lycee). During cases by as much as 100 percent. In spite of criticisms, middle school, students have the option, after three sources in the publishing industry maintain that school- years, of taking an examination to transfer to a profes- books are a bargain compared with the average list price sionallycee (lycee d'enseignement professionnel, or LEP) of all other books in German bookstores (Institut fOr for an additional three years. This prepares them for Bildungsmedien 1985). the certificat d'aptitude professionnelle (CAP). Students Books are the main teaching aid in German schools going on to the lycees graduate with a baccalaureat. and are likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. Other media, however, are likely to play a more and Curriculum more important part and to affect turnover for the pub- lisher. The national curriculum for primary and secondary education is uniform throughout the country and ap- Book Exports and Linkages to the Developing World plies equally to public and private schools. It tends to be so detailed and prescriptive that, in subjects such as At advanced levels in the sciences, mathematics, and science and mathematics, not only is the content pre- technology, books are increasingly published in English scribed but also the approach to teaching it. for the world market by such German publishers as Springer Verlag. By contrast (and with the exception of Approval and Selection of Textbooks books on "German as a Foreign Language"), school- books published in German are seldom exported. Textbooks are not approved before publication. Pub- Nevertheless, a number of German publishers and lishers are free to publish whatever they like at their printers have established joint ventures abroad, some discretion. Major criteria for selecting a textbook are: in developing countries. One of the most prominent German international publishers is the Verlagsgruppe • How well it fits the curriculum and needs of the Bertelsmann (Bertelsmann Publishing Group), with joint- student venture book clubs in Latin America, Spain, Portugal, • How suitable it is for teaching the average student and the United Kingdom and with branches in other • The attractiveness of its design and illustrations countries. • The clarity with which it is presented Modest support from certain organizations and from • The availability of a teachers' edition the federal government is available to encourage co- • Its price. operative efforts between German publishers or printers and those from the developing world-for example, to A fundamental principle in France has long been the train technicians and to translate materials. German right of each district or municipal division to select the industry is a further source of technical publications textbooks for its school system. In very small com- and training manuals. munities, individual teachers may make the selection. Provision of Textbooks France As a general rule, books for elementary schools are Basic Educational System bought by municipalities with public funds and are loaned free to students. In 1977 the national government pro- Education in France is a responsibility of the central posed to provide funds for a textbook loan program for government exercised by the national minister of ed- students at intermediate or middle school (college). But Publishing for Schools 121 funding for this program has been sharply reduced. house editing and commission authors to interpret and Parents who can afford to do so purchase required books give form to the prescribed curriculum. Like textbooks for their children while poorer students may well have in other countries, French textbooks have greatly im- to manage with inadequate and out-dated books. Nei- proved in the use of color and illustrations and in other ther the national government nor municipalities sup- aspects of presentation. plies free textbooks at the high school level. Parents Educational publishing in France has a number of purchase prescribed books, spending between $40 and unusual features. As elsewhere, publishers promote their $60 per child a year. materials by calling on schools and municipalities where At the preprimary and primary levels, municipalities the selections are made and by providing free copies fund the purchase of books out of local taxes. Amounts and other promotional materials. Unlike other coun- allocated per student may vary as much as 1:3 between tries surveyed, however, where publishers sell either wealthier and poorer communities. Teachers receive directly to school systems or via educational distribu- their salaries directly from the national ministry of ed- tors, schools buy their books from local bookstores. ucation and therefore are not subject to such variations. There are some exceptions: Paris, for example, buys centrally from publishers, who ship the books directly Textbook Budget to schools. On the one hand, purchasing books through the bookstore undoubtedly increases their cost to the France spent F178 billion on education in 1984-85. school system. On the other hand, this practice supports Only about F100 million (or 0.00056 percent of this the book trade, which in France sells textbooks to par- amount) was spent on textbooks. This is the lowest ents as well. percentage of any of the countries surveyed for this According to a 1982 survey, loaned books had on chapter. It is only partially explained by the facts that average ten-year-old copyrights (mathematics texts, av- free textbook loan programs in France are confined to erage six years; French language texts, average sixteen primary education and that the contribution by the years). Many of the books in schools are worn, tattered, national government to textbook purchases for middle and outdated in both content and appearance. The sorry schools is inadequate. Indeed, there is a crisis of con- state of the free textbook loan program has created a fidence between the ministry of education and French demand by parents for educational materials, which the publishers in which the press and general public have publishing industry is meeting with innovative mate- become more and more involved. Publishers estimate rials for home study. Parents purchase for their children that a minimum expenditure of F425 million (or 0.0025 not only prescribed textbooks to supplement those avail- percent of the national education budget) is required able in school but also a range of innovative materials to fund adequately present book commitments, includ- to be used at home, including special programs for self- ing textbooks for middle schools. If such a commitment study during summer holidays. is not possible under current budgetary restraints, pub- Children at age thirteen are spending thirty-two hours lishers argue that the ministry should acknowledge that a week in school plus ten hours of homework; yet par- it can no longer fund textbooks for middle schools and ents are purchasing these additional materials for study place that burden back on the shoulders of parents. on weekends and holidays. There is apparently a great deal of public unhappiness with the textbook situation Educational Publishing Industry in France, as evidenced by recent articles in the press. Education is becoming a political issue, in part because The educational sector represents 14 percent of the of a back-to-basics movement in education. There are total sales of French publishers, a percentage that has more and more demands by the press and public that been steadily declining. Each year about 4,000 textbook education, including textbooks, must be more ade- titles are newly published, revised, or reprinted, and quately financed. Communication problems have ex- 10,000 titles are currently in print. Fifty-five million isted for a long time between publishers and the gov- books are produced annually. Ten publishing companies ernment, and relations presently are tense. account for about 90 percent of textbook sales. These The present paucity of government support for text- publishers tend to produce books for all levels of pri- book purchase contrasts with the official position on mary and secondary education. Textbook sales used to the importance of textbooks. In March 1985, the na- represent 70 percent of total business for some pub- tional minister of education had this to say in an official lishers; today they represent 20 percent. address: "The book remains, in spite of the appearance Publishers closely follow the curriculum prescribed of newer teaching methods, the principal support of by the national ministry of education. New programs teaching." Indeed, it seems evident that in France, as in mathematics, biology, economics, and contemporary in the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, history have been introduced over the last few decades. and elsewhere, the textbook and teacher's manual re- Publishers themselves do a considerable amount of in- main irreplaceable. 122 Peter H. Neumann Book Exports and Linkages to the Developing World Large-scale curriculum renewal and new teaching needs and methods-for example, individualized learn- France maintains strong links to the developing world, ing, resource-based learning, mixed-ability classes, and especially French-speaking nations in Africa. As much the wishes of some teachers to produce materials suited as 20 percent of the sales of educational materials are to their own particular circumstances-have led to the to these countries. French publishers prepare co-editions formation of teams of writers, often sponsored by a for French-speaking Africa and are engaged in joint variety of organizations. Highly specialized materials publishing ventures. They are also active in the Arab and those of local flavor are often published by the world. organizations themselves. Textbook materials devel- oped by large projects such as the Nuffield Foundation's are generally issued by a commercial publisher in con- The United Kingdom junction with the sponsoring organization. An equitable system through which publishers may bid for such ma- terials has been in operation for some time. Under this Basic Educational System system, the selected publisher normally works with the sponsoring organization on the final design, layout, and In the United Kingdom, the basic educational system format of the material-or may be invited at an early consists of 121 Local Education Authorities (LEAS). The stage to participate in the editing of manuscripts. The Department of Education and Science (DES) oversees publisher is responsible for providing the funds for the the system in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, production, marketing, and distribution of the finished and the Scottish Education Department oversees the materials and pays a royalty on sales to the sponsoring system in Scotland. The central government exerts more organization. and more control over expenditure on education. Never- Textbooks produced by curriculum development theless, decisions on spending are made by the LEAS. projects have had a profound effect on the teaching of Decisions on curriculum content are the responsibility particular subjects. Major sponsoring organizations such of individual schools, guided more and more by the as the Nuffield Foundation spend much more on re- LEAS. search and development of texts than a commercial publisher is able to spend without making its book or Curriculum series prohibitively expensive. Sponsoring organizations, under their contract with There is no national curriculum at the primary level a selected publisher, usually retain the copyright to the (5-11 years) or secondary level (ll-18years). The cur- publications produced. Retaining copyright enables the riculum at secondary school is determined by the ex- sponsoring organization to support the wider dissem- amination that the student intends to take, adminis- ination of their publications in the form of adaptations tered by one of the following examination boards: or even translations. Authors and publishers not in- • General Certificate of Examination Board: Ordi- volved with the original publications may be encouraged nary Level (examined normally at 16 years of age) to publish revised versions that have benefited from and Advanced Level (examined normally at 18 years classroom experience gained with the original mate- of age) rials. Designed to serve the average teacher and students • Fourteen Certificate of Secondary Education Boards (rather than an elite, as did the original publications), (examined at 16 years of age) such "offspring" are likely to outsell the original ma- • Scottish Certificate of Education terials by a wide margin. Lord Bullock, when he was chairman of the Schools Council, observed this phe- • Northern Ireland Examination Council. nomenon and referred to the Council's publications as Changes in curriculums and syllabuses take place "models to be plagiarized." The experience has been continuously. Reports from teachers' associations and similar in the United States with curriculum develop- other organizations (for example, the Nuffield Foun- ment projects sponsored by the National Science Foun- dation, the Schools Council, the LEAs, the School Cur- dation. riculum Development Committee, and the DES) fre- Special-interest groups (for example, those con- quently lead to new secondary school examinations cerned with the status of women or ethnic minorities) requiring new curriculums. For example, the Nuffield tend to lobby for better representation of their concerns Foundation sponsored projects for teaching modern in textbooks. Meetings between special-interest groups languages, science, and mathematics; the Schools Council and publishers may result in new guidelines being pro- and the Inner London Education Authority sponsored duced, such as a recent report from the Educational projects on science, mathematics, and other subjects. Publishers Council entitled Publishing for a Multi-cui- Publishing for Schools 123 tural Society. Textbooks for both primary and secondary ferences can apply to maintenance of buildings, to levels schools are developed by publishers working either with of teaching staff, and to books, but not to teachers' some of the organizations referred to above or with salaries, which are determined nationally. Authorities authors chosen by the publishers themselves. who spend little on books often spend little on services, but it can also be a matter of priorities at the local level. Approval and Selection of Textbooks Textbook Budget Because there is no national curriculum, there is no national system of approving textbooks; nor is there any As with a number of other countries, the United King- system of local approval. Each school selects its own dom's expenditure on education, including textbooks, textbooks. In secondary school, the head of a depart- has suffered considerable retrenchment over the last ment (mathematics, science, and so on) is likely to be few years. There are no universally applied guidelines the most influential person. In a primary school, it will as to how much should be spent on books in schools. be the head teacher working with teachers who have Historically, such expenditures have constituted less responsibility for particular subjects. Teachers are free than 1 percent of total local authority expenditure on to choose, within their budgets, the material they think education. most appropriate. Spending on books in 1983-84 reached the low av- Inspectors or advisers of the LEAs often have a strong erage of £7.25 per student in primary school and £10.17 influence on curriculum, and thus on the textbooks in secondary school. These figures may be compared chosen for primary schools. At the secondary level, the with those recommended as reasonable by the National examination syllabus chosen by the school influences Book League for the same period: £11.22 for primary the choice of textbooks. school students and £18.33 for secondary school stu- Teachers have a variety of ways for selecting text- dents. books. They receive mailings and inspection copies from As reported by the Educational Publishers Council, publishers and visits and presentations from publishers' which compiles detailed analyses of local authorities, representatives. They may attend regional or local text- some of the consequences of low expenditure on books book exhibits and workshops, read reviews in journals, are: or even participate in pilot projects that test textbooks • Old, out-of-date books still being used in classrooms under controlled conditions. • Books in bad condition The effectiveness of the selection process depends on the dedication of those involved. The burden of selecting • Children sharing even basic textbooks the most appropriate textbook from the multitude of • Books not available for homework offerings may be eased for the less experienced teacher • Parents and parent-teacher associations (PTAs) being by the guidance provided by LEA inspectors or advisers, asked to provide money for books even though the by the name recognition of a known author, by the 1944 Education Act requires local authorities to imprint of a reputable publisher, or even by the selec- buy them. tion of the text by a leading school in the area. The Educational Publishing Industry Provision of Textbooks In the United Kingdom, the development and pro- Traditionally books have been purchased by teachers duction of educational books is based by tradition on from funds provided by the Local Education Authority, the initiative, expertise, and investment of private en- which each year establishes an amount to be spent per terprise in partnership with the educational establish- pupil on equipment, materials, and books. More and ment. It is supported by public funds raised at different more, as funds have become scarce, large sums of sup- levels of government, from central to local authorities. plementary money are being provided by parents. Books Because of cuts in public spending on textbooks over are loaned to students for a period of time, reclaimed, the last few years, funds contributed by parents have and reused. become important for book purchases. The central government provides a significant pro- Freedom of choice is a fundamental characteristic of portion of the money spent on local services through British education: the teacher's right to choose and to rate support grants. The balance is raised from local buy the materials he or she wishes to use in the class- taxes and revenues. Allocation of these funds is a local room, free from interference from state or local au- responsibility. thorities. A tightly controlled system of prescribed books Differences in school spending can be significant among is potentially cheaper than a completely free one. But local authorities, sometimes at a rate of 3:1. Such dif- because less than 1 percent of what local authorities 124 Peter H. Neumann spend on education is spent on books, it is debatable and legal matters such as copyright. They also cooperate whether the savings from a prescriptive system would on joint promotions such as exhibits and seminars, justify the resulting disadvantages. The present situa- spending on books by the LEAs, and on new develop- tion not only allows teachers to select their materials ments such as computer software, improved ordering freely but also enables publishers to produce a great and distribution procedures, and on other matters af- range and variety of materials. fecting the industry. The Educational Publishers Council (a division of the Books in the Curriculum, a wide-ranging 1985 survey Publishers Association, which is composed primarily of funded by the Educational Publishers Council and car- firms that publish books for schools) names eighty ried out by a committee of educators, included field members in its 1984 listing. These include six very large research in primary and secondary schools in five areas educational publishers and twenty significant ones. For in Britain, as well as a substantial compilation of pub- 1983-84, the Educational Publishers Council estimated lished evidence about book use in schools and reading a total market for schoolbooks of £114.7 million, of education in the United Kingdom and the United States. which parents contributed £21.5 million (18.7 percent). The findings indicate that a majority of teachers regard Schoolbooks constituted 11 percent of the total British the textbook as the prime teaching aid which can play book market, valued at £900 million in 1983. In ad- both a central and supplementary role. Books, the dition to schoolbooks, fiction accounted for 24 percent survey notes, are widely used throughout the school of the total market; scientific, technical, and medical day and provide satisfaction that other media cannot books for 15 percent; reference works for 11 percent; match. academic and professional publications for 9 percent; and religion for 3 percent. This left a category called Microcomputers in Schools "other" with 27 percent of the market. The educational book trade is complex. Of local au- The government has been active in developing the thority spending on books in 1980, 11 percent was bought use of microcomputers in schools. It has subsidized the directly from publishers by local authority organiza- purchase of hardware and is now subsidizing software. tions, another 25 percent was handled by specialist con- At first, the introduction of computer-aided instruction tractors, and the remaining 64 percent was sold by depended largely on local initiative and enthusiasm. bookshops. Trade with educational establishments, in- Government subsidies applicable only to British-made cluding public libraries, constitutes a high percentage equipment resulted in the use of three or four types of of turnover for both booksellers and contractors. hardware, initially in secondary schools and more re- The so-called Net Book Agreement, a system of price cently in primary schools. Although extensive use of maintenance for certain categories of books, further computers in schools is complicated by .problems of complicates matters. Books priced under the Net Book hardware compatibility, the relative lack of suitable ed- Agreement may not be discounted by the bookseller or ucational soft\vare, and (for the present) the limited educational contractor to the final purchaser. There is ability of many teachers to use the computer creatively, no rule that determines whether books for schools should the educational market for computers is burgeoning. be published at net prices or at nonnet prices, which Soft\vare is being produced by individuals, by nonprofit are only recommended rather than enforced list prices. organizations, by hardware manufacturers, and by pub- Most publishers operate on the basis that schoolbooks lishers. Questions of copyright, of unauthorized copying are likely to be sold in quantity rather than in single of materials, and of plagiarism divide users and provid- copies and should therefore carry a recommended or ers. For publishers, the market is presently very small nonnet price. This allows booksellers and contractors compared with that for books. to offer discounts to schools. A large educational publishing project (for example, Book Exports and Linkages to the Developing World a reading series) is usually tested by the publisher, often with the assistance of the authors, to ensure that it Historically, the United Kingdom has had a strong reflects the requirements of teachers and students. Test book export business-close to 50 percent of total sales procedures may include pilot editions tried out in lim- of British publications. In 1984, exports were 44 percent ited classroom settings, reviews of written materials by (£400 million) of the total British book trade. The United outside consultants, and classroom testing of teachers' States has become the largest British export market, editions and other supplementary materials. Publishers accounting for 24 percent of sales, followed by the rest compete freely with each other over sales of their in- of Europe with 20 percent, Australia with 13 percent, dividual materials. They are generally cooperative and South Africa with 8 percent, and Canada with 5 percent. consultative within their association on matters of in- Educational books enjoy strong export sales, especially dustry policy which concern national or local politics throughout the Commonwealth. But British publishers Publishing for Schools 125 and their associate companies abroad do more than Curriculum export books. In English-speaking Africa and the Ca- ribbean, British publishers seek to assist in the devel- Curriculum is a state responsibility. State prescrip- opment of new materials writte~by local authors for tions may be issued under a host of different names: local needs. "Proclamation of the State Board of Education" in Texas, The overseas development of new educational ma- "Curriculum Frameworks" in California, "Course of terials is typically achieved through contract publish- Study," and so on. As will be explained in the next ing, an arrangement under which the British publisher section, some states (adoption states) seek to maintain or its local associate company makes its expertise in strong central control over their school systems and editorial development, design, and production available over textbook selection; other states (open territories) to the local government. The parent company generally leave textbook selection to the school districts. In spite oversees the manufacture of books when this can be of regional differences in curriculum, most textbooks achieved more economically outside the developing na- and basal series are widely accepted by schools across tion. the nation. Nationwide acceptance (and hence large print The Book Development Council (the International runs) makes possible the lavish design, illustrations, Division of the Publishers Association) is charged with and use of color typical of U.S. textbooks. ensuring adequate book provision around the world. State and local education boards tend to hold exten- The council works closely with national and interna- sive public hearings before a proclamation defining bids tional agencies both to achieve this aim and to promote for textbooks becomes official. Textbook publishers, on the long experience British publishing companies have their own or through the offices of the Association of enjoyed in adapting their subject materials to the needs American Publishers (MP), work closely with all profes- of individual countries. By offering fellowships and sional organizations involved in education. Together training programs in the United Kingdom, the Book with their authors, they try to anticipate emerging trends Development Council assists with the establishment of in education so that their textbooks do not become indigenous publishing industries. obsolete during the five to six years it takes to develop a textbook series. Special-interest groups, as is well known, are both The United States active and influential in the textbook development pro- cess in the United States. Reflecting changes in societal Basic Educational System values, their input has radically transformed the content and appearance of U.S. textbooks over the last few de- In the United States, education is the responsibility cades. Publishers find themselves frequently caught be- of the fifty states and the District of Columbia. The tween conflicting views, with extreme cases making na- school district is the basic administrative unit. There tional headlines. But despite grievances about the system, are about 15,500 school districts. Total enrollment in U.S. textbooks have been found acceptable by most the 1984-85 school year was 39.4 million students, teachers and by the general public. with 23.8 million in elementary schools and 15.6 mil- There have been national curriculum development lion in secondary schools. A total of 2.15 million teach- projects. The high point of these projects occurred in ers setve the school system-1.18 million in elemen- the early 1960s in response to the U.S.S.R.'s launch of tary schools and 961,000 in secondary schools; 1.47 Sputnik, the first artificial satellite. During this period, million are women, and 676,000 are men. the federal government, largely through the National The traditional system of education in most parts of Science Foundation (NSF), sponsored a broad spectrum the country is six years of elementary school (kinder- of projects (at various universities and research centers) garten, grades 1-5), three years of middle school or to improve the teaching of science and mathematics. junior high school (grades 6-8), and four years of Many of these projects assembled writing teams of comprehensive high school (grades 9-12) or technical leading subject-matter specialists from the universities or vocational high school. A typical comprehensive and outstanding teachers from the nation's best schools. high school offers a variety of courses for students to These teams produced materials for teaching the sci- choose from according to their ability, preference, ences and mathematics that were. then published by and future educational and career goals. Technical or commercial publishers selected by the NSF under a sys- vocational high schools are more prevalent in some tem of tenders and bids. parts of the country than in others and often setve a Known by their initials-SMSG in school mathemat- region rather than a single school district; they attract ics, rssc in physics, sssc in biology, Chem Bond and students who are planning to enter technical trades upon Chern Study in chemistry-these groups had a pro- graduation. found influence. Their impact was based on their often 126 Peter H. Neumann revolutionary approaches, the reputation of their con- materials as teachers' editions, workbooks, student guides, tributors, and what has been called the halo effect of video, audio, or computer programs, games, and so on. their sponsorship by the NSF. Furthermore, the use of Historically, state adoptions began with strongly po- their materials in the classroom was generally encour- liticized state boards that tended to select a single series aged and supported by extensive teacher training through or textbook to be used by every school district in the workshops sponsored by the NSF. state-so-called single adoption. Single adoption pro- Although the impact of these projects on the national cedures invited corrupt practices and caused a great scene was profound (and indeed their influence has been deal of dissatisfaction among teachers deprived of choice felt and continues to be felt far beyond the shores of and among publishers seeking a more open system. the United States), few of the original materials remain Today, all twenty-two adoption states provide for mul- in the classroom. Even at their peak, actual classroom tiple adoption lists. For example, Texas offers school use was limited by the often uncompromising rigor of districts a choice of as many as five basal series simul- the subject matter, which made them accessible only taneously in any one subject; California adopts from to the better students at better schools. Eventually, five to fifteen different series per subject and restricts many of the novel concepts and methods enshrined in state adoptions to elementary grades only. Other states SMSG, Pssc, and so on reached the average school system fall somewhere between these two, but all offer more through the efforts of publishers who used the original than a single choice. materials, in Lord Bullock's phrase, as ''models to be Adoption states currently account for approximately plagiarized." Commercial publishers and their authors 48 percent of total textbook sales; open territories, 52 benefited from the massive investments in research made percent. Some school districts rigidly control the choice by the NSF, which would have been quite beyond their of textbooks within their district; others leave such de- own resources. Moreover, by observing where NSF ma- cisions to individual schools. terials failed in the classroom, they were able to make Whether textbook adoptions are decided at the state, necessary revisions. They published adaptations that until district, or school level, textbook selection committees recently dominated the market. Of late, a national trend consisting of teachers and of other officials are generally toward a return to the basics has required extensive appointed. These committees usually hold public hear- rethinking of some of the premises on which the NSF" ings as part of the selection process and are assigned type materials were based. Unlike its earlier method of responsibility under complex procedures intended to operation, the NSF now intends to work more closely ensure a reasonably objective and open selection pro- with publishers in the early stages of product devel- cess, the adoption of good materials, and the lowest opment, recognizing that the publishers have a unique available book prices. contribution to make to the leachability of classroom The textbook selection process includes detailed materials. standards for textbook manufacture (the specifications of the Book Manufacturers Institute). Also common is Approval and Selection of Textbooks a device called "lowest price clause," similar to most- favored-nation status in international trade, which There is no system of official prepublication approval guarantees all sizes of school districts the lowest price of textbooks in the United States. Publishers are free to offered by the publisher anywhere in the United States. publish whatever they wish. As mentioned earlier and Major adoption states such as California (11.97 per- described in chapter 6, two basic systems of textbook cent of total textbook sales in 1984), Texas (62 percent), selection and adoption operate side by side in the United and Florida (4.07 percent) probably exert a dispropor- States: state adoption and the so-called open territories. tionate influence over the general content and appear- Despite differences between systems, in both of them ance of textbooks. These states, for example, have made textbooks are selected by local school districts for use it almost mandatory for publishers to produce Spanish in local schools. Adoption states, of which there are translations of their major basal series in mathematics currently twenty-two, limit the school districts' choice and science (often as loss leaders) if they hope to gain to a selection from an approved list adopted by the state. state adoptions. But the influence of these states can Major considerations during the selection process are fluctuate from year to year and tends to be balanced by whether a text fits state curriculum frameworks, whether the pluralism and consensus on major educational ob- teachers find content and presentation of the materials jectives in the United States as a whole. Although the suitable for their students, whether representation of top ten states account for some 55 percent of textbook women and minorities in the books is fair and equal, sales, they include only three adoption states (with a and whether teachers find the materials "teachable"- total of 22.78 percent of total textbook sales). In 1984, a judgment that includes a review of such ancillary the top twenty states accounted for 74.7 percent of Publishing for Schools 127 textbook sales and included nine adoption states (with for all publishers in the following categories: trade, re- a total of 34.63 percent of sales). ligious, professional, book club, mail order, mass mar- ket paperback, university press, college text, test, sub- Provision of Textbooks scription and reference, and audiovisual. In common with the industry in other countries, As a general rule, textbooks for elementary and sec- book publishing in the United States is not a large ondary school students are bought with public funds business in terms of sales. The publishing industry is and loaned to the students. Some states or localities unusual, however, in the variety of its offerings. The may charge parents a fee for loaned books. In parochial number of titles published worldwide that are available and other private schools, parents pay for textbooks. on every possible subject and for every conceivable pur- Education, as noted earlier, is the responsibility of pose and taste compares favorably with the range of the states and is financed almost in equal parts by state products of almost any other industry. revenues and local real estate taxes. In 1984, state rev- Industry sources estimate that there are at least sixty- enues accounted for an average of 49 percent of edu- five companies engaged in schoolbook publishing as cational costs nationwide and local taxes and other rev- their primary function. Some of these companies are enues for 44.8 percent of the costs. Only 6.2 percent of part of larger publishing groups; and in addition, there total expenditure on education came from the federal are hundreds of smaller publishers that occasionally government. obtain a school adoption. Asmall number of companies Because funding for education depends heavily on hold relatively large shares of the schoolbook business. state and local resources, there are vast differences in The five largest may account for as much as 40 percent. the levels of spending per student among different states But their ranking order may well change from year to and even among localities within states-although state year on the basis of major new adoptions. funds may be used to ameliorate the differences between John H. Williamson, then president of the Silver Bur- wealthy and poorer localities. In 1984, for example, New dett Company and an astute observer of the industry, York and New Jersey spent more than $5,000 per stu- wrote in 1979: dent compared with $2,500 per student in some of the The school textbook industry has a number of unique less affluent states. Differences in spending per student characteristics ... It is probably the only highly com- affect all areas of education-teachers' salaries, admin- petitive industry whose prime market is governmen- . istration, expenditures for plant, and textbooks. tal agencies, which receives no subsidies and that is subject to many restrictions like those placed on pub- Textbook Budget lic utilities, but without any of the concomitant ben- efits. At present, less than 1 percent of the national budget · for education is spent on textbooks. This is roughly half The adoption process (which requires that publishers the percentage spent on textbooks during the 1960s in distribute free tens of thousands of review copies), the the wake of a national reaction to the launching of lowest price clause, and price maintenance (under which Sputnik. a publisher agrees to supply books at the initially agreed- During 1984, combined expenditure per student for upon price for several years during the adoption period) textbooks in elementary and secondary schools ranged are all part of an intricate network of specifications and from $16.78 in Alabama to $44.85 in South Dakota. regulations that govern schoolbook publishing in the Average expenditure per student was $27.79. At the United States. elementary level, about 55 percent of the budget for Criticism of textbooks is a fact of life in any society textbook materials is spent on language arts, 20 percent where freedom to criticize exists. In the United States, on mathematics, 10 percent on the social sciences, and where searching inquiries as to 'Why Johnny can't read" 8 percent on elementary science. are common, textbooks and their publishers do not escape criticism. Textbooks that are produced for thou- The Educational Publishing Industry sands of individual school districts across a country as vast as the United States are obvious targets for diverse Educational publishers are here defined as publishers special-interest groups that would prefer their own, more that produce books for elementary and secondary schools. regional versions of textbooks for their schools. Yet By tradition, elementary and high school books are pro- school boards are reluctant to pay the extra costs in- duced by private enterprise and paid for by public funds. volved in regional editions, an attitude understandable Sales of elementary and high school publishers amounted under present economic conditions and tight budgets. to $1.3 billion in 1984 as against a total of $7.8 billion They customarily insist, too, on lavishly produced, richly 128 Peter H. Neumann colorful presentations. Their attitudes, which favor na- perior teachers; in the hands of poorer teachers, they tional editions, are unlikely to change soon, although often represent the total curriculum. new technology such as computer-generated manu- scripts and composition may make custom editions more Book Exports and Linkages to the Developing World practical. Publishers, caught in an economic bind with investments of $10-$20 million in a basal series, need There was a time in the 1950s and early 1960s when a broad market for their products to recover their in- U.S. college textbooks, particularly in the sciences and vestment. They have little choice but to try to compro- technology, became immensely popular both in Europe mise between conflicting curriculums and present a and in developing countries beginning to develop ter- range of attitudes and values that will make their books tiary education. The influence of previously mentioned acceptable to most states on the basis of price as well National Science Foundation curriculum projects was as content and presentation. spread abroad through the export of U.S. schoolbooks Textbook publishing is governed by curriculums and and, more particularly, through licensed adaptations by the nature of the adoption process, which together and translations. During these years, the U.S. govern- determine what schools will expect and accept in their ment actively sponsored the use of U.S. publications books. Schoolbooks mirror societal values currently ac- abroad through programs such as the Informational ceptable in the community. They follow trends but rarely Media Guarantee Program, the Regional Technical As- set them. In periods of radical change, such as the sistance Center in Mexico City (covering Latin America), United States has experienced since World War II, text- the Joint Indo-American Textbook Program (financed books are often left behind. This is true not only because with rupee counterpart funds accumulated in India from it takes time to prepare new editions but also because, shipments of U.S. food grains to that country), the U.S. under the lending system, textbooks may be used long Information Service-sponsored book translation pro- after they have become outdated. With these caveats, grams, and others. Encouraged both by the demand for U.S. textbooks generally enjoy wide support and ac- U.S. books and by government support making it pos- ceptance by the educational establishment and consti- sible for developing countries to purchase books in soft tute effective teaching tools. currencies, U.S. publishers became more and more ac- There is a great deal of discussion and publicity these tive in overseas markets. In response to demands for days about the role of computers in schools and about lower-priced editions, major publishers initiated the so- software, video presentations, television, and the other called Asian reprint programs, mainly for first- and sec- new media. For publishers, their entry into educational ond-year college titles. A clearinghouse for making software production has been generally disastrous. It translation rights available to developing countries at has not been for want of trying. All major educational nominal cost was organized, and major publishers set publishers during the last decade have made invest- up subsidiary companies and entered into joint ventures ments totaling millions of dollars in the development with foreign publishers in Europe, India, the Philip- of computer software. Most lost heavily in the process, pines, Latin America, and Singapore. For example, and quite a few have all but abandoned the effort. This Franklin Publications, a nonprofit foundation for en- is in spite of the fact that the use of computers, now couraging the translation of U.S. books in developing widely available in both elementary and secondary schools, countries, established offices in the Arab Republic of is constantly expanding. The problem, as one publisher Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and Indonesia. put it, is that schools demand ancillary materials, in- Today, much has changed. U.S. educational materials cluding videotapes and computer software, as a con- remain popular in the developing world, but they face dition for textbook adoptions, but in the end they pur- more and more competition from local publishers. Their chase few of these materials. Unsolved questions of distribution and sale are threatened by widespread pi- hardware compatibility, copyright protection, and pi- racy in many parts of the world. U.S. government pro- racy further cloud the issue. grams, which would be especially helpful in this period In the great debate about the future shape of edu- of a strong dollar (making U.S. books inordinately ex- cational materials, as well as in current research on pensive), have all but disappeared from the scene. teaching tools, the book emerges as an effective and the U.S. publishers, unlike their British competitors, have most widely used medium of instruction. In a period always relied first and foremost on their home market of reduced budgets, the book retains the additional ad- for sales. This has been particularly true of school pub- vantage of being by far the most cost-effective. Pub- lishers, whose international sales generally amount to lishing sources estimate that students in schools spent less than 5 percent of total sales. By contrast major 75-90 percent of their time studying from textbooks. college publishers might export as much as 30 percent Books may be a starting point and a resource for su- of their total sales. Perhaps a dozen major U.S. pub- Publishing for Schools 129 lishers, particularly those that are strong in science, Ministry of Education Information Services, Government of technology, and English as a second language, remain France. 1984. Primary and Secondary Education in France. active in promoting and selling their materials to de- Paris. veloping-country and other markets abroad. These pub- - - . 1984-85. L'Education Nationale en Chiffres. Paris. lishers sponsor reprint editions, cooperate on transla- Neumann, Peter H. 1980. Publishing for Schools: Textbooks tions, and enter into joint publishing ventures. Other and the Less Developed Countries. World Bank Staff Work- ing Paper 398. Washington, D.C. U.S. publishers rely on small export departments, assign Noble, J. Kendrick, Jr. 1984. Trends in Textbook Markets. their titles to international book distributors and ex- New York: Bowker. porters in the United States, or appoint distributors in Publishers Association. 1982. Microcomputers in Schools: A major countries around the world. Market Overview. London. The American Association of Publishers, through its international division, supports the efforts of publishers to do business abroad, providing assistance and infor- Organizations mation. Major U.S. publishers long involved in the in- ternational marketplace, together with certain agen- American Association of Publishers cies, continue to promote U.S. textbooks and to make School Division the professional know-how of U.S. educational publish- 220 East 23d Street ers more readily accessible to the developing world. New York, NY 10010, USA The Publishers Association Sources of Additional Information Educational Publishers Council 19 Bedford Square Publications London WCIB 3HJ, England American Association of Publishers. 1984. Industry Statistics. Syndicat National de L'Edition New York. Edition Classique Blickpunkt Schulbuch. 1981. Vol. 24 (October). 35, rue Gregorire-de-Tours Educational Publishers Council. 1982. Publishing for Schools. London. 75279 Paris Cedex 06 France - - . 1983. Publishing for a Multi-cultural Society. Lon- don. Verband der Schulbuchverlage, E.V. - - . 1985. Books in the Curriculum. London. Zeppelinallee 33 Institut fiir Bildungsmedien. 1985. Kleine Schulbuchschule. 6000 Frankfurt (M) 1 Frankfurt am Main. Federal Republic of Germany 10 The Indian Textbook Industry Narendra Kumar Books are marvels of human wisdom. Born out of a India the secondary school retention rate continues to desire to record and share experience, they reflect our be less than 50 percent, wasting educational resources faith in the future. Educating, informing, and dissem- and forcing educational authorities to plan a system of inating ideas and knowledge have been until recently informal, out-of-school education for a large number almost the sole preserve of books. This instructional of regular dropouts. Nonformal education is also pro- emphasis is reflected in the fact that even today edu- vided for those who, for various reasons, have not found cational books constitute a high percentage of total it possible to join regular schools. The significance of publishing activity in the world, especially in India and this nonformal program can be gauged from the fact other developing countries. In India alone, textbook that as many as 1.5 million students are enrolled at publishing accounts for more than 90 percent of the nonformal centers in the nine educationally backward total number of books published. India's population is states. nearing 700 million. Most belong to the age group 5 to Another segment of society that needs nonformal ed- 22 years, which has the potential for enrollment in ucation is the large population of adult illiterates. The schools and institutions of higher learning, for nonfor- number of adult illiterates in India increased from 60 mal education, or for vocational training. million in 1951 to 248 million in 1981, and their num- Since independence, India has made considerable ber in the age group 15 to 35 years today stands at 110 progress in increasing the number of all types of edu- million. If there is no change in the present rate of cational institutions, expanding their enrollment, and population growth and the illiteracy rate, by the turn promoting the sophistication and diversification of ed- of the century the total number of illiterates in the age ucational programs. During the last four decades, the group 15 to 19 years could account for more than 50 number of educational institutions in India has in- percent of the world total for illiterates in this age group. creased from 230,000 to 690,000, of which 627,000 are primary and middle schools catering to the first eight years of schooling. There are 150 universities and 5,246 New Educational Policy institutions of higher learning. An increase in enrollment has been evident at all Against this background, the government of India levels of education. The total student population has has recently decided to tackle the educational problems increased from 28 million in 1950-51 to 114 million facing the country in a radically different way. The gov- in 1982-83. Of these students, 93 million were in pri- ernment has highlighted certain important issues for mary and middle schools out of a total estimated pop- nationwide discussion to formulate a national education ulation of 150 million in the age group 6 to 14 years. policy, including a national book policy. Similarly, there were 9.5 million students in secondary Studies have shown that in educational investment, and higher secondary schools (grades 9 to 11 and some- elementary education yields the highest rate of return times 12). Roughly 3 million students were receiving and has a significant impact on productivity and the education in institutions of higher learning. general well-being of the populace. Removal of adult One of the most disturbing characteristics of devel- illiteracy is equally important inasmuch as it awakens oping countries is the high dropout rate in schools, people's interest in their environment and the enrich- particularly at the primary and the secondary levels. In ment of their personal life. It can also make an impor- 130 The Indian Textbook Industry 131 tant contribution to the meaningful functioning of de- for government approval and then commission authors mocracy, the basis of the Indian political system. The to write the texts. Some states then print the books on government of India therefore is determined to halt the their own presses; others call for tenders and contract growth rate of population and to increase literacy. By the printing out. The distribution of books also differs. 1990, India should be able to achieve universal primary Most states have their own depots, from which book- education and the end of adult illiteracy among the age sellers purchase at a discount of between 5 and 15 per- group of 15 to 35 years. Thus during the next four years, cent. But in a powerful state like West Bengal, books it is anticipated the enrollment in the age group 6 to are distributed through headmasters of schools and 14 years will increase to 174 million (or the entire through block development officers. population in this age group) as against 93 million in When the nationalization of school textbooks was 1982. Similarly, enrollment in secondary and higher introduced, it was justified. At the time of indepen- secondary education will increase from 9.5 million in dence, publishing enterprises tended to be controlled 1980 to 15.3 million in 1990. To achieve these objectives by a few large subsidiaries of foreign or multinational despite budgetary constraints, the government might publishing houses. Their monopoly over textbook ma- have to adopt nonformal and distance education ap- terials led to high prices and, sometimes, ill-concealed proaches on a large scale. profiteering. The government was motivated to provide Promoting literacy, increasing enrollment at ele- cheap, mass-produced textbooks of high quality which mentary schools, reducing the dropout rate from all India's student population could afford. At the same schools, and expanding nonformal education and adult time, the government sought to Indianize textbooks literacy programs lay a heavy burden of responsibility because the books then available were ill-suited to real on those concerned with publishing reading materials educational needs. for students and adults. Implementation of the govern- ment's plans would result in an almost 100 percent Drawbacks in the System increase in the number of learners in the country; and whatever else they may or may not need, these learners It is more and more apparent that the policy of na- are going to need books-because in India books will tionalizing school textbooks has outlived its utility and remain the dominant and most effective tools of learn- is doing more harm than good. As well as stultifying ing for many years to come. the development of a national publishing industry, it has become detrimental to the interests of the very children it was designed to serve. In short, the imple- Current System for Publishing Textbooks mentation of the policy is dogged by the same bureau- cratic ills as almost any educational program. To quote Before assessing how this new challenge can be met from a study carried out by a committee of experts set by the publishing community, it is necessary to look at up by NCERT (National Council of Educational Research the existing arrangements for the production and supply and Training), the principal national agency for the of textbooks. Since 1942, when the state of Uttar Pra- publication of school textbooks: desh in British India first began publishing textbooks, state and central governments have increasingly as- They [public sector publishers] are seriously handi- sumed responsibility for textbook publication. Today, capped by a total absence of technical personnel to practically all texts for schoolchildren in India are pub- attend to the production and editorial segment of lished by the central or state governments. Only a few book production ... The manuscripts go directly to the printing press without being subjected to the states allow private publishers to operate at the sec- editorial drill or type marking, visualizing, dummy ondary or tertiary level. The agency responsible for textbook publication var- making, etc. In the absence of a professional editor ies from state to state. In some, the department of which constitutes the most important single area of responsibility, the end product, in a large number of education is charged with the responsibility; in others, cases, suffers from presentation, printing and pro- a textbook board is attached to the department of ed- duction ... They [books] lack the color and appeal ucation; and in yet others, the textbook board is an necessary to stimulate the young mind. Further, pub- autonomous agency. But whatever the nature of the lication and marketing of textbooks requires profes- agency, in all states the government is in effective con- sional knowledge and experience which departmental trol of its functioning. officers handling the job generally do not possess. The approach to producing textbooks also varies. At the primary and secondary levels, all manuscripts are Though the committee submitted its report more prepared under the supervision of committees set up than a decade ago, its observations are still true today. for the purpose. The committees draw up the syllabuses The Department of Education's management of text- 132 Narendra Kumar books has suffered from various deficiencies such as terial presented in different ways enhances the coping delay in publication and faulty distribution. These de- ability of the child to operate in the multilingual world. ficiencies have been sharply criticized, even by those This would also help the child to become creative and who are otherwise not averse to a state monopoly over innovative." the publication of textbooks. The soundness of the policy of making alternative It is true that government-produced textbooks are books available to students is borne out by the fact that cheaper than those produced by private publishers, and the English middle schools, having the freedom to choose there are cogent reasons for this. Government produc- their books, continue to maintain high academic stan- ers of textbooks do not include overhead when costing dards and are known to be among the best schools in their books; they take into account only the direct man- India. State monopoly over the publication of textbooks ufacturing and distribution costs. Furthermore, they and the prescription of a single text for all children have publish for a captive market, use the cheapest materials, deprived publishers of their freedom to publish, authors and provide a very large discount to booksellers. The of their right to receive an equitable royalty, and teach- authors are not paid a royalty but a prescribed fee. ers and students of their right to choose from among Government agencies also have access to paper at highly the best available publications. With respect to "freedom competitive prices compared with the exorbitant amounts to publish," I should emphasize that this is a right that private publishers have to pay on the open market. cherished by publishers in all other countries which, Private publishers have to make a profit to support their like India, practice democracy. The International Pub- publishing programs. lishers Association passed the following resolution: Apart from production and distribution, the author- "Governments which have undertaken textbook pub- ship of school texts is also entirely controlled by the lishing [should] take prompt steps for turning over this government. Most texts are neither pretested nor up- responsible task to the private sector, which is best dated. Insufficient care is taken in the screening and suited for such an undertaking." commissioning of authors, and a disturbingly large number of texts suffer from a dull uniformity born of Structural Changes in the Educational System a sameness of approach. But such criticisms are of small consequence, simply because there is no other choice. A significant change in the educational pattern in India, which has a bearing on the publication of text- The Single Textbook Situation books, is the "10 + 2 + 3" system of education. This sys- tem stems from a recommendation made by the gov- That there is no choice is perhaps the most deplorable ernment's University Education Commission (1964-66). drawback in the existing monopolistic setup. It is ed- The commission felt that the existing system of ten (in ucationally unsound to prescribe for all students a sin- some states, eleven) years of school ending in matric- gle textbook in a particular language. This point has ulation in higher education was academically unsound. been emphasized by nearly all the expert committees Students graduating from school did not attain a suf- and commissions set up by the government to review ficiently high academic standard or acquire enough ma- education. The University Education Commission in its turity to pursue a higher education or to enter a profes- report of 1966 stated that "no useful purpose is served sion or vocation. The commission therefore by having only one textbook in a subject for a given recommended that schooling should last twelve years, class, as is almost invariably the position under the comprising ten years of general education integrated existing program of nationalization." with science, mathematics, and social studies followed The Secondary Education Commission set up earlier by two years of preprofessional learning that branch by the government also stated that "in place of pre- into various activities, of which vocational education scribing a single textbook, a number of textbooks may should constitute an important part. The commission be approved and the schools may be given the option also recommended that the duration of the first degree to select one of them as per their requirements." course be reduced by one year-that is, it should be The working group set up by the National Book De- three years. velopment Council, a government-sponsored organi- This recommendation has been implemented in many zation, suggested in its recent report that "the single states and caused a substantial reorganization of text- textbook situation in regional languages in schools should book production. For one thing, the new system has be remedied" and that "multiple books for each level, necessitated the publication of a large number of books both as textbooks and as supplementary readers, be for vocational studies; for another, it has required re- produced so that the learning child is given the option structuring the content and approach of books for stu- to enhance the universe of discourse, as the same truth dents who previously studied in college. Further, the can be expressed in different languages; the same rna- new framework in schools is expected to cut across the The Indian Textbook Industry 133 conventional boundaries within the arts and humanities ative and nonacademic writing, and because textbook and to merge physics, chemistry, and the biosciences sales are assured and are renewed each year, this makes into a single general science course. Many books pre- for a stability that encourages sustained publishing en- scribed for the new system continue to present knowl- deavors and historically has been responsible for the edge in the same segmented way- in single covers under publication of many great books. the name general science or social studies. Because of the government's monopoly in textbook publishing, many small and medium-size publishers have Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction been elbowed out, particularly those concerned with publishing in regional languages, whereas others have A working group set up by the government to propose been obliged to undertake the publication of class notes a national book policy for the country observed: and course guides-clearly not a healthy trend! More serious, many of the bigger publishers have been de- India is one of the rare countries that has given a prived of a sound financial base because they are denied Constitutional guarantee of primary education through a regular and substantial income from the publication the mother-tongue. But this provision appears to be of school textbooks. In Japan, conversely, publishers' honored more in the breach than in the observance. profits from textbook sales reportedly allow them to Only 58 languages out of 200 to 700 languages are bring out, on a nonprofit basis, reasonably priced chil- used as primary school languages ... It is therefore, dren's books which are known all over the world for important that with a view to meeting the rising their colorful presentation and excellent production. identity assertion of groups and providing a sound Finally, the withdrawal of such a lucrative business has pedagogical base to education, the Constitutional prevented the publishing industry from undertaking guarantee of a primary education through mother- large-scale exports, an activity for which India possesses tongue is implemented . . . and that for primary good potential. schoolchildren we should aim at producing books in Aggravating matters is the fact that many public pub- as many mother-tongues as needed to be instructed lishing agencies have set up their own presses to print in. textbooks. This trend appears to be on the increase, These mother tongues represent variations of thir- notwithstanding the fact that the private printing in- teen major regional languages which have been ac- dustry is perfectly capable of meeting the growing de- cepted as languages of administration, education, and mand. Thus a great disservice is being done to the communication in the various states of the country. printing industry by underutilizing its available capac- The working group therefore recommended: "Proper ity. linkage of these mother-tongues with 13 major lan- Finally, because of the vast technical and professional guages at the next higher stage in schools." expertise available to them, private publishers are in a The acceptance of this sound educational principle better position to discover the most competent authors. lays a still greater responsibility on the shoulders of This has been amply proved by the private publishers' those charged with the task of producing textbooks, management of university textbooks. who already are handling a greater volume and variety of books than ever before. Obviously such a task cannot Sharing Responsibility be accomplished by the public sector alone. As men- tioned earlier, there are at present more than 110 mil- In the light of all this, to increase the production and lion students studying in approximately 700,000 pri- distribution of textbooks the central and state govern- mary, middle, and secondary schools across the country. ments will have to allow the private sector a substantial As a result of the overriding priority given to the uni- share in textbook publication. State boards and agencies versalization of elementary education and of the spread should instead concern themselves at the more basic of literacy envisaged in the new educational policy, this level with reviewing policies, developing examination number is going to increase significantly in the years procedures and curriculum requirements, and deter- to come. mining ultimate objectives and alternative strategies for the educational system. Ill Effects of State Monopoly on Textbooks Even if the government does not at present consider it feasible to transfer textbook publishing to the private More than 80 percent of the entire publishing of sector, however, it must take immediate steps to undo school textbooks in India is undertaken by the govern- the harm that the monopolistic publishing of books has ment or related public agencies. This is a 1 billion dollar done to academic and production standards and to timely a year business. In many other countries, money gen- promotion and prompt distribution. In this context, one erated from textbook publishing is used to finance ere- pertinent recommendation is that NCERT and the agen- 134 Narendra Kumar cies concerned with state textbook publishing should According to statistics from the Ministry of Human confine their activities to the preparation of detailed Resource Development, the United States subsidized the guidelines for the writing of textbooks. Publishers can printing of more than 1,620 titles under the PL-480 then be asked to produce books according to the guide- program and the British furnished 720 titles for use by lines and to present them for review to competent gov- students in colleges and universities. Both schemes were ernment agencies. Apart from offering an educational welcomed by the government as well as by students choice, the approval of two or three books on the same because they made available educational texts at fairly subject for the same grade would improve the quality low prices at a time when university education was of writing and production through healthy competition. rapidly expanding in India. Further, some reprint pub- But should official agencies still insist on preparing the lishers, particularly subsidiary firms of some of the U.S. manuscripts themselves, they should encourage their publishing houses, made substantial profits from the publication and distribution through private channels PL-480 scheme. so as to make the books available to students at mod- In the last analysis, however, these programs worked erate prices and in good time. And here the government against the interests of indigenous publishing because must take steps to ensure that the academic quality and Indian-produced books could not compete with books standard of these books is maintained and that they are of foreign origin, which were being sold at one-fifth of appropriate for children in different parts of the coun- their original price. Because of the discontinuation of try. supplies to India under PL-480, however, the number The need for private involvement in the publication of publications subsidized by the United States began of school textbooks has been persistently voiced by the progressively to decline. The British were also obliged Federation of Indian Publishers. The stand taken by the to reduce the supply of their books under the ELBS federation has received powerful support from many program. In the meantime, in 1965 India entered into eminent educators and from the working group recently an agreement with the U.S.S.R. to exchange educational set up by the government to propose a National Book books and materials under a joint Indo-Soviet Textbooks Policy. This working group has gone on record: "Con- Program. But even in this program, India remained sidering the enormity and complexity of the task [in largely at the receiving end: according to available in- pursuance of the new education policy and the national formation, India has been supplied with 530 Soviet titles book policy], it is recommended that the publishers in since the inception of the program. the private sector fill in the publishing gaps in book At the same time, India began to realize the baneful production, especially in remedying the single textbook effects of continued dependence on imported books. The situation." importation of these books, particularly those of the ELBS scheme, used up scarce foreign reserves. But of more significance, national authorship was inhibited University Books and the development of an indigenous publishing in- dustry was stultified. University books are the second important compo- nent of educational publishing in India. In a compar- Indigenous Schemes for Subsidies atively short time, India has done well in this sphere. On achieving independence in 1947, India was practi- Motivated by the desire to conserve foreign exchange cally dependent upon the United Kingdom and the United and encourage indigenous authorship, the Indian gov- States for almost all its books for higher education, a ernment has recently been quite circumspect in ap- situation which continued for quite some time. The proving books for import under both the ELBS and Indo- Indo-American Textbook Program was introduced in Soviet programs. As a matter of policy, only those titles 1961. According to this program, a portion of U.S. Pub- are approved for which books of comparable standard lic Law 480 (hereafter PL-480) funds in Indian currency are not available in India. At the same time, the gov- (accumulated by the Americans through sale of food- ernment has launched a scheme for subsidizing uni- grains to India) was to be utilized by the United States versity books by Indian authors. The responsibility for to subsidize Indian reprints of U.S. books. Soon after, implementing this scheme was given to the National the United Kingdom made large inroads into the Indian Book Trust, a public publishing organization. Subsidies book market with low-priced educational and technical cover 60 percent of the cost of production. Both authors books under its English Language Book Society (ELBS) and publishers receive their royalties and shares of sub- program, which was introduced in 1962. The ELBS pro- sidy in good time, and students are able to buy books gram served not only India but also a large number of at low prices. other developing countries which used English as a This scheme has been commendable in its promotion language of instruction, but India was its major bene- of indigenous educational authorship, particularly in ficiary. specialized areas, and has also provided a boost to the The Indian Textbook Industry 135 publishing industry as a whole. To date, the National dence on books of foreign origin. In the meantime, Book Trust has subsidized 700 titles, and publishers some enterprising publishers have taken up the chal- have produced 2.5 million copies of subsidized titles. lenge and produced a large number of scholarly books Although originally intended to cover language-instruc- which not only compare favorably with imported books tion books in English only, the scheme has recently but also are more relevant to the requirements of Indian been extended to include books in Hindi, the medium students. The publication of such books has increased of instruction in many universities in the Hindi-speak- progressively over the last few years, and today India is ing areas of the country. It is also proposed to publish almost self-sufficient as far as undergraduate and post- books in other Indian languages. graduate books are concerned. Only in highly spe- Quite a few universities have set up their own units cialized scientific and technical subjects are books of to publish academic monographs, research papers, and foreign origin still needed. Indeed, publication of uni- other scholarly works. Apart from this, the University versity books has now reached a stage at which India Grants Commission (a statutory body established to pro- is in a position to export them to some of the developing vide financial assistance to universities so as to ensure nations in South and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, maintenance of uniformly high standards) has devised and Africa. In 1983-84, export sales of books were about a scheme for encouraging college and university teach- 150 million rupees, and scholarly books accounted for ers to become authors by offering them fellowships to a good percentage of this amount. Indian books meet prepare manuscripts on approved subjects. Accordingly, the needs of developing countries where English is the a number of learned academicians has been working on medium of instruction for higher education. In addi- books, especially books on highly specialized subjects tion, production standards of Indian books have im- which so far have been the preserve of authors from proved substantially over the last few years, and prices developed countries. The Indian Council of Social Sci- compare favorably with those of other countries. ence Research and a few other institutions of higher learning also have undertaken to finance selected pub- lication projects such as doctoral theses and other highly Handicaps and the Future of Private Publishing specialized works. To promote the publication of university books in India now enjoys a secure place in the publishing various Indian languages, in the 1970s the government world despite many handicaps and constraints. As dis- sanctioned a grant of 10 million rupees to each state cussed, the private publishing industry has been de- for the production of books in their respective regional prived of a sound financial base by being denied the languages. This was to have been a revolving fund: pro- right to produce school textbooks. Because of phenom- ceeds from the sale of the books were supposed to have enal increases in the price of paper, it has also been been utilized to publish more books in regional lan- faced with an extremely difficult situation regarding raw guages. The scheme unfortunately has not achieved the material. Publishing is not recognized as an industry desired results. Many states, particularly in Hindi- in India, and banks do not allow credit for publishers speaking areas, have failed to create revolving funds, because they do not consider books sufficient collateral. primarily because they have been unable to sell the Far more serious than all these handicaps, however, is books they have published. And students in certain states the unhealthy competition that publishers face from have complained that regional-language books in some unscrupulous merchant importers who obtain obsolete subjects are unavailable. The failure of some universities remaindered books from the West at throwaway prices to ensure that Indian languages are the media of in- and sell them to libraries and other buyers at exorbitant struction has no doubt adversely affected the sales of prices. Under the government's Open General Licence these books. policy, a large number of educational books can be The publication and marketing of books in regional imported by traders; but this policy is exploited for languages can be effectively tackled only by those who importing books which have been remaindered in their possess the necessary expertise. Members of the working countries of origin. group set up to draft a national book policy are reported On the more positive side, Indian publishers can look to have suggested that the government review the scheme forward to a reasonably bright future. The second most to grant Rs10 million to each state and take remedial populous country in the world has no option but to measures to ensure its success. step up the production of books, especially textbooks. There are firm indications that the challenges posed by Private Publication the new education policy in producing textbooks and supplementary reading materials will have to be met The financial support provided by government and jointly by public publishing agencies and private pub- government-related agencies for the publication of uni- lishers. The vast potential for disseminating Indian books, versity books has without doubt helped lessen depen- including schoolbooks and university books, to coun- 136 Narendra Kumar tries of the developing world points in the same direc- Finally, because India has become almost self-suffi- tion. cient in the production of university textbooks and be- The working group set up for formulating the na- cause the procedure for acquiring the license is cum- tional book policy has strongly recommended to the bersome, there is little likelihood of Indian publishers government that a Book Finance Corporation be estab- applying for, or the government allowing, many books lished to provide credit facilities to publishers. This to be published under compulsory license. Indeed, no group has also supported measures to prevent the im- publication of foreign origin has been licensed for re- portation of obsolete books, and there is reason to hope production or translation for more than a year. that these measures will be adopted. Value-Based Textbooks Amendments to the Copyright Act Textbooks remain the most powerful medium for in- A number of educational books, both indigenous and culcating basic principles and long-cherished values in imported, have been pirated by unscrupulous traders the young. They also help in achieving the long-term both in India and at notorious centers of piracy in neigh- objectives of education. Four decades ago, Mahatma boring countries. Recently, India enacted legislation to Gandhi, who enunciated the most revolutionary edu- fight this menace: according to new provisions in the cational principles, insisted that true education must Indian Copyright Act, infringement of copyright has make a child "mentally poised and morally excellent." been made a cognizable offense punishable with im- In a vast country like India where people practice so prisonment for not less than six months (and up to many different religions and speak so many different three years) and with a fine (of not less than 50,000 languages, regional integration is at times under con- and up to 300,000 rupees). siderable strain because of divisive forces arising out of Meanwhile, some publishing circles in the West have caste and religious beliefs. There is therefore an urgent expressed concern over another amendment to the In- need to inculcate the value of national cohesion by dian Copyright Act about the issue ·of compulsory li- apprizing young Indians of the dangers of communal censes for the reproduction or translation of foreign and caste fragmentation and helping them to recognize books. They fear that this amendment might harm the the need to strengthen the composite culture of India. interests of the original publishers, particularly text- This can best be done when books, especially textbooks, book publishers, in their own countries. It should be are made socially relevant, fostering in students a pride emphasized, however, that compulsory licenses are sub- in their national heritage and a commitment to main- ject to so many restrictions that a publisher can resort taining India's unity and integrity. to this practice only after it has given documentary The government and people of India are fully con- evidence that it has failed to secure the right of pub- scious of the need to restructure the educational cur- lication or translation of a particular book despite all riculum and to create textbooks for students in schools possible efforts to arrive at a mutually negotiated agree- and universities with a view to achieving the objectives ment with the owner of the copyright. Further, books of unity and national pride. In the process, a whole published under compulsory license cannot be exported nation will be led, to quote from an ancient Indian and may be used only for educational or instructional scripture, "from darkness to light, from ignorance to purposes. knowledge." 11 Mexico's Free Textbook Program Peter H. Neumann and Maureen A. Cunningham More than twenty years ago, Mexico faced and overcame pressive achievement under any circumstances. In our the political, economic, and technical obstacles to a experience, it is a unique accomplishment for a devel- large-scale national free textbook program. Similar ob- oping country with limited resources. Nationalism and stacles are responsible today for the critical shortage of the recognition of the urgent need for education (both appropriate textbooks in most developing countries- major forces in the Mexican Revolution) have provided a shortage which delays the improvement of primary the organization, the talent, and the money for these and secondary education while it places additional bur- programs. By 1981, every Mexican child ready to enroll dens on generally underpaid, oven.;orked, and under- (some .15 million children out of a population of close educated teachers. to 70 million) found a place in primary school and was Mexico recognized that the use of textbooks raises given free textbooks in each subject. academic standards and increases the efficiency of school The Mexican government views education as an in- systems. Therefore it has given the development, pro- vestment rather than as an expense and has liberally duction. and distribution of textbooks the same priority invested in education. In 1959, the Mexican government in the education budget as teachers' salaries and school nationalized the publication of textbooks for primary buildings. No other factor has been as critical to the schools by establishing the National Commission for success of Mexico's free textbook plan as the continuous Free Textbooks (CNLTG). Succeeding governments have provision since 1959 by successive Mexican govern- continued their strong support for the CNLTG. The Sec- ments of adequate annual funding for the National retariat of Public Education (SEP), with its hundreds of Commission for Free Textbooks. thousands of teachers, is said to account for nearly half Over the last twenty-five years, Mexico's free textbook of all government employees in the country. In 1959, program has created a sense of national unity in the almost 16 percent of the national budget was allocated minds of Mexican children and has reaffirmed the so- to education. In 1980, the total budget for education cioeconomic principles of the Mexican Revolution. At was approximately 160 billion pesos (Mp; $6.7 billion). the same time, with government backing and support, The production and distribution of free primary school the country has developed the most dynamic private textbooks in 1980 accounted for about Mp700 million publishing industry in Latin America. This chapter, which ($29.2 million), or less than 0.5 percent of the total is a condensed version of a much larger study (Neumann budget for education. Together with all other books and and Cunningham 1982), summarizes important lessons periodicals either published by or subsidized by the SEP, from the Mexican experience about the development the government spends perhaps 1 percent of its edu- and publication of schoolbooks intended to support the cation budget on educational materials. According to teacher and instruct the child. the Mexican authorities, this is an insignificant ex- penditure in relation to the total investment in edu- cation, and yet it is one of the most essential. This Investment in Education endorsement by Mexico of the relation beh.;een aca- demic achievement and the availability of textbooks is Mexico's free textbooks for primary schools, as well backed by results. It makes the study of the Mexican as the range of other educational materials produced experience important to those responsible for educa- and subsidized by the government, represent an im- tional development in the developing world. 137 138 Peter H. Neumann ani/ Maureen A. Cunningham The nationalization of a part of the private publishing • The decision by the government as to whether to industry in a democratic country does not go unchal- nationalize the publication and distribution of text- lenged. In Mexico it was opposed not only by the na- books or to promote the growth of a private pub- tional publishing industry but also by large segments lishing industry should be made only after careful of the general public. Nationalization of textbooks en- study of all the alternatives. genders the suspicion (still noticeable in the popular • The publication and distribution of effective text- press twenty-five years later) that the government may books to schools on a regular basis is a long-term use its monopoly to shape the views and attitudes of undertaking. It took Mexico's National Commis- young citizens in its own political image rather than sion eleven years to complete its initial program letting them discover their own opinions by reading of textbooks for grades 1 to 6 of primary school. diverse materials. The remarkable stability of the Mex- These textbooks, it was generally acknowledged, ican political system (the ruling party of which has been were not as good as others then available from in uninterrupted power since 1929) no doubt has served private publishers. Time and money could have to blunt these concerns. been saved if expert advice had been sought by the The nationalization of an important market segment Mexican government in the planning stages of the such as primary school textbooks could have done ir- free textbook program. reparable harm to the growth of Mexico's private pub- • A successful system for maintaining a supply of lishing industry. But succeeding Mexican governments textbooks for schools depends on a network of co- showed restraint by not extending nationalization be- operating institutions and on public support. Such yond textbooks for the six grades of primary schooL a network includes state and local government au- They offered, in addition, support to private publishers thorities, the ministry of education, professional through joint projects, through licenses to import paper organizations, teachers' associations, publishers, and equipment, and through export subsidies to the and parents. Mexican book trade. Of most importance, the devel- • It is not common practice (outside of socialist gov- opment throughout the country of a public library sys- ernments) for a central government alone to fi- tem which purchases books in large quantities from nance textbooks for primary and secondary schools. commercial publishers together with the rapid growth Far more common is a sharing of the expense by in enrollment in secondary schools and in universities the central government, state and local authorities, (outcomes of Mexico's investment in education) have and parents. A careful study of such financial al- provided expanding markets for Mexico's flourishing ternatives and the selection of what is locally fea- book industry. sible and appropriate may lead to the establishment of a reasonable basis for long-term funding. General Principles • In addition to writing and editing skills, the pub- lication of textbooks includes the functions of structuring and designing content; testing the ef- The Mexican experience offers valuable lessons to those fectiveness of the proposed content; producing and concerned with providing textbooks to the developing printing the textbooks; promoting the textbooks world. It confirms general principles that govern text- to teachers; distributing them to schools; and pe- book production and supply in both developing and riodically revising them. In short, the publishing developed nations: process requires skilled, permanent, professional • Textbooks deserve the same priority in the edu- organizations and considerable investment. This is cational budget as teachers and buildings. The use so whether the task is undertaken by a national of textbooks raises academic standards and greatly textbook agency or private publishers. increases the effectiveness of a school system. The complexity of the publishing process demands • To secure an adequate supply of textbooks for schools that a national textbook agency either be able to attract requires a long-term commitment by the govern- skilled technicians (often from private industry) con- ment and adequate annual funding. versant with all the aspects of publishing or be able to • An adequate supply of textbooks for primary and train and to retain such staff by using outside assistance. secondary schools-whether produced by private These demands require an organization with a wage publishers, by a government agency, or by a com- scale and salary structure different from that of the civil bination of both-can be financed by allocating a service, which is a problem for governments. Mexico small percentage (for example, 1-4 percent) of the . solved the problem by creating a semiautonomous or- total educational budget for this purpose. ganization, the CNLTG, and by providing it with its own Mexico's Free Textbook Program 139 budget. If a similar approach is not possible for a gov- tively in the classroom and, in extreme instances, were ernment, it is far better for it to assist private publishers boycotted by teachers. with the task of textbook production. In preparation for the third generation of textbooks Wherever private publishers produce textbooks (and (beginning in the early 1980s), the editorial responsi- regardless of whether these textbooks are purchased bility was transferred from the CNLTG to a newly formed, with public or private funds), the process of selecting, professionally staffed subdivision within the Ministry of purchasing, and distributing can be and should be reg- Education. The new unit, which combines responsibil- ulated by appropriate laws and regulations-models for ity for curriculum development with the preparation of which might be adapted from many nations around the textbook materials, has instituted extensive classroom world. For example, Mexico regulates the approval and testing of new texts and of teachers' editions. In a radical pricing of secondary school textbooks published pri- departure from common practice, the new texts inte- vately and purchased by parents. grate subject materials in grades 1 and 2. Printing is not publishing; the two should not be Mexico's program of free textbooks for every child in confused. Mexico opted to establish a giant, well-equipped the six primary grades has had an extremely positive printing plant run along commercial lines by the CNLTG. effect on primary education. The free textbooks en- This plant prints the majority, but not all, of the free courage good citizenship and a sense of national identity textbooks. Such an arrangement allows the plant to run among Mexico's children. Successive generations of at full capacity, and the use of outside printers allows textbooks have improved as tools for teaching and are it the flexibility to expand or contract its production more imaginative in color and design. Today, most of schedules according to changing annual demands. A the books are in four colors and are handsomely illus- national printing plant, however. is not essential; and trated, even though they are printed on newsprint and because of the investment and upkeep, it may not be are not designed to last much longer than a year. Ninety- desirable where other options exist for printing text- three million textbooks were produced in 1982 alone. books on an acceptable schedule and at a reasonable They are distributed through an ingenious system in- price. volving the national railroads, trucks, and eventually mules-an impressive accomplishment in scheduling and organization. Criticisms The free textbook program has been a positive ex- perience for Mexico. In interviews with government of- A major criticism of the Mexican free textbook pro- ficials and with private publishers and in reports and gram is that it offers the teacher no choice. Each school articles reflecting the views of educators and of parents, across a culturally and economically diverse nation has we found a strong consensus that free textbooks have to use the same set of basic books in grades 1 through been good for education and that they represent a proud 6. This problem is being overcome to some extent by national accomplishment. encouraging schools to purchase, with their own funds, materials from private publishers. For instance, it is not Bibliography unusual for more affluent schools in metropolitan areas to use commercial textbooks for enrichment or for ad- Constitution of the United Mexican States. As Amended. 1917. ditional practice. Furthermore, under the free textbook 1964. (Text translated from Constituci6n Polftica de los program, the Ministry of Education is beginning to Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Decima Edici6n, 1959. Mexico, sponsor different regional versions in, for example, ge- D.F.: Editorial Porrua. Subsequent amendments to June ography and local history. 22, 1963, from Dlario Oficial.) Washington, D.C.: Pan Another criticism frequently leveled against national American Union. textbook programs is that the books are written without Drake, Diana Mack. 1978. "Bilingual Education Programs for sufficient testing and input by local teachers. Mexican Indian Children in Mexico." Modem Language Journal 62 textbooks, critics have charged, are written by univer- (September-October): 239-48. sity professors and ministry authors insufficiently aware Gill, Clark C. 1969. Education in a Changing Mexico. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of of the needs, and especially the limitations, of rural Education and Institute of International Studies, Super- teachers and students. Such criticisms were extremely intendent of Documents, Catalog No. FS5.214:14139. widespread in response to the first generation of text- Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. books (published between 1960 and 1971), and only Heyneman, Stephen P., Joseph P. Farrell, and Manuel A. Se- slightly less so in response to the second generation pulveda-Stuardo. 1978. Textbooks and Achievement: What (published between 1972 and 1979). As a result of such We Know. World Bank Staff Working Paper 298. Washing- adverse reaction, free textbooks were not used effec- ton, D.C. 140 Peter H. Neumann and Maureen A. Cunningham Holt, Patricia. 1980. "Publishing in Mexico: Its Time has Come." leo's Free Textbooks: Nationalism and the Urgency to Ed- Publishers Weekly 217, no. 16 (April 25): 33-46. ucate. World Bank Staff Working Paper 541. Washington, s Mabry, Donald J. 1973. Mexico Acci6n Nacional: A Catholic D.C. Alternative to Revolution. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse Uni- Niemeyer, E. V., Jr. 1974. Revolution at Queretaro: The Mex- versity Press. ican Constitutional Convention of 1969-1917. Institute of Made in Mexico. 1981. VoL 4, no. 1. Denver, Colo. Latin American Studies, University of Texas. Austin: Uni- "Mexico: Molding More Practical K-6 Programs." 1969. Na- versity of Texas Press. tion's Schools 84, no. 2 (August): 32. Solana, Fernando. 1980. El maestro y la caUdad de Ia edu- Neumann, Peter H. 1980. Publishing for Schools, Textbooks, caci6n. Mexico, D.F.: Secretarfa de Educaci6n Publica. and the Less Developed Countries. World Bank Staff Work- Wagner, Susan. 1975. "Nationalism and a Passion for Edu- ing Paper 398. Washington, D.C. cation Govern Mexico's Attitude toward Publishing." Pub- Neumann, Peter H., and Maureen A. Cunningham. 1982. Mex- lishers Weekly, August 18: 34. 12 The Philippines: A Textbook Case Alfonso de Guzman II The Philippines is now in its tenth year of providing and from teacher training to testing and evalua- textbooks under a two-phase government project. The tion. first four-year phase was cofinanced by the government • Establish a network of 1 central and 107 provincial and the World Bank and saw the development of warehouses for the continuous delivery of text- seventy-five titles and the printing and distribution of books to schools at the ratio of one textbook per 27 million books. This first phase (1978-81) was char- subject area for every two students. acterized by remarkable activity in development and • Establish fourteen staff development centers at the production. The succeeding phase (1982-83) was largely regional level and designate thirty-four develop- one of improvisation, characterized by a slowing down ment high schools as the network for field-testing of production and by institutional uncertainty. textbooks and training about 250,000 teachers in the use of the new books. The First Phase, 1978-81 Accomplishments The initial phase of the project was planned for four years but took five years to implement. A Textbook By the end of the first phase in 1981, the project had Board Secretariat (TBS) was organized with temporary exceeded its targets. In textbook development, five cur- staff to increase the supply of textbooks in public ele- riculum centers were established as planned, and cur- mentary and high schools and to establish the insti- riculum studies and research were begun in their re- tutional capacity of the government to supply textbooks spective subjects. Following a three-year development to schools. Aklat Para Sa Lahat (Pilipino for "books for cycle for textbooks (one year for planning, research, all") appears on the seal of the TBS and on the cover of and writing; a second for field-testing; and a third for all project materials. revision and printing), the curriculum centers (collab- orating with TBS editors and testing specialists) under- Objectives took the writing of manuscripts and full-year tryouts of experimental editions in between twelve and forty rep- The project set out to do the following: resentative schools. The centers also revised manu- scripts after the field-testing and approved the final pro- • Establish and support five centers for developing duction versions of the complete series in the five chosen curriculums and writing seventy-five textbooks and subjects for the ten grades of basic education. In all, teachers' guides in science, mathematics, social ninety-two textbooks and teachers' guides were devel- studies, Pilipino, and English for elementary and oped, seventeen more than planned. high schools. Meanwhile, the TBS recruited 130 staff for the edi- • Expand the functions of the Textbook Board (the torial, production, manufacturing, distribution, and education ministry's body for approving textbooks) training and evaluation divisions and for the necessary to include overall management of the scheme for finance and administrative support units. Some 27,000 providing textbooks-from planning and writing metric tons of paper and cover stock were procured. By through printing and distributing 27 million books the end of 1981, 33 million books had been printed- 141 142 Alfonso de Guzman Il 6 million copies over target-and there was enough stocks to printers and worsening paper congestion paper left for the next two years' production. at project warehouses. A central warehouse in Manila and 54 provincial • The annual financial assistance to the regional of- warehouses were built, and 98 others belonging to the fices arrived in the field late and frequently lapsed; Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports (MECS) were without operating funds at the local level, textbook refurbished and equipped for textbook distribution. To shipments to schools were delayed. facilitate communication with the central warehouse, • When textbook deliveries were late, teacher train- the thirteen regional offices of education, as well as the ing in some provinces sometimes took place with- more remote warehouses, were provided with radio out the new materials. transceivers. Yearly, the project provided funds to the regional offices for textbook distribution. Through this network of 152 warehouses, 32 million books were dis- The Second Phase, 1982-85 tributed to the school system, improving textbook- student ratios to one book per 2.3 primary students, In 1981, the government began implementing a ten- one per 6.1 intermediate students, and one per 7.6 high year program to improve elementary education. The school students by 1981. The distribution performance program was financed by the World Bank for the period exceeded the original target by 5 million copies. 1982-85. Teacher training in the effective use of textbooks was planned by the TBS in collaboration with the curriculum Objectives centers and the bureaus of elementary and secondary education; it was implemented at first through fifteen Beginning in January 1982, the objective of the text- regional development centers and later through the of- book project would be to become the instructional ma- fices of the regional directors of education. From 1977 terials component of the new program, with the task to 1981, nine training programs were conducted and of developing a variety of products (textbooks, supple- the number of trainees totaled 368,000 (including 50,000 ments, and learning materials such as science kits, film, principals, supervisors, and higher-level administra- and tape) to support the introduction of a new elemen- tors). This was 118,000 more trainees than had been tary curriculum during the period 1983-88. At the same anticipated. time, using regular (nonloan) funds, the project would Impact studies were conducted on sixteen textbook continue to resupply textbooks and teachers' guides to titles introduced by the project. Using standard tests public high schools. The combined elementary and high developed for the purpose, the learning achievements school production of all types of printed materials would of students who used the new books and those who did be about 10-12 million copies annually. not were compared. Test results showed significant im- To improve textbook distribution, the project would provements among textbook users. expand its network by building twenty-six more pro- vincial warehouses. To improve overall management, Major Problems operations would be computerized, and the TBS would be transformed into the state corporation for textbooks Aside from the usual start-up difficulties experienced and all other instructional materials. by any new enterprise (recruitment delays, frequent changes in just-formulated work procedures, inadequa- Accomplishments cies in office facilities and services), the project en- countered the following major problems during its first During the three-year period 1982-84, the textbook implementation phase: project developed 41 new textbooks, teachers' guides, and workbooks; revised 48 other titles in its backlist; • Content and presentation in the new textbooks var- printed 30 million copies of various instructional ma- ied from the official prescribed curriculum. terials and distributed 29 million of them; and con- • Feedback from field tests came late and yielded ducted two more rounds of training for 58,000 teachers little useful data for manuscript revision. and school administrators. 1 • Manuscripts were submitted late; final, print-ready pages were delayed, throwing off printing, distri- Major Problems bution, and teacher-training schedules. • Paper imported in bulk was not managed effi- Without its curriculum centers, which had been dis- ciently, resulting in costly warehousing, loss, and banded in 1982, the project was forced to publish un- damage; printing-contract awards were also de- tested materials to support a new elementary curricu- layed, preventing the project from releasing paper lum hastily introduced in 1983. The project also The Philippines: A Textbook Case 143 experienced delays in purchasing paper and printing 1970 survey, which noted the continuing deterioration services. Security features were added to the paper spec- in the quality of education and uneven quality of ex- ifications to prevent the unauthorized use of this tax- isting textbooks (Philippines 1970: 141-42): free and highly marketable government property for There are no consistent standards followed for the other, nonproject materials. But suppliers could not writing and review of textbooks and teaching mate- initially meet the new requirements. Changes were also rials in the public and private schools ... All text- made in the composition and procedures of the MECS books used in the elementary schools are locally pro- bidding committee. There were delays while the new duced. However, the use of imported textbooks with committee members and the printer-bidders familiar- non-indigenous contents at the secondary level is still ized themselves with the changes. prevalent. This ... will continue as present capacities of local production of textbooks are inadequate. Institutionalization Responding to these findings, the task force created The project's most serious problem was the legal in 1972 to oversee the national reform program found structure providing for a permanent textbook agency. that both the quality of education and the supply of By the end of the first phase, the project had the es- textbooks in public schools were critically low. The clamor sential elements of an institutionalized textbook pro- for textbooks was universal among teachers, principals, vision scheme: a pool of trained curriculum researchers and supervisors. and writers, a professional publishing staff, and national The main intervention was thus identified. The de- networks for distribution, teacher training, and evalu- terioration in educational quality would be arrested ation. What remained was the legal mechanism for at the root by reintroducing textbooks from grade perpetuating the institution. After three organizational- 1 up. The first step in that direction was taken in June financial studies, persistent follow-up by project man- 1975 when, at the government's invitation, a Unesco agers at government offices, and the encouragement of mission arrived in Manila to assist the education task a new but sympathetic education minister, on May 31, force in the preparation of a loan-free textbook provision 1985, the temporary project unit TBS became the gov- scheme. ernment's Instructional Materials Corporation. The Government as Publisher Why Textbooks? The decision that the government assume the role of From the turn of the century, textbooks have been educational publisher was influenced by the environ- part of Philippine public education. 2 U.S. books, how- ment for private publishing in the mid-1970s. For one ever inappropriately, were used until they were replaced thing, the early successes in public administration by by Filipino-authored texts in English; the first series, a newly installed martial-law government increased Phili'ppi'ne Readers by Camilo Osias, appeared in 1918. confidence in the government's ability to undertake de- Educational publishing by Philippine companies started velopment projects, even those traditionally in the pri- in the mid-1920s and flourished immediately after World vate sector. For another, the innovations in textbook War II. In 1958, the textbook publishers formed ana- development needed for large-scale production were tionalist association "to meet the challenges of educa- either unknown or too costly for private publishers. tional book publishing ... with books written by Fili- pinos for Filipinos and of the Filipinos." The use of Environment for Private Publishing foreign books continued, however, in some schools. In the 1960s, with acceleration of economic activity The government diagnosed the twin problems of poor a high priority, the government adopted educational educational quality and the shortage of instructional policies that encouraged the training of the middle and materials to be of such crisis proportions as to neces- higher levels of agricultural, industrial, and scientific sitate an immediate, massive, and systemwide solution. manpower immediately needed in production. But al- But the government was not confident that the private though basic education received less official attention sector could supply the instructional materials of the (and funds), the production and purchase oflocally writ- needed quality and quantity. ten, locally produced textbooks continued under a proj- Under the existing adoption policy, the Ministry of ect assisted by the U.S. Agency for International De- Education's board on textbooks would issue a call to velopment (USAID). private publishers for the supply of textbooks for certain The shift in policy toward strengthening basic edu- subjects and grades needed for a particular school year. cation in the mid-1970s was guided by the government's The textbooks provided by these publishers were eva!- 144 Alfonso de Guzman II uated by curriculum specialists and other educators: Available Public Resources the top-ranked title was adopted for use in all public schools, the next-ranked recommended as a supple- By contrast, at the start of the first phase of the mentary text. Multiple adoptions were not unusual, textbook project the government had at its disposal the however, with up to three titles from various publishers key resources for an immediate response to the textbook approved as standard texts for a subject at a given grade crisis: copyright protection, manuscripts ready for pub- level. The approved titles then were purchased in bulk lication, and duty-free importation of paper. and distributed by the government. The books were Infringements on copyright would obviously be averted loaned to students free of charge. if the government were to use materials originated by The consequences of this adoption practice were often its own agencies. This was an important consideration deleterious. For example, in one subject different text- because manuscript development could suffer delays books would be purchased from different publishers for while permission was being sought from copyright own- different grades. Thus students were not assured that ers. Nevertheless, the textbook project adopted a policy their books next year would come from the same series that permission would be secured for the use of copy- as their books in the current year. As a result, there righted materials in the new textbooks. The project staff was neither continuity in the treatment of subject mat- was in fact occasionally delayed in manuscript prepa- ter from one grade to the next nor lateral linkages ration while locating copyright owners, waiting for their among subjects of the same grade; there was no pro- written consent, or writing new material because the gression in levels of difficulty, no coverage of related owners never replied, posed unacceptable conditions, topics, and no further .development of concepts and or refused permission. skills taken up in the previous grades. The reluctance-especially among publishers in the Compounding this situation was the fact that the international trade- to negotiate rights and permis- books generally were of poor quality. The titles available sions was not surprising in the light of Philippine re- from private publishers in the mid-1970s were vintage printing laws enacted in 1973-74. These legalized the 1960s-they had been developed during the previous commercial reproduction of any exorbitantly priced book textbook project. Text and pictures were at least ten (unilaterally determined at $3 at the time) even without years old and no longer reflected up-to-date, basic the original owners' consent. The Philippines was not knowledge about art and literature, politics, science and a member of any copyright convention at the time. technology, or the more effective approaches to teach- Materials written by staff of the government, and ing these in either elementary or high school. As the therefore legally unencumbered, were available as books had never been tried in schools before they were manuscripts. At least three government institutions had adopted, there existed little empirical evidence of their been developing instructional materials, some of which effectiveness in the typical Philippine classroom. had already been field-tested before those institutions Although the printing industry had the capability to were designated curriculum centers for the project. produce sturdy textbooks, lack of quality control, scar- For those materials (many in science and math), the city of foreign exchange (which prevented local com- first two years of writing and field-testing could be skipped, panies from importing good paper, ink, thread, staple and production could begin soon after the launching of wire, and glue), and the government's protectionist pol- the project. This would still conform to the three-year icies for the local manufacture of these materials all textbook development cycle prescribed in the original contributed to a decline in the physical quality of the project design. By contrast, the estimated minimum Philippine-made book. For its part, the government time needed by the private sector to provide new ma- maintained flexible standards in accepting the books terials was six years. bought from traditional suppliers. To integrate development activity, the government Another problem was inefficient procurement. Be- put the project under the supervision of the Textbook cause of dwindling funds and ill-defined standards for Board and assigned national appropriations tradition- textbook adoption, the free-for-all competition among ally allotted to the purchase of textbooks to be the Phil- approximately twenty publishers for large government ippine counterpart to the World Bank loan. To facilitate orders was intense and at times unfair. Amid rumors the development process, the government ruled that of influence peddling, price fixing, and unlawful com- the materials developed by the curriculum centers would missions, the supply of textbooks to public schools be- automatically be approved by the board. 3 came irregular and their quality and price suspect. (The Paper for book printing is available in the Philippines government abolished the board on textbooks in 1974 but is generally priced higher than most other paper and suspended all book purchases. It established a new products. This is because printing papers are either textbook board in 1975.) imported or locally manufactured from imported soft- The Philippines: A Textbook Case 145 wood pulp. (The country does not produce pulp because government that was both player and referee at the forest trees, although abundant, are unsuitable for same time. papermaking.) The government also protects the local The publishers also argued that, with the government papermaking industry, levying high duties on imported producing its own books and assigning funds for pro- paper. In the mid-1970s, local prices for imported paper duction rather than purchase, publishers would be left were at least 50 percent higher than international prices. with only the small private-school market for their books. Because paper was thought to comprise about 50 While acknowledging that the government's large-scale percent of the unit production cost of the book, the provision of textbooks would promote reading and sub- government saw substantial economies in buying in- sequently create a large book market at no expense to ternational-quality paper stocks at international prices. private publishers, they said that the loss of the lucrative The government had the facility for such procurement textbook trade would deprive them of the margins needed because the educational development law of 1972 spe- for investment in riskier trade books (literature, non- cifically granted tax exemption on the government's fiction). It was ironic, they felt, that the project's short- importation of materials and equipment needed for such term gain of teaching the population to read would be programs. (This kept costs at acceptable levels, for in lost in the long run because a publishing industry so 1981 paper was assessed to be 73 percent of unit pro- endangered by a government takeover could offer little duction cost.) to the new readers. The government sought ways of enlisting the partic- ipation of publishers in the textbook project. Because Impact on the Private Sector book purchases (which the publishers essentially de- manded) were not possible under current policies and The government recognized the risks involved in vir- World Bank loan obligations, the government explored tually shutting the private sector out of production in the private sector's interest in reprinting and copubli- the textbook project but justified its action on the basis cation. of its need to provide materials immediately and on its In response to queries by parents and private-school belief that only it was large enough to undertake a heads who wished to purchase project textbooks, in systematic change in the provision of books. It sought 1977 the Textbook Board made available the rights for to minimize those risks by engaging the private sector the reprinting and commercial sale of these textbooks. as providers of many graphic supplies and services, in- Exclusive rights were granted after public bidding among cluding book design, paper, printing, binding, pack- publishers for the lowest selling price they would offer aging, and distribution. (Recognizing the problems of the public. The board approved the price and required managing printing presses, which could distract from a small royalty to be paid to the textbook project (which the main business of developing textbooks, the project shared the royalty with the curriculum centers). Al- itself did no printing.) though the response was generally good, many reprint Indeed, throughout the project, huge contracts were editions remained unsold, the publishers later com- awarded to many private firms. As many as twenty titles plaining that bidding depressed prices unnaturally. were in preparation at any given time, providing em- Consequently, in 1982 the board waived bidding for- ployment for scores of artists and craftsmen as type was malities and simply required a fixed fee and its approval set, illustrations were drawn, pictures researched and of the selling price. The publishers realized much better taken, pages made up, and final film of entire books sales under the new arrangement, but by 1984 the sell- developed. Paper procurement averaged 5,000 metric ing prices for the reprinted books had risen substan- tons yearly, and print orders ranged from 15,000 copies tially. This defeated the project's desire to make avail- of teaching materials for high school to 1.3 million able commercial editions that were inexpensive because copies of grade 1 textbooks, occupying dozens of print- (except for the nominal reprinting fee) no development ers for months on end. Distribution volume was 30 cost needed to be incorporated in the selling price of million books a year, providing year-round business to the book. land, sea, and airfreight forwarders. In 1980, the Textbook Board selected several pub- Nonetheless, private publishers looked on the project lishers' titles from its approved list and referred them with suspicion and hostility. Relegated to the role of for production and distribution under the project. For mere printers, they were deprived of the opportunity the limited rights to a government edition of the se- to sell textbooks developed by their respective houses. lected books, the project paid royalties based on manu- They protested the government's automatic approval facturing cost, because the loan-free, not-for-sale books of its own manuscripts, a policy which- they argued- did not have the list price used by publishers to deter- placed private publishers in an uneven contest with a mine royalty fees. In addition, the project provided the 146 Alfonso de Guzman II publishers with editorial and design advice and attached and demanded that they be field-tested in accordance no further rights to the books so that the publishers with policies guiding the textbook project. This threw could market identical editions commercially. the availability of the new materials further out of phase The board determined that the privately published with the new curriculum. And the textbook project, books were appropriate for about 25 percent of the pub- under pressure to provide the new curriculum with lic schools, considering the teaching approach and the materials, discarded its three-year development cycle, coverage and level of difficulty of subject matter. That hastily revised titles from its backlist, pressed editors meant that 600,000 copies of upper-elementary social to compile some student workbooks and teachers' guides, studies texts and 60,000-80,000 copies of high school and then rushed to press with materials of undeter- language texts could be sold-a bonanza for an industry mined quality. in which a publisher's typical inventory was about 5,000 per title and anything surpassing 20,000 copies was a bestseller. The Future of Government Publishing The entry of private publishers' titles in what had been a single-title system created serious problems for With the appointment of a new education minister the project, however. Questions regarding continuity in 1984, the textbook project regained its cohesion and from one grade to the next, the shortcoming of the some of its momentum. It was also expected to assume preproject procurement system, were raised again. Two a greater role in policy formulation and management separate biddings for printing had to be held, one for of the total educational materials subsector. To ratio- the project title, the other for the new entrant. Distri- nalize its publishing schedules, the textbook project bution plans had to be revised to ensure that the second negotiated with private publishers to buy the rights to title reached the 25 percent of schools which the board their materials for grades 3 and 4 for publication in determined were the appropriate users. The work of 1985 and 1986 (when the new curriculum would be teacher-trainers effectively doubled with preparations introduced in those grades). The project also revived for the orientation of teachers on the effective use of its three curriculum centers and identified two more one or the other book. But the most surprising feedback (the MECS national language institute and the practical came from teachers themselves. In various teacher- arts center of the state technological university) to en- training sessions held before the introduction of the sure that development proceeded under the regular, new texts, teachers and local education authorities for- three-year cycle for materials for grades 5 and 6 for mally protested the entry of a nongovernmental text, 1987 and 1988. rating it inferior to the government's own and calling To broaden its base of authors, in 1984 the project the practice contrary to the project's purpose of equal- began a national contest for textbook writing open to izing educational opportunity through a standardized all classroom teachers. The contest offered cash awards educational service. To placate the teachers, the board at local, regional, and national levels to the teacher- ruled that the government's title would be used as the authors and to their sponsor-administrators. Although standard text in class and the private title at the teach- the initial response was disappointing, more partici- er's option. pants entered the following year, giving the contest The next attempt to engage the private sector was in organizers confidence and optimism for the future. 1982, at the start of the project's second phase. New The project also embarked on the development of leaders of the MECS (assigned by the minister to oversee other, nontextbook elementary-level materials financed the education task force which supervised all foreign- by the World Bank. The first of a series on Philippine assisted projects) abolished the curriculum centers as regional folk culture (customs, literature, music, arts project institutions. The ministry then called for manu- and crafts) appeared in 1984 designed as curriculum scripts from the private sector to support a new cur- enrichment material for teachers of social studies. Pro- riculum for grades 1 and 2 in 1983 and 1984 respec- duction work was under way in 1985 for a portfolio of tively. Philippine paintings for school use, posters for home- The move was badly timed because, in 1982, the MECS room arts, and manuals for physical education. A two- was not yet ready with the details of the new curriculum. volume children's encyclopedia (one volume in English, The private publishers, already wary of government ini- the other in Pilipino) and a 10,000-entry high school tiatives in educational publishing, waited until the manu- dictionary in Pilipino were being written and designed. script preparation guidelines were finally issued-by It is difficult to tell which course government text- then too late for any meaningful textbook development, book publishing will take in the immediate future. The despite several extensions in manuscript submission energetic education minister, at whose initiative the dates. The Textbook Board, directed to evaluate the textbook project finally became a state corporation in submissions, noted the poor quality of the materials 1985, began many activities to develop instructional The Philippines: A Textbook Case 147 materials for the public schools. In addition to ordering nally aided projects. The functions and authority of the diversification in the development of educational prod- Textbook Board were expanded in 1979. The board was ucts, he secured presidential authority requiring that given authority to receive and disburse budgetary ap- all purchases of instructional materials out of national propriations, enter into contracts and agreements, and and local funds be made only by the new state corpo- appoint and discipline personnel. The TBS was then ad- ration. This effectively made the corporation the gov- ministratively transferred from the task force to the ernment's central procurement agency, which would board. deal with private suppliers for items not produced by The board met regularly, and TBS managers were the corporation. The same authority exempted the cor- frequently invited to the meetings as resource persons. poration from import duties (mostly on paper} and pro- As resignations reduced the membership over the years vided for hiring consultants, shortening procedures for and no new appointments were made, the board even- higher-level approval of the corporation's contracts, and tually functioned with only an acting chairman and two regular government budgeting to provide instructional members. Staff support for the board was provided by materials beyond the World Bank loan. A noteworthy the TBS. As governing body for the TBS, the Textbook provision was that the corporation should not venture Board reviewed all operating policies and budget pro- into printing, recognizing the pitfalls of a government posals and approved annual plans and reports, contract office printing plant and as a concession to private in- awards, modifications, and extensions, and personnel terests. Nevertheless, the provision allows government appointments, promotions, and sanctions. All contracts printers to bid on the corporation's printing jobs. and appointments were under the name and signature The overall direction, therefore, has been toward much of the board. greater government involvement in the provision of instructional materials, with no change in private par- TBS Organizational Structure ticipation. Private publishers may well regard the cor- poration as taking over textbooks and all other instruc- Headed by an executive director, the TBs had a staff tional materials. They may also see an opportunity to of 130 in 1981, counting among them 67 professionals return to the days of persuasive lobbying of a single organized into five operating divisions and two (later governmental unit-the very corruption-prone pro- three) support offices. The chiefs of divisions and offices curement practice that compelled the government of constituted the senior staff, which, headed by the deputy the mid-1970s to overhaul the system in the first place. director, met weekly with the executive director to set The new government which took power in February and review operating policies, procedures, and perfor- 1986 could, however, alter that direction, given its con- mance. The same body met annually as a planning com- cern over the country's heavy international debt and its mittee. Together with chiefs of sections, the committee election promise to revive economic activity through evaluated the previous year's performance, set the com- the revitalization of private initiative. Indeed, change ing year's targets, and prepared detailed plans and has begun: the education minister has been replaced. schedules. Members of the senior staff also formed working committees to handle various management tasks and staff services: personnel screening, staff perfor- Institutional Issues mance ratings, office purchases, technical assistance, and sports and cultural activities. In 1975, the Textbook Board was reestablished. The In late 1983, the TBS moved to its own site in Quezon chairman was appointed by the president of the Phil- City, Metropolitan Manila. On a two-hectare lot leased ippines, as were four members: a science and mathe- from the state university, a seven-building complex was matics educator, another educator representing the designed for TBS operations and built under the World country's many cultural minorities, a famous artist, and Bank-financed project. a publisher representing the private sector. The direc- tors of elementary and secondary education were ex Fonnation of the Instructional Materials Corporation officio members. As an extension of the education min- ister's office, the textbook regulatory board set national During the years 1977-81, the TBS commissioned policy and evaluated and approved textbooks submitted three studies by private management consulting firms by publishers for use in the public school system. and by the government's own audit commission to de- The project was launched in July 1976 with the es- termine the appropriate legal and financial structure tablishment of the Textbook Board Secretariat (TBS). that would make the textbook project a continuing gov- Because the project was financed by a World Bank loan, ernment activity. The first study identified the options: the TBS was initially attached to the education task force- ministry bureau, commission, state foundation, or state an extension of the minister's office overseeing exter- corporation. The second study prepared various finan- 148 Alfonso de Guzman!! cia! scenarios and recommended the corporate form taken as the basis for the new estimate. The numbers because a corporation would free the central govern- were tabulated on a large sheet by title and year of ment of the financial burden of supporting the textbook printing to make an eight-year schedule of textbook unit after the initial provision of capital; it would also availability. (The staff called it either the "blue sched- enable the new unit to operate with the financial flex- ule" because it was blueprinted or the "mattress" be- ibility required for textbook development. The third study cause of its size.) It showed the printing targets by title, detailed the corporation's organization and functions, year, and type of book. It also showed the years when suggested mechanisms for transferring appropriations, a title would need to be reprinted (the third year) and property, and personnel from the project to the cor- when its revised edition would be needed in the field poration, and prepared the draft presidential executive (the seventh). order that would effect the change. Although annual work plans were often modified be- The executive order provided for the abolition of the cause of schedule slippages and newly emergent needs, Textbook Board and the creation in its place of an in- the blue schedule was never altered. The staff used it structional materials council chaired by the education as the fixed point of reference for reckoning adjustments minister. The council would regulate the introduction to their many subsidiary plans and estimates-paper of textbooks as well as all other forms of learning ma- consumption, bidding schedules, distribution alterna- terials. The order also provided for the creation of the tives, and cost projections. government's proprietary corporation for instructional materials, with a board of directors also chaired by the Manuscript Origination and Preparation minister. The order was signed by the president in 1982 but not released, presumably because the government was not yet ready to commit funds for corporate equity. Project Criteria In late 1984, the order was finally issued. With the help Plans prepared by the education task force deter- of the presidential commission on reorganization, en- mined the scope of instructional materials development abling memorandums were drafted, and administrative to be undertaken by the textbook project. Textbooks negotiations were held with the Civil Service Commis- would be developed for the courses in science, math- sion and the budget ministry. In May 1985, a presiden- ematics, social studies, Pilipino, and English which are tial letter of instruction operationalized the Instruc- required by the official curriculum for the six elemen- tional Materials Corporation (IMC). tary grades and four high school years of the basic educational system. Publication Planning Instead of having several texts of graduated reading levels or having altogether different texts for the same subject in one grade level, the concept of a single text- The education task force which prepared the textbook book aimed at the average student was preferred. It project designed the three-year textbook development simplified the task of rushing books to a book-starved cycle with the aid of a PERT (program evaluation and system. It also democratized access to educational op- review technique) network diagram, an instrument fa- portunity: every Filipino student, wherever he or she miliar to construction engineers. The diagram was then lived or moved, would find the same text in any public redesigned, with its useful features intact (critical path, school. But because the teaching of reading and gram- parallel activities, duration of activities), into a simple mar in the two languages required more material than Gantt chart (essentially a bar graph across time) more the other subjects, the plan provided for double volumes easily understood by laypersons. in some grades (primer-and-reader set in grade 1 for To show a textbook development cycle, the bar charts Pilipino, reading-and-language companion volumes for were further simplified, with the main activities color both English and Pilipino in grades 3-6). The texts coded so that an entire textbook series for one subject were the property of the school and loaned free to stu- area could be displayed on a page. These handy graphs dents. Because many classrooms used two-seater stu- were used extensively in discussions within TBS man- dent desks, a single text per subject could be shared by agers, the Textbook Board, the curriculum centers, the seatmates. task force, the minister's office, and the budget au- Having textbooks per se was not new; by training and thorities at the presidential palace. Changes in the chart tradition, teachers expected them in class and knew how for a particular title needed the director's approval. to use them. The educational innovation was that the To derive a textbook availability schedule, the quan- textbooks were systematically supported in the follow- tity needed of each book was recomputed with the help ing ways: of the statisticians at the distribution division. The en- rollment during the expected year of distribution was • The textbooks were planned in complete series, The Philippines: A Textbook Case 149 from grade 1 to fourth-year high school. Content manuscript planning and writing, field-testing, and was based on the curriculum and arranged ac- manuscript revision on the basis of the results of the cording to a master scope-and-sequence chart. testing. • Specialist teams (rather than individuals) wrote the Of the five participating institutions, three were des- texts. Moreover, the teams were affiliated with es- ignated to write manuscripts for the five academic sub- tablished educational institutions, guaranteeing jects for which textbooks would be developed. The first, continuity in content and phased improvement of the science education center of the state university, had the same content over several editions. been developing instructional materials in science and • Each text was accompanied by materials for the mathematics since 1965 and producing and distributing teacher in the form of a teachers' edition, manual, them in limited quantities through the commercial book or guide. trade. In 1973, the center came under the assistance of a World Bank-financed education project. A new build- e The materials were tested in actual classroom con- ing was constructed for the center, and many of its ditions to ensure their appropriateness to all parts curriculum researchers and textbook writers were sent of the country before they were printed and dis- on degree fellowships abroad. By 1975, its science and tributed. In other words, the users participated in mathematics series for elementary and high schools had the development of the new materials. been field-tested and were ready for revision and sub- • Teachers were trained in the effective use of the sequent production. new materials. Also assisted by the Bank-financed project, the second "' The new materials were evaluated, and improved center was a unit of the ministry working in the subject editions were developed on the basis of the eval- area of social studies. By 1976, this group had written uation. an elementary series and was ready to field-test its first e The new books and teacher materials were attrac- three grades. tive and sturdy and were continually resupplied The third curriculum center- for language stud- through a national distribution network managed ies-operated out of the state normal college. When by a permanent publishing institution. the textbook project started in July 1976, this language study center had already written and field-tested its Language of Publication manuscripts for Pilipino grades 1 and 2 and had pre- pared manuscripts for English grades 1 and 2 for field- Following the bilingual education policy adopted by testing. the Education Ministry in 1974, which prescribed Pi- The two other institutions, one based at the state lipino and English as the media of instruction, the new technological university, the other at a provincial state textbooks in science and mathematics were in English; university, conducted research and developed pilot ma- those for social studies, in Pilipino. (Spanish, the third terials in work education and agro-fisheries for high official language of the Philippines, is optional in some school. Upon the completion of their work in 1979 and private-school secondary curriculums and required in 1981, these 1:\vo centers were phased out because their tertiary-level degree courses.) materials were not included for production under the project. The Curriculum Centers Within the three-year textbook development cycle, the curriculum centers were responsible for curriculum Five institutions were identified as curriculum cen- research and development, manuscript planning and ters and given the responsibility for originating manu- writing, field-testing, and manuscript revision based on scripts for publication by the textbook project. These the results of the testing. Planning and writing included centers were not new creations. All were existing re- the analysis of the curriculum to derive the concepts search and development units, mostly of state univer- and skills to be treated in the textbook and place them sities, and a few had participated in previous projects in a logical order on a scope-and-sequence chart. The of the ministry's task force. chart guided the author teams in estimating the written The curriculum centers had among their ranks grad- material each concept required and the interrelations uate-level educators and social scientists, many with among the concepts. On the basis of the chart, the teaching and publication experience. The centers also outline of the book was prepared and the units and contracted writers and artists as well as classroom teachers lessons of the text were written accordingly. for specific projects. From these resources, the textbook Frequently, the author teams went to a classroom- writing groups were formed. Within the three-year text- usually a laboratory class at a teacher-formation insti- book development cycle, the curriculum centers were tute- to "minitest" a draft lesson or exercise, and then responsible for curriculum research and development, revised it on· the basis of first-hand observation. The 150 Alfonso de Guzman II planning and writing stages were scheduled to take one The editorial division dealt directly with the curric- full year. ulum centers. It received annual proposals from them For the field-testing, educators at the curriculum detailing the textbook titles to be developed during the center identified a sample of forty schools representing year, planned activities, and estimated costs. The divi- the country's cultural and linguistic regions and rural- sion reviewed the proposals, set the standards of output urban settings. The curriculum centers prepared the (especially number of manuscript pages and percentage tryout sites and oriented the teachers on the use of the of illustrative material), and the submission dates for experimental materials. (The TBS contracted for the each manuscript. These were discussed with the cur- printing of a limited edition and sent copies to the riculum centers. chosen sites.) Upon reaching consensus regarding scope, schedul- During the tryout period, author teams made periodic ing, quality, and cost of the year's work, a memorandum visits to observe classes, interview teachers, parents, of agreement-the legal basis of all transactions be- and pupils, and collect other data. The information was tween the TBS and each curriculum center-was drafted. analyzed and used in revising the manuscripts. The The memorandum contained all of those working de- entire field phase was designed for one year: the ten tails and specified the amounts and timing of the fi- months of the academic year (June-March) and two nancial assistance to the curriculum center from project months thereafter for feedback and manuscript revi- funds. sion. Upon receipt of each manuscript from the curriculum With the use of the feedback, revisions were made. center, it was reviewed by an editor, who considered The revised version was reviewed by specialist consul- the following: tants, who made further improvements. Then the • Compliance with the requirements of the curric- manuscript was submitted to the managers of the cur- ulum riculum centers for approval and transmission to the TBS. The curriculum centers also undertook educational • Soundness of the teaching approach research on topics related to instructional materials- • Consistency in the scope and sequence of material for example, how to develop science materials on the • Suitability of the concepts, suggested activities, vo- basis of community needs and resources; how learning cabulary, type size, and illustrations to the apti- disabilities could be traced to language; and how to tudes and interest of the target student identify concepts of nationhood for social studies les- • Length of the text-adequacy of material for one sons. school year • Relation of the text to the accompanying teachers' Editorial Functions at the TBS guide • Accuracy of information The TBS editorial division was responsible for the timely • Consistency in style and presentation. acquisition of manuscripts from the curriculum centers After the tryout, the manuscript was reviewed in light (or occasionally from private publishers and individual of the new revisions. The complete manuscript was writers) and for their processing for publication. All copyedited, typed in final form, and sent back to the manuscript work, including conferences with authors, curriculum center for a last reading by the authors. The was the responsibility of editors. For each subject, there TBS required written notice from the center that the was at least one editor, usually a graduate-level edu- manuscript was ready for production and that all per- cation specialist with teaching and writing experience. missions for copyrighted material had been secured. The editors were assisted by copy editors (who per- The division was also responsible for seeing each book formed the more technical tasks such as copyreading, title through the entire production process-from marking copy for typesetting, and checking artwork and typesetting and proofreading through illustration, dum- photographs) and by editorial assistants (who re- mying, and assembly of camera-ready pages. Editors searched illustrations, read proof, and coordinated the checked and approved all materials sent to printers as movement of materials in and out of the division). In well as those sent by printers (blueprints, color proofs, 1981, the division was headed by an editor-in-chief and and the like). had a staff of eighteen in the editorial pool and the field- In a publisher's capacity, the editor was involved in testing section. Editors helped the curriculum center almost all publishing processes, from planning and authors with planning and writing, fieldwork, and scheduling through printing and teacher training. The manuscript revision, reviewed the content of and edited TBS recognized this key occupation by refining the job the manuscripts, and prepared final manuscripts for description, making editors' salaries higher than those production. of all other staff, giving the editorial division priority The Philippines: A Textbook Case 151 in hiring, and awarding the greatest number of staff- scope-and-sequencing within a subject remained pend- months of overseas fellowships under the project to ing issues. editors needing further training. Poorly Written Manuscripts Problems in Textbook Development Among the review criteria, editors paid special atten- tion to reading level. Measuring readability and con- In ten years of implementation, the project was con- trolling vocabulary were easier in the better-prepared fronted by many problems: textbooks were not matched manuscripts in English because the curriculum center to the curriculum, manuscripts were poorly written, for science and mathematics had had at least ten years' the tryout was unmanageable and its results useless, experience in research and publication. During the proj- manuscripts were late, and reliable manuscript sources ect, the center was also developing a standard, gradu- were lost. Measures taken to resolve these problems had ated science vocabulary for Philippine schools. For the mixed results. manuscripts in reading and language, the editors em- ployed the Frye and other readability formulas to de- Textbooks Not Matched to Curriculum termine levels of difficulty. There was no comparable instrument for gauging the Considering the MECS to be technically inadequate, reading level of the manuscripts written in Pilipino. the planners of the project assumed that curriculum The social studies curriculum center coined new phrases development and textbook writing would all be done at because it was the first time that Pilipino would be used the curriculum centers independently of the ministry's to teach that subject. The TBS had to rely on the cur- bureaucracy. Throughout the first phase {1976-81), riculum training and teaching experience of its more therefore, the project and the curriculum units of the senior editors to resolve questions of reading and lan- elementary and secondary education bureaus had little guage about which there were few precedents and little contact with one another. Just as the first project titles authoritative research. were being released in 1977, the elementary education There was disagreement between the TBS and the bureau issued a list of learning competencies requiring curriculum center for languages because nonstandard strict compliance by teachers. This made teachers re- spelling derived from the center's linguistic research luctant to use the new textbooks because they feared was used in the Pilipino manuscripts. (For example, the that the materials were not consistent with the com- word for "coconut," traditionally spelledmyoq, was ren- petency list. dered nyoq.) The TBS objected to the new spelling be- Further, in the rush to publish textbooks within tight cause it might confuse readers, especially in non- project deadlines, there was little coordination among Tagalog-speaking provinces. 4 The TBS also believed that curriculum centers-or, for that matter, among writ- textbooks should contain established, not experimental, ing groups within the same center working on the same knowledge. Consulted on the question, the national lan- subject but in different grades. The result was incon- guage institute advised that while the center's research sistent emphasis on important concepts and skills in was valid, the traditional spelling should be preferred several subjects and grades. because it was more commonly used. The Textbook Because they were developed without guidance by Board subsequently prescribed the traditional spelling the MECS curriculum authorities, the textbooks were in for textbooks, and the manuscripts were altered ac- fact not very well synchronized with the official curric- cordingly. ulum, although the project ensured that most curric- A very evident failing of most manuscripts developed ular objectives were covered by the new materials. It by the project was bad writing. The stories were dull, took three rounds of teacher training to convince the the situations forced and clumsily narrated. Illustrative field that the new materials met the minimum curric- examples given in the text often obscured rather than ular requirements, although not always in the sequence clarified the concept being taught. The teacher's guides prescribed by the bureaus. read like a cookbook, with numbered step-by-step pro- Effective and regular contact between TBS editors and cedures written in telegraphic prose or with a script the MECS curriculum researchers was established only prescribing in unnecessary detail the teacher's every toward the close of the project's first phase in 1981. At move in the classroom. that time, the first editions of 1977 and 1978 were being In salvage operations, editors rearranged and occa- reviewed for reprinting, and preparations were being sionally rewrote whole chapters to improve organiza- made for the elementary program, which included a tion. When there was time, they also looked for other new curriculum and a follow-on textbook project. Mean- stories with similar pedagogical objectives and content while, lateral linkages among subjects and coherent to replace the uninspired ones in the manuscript. They 152 Alfonso de Guzman II pruned the text to tighten it, enlivened the page with By 1979, a field-testing section composed of a special better-conceived illustrations, and included more "fun" educator and an educational researcher had been or- activities. The editors were concerned that the rigid ganized at the TBS. With the help of a consulting expert adherence to curricular prescriptions shackled the writ- in manuscript development, the tryout scheme was er's imagination; as a result, the textbook generally modified, with the TBS taking active management of the failed to stimulate the student into the joy of reading. process. The sample was reduced to a minimum of twelve Once, after scanning a manuscript, the executive di- more easily accessible schools, without sacrificing rep- rector (himself a science journalist and short-story writer) resentativeness of location or language. The tryout ob- remarked that the project textbook was as correct as jectives were redefined so that TBS editors could go to the telephone directory-and as interesting. The con- the tryout sites frequently and gather feedback directly servative authors were not amused, however. They re- from teachers who previously had preferred not to be garded the late-coming editorial suggestions as un- frank with their comments lest they offend the visiting known quantities that had not been field-tested or, at authors. Questionnaires were simplified, and the teach- best, as interesting but distracting and therefore un- ers were given an extra copy of the book and instructed necessary. to write their marginal notes immediately after teaching To improve the manuscripts, the TBS engaged as ed- a lesson and to mail the tried-out pages using the self- itorial consultants some known writers of children's addressed, stamped envelopes provided by the editors. literature. But even they could do very little, ranged These changes proved satisfactory in that lesson- and against the committees of curriculum center experts. page-specific reactions were quickly gathered, and the Thus misperceptions about the role of writing for text- tryout and revision processes proceeded thereafter on books persisted throughout the project period. When more predictable schedules. the follow-on project was being planned, the TBS in- cluded the curriculum center writers among the recip- Late Manuscripts ients of training fellowships on textbook writing under the project's technical assistance program. It was hoped In spite of a rationalized field-testing process, manu- that over the longer term, exposure to good writing and script revision still suffered serious delays. These were good writers would give the authors a more enlightened traced to complicated procedures at the curriculum perspective on their creative responsibilities. centers for consultants' review and managers' approval of the textbook manuscripts. Further, after sending the manuscripts to the TBS, authors were reluctant to agree Unmanageable Tryout with Useless Results to improvements suggested by editors, knowing that new alterations would mean another round of consul- The original high schools that the project plan had tation and approvals, delaying the manuscripts even identified to pilot test the newly written textbooks did more. not actually play an active role. The curriculum centers The consequences of the delays were costly for the (and later the TBS) made their own arrangements with project. The subsequent production stage could not be other schools for reasons of national representativeness, planned. The procurement of printing services by public accessibility, and availability of experienced tryout bidding had to be rescheduled or forced to proceed on teachers and cooperative administrators. As stated in the basis of the very tentative and often-changing spec- the World Bank's Project Completion Report (hereafter ifications of the unfinished textbook (number of final PCR), however: pages was most problematic). Printers who won bids Concentration on determining achievement gains of could not schedule their machine runs for lack of cam- children using the experimental textbooks resulted era-ready copy from the project. in complicated instrument development for pre-post Most serious, delivery to the preidentified teacher- testing and complex data analysis of achievement tests. training sites could not be assured. There had been Consequently, very little useful data [were] gathered times when the project had had to contract smaller on such formative aspects of the try-out as appro- quantities at higher cost and airfreight them to make priateness of reading level, adequacy of content for the training dates because the prime printer-contractor one full year, teachers' difficulties encountered in the manufactured book pages in bulk and could not have use of the books and their suggestions for improving complete copies. At other times, the project printed the material. With the 40 classrooms randomly se- training copies from unfinished, error-laden camera copy. lected, visits to try-out sites proved very difficult, and And sometimes teacher training proceeded with no books feedback data for the studies could not be gathered at all. and analyzed in time to help authors and editors with The solution to the problem of delayed manuscripts manuscript revision. lay in the reconceptualization of the three-year devel- The Philippines: A Textbook Case 153 opment cycle. It was found that the cycle, designed for and development not directly imputable to the cost (and calendar years, was out of phase with the school year, price) of the textbook would give way to contractual which began in June. The effective time available, there- deals strictly for manuscript writing services. And the fore, was only two years and five months: not enough !Me-preoccupied with finding meaningful participa- time for one full year of writing, another year for field- tion by the private sector-could well relegate the cur- testing, and a third year for everything else-revision, riculum centers to the residual functions of providing production, printing, distribution, and teacher training. technical consulting to managers or training writers of The review of the development cycle also revealed the publishing houses. that, just as all "downstream" activities-manufactur- ing, distribution, teacher training, impact evaluation- started in parallel (for example, preparation of bidding Production of Books documents for textbook printing started even as pro- duction of camera-ready pages at the TBS had barely In 1981 the production division was headed by a pro- begun), it was also necessary that some "upstream" duction chief (who was concurrently TBS deputy direc- writing, field-testing, revision, and production be un- tor) and had a staff of eight graphic designers, artists, dertaken as parallel activities. Plans were therefore and photocomposition operators. Originally, the divi- modified. Curriculum centers were persuaded to agree sion had a copy section where production editors re- early with the TBS about specifications (number of pages, ceived the approved manuscript from the editorial di- proportion of text to illustrative material, special graph- vision and took charge of all production-related editorial ics) and to submit parts of the manuscript at agreed tasks: copyreading, marking up for typesetting, proof- points during the full-year writing period. In so doing, reading, and checking of all final pages and artwork. editorial work would begin earlier and problems of con- The arrangement caused conflicts with editors for the tent and presentation be resolved as soon as they were various subjects and led to confusion about authority detected from the partial submissions. Similarly, manu- and responsibility for projects. To maximize the subject script revision would begin during (not after) tryout as editor's control over the manuscript and the book, the editors returned from field visits or as teachers in the copy section was transferred to the editorial division in field mailed back their comments. TBS production art- 1982. ists could also start their design studies from editors' The production division prepared the complete sample manuscript pages. Consequently, the TBS adopted schedule for textbook projects; established criteria for the operating policy of three full years of work on a determining the appropriate size of type, length of lines, textbook, with the availability of copies in school in book formats, color, illustration style and complexity June of the fourth year. of rendering, and other specifications of textbooks; de- signed all textbooks; and by assembling type and art, Loss of Reliable Manuscript Sources transformed the approved textbook manuscript into fi- nal book pages ready for printing. In 1982, the Education Ministry abolished its own social studies center. The ministry also dissociated the Graphic Standards textbook project from the two remaining centers (for science and mathematics, and for Pilipino and English) Graphic standards were set in consultation with MECS by ordering the TBS to halt the annual financial grants reading specialists and benefited from experience gained for curriculum research and manuscript development. during field-testing. Specialists at the manufacturing Although relations with some curriculum centers were division were also consulted, especially on standards of reestablished in 1984 and some new ones were identi- printing quality. fied, the two-year break wrought damage to network For typography, serif typefaces, such as the Century building. The carefully cultivated confidence of the co- Schoolbook and Times Roman used in many U.S. read- operating institutions in the central unit's ability to ers, were chosen over sans serif varieties. Serif faces sustain development work was difficult to regain. In were generally recommended in the literature on leg- practical terms, some curriculum centers that had dis- ibility. Type sizes were matched to the reading level of charged their textbook specialists after the shutdown children. Text for grades 1 and 2 (ages 7-8 years) was could not restart with raw recruits. Overall, institu- set in 18-point type (one-quarter inch high). Because tional experience and memory had gone. 5 students learning to read were taught to scan mean- With the TBS transferred into the cost-conscious cor- ingful units, text on a page was arranged in natural porate life as IMC, its relation with the curriculum cen- thought groupings. Words were never hyphenated, lines ters would likely emphasize more business and less de- did not exceed 30 picas in length (about 5 inches), and velopment The luxury of subsidized curriculum research paragraphs were always indented but not justified. 154 Alfonso de Guzman !I For grades 3 and 4 (ages 9-10), at which children days lost to organization of classes at the beginning of normally would be reading confidently, slightly smaller the year, to local holidays and bad weather, and to year- 14-point type was used. Because spelling and dictionary end familiarizing of children with their classroom and skills were introduced in those grades, the book design teacher for the coming school year. The editors then allowed for end-of-line word breaks and justified text prepared estimates of the material needed for the net blocks. For the intermediate grades, 5 and 6 (ages 11- number of days. Book designers translated the estimate 12), and for the first two years of high school (ages 13- into pages, considering type size, percentage of illus- 14), 12-point type was prescribed. For the final two years trative material, and format (the dimensions of the book). of high school (ages 15-16), adult-size 10-point type An ascending scale of page numbers was eventually was chosen, and in some books the type was arranged derived, with the lower grades having the least number in double columns like that in some college textbooks. of pages. The increasing quantity of matter by grade Criteria for the quality of illustrations and photo- was matched not only by an equivalent increase in the graphs were evolved over time, as book designers dis- number of pages but also by a decrease in type size, tilled editors' criticisms and feedback from field-testing making it possible to fit more text in fewer pages. In- and teacher training. On the whole, simple line draw- crements were set by signature (that is, groups of six- ings in cartoon or naturalistic style were found appro- teen pages) for economical use of paper and efficient priate for the lower grades; more complex compositions printing. and photographs were used from the middle grades The production division was conservative with regard onward. This art policy conformed with the findings to the use of color. Because of the relative inexperience reported in the literature on legibility. of its staff, the first project textbooks were designed The illustrations were unmistakably Filipino (the ex- with straightforward text and simple line illustrations ecutive director sent back to the drawing board any art in one color (black). After about a year's experience, the showing children's hair other than black), realistic but first high school science textbook was designed in two reflective of cultural sensibilities (mother was always colors. This became the tacit norm until full-color cov- respectable, the elderly were always respected), and ers were introduced around the end of the project's first whenever possible avoided stereotyping (for example, phase in 1981. girls also played physically strenuous sports). Responding to teachers' frequent suggestions that The appropriate mix of illustrative and text matter textbooks for lower grades should have more color to differed according to the needs of the subject area and sustain children's attention, the reprint editions of the the grade level of the textbook. No prior prescriptions grade 1 texts in 1983 were done in two colors. In the were adopted. Instead, workable criteria evolved during same year, four-color experimental workbooks for long planning discussions between editors and graphic mathematics and writing were pilot tested in a few designers as the former explained in detail the educa- schools. tional requirements of each textbook page and the latter Editors who observed tryout classes saw that children reviewed every title from the standpoints of aesthetics rushed through the exercises, took out their crayons, and printing limitations. and colored the page. Seeing the opportunity to rein- After years of experience, it became evident that text- force psychomotor skills, the tryout teachers suggested books for the lower grades needed more and bigger that some pages be left in black and white. The TBS illustrations than those for the upper grades. Science redesigned the workbook for two-color printing, giving and mathematics books required more illustrations than it the added use as a coloring book. those for other subjects, with more stringent specifi- cations and more detail than those for the "freer" sub- Work Flow jects of language arts. Photographs were effective and very necessary for textbooks in science and social stud- Production activities typically started with an edito- ies. A rule-of-thumb proportion of art to text was adopted rial request for production services. Together with the at the rss (a range of 60-40 percent for elementary request was a general description of the book to be grades 1 and 2 through 20-80 percent for third and produced, a copy of the manuscript (if the complete fourth years of high school) and was generally followed manuscript was not yet ready, representative pages throughout. showing all the required elements of the book were With operational notions of text, illustration, and their provided), and an art list specifying the essential details mix, the production division was able to help editors of each piece of illustration or photograph. set benchmarks for book length. The editors set 150 school days as the basis for textbook use in an academic Planning. A planning meeting was held by editors, year. This number was derived by subtracting from the graphic designers, and manufacturing specialists. The prescribed 200-day calendar an estimated number of content and preliminary specifications of the book were The Philippines: A Textbook Case 155 discussed, and a production schedule was drawn up. that no illustrators would be hired. Instead, the pro- The schedule was reviewed by the chiefs of the three duction division maintained a file on free-lance artists divisions and approved by higher managers. The first and photographers for piecework contracting on de- approximation of the number of pages as well as other mand. This enabled the division to avail itself of the manufacturing details (including the date of availability many styles the artists offered: thoroughly researched of the finished pages) was given to the manufacturing technical diagrams for science, precise isometric draw- division (which, as a parallel activity, would start the ings for mathematics, representational pen-and-ink cycle of bidding for printing). sketches with local flavor for social studies, and freely executed cartoons and watercolor or paper-sculpted Design. The graphic designer analyzed the require- compositions for literature and poetry. ments of the book on the basis of the information sup- Photographs specific to a topic being treated in the plied by the editorial planning meeting. He or she se- text were particularly difficult to find. Photographers lected the typeface and type size appropriate to the age contracted to do location shooting for that purpose fre- and reading level of the prospective textbook users and quently returned with near-miss pictures. For a science the special typographical features suggested by the ed- lesson on dams, for example, one imaginative photog- itor, the book format that would accommodate those rapher turned in an impressive shot of a huge hydro- needs, the illustration style, and the number of colors electric installation showing a massive dam with spill- warranted by the material. ways. The editor liked the dam but said the spillways Next, the graphic designer cast off the manuscript- were a distraction because the lesson was about dams, that is, estimated the number of printed pages. A com- not water movement. To solve the problem, an artist position order giving all typesetting specifications was was hired to redraw the dam without the waterways. then drawn up. Under the designer's direction, graphic Editorial and production assistants were sent out to artists executed the book design in sample pages, which museums and libraries, newspaper photograph morgues were from four to eight representative pages of the and advertising studios, and government, diplomatic, prospective book showing all its required elements- and international agencies to find photographs for the text and headings, style and quality of illustrations, spe- textbooks. At the office, correspondence on rights and cial features such as charts, chapter dividers, and ap- permissions mounted as foreign publishers were asked pendixes, and cover design studies. to release pictures for TBS use. With pictures accu- A production meeting was subsequently called to con- mulating, a photograph file was organized at the divi- sider the sample pages, discuss improvements, and re- sion. But cataloging was rarely kept up-to-date, and the fine the production schedule. During this meeting, the whereabouts of numerous prints and negatives were graphic designer explained the typesetting specifica- impossible to track because they were passed on to tions so that the editor could mark the manuscript for printers together with camera-ready pages. The file was typesetting. The agreed-upon design of the book and eventually turned over to the TBS library. schedule were submitted to higher managers for ap- proval. (In parallel, the manufacturing division issued Dummying. With one copy of the galley proofs and bid bulletins to prospective printing contractors.) photocopies of illustration sketches, the graphic de- signer prepared a complete dummy of the book follow- Typesetting and Illustration. Production proper then ing the design agreed upon during the earlier planning began. The marked manuscript went to the photocom- and production meetings. The dummy showed all text position unit for keyboarding on its computer-assisted and spaces for illustrative materials-and also empty typesetting machine. The output on resin-coated galleys spaces where text at present would not fit because of was photocopied in three sets: one for the editor for intervening headings or illustrations, pages where text proofreading and two for the graphic artist for dummy- needed to be cut to save space {as when the last four ing. At about the same time, the free-lance artists and lines of a chapter wastefully occupied one full page), photographers were called in and briefed on the illus- and other pages where the editor's requested matchup tration and picture requirements of the book, and on of text and art simply was not possible. Working meet- the due dates for the contracted art services. The artists ings between the graphic designer and the editor were usually were required to prepare and show pencil sketches called to resolve all the problems seen in the dummy. before executing final illustrations. They sometimes were The dummy served two important purposes. First, it also asked to do final inking or corrective adjustments indicated whether or not the original production sched- and retouching at the TBS under the supervision of the ule could be kept, considering the amount of corrective graphic artist concerned. work now evident; this was especially important to the The varying art requirements for the many textbooks manufacturing division, which needed a firm date for being developed made the TBS adopt the operating policy completion of reproduction proofs to set up schedules 156 Alfonso de Guzman II with printers. Second, it "closed the book"- that is, No other services (or their attendant equipment) were the final number of pages could be determined from considered necessary in-house. With a detailed com- the dummy. position order, typesetting could be bought; a complete The dummy was corrected or revised and submitted art list was all that free-lancers needed to supply the to the chiefs of the editorial and production divisions appropriate illustrations and photographs; and a com- for approval. Subsequently, the editor-in-chief con- plete dummy would guide a piecework artist in making firmed to the manufacturing chief all specifications and the mechanicals. the date reproduction proofs would be available. There- Trained TBS artists became the country's first tech- after, no alteration in the number of pages was allowed. nically oriented book designers. Some eventually moved to the private sector and influenced book design there. Mechanicals. Then came the final production stage: Others stayed on and trained the newly hired, increasing preparation of mechanicals. The original typeset galleys, the local pool of new Philippine graphic artists. With now with proofreading corrections inserted, were as- trained designers, specifications and estimates of book sembled into two-page spreads with each text block length (the information needed to begin the long pro- precisely in place and with spaces for the illustrations cess of public bidding for textbook manufacturing) were filled with copies to show their final positioning. The made available early. It was not necessary to wait until original illustrations, usually drawn proportionately larger the repros were ready to know how many pages a text- than the needed sizes, were now marked for photo- book would be in print. graphic reduction and keyed to the pages. Together with The model for the production process-which es- the mechanical of the book cover and the box graphics, sentially followed what was done in the United States- the mechanicals of the text pages and the artwork con- was clean and simple, but not all its elements worked stituted the materials from which reproduction proofs well in Manila. For example, the detailed specifications (repros) and then printing plates would be made by the for typesetting, written on a separate newly designed graphic-arts camera. composition order, were unintelligible to Filipino type- The repros were reviewed by the editor, designer, and setters unfamiliar with the latest U.S. typographic jar- a manufacturing quality-control specialist. The editor- gon. TBS designers had to accompany the manuscript in-chief reviewed and approved them for content, the each time a new typesetting firm was hired in order to production chief for design, and the manufacturing chief conduct a seminar on interpreting the specifications. for printability. They then were released to the printer Later, some designers reverted to the Filipino practice upon clearance from the deputy director. of writing the type instructions in the margin of the For a straightforward teachers' manual, the entire manuscript. production process took about three months. But for a Furthermore, the typesetters on contract were not complex high school physics or trigonometry textbook very efficient. Project titles lay pending for weeks on with a two-color text, full-color cover, many photo- end because the typesetters followed no schedules or graphs, diagrams, and mathematical formulas, produc- would find no time to insert what to them were trou- tion from planning meeting to repros took nine months. blesome one-line corrections needed by the TBS. To solve this problem, the TBS reverted to its earlier plan Problems of purchasing a small photocomposition system. When this was finally installed in 1980, typesetting outputs- The TBS had international technical assistance almost and quality-became more predictable. from the outset of the textbook project in 1977. Among Purchasing art proved difficult as well. Government the foreign consultants contracted to help set up the auditing rules required canvass bidding for the service, new organization were a publishing manager, 1:\vo text- a rigid, quantitative measure hardly applicable to talent. book editors, a paper buyer, and a graphic designer. Artists, for their part, were bewildered by the procedure The designer, assigned to the production division, de- and by the documentation they had to submit so that veloped many of the forms and procedures for working they could be paid. Worse, when artistic temperament with editors, book designing, typesetting, doing illus- and a glacial sense of time resulted in long delays, the trations and photography, dummying, and making me- artists' payment claims were questioned by the auditor, chanicals. The production staff were trained to become citing technical violations. book designers: to conceptualize the visual plan of the No satisfactory solution was found for buying art. book, determine all specifications, estimate with con- The TBS continued to contract by canvass bidding be- fidence the book's physical dimensions so that bids for cause it needed a variety of styles for its many books manufacturing might proceed, and prepare the book and because there was no other legal way of securing dummy. the service. But it suffered from the delays. The problem The Philippines: A Textbook Case 157 was reduced somewhat by inviting the illustrators on own office and warehouse complex in 1983, a small contract to do their work at the TBS offices. In this printing section was organized and attached to the di- manner, some control over their schedule was possible. vision.6 At the outset of the project, the first task of the The operating policy of not maintaining a staff of division was to establish all the physical criteria for artists was reviewed. It was decided that although hiring paper, printing, binding, and packaging. Execution of artists as regular staff could not ensure that all art this task was guided by Textbook Board policies and requirements in all the styles would be satisfied, at least World Bank loan conditions. the TBS would have more control over finishing a book The board set a legal minimum life of six years for on time. In 1982, the TBS started hiring illustrators in textbooks. This was considered a reasonable period for addition to graphic designers. standard knowledge to be in use before it was rendered Conflicts also arose when editors felt that the graphic obsolete by new information or new curricular require- designers' formalistic page layouts missed a book's ed- ments. It also assured parents who bought books (mostly ucational content and objective. For example, it is sound for use in private schools) that the books could be used design to anchor pictures to the corners of the page or by several of their children. With regard to the textbook juxtapose them on a page facing the text; conversely, project, the board ruled that the books would be school to present a lesson clearly the picture should be placed property, loaned free to students, used in the classroom, right below its text reference. The production division and returned at the end of the academic year so that found the solution to be somewhere in between. The they could be issued to the next batch of students. The editors were taught the principles of layout and the textbook project adhered to those policies. The first techniques of dummying. Following a design prepared textbooks were planned for a useful life of at least three by a graphic designer. editors dummied their own books years, with the possibility of one reprinting to extend to ensure that the educational concerns were met and their life for another three years before revised or totally then passed the dummy on to the designer for graphic new editions replaced them. improvements. In summary, efficiency in the produc- World Bank loan conditions provided that paper be tion division was achieved not by the wholesale adoption bought through international competitive bidding and of a system but by local adaptations of production con- printing through local procurement, with foreign bid- cepts. ders allowed to participate. These conditions reflected Like the writing, field-testing, and editing that pre- the Bank's appraisal of the country's inability to produce ceded it, the process of production depended heavily on book paper at reasonable cost and the local printing human initiative and judgment. But beyond the intel- industry's competence and capacity to manufacture books. lectual work, production had the burden of providing careful, personal craftsmanship which could not be rushed Paper Specifications or shortened by mechanizing or merely adding more working hands; for the process required the concen- Determining the qualities and grade of paper best tration of an operator methodically executing a complex suited to the purposes of the textbook project involved string of keyboard commands to set algebraic formulas highly technical analyses. With the assistance of an in- in type, the delicate touch of a pen-and-ink illustrator ternational expert, a set of specifications was identified crosshatching shadows on the rendering of an exquisite that took account of the following: native basket, and the cutting knife of a graphic artist positioning with cross-hair registers a block of text pre- • The paper had to have sufficient tensile strength cisely on a page. At the end of those labors was only for roll-fed web offset printing. This high-speed one product: repros of the book, invested with whatever volume printing process was appropriate because artistic imagination and taste it had been possible to of the enormous quantities of books to be printed capture under the pressure of time. over a short time. • The paper's basis weight and bulk, folding endur- ance, and tear resistance had to be such that book Manufacturing of Books pages would have body enough for convenient turning by children's clumsy hands. Further, the All responsibilities for procuring paper, printing, and paper had to be able to withstand normal use by binding were carried out by the manufacturing division. six children because it would be shared by two Headed by a chief, the division in 1981 consisted of a pupils per year for at least three years. staff of thirteen organized in two sections: procurement • The paper had to be opaque enough so that chil- and quality control (which operated a fully equipped dren just learning to read would not be distracted paper-testing laboratory). When the TBS moved into its by images showing through from the other side of 158 Alfonso de Guzman II the piece of paper. At the same time, the paper had and financial condition. A manufacturing team in-. to be bright enough to provide the sharpest po~­ spected printing establishments in the Philippines, pr~­ sible contrast to the inked image on the page. Th1s qualifying sixty-four of them. Philippine consular offi- was important because the new books were likely cials were asked to inspect overseas applicants, of whom to be read in unlit classrooms in a rainy, rural thirty-five were prequalified. country. The prospective printers were categorized according to their ability to print in bulk over a fixed period. The Other considerations included such technical details highest category included printers with high-speed, roll- as the paper's acid content (set at a level that would fed web offset presses and mechanized binderies capable minimize its yellowing during the long exposure of the of producing 1 million books in four months (the period books to sunlight in provincial warehouses), porosity, alotted in the project's network diagram). In the lowest and so on. In the final analysis, the optimal combination category were printers with sheet-fed presses and slower of three principal specifications seemed to be a basis binderies capable of producing only 50,000 books over weight of 66 gsm (grams per square meter), opacity of the same period. Under the project's bidding rules, any 90 percent, and brightness ranging from 72 to 76 per- prequalified printer, regardless of category, could join cent. That described a paper grade of the groundwood the bidding, as long as the offer did not exceed that variety with some long-fiber chemical pulp. The project printer's rated capacity. As a safety margin, ratings for called the paper EDPITAF TEXT. printing under the project were set at 50 percent of The books were to be soft-covered because cloth or actual plant capacity. hard bindings would unnecessarily outlast the pre- The survey showed that the better-equipped printers scribed useful and legal life of the book, would cost at in the country operated commercial-size web offset least ten times more, and would take too long to pro- presses which turned out printed sheets of 23 by 36 duce on the aging case binderies operating in the coun- inches. With that, books could be made in a large format try. Cover-stock specifications were analyzed with em- of 8 by 11 inches or a small format of 5 by 8 inches. phasis on folding endurance and surface treatment. The Because the same presses could also turn out a medium- former was a measure of sturdiness, especially needed size sheet of 21 by 30 inches, a medium-size format of for the spine, where paperbacks were weakest; the latter 7 by 10 inches was also adopted. Beginning in 1982, would resist moisture, thus protecting the book and the TBS adopted the medium-size format as the standard enhancing color printing. The desired cover specifica- for all project textbooks and teachers' guides and the tions were for a solid board of 240 gsm, bleached white large format for teachers' editions. This standardizati~n and coated on one side. The specifications for paper and was needed because of the increasing price of paper m cover stock were submitted to the bureau of standards the world market and the desire to increase efficiency of the Trade and Industry Ministry, which subsequently in the handling of paper and books at the central ware- included them among the standards of the Philippine house. printing and publishing industry. A review of the books produced thus far revealed that With those standards in hand, a TBS manufacturing most book designs did not require the large format team went to the paper mills of the world, prequalifying and could be accommodated within the medium-size sixteen of them that produced the grade on a regular one without sacrificing size of illustrations or type. Fur- basis. The idea was to ensure that the stock was a stan- ther, the medium-size book required paper rolls only dard production run in several mills in various regions. 29 inches wide, which were far more economical than In that way, the project would be confident of supply the 34-inch rolls needed for the large book. A uniform and not entrapped into accepting artificially increased book size could also make for uniform roll sizes and prices when, occasionally, there were production short- book cartons, facilitating stacking and movements at ages of that paper grade or shipping problems in one the warehouse. or another part of the globe. Monitors sent to the field to investigate the physical conditions of textbooks came back with samples of the Printing Standards large-format books which were unusually dog-eared and often had broken spines. They saw that schoolchildren To survey the printing capacity of the industry, pre- forced the large book into their tiny school bags. They qualification documents were developed and circulated also observed that the big book was handled badly in in the country and overseas, the latter through consular crowded classrooms. Small children folded it over as offices in Manila. The prequalification forms inquired though handling a magazine, and even then readin.g into the history of printing establishments, their most across a page eight inches wide made them lose their recent volume contracts, equipment, credit standing, place at the turnover line. The Philippines: A Textbook Case 159 Binding and Packaging manufacturing division scheduled the current year's procurement. Books of similar specifications were Before binding, overprint varnishing of the cover was grouped as items in a single package. Bidders were asked required as a protection against rubbing and scratching. to prepare offers on individual items. Three very common paperback binding techniques were accepted: for slim volumes, saddle stitching (the wire Preparation of Bidding Documents. The preparation staples "riding" along the fold, as in news magazines); of bidding documents, which was scheduled to take for volumes thick enough to have a spine, either side thirty days, included compiling a fifty-page booklet con- · wire stitching or perfect binding (gluing the cover onto taining the rules of bidding and specific instructions to the spine that has been serrated for better adhesion). bidders; the required standards for printing, binding, . The staple wire had to be rust-resistant, the binding and packaging as well as the attendant materials for glue insect-repellent. these; the bidding forms, detailing for each book the The specifications provided for the wrapping and seal- total and unit costs of paper, printing, delivery to the ing of sets of ten books in plastic bags (clear polyeth- TBS central warehouse, and insurance; annexes on mon- ylene 3 mills thick) to protect the books in transit over itoring forms each contractor should keep and update water in monsoon weather and for packaging in unused, for TBS inspection; lists of project-accredited bonding corrugated boxes (fluted, bursting strength: 250 pounds firms; and the legal bases and penalties for infraction per square inch). No more than sixty copies were al- of bidding and contract terms. The documents were lowed per box. It was intended that the box reach at submitted to the Textbook Board for approval. In ac- least the town's central school intact (that is, unopened cordance with loan conditions, copies were sent to the at intermediate points of delivery-regional, divisional, World Bank for review. Upon board approval, an invi- and district offices-which rarely were staffed or equipped tation to bid was published in newspapers of local and to repack for individual schools). TBS field monitors international circulation and sent to embassies and con- observed that at the level of the school, teachers (pre- sular offices of foreign governments in Manila. Pre- dominantly female) and upper graders (frequently un- qualified printers secured copies of the document at a dernourished) had to carry the boxes. The box had nominal fee. therefore to be neither too large nor too heavy (maxi- mum weight: 30 kilograms). Further, teachers needed the box to store materials, especially in the almost bare Tender Period. The forty-five-day tender period or classrooms of the barrio. waiting time prescribed by World Bank procurement guidelines for international competitive bidding allowed sufficient opportunity for local and foreign firms to pre- Work Flow pare their estimates. A week or two before the bidding date, a prebidding conference was called at the TBS of- Philippine procurement laws set the limits to con- fices to clarify ambiguities in the bidding documents tracts which might be awarded on the basis of limited and to issue bid bulletins for any changes in specifi- canvass bidding and to those which required prior pub- cations or bidding dates. On the day of the bidding, a lic bidding among prequalified contractors. Small edi- committee composed of MECS officials and consultants tions- usually teacher material of a few thousand called for the bids, read every item aloud, and checked copies-were contracted for through the simpler can- that each offer complied with the requirements of the vassing mode. Three to five prospective printers were bidding documents, especially the bid proposal bond. asked to quote prices on a given set of specifications, This bid bond was usually about 10 percent of the of- and the most advantageous offer was accepted. A pur- fer-consisting of the cost of paper, printing, delivery, chase order was issued to the contractor, who billed for and insurance. the entire amount upon complete delivery of the printed Although the TBS was not represented on the bidding books. committee, it was able to provide technical and clerical Large editions required a long and complicated pro- support: communication with prospective bidders, ar- cess of public bidding, involving many steps and legal- rangements at the TBS where biddings were held, pre- isms. For an edition of 250,000 copies, the contracting liminary evaluation of offers, and custodianship of bid- cycle (from preparation of bidding documents to deliv- ding records. Later, the TBS executive director became ery of the last copy to the TBS central warehouse) would a member of the bidding committee, but MECS created ordinarily take ten months to complete. On the basis its own technical support capability. It was believed that of the blue schedule and the annual aii-TBS work plan the confidentiality of the bids was better assured with prepared at the end of the previous calendar year, the MECS performing all technical tasks after the bidding 160 Alfonso de Guzman II rather than the TBS, which dealt daily with successful ing, printing, binding, and packaging-all of which bidders. were scheduled to be completed in 120 days. The in- spectors brought back to the TBS proofs for approval by Bid Evaluation. The preliminary tabulation and as- the textbook editor (blueprints of the text and color sessment of offers was submitted to the bidding com- proofs of the cover), approved press out-turns (the first mittee for its own, official evaluation, which was sched- production-quality sheet turned out by the printing press uled to take fifteen days. The most advantageous offer after it was made ready and before full-speed printing was recommended to the Textbook Board. Upon the began), bindery dummies, and the mock-up of the fully latter's acceptance, the recommendation to award was loaded textbook carton. They also advised the central made to the education minister with the notice of award warehouse of incoming deliveries of finished books. Dis- attached for his signature. Simultaneously, the World tribution staff at the warehouse inspected samples of Bank was informed by telex (a full documentary report all deliveries and accepted or rejected them accordingly. was sent by mail). After the minister's approval and Printers' delays in withdrawing paper from the TBS Bank clearance, the notice of award was sent to the warehouse were penalized ($0.50 per metric ton on winning bidder. The notice also invited the prospective undrawn paper per day in warehousing charges plus 0.1 contractor to come to the TBS for negotiations and to percent of the cost of undrawn paper per day in liqui- secure the necessary performance bond and insurance dated damages). The penalty for exceeding the contract for the government-owned paper that would be used. completion time for delivering finished books was 0.1 The performance bond was for twice the amount of the percent of the cost of undelivered quantities per day. bid proposal bond. The insurance for paper was for 110 Another printer could be asked to complete the unde- percent of the value of the paper. livered balance and the cost charged to the contractor. Extension of contract time was allowed for legitimate Contracts. The terms of the contract, rarely price, reasons. formed the substance of negotiations- for which thirty After deliveries were completed and all the inspec- days were allowed-between the TBS and the prospec- tions made, the printer presented its final bill and clear- tive contractor. Schedules for the issue of paper to the ances (certifications of salaries paid to employees, taxes printer, manufacturing, delivery, and progress billing paid to the government, and the absence of any legal were set. Proportionate partial payments would be made liabilities). The TBS made the final payment and required to the printer as finished books were delivered, in- the printer to post a guarantee bond (20 percent of the spected, and accepted at the central warehouse. The contract price) before releasing the retention payments first billing, however, was not to be less than 45 percent and the performance bond. The guarantee bond ensured of corresponding deliveries. About 10-12 percent was that the printer replaced whatever defective copies might withheld from every payment, the retention payable be discovered during a one-year period after printing. upon completion of the contract. No escalation of price or advance payments were allowed under government Paper Problems auditing laws. Subcontracting to other printers was al- lowed only with prior approval. The negotiations com- Procurement. The first several bidding packages for pleted, the TBS prepared the contract and secured legal the printing of textbooks were of the integrated type- opinion from its lawyer. The contract was signed by the that is, the participating printers offered prices for both printer and the Textbook Board. paper and printing. On the basis of specifications set by The contract was then submitted to the education the TBS, printers bought their own paper from the in- minister for approval, for which sixty days was allowed. ternational market. The printers, however, complained Contracts worth more than 2 million pesos ($100,000) that they did not have enough money to finance the required the approval of the president of the Philippines. purchase of paper because of the high duties that would Simultaneously, the contract was sent to the World be levied on the importation. Therefore the project helped Bank. When all approvals had been secured, the TBS the printers by ordering paper for them, invoking the released a copy of the contract to the printer, requiring tax-exemption privilege of the education task force on submission of the performance bond and insurance for purchases of materials and equipment for use in edu- the paper. \Vhen these were done, the TBS issued the cation projects. By buying paper tax free, the savings notice to proceed, releasing the repros of the book and could be passed on to printers of project textbooks and paper for its printing. ultimately to the project itself. Under that arrangement, the project paid for the paper (using the direct-payment Completion. Quality control inspectors periodically facility of the World Bank loan) and secured the needed visited the contractor's printing plant to monitor the certificates of tax exemption from the Finance Ministry progress of the film assembly, blueprinting, platemak- for the printers. In turn, the printers took care of all The Philippines: A Textbook Case 161 customs formalities, brokerage, and delivery to their warehousing, and releases to printing companies ... own plants. The cost of the paper was deducted from This involved buying paper in enough quantities for their bills. one full year's production and replenishing the stock There were three serious problems with the arrange- periodically. The procedure was considered advan- ment for procuring paper. First, government auditors tageous because it would make paper available as interpreted the paper to be government property be- soon as a printing award was made (saving on time cause the project paid for it and the paper entered the lost waiting for paper to arrive) and would protect country tax-free. As such, the auditors construed the the project from unpredictable price changes in the purchase as a form of advance payment to the printer, international market. (PCR) which was not allowed under auditing laws. Further, they warned that the purchase put the government at Management. Paper imported into the country in risk because the paper (at the time estimated to be 45 large quantities forced the TBS into costly warehousing percent of the value of any printing contract) was worth and insurance, wasteful handling, and increased risk of more than the printers' performance bond, which was loss by fire, flood, pilferage, and termite infestation: set at only 20 percent of the value of integrated contracts The TBS was totally unprepared in staff, equipment, (which covered both printing and paper). experience, and expertise for the complex manage- Second, the arrangement implied that orders for pa- ment of thousands of tons of paper shipped in from per could not be placed until the winners of a bidding foreign ports ... Further, delays in editorial and art were known. But then the intervening eight weeks for activities and also in processing printing contracts contract approval were not enough time for testing the ... resulted in the project's having to house up to samples submitted by the printers' paper merchants and 10,000 metric tons of paper in two rented ware- for opening international letters of credit in favor of the houses, one of which had a floor area of 5,000 square papermakers. The foreign mills needed time to manu- meters. Printers often complained of delays in paper facture the paper and more time to ship the paper, releases, damaged and unusable paper, ... shortages, frequently from halfway around the world. or issuance of wrong stocks. The question of account- Shipping was delayed by longshoremen's strikes in ability frequently arose, as printers used more stock Europe and by a government policy requiring all official than estimated, claiming spoilage ... The usable stock cargo to be handled only by Philippine-flag carriers. returned was sorted out for conversion (from rolls to These were frequently unavailable when needed at ports sheets), but even this required close supervision by of origin or were noncontainer vessels. At least one TBS staff, who had little or no training in paper han- shipment was carried break-bulk (that is, uncontainer- dling and whose assignments were warehouse-keep- ized), and the paper rolls, which arrived badly damaged, ers and printing inspectors. (PeR) were unloaded on an open pier in Manila during a trop- ical storm. The results were loss of paper, printing de- (Under the new arrangement, printers had to make lays, and a mound of legal controversy over insurance their bid estimates on the basis of paper supplied by claims. the TBS. This change in procurement policy- from the Third, the arrangement left the TBS with virtually no integrated paper-and-printing contract to bulk pur- control over the paper it had paid for. Printers had great chasing of paper and local bidding for printing ser- difficulty determining which of the sealed containers vices-had a profound effect on the kind of printing had their paper. The confusion led on occasion to short service available to the project. See the paragraphs be- shipments to some printers and overshipments to others. low on printers.) Because the government wa-; named in the shipping Significant quantities of paper were in fact damaged documents as consignee, there was controversy as to by termites and flooding at the rented warehouses. But who should pay customs' warehousing charges or pen- the most serious loss was through theft; it was discov- alties levied by freight companies for delays in stripping ered in early 1982 and involved several employees (among the containers of paper cargo. others). It was not until late 1982 when the TBS central In 1979, the TBS scrapped the arrangement: warehouse became operational that reliable control over the physical inventory was assured. The procurement procedure was modified ... when The supply of paper continues to be a problem. Local the project separated paper purchase by international papermakers say that if they were exonerated from the competitive bidding from the purchase of printing prohibitive tax on imported pulp, they could supply the services ... Under the new procedure, the project quality and quantity needed at internationally compet- purchased paper from prequalified mills through lo- itive prices. The proposition offers some hope but re- cal merchants and assumed full responsibility over quires sustained persuasion at political levels much higher ordering, insurance, freight, brokerage and handling, than the TBS. 162 Alfonso de Guzman II Security. TBS managers were never comfortable with set aside as unusable because of water damage, termite the thought that a careful enough printer could con- infestation, or crushed cores were sent out for sheeting sume less paper than it bid for and use the leftovers for and used to print textbooks to satisfy the field require- other, nonproject printing jobs. This possibility of tech- ments until the new stocks arrived. nical smuggling-in this case, the use or sale of un- taxed government paper for private, commercial gain- Printing Problems prompted the search for better security features in the paper itself. Several alternatives were considered. Foreign Printers. With paper stock available in Ma- Watermarking was not feasible because this familiar nila, printing was provided almost totally by local firms. security technique was apparently applicable only to This was foreseen in the preproject appraisal, which higher-grade papers of limited roll widths and produc- noted the existence of a viable local industry with enough tion quantities. Rubbermarking, a variant which in- capacity for book work. Further, the project was ex- volved impressing an image on the paper with a rubber- pected to promote the development of the industry in stamp-like image carrier, seemed technically possible that the experience and profits derived from printing but impractical. Still another variant, paper lining for the project would enable Filipino printers to upgrade (embedding lines by water jets onto paper) offered near- their plants and procedures to international levels so invisible marks on the paper, making the security fea- that they could compete for foreign contracts. ture very hard to detect by both illegal user and lawful Local printers enjoyed many advantages. The text- owner as well. books were formatted to be suitable for machines in Chemically reactive papers (in effect, like litmus) were most common use in the country. The prescribed mode also rejected because detection depended not on plain of procurement was local bidding, with a mere conces- sight but on the use of liquid reagents. Various surface sion that foreign firms would be allowed to participate. treatments (such as texturizing with color fibers, as is Paper already in Manila freed local printers from the done for paper money) were similarly rejected because financial burden of buying the stocks and then having papers so treated interfered with printability and legi- them shipped in; they had only to transport the paper bility. Of all the alternatives, color tinting offered the from TBS warehouses to their own plants. And the flag best, visually verifiable security feature for EDPITAFTEXT. law, recognized by the World Bank, granted local man- Paper tinted a unique shade of light yellow contrasted ufacturers a 15 percent preferential margin over foreign sharply with images printed in black and was easily competitors. A Filipino offer of $1.15, for example, would distinguishable from commercial printing papers avail- be evaluated as equal to a foreign offer of $1.00. Finally, able in the market. The new choice was called light delivery costs of local printers were obviously lower than buff. 7 those of foreign printers. Not surprisingly, more than For the next procurement, the TBS called for the light 90 percent of the volume of printing was won by the buff stock. To broaden participation among prospective local industry. sellers, however, two other papers were listed as ac- Nevertheless, foreign printers, mostly from nearby ceptable: white with rubbermarking and light buff with countries, continued to participate in the project, oc- rubbermarking. The new bids also called for a bulk order casionally winning a contract. A significant factor for to be shipped to Manila in small quantities on demand. any small success they enjoyed was the TBS's approval This assured that the TBS would not have to store so of the foreign printers' supplying their own paper, much paper, thereby minimizing warehouse congestion equivalent in quality and cost to the specified EDPITAF and its accompanying risks. TEXT. To the foreign printer, the concession meant a Paper merchants found these two requirements hard reduction in freight cost. To the TBS, it resulted in paper to meet. Two biddings were voided because not enough overstocking because the quantity of paper previously offers were received or not one of several offers complied bought and allotted for a particular book would not be with either the kind of paper called for or the staggered withdrawn by the winning foreign bidder. delivery scheme. In the end, the TBS had to enter into On the one hand, allowing foreign printers to acquire negotiations with the lone complying bidder, a lengthy their own paper kept them in the running, if only min- process that involved securing both the education min- imally. They provided a challenge to the local industry, ister's and the World Bank's prior approval. whose members vowed to "keep printing here in the The long wait resulted in the depletion of paper stock Philippines" and proceeded to outprice the out-of-town- for printing. For the textbooks needed for the school ers, depressing overall cost to the TBS. The foreigners year starting June 1985, the TBS had to use all the also provided the extra capacity that kept production residual stocks, sacrificing quality and economy as odd up-to-date when ali local printers were occupied and paper lots (different grades and roll widths) were com- could not be awarded any more contracts. Better equipped bined and released to printers. Paper rolls previously and more sophisticated in international business, the The Philippines: A Textbook Case 163 foreign printers were model contractors who complied mittee on bids and awards) worked well for the textbook with all requirements (bonds, samples, schedules) to project throughout its first phase. But a year into the the letter. To TBS managers, working with the foreigners second phase in 1983, the new MECS leaders changed was a relief from the imponderable problems posed by the composition and procedures of the committee. Un- the local industry. On the other hand, the near-shutout familiar with the time constraints of externally assisted of foreign printers cost the project dearly. Although the projects, the new committee and approving authorities predominantly local contracting made for good politics at the MECS could not process contracts according to in the Philippines, on one occasion it resulted in a preset project schedules. Two years later, the committee violation of World Bank procurement guidelines. Un- was changed again, further burdening a procurement willingness on the part of higher authorities to approve system already laden with backlogs and indecision. an award to a foreign bidder was protested to the World Delays in completing the camera copy were partly Bank, which subsequently made a misprocurement rul- due to the inexperience of project staff newly trained ing.8 as authors, editors, and book designers in an integrated educational publishing operation. Confidence about re- Limited Participation. The intense competition pro- pro completion dates was crucial to manufacturing be- voked by public bidding among local printers, who were cause a host of downstream entanglements resulted from also bent on outbidding foreigners, forced severe cuts missed repro dates. When bidding was postponed, bid- in estimated costs, leaving very narrow margins for ders' bonds lapsed, and renewal meant added cost to profit (and error). Furthermore, government contract- printers. When repros were not given on time, printers ing was very one-sided: downpayments were not al- demanded extensions of contract completion time (with lowed, many bonds were required (proposal, perfor- corresponding extensions in performance-bond cover- mance, insurance for paper, guarantee), and payments, age at additional premiums) or outright renegotiation with 10 percent retentions, required much documen- of the contract price. These difficulties resulted in fur- tation and lengthy processing. 9 Payments were fre- ther delays because of the prior approvals for negotia- quently delayed as a result of tedious inspections by tions required. Even approvals of blueprint proofs and independent government auditors and lack of funds from press out-turn sheets were delayed as printers were per- the Budget Ministry. These financial constraints made suaded to accommodate latecoming and costly correc- participation in the project a risky proposition for many tions. "subsistence" printers whose liquidity was low and who Efficient contract implementation was hampered by could not sustain operations for long without substan- the industry's failure to adhere to quality standards: tial cash inflows. Plant quality control, which in developed countries The quantities involved also effectively limited the is a built-in feature of printing establishments, was number of possible participants. With typical print runs virtually exercised by TBS. It assigned inspectors to of almost 200,000 copies, many printers were called but plants where project contracts were ongoing for su- only those few who operated web offset presses were pervising the contracted work on the production floor. eventually chosen. Questions of actual available capacity During times that the inspector was at another plant, were raised as the same half-dozen printers vied almost some printers waited until the inspectors returned fortnightly for contracts, and evaluation could not keep to approve a print run or, worse, went ahead with pace with bidding. Pending awards stacked up as the unacceptable work. The latter accounted for spoilages TBS deferred signing new contracts with winning print- of paper and prompted printers to demand more pa- ers already behind in delivery schedules on current con- per than was originally provided for in their con- tracts. The hoped-for trickle-down effect-of big print- tracts. Although the project had sought to solve this ers with large orders leaving their other, small jobs for problem as early as 1978 by sponsoring a training little printers-did not materialize. And with multiple seminar on printing quality, ... the effects of the jobs ongoing under one printer's roof, quality control training were short-lived, as printers earlier pre- and monitoring of paper consumption became very dif- qualified left the project and new printers joined, and ficult. the project had since been unable to organize follow- up training. (PeR) Delays. Inefficiencies in contract processing, repro preparation, and contract execution were chiefly re- The rigidity of the procurement scheme was most sponsible for the inability of the TBS to keep to book evident during the monsoon season of 1984, when sev- manufacturing schedules. As with paper procurement, eral typhoons hit the country, destroying schools and contracting for printing services was inordinately de- textbooks. After assessing the quantities needed to re- layed. The procurement system (operated by the edu- place the lost books, the TBS availed itself of emergency cation task force, which had its own independent com- purchases (by canvass bidding) to reprint textbooks and 164 Alfonso de Guzman ll to buy the project's commercial editions from reprint- those lost or worn out during the first three years of ers. The well-intentioned measures bogged down for the useful life of the book. This additional quantity, lack of timely funds from the central government's budget called the reserve stock, was added to the basic field office. Distribution finally proceeded along with the reg- requirement. The grand total was rounded to the near- ular production and reached the affected areas many est thousand and adopted as the official manufacturing months later. target. From 1976 to 1981, the formula of half the To the end of the project's second phase, the right enrollment plus 34 percent reserve stock was used. Field manufacturing solutions eluded TBS managers. Did pub- studies conducted in preparation for the second phase lic bidding depress prices so much that printers were showed the number to be excessive. Beginning in..1982, forced into error and contract violation? Did local print- a more conservative reserve stock of 15 percent was ers deliberately "take a dive" with manufacturing prices adopted. to get for their own use a little more of that precious On the basis of the blue schedule and the bidding and tax-free commodity, paper? schedule of the manufacturing division, annual plans were detailed for every textbook title to be made avail- able during the year. All quantities were summarized Distribution of Textbooks by intermediate destination (regional or divisional ware- house) and rounded to the nearest box; further sum- The TBS distribution division was headed by a chief maries were made by ultimate destination (individual with a staff of thirty-eight organized in the three sec- schools) and expressed in number of copies. Two master tions: statistics, warehouse and traffic, and field coor- lists were prepared. One was for the basic field require- dination. The division was responsible for ensuring the ment, which had dispatch priority. The other was for timely delivery of textbooks to the entire public school the reserve stock to be kept at the local warehouses, system and maintaining an acceptable level of textbook which was delivered later. supply year-round. Warehousing and Traffic. Distribution was designed Work Flow as a two-stage activity. The first stage consisted of re- ceiving printers' deliveries in a central TBS warehouse To accomplish those objectives, the division created in Manila and freight forwarding them via commercial a reliable data bank of school enrollments and locations, carriers to MECS warehouses and storerooms in the var- established the physical and administrative network for ious provinces. The second stage involved the trans- book deliveries, managed a regular procurement cycle shipment of the books from the local warehouses to the for freight forwarding, and maintained continual field schools. The freight forwarding was managed and paid contact about the books' supply and physical condition. directly by the TBS; the transshipment was managed by local education authorities using funds provided by the Distribution Planning. During the first two rounds TBS. The plan was to withdraw the financial support of textbook distribution in 1977-78, the TBS used the gradually over the years as regional offices of education enrollment data of the ministry's planning office. The increased the amount of their budget for local distri- data proved very unreliable. The distribution division bution in their annual requests to the national govern- then undertook the task of building its own data bank ment. on the basis of school records gathered from the field The physical infrastructure for textbook distribution and of the experience of the first round of deliveries. was established early. A central TBS warehouse was The figures were continually updated over the years, maintained in Manila, and 152 receiving warehouses and by 1981 the TBS was able to project enrollments for were made operational throughout the country, usually ten years hence. adjacent to the 13 regional offices of education and in The division's statistical projections were used for most of the offices of the 127 school divisions in char- determining the number of textbooks and teachers' guides tered cities and provincial capitals. About 60 of these to be printed. The projected enrollment for a grade level were provided with radio transceivers beamed to the during the year in which a new text would be introduced main station at the TBS. Plans for 1982-85 included was taken as the basis of computation. Half of that the construction of 26 more warehouses. enrollment represented the distribution target of one For freight forwarding, twelve land, sea, and air car- book for every two students. To that figure was added riers were prequalified during the project's first phase; the number of teachers and school administrators need- in 1985, under a revised procedure, twenty firms were ing copies of the book. The total constituted the basic prequalified. As with book manufacturers, the freight field requirement for that title. An estimate was also companies were evaluated for their experience, equip- made of the number of extra copies needed to replace ment, and financial capability. The annual distribution The Philippines: A Textbook Case 165 targets were announced to the prequalified firms, Late Arrival of Books. The objective of having the which were invited to submit proposals. The offers, usu- textbooks in school ready for use when classes opened ally expressed in unit rates (price per kilogram) for in June was not achieved for all titles because of up- each point of delivery, were read in public bidding. The stream delays. Initial, faulty statistics also resulted in firms evaluated as offering the most advantageous prices short shipments. To minimize further delay, the dis- were awarded contracts for one full year's delivery tribution division followed a policy of continuous de- service. livery, shipping out inventories as soon as they were The contracts stipulated the volume and approximate received from printers in enough quantities for at least weight of books to be delivered to specific local ware- one truckload for a specific local warehouse. The overall houses. The contractors were called to the TBS ware- performance improved over the years as manufacturing house to pull out stocks and the accompanying distri- schedules stabilized and as the division compiled more bution lists and other delivery documents. They were reliable data. paid in Manila upon presentation of proofs of delivery- usually the official delivery receipts signed by the di- Delayed Funds. Despite well-made plans, the TBS as vision superintendent or supply officer. The TBS kept a project was wholly dependent on the release of funds (and periodically updated) a file of specimen signatures from the budget office of the central government. Be- of these authorized recipients. cause these were frequently delayed, the TBS could not The TBS prepared annual memorandums of agree- subsequently transfer funds to the regional offices of ment with the thirteen regional offices of education for education to finance local distribution. The tight fiscal local distribution. These memorandums included the control exercised by the central government's budget year's distribution plan for the region, the resources office also hampered the flow of funds to the field. The needed to carry out the plan (staff, materials, operating authorization to spend (called cash disbursement ceil- expenses, local freight), detailed costing, and the sched- ings) had a term of one quarter of a year. But it took ule of disbursements from the TBS to the regional of- so long to process the funds from the TBS to regional fices. Under the memorandums, the regional directors office to division office that by the time the end-user of education had authority over all local distribution, division received its share, the quarter had ended and including the management of funds. They were re- the authorization had lapsed. Revalidating expired dis- quired, however, to prepare an annual liquidation re- bursement authorizations involved lengthy reapplica- port, noted by the local auditing office. tions to the national budget office in Manila. To keep distribution going, the TBS monitors resorted to per- Field Coordination. A team of monitors was sent to suading local educational authorities (and auditors) to the field, visiting up to 400 schools yearly to check on pay for their local deliveries from their own budgets the accuracy and timeliness of deliveries. These all- while the release of project funds was being negotiated around troubleshooters "checked [the contents of] the in Manila. local warehouses, advised field officials on distribution The situation improved in 1982 when, at the TBS's problem-solving and reordering from Manila, gathered urging, the audit commission allowed the issuance of ... data, and received complaints. At the schools, they national treasury warrants to the regional offices. This checked the condition of the books and the manner of change of disbursement mode assured the timely avail- utilization and maintenance" (PCR). ability of funds for distribution at the local level. At the The troubleshooters wrote detailed reports, which end of each year, however, the regional offices were were widely circulated because they contained hard news unable to organize their disbursement documentation from the field relevant to many TBS divisions. Typical and pass it through audit. Government auditors in Ma- items were typographical errors spotted by teachers (ed- nila threatened to withhold the coming year's warrants itorial), confusing page layouts (production), missing unless the field liquidated past accounts. The TBS would pages (manufacturing), late or short shipments (distri- negotiate with auditors for the release of the warrants, bution), revised teacher statistics (training and evalu- citing the need to move the books out of the congested ation), and lost or lapsed disbursement authority (fi- local warehouses. The auditors would eventually relent, nance). and the money would arrive at the regional offices late again. Problems Lost Inventories. The TBS was surprised to read in Among many problems, four were outstanding. These the annual management evaluation reports of the gov- had to do with distribution efficiency, timeliness of fi- ernment's independent audit commission that millions nancial assistance to the field, adequacy of documen- of textbooks were unaccounted for. On the contrary, tation, and stability of the delivery network. internal records showed that all deliveries had actually 166 Alfonso de Guzman II been received by authorized parties. The erroneous con- found to be of absolutely no further use to the govern- clusion was reached on the basis of a strict interpre- ment) and the fact that the textbook project provided tation of the government's accounting treatment of the reserve stocks for just such a contingency. Neither at- textbooks as semi-expendable property. By using the tempt was successful. standard government form required as accompanying The only other measure taken to minimize teachers' document to any property, the TBS unwittingly became liability was the introduction of commercial editions of the "issuing" party and the regional office the "requi- project textbooks. At government-controlled prices, the sitioning" party. The terminology bore tremendous le- same books could be bought by teachers, or even par- gal significance because it implied that the TBS was ents, to replace copies lost by their children. These accountable for the textbooks, a responsibility that re- editions were bought also by local school boards, which quired a formal transfer of accountability when the books by law had independent funds (usually a percentage of were delivered to regional offices. Because not all ship- local real estate tax revenues), or by individual city ments passed through their offices (most went directly schools, which operated self-supporting lunch counters. to local warehouses, usually near the division offices), (Vigilant school principals' associations and parent- the regional directors of education were reluctant to teachers' associations have so far successfully fought off assume accountability for the books, sight unseen, solely attempts to have the income reported, and audited, as on the basis of records presented by the division su- public funds.) perintendents who actually received the deliveries. Some directors ordered thorough inspections of the books Institutionalization. A final problem was that the dis- they were accountable for (which by that time had been tribution scheme was not fully institutionalized. As the distributed to all schools). The delay in legalizing the World Bank evaluation team observed: transfer of property resulted in a wide gap of records The project provided the field with new warehouses, between confirmed receipts at the TBS and "acknowl- equipped all local points of delivery, and paid for their edged" documents at the regional offices. operating cost on the understanding [with} regional The issue took time to resolve. It was pointed out authorities in 1976-77 that such assistance espe- that the TBS never treated the textbooks as inventories cially as regards staff salaries ... would be provided (that is, assets) in its books of account; it entered paper on a declining basis; the regional offices would in- as supplies (an expense item). Technically, therefore, creasingly include these costs in their regular oper- no accountability for government assets was being ations and request funds from the national govern- transferred as a result of the textbooks being distrib- ment ... As of late 1981, however, the ministry's uted. Much in the same way that the post office did not central office [had] not approved them, and to date "own" the letters and packages it delivered to address- some 413 field personnel, mostly warehouse clerks, ees, the TBS was merely performing a delivery service laborers, radio operators, and security guards, con- to the field. Accountability began at the moment that tinue to function ... on a temporary basis. TBS has the authorized recipient in the field signed for a ship- made representations with the minister, but action ment. is still pending. (PeR) The issue was by no means only a confusion in ter- minology, for in the accounting treatment lay serious implications for the use of the textbooks. In government accounting, even semi-expendable property had a value Teacher Training that was never depreciated-and somebody had to be responsible for it. When legal documentation filtered Two TBS sections-one for orienting teachers on the down the layers of the organization, it was in the end use of textbooks, the other for studying the learning the teacher who assumed this responsibility. All losses effects of the new books on students-had a staff of were therefore charged to him or her. seventeen (ten professionals). The sections had separate Recognizing that for fear of loss teachers might keep chiefs and functioned independently, after the educator the books under lock and key rather than distribute who was head of the division left the TBS. copies to their students, the TBS tried to have the item The major task of the orienting section was teacher "textbooks" reclassified as expendable property (like pa- training. It was also, however, called upon to help the per clips). Alternatively, the TBS made informal repre- distribution division, which organized workshop-semi- sentations with government auditors for leniency with nars for supply officers, property custodians, and radio regard to reasonable losses in schools, invoking the operators at provincial textbook warehouses. As training auditing regulation that property could also be "con- on textbook use and distribution management was com- demned" (strictly, however, only if the property were pleted and the need for it diminished over the years, The Philippines: A Textbook Case 167 the section was engaged more and more in orienting menting the succeeding training programs was trans- newly hired staff at the TBS and implementing a variety ferred to the regional offices of education. The centers, of in-service staff seminars-planning and target set- mostly in private colleges and universities, continued ting, office correspondence, typing, and such. to be used but only as training sites. The TBS prepared annual memorandums of agree- Objectives ment with the regional offices of education. For orga- nizing the training for teachers and school administra- The principal purpose of the project's teacher training tors at the local level, each regional office was given was to promote the effective use of the new materials. project funds to cover all participants' travel and daily Specifically, the teachers were trained to: expenses as well as the organizers' expenses (materials, lecturers' fees, food, and rentals). • Apply their skills in curriculum analysis to the use of textbooks in the classroom Problems • Identify and demonstrate teaching strategies ap- propriate to specific lessons Resistance to Training Concept. From the very be- • Manage instructional resources so as to create ef- ginning, the TBS encountered difficulty convincing min- fective teaching and learning situations and in- istry officials in Manila of the need to train teachers on crease the useful life of educational materials the use of materials. The ministry maintained that the • Prepare the appropriate tests for use in class high level of qualification of the teaching force did not • Integrate curricular areas for the development of warrant the further investment that the project pro- specific skills. posed. It believed that because textbooks were tradi- tionally available in the school system, there was no Design and Implementation further need to introduce them to teachers familiar with their use. Five- to ten-day training programs for classroom That position of the staff development unit of the teachers were designed by TBS specialists with the help Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports (MECS) was of curriculum center authors and educators of the min- contrary to the perception of teachers and officials in istry's elementary and secondary bureaus and the staff the field. The TBS interpreted the discordant attitude as development unit. To prevent disruption of classes, the the central office's jealousy over the apparent abun- programs were scheduled for the vacation months of dance of World Bank loan funds committed to the text- April and May. The new titles to be introduced in the book project. Furthermore, the TBS also considered that coming school year were covered during the training. the growing popularity of the project's education task In order to reach all teachers, "echo" training was force was perceived at the central office as a threat to employed. A core group in Manila trained up to 60 its own influence and authority. Indeed, with a number trainers for the 13 regions. The latter group traveled to of projects ongoing all over the country and an imple- the regional capitals and trained about 1,200 other mentation momentum sustained by the vigor of a young trainers who in turn organized programs for as many and professional staff, the task force (and, by extension, as 100,000 teachers from various school divisions and the project) gained the reputation of being "an inde- districts. Similar but separate orientation seminars were pendent republic, the little l\1ECS with money." also conducted for administrators (regional directors, The cooperation of the MECS training officials was division superintendents, district supervisors, school grudgingly obtained after the TBS agreed to incorporate principals). These were designed in response to requests into the textbook training some of the topics and ob- that even nonteaching personnel be familiarized with jectives considered important by the central office: Be- the new books so that the distribution and supervision cause some of these were only remotely related to text- of teachers might be better managed. books, interest was low. In their post-course evaluation As with manuscript development and textbook dis- forms, the participants suggested that more time be tribution, training was to be institutionalized-that is, devoted to demonstrations on textbook use, peer teach- installed as a permanent feature of the educational sys- ing using the new texts, and lecture updates on subject tem. Toward this end, fifteen regional staff development matter. centers were established and provided with equipment At the level of the regional offices of the MECS, there and vehicles. But these centers managed the training was initial resistance to training, but the transfer of programs only once-in 1978. In line with the ministry authority and funds for local training to the regional policy of strengthening overall educational manage- MECS directors assured their cooperation. This admin- ment at the regional level, the responsibility for imple- istrative streamlining, however, signaled the death of 168 Alfonso de Guzman !I the regional staff development centers as project insti- Evaluation of Training. A third problem was that tutions. Conceived as technical training bases in the training was not effectively evaluated. Because the re- regions independent of MECS and managed by educators gional staff development centers were not allowed to unhampered by bureaucratic constraints, the centers function as originally envisioned, knowledge and ex- were to prepare detailed plans for training, produce perience of how to run training programs were not training materials, and maintain a continuing evalua- gathered and analyzed for the benefit of future pro- tion of the training programs. With project funds con- gramming. The end-of-course evaluations provided some trolled by the regional office of MECS, none of this was clues for improvement, but the responses were so fa- possible. The staff work of the regional office was gen- vorable that the TBS managers suspected the evaluations erally poor, teacher statistics were faulty, and therefore to be biased by courtesy. In a substudy of achievement, financial projections were unreliable, training materials the TBS evaluation section compared the learning gains were not produced locally (they had to be produced at of students whose teachers had gone for training with the curriculum centers and at the TBS in far-off Manila), those of others whose teachers had not. There were no liquidation and postcourse reports were submitted late, significant differences between the groups, suggesting and program evaluation was rudimentary. that teacher training was neutral with regard to student The training issue reemerged in 1982 when the text- achievement. book project became part of the ministry's sectorwide reform program, also financed by the World Bank and managed by the elementary education bureau. Regard- Evaluation of the Project ing the TBS merely as provider of instructional materials for the new elementary curriculum, the bureau de- Throughout the project period, studies were con- signed teacher-upgrading programs, omitting training ducted on the learning achievements of textbook users. on the use of textbooks. It took long negotiations to The studies were done on sixteen textbook titles in sev- convince the bureau that textbook training was not at eral grade levels of the elementary and secondary cur- cross purposes with the sector program but that it was riculums. necessary for teachers to have a hands-on experience of new instructional materials developed by the project. Methodology Late Arrival of Textbooks. Another problem was that The studies were essentially comparisons of learning textbooks arrived at the training sites late. It was easier gains between groups of students. The control group to mobilize large numbers of teachers to assemble in consisted of students who did not use any textbooks in preselected places for training than it was to get the class; the experimental group was given the new project books there on time: textbooks. In some studies, a third group-students who used other, nonproject textbooks-was included. Each training program was planned for implemen- The groups were selected randomly and represented all tation in phase with the textbook production and regions of the country. distribution schedules, in accordance with the project Because the project's principal objective was to pro- intent that teachers be given training before they vide textbooks to all students, the studies could not be actually used the new textbooks. Production, how- conducted with contemporaneous control and experi- ever, could not keep the schedules committed to mental groups. Having both groups during the same trainers at the beginning of the year. Where bidding year would have meant depriving students in the control had been postponed, and printing foreseeably could group of the opportunity to use the new textbooks. not be completed in time for training, special, limited Instead, a control-in-retrospect was resorted to. The editions were rushed to press. Deliveries of these edi- control group of the appropriate grade level was selected tions were themselves frequently delayed and the ma- and tested for achievement a year before the new text- terials were generally unsatisfactory because they were book was to be introduced in that grade. During the taken from unfinished repro pages and contained following year, when the books were available, the stu- typographical and other errors. To solve the problem, dents entering that grade formed the experimental group. TBS departed from the practice of setting teacher Tests to measure the extent of learning prescribed training targets on the basis of the production sched- for each subject and grade of the official curriculum ule for the availability of new textbook titles. Begin- were developed at the TBS. Education specialists and ning in 1980, programs of training were planned after curriculum writers were hired on contract to analyze a review of what had been actually delivered to the the content of both the curriculum and the textbook field. (PCR) and to write appropriate questions. The tests were val- The Philippines: .4 Textbook Case 169 idated in the field, revised, designed (typeset, illustrated, use of project textbooks. The rate of achievement was laid out), and printed. A detailed test administrator's faster and the gains greater among children in the rural manual accompanied each set of tests. areas than among their counterparts in the semi-urban The tests were designed to measure the amount of central schools and in the cities. The results of an in- learning achieved by students after a lapse of time, not direct test on the effects of language (English versus their mastery of the subject matter. The test items were vernaculars) on achievement, however, indicated that set at a moderate level of difficulty so that the discrim- the degree of learning was difficult to determine in a ination between students who learned more from those multilingual situation. who learned less might be better enhanced. Pretests On textbook-student ratios, the findings were intrigu- and posttests were administered to the groups. The re- ing though inconclusive. Experiments were conducted sulting data were analyzed by computer using standard on two groups of students in grades 1 and 2 with varying statistical programs for the social sciences. The differ- book-student ratios of 1:1 and 1:2. High achievement ence between the before and after scores represented was noted in grade 1 when one book was shared by two the learning gains; the difference in scores between the students and in grade 2 when each student was given textbook users and the nonusers represented the learn- his or her own book. Apparently, the younger, begin- ing gains attributable to the use of the main interven- ning readers who shared a copy helped each other to tion, the textbook. The impact evaluation scheme also read or were supervised more closely by their teachers. included longitudinal studies-that is, tracking the The older readers who had already learned how to learn achievement of textbook users over several years of ex- proceeded faster and at their own rate because they had posure to the series of new textbooks developed by the their own copy .10 project. Problems Implementation Evaluation. From a management standpoint, the value of evaluation studies was minimized by the lack of ap- The cooperation of the regional offices was enlisted propriate institutional procedures for the effective use through annual memorandums of agreement with the of their results. Aside from circulating the interim and TBS. Regional personnel were trained in test adminis- final reports of these studies, little else was done to tration and correction. Their services and expenses (daily make the findings well understood or their implications expenses, transportation) as well as materials they would better appreciated by the work groups who stood to need were paid for under the agreements. The TBS eval- benefit most from the studies: the textbook writers and uation staff traveled to the evaluation sites to orient the editors. test administrators and to collect the corrected test The time lapse between the introduction of a new booklets. All data analyses were done in Manila. Test title, its impact report, and revision of the same title findings and conclusions were written in a report and spanned several years, psychologically diminishing the circulated to the curriculum centers, the Education urgency of the evaluation findings. Textbook writers Ministry, and the World Bank. and editors, harried by tight printing deadlines for sub- sequent titles in the same series, could not give the Findings studies the careful consideration they deserved. Unfortunately, the impact reports appeared opaque The major results of various evaluation tests showed to writers, editors, and even to TBS managers. The re- that students who used textbooks achieved more than ports were written by technicians for fellow technicians those who did not; and those who used project textbooks and therefore were not easily understood by readers achieved more than those who used other textbooks. outside the statistical disciplines. 11 Thus the findings Further, the project textbook users performed generally and their implications were not translated into opera- better than the nonusers did on test items that mea- tional objectives for textbook planning, writing, design, sured higher and more complex learning. And students testing, and production. Like the evaluative field-testing who used the new textbook series consistently over sev- approach, the reports were subsequently ignored be- eral years achieved more than those who did not. cause the results came late and had limited usefulness The results also showed that books might have con- for _manuscript revision. tributed to equalizing educational opportunity. The Shifting priorities also hampered research continu- learning gap separating higher-achieving students of ity. In 1981, evaluation was ordered scaled down and higher socioeconomic status from lower-achieving, was discontinued the following year-at a time when poorer students appeared to have been reduced by the longitudinal evaluation studies had been running a 170 Alfonso de Guzman II number of years and preparatory pretesting was ongoing itors returning from the field continually reported that for forthcoming textbook titles. The sudden shift was in non-Tagalog areas teachers would resort to two-step in response to signals from higher MECS and World Bank translations for reading in Pilipino. To explain an un- officials that there was no further interest in replicating familiar Pilipino word or phrase, the teacher would give what was already known. For its part, the TBS was preoc- the English equivalent and then finally unlock the vo- cupied with efficiency problems and pressed its evalu- cabulary by leading the students to discover the equiv- ators into more management-related research. When alent in the local language. The influence of this ap- new materials were introduced for the new elementary parent trilingualism was not measured. curriculum in 1983, the need for impact measurement Language will become a more serious issue in the was felt again, and the evaluators were ordered back to light of disturbing findings that achievement may be their familiar tasks. greater when teaching and testing in first-grade science is in the vernacular rather than in English. Curriculum Curriculum. Another problem that hindered textbook developers in the practical arts for the secondary level development in the Philippines was change in the cur- have also been caught in a dilemma: required by policy riculum. The project design was flawed in that it did to develop materials in Pilipino, they are unable to find not provide for participation by the central education Pilipino equivalents for the many technical terms in ministry's curriculum units in the planning of textbook industrial arts, business and distributive arts, agro-fish- development. The project's curriculum centers pro- eries, and home economics. The textbook project, now ceeded independently with their own curriculum re- the largest book publishing enterprise in the country, search and manuscript development. Consequently, the should be used by national planners as a major source ministry asserted its authority by reissuing curriculum of information for reviewing language policy. Ten years guidelines to the field just as the first project books of experience with language-related education problems were being distributed so that the project's new books are worth considering in the continuing effort to free did not completely follow the guidelines. The subse- the Filipino from being illiterate in Pilipino and un- quent readjustments in already written and field-tested intelligible in English. textbooks were difficult to make. Nevertheless, the project was hopeful that the revised editions, coming as early as the sixth year from the time Summary the first books were released, would conform completely to the official curriculum. But by then the ministry had The textbook project in the Philippines has been called plans for curriculum revision. This meant that the proj- an unqualified success. The assessment seems well de- ect needed to start over again for the lower grades, even served. Yet the success has not come without costs or as it was only beginning to distribute the new text- risks. These are succinctly summarized by the executive books-on the old curriculum-in the upper grades. director of the Textbook Board Secretariat, who stated In ten years of implementation, the lesson learned was that although all targets were substantially achieved, that a stable curriculum was necessary for stability in and some even exceeded, the project contended with a textbook development. number of problems and constraints that at various times threatened it with derailment if not failure. Some Language. In spite of a seemingly coherent bilingual of the difficulties were as follows: policy in education, the textbook project was confronted with language problems at every turn. It was evident • Expertise: for the scale and standards set for the from the manuscripts that few among the project au- project, the special skills of editors, authors, book thors had sufficient mastery of either English or Pilipino designers, and illustrators proved to be in short to write well. Even at the TBS, it was a rare editor who supply. The project has had to depend on the help wielded a blue pencil with confidence. During the field- of transient foreign experts, young professionals testing of social studies texts which were being intro- with little experience, and even education special- duced for the first time in Pilipino, feedback was mixed. ists recalled from retirement. Teachers reported that non-Tagalog children found the • Manufacturing technology: typesetters and print- books difficult. When evaluators could not detect any ers had to retool to meet the unprecedented re- serious inability of children to understand social studies quirements of the project on a competitive basis. in the national language, speculation suggested that it • Distribution: distribution had to contend with the was the non-Tagalog teachers, not the children, who lack of an efficient transportation system and the resisted the innovation. naturally difficult geography of the country, which With the use of the new textbooks in class, TBS mon- frustrated efficient delivery of books to schools. The Philippines: A Textbook Case 171 • The language: the textbooks were printed in En- the scope of some subjects (for example, science and health), glish and Pilipino, which are both second lan- and replaced other subjects (social studies became civics and guages in most parts of the country. This impaired culture). 6. The in-house TBS print shop was mainly for filming repro the effectiveness of the new textbooks. materials, printing jobs not worth the bother of bidding for- • Curriculum changes: changes and new objectives malities (tryout copies, evaluation tests, letterheads, and in the official curriculum and educational policies newsletters), and converting white waste paper returned by tended to threaten every new textbook with early printers into sheets for office use. The print shop was also obsolescence. used for orienting newly hired staff and trainees from neigh- • Complexity: in the operation of a project of this boring countries to the principles of graphic-arts photography magnitude, with many virtually independent ac- and offset printing. tivities in book development, procurement, staff 7. The TBS was aware that in the first textbook project of Indonesia the government implemented a security measure training, and evaluation being undertaken simul- for a series of books used in social studies. To safeguard the taneously, phased implementation proved difficult correctness of the pancasila -official teachings on the moral to maintain. conduct of citizens-paper tinted gray and surface-treated • The private sector: traditional private textbook with security fibers was manufactured by government mills. publishers viewed the textbook project with hos- The books were printed only on government presses. tility as undue encroachment by the government 8. This nonaward of one printing contract was the sole into an area best left wholly to private industry. violation during the five-year life of the first-phase project. The World Bank did not finance that particular contract and • Institutionalization: "The objective of institution- canceled a corresponding $270,000 from the proceeds of the alization has proved most [elusive). At the end of loan. the project period ... the legal structure was yet 9. The traditional practice in the private sector was for the to be developed that would ensure the government customer to pay 50 percent upon the signing of the contract. textbook program continuing resources, flexibility Even government contracts for public works allowed for a 15 of operation, and provide staff security and career percent mobilization payment at the outset. Unfortunately, opportunities" (Aprieto 1983). neither facility was allowed by government auditors, who cited lack of specific legal basis. In spite of these difficulties, it must nevertheless be 10. A cost-effectiveness study done by Unesco in 1979 re- emphasized that in the Philippines there now exists a ported that textbook production (excluding teacher training professional, systematic mechanism for creating in- and evaluation) increased the cost of education per student structional materials, ensuring their provision to schools, by less than 1 percent; student performance, however, in- and maintaining an adequate supply of acceptable qual- creased by 14 percent. ity. 11. Indeed, evaluation was much better appreciated else- where. The World Bank published the Philippine findings earlier than the TBS in Heyneman and others (1984). Notes 1. Data are from 1982-84 TBS annual reports; data for 1985 References were not yet available as of this writing (early 1986). 2. With some modification, the sequence of presentation Aprieto, Pacifico N. 1981. Book Publishing and Philippine of topics in this case study follows Searle (1985: 12-17). Scholarship. Manila: Book Development Association of the 3. Private publishers continued to submit textbooks for Philippines. board approval. Without national government orders, how- - - . 1983. "The Philippine Textbook Project." Prospects ever, their business was reduced to sales to private schools, (Unesco Quarterly Review of Education) 13, no. 3: 1-12. educational districts with locally generated funds, and general Heyneman, Stephen P., Dean T. Jamison, and Xenia Monte- bookstores. negro. 1984. "Textbooks in the Philippines: Evaluation of 4. Pilipino, the legislated national language, is 95 percent the Pedagogical Impact of a Nationwide Investment.'' Ed- Tagalog, the language of much of the capital region. Tagalog ucational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 6, no. 2: 139- is the prestige language because as a primary city, colonial 50. Manila was the seat of government, commerce, and culture Neumann, Peter H. 1980. Publishing for Schools: Textbooks and the cradle of the revolution against Spain. Many revo- and the Less Developed Countries. World Bank Staff Work- lutionaries wrote in Tagalog for security reasons. ing Paper 398. Washington, D.C. 5. The opportunity to improve the first (1977) editions was Philippines, Republic cf the. 1970. Education for National also effectively lost when a new curriculum was introduced Development: New Patterns, New Directions. Manila: Pres- in 1983. Completely new materials were needed as the new idential Commission to Survey Philippine Education. curriculum reordered sequences of learning topics, expanded - - . 1976. "The Outcomes of Philippine Elementary Ed- 172 Alfonso de Guzman Il ucation: A Report of the Major Findings of Project Soutele." Quezon City, Metropolitan Manila: Instructional Materials Makati, Metropolitan Manila: Educational Development Corporation. Processed. Projects Implementing Task Force. Processed. Searle, Barbara. 1985. "General Operational Review of Text- - - . 1982, 1983, 1984. "Annual Report," Textbook Board books." World Bank Education and Training Department Secretariat, Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. Discussion Paper EDTL Washington, D.C. Processed. 13 The Textbook Project in Lesotho Albert Aime and John Overton In Lesotho education is a joint venture between the • Develop vocational, technical, and higher educa- government and the churches, which administer about tion to meet the national labor needs in both the 97 percent of the primary and 86 percent of the sec- productive and rural sectors ondary schools (the remainder in each case is private). • Extend and coordinate nonformal education pro- In 1981 the educational system was characterized by grams high dropout and failure rates, poor facilities and staff- • Improve the joint government-World Bank mis- ing, and weak management and professional supervi- sion coordination and supervision of educational sion. As part of an effort to strengthen the system, a activities. textbook project was introduced with the support of the World Bank. To achieve these goals, particularly those related to the supply of textbooks, the government planned the following activities: Background and Planning • Develop curriculums relevant to the country's cir- cumstances, including improvement in the teach- The administrative, financial, and academic control ing of the national language of the formal system was vested in the Ministry of Ed- • Provide instructional materials for all children at ucation, Sports, and Culture (MOE). The MOE trained the primary level and appointed teachers, administered examinations, re- viewed and authorized curriculums, regulated the open- • Expand preservice and in-service teacher training ing and closing of schools, inspected the schools' op- programs to increase the number of qualified pri- erations, and paid teachers' salaries. The MOE provided mary teachers the bulk of the funds for the National University of • Achieve universal primary education by the year Lesotho, which was administered by an independent 2000. council chaired by a government representative. The administration of the capital budget and the The Educational System preparation and review of proposed education projects were the responsibility of the MOE's Planning Unit. Be- fore its involvement in the textbook project, this unit When the textbook project started, primary education had coordinated a school mapping exercise, comput- (grades 1-7) was conducted in the native language, Sesotho, for the first four years, with English added erized education statistics, and participated intensively during grades 5 through 7. In 1982, total gross en- in a National Sector Survey of Education, which was rollment was 278,000. Approximately 30 percent of the published in November 1982. The main recommenda- primary enrollment was overaged students. The age of tions of the survey were to: school entry was gradually dropping, with more males • Improve the quality and efficiency of primary ed- attending-for example, in 1975, females outnumbered ucation males by almost 50 percent; in 1982 they outnumbered • Emphasize mathematics and science and expand them by only 14 percent. practical studies in the general secondary program In 1980, automatic promotion was replaced by con- 173 174 Albert Aime and John Overton tinuous assessment of student achievements and reg- A gradual increase in manufacturing costs led to a ular testing to determine whether curriculum objec- reduction in both the quality and quantity of books. tives were being met. Nevertheless, in 1982 only 27 Furthermore, many of the books needed revision, not percent of the students who had started school in 1975 only because they had been in use for many years but had progressed as far as grade 7; 72 percent of these also because of changes to the curriculum. Books needed passed the primary completion examination (19 percent to be ordered by each school about six months before of 1975 enrollment), and of these, 43 percent (8.4 per- the start of the new school year in January. Demand cent of the 1975 enrollment} entered junior secondary was extremely difficult to estimate. school (grades 8-10}. The MOE was aware of the need to increase the supply In 1982, 36 percent of the teachers were still un- of books. In 1975 it had established the National Cur- qualified; the national teacher-student ratio was 1:48, riculum Development Center (Ncoc) to revise curric- although many classes were considerably larger. To im- ulums and prepare national textbooks. An important prove the quality of teaching, the t-10E operated an in- component of the World Bank's Second Education Proj- service teacher training course. ect (1977 -82) consisted of building and equipping this In 1982, secondary education (grades 8 through 12) NCDC. It was complemented by twenty person-years of had an enrollment of 29,000 (60 percent girls), the technical assistance to help develop national textbooks equivalent of about 16.4 percent of the population aged and by a U.S. Agency for International Development thirteen to seventeen years. Of the secondary enroll- (usAm} project to build, equip, and staff an Instructional ments, 83 percent were in junior secondary and 23 Material Resource Center (IMRC; a small printing unit percent were boarders. The same year, 30 percent of set up earlier with the assistance of USAID). Because the teachers were unqualified and the teacher-student government objectives had not been clearly defined and ratio was 1:21. The number of secondary schools had the above projects were not adequately coordinated, almost doubled between 1975 and 1982, a rapid expan- much time was consumed defining roles rather than sion that negatively affected examination results. developing the needed materials. In addition, most of Enrollment in vocational and technical education at the technical assistance was never recruited, and by the secondary level was 1,600 in 1982, with more than 1981 very little had been done about development. It one-third in home economics, one-fourth in construc- was then that the government realized that if it was to tion trades, and smaller numbers in motor mechanics, improve the quality of education, it needed to supply electrical engineering, and secretarial, business, and students and teachers with textbooks available on the administrative training. Agricultural education for market until it could produce its own. the postprimary level was offered at six farmer training The proposed project was to provide for the purchase centers and for the certificate and diploma levels and distribution of textbooks and workbooks in the three at the Lesotho Agricultural College; there were 350 core subjects (Sesotho, English, and mathematics) to trainees. all children attending primary schools. The book project Teacher training for primary and junior secondary would be administered by a Book Supply Unit (Bsu) set education was (and still is) provided at the National up in the MOE. The MOE would establish a nominal book Teacher Training College (NTTC). The NTTC offered three usage fee so that children could use the books for a courses leading respectively to the Primary Teacher Cer- year and pay only a fraction of the full cost of buying tificate, the Advanced Primary Teacher Certificate (spe- them. This initial fee would be set at 2.00 maloti (M) cial administration course), and the Junior Secondary per year in grade one, M3.00 per year in grades two to Teacher Certificate. Senior secondary teacher training five, and M5.00 per year in grades six and seven. The was provided by the National University of Lesotho (NUL), fee would cover the use of all the textbooks needed by which offered bachelor's and master's degrees in edu- the child in the core subjects that year. Children able cation. to show that they could not afford to pay the nominal fee would be allowed to use the books free of charge. The books would have an average life expectancy of Planning for the Textbook Project three years. The project would provide for the distri- bution of the books as well as modest book storage In 1987 it was estimated that only about 30 percent facilities. of the primary students in Lesotho had access to the Originally, textbooks would be either those in current textbooks prescribed by the MOE. This was largely be- use or adaptations of those used in other African coun- cause books had to be bought by parents, and this be- tries. The MOE would inform various publishers' asso- came a considerable financial burden; the majority of ciations of its intention to review books in order to books for primary school were printed and published select those most closely related to the syllabuses and by the two predominant church groups, which supplied needs of Lesotho. The NCDC would then review and test their own schools. the books in the schools and select about three series The Textbook Project in Lesotho 175 in each subject. The Bsu would then call for tenders or of planning. The MOE held conferences throughout the prices from the suppliers. All price quotations had to country to determine parents' expectations of the ed- include teachers' guides and ancillary materials. Book ucational system. The declining quality of education contracts would be signed, and the BSU would supervise and the lack of adequate resources, particularly of ma- distribution. The proposed project would finance the terials to help students learn, were major concerns. The initial supply and distribution of about 1.9 million text- MOE wanted to make primary education more accessible books. A pilot distribution would begin in the Thaba to the poor and to rural children, but soon realized that Tseka district in 1982, followed by national distribution it did not have the resources to achieve that goal unless in 1983. In addition, two book replenishments-the part of the cost was covered by the recipients. It was first in the Thaba Tseka District in 1984, the second therefore decided to charge a user fee, but extremely throughout the country in 1985-would be funded by poor children would be allowed to receive textbooks the project. free. The usage fees collected annually for these books Funds from the World Bank would be used as seed would be placed in an interest-bearing account, which money, while the user fees accumulating in the special would become a revolving fund. After the completion interest-bearing account would enable the textbook pro- of the project, the money would be used for the annual gram to continue. The Ministry of Finance (MOF), well replenishment of consumables (for example, work- aware that it would be unable to fund an ongoing book books, preprimers) while the government would replace supply, was willing to experiment with plans which would the books in the core subjects about every three years result in the accumulation of about M2 million during at little additional cost. The annual book usage fees the project period. would be collected through the Ministry of Finance's To enable the :vtOE, MOF, and Public Service Com- subaccountancy offices located in all the major centers mission to establish new positions, the salaries of these in Lesotho. These fees would be kept to a minimum to positions were covered for three years by the project. avoid an undue burden on disadvantaged families. It The project also financed the cost of technical assistance was believed that making textbooks available for all chil- for two years. One aim of the project was to maximize dren would help more of those from poor families to the use of local resources and thus minimize the cost. complete their primary education and would simulta- Existing warehouses of the MOE and rented warehouses neously improve the quality of education. were used when the local publishing industry indicated One of the project's main goals was to establish a that it could not satisfy the needed capacity. permanent system for supplying textbooks to all pri- At this juncture, a difference of opinion arose between mary school students. Some changes were made to the the MOE and the NCDC staff. The NCDC had been given plan in the implementation stage, both in timing and a mandate (to update syllabuses and produce textbooks) distribution. Indeed, implementation remains subject but not the staffing and financial resources to achieve to continual review and evolution. it. The staff, being resourceful, had sought the assis- In the long term, Lesotho hopes to have its own tance of publishers to help them and felt that the books primary school textbooks written and to have them of the publishers who had helped them should be se- printed by commercial firms. The NCDC estimated that lected. The MOE and the World Bank, however, insisted this process could take up to ten years, but it was be- that the books which best met the needs or curriculums lieved that in the meantime students would benefit from or could best be adapted to meet the new curriculum existing books. It was also believed that textbook writing should be chosen. Another issue was that :-.1coc staff skills would develop more rapidly if the NCDC staff were wanted to be listed as coauthors with the publishing initially to prepare units for inclusion in their sylla- firm and to receive a royalty from the work they had buses. The publishers whose books were selected would done. The matter was resolved when the government also be asked to help the NCDC staff prepare these units. decided that civil servants could not receive royalties, This approach was started in 1986, and by 1987 national and the Permanent Secretary established a National science and mathematics books had been prepared and Curriculum Committee (Nee) to review the situation. Sesotho books were being developed. The Nee had representatives from the MOE, MOF, IMRC, To guarantee proper execution of the project, the NCDC, National Teacher Training College, National Uni- World Bank asked, as a condition of disbursement, that versity of Lesotho, the teachers' association, and the the MOE redefine the responsibilities of the NCDC and religious groups responsible for the majority of the IMRC to eliminate all duplication. The government was schools. The Nee influence resulted in a more objective also to establish standards for textbooks, set textbook selection of books. fees, set up a special interest-bearing revolving account, Because of difficult terrain and access, it was decided and make the BSU a permanent part of the MOE. All these to begin with a pilot distribution in one district. The actions were completed in 1984. success of the pilot scheme was due in large part to the The textbook project was initiated after three years services of an experienced textbook specialist, who in 176 Albert Aime and John Overton November 1981 assisted in selecting books, ordering • Arrange follow-up visits by BSU staff where prob- them, distributing and storing them, laying the foun- lems had been experienced dation for the Book Supply Unit, and preparing a time- • Complete national distribution (started in Novem- table. At this stage, public relations work was under- ber 1983) by February 1984-adjustments be- taken to inform those whose cooperation was needed. tween schools were done during March and April The specialist returned for about two months in each 1984 succeeding year to help develop the project with the • Ascertain that by the end of 1984 all primary stu- BSU staff, the staff of the Ministry of Education's Train- dents had benefited from books in the three core ing for Self-Reliance Project (TSRP; established in the subjects and that teachers had benefited from early 1970s to handle various educational projects as- teachers' guides sociated with the World Bank), and all others involved • Offer in-service training to the teachers, in spite in the project. of delays. In the Thaba Tseka district, pilot distribution activ- ities were: • Textbook distribution-from November 1982 to Implementation the end of January 1983 • Delivery of book lockers (delayed by procurement The Book Supply Unit was set up as a section of the procedures, but lockers were in place by the time TSRP. The TSRP ran the book project until the BSU was of the national distribution toward the end of 1983) created. The organization of both the TSRP and BSU is • Teacher in-service training and follow-up visits by a functional one embracing the usual planning activi- the TSRP during February and March 1983. ties: examining objectives to be achieved, taking ap- propriate actions, and establishing unity of purpose. At During the time of the pilot distribution scheme, the the conclusion of the project, it is intended that the NCDC and NCC continued to examine the selected books BSU will be transferred to the MOE, either as a separate to determine whether they should be retained for na- unit or attached to an existing MOE agency. These and tional distribution. The MOE, BSU, and TSRP simulta- other alternatives are still under consideration. The neously were preparing for the national distribution by manager of the BSU is responsible to the director of the revising student enrollments in accordance with the TSRP who in turn reports to the Project Authority. The latest information available from schools and preparing members of the Project Authority, which is chaired by a distribution plan, which included full details on the the permanent secretary of education, are drawn from enrollment of schools, location, and the roads and trails the various ministries associated with the project. used to reach them. The list of persons responsible for The director of the TSRP, apart from duties related to administering the schools was updated (because of other aspects of the project, is concerned with general changes in personnel, however, they were later simply Bsu policy and its implementation, major administrative addressed by title). matters, and project expenditures and receipts. He plays By March 1983, it was decided to an important role in relations with school proprietors, • Retain most of the same titles for the national with other authorities, and with the public in general. distribution The BSU manager deals with day-to-day affairs, prepares orders, arranges for distribution, keeps appropriate rec- • Order books in May 1983 ords, and prepares reports at regular intervals. He also • Have the publishers prepackage the books accord- spends much time assisting school managers and head ing to distribution lists prepared by the BSU (the teachers in fulfilling shortages or the collection of sur- task of packing 1 million books was then beyond plus stocks. the capability of the TSRP and Bsu); without the The BSU accountant (plus one assistant) keeps all the many months spent preparing the distribution plan, financial records (except those involving procurement) this process would not have been possible and prepares invoices and statements to inform the • Box orders according to schools within parishes director and manager of tardy or nontransmitted fees. and determine the sizes of the boxes by the weight Four clerks deal with stock keeping and warehousing a person could reasonably lift (about 15 kilograms) and assist with distribution. The function of the BSU • Use TSRP trucks for delivery; all trucks had to have may best be described in relation to the basic functions an officer from either the BSU or TSRP present to of a publishing house: editing, production, marketing, ensure that the delivery was carried out according finance, and publicity. to the plans and that the proper receipt invoices The BSU does marketing, financing, and some pub- were signed licity. It is responsible for ordering books, calling for The Textbook Project in Lesotho 177 tenders, and dealing with the Tender Board. It coor- the British Council) were invited to submit textbooks- dinates the other functions. What to publish is an ed- particularly course books-in English and mathemat- itorial function handled by the NCDC. Production was, ics. Two British Council officers reviewed the submis- and to a large extent still is, done by the publishers sions and rejected those which were inappropriate. The from whom the books are ordered, but the IMRC does final selections were sent by the Publishers Association it for the newly introduced science textbooks. to the director of the NCDC in mid-1981, together with Two person-years of technical assistance had been the reviewers' comments. written into the project. Since late 1981, the services Publishers in Lesotho and the Republic of South Af- of a consultant have been available on a regular basis rica were similarly invited to submit appropriate books, (four months each year) to assist in developing the book including those in Sesotho. This invitation cast a wider supply scheme. A full-time adviser was also attached to net, because, in addition to indigenous publishers, many the project for one year only. of U.K. origin are represented in South Africa and, in The services of the BSU are available for the distri- one case, in Lesotho. All submissions were scrutinized bution of other teaching materials produced for the by the subject departments and panels of the :-.~coc ac- Ministry of Education. In short, the ssu is charged with cording to a basic set of criteria. The results of the seeing that the appropriate books are in the right place panels' deliberations were presented for consideration at the right time. by a Book Review Committee composed of those directly responsible for the project and various technical ex- perts. Choice of Textbooks Representatives of the two Lesotho publishing firms were included in the Book Review Committee as "ob- The subjects selected for inclusion in the project were servers." It was felt that because they were also the the core subjects of Sesotho, English, and mathematics leading printers in Lesotho their local experience and for grades 1 to 7 in the Lesotho primary schools. Time advice would be invaluable and they could handle dis- became a factor, particularly since the new books were tribution for the Ministry of Education, at least in the still far from ready for publication and there was an initial phase. A short list of books from seventeen pub- urgent need to establish a distribution system and pro- lishers was reduced to six publishers of first and second cedures for supplying replacement books later. A system choice and a final list of books from three publishers. of gradual replacement would allow for the systematic This process, repeated every year, ensures that all books introduction of new material year by year. Initially, are reassessed in the light of experience and that se- therefore, emphasis was placed on textbooks which fol- lection is not automatic. It also keeps publishers alert lowed existing curriculums as closely as possible. Ques- and sharpens competition. tions of local publishing were secondary, at least in the initial stages of the project. At the same time, cogni- Books Chosen: Comparison between 1982 and 1985 zance had to be taken of the books most widely in use, the teacher's familiarity with them, and those books A timetable was drawn up in November 1981 setting already in the pipeline for publication. deadlines for the various stages leading to final rec- Local publishing and printing continue to be a con- ommendations so that orders could be placed with the cern. Expansion and modernization of equipment are publishers early in 1982 for books to be in schools by taking place, and greater local participation may (sub- the beginning of the 1983 academic year. During 1985, ject to cost) become a reality. The proportion of local further choices were made when science and social studies publishing will be considerably enhanced toward the were added, making a total of five subjects. These ad- end of the project with the introduction of titles to be ditions were made possible largely through savings- published by the Ministry of Education. accrued to a great extent by the considerable drop in the value of the currency against the U.S. dollar. (One Procedures maloti was worth approximately $1.35 in 1981; it dropped to $0.35 by the end of 1985.) Formal procedures for choosing books were devel- In 1982, the committee's first choice for the 1983 oped to ensure absolutely fair decisions open to rigorous Sesotho courses had been a new reading series specially scrutiny. The departments of the NCDC involved in the prepared for local use. It could not be recommended, choice of textbooks were required to prepare a preferred however, because not enough material was available for list of textbooks (including teacher's guides and ancil- testing in the schools, the considerable amount of an- lary materials) together with a list of alternatives for cillary material was felt to be impractical, the scheme use in grades 1-7. Publishers in the United Kingdom would need considerable in-service teacher training, and (with the assistance of the Publishers Association and it was too costly. The local publishers played the greatest 178 Albert Aime and John Overton part in the selection of alternatives. Because the books chosen thus completed the range of courses for which had been published for use in Lesotho, no adapta- examinations were given at the end of primary school. tion was necessary. The books did not, however, com- These subjects had in fact been considered initially but pare well with a new draft syllabus in preparation. had been dropped because of cost. Teachers' books, where available, formed part of the Science books for grades 1-3 were the first under proposals. The books ordered in 1985 for use in 1986 the project to be published by the Ministry of Education. were the same as those chosen in 1982 for grades 1 In arriving at the decision to do so, consideration was through 7. given to organizing and running appropriate work- For English courses, in 1982 an adapted series of shops; writing, illustrating, and editing; producing ap- books was chosen for use in 1983 for grades 1 through propriate teachers' materials; testing these materials in 4; the first book had just been published, and the second the field; producing books; activating the machinery set was well advanced. The series was also used in nearby up for the selection of textbooks; and planning time countries (Botswana and Swaziland) and had been well factors, distribution, and cost. tested. It was therefore possible to recommend that the Various aspects of book production and costs were series be introduced simultaneously in grades 1 and 2. examined at an early stage. Some adjustments were For grades 3 and 4, books currently in use were chosen necessary when the work was put out to tender, but to fill the gap until they could be replaced by the new suitable tolerances had been built into the design so series. For grades 5 through 7, a new series produced that the result was little affected. Where possible, set- by the publishers for use in Botswana proved ideal. tling major details of book design before the book is Teachers' versions were available for all students' books. even written can be extremely cost-effective. The work- The new English series for grades 1 through 4 was shops were organized by the Science Department of the ordered in 1985 for use in 1986. The books for standards NCDC in January 1985 with editorial assistance from a 5 through 7 remained in the form in which they were major international educational publisher, which also first introduced and were still considered excellent. Ad- provided the funds for this stage of the operation. Writ- aptation of the text and illustrations of the grade 1 ing was initiated at the workshops and completed shortly through 4 series for use in Lesotho was made by the thereafter, rough sketches were prepared, and photo- publishers in close cooperation with the staff of the copies were submitted for comment and preliminary English Department of the NCDC. approval. It became obvious that the books would not For mathematics books the first choice in 1982 was be ready by January 1986, and the timetable was ex- simply the best that could then be found. They were to tended for a year. be replaced gradually by a new series that was being The question of testing was overcome simply by add- specially written for Lesotho but that had been delayed ing the words "Preliminary Edition" on the cover. The by the controversy with the authors previously men- books were therefore tested nationally. Work on an ac- tioned. In 1986, new books were introduced in grades companying teachers' book-one book for grades 1 1 and 2. They were conceived as workbooks ()nd will through 3-will also be completed. have to be ordered annually for the entire enrollment The selection for grades 4 through 7 was a series of of these two grades. Considerable discussion took place books published in Kenya, which created complications about production standards versus costs. In view of the of delivery through third countries. These books will total outlay, this will have to be kept under review. The eventually be replaced by locally published material. A old books used in grades 3 through 7 will be replaced previously used teachers' book, largely on agriculture, year by year. These will not be workbooks as such. was also selected. Teachers' books based on the new syllabuses in grades 4 through 7 are in preparation. Enlargement of the Scheme in 1985 The teaching of social studies begins in grade 4. The final choice was a junior atlas specially developed for As previously indicated, the addition of science and local use. The atlas will be used in grades 5 through 7 social studies textbooks was made possible largely through but, because of the price, not in grade 4. It may also savings from the heavy drop in the value of the maloti. be used in junior secondary school, but different dis- The decision also depended on the World Bank's agree- tribution and payment arrangements will have to be ment to expand the scope of the project and on whether worked out because these copies cannot be considered it would be affordable once Bank funding came to an as part of the project. The atlas will be ready for pur- end. chase before the project expires and will be introduced Discussions about the possibility of widening the into the schools from 1987 onward. In addition, some scheme had taken place informally well in advance so five books (previously published and printed locally) that delays would be kept to a minimum. The subjects were selected as teachers' references; these will even- The Textbook Project in Lesotho 179 Table 13-1. Types of Books to Be Supplied-Plan at tually be replaced by new material. It is also foreseen Appraisal that a teachers' guide will be prepared for use with the Standard Types of books Ancillary materials atlas. 1. First language: Sesotho Future Selections: Plans and Implementation 1 1 preprimer Charts, workbooks, 2 initial readers teacher's guide In addition to replacements already scheduled, thought 1 or two larger is being given to introducing textbooks in such subjects readers as agriculture and home economics. These additions 2 2 or 3 readers Charts, workbooks, would fall outside the time period of the project and in teacher's guide the long run will depend on cost in relation to the 3 2 readers Charts, workbooks, recovery of funds. The initial plan of the types of books teacher's guide and materials to be supplied is shown in table 13-l. 4 2 readers Workbooks, teacher's With the exception of teachers' guides, it has proved guide impractical to supply much ancillary material. The sup- 5 1 reader Workbooks, teacher's ply of workbooks depends heavily on the availability of guide funds, because workbooks need to be replaced in full- 6 1 reader Workbooks, teacher's enrollment quantities every year. This has had reper- guide cussions on standards of production. Many alternatives 7 1 reader Workbooks, teacher's were discussed: cheaper papers for cover and text, no guide cover (self-cover), different printing methods and paper II. Second language: sizes, and asking students not to write in the books English themselves but in separate exercise books. Although the 1 Nil Charts, pictures, desire to use local printing units was and remains in teacher's guide the foreground, arguments for and against were affected 2 Nil As for standard 1 plus by several factors: the small quantities required for trial small workbook distribution, high unit costs, the high technical printing toward end of year competence required, the availability of books published 3 Nil Charts, workbooks, teacher's guide elsewhere at lower unit cost, questions of capacity and 3 introductory Charts, workbooks, scheduling, and funding-100 percent of imported pur- 4 readers, low teacher's guide chases would be covered by the project loan but only vocabulary and high 80 percent of local purchases. contents The decision in late 1984 to add science as an addi- 5 2 readers Workbooks, teacher's tional subject increased local content considerably. Not guide only were the first three science books the first books 6 1 reader Workbook, teacher's in the project to be published by the Ministry of Edu- guide cation but also the services of the IMRC were utilized in 7 1 reader Workbook, teacher's the production of camera-ready copy. The unit was too guide small to cope with the required volume of the printing III. Mathematics and binding processes or to compete with private print- 1 Workbook renewed Charts, flash cards, ing concerns. It could, however, handle the typesetting yearly teacher's guide and the production of color-drawing to be passed on to 2 1 book plus workbook Charts, teacher's guide the selected printer. In doing so, the considerable cost renewed yearly of origination was saved; the only charge was for the 3 1 book plus workbook Teacher's guide, materials used in producing the camera-ready copy and renewed workbooks optional of course for the subsequent processes. 4 1 book Teacher's guide, workbooks optional 5 1 book Teacher's guide, Production and Manufacturing workbooks optional 6 1 book Teacher's guide, Books are expected to last about three years, and workbooks optional production specifications take account of this- mainly 7 1 book Teacher's guide, in the kind of paper used and in the style of binding. workbooks optional Why three years? Largely because curriculums are in a 180 Albert Aime and John Overton state of flux, and it is unwise to produce books of a sequent problems, such as the movement of paper, more permanent nature. In Lesotho, production stan- transportation, and packing of books for schools. Fur- dards (and therefore cost) were factors in the final rec- thermore, some books needed to be redesigned to ac- ommendations made by the Book Review Committee. commodate paper sizes. In short, a decision to print elsewhere would be a risky one. Very favorable prices Paper were subsequently obtained for printing in Singapore and Hong Kong, but the fall in the value of the maloti Questions of paper quality were taken up with the influenced that decision. There were also some prob- publishers when ordering the larger quantities required lems in relation to scheduling in that books would have for national distribution. Choice of paper depends largely to be ordered much sooner. on method of printing, the length of the book, required The question of where to print is under constant opacity, color, and paper size. These interrelated factors review. The present changes in the distribution system may be further influenced by the size of the printing will have some impact but will not fundamentally change machinery and the available paper sizes. In some coun- the present tried procedure. Teachers' guides are usu- tries, however, the quality of the paper is of small con- ally obtained from the same sources as the books to sequence. One has to take either what is locally man- which they apply. Because quantities are comparatively ufactured or what one can get. Some knowledge of small and well within the production capacity of the paper-its use and manufacture-is essential. IMRC, teachers' books for science are intended to be Large pulp and paper mills exist in the region, and printed there, adding to the local input. with the quantities of paper also being imported, supply is not a problem. The cost of local paper is, however, Binding somewhat high in relation to world prices. A scheme for the supply of paper was prepared, but regrettably All the books used in the project are either saddle- has so far not met with success. Some lending agencies stitched or thread-sewn. When printing in Zimbabwe had to decline on account of the downturn in the world was considered, specifications for some of the longer economy and the consequent shortage of funds. In one texts were altered to produce two books (which could case, the would-be lenders based their decision on in- be saddle-stitched) rather than one book (which would complete information, which led to an inaccurate ap- need thread-sewing and therefore be prohibitively ex- preciation of the thoughts behind the plan and on proj- pensive). Perfect (glued, unsewn) binding should be ect implementations. As a result, the lenders appeared used only after careful consideration. Perfect binding to be at odds with the Ministry of Education and the works well under controlled conditions, but when these World Bank. cannot be achieved or something is overlooked, savings With the project drawing to a close, new approaches may well be eroded. Side-stitching may be unavoidable will be made. It is hoped that some external assistance if other methods cannot be used. Depending on local will be forthcoming so as to avoid incurring additional conditions, other factors to be considered are the kind costs to the government and to allow the project more of wire, the use of certain adhesives or types of paper breathing space. A number of agencies-UNICEF and to repel insects or rodents, and the effects of humidity. Unesco, for example-are interested in assisting text- book projects. Approaches are usually possible either directly or through the local office of the United Nations Distribution Development Programme. Bilateral action may also be considered. Because the project consists entirely of supplying pre- scribed textbooks and book lockers to a captive market, Composition and Printing marketing considerations could be reduced to analyzing organizations (proprietors of schools, facilities), cal- The texts of the new science books were composed culating enrollments (size of the market), and ascer- on a desktop computer, with camera-ready printout from taining the influence of geography (transport and com- a laser unit. During 1983, the capacity of printing fa- munication). cilities in Swaziland and Zimbabwe was investigated, as Lesotho is divided into ten districts. Although dis- well as the quality and cost of their work, particularly tances are not great, in some mountainous areas trans- in connection with books imported into Lesotho. About port is extremely difficult. It was therefore decided to 50 percent of the books could be printed in Zimbabwe make a trial distribution in one of the more difficult and meet the criteria, particularly if all costs except that areas-the district of Thaba Tseka. The parish was se- for paper were compared. There were, however, con- lected as the unit for distribution and accounting. All The Textbook Project in Lesotho 181 schools outside parishes were treated as individual units. was hired for part of the distribution. Project staff ac- Enrollment was calculated for each grade in all primary companied the driver. The distribution of textbooks took schools. In 1986, there were 1,130 elementary schools, place between November 1982 and January 1983. Proj- 220 parishes and other units, and a total projected en- ect staff gained much experience, and warehousing the rollment of 324,850 students: 84,350 in grade 1; 60,750 small number of books was no problem. The bulk of in 2; 50,750 in 3; 42,050 in 4; 34,650 in 5; 27,750 in the packing material was obtained from local stores in 6; and 24,550 in 7. the form of used cartons. Distribution of book lockers Distribution was conducted in four phases: to Thaba Tseka was complicated by procurement pro- cedures and took place later in the year. During phase 1. Trial distribution in the district of Thaba Tseka. 2, because the packing of the books on a national scale This district contained schools in a wide range of was beyond the capacity of the BSU and TSRP, it was accessibility (from easy to difficult). Because it was decided to have the publishers pack the books according also the newest district, there was a political aspect to prepared packing lists. Approximately 1 million books in the choice. were delivered to the TSRP-BSU warehouse and sorted by 2. Distribution on a national scale. All books were district (approximately 8,000 parcels of 15 kilograms or delivered to nine districts, and replenishments and less). Distribution took place in November and Decem- new titles only to Thaba Tseka. ber 1983, using TSRP transport only, to 220 locations. 3. Nationwide replenishments to replace losses, to The school manager in each parish mission distrib- cover increases in enrollment, and to introduce utes the books to the head teachers. The books are then new titles. made available to all students in grades 1 through 7, 4. Nationwide distribution based on requisitions from but generally they remain on the school premises. The school managers and head teachers instead of pro- cooperation of the school managers (who are in ad- jected quantities (as was done for the three pre- ministrative charge of the schools in their parish) was vious phases). New titles will still be distributed enlisted after consultation with the education secre- on the basis of projections. taries of the various proprietors (religious groups) and school managers themselves, as well as some head Phases 1 and 2 went as planned. A different course teachers. The school managers therefore represent a was taken for the other phases for several reasons. Be- very important link, and their cooperation is of the cause the life expectancy of the books was about three utmost importance. For this reason, many meetings years, there was no need for a distribution covering the were (and are) held with them. For reasons of clarity complete enrollment during the third year. During the and to avoid misunderstandings, guidelines were drafted third year, considerable quantities of the replenish- for the people conducting these meetings. The radio is ments sent to the schools were returned to the BSU- sometimes used to inform school managers when de- TSRP warehouse. The supply of book lockers, together livery is due so that they can make appropriate arrange- with the initial requirement (later relaxed) that no books ments. be taken out of school, kept books in good shape except For the most part, head teachers collect their con- in Thaba Tseka, where book lockers had been late in signments from the school managers. Sometimes the arriving. Furthermore, by the third year there were school manager will deliver: it is largely a question of enough books in the system and saturation appeared to cooperation. In some areas, missions have transport have been reached. Shortages might still exist in some available-often a four-wheel-drive vehicle. In more schools and surpluses in others, but school managers remote, geographically difficult, and probably poorer and head teachers were encouraged to help each other areas, the only transport may be horse or foot. Hence out. A nationwide inventory of textbooks was made in weight limitations on parcels are important. December 1985. Phase 3 followed the same pattern as phase 2, except It had been hoped that one of the two local publishers that distribution was confined to replacements and new would handle the packing and distribution of the books, titles. Volume was therefore considerably smaller (about at least for the trial stage. Because of a difference of 400,000 books). opinion, however, the idea had to be abandoned. It was Phase 4 has now been reached. Packing will be done decided that the TSRP and BSU would undertake the task, by the TSRP and BSU on demand, except that new titles which incidentally would give them valuable experi- will still be dispatched in quantities based on projec- ence. tions. Alternative distribution systems were considered: During phase 1, 50,000 books were sent by the var- mail, food, beer, and cigarettes all find their way to ious publishers to the TSRP-BSU warehouse, where they remote locations; the post office, some commercial firms, were packed for distribution to Thaba Tseka. A truck and certain food agencies (local or international) have 182 Albert Aime and John Overton their own distribution systems. All these alternatives "Property of the Ministry of Education" on the books were found to be unsuitable for various reasons-usu- it was made obvious that they were government prop- ally timing or cost. There was also a serious wish to erty. build up expertise. Even a helicopter was considered for exceptionally difficult areas. Administration Warehousing Forms were designed for various stages of the dis- tribution process, some of which were subsequently Major considerations for warehousing included the produced as computer printouts: seasonal nature of textbook distribution and the con- • Packing instructions (for the publishers-now sequent relative emptiness of storage space for a large computer printout) part of the year; the utilization of warehouse space for items other than books; and logistical needs-regional • Invoices (to the school managers of parishes and depots, staffing, and security. The ssu was fortunate in others-now computer printout) that a well-built warehouse had been constructed for • Textbook delivery note (from the BSU to the parish) the TSRP some years before and there happened to be • Textbook receipt note (from the head teacher via room for the storage and packing of the 50,000 books the manager to the Bsu) for Thaba Tseka (phase 1). For phase 2, when storage • Textbook amendment note (for the exchange of space was required for a large number of previously books) packed books, additional space was rented. • Fee receipt note (from the head teacher to stu- Turnaround between delivery from the publishers and dents) dispatch to the parishes was prompt. The supplier of • Goods consignment note (for other items sent by the largest number of cartons cooperated in scheduling the TSRP and BSU to schools). deliveries, so there was always room to assemble cartons from all publishers into batches for parishes and dis- Calculations of quantities were facilitated by the use tricts before trucks were loaded. Further BSU needs (the of data in the mainframe computer used by the Ministry storage of surpluses-phase 3) were accommodated in of Education's Planning Department. These data had the old warehouse, to which a mezzanine was added. been collected from schools by questionnaires on en- but such stores will eventually be transferred to a new rollment and number of teachers. The first computer warehouse to be built as part of a later World Bank loan enrollment data were produced at the end of 1981. En- when the Book Supply Unit becomes a School Supply rollment projections were made for the year 1983-the Unit with wider responsibilities. This new warehouse year of the pilot project. Enrollment increases were will coincide with phase 4 of the distribution plan. calculated according to information supplied by the Meanwhile, books being reprinted will be stored largely Planning Department. at the publishers' own warehouse, to be transferred A two-year projection became the norm . although when the new warehouse is ready. repeated attempts were made to reduce it to one year. Because each parish mission was a distribution center With a two-year projection, the books needed in schools and became a small storage area, the need to organize at the beginning of, say, 1986 had to be ordered no additional warehouse space in outlying parts of the later than June of 1985 (or earlier, depending on the country was avoided, at least in the early stages. This printer). Estimates (or quotations) were needed some question is, however, continually under review. In the time before this for the Tender Board to consider. meantime, school managers have been encouraged to Some shortages were experienced for the trial dis- carry a little stock and have been issued book lockers tribution in Thaba Tseka, but since quantities were in which to maintain surplus. comparatively small and were for the most part supplied In view of unavoidable differences between the num- from stock, no insuperable problems were encountered. ber of books issued to schools (projections} and the Nevertheless, the experience alerted the project plan- actual enrollment, it was hoped that head teachers could ners to the necessity of adjusting enrollment projections exchange books through the school manager and that for subsequent years. Later, when the evaluation of the stocks at the ssu would be used only if demand could pilot distribution found larger enrollments than ex- not be met at the parish level. This system has worked pected, increases were calculated for each grade sepa- fairly well. School managers have many other things to rately. · do, and a modicum of training is still required. Although A loss factor was built into the calculations to take stock keeping may not have been perfect, there have care of books lost for various reasons. Based on expe- been no obvious losses except through some wear and rience elsewhere, this was estimated to be 30 percent tear and natural disasters such as a fire. By printing of books at schools for grades 1 through 3, and 15 The Textbook Project in Lesotho 183 percent for grades 4 through 7. These were eventually manager before submission is made to the MOE and the found to be overestimates, largely because of the pro- ssu. No charge is made for teachers' books or for their tection afforded by book lockers combined with the copy of the students' book. restriction on taking books home, and the excess stocks The process of payment and recovery of fees was made were used to replace worn-out books. Allowance was official through appropriate legislation. The ssu estab- made for schools which had not made statistical re- lished accounts at existing bank branches in major cen- turns, and adjustments were made from existing stocks. ters where the fees collected by the school managers Quantities of teachers' books were similarly based on from the head teachers are deposited. These funds are computer enrollment data and were annually adjusted transferred at regular intervals by the bank to the in- according to the intentions of the MOE as published in terest-bearing account in Maseru. The ssu also accepts the Education Sector Review. Generally, enough books funds at its offices from head teachers or school man- were ordered for the first national distribution to allow agers who prefer this method of collection. for several years' supply. Copies of the students' books Head teachers are required to issue receipts for each were also made available for use by the teacher. fee received from every student. Receipt books for this purpose are issued by the ssu to all schools. Invoices Evaluation are addressed by the ssu to all school managers, show- ing what is due from all schools in their parish, in- An evaluator visited the pilot area to assess the dis- cluding the collective totals. Questions of security nat- tribution process and the effects on attendance. He found urally feature in decisions as to the best method of that primary enrollments were about 14 percent higher collecting funds. than those forecast from the previous year; school at- Since book supplies are based on projections, there tendance was more regular; teaching had been greatly will be differences between calculated and actual en- facilitated; teachers had benefited from in-service train- rollment and consequently between the actual sums due ing but they felt that three days of training were in- from the various schools and the invoices. As with stocks sufficient; lockers were a good investment because the of books, there are shortages in some schools and sur- book losses had almost stopped since their arrival; na- pluses in others, but totals on a parish or national level tional exams at the end of the first year saw a great are close to calculation. Differences can always be rec- improvement in the children's results-in fact, 100 onciled against the statistical returns made by the schools, percent more children from this rural district had ob- although it may not be possible to do this until six to tained first- and second-class passes; and book-user fees nine months after invoice. appeared to be set at a reasonable level because more The problem will eventually resolve itself when phase than 90 percent of the children from this poor rural 4 of the distribution plan has been reached (the delivery area had been able to pay. of books against requisitions from head teachers or school The evaluator also found many problems: Some schools managers). In any case, a minimal allowance of 10 per- had not expected the government to supply textbooks cent was built into appraisal calculations to compensate and had obtained their own books, which children were for the exemption from fees for poor families; the free expected to purchase in addition to paying user fees for provision of teachers' guides and student books for the government-provided texts; books were required to teachers; and administrative problems in the transmis- remain at school, although allowances were made in sion of funds. the upper grades for books to be taken home; in Thaba No system is immune from slow or forgetful payment, Tseka, books suffered as a result of the late delivery of and appropriate action has been necessary in a few cases. lockers; and more involvement of the inspectors in teacher In the final analysis, however, results have been very training was necessary. Much thought has been given satisfactory, with receipts at the end of 1984 in excess to future evaluation. Very detailed questionnaires have of 80 percent of the total invoiced. The interest earned been prepared as a basis for internal discussion. by the deposited sums has increased this percentage to slightly more than 90 percent, the figure initially an- ticipated. Finances: the Revolving Fund From 1984 on, receipts were fairly steady, showing a slight annual increase, reflecting, in turn, an enroll- A system was established whereby students can rent ment increase. The cost of books has fluctuated con- their books: in grade 1 for M2.00, in grades 2, 3, and siderably: in 1984 there was a large purchase for the 4 for M3.00, and in grades 5, 6, and 7 for M5.00. No first national distribution; in 1985 replenishment only; rental fees are charged to students of very poor families and 1986 would have been similar to 1985 but for the who in the opinion of the head teacher cannot afford fact that two extra subjects were included. The inclusion to pay them. These decisions are reviewed by the school of workbooks for mathematics in grades 1 and 2 will 184 Albert Aime and John Overton mean the purchase of books for every student in those instructions until the project could tackle this itself by grades every year. New titles will replace old ones for 1986. A computer was used to produce these instruc- some time to come. In view of the three-year life of tions, consequent invoices, and other items, and even- books, it would appear that expenditures will be high tually the project acquired its own desktop computer. every three years. Against this, however, there has been The project was further expanded by the inclusion of a steady buildup of stocks which may be used to re- two extra subjects. Not least, a team was developed able plenish supplies. Small stocks of book lockers will serve to manage and run the operation-the Book Supply the purpose for some time. Unit. Any divergence from the original plan was due to continuous review of the existing structure. The project Achievements of the Project changes (usually in response to unforeseeable events) received the full support of the World Bank, whose Implementation of the Lesotho textbook project was flexibility in this regard was much appreciated. assisted by the long gestation period of two and a half Instead of having full-time technical assistance, the years between first thoughts and project appraisal. Dur- project had a textbook specialist as a consultant. Having ing this time, the dialog between the Ministry of Ed- good people in key positions gave stimulus for devel- ucation and the World Bank gave all those concerned opment. Nevertheless, care was taken in making changes. (school managers, head teachers, and others) the op- Time is needed to get used to a system; leeway or tol- portunity to appreciate and digest all the issues. Addi- erances must be allowed for in plans for development. tional advantages were that the project was handled by A project does not consist only of the facts and figures a unit-the Training for Self-Reliance Project-al- presented in reports: leadership needs to be provided. ready experienced in working with the World Bank and This is a dynamic process which has to be shaped to fit statistics were collected and organized on the main- the moment (difficult to categorize) so that people will frame computer attached to the Planning Department acquire a sense of pride and achievement and the ability of the MOE. to carry on by themselves. Leadership has been evident Among the highlights of the project were its evolu- in the project in that, in the key positions, responsi- tionary approach, considerable public-relations exer- bilities were taken seriously. Appropriate delegation al- cises, continual detailed planning and "number- lowed others to get on with their specific tasks, subject crunching," and the stubborn determination to have only to regular managerial and administrative proce- books in the right place at the right time. A very im- dures. portant factor in the success of the project was the The major achievement of the Lesotho textbook proj- decision to supply book lockers, most schools having ect has been simply that objectives have been realized- either insufficient storage space or none at all. As a perhaps not exactly in the way foreseen, but near enough. basis for distribution, there was a detailed mapping Books in the three core subjects-shortly to be in- process. The walls of an office were completely covered creased to five-are now available to all students, and with maps on which routes to schools were planned the revolving fund to be used once the credit period with pins and string. The packing of books for each has expired is at present ·sufficiently large to provide for school was done by the publishers according to prepared . the replacement of books. 14 Regional Development of Textbooks: The English-Speaking Caribbean Pat E. Malone Developing textbooks for use in many countries carries • Volunteer talent and energy were utilized. visions of a large-scale, expensive, highly bureaucra- • Relative freedom from cumbersome bureaucracy tized process. It also implies a long-term operation, with allowed the organizations faster response to needed much discussion over content, production, cost, and changes. distribution. In the normal context of textbook devel- • The process of book development was completed opment within one country, there can be many discor- in a short time. This process included needs as- dant views which might jeopardize the successful com- sessment, training in writing, editing, graphics, pletion of any textbook. How does one decide between use of local personnel, cross-national coordination, opposing viewpoints, and who makes the decision? This and ongoing evaluation. Yet the total development situation becomes magnified in a regional situation in- cost was relatively low. volving several countries. Individual views can become hidebound policies of ministries of education and make Because of these features, it is worth examining the it most difficult to resolve differences. project to determine whether it is an isolated case or a The subject of a textbook can make content decisions viable alternative to the usual process of textbook de- either relatively easy or exceptionally difficult. If the velopment. content deals with culture and local styles of living, agreement on content and how it is presented will not be easy. Many regional differences may exist within one Background country; yet for the textbook to be appropriate for the students, it must reflect their local situation. The countries which comprise the English-speaking The case study in this chapter is unique because it Caribbean are Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, British tells how textbooks were successfully written and pub- Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, lished for fourteen English-speaking Caribbean coun- Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, tries in a subject, home economics, that is culturally Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad quite sensitive. These countries, although they have and Tobago, and Turks and Caicos. The total distances many common elements, also have a heritage of jeal- are considerable, ranging from the South American ousies and rivalries. coastline to the Central American coastline and up to Professionals in the subject worked through their the North American coast. professional organization (representing the fourteen de- These countries share a heritage of British colonial- veloping countries) with a corresponding organization ism. As a result, their educational systems have been from a developed country. This grass-roots approach modeled after the British where the secondary level is (rather than the usual lending-agency-to-government divided into two segments-junior secondary and se- method) had several positive features: nior secondary. (The one exception to this system is • The participants were motivated because they would Turks and Caicos.) The duration of each segment varies be the users of the texts. ' from country to country. The number of years at the 185 186 Pat E. Malone primary level ranges from six to eight, with the majority on the agriculture. Family living is particularly reflec- having seven. tive of a country and its culture. For this reason, text- The junior secondary range is three to five years. Six books written for one country usually are not useful in countries have five years and six countries have three. another because they do not reflect its conditions. As In all but four (Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, and British of 1979, most of the home economics textbooks being Virgin Islands), however, the junior secondary entrance used in the English-speaking Caribbean were from the level is at age twelve. Frequently, this is referred to as United Kingdom, Canada, or the United States. The few eleven plus. The senior secondary level ranges from tvvo Caribbean books available were generally concerned only to five years, with the majority at two years. with foods and food preparation. Often there were no Generally, there is a common entrance examination teaching materials for teachers or students. at age eleven plus for admission to secondary school. This is set and marked by the individual country. The students are required to sit for various external exam- Evolution of the Project inations, however. The London City and Guilds Ex- amination, the Royal Society of Arts Examination, and In 1976, the International Federation for Home Eco- the Associated Examining Board General Certificate of nomics held its Thirteenth World Congress in Ottawa, Education Examination are examples of external ex- Canada. One resolution was to encourage home eco- aminations which are mainly for students of technical nomics associations to develop "twinning" relation- schools. The most familiar is the General Certificate of ships. Twinning was viewed as an opportunity to develop Education, Ordinary Level (0 Level), which is written closer ties between home economics associations of de- at the end of grade 11 and has international recognition. veloped and developing countries and to further the It is set and marked by personnel in the United King- general goals of home economics education. This twin- dom. If the student wishes to attend a university, then ning mechanism was also perceived as a useful tool for a further two years must be completed and another bringing about cooperative projects between the part- examination-General Certificate of Education, Ad- ners. vanced Level (A Level)-set and marked in the United The Canadian Home Economics Association (CHEA), Kingdom must be taken. which was particularly supportive of this idea, encour- As the countries gradually obtained their indepen- aged local affiliates to form international development dence from the United Kingdom, an external examining committees. In 1978, the OlEA received funding from authority was viewed as an infringement of the national the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) educational system. Of more importance, the content to run an international development workshop. This of many of these examinations was frequently inappro- brought together foreign students studying home eco- priate to the Caribbean. If a student used correct Ca- nomics in Canada, home economists from across Can- ribbean examples that the British examiners were un- ada, and guest home economists from other countries. familiar with, then frequently these examples were The workshop was so successful that it has become an marked wrong. annual event. The countries worked together to establish the Ca- That same year, the Caribbean Association of Home ribbean Examinations Council (cxc). It not only acts as Economists (CAHE) requested general as well as specific a regional examining authority, but also is charged with professional assistance. The CAHE is a professional or- curriculum development in the various subjects. Each ganization of home economics educators with members country has a cxc advisory committee with members drawn from the fourteen English-speaking countries in from the teaching profession and the general com- the Caribbean. The CAHE's request was forwarded to the munity. Development and marking of different subjects CHEA, which then approached its largest affiliate, the are being phased in gradually; home economics was Toronto Home Economics Association (THEA), with the scheduled to be in effect by June 1982. suggestion that it twin with the CAHE. The request met Home economics covers general principles applicable with a favorable response because THEA had just formed to any country, but its content must reflect the country an international development committee and about 10 and its culture. The stated goal is to improve the quality percent of Toronto's population was West Indian. The of individual and family life. Content includes such top- president of the CAHE attended the 1979 CHEA Inter- ics as consumer education, family living, family eco- national Development Workshop for discussions with nomics, health education, nutrition, food preparation the THEA representative, and twinning was formally an- and service, and clothing and textiles. Whereas, say, the nounced between the two organizations. This was the benefits of vitamin C will be consistent in developed first twinning relationship to be established. and developing countries, local food sources high in Although both are home economics associations, the vitamin C will vary from country to country depending composition and structure of THEA and the CAHE are Regional Development of Textbooks 187 quite different. THEA has a membership of more than 1980 between the CAHE president and secretary and two 650 professionals, who work in industry, government, TI-IEA cochairmen to discuss the stages. In April, a con- business, and education (about 30 percent are in edu- ference in Antigua (where the president resided) would cation). Eight monthly newsletters are sent out, and bring together the members of the CAHE executive board eight meetings are held each year. Membership must (who were from different countries) and the CAHE rep- be renewed yearly by mail. The CAHE has a membership resentatives from all fourteen of the Caribbean coun- of behveen 150 and 250, of whom 90 percent are teach- tries. The plan would be presented to them, along with ers. Ideally there are members from each of the fourteen a specified quantity of survey questionnaire number 1. countries, but this varies from year to year, as do the The purpose of the survey was to evaluate current ed- membership numbers; in 1979, the CAl-lE had no mem- ucational materials and to determine what levels and bers from the Bahamas. The CAHE holds a biennial con- topics were most in need of development and revision. ference (in a different country each time), and renewal The survey was also to identify resources and possible of membership is based on attending this conference. writers. Each representative would return to her coun- No renewal notice is sent by mail. One magazine is try and distribute the questionnaires to home econom- printed every two years, but members do not automat- ics teachers for completion and return to the CAHE pres- ically receive it as part of their membership. Financial ident in Antigua. support comes from membership fees as well as from A rough draft of questionnaire number 2- to identify the sale of magazines. Communication is difficult be- Caribbean life-styles-was circulated to the executive cause of lack of funds and great distances. board for discussion and finalization. This questionnaire Discussions about twinning were held between the was for use by the writers and would be sent from and CAl-lE president and the THEA representative. The CAHE returned to THEA. Each representative and CAl-lE exec- demonstrated willingness to twin but indicated that utive would receive a quantity of copies (roughly pro- twinning was not going to solve its immediate needs. portional to their country), which would then be divided More direct help was requested-equipment, supplies, among other home economics teachers to administer and the creation of suitable textbooks that reflected the to a sample population. full scope of home economics in the Caribbean. The A Canadian consultant, a home economist with teach- creation of textbooks was considered a project that could ing experience, would be hired for eighteen months to be developed cooperatively-as opposed to the concept live in Antigua and facilitate the writing of texts of donor-recipient that would pertain to equipment and throughout the Caribbean region. The resulting manu- supplies. In any case, THEA was a nonprofit organization scripts would be multicopied by THEA, sent to the Ca- that could volunteer human capital but not money. ribbean countries, and pretested in the classroom. The The CAHE president felt the most urgent need for texts manuscripts would then be revised (as indicated by the was at the junior secondary level-in conjunction with pretest), and camera-ready copies for printing would be the development of the home economics syllabus by the delivered to the CAHE by December 1981. cxc. The texts would serve two functions: help teachers During the preparation of the proposal there was to teach their students and, on a broader level, reach much discussion of whether the texts should be printed adults in the home through their children. To serve in Canada. On the one hand, it could be argued that these two functions, the books needed to be very in- the books would be quickly printed and ready for use. expensive and readily accessible. It was agreed that THEA On the other hand, there was concern that this could would spend the fall of 1979 looking for funding and be perceived as interference by outside ministries of designing a cooperative plan to develop the desired texts. education and that it would be preferable to have them THEA (through the CHEA) approached CIDA for funding. printed in the Caribbean region, even if this caused a A proposal submitted to CIDA was accepted in January delay. Although this latter alternative was the final de- 1980. One obvious difficulty in developing the proposal cision and was written into the proposal, the CAHE pres- was that it was done in isolation by one partner with ident and other executive board members did not under- only one telephone call to the CAHE president to discuss stand what was involved, and THEA members did not the contents. The need for closer dialog between the perceive this lack of understanding until later. Dialog twins became evident in subsequent misunderstandings during the development of the proposal could have clar- of, and additions to, components of the proposal. Funds ified this problem. The budget for the project was to be were not available at the time to facilitate this dialog. Can$99,000 from CIDA, Can$3,000 from THEA, Can$42,000 A recommendation for closer initial collaboration has in kind from THEA, and Can$61,500 in kind from the benefited subsequent twinning projects by other CHEA CAHE (in kind means volunteer service). The final figures affiliates. were Can$102, 728.50 from CIDA, Can$4,100.96 from THEA, The plan for the project was to be completed by De- Can$60,000 in kind from THEA, and Can$65,000 in kind cember 1981, with a preliminary meeting in February from CAI·iE. 188 Pat £. Malone Process the role of the CAHE consultant assumed greater im- portance. The first meeting in February between the THEA co- In retrospect, the resignation of the Canadian con- chairmen and the CAHE president and secretary revealed sultant worked to the advantage of the project. Although problems as a result of developing a plan when there the Caribbean countries have much in common and had not been adequate communication. The president work closely together in many areas, they are still sov- felt that there should be a CAHE consultant as well as ereign states within the region. Interisland jealousies the proposed Canadian consultant. Although this was have existed in the past, and this heritage of rivalry is not in the budget as approved by CIDA, some artistic reflected in the feelings of many of the nationals of each rearrangement was managed to satisfy her concern. The country. Had the consultant been located in Antigua solution to this problem illustrated the need for flexi- for eighteen months as was planned, she would have bility among partners as well as flexibility in the plan been perceived rightly or wrongly as being closely aligned itself. with the participants in that country. Because of the From February to April, the job of the CAllE president restructuring, the THEA personnel were perceived as was to communicate the plan to her executive board being neutral, especially as the Toronto Caribbean com- and to notify the CAHE representatives of the April Con- munity consisted of ex-nationals from all fourteen coun- ference. THEA personnel were to hire a Canadian con- tries. sultant and to prepare finished copies of questionnaire The restructuring required a THEA person to act as 1 and a rough draft of questionnaire 2. Because she project administrator and liaison with the CAHE. It also would play a pivotal role in implementing the plan, it necessitated hiring a writing specialist. arranging for- was hoped that the Canadian consultant would be hired mal workshops on writing and editing techniques, and in time to attend the conference so that the executive bringing together writers in one location. (Previously board and the CAH~: representatives could meet her. the plan had been for the Canadian consultant to move The April conference in Antigua served a number of from country to country and from writer to writer.) purposes. It was an opportunity for the CAHE executive During the fall of 1980, questionnaires 1 and 2 were board to meet and discuss other business in addition tabulated. The project administrator met with the CAHE to that of the project. It allowed THEA personnel to meet consultant to discuss the revised structure in Antigua all the members of the CAllE executive board and CAHE and to plan for the writing workshops. The first work- representatives, and it allowed the CAHE executive board shop was arranged for January 1981. But there was to select a CAHE consultant-the president herself was difficulty in communication over the selection of the selected. writers. The CAHE consultant was of the opinion that The CAHE assured its representatives that a letter would they had already been fully identified in questionnaire go out to all the countries' ministries of education ex- 1. That was not the case: some names had been sug- plaining the project and requesting their support. Un- gested, but nothing had been finalized. THF.A felt that fortunately, these letters were never sent, and ministries the CAHE consultant should select the writers in con- of education subsequently heard of the project in an sultation with the executive board. informal manner and at different stages. In some in- The CAHE consultant made two suggestions that, again stances, the local writer was with the ministry; in others, in retrospect, were wise. One was to select the writers THEA personnel approached the ministry when they vis- from as many countries as possible to ensure broad ited the country for a workshop. At two of the confer- representation; the rationale was to gain more accep- ence-workshops, the minister of education opened the tance for the books with the various ministries of ed- proceedings. Subsequently, at a regional meeting of the ucation in the knowledge that their local people had ministers of education, the project was discussed as a been involved. The second suggestion was to hold the viable way of developing textbooks. All the ministries workshops in different countries-for essentially sim- were most cooperative when approached. ilar reasons. The Canadian consultant arrived in Antigua at the The CAHE consultant identified and contacted the beginning of July and two weeks later, for personal twenty selected writers, who represented ten countries reasons, was forced to resign. This immediately put the out of the fourteen. Each was to receive an honorarium. project into a crisis. The decision had to be made whether All were teachers essentially without writing experience. to restructure or cancel it. Restructuring it would mean Often selection was based on who the consultant knew operating it from Toronto, with THEA personnel going in the country or who was the head of the local home down to the Caribbean more frequently to perform the economics association. Much prestige was accorded to role of the Canadian consultant. This method of oper- the writers selected. ation was not congenial to CIDA, but the decision was It was decided to hold the first workshop in Saint made to continue the project. A consequence was that Lucia. In preparation, THEA hired a writing specialist Regional Development of Textbooks 189 who was also a home economist to provide training in it was impossible in the allotted time. Special equip- writing techniques and simple graphics for the teachers. ment had been needed, and it was planned to leave this Later, there would be a workshop on editing techniques. equipment with the CAHE to assist in the preparation THEA prepared kits for each writer, including such ma- of graphics for their magazine. At the end of the week, terials as clipboards, paper, graphics, and writing equip- one of the members residing in Trinidad agreed to do ment. Also included in the kits were the results of ques- further work using this equipment and to forward the tionnaire 2 identifying Caribbean life-styles. results to Toronto. From August to October, further At the January workshop in Saint Lucia (held over a manuscripts were received and put on the word pro- weekend under the direction of the writing specialist), cessor, and two THEA personnel worked on graphics to the writers divided themselves into seven groups rep- prepare the manuscripts for pretesting. resenting the seven subjects identified in questionnaire Each writer was sent two sections- her own and one 1. They used as a guide the cxc home economics syl- other-along with evaluation forms. The writer had to labus, the results of questionnaire 2, their own preferred contact several teachers who would either read the ma- reference books, and their teaching experience. They terial and comment or teach a lesson from the material also identified the need for a glossary-because certain and comment. These comments were then returned to foods or practices were called by different names in the THEA writing specialist who, in conjunction with different countries. By the end of the weekend, they the CAHE consultant, reviewed them and made correc- were to have written one chapter of their chosen sec- tions on the word processor. In addition, representatives tion. The degree of dedication and mutual support shown from the Roman Catholic Church in Saint Lucia read by these women was truly commendable. the section on family living to determine whether it Between January and March each writer was to com- was suitable for Catholic Caribbean countries. The sec- plete half of her section and send it to the THEA writing tions on nutrition and food and food service were read specialist for word processing. These manuscripts were for accuracy by the Caribbean Food and Nutrition In- then to be taken to Barbados in April and used for the stitute (CFNI) in Jamaica. one-day editing workshop. Each writer learned editing Although this pretesting was planned for September techniques and corrected her own manuscript. This and October, in fact the first set was not sent out until workshop was arranged to precede the CAHE biennial October and the second not until December and Jan- conference so that it would allow the writers to attend uary. This process took until April 1982 to complete. the conference and do some public relations with The responses to the pretesting were most revealing. the CAHE members about the development of the texts. Most of the corrections were minor with the exception Some of the writers were elected to the CAHE executive of the sections on nutrition and food and food service. board. The pretesting by teachers not involved in the writing As the manuscripts developed, THEA and the CAHE brought forth comments such as "I learned as much as realized the need for better graphics to make the books the students" or "I never knew what parasites were more appealing. This had not been allowed for in the before," indicating a further value of the texts. original budget, and so it was necessary to go back to The major difficulty revealed by the pretesting was CIDA for further funding. The funds ($19,800) were that the sections on nutrition and food and food service granted, and a one-week graphics workshop was planned proved unacceptable to the CFNI as well as to some of for July in Trinidad. A graphics specialist who was also the other teachers. One difficulty was that the Caribbean a home economist was hired. Six of the writers who was in the process of going metric whereas all of the had exhibited drawing skills agreed to participate. All food preparation was in imperial measures. Then there writers indicated in their manuscripts what drawings, were other passages in the nutrition section that had sketches, and tables they wanted. It was hoped that by not been sufficiently addressed. The CFNI offered to help July all the manuscripts would be in Toronto and on revise these passages. The CAHE consultant was in agree- the word processor so that the graphics could be com- ment, and so the project administrator and writing spe- pleted and the project would still be on time. Of the cialist spent one week in March working with the CFNI twenty-one sections, however, only two-thirds were on the revisions. completed by July. Sections were still being sent to From April to June 1982, THEA personnel worked on Toronto as late as December 1981. the remaining graphics, revisions, and proofreading to The objectives of the graphics workshop were twofold: prepare the camera-ready copy for Caribbean Home to train the participants in graphic skills and ensure Economics in Action, books 1, 2, and 3. This copy was that the graphics for the manuscripts reflected the same · sent to all writers and the CAHE executive board for two Caribbean style. Every participant received a set of reasons: it was felt that all would like to see the final graphics materials. Although they worked late each night product, and there were some reservations about the in an attempt to finish all the graphics for the books, printing. THEA felt that the camera copy could serve as 190 Pat E. Malone a model from which each country might print if, for Publishing Process some unfortunate reason, the CAHE was unable to ar- range for regional printing and distribution. In June For the texts at the junior secondary level, the writing 1982, the CAHE signed a contract with Heinemann Ed- specialist had recommended a two-column format to- ucational Books (Caribbean) Limited to print and dis- gether with many illustrations representative of the Ca- tribute the books. The CAHE instructed THEA to send the ribbean life-styles so that the students would be able to camera copy to Heinemanr: Educational Books in Ja- relate to the material. Because the texts were to be maica, and THEA complied. developed only to camera-ready stage, it was assumed that the CAHE would be responsible for printing and distribution. As mentioned, however, there was poor Contact with Ministries of Education communication on this issue, and the CAHE assumed that THEA would make all the arrangements. THEA felt Originally THEA felt that most of the communication that this would be interference on their part and that about the project would be done in the Caribbean by it was a responsibility of the CAHE. At the same time, the CAiiE executive board and by writers through their the success of the project depended upon the books respective ministries of education. But it became clear being printed when the manuscripts were ready. Con- quite quickly that many of the participants lacked in- sequently, the task of exploring printing possibilities fluence with their ministries of education and required devolved on THEA in the same way as the communica- assistance from the CAHE. The CAHE, however, was not tions task had. in a position to lend this assistance to most of the Three possibilities became apparent. One was to se- representatives and writers because of a lack of direction lect a local printer from one of the countries-which within the CAHE executive board. As a result, the task raised a number of important questions. Which country devolved onto the THEA representatives every time they would be chosen? Would the other countries accept were in the Caribbean. These representatives viewed books from a printer not their own? Was the equipment themselves as professionals working with others of their sufficiently modern to produce books of the required profession; that they were perceived instead as Cana- quality? Where was the money to be found? Was the dians representing CIDA, however, seemed to work in CAiiE sufficiently well organized to manage the printing their favor. Consequently, THEA personnel arranged to as well as the distribution? meet with the staffs of ministries of education in the A recognized publisher was a second possibility. Such company of CAHE writers or representatives. a publisher would be seen as regional and therefore Meetings were held with the staffs of ministries of acceptable to all countries. But the CAHE could lose education (or the permanent secretary) of Antigua, Bar- control over the books and what was printed. Would a bados, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and publisher be interested in doing the books on the CAHE's Trinidad and Tobago each time THEA personnel were in terms? One publisher in Trinidad was approached but the country. That the husband of one of the writers was was not interested. then minister of education for Saint Lucia was also The third possibility was suggested by the Canadian helpful because through him news of the projectspread high commissioner in Trinidad. The Caribbean Aid to ministries in countries that THEA did not visit. THEA Council, located in Trinidad, could provide funds for a personnel also held meetings with the Canadian high regional project of this nature. It was still necessary, commissioners representing Barbados, Jamaica, and however, to find a company with suitable equipment Trinidad and Tobago to inform them of the project. for the printing job. Furthermore, the CAHE would have Press, television, and radio interviews were usually held to assume responsibility for overseeing the job and for during these visits, and THEA prepared a press release distribution. THEA kept the CAHE executive board in- for all writers to give to their local papers. formed of all these possibilities and left the choice to Usually THEA met with local home economics asso- the CAHE; but the CAHE executive board found it difficult ciations to discuss the project and enlist assistance for to come to agreement and no decision had been made the writers and participation in the pretesting phase. by January 1982. The decision was also made to use the THEA newsletter When THEA met with the CFNI in Jamaica· in March to communicate progress on the project, work-com- 1982 to revise the sections on nutrition and food and pletion dates for the writers, and news of the Caribbean food service, one of the Jamaican writers indicated that participants. A new column to present this information as a result of her press release, Heinemann Educational was started. Each member of the CAHE executive board, Books (Caribbean) Limited (HEB)-was interested in representatives, and writers received the THEA newslet- publishing the texts. They were interested because the ter monthly over the life of the project, and this com- material had been developed in the Caribbean and the munication link has continued to the present. CAHE gave it credibility. HEB argued that books would Regional Development of Textbooks 191 last longer with a glossy hard cover, but this suggestion were lower and because it is actually easier to dis- was resisted because it would raise the price consid- tribute books from the U.K. than, say, from Jamaica erably and did not fit the original CAHE criteria. to the rest of the Caribbean. In the case of this series, After much discussion over the next three months a these concerns remained uppermost in our calcula- contract was signed that gave the CAHE copyright as tions, considering the stated concerns of the CAHE. well as royalties and eliminated the need for the CAHE However, we took the decision that people would be to take responsibility for production and distribution. willing to pay a reasonable price for an attractively Revisions had to receive the CAHE's approval. A com- produced, sound textbook course, written and en- promise was reached on a soft glossy cover that would dorsed by the leading exponents of the subject in the be more appealing to the students but add less to the region. price per book. CAHE personnel spent the next two years working with Ian Randle, managing director of Heinemann (Ca- HEB on the revisions. By June 1984, books 1 and 2 of ribbean) Limited, described the problems of printing Caribbean Home Economics in Action had been pro- and distributing the texts in a letter to the THEA project duced; by January 1985, so had book 3. HEB introduced director: the books formally at the April 1985 CAHE biennial con- We faced a different set of constraints when the ference in Saint Lucia. THEA representatives attended, manuscripts first came to us. Our experience told us and everybody celebrated the completion of the books that we could not successfully market the series as and the successful international partnership. it existed. There were already two existing weB-en- trenched courses on the market, and to dislodge those Distribution courses the new series would have to at least look better. The major changes which we thought nec- In all fourteen countries, the usual procedure is to essary were: (i) complete copy-editing of the material; have a list of recommended books for each subject. The (ii) re-drawing of most of the illustrations; and (iii) teachers can then suggest which they prefer the stu- complete re-design of the books to provide for more dents to buy, usually from a retail bookstore. In some economic use of space with resultant reduction in countries, the government provides a book allowance length and cost. for each student; in others, the school purchases a set To have lower price, superior material, and proper of books for the classroom. coverage of the syllabus is not enough; buyers have HEB adopted the normal practice of distributing com- a conception of how a book should look, and unless plimentary copies to teachers and ministries of edu- it conforms to the popular conception of what a book cation, hoping that the teachers would ask for the books looks like, it will always be outsold by the competi- to be put on the list. Because so many countries had tion, even if that competition is more expensive. Pric- been involved in writing the books, it was assumed that ing was always a major concern of the publisher ... this exposure would cause teachers and local home eco- It influences the way the book is designed-that is, nomics associations to ask that the books be placed on its size, extent, the number and use of illustrations, the recommended list. The distribution figures for books the use of color, and the number of books to be 1 and 2 are shown in table 14-1. printed. Book 1 is the least expensive, book 3 the most. Ja- Having decided to completely revamp the three maica and Trinidad have HEB divisions which sell to the books, we then had to seek the assistance of Heine- rest of the Caribbean, but more often these countries mann (U.K.), partly because we had at the time an buy directly from London at the published price less 25 on-going co-publishing arrangement in other sub- percent discount. They then price the books according jects. We felt that the subject as well as the quality to standard markups. This explains the wide price var- of the material merited the design and production iation (as reported by the CAHE to THEA)-for example, expertise of our U.K. partners. We also needed finan- book 1 sells for as little as EC$15 (approximately cial assistance as the investment in a three-book sec- Can$7.50) in one country and for as much as EC$25 in ondary level textbook course is quite substantial. Quite another. apart from being a non-traditional subject, the new course would mean going against established com- petition so the financial risks were considerable. Use of Books Although the book was actually manufactured in the U.K., much of the editorial and other preparatory After the manuscripts were completed in June 1982, work was done in the Caribbean. We produced the the CAHE indicated to THEA that it would very much like book in the U.K. because the manufacturing costs THEA to arrange workshops in the use of the textbooks 192 Pat E. Malone Table 14-L Sales of Books in Six Countries, 3. How many copies have you (usually of books 1 and/or 2)? Country Year Book 1 Book2 Fewer than 6 = 60.5 percent Barbados 1984 405 15 More than 6 = 19.8 percent 1983 10 N/a 19.7 percent 2,500• 4. Has each student his or her own copy (usually of Jamaica 1984 200 258 books 1 and/or 2)? 1983 4,700 Grenada 1984 10 Yes = 14.8 percent 1983 No = 85.2 percent Saint Lucia 1984 50 5. How are the books used? 1983 Trinidad 1984 Text = 39.5 percent 841 1,831 1983 1,150 For teacher and/or student reference and research = 58.0 percent Saint Vincent 1984 N/a = 2.5 percent 1983 32 Penetration varied from country to country. Many -Not available. responses indicated that the books were being put on a. HEB Jamaica. the recommended list in the coming year. Both students b. Includes copies sold elsewhere. Note: The figures in this table are from Heinemann Educational and teachers liked the books, usually indicating the Books (U.K.) Limited. The number of books sold in 1985 was: book suitability of the level, the coordination with the cxc 1, 5.125; book 2, 3,409; and book 3, 3,908. This represents a 40 syllabus, and the relevance of the texts to the Caribbean. percent increase over 1984 sales. The publisher expected the books to be put on the junior secondary recommended book list in Trinidad Sometimes the books were being used in forms 4 and for the 1986-87 year, which would increase sales dramatically be- 5, although this was not intended. The purchasers var- cause the student population in Trinidad is 40,000. ied from country to country-ministries of education, students, local home economics associations, schools, and teachers. for the teachers of the various countries. THEA was re- ceptive to the idea, but it felt that the books needed to Conclusions be more available throughout the region before work- shops were held and not until then could the nature of The union of two professional organizations-cAHE the workshops be decided. Would they, for example, be and THEA-to develop texts can be viewed as a success. used to develop a teachers' manual, lesson plans, or The twinning of nongovernmental organizations pro- visual aids to be used with the books or perhaps all of vided strongly motivated, involved professionals and grass- these? Questionnaire number 3 was sent out in June roots support, and an immediate benefit was the pro- 1985 to obtain answers to these questions. Some of the duction of texts with the help of content specialists. At information communicated by the responses is reveal- the same time, there was an enormous amount of vol- ing. unteer help with a high degree of individual commit- For questionnaire 2, the response rate was 73 per- ment. A question that comes to mind is whether this cent; this in itself indicates support and interest. For commitment could be duplicated in other situations. It questionnaire 3 (sent to a similar mailing list) the re- could be argued that where content specialists at the sponse rate was 23.5 percent, indicating a lack of in- grass-roots of a subject perceive a need, then the com- terest in workshops at that time. mitment could be duplicated-because these people A breakdown of the responses follows ("n/a" means would be the ultimate users of the product. not applicable): One problem was that the content specialists viewed their main task to be merely writing the texts. Little 1. Are the books available to you in your school? consideration was given to what happened after the texts Yes = 80.2 percent had been written. It was assumed that acceptance by No = 17.0 percent ministries of education would be forthcoming. It was N/a = 2.8 percent equally assumed that printing and distribution would follow naturally. Such assumptions were made primar- 2. Are books 1, 2, and 3 being used in your school? ily through ignorance of all the stages necessary for Yes = 43.2 percent successful production of texts. (In other instances, books 1 and/or 2 were being used.) One might argue that such a problem was not of Regional Development of Textbooks 193 major importance in the English-speaking Caribbean Ghana Education Service, the Ghana Book Develop- because the ministries of education were already work- ment Council is working closely with the GHSA. Thus, ing together closely in the development of the cxc and when the pretesting stage is reached, 5,000 copies of therefore anything which facilitated the cxc would be each book will be distributed to selected schools. This well received by them. This is true, but the fact remains would not be possible without the support of the Ghana that had not a publisher been found, the project might Education Service. well have foundered and the written material would A publisher was selected and a contract was signed never have reached the students because the ministries with the GHSA. The publisher agreed to provide an ed- could not have endorsed one set of books to the extent itorial consultant to assist writers and a graphics con- of publishing them-not unless they had been formally sultant to coordinate the graphics and written mate- involved since the beginning. The most that they could rials. The publisher also agreed to assume full financial have done would have been to place the completed books responsibility for publishing the books and to pay roy- on the recommended lists. alties to the GHSA-as with the Caribbean agreement, Ideally, cooperation during the project between the except that the contract was signed in advance of the content specialist and the publisher would have saved books being developed. The format of the Ghana text- valuable time and provided the specialist with needed books is similar to that of the Caribbean books, but expertise in the areas of production, format, and graph- book 1 is for forms 1-3, book 2 (which may be split ics. Furthermore, prompter contact with the ministries into two books) is for forms 4-5, and book 3 is a teach- of education might have helped with teacher workshops er's manual. and the development of manuals and visual aids, and it A Ghanaian consultant was selected, with a role very would almost certainly have led to immediate placement similar to that of the THEA project director. Such a of the texts on the book list. Obviously such an operation choice was quite feasible in this single-country situa- would be easier to repeat in a single country; but as tion, whereas in the Caribbean the "political neutrality" the recent operation has demonstrated, it is still pos- of the project director had been essential. The much sible among a group of countries in a region if the greater distance between Saskatoon and Ghana as op- countries have common interests and are already work- posed to Toronto and the Caribbean also made it a ing together. practical choice. The time period for the Ghana project is essentially the same as the Caribbean (two years), but because of the early involvement of the publisher and Ghana Twinning Project the Ministry of Education, the books are expected to be in circulation by the end of this period, whereas in the Some developing countries are cooperating in the Caribbean, a further two years were required to work development of their own version of the cxc-for ex- with the publisher. ample, the West African Examinations Council, which The publisher made it clear at the outset that pro- embraces Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. curement of paper would be a problem. As a result, the Indeed, another CHEA affiliate-the Saskatoon Home SHEA made arrangements with the Canadian Organi- Economics Association (SHEA)- is twinned with the zation for Development through Education to provide Ghana Home Science Association (GHSA) and is under- half of the paper requirements. The paper is expected taking a similar process of developing texts. The GHSA to be used for the final printing of the texts. had seen copies of the Caribbean books and wanted to The plates will likely be prepared out of the country develop a set for their own country. Before preparing and the books printed in Ghana. Quality is important a plan of action, the SHEA conferred with THEA personnel for the acceptance of the texts. There is a possibility about the THEA-CAHE experience. that they might be used regionally by the West African Ghana is adapting the Caribbean model. Two SHEA Examinations Council, which would mean wider dis- representatives went to Ghana to meet with their coun- tribution and higher sales. terparts and discuss the proposal for developing the In summary, the THEA-CAHE project evolved a process texts before the proposal was submitted. This eliminated for developing textbooks that was successful but had the problem of one twin developing the plan in isolation. some weaknesses. Repeating this process, the SHEA-GHSA The visit also included discussions with publishers and project improved upon the original and showed how it with officials of the Ghana Education Service. Thanks could be adapted to a single country. It is a process that to a previous meeting with the director general of the other countries might usefully adopt. Part IV The Future: Will New Electronic Media Make the Textbook Obsolete? What of the future? Are new instructional technologies, Perhaps the principal lesson to be drawn is that what especially the computer, likely to render textbooks ob- Olson and Sullivan and refer to as the "ecology of the solete or reduce them to a minor role in the classroom? school" is a powerful impediment to any rapid, fun- Some futurists have been suggesting that this will soon damental change in how teachers and children operate happen, and one hears the argument advanced that in classrooms. If, in the short to medium term, the new developing nations should vault over the textbook stage technologies are to have any significant impact on how of educational development and move as quickly as pos- education is conducted, it will most likely be in non- sible to the use of the new technologies. The final two school settings-for example, distance education and chapters represent a kind of debate about this issue. In postsecondary education. And even in such cases, the chapter 15, L. R. Fernig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert computer is likely to complement rather than replace Ohlman develop the argument for the utility of the new the printed word as an instructional medium. information technologies in the schools. In chapter 16, These final chapters also remind us that in many Edmund Sullivan and Paul Olson counter this with an developing nations the introduction of textbooks that ethnographic account of how computers are actually require teaching styles very different from those tra- used in schools. On the basis of their careful exami- ditionally in use represents an innovation as funda- nation of several schools in a rich country, Canada, mental (in Verspoor's terms) as computers in the schools which has made a significant fiscal commitment to the of a rich nation such as Canada. In such circumstances, educational use of computers, they conclude that the if one makes all the right policy and technical decisions computer "is unlikely to rival textbooks in the next fifty but neglects the ecology of the school, one will fail to years, despite the views of computer enthusiasts." This improve learning in the classroom. conclusion should give pause to any who are advocating the extensive introduction of computers in poor juris- dictions. 195 15 Will Textbooks Be Replaced by New Information Technologies? L. R. Femig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert Ohlman To put the matter baldly, two main problems occur with placed in a single volume, which served as a reference. textbooks: either they are available and teachers rely Modern publishing everywhere has become more so- too much on them-teachers teach the textbook de- phisticated and specialized (the canon now is one text- spite training to the contrary-or as often happens in book per subject per grade), but the increasing size of developing countries, textbooks are in too short supply the books, along with serial presentation (text, work- to be of much value. Let us then consider the function book, teacher's edition, supplementary readers, and so of textbooks more fully. forth) shows that the character of reference work has The textbook is a versatile tool for both teacher and not altogether disappeared. At the same time, the se- learner. Textbooks support teachers in several ways: lective filtering of information by the author remains they contain lesson material in graded sequence; they part of the hidden agenda. It has, however, been claimed help to structure and organize the learning experience that the surge of paperback publishing in industrial of the class; they assist the teacher in the daily task of countries has reduced the reference value of textbooks preparing lesson plans; and they provide recapitulatory in some subjects because it is often cheaper to make material and exercises to test progress. For the student, use of a group of original texts than a textbook author's textbooks can be conveniently carried from school to anthology. home and provide a summary record of each lesson. Yet another function of the textbook is to help stu- These are the qualities of good textbooks, as innumer- dents make links between what they learn in school and able official criteria for their selection indicate. Yet de- their apprehension of the outside world. But the printed spite (or maybe because oO such virtues, undue reliance word, even when illustrated by color graphics, must on the textbook makes for stereotyped, impersonal remain at some distance from direct sensory impres- teaching. In short, bookish teaching can be equated sions of sound, movement, and three dimensions; it is with passive learning. here that the role of the teacher becomes essential. The What is perhaps less obvious is that any textbook is place of textbooks in the classroom needs careful anal- based on a conception (the author's or the editorial ysis from the viewpoints of both teacher and student- body's) of the relationships and processes in teaching with an eye to the type of learning that the educational and learning-what may be called the hidden agenda. system wishes to promote. But to the extent that the This agenda may lead to varying pedagogical approaches textbook is the stand-alone medium, effects on learning favoring, for example, either an individual or a collective are likely to be negative. and either a constraining, repetitive or free, autono- In the traditional textbook, sections and chapters are mous view of education. Although not always obvious, arranged sequentially by subject to correspond with cur- this agenda will almost certainly exert a powerful in- riculum units or defined yearly grade objectives. The fluence in classroom encounters. full break with this tradition came in the late 1950s and Another function of the textbook is to provide ref- early 1960s with widespread interest in (and at times erence information. Encyclopedic textbooks were com- enthusiasm for) programmed instruction. This new mon until recently in some European countries; all the method of presenting subject material was developed subject matter to be taught in an elementary grade was from behaviorist theories of learning. Learning material 197 198 L. R. Fernig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert Ohlman was presented sequentially in small steps to which the The application of modern technology to printing has learner was required to react (stimulus-response) before brought about savings and improvements in textbook proceeding to the next step. As it developed, the meth- production. Electronic composition and photographic odology incorporated techniques for self-correction (for offset printing have reduced initial costs while main- example, "from step 36 return to step 20 and re-learn"), taining quality. But there is a limited economy of scale contained items for reinforcing what had been learned, when it comes to paper, which now accounts for an and supplied feedback and rewards for progress (for increasing part of the cost of a book. Thus, as developing example, "congratulations, you may now proceed to countries demand more textbooks, the amount of paper step 55"). The linear step-by-step procedure of Skinner used per student appears to be rising everywhere (a was modified by Crowder into a branching presentation, recent estimate gives 2 kilograms per student-year in and by others into skipping modes. Some early enthu- some industrial countries, 5 kilograms in an experi- siasts developed these texts into teaching machines that mental project in West Africa), and the cost of producing enabled the student to progress by turning a handle or paper is itself rising. At best, a shift to different print pressing a key. It was soon found, however, that the formats for the textbook (considered in a broad sense same results could be obtained through books, and a as a printed tool for learning) might entail economies number of textbooks were published wholly or partly in the quality of paper, ink, and binding. It is time, in programmed form. perhaps, to consider alternatives. By the early 1970s, enthusiasm for programmed in- struction had largely dissipated as it was found to be too rigid and limiting, whereas the educational expe- Mass Communication Techniques rience should embrace activity, discussion, and concept building. But one issue raised by this methodology re- The mass media-film, radio, television-have been mains of interest today because of the relevance to the with us long enough to exert an influence comparable new information technology. Programmed instruction to that of the traditional educative roles of such insti- permitted teaching materials to shift the emphasis from tutions as family, church, and school. The informal teacher-centered instruction to student-centered learn- education provided by the media is extremely pervasive. ing and raised several questions that remain unan- Initially, the media were used in formal education as swered. How far can the teacher be replaced or supple- teaching aids and for special programs-and are still mented for parts of learning (for example, drills and used to fill slots in the regular teaching schedule. A exercises)? For which students (for example, low achiev- more systematic approach was adopted by curriculum ers)? What then is the new role of the teacher? How far innovators of the 1950s and 1960s, whose patterns for should students be allowed to proceed at their own pace? teaching the sciences brought together printed material What are the effects on class organization and, even- with matching audiovisuals such as films, slides, loops, tually, on the curriculum itself? tapes, and so on. The learning package, as distinct from Where textbooks are lacking, their absence is con- the single textbook, was on its way. This use of the sidered detrimental to both learning and teaching. To media has improved the quality of teaching and in- provide books is no small undertaking-it includes the creased access to education by distance learning. Ex- preparation of texts (curriculum development, language perimental projects relating to both have been reported research), publication (whole publishing and printing extensively, and the conclusions relevant to the present industries may have to be created), and distribution to topic are summarized in the following sections. schools and students. Further difficulties are securing paper supplies and financing the entire textbook pro- Improving Teaching gram. Statistics about textbook production are difficult to Systematic radio programs have proved effective (for gather and compare because of differing methods of example, in Nicaragua and Thailand) in improving accounting. As a rough indication, in thirty-eight coun- teaching when focused on such subjects as elementary tries in Africa in 1982, the proportion of educational mathematics or English in which teachers are insuffi- budgets devoted to educational materials averaged 6 ciently trained. A number of developing countries con- percent but with a considerable spread between coun- tinue to use radio to provide or reinforce the in-service tries from 0.2 to 26 percent depending on what was training of teachers. A benefit of this medium is the included. Presumably textbooks accounted for only part low cost per student. This is an intrinsic merit of the of this expenditure, although in some instances it has mass media in general-once the program has been been claimed that textbooks alone absorbed 85 percent prepared, it can be broadcast again and again at little of the materials budget. cost to a large public. There is no evidence, however, Will Textbooks Be Replaced by New Information Technologies? 199 that radio programs have reduced the need for printed international program that makes use of a satellite com- materials; indeed, those programs which supplement munication system. Here too the emphasis has been on the teacher's skills usually require some form of text- developing packages of learning materials rather than book as a base. traditional textbooks. Books present information and Educational television was used extensively by the focus on teaching while learning packages, designed for government at the primary level in the Cote d'lvoire independent study, focus on student interaction with for more than a decade, again in an effort to improve the material. Experience with satellite broadcasting in the quality of teaching and to compensate for insuffi- the usP program has shown that it is better to send cient instructional materials. Although this bold ex- lecture material in print or on audiotape and then use periment did succeed in working out a methodology for satellite time for interactive processes-summaries, conveying the curriculum through television, it was questions and answers, clarification, and discussion. abandoned in 1982-83. Results were good for oral In distance learning projects, audiocassettes and expression and reasoning capacity but poor for written videocassettes have become a popular way of providing expression and numerical calculation. With the drop- permanent records of broadcast material. Audiocas- ping of television, the major problem facing the Min- settes have the particular advantage of widespread and istry of Education has been to revise the curriculum, generally standardized playback equipment; for science produce textbooks, and retrain teachers to use them. teaching, videocassettes can be used in the presentation of experiments. Distance Learning Nonformal Education The mass media have proved most successful in in- creasing access to education. Distance learning provides Where the objective of nonformal education is com- an equivalent formal education for students remote from munity development, the mass media are valuable for the teacher for much, most, or even all the learning communication. Radio programs, which are economi- process. These courses aim to be self-instructive, but a cal, have been used in many developing countries to variety of channels links students to a teacher-the present a wide range of subjects-agriculture, health, original one, still popular and a basis for the rest, being nutrition, child care, and self-help activities. In more correspondence. structured forms (as with listening groups and 1:\vo-way Intelligent use of the mass media can speed up dis- communication), the spoken word has proved effective tance learning, assist interaction between student and in linking information to local needs and interests, pro- teacher, and create the essence of an institution. One viding education without requiring learner literacy or striking example of a program to reach a scattered pop- printed materials. ulation is provided by the Australian outback system, which makes considerable use of two-way radio com- Conclusion munication for primary school children and also in- volves parents in the role of tutors. More numerous The application of the mass media to education de- examples are offered for higher education, whether the mands carefully prepared, indigenous programming. aim is to serve a population over a wide area-as in Broadcasts transferred from one national context to an- Australia, Alaska, and the University of the South Pacific other seldom work. It is difficult to organize a full mul- program-or to provide second-chance opportunities timedia distance education system (for example, like to a large population-for example, the British Open the British Open University) without a high level of University. related technology in the society. Hence, for most de- The British Open University, with more than 100,000 veloping countries, the mass media are used in a partial students, has explored most of the resources available way. What is more, the media do not replace textbooks; for distance learning. A combination of correspondence the design, content, and presentation of texts change, courses, radio and television broadcasts, recorded tapes, however, when they become the printed part of a learn- local guidance, and short residential courses link stu- ing package. dents and teachers. The special needs of distance learn- ing led the Open University to set up teams for preparing courses and materials, and the work of these teams- Electronic Media made up of subject specialists, editors, artists, media specialists-does not end when the initial materials are Many are aware of the widespread use of the computer completed because the process of revision is continu- in schools in North America, of the aim of the United ous. The University of the South Pacific (usP) has an Kingdom to equip all primary and secondary schools 200 L. R. Femig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert Ohlman with computers, and of the French objective to place computer-assisted learning, electronic publishing, and 100,000 computers in schools by 1988. In contrast to laser-optical media. textbooks and programmed instruction, which devel- oped within the educational establishment, the pressure Microcomputers for the use of computers and other new technologies has come from outside the school system. Moreover, The small, portable computer based on microelec- the computer is not just another teachers' aid; its use tronics has been one of the most remarkable achieve- raises fundamental questions about the nature of learn- ments of recent years. With ever-expanding sales, the ing, the acquisition of skills, and the way education is price of microcomputers has plummeted to the level of organized. consumer appliances. The educational impact of the A new information technology (NIT) is developing at computer has followed, if more slowly, the microcom- the point where three technological streams-micro- puter mass market. An early goal was computer literacy. electronics, computers, and telecommunications- For example, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) converge with a variety of products and processes for televised a series which explained to a wide public the handling information. It is no exaggeration to speak of nature and use of computers in society, the processes an information revolution, making it possible to record that make up computing, computer languages and pro- and store vast amounts of information, distribute it over gramming, applications of computers in offices and in- any distance, interrogate it from remote points, and dustry, and the concept of artificial intelligence. Other transform it to meet many different needs. In an all- media such as specialized periodicals, trade journals, embracing way, the NIT integrates older technologies and the daily newspapers created an awareness of the (telephone, radio, and television) with newer devices for NIT in general. In schools, the vocational aspect of com- storage and transformation (chip, disk) and display sys- puters-training in technology and in programming, tems (visual display units, synthesized speech). The in- usually grafted onto mathematics and technical courses tegration of these devices gives the NIT its power. in secondary schools-has become a recognized line of In daily life, the NIT affects all aspects of production, study. distribution, services, work, and play, laying the basis As an aid to teaching, work with mainframe com- for what is termed in the industrial Western countries puters in the 1960s usually relied on programmed in- the postindustrial society. Inevitably, the NIT is becom- struction techniques for drills, exercises, some subject ing an even more powerful educative force-capable of matter, and testing. It was soon found, however, that influencing people and changing behavior-than the this methodology made little use of the unique potential mass media of a previous generation. The challenge that of the computer. A more advanced approach to com- this represents to educators and to the traditional text- puter-assisted learning (CAL), based on specially pre- book industry has been forcibly expressed by Clive Brad- pared programs in which students work individually or ley, chief executive of the British Publishers Association: in small groups at the terminal, has come a long way since the 1970s, and today it constitutes a significant What is more, the technology is getting cheaper and school use of the computer. From the simple routine cleverer-more intelligent-every day. It is not such of the student posing a question, receiving a response a big step for the whole process of change to be (in the form of information on the screen), and then dramatically speeded up by the machines being pro- posing another question, much more sophisticated pro- grammed with the ability to write their own pro- grams for learning have evolved. These include the dis- gram-instructions and materials-so overcoming play of course materials on the screen, with the com- the biggest barrier of all, the human ability and time puter posing questions and, depending on the response, needed to transfer the world's learning from the mind directing the student to other parts of the program; the and the printed form we all know to the tape, disk, addition of visual displays and animation, sound, and chip. This transformation could change the transfer music to text; and the presentation of material in the of knowledge and ideas from the relatively passive form of educational games and simulations in which, medium of the book (supplemented by teachers, etc.) for example, students can see and manipulate the struc- to an interactive process with the computer. ture of a molecule, acquire skills in operating tools and Automated information processing is here, and the machines, or even drive a car or a plane. Perhaps it is future, though difficult to predict, will surely not see a in the element of play, where the distinction between reversal of the trend. The questions are: How can the playing and learning disappears, that student interac- NIT be applied to education? What will its effect be on tion with a computer gives CAL programs their re- textbooks? In seeking answers, we shall consider sep- markable educational power. The development of prob- arately some examples of the NIT-microcomputers and lem-solving techniques, often by the ingenious use of Will Textbooks Be Replaced by New Information Technologies? 201 images and special computer languages (such as Pap- which aims to equip all French schools with computers ert's LoGo), has permitted students to program the com- by 1988. In addition, innumerable spontaneous com- puter rather than the reverse. Consequently, the com- puter clubs for youth and adults have sprung up, and puter is opening up a vista of active exploratory learning the government has encouraged the provision of mi- that is radically different from conventional educational crocomputers in every community for less formal ed- practice. ucational use. The objectives of the French school pro- The literature records a wide range of experience with gram are to make informatics a part of general education, CAL at different school levels. In primary grades, com- to innovate with the NIT at all levels of education, and puter literacy and the ability to use the keyboard have (especially) to renew vocational and professional edu- served as a basis for more extensive work in subjects in cation by linking them to the world of work. The pro- the curriculum. Arithmetic and language courseware gram is being evaluated by the Institut National de have received most attention, usually in drill-and-prac- Recherche Pedagogique, which also makes available tice programs for remedial work and slow learners, but software produced both by teachers and by commercial problem-solving programs appear to be on the increase. publishers. Also, in other subjects such as social studies and general In the United Kingdom, with a more decentralized science, a number of CAL possibilities are being ex- system, there have been four national initiatives. The plored. For example, by adding simple sensors (for sound, Scottish Educational Department's program and the heat, and light) as microcomputer input devices, a range Ministry of Education's microelectronics program (1981- of physics experiments can be performed in the class- 84) for England and Wales provided information. advice, room. In secondary schools, the subject orientation of and training in curriculum development, software pro- the curriculum has given rise to a great deal of CAL duction, and software selection. In parallel, the Ministry programming- in mathematics, the sciences, lan- of Industry has been providing equipment to primary guages, and the other humanities, including art and and secondary schools. Then the BBC launched a Com- music. Simulations and modeling are used to introduce puters in Schools program for which a special micro- concepts in the social sciences and biology and to some computer has been developed, along with guidebooks, extent to teach interdisciplinary topics such as issues software, and regular broadcasts. These programs in in economic development and ecology. With the arrival schools are complemented by courses offered by the of microcomputers in the schools, the need to train Open University. Although all of these are ambitious teachers to use them has been met first by in-service national programs, current provisions will allow every arrangements at the local or national level and later by child in France only fifteen minutes a week with a com- appropriate courses during initial teacher training. puter and those in the United Kingdom slightly more; Computer-assisted learning applications are a key fac- although computer awareness might be achieved, many tor of educational development in the industrial coun- observers hold that at least fifteen minutes a day-or tries. Practice, however, has varied from country to about five times as much hands-on experience-are country. After a research project, Sweden decided to necessary for computer-assisted learning to be effective. concentrate on upper secondary and vocational edu- A major problem in these countries has been lack of cation. Switzerland followed suit, whereas Japan fo- good CAL courseware. Hundreds of programs exist, and cused on higher education. The United States, with the the supply seems to grow exponentially; but many are longest experience in the field and a decentralized sys- of dubious quality, and a bad program can set back the tem, has advanced in all aspects of CAL-experiments, learning process. Hence considerable attention is being programs, schemes for pooling resources and evaluat- given to the evaluation of available material in order to ing programs, and the design of computer languages guide principals and teachers in their choices. Ideally, for educational use (for example, PILOT, LOGO). Now the a program should be produced by a team comprising U.S.S.R. has announced a program for the introduction an experienced teacher, a cognitive psychologist, a com- of computers into its compulsory educational system. puter programmer, and a graphic artist-but such an The most systematic efforts to develop national pol- ideal is expensive. A French estimate is between $6,000 icies for CAL have occurred in France and the United and $25,000 for one hour of CAL, and a U.S. estimate Kingdom. The French educational authorities launched puts the price of a semester course at $100,000 (in- an experimental project in the mid-1970s that included cluding production costs). Specially designed software fifty-eight lycees and two types of in-service training for programming and new writing techniques will re- for teachers, one intensive and the other introductory. duce such cost, as will the eventual appearance of ma- Unfortunately, before it was possible to evaluate this chines responding to speech. But the preparation of project, the "10,000 computers" program was launched, good courseware will continue to demand effort and followed by the current "100,000 computers" program, ingenuity. 202 L. R. Femig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert Ohlman Meanwhile, broader questions need to be asked about ical distribution) by a system for storing information the impact of the technology on the school system. Is on magnetic or optical media (which can be distributed this new phenomenon just another fad like programmed either by these media or more and more via modes of instruction, destined to join it in the dustbins of edu- telecommunication). cational history? This seems unlikely, given the speed The storage capacity made available by the NIT has with which computers are entering all aspects of daily led to the creation of numerous large data bases. The life and work-plus the political pressure to comput- one most familiar to educators is ERIC in the United erize in countries not wishing to be left behind. What States, which now contains references to more than a appear to be the advantages, as yet not fully realized, half million educational research reports and periodical of the school use of computers? Computers: articles. Users can consult this vast store of information either by scanning a printed version or more rapidly by • Interact immediately with the student and serve reading it from a computer video display terminal. After to instruct, guide, and test in response to the stu- locating the studies in which they are interested, users dent's demands may examine the original texts by borrowing from a • Relieve the teacher of the drudgery of drills and library or ordering microfiche reproductions, which store repeated exercises and help slow learners to catch ninety-six pages of text in photographically reduced form up, thus allowing a more rational use of the teach- on a single 4-by-6-inch card. The industrial, commer- er's time cial, and scientific uses of data bases are legion and • Expand the resources available to the teacher and growing rapidly. Publishers have not been slow to adopt help in project and research work the technology, particularly those that issue reference • Stimulate children to explore, become problem works. At the same time, a new profession-informa- solvers, and work on their own; also are useful for tion vending- has come into being to provide access group or class activities in which children often to a range of data bases. appreciate the discipline and patience of the com- A related development is electronic mail, which is puter used to exchange personal messages and, sometimes, • Provide vocational and professional education to hold an electronic conference (teleconferencing). Al- • Improve the efficiency of school systems by re- though many publishers have been using the NIT in ducing failure rates and speeding up learning their day-to-day operations (for example, composing type by word processor), few have gone beyond this to take • Improve and extend distance education by linking the position that their business is not books or news- with modes of telecommunication. papers but information. The NIT offers customers the A different set of considerations arises for the pros- possibility of obtaining the information they need in a pects of CAL in developing countries. The cost of equip- variety of forms, both printed and on a screen. ment, training of specialists, and maintenance in ex- The print option can itself take on new forms: cus- treme climatic conditions are obviously basic problems tomized publishing is an attractive alternative which for introducing computers into many developing coun- overcomes the problem of providing too much infor- tries. Some industrializing nations such as Brazil and mation (in a mass-produced publication) by matching India already have ambitious programs to introduce customer requests with suitable data bases. Then only computers, but for most the paramount barrier is cost. those items which correspond to the customers' inter- When applying computers to education, the lack of soft- ests are printed out. ware and CAL programs and the cultural bias of imported Of even greater potential is the ability of the :-!IT material are serious obstacles. It also takes time to train systems to provide rapid feedback: users can consult the programmers, teachers, and administrators to use electronic data bases in minutes instead of waiting for CAL. A number of initiatives are now under way, how- days to receive their answers by mail. One example of ever, to exchange program specifications, research re- this approach is provided by videotex, with public sys- sults, and prototype programs for CAL, and each re- tems being developed in most European countries to ceiving country can add relevant material from its own link, through the telephone system, the user's television culture. screen to the computerized data bases of the informa- tion providers. Electronic Publishing The large U.S. publishing firm McGraw-Hill, well known in the textbook field, has made a corporate com- Electronic publishing has come to mean many things mitment to the NIT. The organization of McGraw-Hill to many people. One meaning is a complete replace- has been changed from one of traditional divisions by ment for traditional print media (which requires the publication to one of market focus groups that concen- printing of information on paper, packaging, and phys- trate their activities on specific industries. Writers and Will Textbooks Be Replaced b.11 New Information Technologies? 203 editors store their material directly in computer data characters but which allows frequent updating. This bases-information turbines-which can on demand could be an ideal medium for student records. turn out new information products ranging from in- For the first time since Gutenberg, we have a break- dividualized newsletters to a host of services. Another through in print-one which is extremely compact, feature of the new approach extends information input rugged, light, and machine-readable. Many information beyond text and pictures to comprise a multimedia tur- providers have already put selected data bases in this bine, so that a nevJ aerospace magazine, for example, form; for example, part of the catalog of the Library of is able to offer part of its content on videocassettes. Congress is available on CD-ROM as Bibliofile. So far, educational applications of electronic pub- lishing, videotex, and similar systems have been limited Impact of the NIT on Education because almost all data bases have been created for commercial, technical, or scientific needs. Probably the School systems, with their traditions, vested inter- same situation occurred in the past when the adult ests, and settled structures, are resistant to change. versions of reference works such as encyclopedias and Technological aids have had little influence on educa- dictionaries were followed by simplified ones for schools. tional practice, because they do not fit into the way Information, it is true, is not knowledge, and still less most teachers like or expect to organize their class- is it education; yet it does form the foundation. A good rooms and their teaching. Furthermore, few teacher- deal of education consists of providing the learner with training institutions make full use of the NIT, and their information and depends on what is available-from example is bound to influence the practice of their grad- . the teacher, the textbook, or the library. Implications uates. But the concepts of integration and of network- of this aspect of the NIT for schools include the need ing, which are intrinsic to the rm and which are ap- for students to know about, use, and feel at ease with parent in applications in industry, business, and the technology; and the possibility for teachers to ex- administration, may gradually convince effective edu- pand the range of information they themselves com- cational users to adopt a multimedia approach. mand and thus help their students analyze and evaluate Using a multimedia approach, the NIT in schools will information resources. A necessary step for information combine the microcomputer, access to television and professionals, publishers, and librarians will be height- radio broadcasts, and a range of media for storing in- ening their awareness of the value of developing data formation and for processing results of students' work. bases specifically for school use. The !\'IT expands possibilities for individualized instruc- tion and learning, allows each child to proceed at his Laser-Optical Media or her own pace, and copes with differences in ability and motivation. At the same time, the technology sup- Another alternative to paper and ink are new, all- ports group work, particularly small groups devoted to digital storage media which employ lasers for writing exploratory and project activities. Moreover, learning and reading. First, there are videodiscs 30.5 centimeters can take place through a full range of sensory-motor in diameter which can give random access to up to impressions: not from just text alone but from inter- 50,000 images, up to forty minutes of color motion action with the computer, still and moving pictures, pictures, with stereophonic sound, or any combination sound and music. To a large extent, all schooling is of these. With the addition of a small microcomputer, mediated learning-an alternative to direct experi- access to this material can be interactive, providing an ence- but the NIT offers two fresh advantages: range ideal medium for CAL. Videodiscs can be stamped out and exploration. It comes closer to representing the like phonograph records from masters at a small cost real world than anything previously available before in of less than $2 for materials. education, and it permits the student to explore that More recently, the compact disc has appeared-only world. 12 centimeters in diameter but storing up to an hour The extent to which the NIT will become a regular of very high-fidelity music. Since 1985, this technology part of school-based education depends on three factors. has been made available as the CD-ROM (compact disc- The first is the cost of providing the needed equipment read-only memory) for the storage of up to 500 million to schools. Many pessimistic forecasts have been made characters of information-equivalent to more than about this, but the record of such projections is poor. 100 printed books. It appears that CD-ROMS will be able The pocket calculator was once an expensive piece of to store data, text, audio, and video on a single disc, equipment but has become almost as common as the thus replacing a host of incompatible audiovisual equip- pencil. The second factor is the cost and difficulty of ment at a stroke. There is also another laser-optical developing good courseware, an obstacle which cannot medium designed for unit records-the laser card- be solved by technical means alone. But with the in- which has an information capacity of only a few million crease in the number of people qualified to take part in 204 L. R. Femig, J. F. McDougal, and Herbert Ohlman development work-teachers, curriculum specialists, adopt a wait-and-see policy; make arrangements for the media specialists, and programmers-both quantita- training of qualified people abroad or at home in tech- tive and qualitative improvements can be expected. The nical and programming skills; or start an experimental degree to which education authorities will take the lead program around a national research and curriculum in evaluating courseware and ensuring its distribution development agency-along the lines of the French will be critical. step-by-step approach. The third factor is more subtle: how far and how fast Strictly speaking, textbook publishers do not have a will learning theory advance as a result of the use of prime responsibility for deciding such policy issues. the new media? This factor raises basic questions about Whether in the public or the private sector, however, the mental development of children, individual differ- they are the main producers of learning materials and ences in rate and style of learning, and the effect of are probably best qualified to judge the impact of the group activities and socialization. The traditional sys- new technologies on production methods. Instead of tem uses administrative devices such as grouping, passively accepting what comes down the line in the streaming, team teaching, and various methodologies. shape of manuscripts drafted by curriculum teams, they But interactive media such as CAL are student-centered, would be well advised to engage in a dialog with ad- not teacher-centered, and require a reconsideration of ministrators and professional educators. In particular, the educational theory that determines the way schools they should be able to offer alternative approaches for work-curriculum development, successive grade lev- the goals that are required of them. els, the practice of grading and of assessment, school organization, and the role of the teacher. At present, Redefining Publishing Goals new media are being applied in old situations, and so their potential cannot be realized. The need is clear for There is evidence from the United States, Europe, more research directed to courseware development and and Japan that publishing is being affected in two ways evaluation in particular and to educational theory and by the new information technologies. The first way is practice in general. As in many other spheres of life, the application of new media that challenge print, no- the technical facilities are advancing more rapidly than tably mass storage devices and telefacsimile transmis- our knowledge of how best to use them. sion of masters-as is done by many newspapers pub- lished simultaneously in several places. These open up the possibility of cooperative arrangements between Strategies for the Future publishers for jointly preparing prototypes, which can then be distributed electronically and to which each Will textbooks be replaced by the new technologies? partner adds his own locally oriented material before As yet, there is no straightforward answer to this ques- printing. The second way relates specifically to educa- tion, even in the most advanced situations. For the tional publishing. The publication of courseware, in the immediate future, the textbook is likely to retain its form of disks with printed support material, is already primacy among instructional materials. But trends are an important part of the textbook market in some coun- visible from both technological and educational per- tries. Likewise, multimedia kits-comprised of text and spectives, which publishers of textbooks need to con- illustrations, audiocassettes, and other materials used sider carefully. In the specific context of developing widely in distance learning-have had an impact on countries, questions arise- from national educational school-based teaching. The textbook publisher should policies with respect to the NIT, through publishing of conceive of its products in a multimedia context rather school materials, to international cooperation. than as limited to hardbound printed books. Hybrid technologies provide more versatile and less costly Cooperation between Publishers and Educators learning materials, but curriculum developers and ed- ucation authorities need to think in terms of learning Initially, the challenge posed by the NIT is addressed packages. to the education authorities of each country. Whatever their financial resources, no country should be excluded Redefining Textbooks from what is fast becoming an essential feature of mod- ern life. Even where a typical school classroom may The notion of the textbook as a single, stand-alone lack electricity, and a single, perhaps untrained, teacher tool for teaching and learning seems to be outmoded. faces forty or more students with an inadequate supply But to draw attention to the importance of learning . of any educational materials, commercial finns and public packages, of which the textbook is one component, does utilities may already be using the new technologies. not necessarily mean the immediate importation of high The position taken by educational authorities will vary: technology. In addition to the textbook and electronic Will Textbooks Be Replaced by New Information Technologies? 205 media, there are other instructional and learning aids, this, there is a need for training programs and for the most of which must be imported by developing coun- development of prototype CAL material in relatively cul- tries. Apart from writing materials, these include pre- ture-free subjects such as mathematics, science, and school and early primary aids for learning numbers, technology. This form of technology is an area in which measurement, and word recognition as well as equip- education authorities-with textbook publishers-must ment for teaching science. Several countries have suc- assume leadership. If they do not, the ground will be ceeded in replacing imported models by locally devel- preempted by commercial interests less concerned with oped ones, and here a general movement toward increased improving the quality of education. local production is essential-whether nationally, in cooperation with neighboring countries, or in partner- ship with the industrial world. In any case, the textbook is one of the many media available for teaching and Bibliography learning. Corporation for Public Broadcasting. 1985. Availability, Use The Role of the Teacher and Support for Instructional Media, 1982-83. Washing- ton, D.C. Experience with educational technology, old and new, Gannes, S. 1986. "Marketing is the Message at McGraw-Hill." proves that advances occur only insofar as they are Fortune, February 17: 28-31. accepted, understood, and used by teachers. It is ab- Hawkridge, D. 1983. New Information Technology in Edu- solutely essential to associate teachers with innovation. cation. London and Canberra: Croom Helm. "Interactive Video" (feature section). 1984.Instructiona/In- Therefore the target for promoting the adoption of the novator 29, no. 6 (September-October). NIT in textbook publishing should be the teachers' col- Jamison, D. T., and E. G. McAnany.1978. Radio for Education lege and the system of in-service teacher training. Both and Development. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage. the British and French strategies are based on initially Megarry, Y., D. Walker, and S. Nisbet, eds. 1983. World Year- persuading teachers. book ofEducation 1982-83: Computers in Education. Lon- don: Kogan Page. International Cooperation Oakeshott, P., and C. Bradley, eds. 1982. The Future of the Book. 2 vols. Paris: Unesco. Cost, programming, and research aspects of incor- Osborne, C. W., ed. 1984. International Yearbook of Edu- porating the NIT into the process of education have been cational Technology, 1984-1985. London: Kogan Page. Simon, J. C. 1981. L'education et l'informatisation de Ia so- described above. In each area, international cooperation ciete: rapport au President de Ia Republique. Paris: Fayard. would likely assist developing countries to modernize Thompson, K., M. Brown, and C. Knowles. 1982. Videotex in their systems. Aside from such a general observation, Education: A New Technology Briefing. London: Council there is a place for closer cooperation in the application for Educational Technology. of the NIT to education-for the benefit of all countries. Tucker, S. 1985. "TechCentral." TechTrends, November-De- Fuller exchange of information should· include results cember: 27. of research, evaluations of existing software and course- Unesco. 1982. The Economics of New Educational Media. 3 ware, and specifications for their development. Beyond vols. Paris. 16 Computers in the Classroom Paul Olson and Edmund Sullivan The past few years in education have seen a flurry of opment of adequate hardware and software. Questions computermania. In 1983 the first issue of Time mag- of implementation, delivery of fullest social benefits, azine, normally devoted to the Man of the Year, featured and the new millennium are seen as secondary issues instead a computer as the Machine of the Year. This (Sullivan 1983). view that the computer is the wave of the future is There is, however, an underside to educational com- shared widely in the popular culture. Yankelovich's study puting. Technological innovation in the twentieth cen- of U.S. public opinion showed that 80 percent of Amer- tury has become a means of control, with different re- icans expect that in the very near future, the computer sults for different classes, racial groups, and gender will be as commonplace in the household as the tele- divisions (Braverman 1974; Edwards 1979; Noble 1985). vision. Sixty-eight percent of the same sample believe There is also good historical evidence that schooling that the computer will ultimately raise production and serves the needs of particular dominant groups within improve the quality of their children's education (Sul- the work force (Connell and othersJ982; Connelll985). livan 1983). The computer may possibly accentuate power inequal- In Canada, there are also great expectations for the ities within a society. The whole issue of computer lit- computer. By September 1984, there was on average eracy is an open one at this point, but there is every one computer for every 200 Canadian children (Sharon reason to suspect that a division between computer and Mehler 1985). Although this relatively small ratio literates and nonliterates in the labor force will create currently creates a politics of scarcity, ministries of power differentials within society itself, enhancing the education in a number of provinces have two- to five- skills of some workers (thereby giving them more power) year plans designed to increase dramatically both the and reducing the skills of others (thereby lessening their hardware and software support available to their schools. power). In Ontario, for example, the ministry has agreed to fund Critical discourse on computers notwithstanding, the 70 percent of the cost of the Ontario-built Icon System present societal temper tilts toward the millenarian uto- or those of similar specifications purchased by school pia which, short-lived as it invariably turns out to be, boards. Educators trust in the capacity of computers to almost always accompanies the development of new assist in mathematics instruction, to help teach writing technologies. Among other things, the new technology skills, and generally to enhance the learning environ- of the computers is seen as having a profound impact ment. on the traditional textbook. Evans, in a book called The This general interest in educational computing mir- Micro Millennium, entitles one of his chapters "The rors a wider enthusiasm in Canadian society for using Death of the Printed Word." It is his claim that, in the computers in many applications. In a recent report by 1980s, the new electronic technologies will have their the Canadian Department of Labour (1982), the com- greatest impact (1979: 118-20): puter is pictured as a "triggering technology," one that will improve economic growth. According to this report, The book as we know it is simply passive, merely the federal government supports the further develop- transferring information from one mind, that of the ment of microelectronics and is concerned almost en- author, to another mind, that of the reader. But the tirely with technological questions such as the devel- book of the 1980s will no longer be passive, for it 206 Computers in the Classroom 207 will be a sifter and interpreter as well as a purveyor dustrial order. These rapid innovations are axial forces of information. Dictionaries, for example, will offer bringing about a societal transformation. The process packages of relevant information on command. But has four stages (Masuda 1981: vii): significantly, perhaps, this is the kind of problem area • Many different kinds of innovational technology which appeals most to the computer scientists who come together to constitute one complex, inte- are currently engaged in the field of machine and grated system of technology. artificial intelligence. It is also the area into which increased effort is likely to be pumped in the near • This system spreads and gradually becomes estab- future, for once real progress has been made, the lished throughout society. gains are likely to be immense. In teaching and ed- • The result is a rapid expansion of productivity. ucation, the dynamic book could have a breathtaking • The impact of this new type of productivity is suf- powerful role, and there is an obvious spinoff to in- ficient to transform traditions into new societal dustry and commerce. Once again, in a capitalist forms. world, the focuses of the market place prevail, and Profound societal changes are slowly emerging around . the promise of this commercial spinoff will be enough these new information technologies. We are, however, to ensure that the intricate programs allowing this quite dubious of the claims that Evans (1979) makes kind of data inspection and retrieval will ultimately about the demise of textbooks. Let us remember that be developed. literacy did not replace orality, and both these skills have had a long dialectical evolution (Havelock 1973; The technical ability of computers has revolutionized Olson 1977). Because text and literacy have been am- information processing. By their facile execution of pre- plified in the industrial era, print literacy will be an viously sledgehammerlike or unachievable human tasks intricate legacy of the industrial world to the infor- such as brute arithmetic, machinations of formal logic, mation society. Of course others besides Evans have endlessly recursive tasks, rapid and staggering storage prophesied that the new technologies will make vul- and recall of memory, and symbolic organization and nerable, in varying degrees, the present forms of print- manipulating, computers have revolutionized our modes text media. For example, Godfrey and others (1982: 112) of physical and mental organization. The array of prac- give one scenario about encyclopedias: "A book pub- tical applications is astounding. Computer use is in- lisher who puts his encyclopedia on a video disc will creasing in schools and businesses in virtually all in- remain a book publisher for quite some time as far as dustrial societies (Sharon and Mehler 1985). In 1980- statisticians are concerned ... Nonetheless, there are 81 in the United States, for instance, there was a 56 clear differences of vulnerability." Godfrey and others percent increase in school-based computing, with more concede that compared with other communication me- than 15,000 schools of the 24,642 surveyed reporting dia, textbooks seem to be the least vulnerable to the computer usage (Market Data Retrieval 1983). Many advance of the computer. Over the next decade, they believe that the use of computers in schools will even- give paperbacks a vulnerability coefficient of 0.15, hard- tually be universal. Similar trends are to be found in backs 0.45, directories 0.90, and television advertising business applications and personal computing. This 0.94. Nevertheless, futurists like Godfrey and others growth in electro-mechanical innovation has pro- (1982: 120) conclude: foundly transformed our material and technical ways of organization and our potential for production and ef- Book publishers seem most beleaguered by the new ficiency. Not surprisingly, given this efficiency, the technologies, especially by computers. Conservative manner in which work tasks are expected to be produced by nature, many of them still look back nostalgically and of social organization supporting such production to the passing of hot lead, hand binding, and intel- have also begun to change (raising elementary ques- ligent bookstore owners. Now computers seem to be tions of how a word processor is different from a type- surrounding them. The results are likely to be a fur- writer, or how a computer text is different from a text- ther extension of the split. between the extreme of book). lines. Potential best sellers will earn secondary rev- It is not fair, however, simply to criticize the mille- enue from mass paperbacks sales. The really spe- narian stance toward computers. Such a utopian atti- cialized books such as academic books make no profit tude is part of the creative thrust of new and inventive in any case and will disappear from print. Publishers cultural instruments. We are at a watershed between with strong book back lists and good contacts will older industrial technologies and the development of a soon adapt to the new technology once they accept complex new technology, which is leading to a new the fact that the computer has fully closed the net information society that will replace our present in- and they needn't print such books ever again. 208 Paul Olson and Edmund Sullivan This type of futuristic millenarianism is certainly One Indian girl and one black boy attend the school as thought-provoking and challenging to any traditional well. point of view (Sullivan 1985), and it is important to Selkirk is a two-story building, small, plain, and art- envisage the potential effects on the form and content less on the outside, on a residential street distant from of learning. A brief anecdote signals the directions of commerce. The interior is not much different, with the further analysis. Ivan Illich, the renowned critic of ed- exception of children's drawings on the walls. Its 150 ucation, had just finished his book Deschooling Society students range from kindergarten through grade 6. There (Il!ich 1972), when he gave an address in the early are double grades (such as grades 3 and 4 in one room) 1970s. He appeared to plan his lecture in the five min- and a small accelerated class. The computer laboratory utes before he spoke, jotting down some notes on an is the new feature in the school's program. This year, index card at which he glanced during the speech. He Selkirk was designated a model school for computers began by telling the audience that he didn't know why in the Toronto school system. he should be talking about schools because they would For lab work, each class at Selkirk is divided: half be out of existence within the next ten years. His de- the class stays in homeroom, whereas the other half livery was delightful and in many places insightful. But goes to the computer lab. Our observations (on March history has proven him to be a very poor prophet. With 25 and May 2, 1984) were made in a fifth-grade class. that said, we would now like to reflect on the questions The observations covered both computer use in the which surround textbooks and how they will be affected homeroom class and the lab proper. We chose the fifth- by the computer. We contend that the computer is not grade class because their teacher uses the computer in profoundly affecting the conventional school system. his homeroom routinely, whereas the sixth-grade teacher This does not discount the possibility that it will do so does not. in the long term. It will do so, however, only if there are dramatic changes in contemporary education. The Homeroom. The grade 5 students enter their classroom and group themselves around five large tables. Their teacher takes the class roll very promptly and Computer Technology in Two Canadian Schools then says, "I guess this is Group 2's day to go to the computer lab." A group of twelve children get up and At this point, we will convey a sense of how the walk out of the room to the computer lab next door. computer is used in two very different Canadian ele- Today there is one Commodore Pet computer at the mentary schools. These schools are among six in which side of the room. The teacher says, "Frank and Lisa on our research team has done extensive ethnographic de- the machine." A boy and a girl go to the Pet. The teacher scriptions.1 They were chosen to present a variety of then gives other assignments to the rest of the children settings for critical comparison: we observed an elite- in the class, who are not using computers. Some get humanistic school, two working-class ethnic schools, a spelling work at the blackboard, and others are given middle-class school (where computers were being used math work at their seats. The division of labor within for special education), a model school (where a special the class seems to be an orderly procedure. program was in its first year), and a rural school. We The two children who have gone to the computer will describe in some detail the model and rural schools play a game of fraction estimations which was put there to give a broad view of computer usage. at the beginning of the class by the teacher. They seem to have difficulty starting on their own and adopt a The Model School trial-and-error method. The teacher goes over to the children at the computer and asks them a question to Selkirk Elementary School, the model school, is lo- get them started: "How do you write a fraction line?" cated on the fringes of Metropolitan Toronto in a sub- The boy says, "I don't know." The teacher asks, "Did urban neighborhood of large, sprawling, expensive ranch you follow the instructions?" "Yes," says the boy, and houses. The majority of the children are from well-to- the teacher says, "OK, try using the slash to make frac- do families and with rare exceptions are stylishly dressed tions." and very fashion-conscious. When we first met the prin- By way of preparation, the teacher then says to the cipal, he indicated to us that these children came from two children, "We have been working on equivalent families whose parents worked as dentists, accountants, fractions for the last while." He says this to remind lawyers, and business executives. He characterized these them what is likely to be an issue with the computer parents as "demanding, interested, intelligent, worried, task that they are working on. He then reviews a lesson and assertive." The school community is about 60 per- in which they used mental calculations to estimate frac- cent Jewish, but it also has a small Japanese enrollment. tions. The teacher helps the children at the computer Computers in the Classroom 209 by questioning and prompting: "In this problem, you designed to bring them into line. As one looks around will have to get a fraction between 2/5 and 2/6." He the room, there are six Icons, eight Apples, and three then gives them a lesson on fraction estimates at the Pet computers. (The Icon is a computer specifically blackboard, going through the process of producing a designed for classroom use and was initiated by the common denominator. He does an example, coming up Ontario Ministry of Education. The Apples and Pets are with a fraction of 11/30, and he tells the two children commercial computers.} The three Pets are not plugged to try that estimate on the computer. They try it and in, which is what has been observed during other lab it works. The teacher, looking satisfied, says to them, visits. The Icons have been out of order too, but today "Now you are on your own"; he then moves to another they are functional. part of the room. The teacher announces to some children that they The two children carry on, but it seems that they are may go over to the Icon. She says, "You can gain access still guessing. For example, they start with an estimate to the Icon by using your name." (The name is stored of 2/5, which is close to the desired estimate, and then in the Icon's memory.) There are a couple of children they jump to 2/9, applying no apparent logic. They do talking in low voices. The teacher stops and makes the this for a while, and then the boy, frustrated, says to remark, "Are you going to interrupt constantly? If you the girl, "I quit. This is too hard." The teacher then are, I would like to see you outside." comes over and asks what the matter is, and the children One of the boys to whom she is speaking says "No." say they don't know what they are doing. He invites She continues: "I would like you all today to test your them over to the blackboard and starts to repeat a lesson log-in names to be sure they work. This is only for the that he did in class on common denominators. This Icons. Some of you will be working on the Icons, and lasts approximately five minutes, and when the teacher others on the Apples. At the end of today, save your thinks they have grasped the concept, he sends them procedures and move your work to this machine over back to the computer. here (she points} and print it. The procedure is to design Each pair of children receives approximately fifteen two different shapes, moving from one shape to an- minutes on the computer. Thus the children who have other." just had the lesson don't go back to the computer, and To facilitate the reader's understanding of a LOGO the teacher calls two other children for their turn. Of task, this program will be briefly described. LOGO is a · this new pair, one of the boys catches on quickly, but procedural language specifically designed for children's it seems that all the children have their own particular education. LOGO programs are created by combining styles. The computer feedback has some aspects which commands into groups called procedures which are then are interesting. For example, to a girl who just made a used as steps in other procedures, and so on, to higher correct answer, the following response is given: YOU GET levels of complexity. These children have been working A CIGAR. In another case, after several random attempts on the LOGO program for the past two months because by one girl, the following feedback is elicited: MAY I the Icon has not been working properly. When the stu- RECOMMEND A PSYCHIATRIST. It is clear, too, that when dents first began to use the LOGO program, the teacher the teacher is nearby some students begin to make the let them explore its possibilities on their own. Now, program work. Given his other responsibilities in class, according to her, she sends them to do this program however, the teacher's accessibility is limited. Further- with worksheet assignments because she has more spe- more.. no adequate instructions accompany the pro- cific expectations about LOGO than she had before. gram. Let us return once again to the task of observing. When the other half of this fifth-grade class comes One of the students being told to log in now says to back to homeroom (not without noise or interruption), the teacher that he did not save his work from yesterday. he starts a blackboard lesson on equivalent fractions As the children work with this program, they are ex- with the whole class. At the end of the lesson, he com- pected to store their work on the computer. The teacher ments that this is necessary in order for the children says, "That's no problem for today's assignment." She to make better use of the computer. He feels that the then says to all the children, "Let's review the differ- children need more math instruction before they can ences between Apple LOGO and Icon LOGO." Because all profit from this particular computer program. of the children use both of the machines on a rotary The Lab. The half of this fifth-grade class assigned basis, she attempts to eliminate confusion. Eventually, to the computer lab this morning comes into the lab the children seem to grasp some of the differences in and gathers on the rug in front of the teacher. They commands between the Apple and the Icon. are scuffling and making a fair amount of noise. ·she At this point, the teacher proceeds with the LOGO says, "When you're ready ... " Their behavior clearly assignment and explains what they are supposed to be implies that they are not ready, and this comment is doing today. She gives the assignment quite clearly: to 210 Paul Olson and Edmund Sullivan write a procedure in LOGO and then save the procedure. screen keeps flashing:THERE IS NO PROCEDURE NAMED. The procedure is as follows: "Draw a geometric shape; THERE IS NO PROCEDURE NAMED. His first problem is that then move to another part of the screen, and draw a he has not disengaged the "Caps Lock" key, which is a different geometric shape; then stop." The choices which necessary step. Because the teacher is busy at the other are offered to the children are: the type of geometric side of the room, one of the members of our study team, shape they wish to draw; the manner in which they seeing the small snag, tells the boy why he is having want to move; and the way in which they want to do difficulty. This boy, however, continues to have prob- the procedure. But given this leeway, the expectation lems because of a typing error. He makes little progress. is that each student will do the same task. Two Japanese girls finish their procedures. They are The teacher now sends the children off to the ma- working together, side by side, on separate computers. chines. She instructs them: "You can work by your- Their work is not exactly the same; each girl has dif- selves or together, whichever you have been doing be- ferent shapes, and their procedures too are a little dif- fore today." Today, the children seem able to choose ferent. One of the girls commands the computer to run whatever machine they want. Most of them go imme- the procedure by typing in the command "Shapes." The diately to the Icons. It is interesting to note varying procedure works like a charm. She draws a square on preferences that children have for computer hardware. one part of the screen, moves across the screen to draw One pair of boys working side by side with two Icons a hexagon, and then stops. Appearing to be very pleased, are starting their LOGO program together; one boy fol- she turns to her friend D and says, "Look, it works!" D lows the exact procedures of the other boy. Boy B is is now trying hers with different shapes. It works too. copying boy A, command by command. Boy A puts in She then says to girl C, "How do I save?" Girl C comes the command "Forward 16"; boy B then puts in the over to girl D and tells her what to type on her com- same command. Their designs thus turn out to be exact puter. She then stands aside and lets girl D do it herself. replicas. Boy A then turns around and says to the rest She does not do what many other children do- move of the class, "Look, Stan is copying me." It seems that in and take over the keyboarding. The computer, how- he just wants all to know that both assignments are his ever, gives the message DISK ERROR. Girl C says, "Ask work. Mrs. Blair." Girl D says, 'Til go and get my disk, and One boy is sitting by an Apple, probably working a then I'll try again." This time, all works well. She types LOGO program. Suddenly he exclaims to everyone in "Save," the name of her procedure, and smiles as the general, "How big is the box supposed to be? What are disk light goes on, signaling that everything is working. we supposed to do? What are we supposed to do for Girl C says, "Okay, then check it. Type READ SPACE QUOTE Christ's sake?" The teacher does not respond. He then SHAPEs." "Okay," says girl D. She types in the command, sits and stares for quite a long time. Finally, he goes and the components of this procedure are defined on back to work. He looks at his procedure sheet. This boy the screen. Both are very pleased. They smile at each appears to know Basic (another computer language), other and look fondly at the computer. and he has become confused because LOGO is not pro- Now these same girls attempt the next step. They are grammed in line numbers. He has a procedure named trying to work out how to save a picture, quite separately "Box," but it doesn't work despite several tries. He gets from the "Save" command. The teacher has already an "error" feedback, which tells him what his problem given the procedures for "Save" and "Save Pict" and is, but he takes no notice. Again, he starts to exclaim has written the review of it on a sheet. They remember to no one in particular, "What are we supposed to do? most of it, but not all. They are trying to work this out Hey, what are we supposed to do?" through their discussion. They are talking to each other A Japanese girl sitting near him comes over to him about how to save a picture. Each one has some infor- and says, "You're supposed to draw two shapes, one on mation. They take turns making suggestions, listening either side of the screen, and all in one procedure." To to each other and trying to arrive at a solution. Their illustrate, she points to her screen. Displayed on her thinking and their problem solving are quite impressive, screen, in two different parts of it, are a hexagon and but they do not arrive at a satisfactory solution. One of a square. He pays no attention to this information and them goes to get the teacher, who comes over right says again, "What are you supposed to do?" Aboy sitting away. The teacher explains the instructions in an ex- on the other side of him explains again; his explanation acting manner, and in so doing she clarifies their con- is similar to the girl's. This same boy has now received fusion about the difference between saving a picture the instructions three times. Still he sits and says yet and the computer command "Save." again, "I don't understand. What are we supposed to The boy who seemed stuck and kept repeating, "What do?" am I supposed to do?" never specifically asks the teacher Another boy is struggling with his LOGO shape, and for help. He still sits fiddling at the computer, swearing. nothing seems to be working for him. His computer He gives the impression that he has no real expectation Computers in the Classroom 211 that he is ever going to know what to do. Thus he computer teacher, Jack, typically has classes marked by continues to sit and accomplish nothing. the obligatory bell ringing. Computer instruction is as- Meanwhile the two Japanese girls have completed signed to a very small room in the school where all of their full procedure. Now they are taking their disk over the hardware is located. Jack is in charge of this room. to the Apple computer, which is connected to the printer. When the children are assigned in groups to go to the They encounter difficulty printing the LOGO figures. After library, a small group of them will go off to the com- floundering for a short time, one of them goes over to puter room. This class begins at 12:45 p.m. The class enlist the aid of the teacher. She comes over and asks is a mixture of grades 5 and 6. One or two of the children them, "Did you follow the steps outlined in the chart are grade repeaters, so some of those in the same grade on the wall?" One of the girls says, "Not completely, may be one year apart in age. The children are talking Mrs. Blair." The teacher tells them to follow the steps as they sit, but the librarian signals for silence and exactly, and she stays with them until they are halfway begins to list those children with overdue books. One through them. As was indicated earlier with respect to or two try to make excuses for this low-level life of the homeroom class, giving so much time to individuals crime, but the librarian lectures them on the virtues is difficult because each teacher has so many other of punctual book return. The students in the class are responsibilities in the orderly running of the class. At to receive a lesson on Canada's role in the world wars. this point, the class ends. Jack comes to get those who are scheduled for computer The above descriptions to some extent demonstrate instruction. The librarian, in a public voice, recites the the variation behveen students in motivation and com- offenses against punctual return and laments the state petence. Later observations, taken at the end of the of studentdom. Jack looks sympathetic and, half smil- school term, showed that some of the children become ing, shakes his head. The students are noticeably more very competent indeed using the LOGO program. attentive to Jack. "Did you people do that? I'm sure you know better than that and won't do it again." Jack then The Rural School takes seven children with him to the computer room. Previously, he had turned on the machines and loaded Danberry Elementary School, the rural public school the disk drives. observed, is located in a town of several thousand in The children take a couple of minutes to settle in. Ontario. A modern red brick structure near woodlands, One boy, Shawn, sits at a computer near the door to the school was built in the 1960s as part of a program the library. The seat next to him is vacant. Down this to consolidate one-room schools. This shift is reflected row, two girls (Annette and Marie) who seem to be in the school's human resources as well; the principal friendly sit next to each other. Next to them is Donny, and staff see themselves as very much a part of con- in jeans, sweatshirt, and wearing an arm bracelet. He temporary education. is physically big and loud. Next to him is his friend The school serves the town in which it is located and Paul. At the desk beside the printer and opposite the the outlying agricultural and forested areas. The stu- door is Jimmy, a friend of Donny and Paul. Around the dents come from a variety of backgrounds and are di- corner at a computer facing away from the other com- vided equally between the town and the surrounding puters is Fred, also a friend of Donny and Paul and area. The town itself is located within eighty miles of more verbal than Jimmy. Donny is clearly the leader of a metropolitan center and is within easy drive of a uni- this group. versity. Commuters and professionals are part of the The time is 12:57. Shawn asks, "Do we have to do community's mix, as are those in agricultural occu- this? I hate this. I can't do this, and I hate it." Jack pations and those with rural service functions. The town looks at him and with a quiet, but sympathetically firm, also has a number of persons who value the juncture voice says, "Sit down, Shawn. You'll be able to do this." of the arts and rural life. The community, while rural, Jack begins by telling them that today he is going to is no backwater outpost, but rather a mix of both rural teach them how to use the computer for word pro- and contemporary-minded individuals who are striving cessing. He asks if any of them ever write stories. Fred to revive rural values. asks, "What do we have to write about?" Jack replies, Ethnically Danberry School is predominantly Anglo- ''You can write about what you want. Maybe a teacher Saxon, with a mix of Eastern Europeans, Germans, and has given you an assignment, and you have to do it. If others plus a few Chinese, Pakistani, and black children. you use the computer, you can just go ahead and write The emphasis of school and community alike is on the it. You don't have to worry about spelling or mistakes uniqueness of the area as a livable place of neighbors because you can correct them later." Marie looks slightly who are not divided and fraught by the social problems incredulous and says, "We don't have to spell right?" of cities. Jack replies, smiling, "Well, yes. But it's easier because A typical day at Danberry School goes as follows. The you can concentrate on your ideas and correct the paper 212 Paul Olson and. Edmund. Sullivan later. Or you can print the story. Or you can save it on The decision to have Jack teach children in all classes a disk." Marie asks excitedly, "We can print it?" Jack was intended to ensure that each student had some replies, "Yes you can. And if you get cleared to use the exposure to a computer, and this basic knowledge could machine, you can come in here, and you are welcome then be carried to further levels of expertise by the to sign up to use the machines to work on your as- regular classroom teacher in other classes, in spe- signments." cialized enriched classes, or by individual students out- For some children in this class, this is their first try side school. This decision has had a number of devel- at using a computer. Jack asks, "Do you people know opmental consequences. Jack has to teach eight classes, how to load your drives?" Several tentatively reply "sort divided into four to five groups, each of which receives of" and remind Jack that they had two lessons last year. three to six lessons. Therefore the amount of z;ttention "OK," says Jack, "we'd better review some things." He he can give to each individual is strictly limited. Because holds up a floppy disk and asks, "What's this?" Chorus groups are fractured in this way, the computer program of responses: "A disk." Jack acknowledges their response is considerably shorter than it would be if computers and begins a standard lecture: "This is a floppy disk. were a regular, structurally integrated part of the cur- When it's blank, it's worth maybe two dollars, but when riculum. it's loaded with special programs it may be worth a How much students learn about computers, how they couple of hundred." Jack then goes on to list the dangers use them, and where and when such usage takes place of touching disks, trying to take disks out of drives when is far more dependent in Danberry on extracurricular the red light is on, and potential sources of machine opportunity than in some other schools. This short and failure. Jack has the children load the disks and turn irregular pattern of computer instruction is further ex- the machines on and off. He circulates as he observes acerbated by the lack of use of computers among most their activities. other teachers. The lesson progresses. Briefly, Jack reviews the var- ious functions of the Commodore keys, what a word Computers and the Ecology of the School processing system can do, and what the children can do with word processors. Next, he reviews what types We have given the reader a flavor of computer in- of stories they might want to write. All this takes him struction in two of the schools that we observed. Al- well past 1:15. On the basis of Jack's suggestions, the though these schools differ markedly, it is nevertheless children begin to write stories as he circulates among significant that the computer is not in the forefront of them. They occasionally talk to one another or ask for the average teacher's planning. The millenarian com- help. Sometimes one child reaches over and operates puter valuation is transplanted from the minds of the another's keys to show how to perform a particular corporate and entrepreneurial sectors. When this val- function. Sometimes they read each other's stories and uation reaches the school, it hits the will of one of the copy from them or ridicule them. The boys tend to be most traditional instruments in all cultures: the teacher. more boisterous than the girls, except that Marie laughs "The strategies commonly used by promoters of changes, a lot. whether they be legislators, administrators, or other The children slowly complete a series of short stories teachers, frequently do not work because they are de- of about a paragraph in length. Only Jimmy's is longer. rived from a world or from premises different from the After a while, Jack tells them to "wrap it up" so that teachers" (Fullan 1982: 115). they can print the stories. He helps various children Even in an affluent country such as Canada, com- with the printing. As this is being done the children puter technologies remain on the periphery of the school get up and roam around, reading each other's work system. From our extensive observations, we see no with sarcastic criticism or occasional admiration. Dur- computer revolution. What we do see is incremental ing the printing, Jack repeatedly asks whose disk is growth in the use of the computer by various members hooked to the printer. He also tries to encourage the of the school culture. It is used in most cases by a children in their writing efforts, reminding them that minority of a school's personnel. they are welcome to use the machines if they sign up Considering the computer within an educational con- first. Most children seem genuinely excited about get- text, it should be emphasized that the computer does ting their work printed, but neither Jimmy nor Shawn not present the school with a totally new ecological wants his printout. The printout procedure goes on past problem. We often forget that both home and school, the time when the bell for the next period rings. In the in our modern technological environment, are filled corridor, there is mild pandemonium as classes change. with educational machines. Ihde (1975) lists the fol- One boy comes in and exchanges handshakes with Donny lowing: projector, tape recorder, public address system, in the manner of urban ghetto gangs. Outside, there microscope, telescope, teaching machine, and type- are several children waiting to use the computers for writer. More recently, there is the videocassette re- the "free" period. corder. When these machines are working properly, Computers in the Classroom 213 they are on the periphery of our awareness, accomplish- textbook is contemplated seriously at any level by min- ing their function in an unobtrusive way. istries of education, board administrators, computer co- The computer (as the Time magazine story intimates) ordinators, principals, and teachers. The computer is a promises to change all that. In the school, we are pos- medium for literacy via a screen rather than a page and sibly seeing for the first time a machine that will be a is unlikely to rival textbooks in the next fifty years, · figure as opposed to background in the educational ecol- despite the views of computer enthusiasts. As Bruce ogy. Ihde (1975) notes two aspects of this experience: (1985: 37) states: the machine "extends" and "stretches" our experience outward toward the environment; at the same time, the The problems with all of these views is that they tend machine is "taken into" our self-experience: to locate the source of the computer's power to offset education in the computer itself. Thus we hear that It is clear from the description above that an opacity computers will teach children to read, or computers relationship, like a person-computer relationship, is will turn schools into assembly lines. In fact, the not mechanical in nature. The mechanical aspects computers per se do nothing; they are simply tools are clearly subsidiary. The focal relationship is a per- which can amplify the power people have and the son-quasi-other in which some type of communica- social relations they engage in. In that sense, the tion is happening. We have not explored the cultural positive or negative consequences realized by com- implications of these types of relationships before, puters will be caused by people making the most of but computer use will force the issue. To describe a computers to accomplish ends for change in educa- machine as "user-friendly" indicates the possibility tion. of a quasi-personal relationship in which commu- nication can be achieved and this underlines the As mentioned, software is the literacy text of the probability that "computer literacy" should have computer. The most astute observers of software de- preemptive importance in future educational plan- velopment are highly dubious of its present benefits for ning. (Turkel 1984) education (Ragsdale 1982, 1985). At this point, there is a great deal of controversy over how software should In this relationship, the machine is in conversation with be evaluated (see Ragsdale 1982). the person (lhde 1975). Comparison of the computer and the textbook reveals no essential difference between computer print and text Conclusions print. If the computer is the medium-the pen and paper of the electronic age- then software is the array of text forms by which we are to become "literate." This We believe that the considerations we have outlined array shapes forms of language and syntactical means merit a serious analysis of cultural and educational to deliver varying discourses. How well does educational priorities (Sullivan 1984). No doubt people involved in software rate in the classroom against more traditional textbook publishing will be perplexed that we have raised forms? Commercial hyperbole already gives computer more questions than we have answered. We feel, how- texts the nod: "Given suitable and skillful programming, ever, that it would be irresponsible of us to offer pat computer teaching can have a significant advantage over scenarios when there are none. Yet intellectual honesty conventional classroom teaching" (Martin 1981: 184). does not prevent us from making prudent suggestions: Our own observations neither sustain this optimism • First, for national archival data, encyclopedias, dic- nor totally negate it. At present, it seems that the com- tionaries, and major reference works, computers puter will replace encyclopedias, dictionaries, and often offer a very important memory requiring little major reference works for the storage of information physical space. because there appears to be no reduction in quality or • Second, each country should carefully consider difference in usage (Evans 1979). Computer storage will whether computers would serve as well as text- offer enormous savings of physical space. Moreover, books in transmitting its cultural heritage. looking up references, the reader of computerized texts need not normally spend a long time in front of ter- • Third, it would be profoundly misguided for coun- tries with marginal risk capital to embark on the minals, and therefore need not be exposed to possible costly business of developing computer-assisted in- health hazards such as radiation, stress, and other mor- struction software. bid ailments associated with long-term use (see Geiser 1985). • Fourth, computer textbooks are not real educa- It is our view that the computer is not that well tional necessities. established in the school context although interest in • Fifth, if "imitation is the greatest form of flattery," it is increasing. We have absolutely no evidence from then it may be well to monitor countries in which our studies that the computer as a replacement for the capital ventures are being undertaken to develop 214 Paul Olson and Edmund Sullivan educational computer texts. Imitation may accom- Gutenberg Two: The New Electronics and Social Change. pany cultural imperialism. Caveat emptor. Toronto: Porcepic. Havelock, E. 1973. Prologue of Greek Literacy. University of Oklahoma Press. Note Ihde, D. 1975. "A Phenomenology of Man-Machine Relations." In W. Feinberg and H. Rosemont, eds., Technology and Education. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1. The project is funded by the Canadian Government Illich, Ivan. 1972. Deschooling Socie~y. New York: Harper & through its Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Row. Grants. The two schools discussed are a sample of six diverse Market Data Retrieval. 1983. "Survey Finds 24,642 Schools schools in which we carried out extensive and intensive eth- with Computers, Up 56% in Last Year." Westport, Conn. nographic work for one school year. We wish to acknowledge Martin, J. 1981. Telematic Society: A Challenge for Tomor- our colleagues in this effort: Robert Logan, Herb Wideman, row. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Jay Zimmerman, Nancy Watson, Doug Bors, and Brenda Mig- Masuda, V. 1981. The Information Society as Post Industrial nardi. Society. Tokyo, Japan: Institute for the Information Soci- ety. Noble, David F. 1979. America by Des(qn: Science, Technol- References ogy, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism. New York: Ox- ford University Press. Braverman, H. l974. Labor and Monopoly Capital· The Deg- 1985. "Computer Literacy and Ideology." In D. Sloan, radation of Work in the Twentieth Century. New York: ed., The Computer in Education. New York: Teachers Col- Monthly. Review Press. lege Press, . Brute, B. 1985. "Taking Control of Educational Technology." Olson, D. 1977. "From Utterance to Text: The Bias of Lan- Science for the People 17, nos. 1 and 2: 37. guage in Speech Writing." Harvard Educational Review 47, Canadian Department of Labour. 1982. In the Chips: Oppor- no. 3: 257-81. tunities, People, Partnerships: Report of Labour Canada Ragsdale, R. 1982. Evaluation of Micro Computer Course- Task Force on Microelectronics and Employment. Ottawa: ware. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Queen's Printer. Press. Connell, R. W., D. J.Asherdew, S. Kessler, and G. W. Dowsett. - - - . 1985. "An Alternative Analysis of Computers in Ed- 1982. Making the Difference: Schools, Families, and Social ucation: A Response to Sullivan." Interchange 16, no. 3: Divisions. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. 19-36. Connell, R. W. 1985. Teachers' Work. Sydney: Allen and Un- Sharon, D., and A. Mehler. 1985. Microcomputers in Teaching win. and Learning: An Inventory of Canadian Research. To- Edwards, R. 1979. Contested Terrains: The Transformation ronto: TV Ontario. of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century. New York: Sullivan, E. V. 1983. "Computers, Culture, and Educational Harper & Row. Futures: a Critical Appraisal." Interchange 14, no. 3: 17- · Evans, C. 1979. The Micro Millennium. New York: Washing- 26. ton Square Press. - - . 1984. Critical Ps_ychology: Psychology as Interpre- Pullan, M. 1982. The Meaning of Educational Change. To- tation of the Personal World. New York: Plenum. ronto: OISE Press. - - - . 1985. "Computers, Culture, and Educational Futures: Geiser, K. 1985. "The Chips Are Falling: Health Hazards in A Reflection on Mindstorms." Interchange 16, no. 3: 1-8. the Microelectronic Industry." Science for the People 17. Turkel, S. 1984. The Second Self. New York: Simon and nos.1 and 2. Schuster. Godfrey, D., D. Parkhill, J. Madden, and T. Arume. 1982. Participants in the Seminar Brazil Kenya Aberides Alves d'Azevedo E. Mugiri Director of Coordination, Secretariat of Education, State Senior Deputy Director of Education, Policy, and Pro- of Pernambuco grammes Division, Ministry of Education, Science, Edison Wagner and Technology Chief, Department of Production, Foundation for Stu- Lesotho dent Assistance C. Ntaote Joao Elias Cardoso Manager, Book Supply Unit, Ministry of Education, Chief, Department of Development Programs, Foun- Sports, and Culture dation for Student Assistance Malawi China M. P. Pashane Gao Hang Acting Chief Inspector of Schools, Ministry of Education Deputy Director, People's Education Press, State Edu- Nigeria cation Commission 0. Abisogun-Alo Li Yanqi Secretary, Nigerian Book Development Council, Federal Vice Chief of Comprehensive Division, Department of Ministry of Education Teaching Materials for Natural Science, Engineering, Papua New Guinea Agriculture, and Medicine, State Education Com- Brian Deutrom mission Principal Curriculum Officer, National Department of Colombia Education Carmen Emilia Perez Peru Director, Curriculum Development and Educational Martha Villavicencio Resources, Ministry of Education Coordinator, Textbook Program, National Institute for Ethiopia Research and Educational Development, Ministry of Tesfaye Befekadu Education Textbook Production Manager, Education Materials Philippines Production and Distribution Agency, Ministry of Ed- Pacifico N. Aprieto ucation Officer in Charge, Instructional Materials Corporation, Ghana Ministry of Education and Culture Margaret Tawia Portugal Assistant Director of the Curriculum Research and De- Maria Lucie Carrilho Ribeiro velopment Division, Ghana Education Service Professor, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sci- Guatemala ence, Escola Superior de Educacao Ruben Dario Mendez Sierra Leone Director of National Textbook Center, Ministry of Ed- Theresa Sengova ucation Curriculum Coordinator, National Curriculum Devel" Honduras opment Centre, Institute of Education · Carolina Zepeda de Gonzalez Munoz Somalia Director of Educational Resources, Ministry of Educa- Nurraddin Haji Hussein tion Project Director, Ministry of Education 215 216 Participants in the Seminar Syria Uganda Georges Deeb Dan Sentamu Supervisor of Curriculum Development, Ministry of Ed- Acting Director, National Curriculum Development ucation Center, Ministry of Education Tanzania Yemen Arab Republic Charles Omari Mohamed Hashem AI Shahari Principal Secretary, Ministry of National Education Director, Educational Research and Development Cen- Turkey ter Ahmet Sevgi Assistant Director General for Vocational and Technical Education, Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports Consultants to the Seminar Philip G. Altbach Savaranan Gopinathan Director, Comparative Education Center, State Univer- Director, Asia Book Fair, Institute of Education, Sin- sity of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York gapore Robert Baensch Andrew Jameson Vice President, Macmillan Publishing Company, New Director, Books for Asia, Asia Foundation, San Fran- York cisco, California Pierre Balliett Peter Lengemann Director, International Division, Houghton Mifflin Co., Vice president, International Division, Scott Foresman Boston, Massachusetts Co., Chicago, Illinois Michael Bodman Pat E. Malone Pergamon Educational Supply, London Private consultant, Toronto, Canada Byron Bush Peter E. Neumann Executive Director, World Language Division, Addison- Peter E. Neumann Associates, Inc., Marblehead, Mas- Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Massachusetts sachusetts Maureen A. Cunningham Paul Olson Director of Production, Jones and Bartlett, Marblehead, Professor, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Massachusetts Toronto, Canada Alfonso de Guzman II John Overton Textbook project consultant, Guatemala City, Guate- Book production consultant, Washington, D.C. mala Anthony Read Paul Eastman Director, Book Development Council, Publishers As- Consultant to· the Canadian Organization for Develop- sociation, London ment through Education, Toronto, Canada Harriet Tyson-Bernstein Jorge Gianetto Consultant, Rand Corporation, Washington, D.C. General Manager, Editoral Plan eta, Mexico City 217 Contributors to this Volume Affiliations are those at the time of the conference. Albert Aime Peter H. Neumann Senior educational planner, Population, Health, and President, Peter H. Neumann Associates, Marblehead, Nutrition Division, Technical Department, Asia Re- Massachusetts gion, World Bank Herbert Ohlman Philip G. Altbach Consultant to EDUCONSULT. Geneva, Switzerland Professor, and director, Comparative Education Center, Paul Olson State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New Associate professor, Department of Sociology in Edu- York cation, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Maureen A. Cunningham Toronto, Canada Private consultant in publishing, Massachusetts John Overton Paul Eastman Textbook production consultant, Silver Spring, Mary- Director, Paper Supply Project, Canadian Organization land for Development through Education, Toronto Anthony Read L. R. Fernig Director, Book Development Council of the Publishers Consultant to EDUCONSULT, Geneva, Switzerland Association, London Saravanan Gopinathan Barbara Searle Head, Department of Comparative Studies, Institute of Senior General Educator, Population, Human Re- Education, Singapore, and chairman, Festival of Books, sources, Urban, and Water Operations Division, China Singapore Country Department, World Bank Alfonso de Guzman II Edmund Sullivan Textbook project consultant, Guatemala City, Guate- Professor, Department of Applied Psychology, Ontario mala Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, Canada Narendra Kumar Harriet Tyson-Bernstein Managing director, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi Textbook consultant, Rand Corporation, Washington, Pat E. Malone D.C. Private consultant in home economics and textbook Adriaan M. Verspoor development, Toronto, Canada Implementation adviser, Education and Employment J. F. McDougall Division, Population and Human Resources Depart- Consultant to EDUCONSULT, Geneva, Switzerland ment, World Bank 219