Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ UKEXX~~ 263047 Greater Mumbai Report October 1996 /e1 FILE C_P Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program A World Bank Initiative URBAIR URBAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN ASIA GREATER MUMBAI REPORT Prepared by Steinar Larssen, Frederick Gram, and Leif Otto Hagen Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) Kjeller, Norway Huib Jansen and Xander Olsthoorn Instituut voor Milieuvraagstukken (IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands Rajiv V. Aundhe and Ulhas Joglekar ADITYA Environmental Services Mumbai, India Edited by Jitendra Shah and Tanvi Nagpal The World Bank Washington, DC C 1996 The International Bank of Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First printing January 1997 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this study are entirely those of the authors of this study, and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of its use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the convenience of the readers; the designations and presentation of material in them does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its board or member countries concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitation of its boundaries or its national affiliation. Likewise, the material in this report should not be attributed in any manner whatsoever to government, non-governmental organizations, or any other institutions or individuals who participated in the URBAIR studies and related workshops and meetings. The cover design is by Beni Chibber-Rao, Graphic and Map Design Section, General Services Department, The World Bank. The layout is by Julia Lutz, Environment and Natural Resources Division, Asia Technical Department, The World Bank. LETTER FROM THE GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT MUMBAI, INDIA Many Asian cities are on the threshold of a major environmental crisis in the form of air pollution The deteriorating air quality in cities is a result of rapid economic expansion, rise in population, increased industrial output and unprecedented growth of passenger vehicles The impact of air pollution on public health and consequent rising health costs, damage to ecological and cultural properties, deterioration of built environment, etc is well known In Mumbai (Bombay) the main contributor of air pollution is the transport sector, followed by power plants, industrial units and burning of garbage. Fuel quality and engine conditions significantly influence the level of air pollution To arrest this growing problem, a concerted effort with public involvement is essential Awareness of the issue, proactive policies, economically affordable standards and technologies and effective enforcement are key elements in any effective air quality management strategy A long- term perspective shows that early adoption of policies for environmentally safer technologies can allow developing countries to resolve some of the most difficult problems of industrialization and growth at lower human and economic cost Mumbai (Bombay) joined the World Bank-aided Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP) in 1990. At the Inter-country workshop held in Hawaii in 1990, the cities facing air pollution problems sought MEIP intervention to assist in finding solutions. In response to this, Urban Air Quality Management Initiative (URBAIR) was conceived and launched in Mumbai (Bombay) in 1992 URBAIR has assisted the Environment Department, Government of Maharashtra to develop a strategy and time-bound action plan for air quality management in Mumbai (Bombay) For the first time, it brought together the different stakeholders -- sectoral agencies, private sector, NGOs, academics, research bodies and media to formulate a strategy This group was met as a Technical Committee which deliberated over several months with support provided by a team of national and international experts The outcome is the Action Plan that is presented here The result is quite impressive and I believe that the Action Plan will catalyze continuous and sustained effort by all the concerned agencies which is absolutely essential to improve the ambient air quality of Mumbai (Bombay) The State Government through its various agencies will wholeheartedly participate and extend necessary support for the implementation of the plan We will welcome the support of the international community in realizing the goals of the plan I would like to record our appreciation for the contributions made by various agencies in the development of the strategy and plan, especially to MEIP for facilitating the process ASOKE BASAK Secretary to Government of Maharashtra Environment Department Mumbai, India PARTNERS AND CONTRIBUTORS We would like to acknowledge the groups and individuals who contributed to this report and the URBAIR process Core funds were provided by the United Nations Development Program, the Australian Agency for International Development, the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Norwegian Consultant Trust Funds, and the Netherlands Consultant Trust Funds Substantial inputs were provided by host governments and city administrations City studies were conducted by consultants from the Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) in Kjeller, Norway, and the Institute of Environmental Studies (IES) at the Free University in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, with assistance from local consultants in Mumbai: K H. Mehta, MiPCB, ADITYA Environmental Services, represented by U Joglekar and R Aundhe, and A.A Mahashur, KEM Hospital The city-level technical working groups and the steering committee members gave policy direction to the study team. The National Program Coordinator (NPC) of MEIP - Mumbai, G N Warade provided substantial contribution to the successful outcomes. At the World Bank's Environment and Natural Resources Division, Asia Technical Department, URBAIR was managed by Jitendra Shah, Katsunori Suzuki, and Patchamuthu Illangovan, under the advice and guidance of Maritta Koch-Weser, Division Chief and David Williams, MiEIP Project Manager Colleagues from Country Departments (Robert Bums, Richard Cambridge, Harald Hansen, and Peter Nicholas) assisted with the program Management support was provided by Sonia Kapoor, Ronald Waas, and Erika Yanick. Tanvi Nagpal was responsible for quality assurance, technical accuracy, and final production Sheldon Lippman and Nicole Schofer provided editorial support Many international institutions (World Health Organization United States Environmental Protection Agency, United States Asia Environmental Partnership) provided valuable contribution through their participation at the workshops Their contribution made at the workshop discussions and follow-up correspondence and discussions has been very valuable for the result of the project Mumbai URBAIR working groups consisted of the following individuals Working Group I for Air Quality Assessment Head: Mr V S Mahajan, Deputy City Engineer, Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Members Name Organization Category Dr. K.S V. Nambi Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Govt Dr T N Mahadevan Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Govt Dr S. Kumar India Meteorological Department Govt Mr. K S Sonawane Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Govt Undertaking Mr S B Patil Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Govt Undertaking Dr V.N Patkar Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority Govt Undertaking Mr B S Negi Gas Authonty of India Ltd. Govt Undertaking iv URBAIR-Bombay v Mr S. Arceivala Associated Industnal Consultants (India) Pvt Ltd Consultant Mr A.K Sahu Econ Pollution Control Pvt Ltd Consultant Mr S V Athavale Apte Consulting Engineers Consultant Mr R.V. Aundhe ADITYA Environmental Services Consultant Mr Mr K Mohan Rashtnya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd Industry Dr (Ms) R S Patil Indian Institute of Technology Insttution Dr V Joshi National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) Institubon Working Group HIfor Economic Valuation Head Dr A A Mahashur, Prof & Head-Dept. of Chest Medicine, KEM Hospital, Municipal Corp of Greater Mumbai Members Name Organization Category Dr V N Bapat Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Govt Ms S S Bhende Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Govt Undertaking Dr (Ms) B S Sanghani King Edward Memorial Hospital, Municipal Corporation of Greater Govt Undertaking Mumbai Dr (Ms) Nandita Sen Non-Govt Organizabon Dr V G Shirke " Non-Govt Organization Dr S R Kamat " Non-Govt Organization Ms J P. Rezler Coopers & Lybrand, U K Consultant Mr M G Rao Rashtnya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd Industry Dr S.R Asolekar Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr V K Sharma Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Institution Mr S Ramaswamy Mumbai Chamber of Commerce & Industry Associabon Working Group III for Institutional & Policy Instruments Head Mr UK Mukhopadhyay, Secretary, Environment Dept & Chairman, Tech. Committee-MEIP Members Name Organization Category Captain P G Deshmukh Transport Department Govt Dr P S. Pasncha Police Department (Traffic) Govt Mr G N Warade Environment Department Govt Mr D.R. Rasal Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Govt Undertaking Mr V. K, Phatak Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authonty Govt Undertaking Mr Debi Goenka Mumbai Environmental Action Group Non-Govt Organization Mr A M Ranu Environmental Medical Association of India Non-Govt Organization Dr Rashmi Mayur Urban Development Institute Non-Govt Organization Dr T R Saranathan Society for Clean Environment Non-Govt Organizabon Mr Bittu Saigal Mumbai Natural History Society Non-Govt Organization Mr B V Rotkar Associated Industnal Consultants (India) Pvt Ltd Consultant Dr (Ms) P P Parikh Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr Prasad Modak Indian Institute of Technology Institution Dr S G Advani Indian Chemical Manufacturers Association Association/lndustry Dr Dharmarajan The Times of India Press ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AADT annual average daily traffic MTBE Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether AQG air quality guidelines MTNL Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd AQIS Air Quality Information System NEERI National Engineering and AQMS Air Quality Management System Environmental Research Institute BARC Bhabha Atomic Research Centre NGO non-government organization BEST Bombay Electric Supply & NH3 ammonia Transport Undertaking NOX nitrogen oxides BIS Bureau of Indian Standards NPC National Program Coordinator BMRDA Bombay Metropolitan Region ONGC Oil & Natural Gas Commission Development Authority PM particulate matter CNG compressed natural gas PM10 particulate matter of 10 microns or CO carbon monoxide less CDC Centers for Disease Control PPM parts per million CPCB Central Pollution Control Board PCRA Petroleum Conservation Research DOE Department of Environment Association FO fuel Oil, furnace Oil RAD restricted activity days GALL Gas Authority of India Ltd REA respiratory hospital admissions GDP Gross Domestic Product RON research octane number GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring RPM respirable particles System RTO Regional Transport Office HSD high speed diesel SKO kerosene UP Indian Institute of Petroleum SO2 sulfur dioxide HT Indian Institute of Technology SSI small scale industries IMD India Meteorology Department TSP total suspended particles LDO light diesel oil UNDP United Nations Development LPG liquid petroleum gas Programme LSHS low sulfur high stock URBAIR Urban Air Quality Management MCGB Municipal Council of Greater Strategy Bombay USEPA United States Environmental MEDA Maharashtra Energy and Protection Agency Development Authority VSL value of statistical life MEIP Metropolitan Environmental WHO World Health Organization Improvement Program WLD work loss days ~tg micrograms (10-6 grams) WTP willingness to pay mg milligrams (l0' grams) MOEF Ministry of Environment and Note: Except as indicated, "dollars" refers Forests to 1992/93 U S dollars MPCB Maharashtra Pollution Control Board vi TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD ......................................................... iii PARTNERS AND CONTRIBUTORS .......................................................... V ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................... vi PREFACE .......................................................... ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..........................................................1 1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ......................................................... 5 1 1 SCOPE OF TBE STUDY ........5 1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTON OF GREATER BOMBAY . ..5 1 3 DATA SOURCES.... . ... .... . 7 1 4 THE GROWTH OF BOMBAY. 1981-1991 ..........7 1 5 POPULATION...... .........9 1 6 VEHICLE FLEET. . .....9 1.7. ROAD AND TRANSPORT... . . .... 10 1 8 INDUSTRIAL SOURCES.......... 11 1 9 FUIELCONSUMPTON. 12 1 10. AREA SOURCES ...14 2. AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT . . . ........................ 15 2 1 AIR POLLUTION CONCENTRATIONS . . . .15 2.2 AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS IN GREATER BOMBAY 19 2.3 DISPERSION MODEL CALCULATIONS FOR GREATER BOMBAY .. . 26 2 3 1. Dispersion conditions ...................2.............. ...... ......................... ........... 26 2.3.2. Dispersion model calczulations, city hackground .............. ............................... 29 2.3.3. Pollution hot spots .......................................... 31 2 4 POPULATION EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION IN GREATER BOMBAY.. .35 2.5 SUMMARY OF TIE AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT.. 37 2 6 IMPROVING AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR GREATER BOMBAY. 38 2 6 1. Shortcomings and data gaps .................8............................ 38 2.6.2. Proposed Actions to improve Air Quality Assessment ..... . .. ........ .... ... ...... 40 3. AI;R POLLUTION: IMPACTS AND VALUATION .................................................... 41 3 1 INTRODUCTION.. ... .. . ... . . 41 3 2 SUMMARY OF STUDIES BY ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUITON RESEARCH CENTER. (KEM HOSPITAL. BONMAY) 41 3 3 MORTALITY 46 3 4 MORBIDITY . . ....47 3 5 VALUATION OF HEALTH IMPACTS.. . . . . 48 3 6 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . 49 vil Viii 4. ABATEMENT MEASURES: EFFECTIVENESS AND COSTS .................. ................... 51 4 1 INTTRODUCTION. . 51 4 2 TRAFFIC .. 51 4.2.. Introducing nleaded gasoline ............................................... 52 4.2.2. Improving diesel quality .5.............................................. 3 4.2.3 Introduction of low-snmoke lhbricating oilfor two-stroke, mixed-lubrication eng7nes54 4.2.4. Implementation of an inspection and maintenance scheme ......... ......................... 55 4.2.5. Address the problem of excessively polluting vehicles ........................................... 55 4.2.6. Fuel switching in the transportation sector . . ............................................. 56 4.2.7. Adoption of clean vehicle enmission standards. . . . 57 4.2.8. Other Options. .......................... ............................................................ 58 4.2.9. Resuspension emission .......................... 59 4.2.10 Improving traffic management . ......................... . .59 4.2. 1 1. Construction and improvement /f mass-transit systemss .................. .................. 59 4 3 LARGE POINT SOURCES .......60 4 4. DISTRIBUTED INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL SOURCES... 60 4 5. REFUSE BURNINGAND DOMESIC EMISSIONS ... 60 4 6 CONCLUSIONS 60 5. ACTION PLAN ....................................................... 62 5 1. ACONS TO IMPROVE GREATER BOMBAY AIR QUALITY. AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 62 5. 1. 1. Actions lo improve air quality .. .. ......................................................... 62 5.1.2. Actions to improve the Air Quality Management Syslem ...............64.............. .. 64 6. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................... 73 6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS iN BOMBAY 73 6 2 AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION.. . 73 6. 2.1. The Laws and Regulations for Air Environment ..................................... .... 75 6.2.2. Air pollution slandards and regulations ............................................. 76 6 3 SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING INSTITUTIONS AND POLICIES. . 78 7. REFERENCES ...................................................... 80 APPENDIX 1: AIR QUALITY STATUS, GREATER BOMBAY APPENDIX 2: AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES APPENDIX 3: AIR POLLUTION LAWS AND REGULATION FOR INDIA AND BOMBAY APPENDIX 4: EMISSIONS INVENTORY APPENDIX 5: EMISSIONS FACTORS, PARTICLES APPENDIX 6: POPULATION EXPOSURE CALCULATIONS APPENDIX 7: SPREADSHEET FOR CALCULATING EFFECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSIONS APPENDIX 8: PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS, LOCAL CONSULTANTS PREFACE While the consultants and the World Bank recognize the change of name to Mumbai, the city name Bombay is used in this study to more accurately reflect the data collection and the time period during which this study was conducted. In view of the potential environmental consequences of continuing growth of Asian metropolitan areas, the World Bank and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) launched the Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP) in five Asian metropolitan areas. Beijing, Bombay, Colombo, Jakarta, and Metro Manila In 1993, Kathmandu joined the intercountry program as the sixth MEIP city MfEWP's mission is to assist Asian urban areas tackle their rapidly growing environmental problems. Presently, MEIP is supported by the governments of Australia, Netherlands and Belgium Recognizing the growing severity of air pollution caused by industrial expansion and increasing vehicle population, the World Bank started the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) in 1992 as a part of MEIP The first phase of URBAIR covered four cities Bombay, Jakarta, Kathmandu, and Metro Manila. URBAIR is an international collaborative effort involving governments, academia, international organizations, NGOs, and the private sector The main objective of URBAIR is to assist local institutions in developing action plans which would be an integral part of the air quality management system (AQMS) for the metropolitan regions. The approach used to achieve this objective involves the assessment of air quality and environmental damage (e g on health and materials), the assessment of control options, and comparison of costs of damage and costs of control options (cost-benefit or cost- effectiveness analysis). From this, an action plan can be set up containing the selected abatement measures for implementation in the short, medium, or long term The preparation of this city-specific report for Bombay is based on data collected and specific studies carried out by local consultants, and on workshops and fact-finding missions carried out in April and August 1993, and May 1994. A first draft of the report was prepared by Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) and Instituut voor Milieuvraagstukken (IVM, Institute for Environmental Studies) before the first workshop based upon general and city-specific information available from earlier studies A second draft report was prepared before the second workshop with substantial inputs from the local consultants and assessment of air quality, damage and control options, and cost analysis carried out by NILU and IES The report concludes with an action plan for air pollution abatement produced by the local working groups as a result of the deliberations and dtscussions before, during and after the second workshop NILU and IES carried out cost/benefit analysis of some selected abatement measures, showing the economic viability of many of the technical control options It is expected that the local institutions, based on the results of this analysis report and action plan, will formulate a prioritized strategy for improving Bombay air quality in the short, medium and long term This prioritized action plan is expected to be the basis for the air quality work of the municipal authorities in developing a control strategy and an investment plan ix x The participating institutions and agencies from Bombay were as follows Government: Nodal Organizations/Departments * Department of Environment (DOE) Govt of India * Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) * Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) * Bombay Metropolitan Regional Development Authority (BMRDA) * Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). * India Meteorological Department (IND). * Traffic Commissioner * Transport Department, Govt of Maharashtra. Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) * Bombay Environmental Action Group (BEAG) * Save Bombay Committee * Environmental Medical Association of India (EMAI). * Urban Development Institute (UDI) * Society for Clean Environment (SOCLEEN) * Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Institutions * Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) * Indira Gandhi Institute of Developmental Research (IGIDR) * National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) Industries * Rashtriya Chemical & Fertilizers Ltd. (RCF). * Gas Authority of India Ltd (GAIL) * Indian Chemical Manufacturers Association (ICMA) * Bombay Chamber of Commerce & Industries Consultants * ADITYA Environmental Services * Associated Industrial Consultants now AIC Watson Pvt Ltd * Coopers & Lybrand, U K * Econ Pollution Pvt Ltd. * Apte Consulting Engineers Pvt Ltd Press * The Times of India EXECUTIVE SUMMARY URBAIR-GREATER MUMIBAI (BOMBAY). Larger and more diverse cities are a sign of Asia's increasingly dynamic economies Yet this growth has come at a cost Swelling urban populations and increased concentration of industry and automotive traffic in cities has resulted in severe air pollution. Emissions from automobiles and factories, domestic heating, cooking and refuse burning are threatening the well being of city dwellers, imposing not just a direct economic cost on human health but also threatening long-term productivity Governments, businesses, and communities face the daunting yet urgent task of improving their environment and preventing further air quality deterioration Urban Air Quality Management Strategy or URBAIR aims to assist in the design and implementation of policies, monitoring and management tools to restore air quality in the major Asian metropolitan areas At several workshops and working group meetings, government, industry, local researchers, non-governmental organizations, international and local experts reviewed air quality data and designed action plans These plans take into account economic costs and benefits of air pollution abatement measures This report focuses on the development of an air quality management system for Greater Mumbai (Bombay) and the resulting action plan THE DEVELOPMENT OF GREATER BOMBAY AND ITS POLLUTION PROBLEM Greater Bombay's population grew by 38 percent from 1971 to 1981, and another 20 percent between 1981 and 1991 to reach 9 9 million This growth was accompanied by an increase in the per capita gross domestic product. Expansion of industries, increased foundry production, and a 103 percent increase in vehicles has led to a severe air pollution problem in the city. Annual average Total Suspended Particles (TSP) concentration has increased from about 180 utg/m3 (particles per cubic meter) to approximately 2701tg/m3 between 1981 and 1990--an increase of almost 50 percent Nitrous Oxide (NOJ) increased by about 25 percent, while sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations declined due to increased use of natural gas and low-sulfur coal The average lead (Pb) concentrations doubled from 1980 to 1987 In general, SO2 and NO2 pollution is not as serious an issue as TSP and PM10 concentrations The total annual emissions of TSP and PM1O are estimated at 32,000 and 16,000 tons/year. The resulting annual average ambient concentration varies from 118 to 313 Wtg/m3 at various locations World Health Organization's Air Quality Guideline (WHO AQG), as well as the National guideline for PMIO are frequently and substantially exceeded in Bombay, 97 percent of the population lives in areas where WHO AQG is exceeded TSP exposure is mainly due to resuspension from roads caused by vehicles (20%), emissions from diesel and gasoline vehicles (30%), domestic wood and refuse burning (15%) and others (3 5%) Drivers, roadside residents and those who live near large sources are most severely affected Studies conducted between 1976 and 1990 conclude that growing concentrations of air pollutants have led to increased cases of chronic bronchitis, colds, and general decline in lung 2 Executive Summary functions. A 1990 study observed that incidence of different respiratory symptoms and cardiac diseases, respiratory tract infections, and skin allergies was 5 to 10 percent higher in communities near factories in Chembur. Similarly, a study of two high density traffic areas in Bombay found a significant correlation between concentrations of air pollutants and frequency of colds and attacks of breathlessness. Past studies, as well as anecdotal evidence, suggest that Greater Bombay residents' health, especially in high density traffic areas or near industries, is under assault. The health impact is estimated at 2,800 cases of excess mortality, 60 million respiratory symptom days, and 19 million restricted activity days, with an estimated health damage cost of Rs 1 8 billion, per year. CONCEPT OF AN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Assessment of pollution, and its Figure ES.1: Air Quality Management System control, form two prongs of an Air Quality Management Dispersion System (AQMS). modeling Monitoring These components are inputs into a cost- _ Il benefit analysis. Air Emissions A-rpQutlit quality guidelines or concentrations standards, and economic objectives and constraints also Abatement Control Exposure guide the cost-benefit measures & options assessment calculation. (See regulations Figure ES. 1) An Action Plan contains C Damage the optimum set of Cost analysis assessment abatement and control measures for short-, medium- and long- term enactment. Successful AQMS requires the establishment of an integrated system for continual air quality monitoring. Such a system involves: * An inventory of air pollution activities and emissions; * Monitoring of air pollution and dispersion parameters; * Calculation of air pollution concentrations by dispersion models; * Inventory of population, building materials and planned urban development; * Calculation of the effect of abatement/control measures; and * Establishment/improvement of air pollution regulations. In order to ensure that an AQMS is having the desired impact, it is necessary to carry out surveillance or monitoring. This requires the establishment of an Air Quality Information System URBAIR-Bombay 3 (AQIS) to inform authorities and the general public about air quality and assess results of abatement measures AQIS should also provide continuous feedback to the abatement process ABATEMENT MEASURES AND ACTION PLAN Measures to reduce air pollution in Bombay focus on traffic. Traffic emissions are a clear and major source of air pollution exposure Abatement measures which address other important pollution sources including refuse and wood burning and resuspension of road dust could not be addressed due to lack of data While pollution control in industrial areas has not been discussed at length, it must also be promoted through enforcement and regulation Based on abatement measures, an Action Plan was designed through a consultative process with Bombay URBAIR working groups, the Municipal Council of Greater Bombay, Maharashtra Pollution Control Board, the Transport Commissioner, and local and foreign experts. See Table ES 1 for estimated costs and benefits of these measures Recommended actions fall under two categories (1) technical and other measures that will reduce exposure to and damage from pollution, and (2) improvements in the database and in the regulatory and institutional basis required to establish an operative system for air quality management in Greater Bombay. It is proposed that the following technical and policy measures be given priority. * Address gross polluters Existing smoke opacity regulations for diesel vehicles must be strictly enforced Successful action depends on routine maintenance and adjustment of engines * Clean vehicle emission standard Establish state-of-the-art emission standards for gasoline cars, diesel vehicles, and motorcycles Such standards would be better enforced with the assured availability of lead-free gasoline, at prices below that of leaded gasoline * Switch to unleaded gasoline This is an early prerequisite for clean vehicle standards. The health benefits stemming from this action would be substantial. Table ES. 1: Action Plan of abatement measures, Greater Bombay, based on cost-benefit analysis. Abatement Avoided Mortality Reduced Annual Annual measure emissions reduction RSD health benefits costs tons million million Rs million Rs PMlolyr days Vehicles Unleaded gasoline ^ ' * * 250-360 Low-smoke, lub oil, 2-stroke 450 65 1 5 150 30 lnspection/maintenance 800 110 2.5 250 150-300 Gross polluters 400 50 1 2 125 * Clean vehicle standards -cars and vans 400 50 1.2 125 750 - motor-, tricycles 750 100 2 4 250 600 Diesel quality 250 35 0 75 80 300 CNG replace gasoline 50% 200 25 06 75 * Fuel combustion Cleaner fuel oil (to 2% S) 150 22 05 50 450 # Time frame for starting the work necessary to introduce measure. Not quantified 4 Executive Summary * Use of low-smoke lubrication oil, 2-stroke: Setting and enforcing a standard for oil quality and is important. Taxes and subsidies can be used to set the price of oil according to its quality. * Inspection and maintenance of vehicles: More maintenance stations able to carry our annual or biannual inspections are needed for enforcement of clean vehicle standards. Basic legislation is already in place. The greatest potential to reduce emissions lies in diesel vehicles and initially, agencies could concentrate on these vehicles. * Improving diesel quality: Indian refineries require modification in order to produce low sulfur (less than 0.2 percent) diesel. Economic instruments such as taxes and subsidies can be used to differentiate fuel price according to quality. * Fuel switching, gasoline to LPG/CNG in vehicles: The tax or subsidy structure must be changed in order to make LPG/CNG the preferred fuel. The establishment of distribution and compression systems for CNG are also a key component of this action. * Cleaner fuel oil: A reduction in the sulfur content of furnace oil, initially to less than 2 percent is a prerequisite. * Awareness raising: Public awareness and participation are key to bringing about policy change. Widespread environrmental education promotes understanding of linkages between pollution and health and encourages public involvement. Private sector participation through innovative schemes like accepting delivery only from trucks that meet government emission standards; Adopt-a-Street campaigns, and air quality monitoring displays should be encouraged. Media can also participate in awareness raising by disseminating air pollution- related data. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STRENGTHENING AIR QUALITY MONITORING, AND INSTITUTIONS A single coordinating institution with a clear mandate and sufficient resources must be made responsible for air quality management. In order to improve data, it is recommended that there be continuous, long-term monitoring at 5 or more general city sites (or city background sites), 1 to 3 traffic exposed sites, I to 5 industrial hot spots. Also, an on-line data retrieval system directly linked to a laboratory database either via modem or fax is recommended for modern surveillance. The analysis in this report calculates health impacts based on average dose-effect relations derived from U.S. cities because of a lack of local data. Such epidemiological data for exposure calculations should be improved. It is suggested that dispersion modeling experts be identified in Bombay and their expertise used by the agencies responsible for air quality management. Current restrictions on the use of coal, the Industrial Location Policy (1984), and the Central Action Plan (1992) to discourage non-compliance have been the most effective regulations. Restrictions on auto-rickshaws (three wheelers) and heavy commercial vehicles have had a positive effect on the air quality. It is important to ensure that institutions dealing with air quality be strengthened through clearer mandates and enforcing powers. Clearly, environmental risks are escalating. If pollution sources are allowed to grow unchecked the economic costs of productivity lost to health problems and congestion will escalate. While working with sparse and often unreliable data, this report sets out a preliminary plan that has the potential to improve air quality and better manage the AQMS in the future. 1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1.1. SCOPE OF THE STUDY This city report on air quality management for Greater Mumbai (henceforth referred to as Greater Bombay) has been produced as part of the URBAIR program A major objective of the URBAIR program is to develop Air Quality Management Systems (AQMS) for Asian cities, and to apply such strategies in the development of Action Plans to improve urban air quality AQMS is based on a cost-benefit analysis of proposed actions, and measures for air pollution abatement In general, costs relate to abatement measures while benefits tnclude a potential reduction in the estimated costs of health damage resulting from air pollution This study emphasizes the damage to the health of those who are exposed to air pollution Population exposure is based on measured and calculated concentrations of air pollution through emission inventories and dispersion modeling A general strategy for AQMS is described in the "URBAIR Guidebook on Air Quality Management Strategy" published by MEIP (Larssen et al 1996a) Reports based on city-specific analysis are produced for each of the four URBAIR/MEIP cities: Greater Bombay, Jakarta, the Kathmandu Valley urban area, and Metro Manila These reports outline Action Plans for air quality improvement (Chapter 5), including estimates of cost-and-benefit figures The Action Plans are based comprehensive lists of proposed measures and actions developed by local working groups in consultation with outside experts The appendices of the report contains more detailed description of the air quality data, the emissions inventory and emissions factors, population exposure calculations and local laws and regulations 1.2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF GREATER BOMBAY Geography. Bombay is located on India's west coast, on a peninsula originally composed of seven islets Drainage and concentration have caused the islets to join and form the present-day Bombay Island, with the Arabian Sea to the west, and Bombay Harbor and the outlet of Thana Creek to the east Municipal boroughs and villages of Bombay Island and Salsett Island to the north were joined in 1957 to form Greater Bombay The Bombay Metropolitan Region (BMR) continued to expand and now includes New Bombay to the east of Thana Creek, and Bombay Harbor and other areas further to the north and east. In the mid-I 980s BMR covered an area of more than 600 square kilometers (km2) Figure 1 1 shows a map of BMR Much of Bombay is on a flat plain, one-fourth of which is below sea level Two north-south ridges flank the flat area, the highest point being Malabar Hill to the south-west, 55 meters above sea level 5 6 Background Information Population. The population density of Figure 1.1: Bombay MWetropolitan Region, and Greater Bombtay, Greater Bombay ivith nain roads, railroads, industrial and commercial areas, and averages about 16,500 modeling area used in this study. persons per km2 (1991), with more than three times this figure in the older central parts of Bombay. The I total population was Greater - _ _ about 9.9 million in bay 1991 ~~~~~~boundary 1991 l Y , Transportation. / Salsette. Bombay is India's Area selected main industrial city /expdsers ! ' I with air- / ~~~exposure withmanyair- modelling polluting industries . / i. Creek located in Chembur, in eastern Bombay The main roads are Arabian Sea concested most of the NAerport i w day, particularly the /Bob eastern and western express highwvays and the Thana Creek C Bridge Road Municipal and commercial activity is concentrated in the X city's southern part Commuting to and from populated areas Harbour to the north places a large burden on the road system The N - - - - - - - - Industry and z < '- v ' g ~~~~commerce capacity of the road -EI,_ Main roads and rail system to 0 5 10 kmr accommodate the increasing need for south-north commuting is much too small, leading to chronic day-time congestion. Maximum traffic flow (Annual Average Daily Traffic, AADT) at a road section is about 120,000 vehicles per day Three suburban, surface, electric train systems provide the main public transportation, together with the municipally owned bus fleet The former carries more than 4 million passengers per day, while the latter transports about 4 5 million people Bombay Harbor is India's busiest, handling more than 40 percent of India's maritime trade URBAIR-Bombay 7 The land use structure of Bombay has undergone major changes in the past decade Massive housing developments have arisen in previously non-urban belts along the western corridor and the Bombay-Pune (eastern) rail corridor New Bombay on the mainland, east of Thane Creek, has become a center of commercial activity Commercial complexes have been developed in the reclamation area along Mahim Creek and Mithi River on the outskirts of the island city A new district center--Oshiwara--has emerged in the northern suburbs (Coopers & Lybrand and AIC, 1994) 1.3. DATA SOURCES Previous studies. There has been no comprehensive study of the air pollution situation in Bombay, describing air quality, sources, emissions, and exposure The Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB), the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) and the National Engineering and Environmental Research Institute (NEERI) have presented various data on air quality and emissions The Bombay air pollution situation is briefly described by the World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme (WHO/UNEP, 1992) based mainly on the three Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) monitoring sites in Bombay, operated by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) The M\EIP study, "Environmental Management Strategy and Action Plan for Bombay Metropolitan Region," (Coopers & Lybrand and AIC, 1994) includes the air pollution sector and proposed management options, as it does for other environmental sectors The recently reported Comprehensive Study of Bombay Metropolitan Region (Atkins, 1993) has provided essential data on the traffic activity in Greater Bombay URBAIR data collection. Further data on various aspects of population, pollution sources, dispersion, air quality, and health aspects were collected for URBAIR, starting in April 1993 ADITYA Environmental Services, Bombay, provided data on population, pollution sources, fuel, vehicle and traffic statistics, air quality measurements, and meteorological/dispersion conditions Dr A A Mahashur of the Environmental Pollution Research Center in Bombay contributed evidence of the health effects of air pollution on the Bombay population, and on associated health costs (See Appendix 8 for further details) 1.4. THE GROWTH OF BOMBAY, 1981-1991 Bombay's population grew by 38 percent from 1971 to 1981, and another 20 percent between 1981 and 1991, to reach 9 9 million The total number of vehicles increased by about 103 percent from 1981 to 1991, leading to increased consumption of gasoline and diesel oil Between 1985- 1990, gasoline and light diesel oil consumption increased by 26 percent and 24 percent respectively, while furnace oil use decreased significantly The 1990 gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) figure for India is US$350, and the corresponding figure for Bombay is expected to have been much higher Over the period 1965-1990, the growth rate of GDP/ per capita was 1 9 percent, about the same as for the U S Over the last decade the annual increase was 3.2 percent Figure 1 2 gives a summary of the available data regarding population, vehicles, fuel consumption and air quality, and development over the last decade 8 Background Information Figure 1.2: Bombay development 1981-1992: Population, vehiclefleet, fuel consumption and air quality. 12.0 120 POPULATIONCe 10 0Tcn 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 800 VEHICLE FLEET 700 0 Motor Cycles Cars. jeeps, station wagons O Taxi cabs 0 Autonckshaws ED Trucks, lorres. buses * Utility vehicles 00 _. 4.0 : ° 00 40.0 :300- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 200 100 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 800 7r00 FUEL CONSUMPTION E9 c r_ Soo0 t Fumace O,il g g| E 400 - Low Sulptunc Hgh Stock T e b t vehicle 700 1 198 Moto3 Cyc8e 198 Cars, 1eeps s1atio wagon 199 Taxicab 300 100- LL 0 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 ~-400 - LwSlhrHg tc E 300 T GSoliONexOS 250 400+ 30 IR ULT .2 507 1 00+ T 50 _' 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 URBAIR-Bombay 9 Air quality measurements over the last decade show a definite increase in average total suspended particles (TSP) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) concentrations, while sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations have decreased This appears to correspond with the decrease in furnace oil consumption, and increase in traffic emissions TSP concentrations (annual average, and maximum 24-hours) are much higher than WHO Air Quality Guidelines of 90 jjg/m3 at many measuring sites. At certain times WHO Air Quality Guideline for SO2 (24-hour averages) is also exceeded 1.5. POPULATION Population data for 1981 and 1991 for Greater Table 1.1: Population and growthz rate Bombay, the Island City, Western and Eastern 1981-1991, Bombay. Suburbs (1990) is summarized in Table 1 1 From 1981 1991 1980 to 1990 population grew by 20 percent The Island City 3,283,000 3,109,500 average density in 1990 was about 16,500 inhabitants Westem Suburbs 2,860,000 3,975,400 average destyi 99 aaot650naiEastem Suburbs 2,100,000 2,824,600 per kMn2 The age distribution in Greater Bombay is Greater Borbay 8,243,400 9,909,500 given in Table 1 2 (1991). Almost a third of the Pop densityperkM2 13,670 16,430 population (31.5 percent) was under 15 years of age, and 66 percent were 15-65 years old Table 1.2: The age distribution of the Greater 1.6. VEHICLE FLEET Bombay population, 1991. Age % Age % The vehicle fleet in Bombay is categorized by cars (passenger, 0-9 21 2 40-44 5 7 taxis, and light-duty vehicles), trucks and buses, motorcycles; and 10-14 10 4 45-49 4 8 15-19 98 50-54 36 auto-rickshaws (tricycles) Of the 630 million vehicles in 1991, 20-24 117 55-59 24 48 percent were cars (including taxis), 39 percent were 25-29 10 7 60-64 1 9 motorcycles, and 9 percent were trucks and buses Table 1.3 30-34 8 1 65-69 11 provides the fleet data from 35-39 7.1 >70 1 5 1981 to 1991. Table 1 4 shows that there was substantial growth Table 1.3: Registered vehiclefleet data in Bombay). in fleet size between 1981 (Source: Transport Commissionzer, Bombav.) and 1991 The average total Vehicles (Unit 1,000) annual increase was 7 3 Cars and Utility Trucksl Motor- Tricycles Total percent, largest for tricycles taxis vehicles Buses cycles and motorcycles (19 percent 1981 180,334 3,677 41,931 78,474 4,465 308,881 and 12 percent per year). 1982 192,281 4,035 41,932 94,671 8,487 341,406 Theanume of p ntpericylea. 1983 204,228 4,393 41,933 110,868 12,510 373,932 The number of tricycles 1984 216,175 4,751 41,934 127,065 16,532 406,457 which had been stable 1985 228,122 5,109 41,935 143,262 20,555 438,983 between 1986 and 1991, has 1986 240,069 5,469 50,500 159,549 24,577 480,165 been on the rise since 1993 1987 253,215 5,646 51,515 177,577 24,577 512,530 1988 266,361 5,823 52,530 195.696 24,577 544,987 1989 279,507 6,000 53,545 213,814 24,577 577,443 1990 292,653 6,177 54,562 231,932 24,577 609,901 1991 299,289 6,501 56,086 242,008 24,577 628,461 10 Background Information In 1991, Bombay had 63 vehicles per 1,000 Table 1.4: Vehicle growth rate, inhabitants. This includes 30 cars per 1,000 persons; 5 5 annual average (percent), Bombay. trucks/buses per 1,000, and 24 motor- and tri-cycles per 1981-1991 % growth 1,000 inhabitants. The percentage of diesel-powered cars Passenger cars 5 2 was estimated at 20 percent. Utility vehicles 5 9 Trucks 2 9 Motorcycles 11 8 Tncycles 19 0 Total 7 3 Figure 1.3: Four cordons studiedfor growth traffic activity, in Greater Bombay. Solid bold lines show the main road network of 1.7. ROAD AND BMR TRANSPORT The growth in traffic activity in four cordons Mid-city (by Mahalakshmi), Island (by Sion), Mid-suburban (by Malad Creek-Pavai Lake), \Outercordon and Outer cordon (by Dahisar-Thane, i.e Greater Bombay limits), is recorded here See Figure Data for growth in traffic and transport in Mid-suburban Greater Bombay are taken cordon ____ from the Traffic Survey in cordon Greater Bombay Report (1988) conducted by the Bombay Metropolitan s cordon Region Development -_ cordon Authority (BMRDA, 1990) Traffic activity and Mid-city - - ' growth during 1978-1988 cordon - is shown in Table 1 5 There has been a 5-6 percent growth in the outer cordons while the growth has been small on Island and Mid-city (I 5-5 percent per annum) N Growth across the i I I outer cordon has mainly 0 5 10 km ) URBAIR-Bombay taken place along the western routes (Western Table 1.5: Growth in traffic activities across Express Hig,hway and Sion Panvel Roads, 192 .four cordons across Greater Bombay, 19 78- percent and 124 percent total growth during 1988 (BMRDA, 1990). 1978-1988, respectively) At the mid-suburban Traffic Total daily Increase cordon, the growth has been more uniform Cordon vehicle % along the four main corridors, about 40-75 1988 1978-1988 Annual percent during 1978-1988 Outer cordon 80,370 58 4.7 Motorizepasseng rtraffichasincreae Mid-suburban 156,400 70 5.5 Motorized passenger traffic has Increased Island 195,270 15 1 4 the most, especially across outer and mid- Mild-City 229,960 20 18 suburban cordons Goods traffic has actually declined in the Mid-City, possibly because some wholesale markets have moved out of the Island City The main increase in passenger vehicle traffic growth (more than 200 percent increase in the outer cordon during 1978-1988) has been due to two-wheeler traffic across all cordons Private car traffic has increased moderately (20- 30 percent over the decade), while auto- Table 1.6: Growth rates in Greater Bombay traffic rickshaw traffic has to a large extent for vehicle categories (BMRDA, 1990). replaced taxis in the suburbs, indicated Growth rate % per annum by the very large increase in number of Passenger Goods Cycles and auto-rickshaws early in the decade The vehicles vehicles other vehicles growth rate for various vehicle categories Outer cordon 6 0 4 5 -2 8 is presented in Table 1 6. Mid-suburban 6.8 1.5 2 7 Island 20 0 1 -4 4 Increased volume has resulted tn a Mid-city 3.0 -2 6 -1 85 substantial slowing down of traffic, especially on the main corridors Along the Eastern corridor, the speeds are low (15-30 km/h) and have not changed substantially. However, the average speed along the main Western corridor has declined from 50 km/h in 1962 to 30-40 km/h in the late 1970s, and 20-30 km/h in 1990 Similarly, the average speed in the Eastern corridor has fallen from 30 km/h in 1962 to 20-25 km/h in 1979, and 15 km/h in 1990 (Deshpande et al 1993) The BMRDA study of the rates of increase in population, registered vehicles, and traffic flow revealed that the large population growth in the suburbs, both immediate and extended, has caused a considerable increase in traffic flow in these areas. In the Island City, however, both population growth and traffic flow have stagnated (compared to 1962-78), although the number of registered vehicles has increased substantially (Table 1 7) Table 1. 7: Broad comparison of growth rates of population, 1.8. INDUSTRIAL registered vehicles and traffic flow (BMRDA, 1990). SOURCES Growth rates, 1978-1988 (% p.a.) Population Registered Traffic flow Aside from being India's vehicles financial and commercial Island City 0 12 6 1 1 8 (Mid-City cordon) center,Bombay is also Subus2114 1 4 (Island City cordon) center, most idtalso Suburbs 2 1 14 6 5 5 (Mid-suburb cordon) the most industrialized Extended suburbs 8 2 4 9 (Outer cordon) Indian city There are Greater Bombay 2 6 8 1 1 7 12 Background Information approximately 40,000 small and big industries in the city, of which 32 have been classified as hazardous (Table 1.8) Table 1.8: Industrial Industries in the air polluting category include textile mills, classification in Greater chemical, pharmaceutical engineering, and foundry units. Bombay. Process emissions, and those from fuel consumption, Type of Industries Number of constitute the main sources of air pollution This study does Industries not account for industrial fugitive emissions Major air Mechanical Workshop 3,348 pollution sources include a giant fertilizer/chemical complex; Plastic and Rubber 32 two oil refineries, and a thermal power plant, all based in Chemical 523 Chembur, a suburb on the eastern coast of the Bombay Island Textile 531 Industrial g,rowth has been concentrated in the Tromby- Pesticide 9 Chembur and Lalbaug areas. In addition, industries have Miscellaneous 33,790 developed along Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg (Street) passing Thermal Power Plant 1 through the Central suburbs toward Thane, in the Andheri- Total 40,369 Kurla area in Central Bombay, and along the Western Express highway leading out of Bombay Figure 1 4 shows a map of major industrial sources in Bombay As part of this URBAIR study, emissions data were collected for about 280 large and medium industries in Greater Bombay 1.9. FUEL CONSUMPTION Over the period 1985-91, gasoline, high speed diesel (HSD) and low-sulfur high stock (LSHS) consumption increased by 26 percent, 28 percent, and 43 percent respectively Furnace oil con- sumption decreased by 26 percent over the same period The 1992-93 data indicate a further in- crease In the LSHS column, the TATA power plant consumption is not fully accounted for in the data for 1985-91, as it is for 1992-93 Available fuel consumption data are presented in Table 1 9. Coal consumption data for the same period are not available. Consumption in 1985-86 was 2,124,000 metric tons per year, with a sulfur content of 0 5 percent and ash content of 12 percent. Table 1. 9: Fossil. fuel consumption, Greater Bo3mbay ('million 1/yr.) Source: (i) E.S & P Dept; MCGB (for period 1985-91). (ii) 1992-93 Data generated under URBAIR by ADITYA. Furnace Oil Low Sulfur High High Speed Light diesel oil Gasoline LPG Kerosene Stock Diesel 1985-1986 403 527 438 99 287 201 447 1986-1987 300 549 469 99 300 202 436 1987-1988 367 408 508 118 314 204 430 1988-1989 397 612 529 118 330 213 438 1989-1990 298 616 551 115 345 213 448 1990-1991 299 755 560 108 362 214 471 1992-1993 306 1488' 583 462 2792 2333 4803 Note 1 LSHS Data for 1985-91 takes account of only part of TATA Thermal Power Plant requirement and does not account for Refinenes' own consumption 2 Incomplete data from Refinenes 3 Data from Rationing Inspectorate, Dept of Civil Supplies URBAIR-Bombay 13 Figure 1. 4: Position of the industrial sources in Bombay with TSP emissions, mapped in this study. t7~~~~~~~- _~~~~~~~. %* S / J ~~va',ue l.tg/m3 in 1981 to about 40 ig/m3 in Long term (annual) average 80 pg/M3 1990, and 46 [Ig/m3 in 1993 The Short term (24 hour) average 120 pg/M3 150 pg/m3 summary of NOx concentrations at MCGB stations in the period June 1992-May 1993 is shown in Figure 2.4 below 2.2. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS IN GREATER BOMBAY Total emissions. A comprehensive emission inventory was developed for Bombay as part of the URBAIR project The local URBAIR consultant collected the necessary input data, according to the project description (Appendix 8) The traffic emission distribution was developed on the basis of road and traffic data included in the Comprehensive Transport Plan for Bombay (Atkins, 1993) Appendix 4 describes the development of the emission inventory. The results of the emission inventory are presented in Table 2 7 These are based on the emission factor data given in Table 2 8, and the fuel consumption data in Table 2 9 Traffic activity data are described in detail in Appendix 4 Emission factors for particles are described in Appendix 5 Appendix 7 contains the emission spreadsheet calculations The inventory covers the main source categories. Figure 2 5 shows the main source contributions Emission factors recommended by WHO (1993), and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1986) have generally been used, as In the other URBAIR cities (Manila, Jakarta, Kathmandu) Indian emission factors are available for some of the sources, such as vehicles, and for fuel combustion as suggested by the URBAIR Bombay working group on air quality (see Appendix 5) The working groups decided to use the WHO/EPA factors in this first phase of URBAIR Accepted Indian factors should be used in subsequent analysis processes 20 Air Quality Assessment Figure 2.3: Mean annual SO2 concentrations at MCGB sitesfor 1992-1993 (Yg/rn3) Bombay 8 .35 . 10 @ 50 035 0 15 19- )* *< /* *19 @ 21 013 @ 21 t\ /21 28 621 / ;, 44.$ *Stations not monitored Air quality Standard Guideline Bombay WHO 80 pg/Mr3 50 pg/mr URBAIR-Bombay 21 Figure 2.4: Annual average NOQ concentrations at MCGB stations in the period June 1992- May 1993 --- < (X - Bombay 0 30 t. / *~ 33 C 3 ! .48 @49 40. * .61 0 83 e 25 { 38 *50 ) r *~~~20 .59 *)4 45, * Stations not monitorec Air quality Standard .44 *gBombay 80 pg/m3 (NO. as NO2) 22 Air Quality Assessment Table 2. 7. Total annual emission in Greater Bombay, 1992-1993 (tons/yr.). Emission sources TSP PM1o S02 NOx Hours of operation Transport sector Vehicle exhaust Gasoline Cars 492 492 160 6,643 12 MC/TC 737 737 250 179 12 Diesel Cars 765 765 395 1,783 12 Buses 445 445 566 2,891 12 Trucks 1,234 1,234 2,120 8,024 12 Sum vehicle exhaust 3,673 3 ,673 3,490 19, 520 12 Resuspension from roads 10,200 2,550 - - 12 Energy/industry sector ....... ...... ... . .. ....... . ... .. ........ .... .. ..... .... ..... ..... ..... .. . . .... . ............. ... .... .. ..... . .... .. ..... ..... ... ......... .... . ..... ..... ... ... ......... - .. ..... . . . .... ... ..... ................. ............... ... ............... Power plant -1,500 -1500 -26,000 -11,200 24 Other fuel combustion lndustnal LSHS 1401 84 11,9201 1,690 24 FO 1,6521 1,399 24,4801 2,140 24 LDO 121 6 1,5101 120 24 Diesel 121 6 8001 115 24 LPG 0.5 0 5 - 20 24 Sum industnal 1,817 1,496 38,710 4,085 Domesbtc/commercial3 ............................. e..... Wood 4,395 2,198 59 410 12 (day) Kerosene (SKO) 23 23 1,628 258 10 (day) LPG 14 14 0,7 676 10 (day) Sum domestc 4,432 2,235 1,688 1,344 lndustnal processes2 Stone crushers 6,053 12 (day) Other Refuse buming Domestic 3,700 3,700 Dumps 408 408 26 153 12 (3 PM-3 AM) Construction Manne (docks) FO 540 459 8,000 750 24 LSHS 16 8 1 120 425 24 Diesel 2 1 120 45 24 LDO 1 1 110 25 24 Sum marine 560 469 9,350 1 245 Total 32,343 16,031 79,264 37,547 1 Uncontrolled 2 Process emissions are less important than fuel combustion emissions in Bombay 3 Domestic coal/dung combustion not included, due to lack of volume data. URBAIR-Bombay 23 Table 2.8: Emission factors used for URBAIR, Bombay, 1992. For references: see Appendix 5. TSP PMioITSP S02 NOx %S max. Fuel combustion (kglt) Coal, bituminous, power plant -uncontrolled 5A1) 19 5s1) 10 5 -cyclone 1 25A 0 95 19 5S 10 5 - ESP 0.36A 19 5S 10 5 Residual oil (OF) ind /comm 1.25S+0 38 085 20S 7 4 Distillate oil nd /comm. 0.28 0 5 20S 2 84 LSHS. 1 (LSHS, HSD, LDO) residential 0 36 - 1 62) 0 5 20S 2 6 HSD 1 LDO. 1.8 LPG ind /dom 0 06 1 0 0 007 2.9 0.02 Kerosene dom 0 06 1 0 17S 2 5 0.25 Natural gas utility 006 1 0 20S 11.3 f - nd /dom 0 06 20S 2 5 Wood dom 15 05 02 1 4 Refuse buming domestc 37 1 0 5 3 - dumps 8 Coal. domestic 10 Dung. domestic 10 Road vehicles (g.kr.). Gasoline. Cars 0 2 1 2 7 87 0 25 -Trucks, light duty 0 33 1 830 20 - Buses and trucks, heavy duty 0 68 1 -MC/TC 0.5 1 0 1 Diesel Cars 06 1 1 4 1 -Trucks, light duty 0 9 1 - Buses and trucks, heavy duty 2 0 13 1) A Ash content, in %, S sulfur content, in % 2) Well -* poorly maintained fumaces Emissions from the TATA power plant have been calculated based on the fuel consumption figures of Table 2 5, and assuming ESP emission control The emissions do not contribute much to ground level exposure due to their tall stacks (278 meters). Dockside emissions are primarily a result of petroleum products sold to ships. It is not known how much of this petroleum is actually burned in the docks Emissions also come from ships waiting in the bay for dock space These emissions are substantial and contribute to the extra urban background concentrations, particularly SO2 and SPM. They are calculated from ship counts and waiting time No specific data on industrial process emissions are available Emissions from large/medium industries have been collected on a separate file which contains data from about 280 large/medium plants in Bombay Process and fuel combustion emissions have not been separated Also, the emission data for some of the plants are based on actual emission measurements, and may not be representative TSP. Total annual TSP emissions are estimated at about 32,400 tons per year for 1992-1993 Road traffic, particularly resuspension of road dust, wood burning, domestic refuse burning, and furnace oil use in industry are the largest sources of TSP emissions Because these sources exhaust emissions at low heights, they contribute significantly to population exposure 24 Air Quality Assessment In some areas, stone crushers expose nearby Table 2.9 Fuel consumption data for Greater Bombay, for populations to TSP Emissions 1992-1993 (April-March), for industry, domestic purposes, from stone crushers are and by ships in the Bombay port and bay area For mobile assumed to be uncontrolled and sector fuel consumption and traffic actvity, see Appendix 4. have been worked out Category Fuel type 103 metric tonslyear separately. The emission figure TATA Power Plant LSHS 927 for domestic refuse burning Coal 298 refers to commonly burned Gas 496 street litter and leaves, Industnal LSHS 499 279 in Petrochem industry although little is known about 164 in large/medium industry the magnitude of the practice 56 in small scale industry A first gross estimate of FO 306 183 in large/medium industry 123 in small scale industry one kilogram per household LDO 42 per week was used. The Diesel (HSD) 40 emission factor is highly LPG 7 uncertain Based on WHO Domestic Wood 289 (1993) and NILU experiments SKO 480 (Semb, 1986), an emission LPG 233 fato of 37aln pe Manne (port/bay) FO 100 factor of 37gallons per LSHS 56 kilograms has been used For Diesel 6 burning at municipal refuse LDO 3 dumps, 8gallons per kilograms has been used with reference to WHO (1993) An emission figure has not been developed for construction in Bombay due to lack of data, even though the experience of other Asian cities such as Manila leads us to believe that TSP emissions from construction tend to be substantial (Larssen et al, 1995). Table 2 10 lists USEPA Table 2.10: USEPA Suggested Road Dust Resuspension suggested emission factors (EPA Emission Factors AP 42) for road dust Road class AADT Emission factor in g/km resuspension. Local streets <500 15 00 These factors are valid for dr)' Collector streets 500 -10 000 10 00 road conditions Much of the Major streets 10 000 -50 000 . 4.40 traffic activity takes place on Freeways/expressways >50 000 0 35 roads with annual average daily traffic (AADT) greater than 50,000. Assuming the traffic activity share on these road are 5 percent (local), 25 percent (collector), 30 percent (major), and 40 percent (freeway/expressway), and that the roads are wet 50 percent of the time, EPA emission factors give an average factor of a little more than 2 grams per kilometer A recent evaluation of road emission rates supports, in general, the EPA emission factors for paved roads, although the study concludes that more investigation is needed (Claiborn et al, 1995) We select 2 grams per kilometer as an average resuspension emission factor URBAIR-Bombay 25 Figure 2.5: Source contributions to emissions of TSP and PM,O, Greater Bombay, 1992. TSP El Tata Termal PM. E Tata Termai p PMPower Plant Power Plant o Gasoline 0 Gasoline cars/MC/TC cars/MCiTC 14% 6% 5% 0 Diesel 10% 0 Diesel cars/trucks/buses 23% cars/trucks/buses o Resuspension 0 Resuspension 17-/. 19 I .l " l 7 t t31nd. fuel 3% 16 8 Ind. fuel ER Wood Burning 8 Wood Buming / ~~~~~~~~~~14Y % 7% \ 40% * Marine . Manne 10% / c O Refuse domestic 1l Refuse domestic SO, Tata Termal NO fZTata Termal Power Plant Power Plant 3 Gasoline OGasoline 12% cars/MC/TC 4%0 3% carslMClTC 2 11% ~3%~Dise 0% tf Diesel cars/trucks/buses cars/trucks/buses E Ind fuel 8l E Ind fuel 41Z I Domestic SKO 3 / Domestic fuel 48% 8%l m Marine [D Manne PM,(, Total PMIo emissions are calculated at about 16,000 tons per annum for 1992-1993 Refuse burning, resuspension, vehicle exhaust from diesel trucks, and fuel oil combustion in industry were the dominant PMIo sources Source distribution is shown in Figure 2 5 Table 2.11: Typical Fuel Sulfur SO2 Emissions of SO2 are calculated on the basis of Content the following maximum sulfur contents of fuel Fuel type Sulfur content (-) Total SO2 emissions are roughly 79,000 tons per Fuel OIl (FO) 40 annum Industries, fuel oil, LSHS, and the TATA Light diesel oil (LDO) 1 8 power plant are the main contributors The actual sulfur Distillate (LSHS, HSD) 1 0 content of fuels, and thus actual SO2 emissions, may be Motor diesel 1 0 lower Kerosene 0.25 Gasoline 87 RON 0.25 93RON 020 26 Air Quality Assessment NO,. Total annual NO, emissions are calculated at 26,000 tons per annum with vehicle exhaust, especially from diesel trucks and gasoline cars, and the TATA power plant being the main causes Figure 2.6: Exposure modeling area, Greater Spatial emission distribution. A Bombay. 42x20 km grid net base-line situation for air pollution exposure was established as a basis for a cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness - -' ~~~Bombay analysis of abatement measures for - - Bo Greater Bombay In addition, spatial ' concentration fields over the urban area 16- were demarcated. To model the spatial distributions, a grid-formed particle emission survey was designed to measure high particle concentrations-- the main air pollution problem in Bombay. The calculated total *15 emissions were distributed over a //) square kilometer (km2) grid net of 42 12 *) by 20 km2, covering the area shown in Figure 2.6 Point source emissions were distributed according to their actual 1 *11 location Fuel consumption in small industries, and in households, were distributed in relation to the population (See Appendix 4) Traffic emissions on 0 the main road network were based on I9 the locations of various corridors The 72 remaining diesel and gasoline used was distributed among the non-slum population distribution 2.3. DISPERSION MODEL CALCULATIONS FOR GREATER BOIMBAY 2 2.3.1. Dispersion conditions General description of topography, Main road climate and dispersion. Bombay has . . ............. Raiiway a mean elevation of 1 I meters above sea level, and it consists of several islands on the Konkan coast The city i URBAIR-Bombay 27 has a tropical savanna climate, with monthly mean humidity ranging between 57-87 percent. The annual average temperature is 25 3,C, rising to a maximum of 34 5°C in June and minimum of 14 3°C in January Average annual precipitation is 2,078 millimeters with 34 percent (709 millimeters) falling in the month of July In the winter the predominant local wind direction is northerly, while in the summer monsoon season, north-westerly winds predominate. A sea breeze is usual during the day, with mean wind speeds between 1 5-2 meters per second Nights, between the hours of 22 00 and 06 00, are calm. The mixing depth varies between 30 meters and 3,000 meters (NEERI, 1991) Studies have shown that active monsoon conditions are associated with a lowering of the mixing layer height, an absence of inversion/stable layers, and decreased convective instability in the lower layers of the monsoon atmospheric boundary. The reverse is observed on monsoon break days In weak and break monsoon conditions there is a subsidence and feeding of dry air from the sky In moderate to active monsoon conditions, the moisture reaches higher levels due to synoptic scale convergence (Parasnis and Goyal, 1988) High pollution concentrations in Bombay usually occur in the winter when adverse meteorological situations, and weak and break monsoon conditions dominate In the early mornings the inversion layer is lowest (closest to the ground), and leads to poor vertical mixing of pollutants In the daytime when there is high insulation, a sea breeze blows inland This wind direction may cause stagnation of the airmass when the monsoon winds run in the opposite direction Such a condition can usually be seen on winter days and early summer mornings Dispersion conditions. Dispersion of air pollution emissions is dominated by wind conditions and the vertical stability of the atmosphere Wind statistics from the meteorological stations at the Santa Cruz airport and Colaba Observatory, at Bombay's southern tip, have been obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) Winds are generally calmer at Colaba than at Santa Cruz indicating that the wind counter has a high starting velocity, or that it is shielded by nearby vegetation or buildings During the monsoon (August), winds are fairly strong and the dominating directions at Santa Cruz are from west and northwest. At Colaba, the wind direction seems to be shifted some 300 counter- clockwise During the winter (December) winds are very weak, and the main wind sectors are southeast and north. During the summer (March), the wind speed picks up again and the northerly sector dominates Figure 2 7 shows wind roses from Santa Cruz for December (winter), March (summer) and August (monsoon conditions) as recorded in 1992/1993 From this data, and from calculations of the stability class based on hourly observations of wind and cloud cover, a combined wind/stability matrix has been constructed Such a matrix, representing the statistics of dispersion climatology, can be used as input to dispersion models for calculation of long-term average concentrations of Table 2.12: WindAvtability frequency matrix (%, annual), Santa pollutants. The combined Cruz Airport, .June 1992-May 1993. matrix, based on the Santa Stability classes Velocity classes (mis) Frequency of calm: Cruz data, is given in I - unstable 0 3-2 0 (1 1 m/s average) In unstable class 10 5% Table 2 12. This matrix is N - neutral 2 0-4 0 (2 9 mls average) In neutral class 0% used for the dispersion SS - slightly stable 4 0-6.0 (4.8 m/s average) In SS class 4 2% conditions over the entire S- stable >6 0 (6 8 m/s average) In stable class. 16 7% modeling area The calm frequencies are distnbuted in the direction sectors within each of the stability classes of the 0 3-2 m/s velocity class, proportional to the occurrence of wind 28 Air Quality Assessment Figure 2. 7: Wind roses for 1992-1993, Santa Cruz Airport and Colaba. Santa Cruz Colaba 30 20 August '92 20 t ~~~~December'92 X 10 0 n 6.0 m/s / g 4.0- 6.0 112.0- 4 .0 _ E - i ~~0.5- 2.01 rc $ ~~March'93 August 1992 December 1992 .arch 1993 Averagewindspeed, m/s 23 0.8 13 URBAIR-Bombay 29 2.3.2. Dispersion nmodel calculations, city background Model Description. The dispersion modeling work in the first phase of URBAIR concentrates on the calculation of long-term (annual) average concentrations, representing averages within square kilometer grids (city concentrations) Contributions from nearby local sources in specific receptor points (streets, industrial hot spots) must also be evaluated The model used is a multisource Gaussian model that treats area, point, and volume sources separately Meteorological input to the model is represented by a joint wind speed/direction/stability matrix representing the annual frequency distributions of these parameters The dispersion conditions are assumed to be spatially uniform over the model area For point sources, account is taken of plume rise (Briggs equations), the effects of building turbulence, and plume downwash For area sources, the total emissions in a square kilometer grid are simulated by 100 ground level point sources equally spaced over the grid McElroy-Pooler classification for low-level area sources, and Brookhaven classification for point sources (stacks) were used as the dispersion parameters The software package used in the KILDER model system was developed at NILU (Gram and Bohler, 1992) TSP. Calculated annual average TSP concentration distributions are shown in Figure 2.8 for the following source categories * road traffic (vehicle exhaust), * area sources - domestic fuel combustion (wood, SKO, LPG), fuel combustion in small industries (LSHS, LDO), stone crushers, and burning in refuse dumps, * point sources (emission from 280 large and medium size industrial plants), and, * resuspension from roads A total background concentration of 60 1ig/m3 has been estimated based on measurements carried out near Vikram and Thal South of Bombay (data provided by M G Rao, Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizer, Ltd. and ADITYA) This total also includes resuspension from roads The concentrations from resuspension are calculated to be about 2 5 times those from exhaust particles, based on emission factors We estimate that resuspension of dust from roads is the most important source of TSP Domestic burning of refuse has not been added to area sources when calculating the concentrations The rough estimate of emissions from refuse burming is about the same as from vehicle exhaust This emission should be distributed according to the population burning refuse Contribution from refuse burning would be about the same as from traffic, about 20-30 jL.g/m3 in the maximum zone The concentration peaks correspond to stone crushers (in the area source distribution), and to specific industrial sources (in the point source distribution) In Figure 2 8, measured annual TSP concentrations are plotted (from Figure 2 1) The calculated and measured values are generally of the same magnitude Many of the sites with high measured values were seen to be situated in industrial areas, indicating possibilities of contributions from local sources In this comparison it should be noted that TSP from refuse burning is in addition to the calculated concentrations 30 Air Quality Assessment PM10 Concentration distributions for PMIo have Figure 2.8: Calculated average annual TSP concentration not been calculated, but can distributions, Greater Bombay, June 1992-May 1993. be estimated based on Traffic (vehicle exhaust) Area sources calculated TSP concentrations Taf ( i e u Are sources and PM10/TSP ratios 4 /1/ Estimated PM1O concentration L F° contributions in the maximum 1 ,. [ 6 concentration distribution 3' °)\ zone (Dadar-Sion) are tabulated in Table 2. 13 Annual average PM1o / , C t.-' concentrations of about - J L 100 ug/m3 represent about 50 \ \ / /' L percent of the TSP / C concentrations in the Dadar- Sion area for 1992 This is slightly higher than the PMIo concentrations reported in - , --- 4.. - \ - Table 2 2, as measured in , 1982 It can be expected that / 2 /, 4/ the PMIo concentrations have increased since 1982 \, S02. Dadar-Parel (excluding ,I FT I I peaks near specific industries) ,,,Point sources Sum of all sources has the highest calculated r 1/ annual average S02 at Cq 8 (s 70 1jg/m3. This is significantly 1 F higher than the measured SO2 , 0 O rF concentration which ranges / F from 30-40 pg/m3. The discrepancy can be mostly V - accounted for by the Table 2.13: Calculated TSP ,. and PM1,0 concentrations - 00 Concentration - ,' level (gIjjm3) TSP PM10 ~ 0' .' - Vehicle exhaust - 30 - 30 , ,' Resuspension - 80 - 20 , , J Area sources - 30 - 15 - , - / Point sources - 5 - 3 3_ __ ,' __ __ _ / Extra-urban 60 - 30 background . ________________._\___'_/ Sum -205 -100 URBAIR-Bombay 31 maximum sulfur content of fuel Actual sulfur content is less and, therefore, the SO2 concentrations should also be less Figure 2 9 shows calculated SO2 concentration distributions (annual average, June 1992-May 1993) In this case, the distribution represents the sum from traffic (vehicle exhaust), area sources (fuel combustion) and point sources with no extra-urban background added Vehicle exhaust from traffic is the most important source for ground level S02 concentrations in Bombay NO, Figure 2 10 shows the calculated NO, concentration distributions from vehicle exhaust, fuel combustion in area sources, and point sources Calculated concentrations of around 200 g,g/m3 are highest in the Dadar-Sion area. Measured NO, concentrations are about 100 .g/m3, roughly half the calculated concentrations (see Appendix 1) Vehicle exhaust is the most important source for ground-level NO, concentrations 2.3.3. Pollution hot spots Pollution hot spots are areas with large concentration contributions. They are generally located along main roads, and near industrial areas with significant emissions from low stacks The calculated concentration distributions of Figures 2 9, 2 10 and 2 11 indicate industrial pollution hot spots, including stone crushers The measurements described in Figure 2.1 and in Table 2 2 show that the highest concentrations measured are indeed in industrial zones (e g Maravali) and near road crossings Such hot spot pollution areas may contribute significantly to air pollution exposure 32 Air Quality Assessment Figure 2.9: Annual average TSP, Greater Bombay, June 92-May 93. Calculated and measured values. a ( o; 0Bombay LJn 0 0~208 0 4 0 227 Lo 10. 00 02582 129 URBAIR-Bombay 33 Figure 2.10: Calculated annual average S02 concentration listributions, Greater Bombay, June 1992-May 1993. Traffic (vehicle exhaust) Area sources 1~ ~ ~-- ........ . 0/'W \\ a Point sources Sum of all sources S.0 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I ,T I I I"I . o- ,-t 0t~~~ . Cu. , . 1 34 Air Quality Assessment Figure 2.11: Calculated annual average NO. concentration listributions, Greater Bombay, June 1992-May 1993. Traffic (vehicle exhaust) Area sources L Point sources Sum of all 'sources , I; M t S( -c- - OO -- ~ tn f) CS m c, t- * m 5, r- C* C S< t j - o C * , . 'r We \0 C'4 W C- C.1410 4 - C G C f S : :ct- '' _ ' WI vs C1 t~: M uSu < e z C : C, 0: C- r-: r- boo :,, C,N _ C _n \ _ I _ In _) _ - C - ,oV,[ - > :C- - sCi \:(> CS .\ ''P ' . ' , : N o o-- DC 'O t r -0c rC o :- - c .t~~~~- .- -: .7 en.t - :a S \D C % - M S ' *C C-, CS O cn N C,4 CI4 en en t- M ' * o >oo *r-0o c o c o - IIq rrC * nI rI f n t t II z s ~ ~~~~c-4 o o x c r-u cN oo c\ rx cr o o z es r ofi ~C%i (- r, co 0o aoco 00 00 0 5C c ox oo: 000 cs o Nj > t~~~~~~- _ ; o r 5~~~> '00 j ' o _ --_ _ : we C_ C' ) C) C) \ C , C) C\ C' 7 C. C00m URBAIR-Bombay 45 -N: m m icN -til #-} Tz-<- ko r 5 [- tIn V1) \0 ir i- IN I ~ - ~ Io Ct1 c) c O,, )o1 mI>tI )xI _ > c c - Ic ci o.o.o olo o co ol .o olo olo ol c~ o A\.z c - ', t'n c-4 r- r- -- m r- c- \:- t 1. r cN: . Ic r- 'r 1 ' _ _ . ~I I , . I ' I . I I I \r_ ' c 'IO 1 - . c I . I I- O Co r- z _ ._ 1N In \ 00' .00 I I X -H, oH -H -I ol o +l . + co-^ 00 -H-Ho° -H-HI-t1-HI-H-iH* * H -HI * .- * *H I* *H * * 1 H -H i- H 1-H ,--H \ -N - C e s - 0 - - -t IU It V\( ' \ I00\I CN 0- (N 0j -1- c n C~. Ic-n r, 00 00 M (N: ~tC'N N- (N(-,I (N c: r (NI4 . (NI rn en r' c'flen CN.(Nq -le M, n C (NI, C I II I~~~~~~~~H- H Hi I - H+ I .I I . I I l I -r-: -1t-- f00 r-' r- 00N (N4 -: CN( I- - - (N C I C(N(NI(NI(N(.CI + o r- I e r - ISlo \.: a- c, -r o) c r- s r- - ,t: oc c-,II I l I c r - cIr 1° - ir 1 I1 r I mI lnxl c '> . ~ (o~ t oI . + oIJ (N F-l o0 j 0Y Co, + 00°+ °° ° °j++ ++ °+ ++ 4-~~~~t~~~--I(N-~~~~~~~~(N-(NI-(N(N(NI.(Nc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ C-1 IC A -o "I soc-e M':: c o r . I r- - . c - oo c: s:- C, oCsa-4- °) 0 m C, 0m cs- oc o °°rcs -10 =1l 0si *1 T . 4: *n es N I-t c. -,t en II I -I I ce: ( s - * I NI t m z . : r. cc ocrI I . - * I . I I w N C-4N :0 jeC ' 0C (N C- 4 ` 0 Ij 0s c 0 -Ir C-,-1 e InV~ , Io W) n - 0 W I \It ~ . f:- r Ir- r I c~r : - )I r-riI ( -t 0 r - I Ir ,r -T W :r Ir-C r 000 r-I t ~ | l 0010 'f 00 (|NI -Or N1 z ,-(N r4 c - c r. t 1 '4 NI * - bNI N 0) C)I0 0 ) C WI I ' I)5 c I 1l 'f- ~- PSfSC- ce I (N 'C S NSIc]f S s I ', . I I . ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I .I I I I Li. W. LT I I 0 -. -0 I I I l _ I 00 00 oc I oc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 2 C L i o 2 x 2 i ro 2i2 _ 20I c2 2 ; _ . . I I .I . I . I I l_ C.' C.' 0)~~~~~~~~ocC .' I I I I I I I I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: . > I I I I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I z I ~ -Z I I l l - I l -.a eI I* IC Immv . :s _ es es . 6 -I . sI N s . c > I - * c s I c -s-I t }I c I ce < ' ~~~ ~ ~~~~I I : I . I . I I I' b . . ~ ~I I .I . I , I I I v > -*(>t _ (' - _Ic - _ -I- _- I I I - I _ L ~ ~ ~~I I .I . I I I I _ .,, 6) I OI , ) °I . oI . I I I ; -e L I C I I I ' I I t . : ~I I . . I * I I I !:^ . ~Ic I .0 10 . K. I b ~~I _ I X S -luo oZ _ oC C _ z . ~~~I- Ic. Ic. IZ I~ IZ I- . I I . I .I III 46 Air Pollution: Impacts and Valuation In 1988, 507 subjects (144 males and 203 females) who lived near Amboli quarry where mean SPM level is 2,016 jig/m3, were studied A similar study involving 587 subjects (246 males and 341 females) was conducted in 1991 near Kandivili quarry where the mean SPM level is 618 gg/m3 It was observed that the people living near these two quarries were more affected than the'quarry workers Although the incidence of respiratory symptoms like cough and dyspnoea were higher among workers, the lung functions of residents were about 5 to 15 percent lower than workers About 10 percent of radiographs of workers showed either vascular markings or nodular shadows Dahisar and BPH employees were examined in 1992 to look for the effect of CO gas on carboxyhemoglobin The study included 211 male employees from Dahisar and 198 male employees from BPH In addition, another study examined 45 traffic police and 75 vendors working at six traffic junctions in Bombay The mean COHb levels of.non-smokers at Dahisar and BPH check posts was 1 7 percent, and that of traffic police was 2.3 percent. Among check post employees, occupational history showed significant correlation with COHb levels The traffic junction study showed a significant correlation between ambient CO levels and COHb levels Table 3.2 summarizes EPRC studies, along with pollutant levels, incidence of different respiratory symptoms, and prevalence of respiratory diseases A similar type of study was conducted in Navy Nagar, a comparatively clean area devoid of vehicular or industrial pollution Table 3.2 shows that, compared to residents of Navy Nagar, the incidence of various respiratory symptoms is higher in communities near quarries, and among traffic police, employees of check posts, and the residential Chembur population near chemical factories Furthermore, the prevalence of bronchitis and cardiac diseases was significantly higher among traffic police, compared to other localities Similarly, people living near fertilizer factories or heavy traffic had a higher incidence of bronchitis and cardiac diseases compared to the control area, Navy Nagar Table 3.3 shows that lung function levels of Telecom (the control area of Chembur) subjects were higher than Chembur subjects who lived near the fertilizer and other chemical factories There was no difference observed in lung functions of Parel subjects over the years Overall, however, Parel residents had significantly worse lung function than that of Navy Nagar subjects (the Bombay control area) Peddar Road and King Circle subjects showed significant deterioration in lung function levels (by 200 to 500 milliliter) in a 1988 study, compared to a 1986 study Also, BPH and Dahisar check post employees showed low lung function levels compared to Navy Nagar 3.3. MORTALITY Health impacts are divided into mortality (excess deaths) and morbidity (excess illness) Mortality and morbidity numbers are derived from air quality data using dose-effect relationships. In principle, such relations are found by statistically comparing death rates and morbidity in urban areas, with different air quality Appropriate dose-effect relations have been estimated by Ostro (1994). Admittedly, these dose-effect relations are derived from studies of U.S cities and it is speculative to apply them to Bombay However, until specific dose-effect relations for tropical conditions are derived, Ostro's relations are useful for preliminary estimates Further, while it is clear that indoor air pollution such as that caused by cooking, can also damage health, this analysis was limited to outdoor air pollution URBAIR-Bombay 47 Mortality due to PM,(,. The relationship between air quality and mortality, where P equals the number of people exposed to a specific concentration, c equals the crude rate mortality (0 0076 in Bombay), and PM1O stands for its annual average concentration ([Lg/m3), can be represented as follows Excess death = 0 00112 x ([PPM110 - 41) x P x c The PM1O benchmark is 41 Above this benchmark, mortality increases corresponding to the WHO guideline of 75 Vg/m3 TSP (PMIo /TSP ratio of 0 55) on a yearly basis (section 2 1). From this relation and the data presented in Chapter 2 (also Figure 4 1) it was estimated that the excess mortality due to PMIo (and TSP) was about 2,765 cases and of an exposed population of 9 8 million 3.4. MORBIDITY Inhaling particles can lead to chronic bronchitis, restricted activity days, respiratory diseases that require hospitalization, emergency room visits, bronchitis, asthma attacks and respiratory symptoms days The estimated impact of PM10 on health in Bombay is illustrated in Table 3 4 Table 3.4: Estimated impact of PM,O air The following dose-effect relationships for pollution on health in Bombay, 1991. impact estimation are described in the URB3AIR Type of health impact Number of cases Gutidehook (thousands) * Change in yearly cases of chronic bronchitis Chronic bronchitis 20 per 100,000 persons is estimated at 6 12 per Restncted actvity days 18,680 jig/M3 PM10. The total number of yearly cases Bronch in chidr 190 of chronic bronchitis per 100,000 persons is Asthma 741 thus 6 12 x ([PM1o] - 41). Respiratory symptom days 60 (millions) * Change in restricted activity days per Respiratory hospital admissions 4 person, per year, per jig/m3 PM,1 is estimated at 0.0575 If the WHO standard is used, the change is 0 0575 x ([PM10] - 41) * Change in respiratory hospital diseases per 100,000 persons is estimated at 1 2 per j.g/m3 PM,(. Using the WHO standards, respiratory hospital diseases per 100,000 persons are estimated at 1 2 x {[PM,o] - 41) * Number of emergency room visits per 100,000 persons is estimated at 23 54 per jig/m3 PM10, and the total number per 100,000 persons at 23 54 x ([PM,o] - 41) * Change in the annual risk of bronchitis in children below I 8 years is estimated at 0 00169 x ([PM10] - 41) Approximately 35 percent of the total population is under 18 years of age The change in daily asthma attacks per asthmatic person is estimated at 0 0326 x ([PM1o] - 41) The number of asthmatic persons is estimated at 7 percent of the population * Respiratory symptoms days per person, per year, are estimated at 0 183 x ([PM10] - 41). 48 Air Pollution: Impacts and Valuation 3.5. VALUATION OF HEALTH IMPACTS Mortality. Placing a monetary value on mortality is admittedly debatable Many argue that such a valuation cannot be made ethically By deleting mortality, however, we would seriously underestimate the total damage that air pollution causes. A case (single instance) of mortality can be valued in two ways The first is based on "willingness to pay," the other on "income potential." The "willingness to pay" approach is described in detail in the URBAIR Guidebook In the United States a value of about US$3 million per statistical life is often used Although such a valuation is not readily transferable from one country to another, an approximation can be derived by correcting the U S figure by a factor of purchasing power parity in India, divided by the purchasing power in the United States This factor is 970/21,900 = 0 044 (Dichanov, 1994) At an exchange rate of Rs 1 US$0.032, this results in a value of Rs 4 25 million per statistical life in India The second approach is based on income lost income due to mortality. The value of a statistical life (VSL) is then estimated as the discounted value of expected future income at the average age If the average age of population is 24 years and the life expectancy at birth is 62 years, the VSL formula is 3s VSL=Z wv/(I +d)' r=O In the formula, w = average annual income, and d = the discount rate (Shin et al, 1992) In this approach, the value of persons without a salary (e g housewives) is taken to be the same as the value of those with a salary. If we estimate the daily wage in Bombay at Rs 75 per day (average, chief wage earner) and assume 200 working days in a year, using d = 5 percent as the discount rate, the value of a statistical life is VSL = Rs 250,000 For comparison, the highest compensation in the Bhopal case amounted to Rs 200,000 Considering both approaches to the valuation of premature death, the cost figure associated with increased mortality due to PM1o air pollution in 1990 ranges from Rs 0 7 billion to Rs 12 billion Morbidity. A summary of the valuation of illness is presented in Table 3 5 It presents estimated health cost figures and the evolving total costs, by combining the figures for mortality and illness. Restricted activity days Table 3.5: Valuation of health impacts. Ostro's (1992) calculation of Type of health impact Specific costs Rs Total costs million Rs 20 percent work loss (valued Effects of PM10 at average wage), and 80 Mortality 4 25 million (US WTP) 11,753 percent lower productivity 250,000 (lost salary) 691 (valued at one-third of Restncted activity day 28 523 average wage) was used The Emergency room visit 260-310 22 averagJe wage is about Rs 60 Bronchitis (children) 320 61 e a h etaot is th Asthma attacks 1,000 741 per day The estimate IS thus, Respiratory symptoms day 20 1,189 0 2 x 60 + 0 8 x 20 = Rs 28 Hospital admission 9,646 38 Chronic Bronchitis 161,000 3,201 Total Cost 18,219 URBAIR-Bombay 49 Emergency room visit Private hospitals charge Rs 1 00 to 150 for an emergency room visit This includes the doctor's bill, and medication To this is added the cost of the loss of one work day (Rs 60), cost of transport (2 x Rs 50), resulting in a total of Rs 260 to 310. Respiratory symptoms day. No surveys on willingness to pay to prevent a respiratory symptom day have been carried out in India Therefore it is difficult to make a reliable valuation Considering the valuation in Jakarta (US$2), India's lower per capita income, and the restricted activity days valuation above, an estimate of Rs 20 seems appropriate Cases of bronchitis in children may be high because doctors often don't want to use the more ominous word "asthma" The duration of bronchitis averages 13 2 days, and is valued at respiratory symptoms day (Rs 20) Ostro's figure of 2 days of a parent's restricted activity, valued at Rs 28 per day, was used The total loss is calculated as follows 13 2 x 20 + 2 x 28 = Rs 320 A severe asthma attack lasts on average 9 1 days The daily hospital fee in private hospitals is about Rs 1,000; to this we add 9 1 lost working days The total for a severe attack is thus 9 1 x (1,060) = Rs 9,646 For a milder attack, the same figure as for an emergency room visit (Rs 260 to 3 10) could be used For still milder attacks only the medication costs apply; aerosols and tablets cost approximately Rs 200 Depending on the severity, the cost of an asthma attack can range from Rs 200 to Rs 9,646. Considering that milder attacks are more frequent, the average valuation is estimated at Rs 1,000 per attack Respiratory hospital admission. The valuation is the same as for a severe asthma attack (Rs 9,646) Chronic Bronchitis becomes more serious as people age. Elderly people and younger smokers are especially vulnerable to chronic bronchitis The average age at which people become chronically ill with bronchitis is 35 years Average life expectancy at birth is 62 years It is estimated that the number of work loss days per year is about 50 Work days lost are valued at Rs 60 per day, resulting in Rs 46,000 if discounted at 5 percent To this we add the costs of hospital visits, which are estimated at 0.5 times per year Such a visit would average 13 1 days at a fee of Rs 1,000 per day Discounted at 5 percent, total hospital costs amount to Rs 100,000 Finally, yearly expenditure on medication is about Rs 1,000 -- totaling a discounted amount of Rs 15,200 over 27 years. The valuation of a case of chronic bronchitis is thus Rs 46,000 + Rs 100,000 + Rs 15,000 =Rs 161,000 3.6. CONCLUSIONS Air pollution damages human health, vegetation and crops, buildings and monuments, ecosystems and tourism Assessing these impacts is hampered by incomplete and missing data Nevertheless, the mortality and morbidity resulting from excess concentrations of PM1o have been estimated using dose-effect relationships derived for U S cities. The lack of data for airborne lead prevented an estimate of its health impact, which includes increased mortality, IQ point loss in children, hypertension, and coronary heart disease 50 Air Pollution: Impacts and Valuation It is difficult to estimate the monetary value of a lost life. The value of a statistical life is Rs 250,000, a figure estimated by the human capital approach (earnings lost due to premature death) is used in this analysis Costs of morbidity (illness) are relatively more reliable. They consist of foregone wages, and medical treatment costs This valuation of damage to human health tends to underestimate the suffering due to illness or premature death Table 3 6 provides preliminary information for calculating the benefits of measures to reduce emissions. Benefits of the emission reduction are estimated by potential health costs avoided by the absolute emission reduction. The table shows also "marginal" benefits from addressing each category of emissions It appears that addressing emissions from industry is the most effective in terms of benefits per ton of emission reduced. This relates to the high estimated PM1O concentrations near stone crushers However, considering industry's limited share of total emissions, the scope for improving Bombay's air quality by addressing industrial emissions is small Not taking into account costs of measures, and only considering the health benefits, domestic emissions followed by traffic emissions should be targeted first Table 3.6: Reduction of emissions and related benefits. Situation 1991, 9.8 million inhabitants in Bombay modeling area. Mortality costs estimated with thte lost salary methzod Source category Emissions Mortality Respiratory Health costs "Marginal" (tons) (cases) symptom days (Rs million) benefits (Rs (million) million per ton) All source reference 2,765 60 6,467* Industry 706 Domestic 6,443 Traffic 6,286 Reduction of industry sources Avoided Avoided Avoided Avoided 25% 176 5 64 1 4 151 0.85 50% 353 0 121 2 6 284 Reducbon of domestic sources 25% 1610 75 466 10 1091 0.34 50% 3221.50 971 21 2271 Reduchon of traffic sources 25% 1571.50 216 4 6 505 0.67 50% 3143.0 421 9 985 * Mortality valued according to the lost salary method (see Table 3.5) 4. ABATEMENT MEASURES: EFFECTIVENESS AND COSTS 4.1. INTRODUCTION This chapter outlines measures for reducing air pollution m Bombay, and for drafting an action plan that would translate these measures into practice Information is organized by pollution source categyory traffic, large point source power plants, fuel combustion other than in power plants, industrial/commercial sources, and refuse burning and domestic emissions For the main source categories, characteristics of appropriate measures are described * effectiveness in terms of both emission reduction and reduced impacts in the year 1990 (using Table 3 6). On average, 1 35 excess deaths are avoided by reducing 10 tons of PM10. The reference data include mortality (2,765 due to PMIo), number of respiratory symptom days (60 million in 1990), and total health costs (Rs6.5 billion), * costs (mostly annual costs at the societal level); * benefits estimated by interpolating figures from the Table 3 6, * policy instruments that might be used to implement measures; and * term for emissions reduction short-term (less than 2 years), mid-term (2-5 years), or long term (more than 5 year) Identifying measures to address traffic emission, for example, is straightforward because the major causes of air pollution are commonly known Policy measures that are especially cost efficient include an inspection and maintenance scheme, and the introduction of unleaded gasoline and low-smoke lubricating oil Other measures with less clear cost-benefit ratios (due to lack of data or methodological problems) are improving automotive diesel fuel quality, clean car standards; increased consumption of natural gas for automotive and stationary use; and improving the public transportation system. A similar list of measures addressing pollution sources, other than traffic, was not possible due to lack of information In particular, refuse burning and cooking with wood, appear to be more important to PM1o exposure in Bombay than traffic sources (Table 3 4) The list of measures is derived from the information presented by the local UJRBAIR working group, the URBAIR Gutidebook, and from earlier plans (see Chapters 3 and 6) addressing problems in Bombay 4.2. TRAFFIC This section describes the effectiveness of abatement measures for reducing emissions and, to the extent possible, the benefits of measures such as * introducing unleaded gasoline, 51 52 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs * implementing a scheme for inspection and maintenance, * addressing excessively polluting vehicles, * improving diesel fuel quality, * improving quality of lubricating oil in two-stroke engines, * switching fuel (gasoline to or LPG/CNG) in the transportation sector, induced by price-shifts; * adopting clean vehicle emission standards, and * other measures 4.2.1. Introducing unleaded gasoline Unleaded gasoline addresses the Table 4.1: Introducing lowv lead and unleaded fuel ambient lead Effectiveness Depending on rate of introduction problem and is Costs Costs at refinery Rs 0 7 to 1 per liter unleaded fuel (corresponding with a prerequisite Rs 250-360 million - 19905 aor pntrerqucis Benefits Unknown in Bombay for introducing Unleaded fuel required when catalytic-exhaust gas control is introduced strict emission Need to control of benzene and aroma tics, to not offset benefits standards, and Instrumentsfinstitutons for the use of an Term Two-five years exhaust Target groups Oil and gasoline industry catalyst An "intermediate" approach is to reduce the permitted lead content of gasoline Current plans call for reducing the maximum lead content to 0 15 grams per liter The present level is 0 18 to 0 19 grams per liter for gasoline supplied from Bombay refineries, about 70 percent of the total supply The remainder has a lead content of 0 56 to 0 80 grams per liter. Assuming simultaneous introduction of vehicles with catalytic converters, unleaded gasoline would require a separate fuel distribution system that does not mix leaded with unleaded fuel Retailers usually sell both fuels. Older engines may require leaded fuel because of the lubrication required for their valve seats, or because of its higher RON-number. Unleaded gasoline is widely available in many countries, so technical obstacles should not be a major constraint Removing the lead compound in gasoline may require reformulation in order to maintain ignition properties (octane number) This can be done by increasing the aromatics content or adding oxygenated compounds such as MTBE (methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether) Aromatics include benzene, a carcinogenic compound. This is an environmental concern, both due to the evaporation of gasoline (at production, storage and handling) and from the possible increase in benzene in exhaust gases (Tims et al, 1981, Tims, 1983) A limit on the amount of benzene and total aromatics in gasoline is necessary A decision on the scale of the limit requires data on benzene as it relates to current air quality (AIAM, 1994) Experience in other countries indicates that this issue can be resolved. It should be noted that catalytic devices effectively destroy benzene in exhaust, so any net outcome in airborne benzene will probably be small. Unleaded gasoline with a high RON-number is usually produced by adding MTBE, which may be imported or produced in India I Sales of gasoline in 1990, 362 million liters (Table 1 8), corresponding with Rs 250 to 360 million URBAIR-Bormbay 53 Effectiveness Reduction in emissions is proportionate to the eventual market shares of unleaded and low-lead gJasoline and, in case of low-lead gasoline, also to the lead content Costs of the measure Reduced-lead aasoline must be reformulated in order to retain the RON number The lead is replaced by oxygenated compounds, MTBE is a preferred substitute These changes increase production costs by Rs 0 7-Rs I per liter of gasoline, depending on the local market for refinery products, the required gasoline specifications, and the costs of MTBE (Turner etal, 1993) Policy instruments and target groups Lowering the maximum allowed lead content of gasoline is the first step In countries where gasoline is taxed, unleaded gasoline may be taxed less and leaded fuel taxed more so that the fiscal authority's net yield does not change. The oil industry and gasoline distribution firms will have to produce unleaded gasoline The oil industry is the main actor in the process (AIAM, 1994) Term. Since it is relatively simple to produce, unleaded fuel can be commonly available within 5 years 4.2.2. Improving diesel quality Diesel's ignition and combustion properties are important parameters for PM,O emissions from diesel engines (Hutcheson and van Paassen, 1990, Tharby et al, 1992) Its volatility (boiling range), Table 4.2: Improving diesel fuel quality viscosity, and cetane number (an Effectiveness 250 tons PM1o (1990) indicator of its ignition properties) Costs Rs 0 3 per liter (about Rs 300 millon annually) determine these properties and, Benefits Avoided Mortality 35, RSD 0 75 million, Rs consequently, PMio emissions A 80 million reduction of SO2 emissions minimum cetane number of 42 is InstrumentsAinsttution Energy authonbes required in Bombay for automotive Terms Two-five years pquirpses in thebay Unitd Staute e Target groups Petroleum industry purposes. In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan the corresponding quality varies from 48 to 50. Another factor is the presence of detergents and dispersants in diesel fuels These additives keep injection systems clean and have discernible efficiency effects (Parkes, 1988) The Indian automobile manufacturing industry advocates an improvement in fuel quality (AIAM, 1994) Effectiveness. It is assumed that an improvement in fuel properties, as expressed by an increase in the cetane number2 and the addition of detergents, results in a 10 percent or about 230 ton reduction (1990) in PM,o emissions (AIAM, 1994, Mehta et al, 1993) A reduction in the sulfur content of fuel would not result in a proportional decline in SO2 emissions, it would also lead to a fall in PM1O emissions This is because a part of the PMIo particle consists of sulfates 2 The physico-chemical properties - as expressed in the cetane number - of diesel fuel influence the magnitude of the TSP emissions of diesel-powered vehicles The relation between these properties (such as volatility and viscosity) and the production of TSP in a diesel motor is not straighfforward, the charactenstics of the diesel motor, its load and its injection bming plan are other important parameters 54 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs Costs. The cost of improving diesel fuel, in particular increasing the cetane number, is determined by the oil-product market, the refinery structure (capacity for producing light fuels/visbreaking/hydrotreating etc ), and Government. The latter eventually determines the at- the-pump-price for fuels The cost of reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel stems from the extensive desulfurization that must occur at the refinery. The costs for a reduction from 0 7 percent to 0 2 percent sulfur are about Rs 0 3 per liter Combustion of sulfur in diesel fuel also leads to the formation of corrosive sulfuric acid Therefore, reducing the sulfur content also lowers the costs of vehicle maintenance and repair. Policy instruments and target groups Improving the quality of diesel fuel should be a part of India's energy policy The oil industry should take the necessary steps to expand its capacity for producing better quality diesel fuel. Term. The typical period for adjusting refineries (such as extension of visbreaking capacity) is about 3 to 5 years 4.2.3. Introduction of lowv-smoke lubricating oil for tvo-stroke, mixed-lubrication engines Bombay traffic has a large share of motorcycles and auto-rickshaws, both equipped with twvo-stroke mixhed-lubiaediti enginsthee Table 4.3: Low-smoke lubricating oilfor two-stroke, mixed- mixed-lubrication englnes These.. . ID l~~~ubrication engines summary) vehicles cause about a third (2,700 (s tons) of PM,( emissions from traffic Effectiveness 450 tons PMlo (1990) exhaust.o A substantial fractionm f tr c Costs Rs 30 million exhaust. A substantial fraction of the Benefits Avoided Mortality 65, RSD: 1 5 million, Rs 150 million particles emitted by these vehicles Instruments/instituton are micro-droplets of unburned Term Two years lubrication oil According to Shell Target groups Petroleum industry Oil Company (private communication, 1993) the lubricating oil used in most Southeast Asian countries is cheap and has poor combustion qualities Effectiveness. It can be assumed that a better-quality lubrication oil will decrease emissions by half (1,350 tons reduction) Costs. Annually, 1,000 cubic tons of poor quality lubricating oil is consumed Introducing better oil is estimated to double the expenditure on lubricating oil A rough estimate of the total costs of low-smoke oil is Rs 30 million Policy instruments and target groups. A standard should be set for the quality of lubricating oil The oil industry and lubricating oil importers are the main target groups URBAIR-Bombay 55 4.2.4. Implementation of an inspection and Table 4.4: Implementation of an inspection and maintenance maintenance scheme scheme (summary) Effecbveness 35% reduction, 800 tons PM1o Effectiveness. Maladjusted Costs Rs 150-300 million Maintenance costs are expected to be fuel injection systems or offset by improved fuel efficiency carburetors, and worn-out Benefits Avoided Mortality. 110, RSD .2.5 million motor parts present a threat to Avoided health costs Rs 250 million Reduction of CO, VOC emissions, improvement of road safety (if roadworthiness is traffic safety, increase fuel included in the scheme) consumption and thus costs, Term Two-five years and lead to traffic emissions Target groups The scheme could be camed out by the pnvate sector The semi-annual inspection and maintenance of vehicles will probably result in a substantial reduction of PM1O, VOC, and CO emissions An accurate assessment of emission reduction, associated with an inspection and maintenance scheme, requires statistical data about emission characteristics of the Bombay vehicle fleet relative to its state of maintenance This information is not available The proposed inspection and maintenance scheme, would lead to 35 percent reduction in tail pipe emissions of PMo0, VOC, and CO This is in line with an estimate by the Association of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (AIAM, 1994) and the World Bank estimate for Manila (Mehta, 1993) Costs of an inspection and maintenance scheme. The present capacity for vehicle-emission testing is insufficient In order to circumvent capacity problems in government agencies, testing can be done by private firms4 Such a scheme, involving all vehicles, may have a total cost of approximately US$5- I 0 million or Rs 150-3 00 million for vehicle owners (US$2-5 or Rs 60-150 per test5, 1 5 million vehicles, environmental inspection part of roadworthiness test). Better engine performance and the resulting reduction in fuel costs would offset the maintenance cost. Term. An inspection and maintenance scheme can be implemented within 5 years 4.2.5. Address the problem of exce.ssively polluting vehicles Almost a quarter of all vehicles are estimated to emit excessive exhaust These vehicles are badly maintained, use worn-out engines, or have maladjusted engine controls A program focusing on these vehicles would result in an emissions reduction equaling 400 tons of PM1o (15 percent reduction in total tallpipe emissions) This measure may include a system of spot-checks of vehicles on the road, in combination with a penalty system Awareness campaigns would enhance the feasibility of such a measure 4 Such a scheme might include the following actions - pnvate firms would be licensed to carry out inspections - authonties would spot-check the firms to oversee inspections - vehicles that pass the test would get a sticker valid for a specific penod, and dnvers would show a test report on request - vehicles would be spot-checked Order of magnitude Cost in Manila estimated at US$3. Cost in the Netherlands (including roadworthiness) is US$30 56 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs 4.2.6. Fuel switching in the transportation Table 4.5: Address excessively polluting vehicles (sumnmary) sector Effectiveness 400 tons PM10 Costs Using gaseous fuels Benefits Avoided Mortality 50, RSD 1 2 million such asLPG (Lquid lstnimetfinsttution Rs 125 million such as LPG (Liquid Instrumentrinsbtution Motor Vehicles Act (1988) and Environment Protection Act (1986), Petroleum Gas) and second amendment Rule (1990), Ministry of Surface Transport and CNG (Compressed State Transport Department Natural Gas) is an Term option for addressing Target groups Traffic authontiesNehicle owners/ air pollution from PMIo emissions from Table 4.6: Introduction of CNG to replace 50% oj gasoline vehicles. Liquid LPG consumption (1990 situation) in passenger cars (summary) is widely used in areas Effectiveness 200 tons where supply is Costs Costs for vehicle owner depends on the pnce differential between abundant and fuel gasoline and CNG (natural gas is cheaper) taxes favor its use Benefits: Avoided Mortality 25, RSD 0 6 taxes ravor ltS use Rs 75 million The use of LPG or Trade-off Increased emissions of methane (greenhouse gas), the main CNG requires constituent of natural gas adapting the engine Instruments/institution Department of Energy and its controls Such Term a switch will only pay Target groups Energy authonties off when LPG or CNG prices are lower than those of gasoline or diesel. CNG has already been introduced as an automotive fuel in Bombay The lack of filling stations is a major impediment LPG can be used as a clean alternative to both gasoline and diesel Its advantage over CNG is that it can be more easily transported in tanks, and its energy density (energy per volume of fuel) is higher, resulting in better mileage Its market price is a disadvantage Effectiveness. CNG is used as a fuel substitute in four-stroke gasoline cars It can effectively reduce PM1O emissions by 90 percent. If all gasoline cars had been modified to use CNG in 1990, PM1O emissions would have been less by 400 tons Costs. Whether these investments are made depends ultimately on the price difference between CNG and gasoline Wider use of CNG requires investments in natural gas distribution (connection filling stations with the piping grid); compressors at the filling station, and conversion kits for the vehicles. Policy instruments and target groups. The main bottleneck for introducing CNG and LPG seems to be the lack of filling stations, which is in turn relates to a limited gas distribution system Connecting a filling station to the gas distribution grid requires large investments A scheme for subsidies or cheap loans might facilitate this The viability of the scheme will increase as use of natural gas in other sectors increases, thus justtfying extending the distribution grid The country's energy policy will have a bearing on this measure URBAIR-Bombay 57 4.2. 7. Adoption of clean vehicle Table 4.7: Adoption of clean vehicle standards. Gasoline passenger emission cars and vans (summary) standards Effectveness 80% effectiveness per (gasoline) vehicle (for 1990 in total 400 tons) Costs Rs 3,000 per vehicle (including costs of unleaded fuel) In total, Rs Many countries have 750 millions annually. adopted standards Benefits. Avoided Mortality 50, RSD 12 million. for permissible Rs 125 million (hypothetical situabon in 1990) Reductions of emissions of lead, CO, NO, and VOC are the justification for emissions from introducing these systems, in other countnes vehicles. These Instruments/institution standards require Term Two-five years Tied to the renewal of the car fleet that vehicles with Target groups Oil industry -- the first move is to make unleaded fuel available, four-stroke gasoline vehicle importers, vehicle manufacturers encries be equipped engineshbe e quippd gTable 4.8: Adoption of clean vehicle standards for motorcycles and with exhaust gas control devices tricycles (Two-stroke engines, either requiring catalytic converters or based on the use of ftour-stroke engines) (summary) three-way catalysts Effectiveness 80% effectiveness per vehicle (for 1990 in total 750 tons) (closed- loop Costs Rs 230 pervehicle (including costs of unleaded fuel) In total, Rs optms.A e 600 million systems). A few Benefits Avoided Mortality 100, RSD 2 4 million countries, including Rs 250 million (hypothetical situation in 1990). Reductions of Austria and Taiwan, emissions of Lead, CO, NO, and VOC are the main justification have also set for introduction of these systems in other countnes. standards for Instruments/insttution motorcycle Term Two-five years The result of such measures is the renewal of the emissions, requiring are two-stroke engine- Target groups Petroleum industry, vehicle importers, vehicle manufacturers powered vehicles to be equipped with open-loop catalysts Such devices control VOC, PM1O emissions, and CO, but not NO, Diesel-powered vehicles are also subject to regulations The emission requirements are met by adjusting the motor design Tailpipe emission treatment may also be used, and existing buses retrofitted with new equipment If the last method is employed, the diesel must be of a much better quality than is presently used in Bombay (sulfur content below 0 02 percent) This type of standard is now being introduced in some parts of the world The catalyst technology uses unleaded gasoline, the sulfur content of which should be less than 500 PPM Therefore, introducing such standards requires infrastructure for producing and distributing unleaded gasoline6 Effectiveness Catalytic devices for treating exhaust gases require the use of unleaded gasoline (see section 4 2 1) Thus such devices not only result in cleaner emissions but also in a reduction in lead pollution With closed-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases (three-way catalysts) from gasoline-engine vehicles, emissions of NO,, CO and VOC are reduced by about 85 percent 6 A single gram of lead will contaminate the catalyst and render It useless In addibon, lead destroys the oxygen sensor of the fuel injection system 58 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs In addition lead emissions are reduced by 100 percent, as unleaded fuel is a prerequisite for this type of standards Open-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases from two-stroke motorcycles reduces CO, VOC, and PM1o (oil mist) emissions, by as much as 90 percent Successful use of these catalysts also requires unleaded gasoline. An alternative is using well designed and adequately maintained four- stroke engines. A similar emission reduction can be obtained by following this approach Costs The cost of closed-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases stems from the increased purchasing costs of vehicles In the United States, this increase averages about US$400, ranging from US$300 to $500 (Wang et al, 1993) While catalytic devices have minor adverse effect on fuel economy, this cost is compensated by an increase in the life-time of replacement parts such as the exhaust system The total annual cost per automobile is estimated at US$100 (US$50 depreciation per car and US$50 extra fuel costs) or Rs 3,000 The cost of open-loop catalytic treatment of exhaust gases of two-stroke motor cycles is related to increased equipment costs. Benefits include lower fuel cost due to improved engine operation Taiwan adopted standards that require the use of open-loop catalytic devices which result in a US$60 to US$80 cost increase This is offset by fuel savings (Binnie & Partners, 1992) Total annual cost is estimated at US$75 or Rs 230 per vehicle (depreciation plus increased fuel costs) It is assumed that the cost of motorcycles is similar to the cost of four-stroke engines The higher price of unleaded gasoline, due to increased production costs and adjustments to the logistic system (modification of pump nozzles) should also be included here. A very rough estimate of the cost is Rs 3,000 annually, per car (Rs 1,500 depreciation of control system, plus a Rs 1,500 increase in fuel costs, depending on subsidies and levies on gasoline) Due to methodological problems it is not possible to calculate the total cost of introducing this standard in Bombay However, as explained above, costs can be estimated on a vehicle-by- vehicle basis Policy instruments and target groups The groups involved in introducing "clean" vehicles are * petroleum industry, and gasoline retailers (clean cars require unleaded gasoline), * car and motorcycle industry, * repair shops/garages (proper skills required to maintain clean vehicles); and * vehicle owners (must pay the price) Term. In practice, standards are set only for new cars and motorcycles. It is expensive to equip existing vehicles with the necessary devices. Practically all vehicles currently sold on the world market are designed to be equipped with catalytic converters This will affect the replacement rate of existing vehicles. 4.2.8. Other Options The United States and the European Union are discussing ways to tighten standards by * improving current abatement techniques, * improving inspection and maintenance, since a small number of maladjusted and worn-out cars cause disproportionately large emissions, and URBAIR-Bombay 59 * enforcing the use of "zero-pollution" vehicles, especially electric vehicles, in downtown areas Diesel engines are a bottleneck in decreasing automotive air pollution. This is because treating exhaust from diesel engines is not easy. 4.2.9. Resuspension emission Resuspension of road dust is clearly a high-priority issue Unfortunately, there is a lack of quantitative information about control measures appropriate to Bombay Further analyses should give priority to measures dealing with resuspension In general, all methods for reducing entrainment should be evaluated and applied Controlling resuspension of road dust may be the most cost effective way of reducing TSP exposure. 4.2.10. Improving traffic management Traffic management includes a variety of measures including traffic control by policemen or traffic lights, one-way streets, new roads, and road-pricing systems One of the major aims of traffic management is to solve the problem of congestion Curb-side traffic management may improve air quality7, but it may also increase emissions because it usually results in increased use of the transport system In terms of exposure, traffic management leads to an improvement in the downtown air quality, and a reduction in road exposure In terms of total exposure, however, the net result may be small Improved traffic management may have other environmental benefits such as reduction of noise and congestion More detailed analysis is needed, but traffic management seems to be a cost-effective policy 4.2.11. Construction and inmprovement of mass-transit systems In BMR, almost 80 percent of passenger trips are made by public transport 44 percent by bus and 36 percent by suburban trains (Cooper & Lybrand and AIC, 1994) This compares favorably with many other Asian cities However, the present public transport system is overstretched and inadequate to meet rising demand, resulting in a shift toward the use of private vehicles. Assessing the costs and effectiveness of measures to improve the Bombay public transport system involves: * describing a future system appropriate to Bombay, * appraising the performance of a such system, * assessing the construction costs, * specifying the baseline (future situation without such system), * avoiding emissions, * calculating non-environmental benefits, and * designing a scheme to identify costs and benefits to impute to the environmental aspects The costs of constructing mass-transit systems are high, and projects cannot be justified from an air potlution point of view alone However, mass-transit systems have a variety of other benefits, including a reduction in congestion Accelerating vehicles, a dominant feature of congested traffic, emit disproportionaly large amounts of pollutants 60 Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Costs 4.3. LARGE POINT SOURCES Cleaner fuels in existing power plants Under special weather conditions, power plants in Bombay may have a significant impact on concentrations On a yearly average basis they do not contribute much to the air pollution problem. The use of cleaner fuel (low sulfur oil or coal) or natural gas might be contemplated, but the benefits relate to SO2 or CO2 emissions that are regional and global Other point sources Furnace oil (residual fuel oil or bunker fuel) with a sulfur content of about 4 percent (by weight) contributes about 75 percent of emissions from large point sources The obvious measure is to reduce the sulfur content The order of magnitude of the costs to use 2 percent, instead of 4 percent sulfur fuel, is about Rs 750 million (fuel consumption 200,000 tons annually) As these point sources contribute little to ambient PM1O, the estimated benefits are small 4.4. DISTRIBUTED INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL SOURCES The combustion of furnace oil by small industries is the main source of PMIo emissions (source category domestic) This emission is estimated at 300 tons (see Chapter 2) Halving these emissions by using, 2 percent sulfur oil would cost approximately Rs 450 million. It would, however, lead to a decline in excess mortality by 22, 0 5 million fewer RSD, and Rs 50 million less in health damage (derived from Table 4 6, reduction of domestic and distributed sources) 4.5. REFUSE BURNING AND DOMESTIC EMISSIONS Refuse burning and domestic emissions, together with resuspension, are the main sources of air pollution in Bombay Refuse burning can be avoided by extending the public refuse collection system This may require an increase in municipal taxes, or overall management Domestic emissions are caused by cooking on traditional stoves or "chullas." These stoves are a major cause of indoor air pollution and pose a special threat to the health of women and children In addition, they are energy inefficient, have an adverse impact on the overall air quality in the city 4.6. CONCLUSIONS This chapter describes measures for improving Bombay's air quality, their effectiveness, costs, benefits, implementation, and the institutions and authorities that would be responsible for each of the measures A comparison of the costs and benefits leads to the prioritization of the measures Identifying measures to address traffic emissions is stralghtforward because the major causes of air pollution are obvious From a cost-benefit point of view the measures that should receive priority are * an inspection and maintenance scheme, * introducing unleaded gasoline, and, URBAIR-Bombay 61 * introducing low-smoke lubricating oil Other measures for which it is difficult to tabulate cost-benefit ratios because of lack of data or methodological problems are * improving automotive diesel fuel quality, * clean car standards; * increased use of natural gas for automotive and other use; and * improving the public transport system Although other sources of pollution such as domestic cooking with wood, appear to be very important, measures to deal with these are not reported due to a lack of data Resuspension of road dust constitutes a large part of TSP and controlling it would probably be one of the most cost effective ways of reducing ambient TSP exposure 5. ACTION PLAN The following action plan is based on the cost-benefit analysis of various measures that reduce air pollution and the damages that result from it. This plan is based on available data, the shortcomings of which are identified throughout the text. Improving the database is necessary in 7 order to extend the action plan to include additional measures. The "actions" fall into two categories. * Technical and other measures that will reduce exposure and damage * Improving the database, and the regulatory and institutional basis for establishing an operative System for Air Quality Management in Greater Bombay The time frame in which the actions/measures could be implemented and will be effective, is indicated as short (less than 5 years), medium (5 to 10 years) or long-term (more than 10 years) 5.1. ACTIONS TO IMPROVE GREATER BOMBAY AIR QUALITY, AND ITS MANAGEMENT 5.1.1. Actions to improve air quality Table 5.1: Measures proposed by thze UR-BAIR working group: Vehicular pollubon Exhaust monitoring Use of CNG Actions and measures Expirabon of PUC Certificate Traffic flow have been formulated and Adulterated fuels Pedestnan flow the Bombay High pollution vehicles Inspection/maintenance proposea by tne Boups Fuel quality policy (gasoline/diesel) Mass transit URBAIR working groups Monitonng: Air quality monitonng (Table 5 1), and Meteorological monitonng consultants. The list of Health monitoring measures proposed by the Industnal pollution: Reporting format Bombay URBAIR Emission factors working group is Stone crushers presented in Table 5 5 Waste buming presentd in Tale 5 5Community sources. Refuse buming Emission inventory Table 5.6 lists additional Wood buming Energy demand measures suggested by Dust resuspension Organization consultants that are not in Decongestion the Bombay Working Groups' action plan (Table 5 5) This list includes low smoke lubrication oil for 2-stroke vehicles (already on the market in Bombay), ban of further sales of new 2-stroke motorcycles, and parking restrictions. It should be noted that the additional road side exposure for commuters and dnvers has not been considered in the present analysis This means that the benefits are underestimated 62 URBAIR-Bombay 63 Table 5.2: Action Plan of abatement measures, based on cost-benefit analysis. Time frame Abatement measure Avoided Mortality Reduced Annual health Annual costs Introduction of Effect of emissions reduction RSD benefits (million Rs) measure' measure (tons (million (million Rs) PMiolyr) days) Vehicles Unleaded gasoline NQ NQ NQ NQ 250-360 Immediate 2-5 years Low-smoke lub. oil, 2- 450 65 1.5 150 30 Immediate 2 years stroke Inspection/ 800 110 2.5 250 150-300 Immediate 2-5 years maintenance Address gross polluters 400 50 1 2 125 NQ Immediate 2 years .................... ................................... .............. ............... .. ..... .... .. ..... .... ..... .. ........ ...... ..... .. ... ....... ..... ....... ....... ................. ........ ... ..... .. .... .. ....... ........ ... ......... ... ... ..... .. . Clean vehicle standards Cars and vans 400 50 1.2 125 750 Immediate 5-15 years Motorcycles and 750 100 2.4 240 600 Immediate 5-10 years tncycles Improved diesel quality 250 35 0 75 80 300 Immediate 2-5 years CNG replace gasoline, 200 25 0 6 75 NQ Immediate 5-10 years 50% ....................... .............................................. ....................... .. . . . ............................ ............. . .. ... ........ .... ........................ ... .... .. . .. ..... .... .... ... .. ....... .... ... ... .... ..... .... ... .... . .. .... . Fuel combustion Cleaner fuel oil (FO to 150 22 0 5 50 450 Immediate 2-5 years 2% S) 1 Time frame for starting the work necessary to introduce measure NQ Not quantified The MCGB, MPCB and the Transport Commissioner have presented lists of additional action items These are presented as Annexes to Table 5 5 Technical measures, to be introduced in the short term, are prioritized in Table 5.2. For most of these measures, the estimated benefits as well as the estimated costs are substantial Clean vehicle standards for cars and vans are the exception Lowering the lead content of gasoline is an important measure in itself as it leads to a reduction in lead concentrations. In addition it is also a prerequisite for clean vehicle standards. The success of these measures rests with enforcement It is important to ensure-that necessary technical improvements and adjustments such as workshop capacity and capability for adjusting engines, and the availability of reasonably priced spare parts can be assured The action plan incorporates the following measures (as discussed in Chapter 4) * Introducingc unleaded gasoline, * Improving diesel quality, * Introducing low-smoke lubrication oil for 2-stroke, mixed lubrication engines, * Implementing an inspection/maintenance scheme, * Addressing excessively polluting vehicles, * Fuel switching in the transportation sector, gasoline to LPG or CNG in vehicles, * Adopting clean vehicle emission standard, * Improving diesel quality; * Improving abatement and other propulsion techniques, * Improving traffic management, 64 Action Plan * Constructing, and improving mass-transit systems, and * Using cleaner fuel oil Table 5 3 lists abatement measures for which cost-benefit analysis has not been performed These could also be introduced in the short term, and would benefit air quality. 5.1.2. Actions to improve the Air Quality Management System Actions to improve the AQMS apply to * air quality assessment; * assessment of damage and costs; * the institutional and regulatory framework, and * building social awareness Table 5.3: Additional measures for short to medium-term introduction. Time frame Abatement measurelaction Introduction of Effect of measure measure Vehicles Address dilubon and adulteration of fuel Short tenm Short term Restnct life time of public UVs and buses Short term Medium term Traffic management Improve capacity of existing road network * improve surface Short term Medium * remove obstacles term * improve traffic signals Extend/develop road network Shortimedium Medium Improve/eliminate bottlenecks term term ....... .... ............ .... .......... .. .... .. ... ...... ....... ........ .......... ...... .. ............... .. .... ....... .. . .... ..... .. .. . ....... ..... ...... .. ........ ..... .... .... .. Transport demand management Improve existing bus and rail system * improve time schedules Short term Medium * improve junctions/stations term * make integrated plan Develop parking policy * restnctions in central area Short term Short term * parking near mass transit terminals Short term * car-pooling Short term Table 5.4: Actions to improve the Air Quality Assessment of Greater Bombay Air Quality Monitonng * Improve the ambient air quality monitonng system * Upgrade laboratory facilities and manpower capacities. * Establish, and improve a quality control system * Establish a database suitable for providing air quality information to the public/control agenciesflaw makers Emissions * Improve inventory of industrial emissions * Develop integrated, comprehensive emission inventory procedure * Study resuspension on roads Population exposure * Establish appropnate dispersion modeling tools for control strategy in Greater Bombay URBAIR-Bombay 65 Table 5.5: Categorized Action Plan, Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Priority Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) VEHICULAR POLLUTION .......... ....... ... .... ...I................... .... .... .... .... ......... .. .... ......... .... ... .... ........................ ........ .................... ........................ .... ............... .... ..... . ........ ... 1 Exhaust Monitonng Stncter enforcement of existing legal Transport 342 81 1 year provisions Dept Compliance to be checked. a) Four wheelers: at annual tax payment; b) Three wheelers: vigilance monitonng, c) Two wheelers awareness campaign At all transactions, e.g Transfer/Hypothecation tax payment, .,et.c, ........ .................................... ...................... 2 Expiration of PUC Month of expiration of validity should be Transport Certificate prominently displayed on each PUC certificate Dept This will enable the enforcement agency to detect defaulters 3 Adulterated Fuels Increased vigilance to prevent sale of Oil Cos adulterated fuels. Set up a cell to receive BIS complaints and take prompt action Make public the names/ addresses of retail outlets found guilty. 4 High Polluting Identify high pollutng vehicles (especially Transport Vehicles commercial transport vehicles such as Dept I trucks/tempos, etc.) and levy sbff penaltes Traffic Prevent entry of such vehicles into the city by Dept asking for a PUC certificate and by posting staff at entry points. 5 Policy on fuel Petrol Oil Cos quality (a) Reduce content of lead in petrol to 0 15g/lt; BIS (b) Provide lead free petrol (0 915g/lt.), (c) Use of catalytic converters to be made compulsory for all vehicles, (d) Reduce sulfur content to 0 15% as per US/European standards 6 Use of CNG Increase use in taxis/cars Provide more filling GAIL stations Increase awareness about its use ... ... ... ..... .............................. ... ... ................................ ....................... ..................... ................... ........................ .. .. 7 Traffic Flow (a) Improve traffic speed by ensunng proper MCGB repairs/ maintenance of roads Ensure better utilization of existing road network by cleanng roads and footpaths. Ensure that utility companies carryout proper resurfacing of roads whenever any digging is camed out (b) Provide additional sets of signals at Traffic elevated locations to ensure free flow of traffic police ..... ... ............... .. ... . . ... ........ . .... .... ... ... ... .... ............ .. . ....... ... ......... ...... ......... ... .. ... .. . ..... ........... ........... .. . . .. . .. .. .... ... .. 8 Pedestnan Flow Provide and maintain footpaths, remove hawkers and other encroachments .. ... ............. ... ............. .. ....................... . ...... ... ... .............................................................................................. 9 Inspecton & Lower time span for fitness certification of Transport 91 0 1 yr Maintenance vehicles to 10 years from the present limit of 15 years In addition to existing requirement, specify 66 Action Plan Table 5.5: Categorized Action Plan, Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Priority Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) engine performance cntena and establish standard practices for fitness testing Appoint/nominate pnvate garages for fitness determination as authonzed agencies, or initiate procedure for approval of garages to ensure quality and explore possibility of pnvate agencies checking PUC Certificates .......................... ............................................ .............. ..... .... ........... ..................... ....... ... ... .... .. ..... ...... .......... .... ..... .......... . .. .......... .... . .......... ... .... .... ..... ..... ... ... ..... ........ .... ..... ... .... 10 Mass Transit Improve present Mass Transit facilities BMRDA/M Provide additional mode of mass transit that CGB/ will effectvely reduce vehicular emissions. Railways MONITORING ............. ........ ................ .... .... ........ ........ .. .... ....... ............ .. . . .. ......... ... .... ............. ................... ... .... .. ..... ................... ............. ...... .... ... ......... ........ (a) Make daily monitonng data publicly 1 1 Air Quality available Monitonng (b) Rationalize ambient air quality monitonng MCGB locations by reducing and/or relocatng some stabons to provide increased frequency of monitonng network to provide better coverage of impacted areas The frequency of monitonng should conform to the CPCB standards (c) Optimize sampling station height and MCGB identify locabons for extended monitonng through rapid surveys Ensure better coordinabon among monitonng agencies and optimize resource use through shanng monitoring locations Monitor additonal parameters HC & Pb at 2 locations Locations to be determined through rapid surveys. Monitoring of PMlo and CO should be camed out regulady. (d) Standardize data collectonlanalysis MCGB methods and reporting formats Provide for better training facilities. Establish procedures for quality assurance Arrange for data shanng and common processing facilities. Introduce quality audit for monitonng/analysis activibes ... . ........ ......... ......... ... .... ....................................... ..... ... ....... ......... . .. .... ... ......... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... ...... . ... .. .......... ... .... ..... .... .. ........ 12. Meteorological Establish meteorological monitonng stations MPCB Monitonng with automabc recording facility in the city to Environ provide data for air quality modeling at four Dept locations (Chembur, Central Bombay, Westem suburb and Central suburb) as recommended by the expert sub-committee. Procure one SODAR for conducting low level inversion studies .... . ... .. . .. .. .... .... .. .. .. .. ... .. ...... ....... . .... ... .. .. .. ..... ..... .. .... ..... ... ... .. . .... .. ..... ........... .. ... ... . . . ..... ........ .... .. ...... .......... .. ..... ....... ...... . ...... ....... .... ...... ..... .... 13 Health Monitonng Strengthen present health monitonng camed KEM out by KEM Hospital Provide necessary Hospital equipment to other hospitals in Bombay for URBAIR-Bombay 67 Table 5.5: Categorized Action Plan, Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Priority Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) monitoring health effects of air polluton throughout the city of Greater Bombay Improve and standardize maintenance of records in hospitals. Make arrangements to pool and analyze the gathered data Evaluate indoor air quality by rapid surveys to MCGB 5 0 14 medium estimate health damage MPCB mths pnonty INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION ... .... .. ..... ... .............. ..... ... ... ... .... .. .... ... .......... . .... . .......... ... ... ... .... .... .... ....... ................... . ...... .. .... .. ....... ...... .... ..... ..... ... .... .... .. .. 14 Reporting Format Standardize formats for industnal emission MPCB data Standardize industry specific monitonng/analysis methods as per intemational procedures Introduce compulsory quality audit. 15 Emission factors Create database of fugitive/process emissions MPCB through rapid surveys of targeted industnes to MCGB establish industry specific emission factors. CPCB Change to cleaner fuels 16. Stone crushers Take punitive action against units that violate MPCB. environmental laws through better coordination among agencies 17 Waste buming Disallow industnal solid, hazardous waste buming by road sides or close to factory premises. COMMUNITY SOURCES 18 Refuse buming Discourage practice of refuse buming on MCGB dumps through stncter vigilance Conduct MPCB special surveys to determine magnitude of the problem and to establish emission factors for Indian conditions 19 Wood buming Increase use of electncity in crematona Invite MCGB/ participation of social organizations for BMRDA increased awareness about need of forest conservabon and to influence public opinion for change in religious practices All crematona should be provided with efficient pyres Encourage bakenes and other commercial MCGB/ establishments to switch to cleaner fuels BMRDA Provide incentives to so the same .. ...... .... ....... ....... .. .. . .... ..... ....... ......... .... ......... .... ....... ... .. ........... . ...... .... ..... .. . .. .......... 20 Dust resuspension Establish contnbution of road dust MPCB/ resuspension, road repair activity and MCGB construction debns in air pollution problem Remove accumulated dirt from road side 21 Decongestion Decongest business areas through entry Levy MCGB/ a toll tax/high parking fees, and area licensing BMRDA An entry tax should be high enough to discourage use of pnvate vehicles in busy distncts ....................... .............. ..... .. .. .... ..... ........... .. .. .... . .... ..... .. ......... ..... .... .. ........ ..... .. ..... .... .......... .... .... .. . ........ .... .. . ... .... .. ..... ..... ... ... .... . . .... ... .... .. .... .. .. ... .... ........ 68 Action Plan Table 5.5: Categorized Action Plan, Greater Bombay Issue Action Required Lead Cost Time- Priority Agency Estimate (Rs frame Estimate Lakhs) 22 Emission inventory Complete and upgrade emission inventory for MPCB/ Bombay for S02, NOx, TSP. HC, PM1o, etc. MCGB 23 Energy Demand Identify energy demand and consumpbon MPCB/ pattems for domestic (slum and non-slum) and MCGB commercial sectors 24 Organization Designate coordinabng agency for AQMS MPCB/ Such an agency should coordinate the MCGB/ operations of concemed Govt./Semi-govt BMRDA/ agencies, should oversee this action plan's Transport progress and implementation Dept Signatures of Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) concemed major Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) agencies Environment Department Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authonty (BMRDA) Transport Department Traffic Police Bhaba Atomic Research Centre Table 5.5: Annex I Action Timeframe Concerned Estimate Departments (months) 1 Improve traffic speed by ensunng proper repairs, and maintenance of roads, and 6-12 Traffic & Roads better ublization of available roads through removal of vehicles that have broken down 2 Decongest business areas through entry tax/cordon pncing and area licensing Such 6-12 Traffic & Roads entry tax should be high enough to discourage use of pnvate vehicles in busy distncts 3. Reduce and/or relocate some stations to provide increased frequency of monitonng 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P and extended monitonng network to provide better coverage of impacted areas 4 Monitor addibonal parameters viz. PM10/CO Pb/03, optimize sampling station height 6-12 Dy. C E (C) E S P and identify locations for extended monitonng through rapid surveys Ensure better coordination among monitonng agencies and optimize resource use through shanng monitonng locations 5 Establish meteorological stations with automatic recording facility for air quality 6-12 Dy C E (C) E.S P modeling data at four locations (Chembur, Central Bombay, Westem suburb, and Central suburb) as recommended by expert sub-committee Procure one SODAR for conductng low-level inversion studies 6 Standardize data collection/analysis methods and reportng formats. Provide for 6-12 Dy C E. (C) E S P better training facilities Establish procedures for quality assurance Arrange for data shanng and common processing facilities Introduce quality audit for monitonng/analysis activities 7 Strengthen present health monitonng camed out by KEM Hospital Provide necessary 6-12 Dy C E. (C) E S P equipment to other Bombay hospitals for monitonng health effects of air pollution Improve and standardize maintenance of hospital records Make arrangements to pool and analyze the data URBAIR-Bombay 69 8 Standardize reporting formats for industnal emission data Standardize industry 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P specific monitonng/analysis methods Methods as per intemational procedure (for MPCB approved laboratones) introduce compulsory quality audit 9 Identify target industnes to generate database of fugitive/process emissions through 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P rapid surveys to establish industry specific emission factors 10 Identify energy demand for domestic and commercial establishment Quantify 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P consumption of fuels (Wood/Charcoal/Kerosene etc.). Generate adequate database for establishment of emission factors for Indian conditions 11 Discourage practice of refuse buming on dumps through stncter vigilance Conduct 6-12 Solid Waste special surveys to determine magnitude of this problem and to establish emission factors for Indian conditions 12 Stop unauthonzed stone crushing units Take punitive action against authonzed units 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P which violate environmental laws through better coordination among agencies 13 Conduct study to establish contnbution of road dust resuspension in air pollution 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P problem Remove accumulated dirt from the roadsides regularly 14. Establish contnbution of road repair activities and construction debns in air pollution 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P problem 15 Conduct rapid surveys to evaluate indoor air quality Such data will have direct 6-12 Dy C E (C) E S P beanng on estimation of health damage 16 Increase use of electncity in crematona Invite participation of social organizations for 6-12 Dy C E. (C) E S P increased awareness about need of forest conservation and to influence public Eng. M&E opinion for change in religious practices All crematona should be provided with efficient pyres to reduce wood consumption 17 Fill data gaps by implementing the projects and actions recommended dunng the 6-12 Dy. C E (C) E S P second phase of URBAIR to prepare a comprehensive emission inventory for Greater Bombay Update inventory to assist authonties in planning strategy for better Air Quality Management Table 5.5: Annex II Activity Action Cost Time Frame 1 Standardize data (1) Standardize analysis methods for pollutants in 50,000 3 months collection/analysis methods ambient air MPCB-funded and reporting formats Provide (2) Standardize data collection and reporting formats for better training facilities Circulate both to Industnal Association and MPCB, Establish procedures for approved laboratones quality assurance. Arrange for (3) Arrange for data shanng and common processing 3 lakhs 6 months data sharing common facilities processing facilities Introduce After agency for coordinating the data collection, e g 1 lakh quality audit for MPCB has BWRDA/MPCB is selected earmarked monitonng/analysis activities. facilities like computer hardware & software & related infrastructure will have to be developed Data supplied to agencies (other than contnbutors) shall be at nominal charge for genuine use ...... ............. . .. .... ... .... ...... .. ... ..... .. . .......... ....... ........ .. . .... ... .... .......... ... .... .... ... .... ... .. ..... .... .. .. ... ... ...... . 2. Established meteorological Site selection for establishing meteorological Capital 20 stations with automatic monitonng stations at four locations lakhs recording facility in the city to Recumng 1 provide data for air quality lakh/yr modeling at four locations (M&R of (Chembur, Central Bombay, equipment, data Westem suburb, and Central collection and suburb) as recommended by processing) ,... ... .... .... . ... ........ ...... ........ ..... .... ..... ...... ..... .. ... . . .. .. ... ........ ......... ... .. ......... .. ... . ... . ........ ..... ... .. ... . ................ .... .... .... ... .............. ....... .... 70 Action Plan Table 5.5: Annex II Activity Action Cost Time Frame ................. ................ .................. ........................ ... ............. .... .. .................. .. ............. .... .. ... ... .......I. . .... . . ......... ...... ......... .... ..... ...... . ..... ......... .. .... .... .. .. ..... .... .. ......I..... .............. the expert subcommittee Capital. 5 lakhs Procure one SODAR for SODAR equipment installation and operation in Recurnng 2 conductng low level inversion cooperabon with experts from Met Dept /BARC lakhs/ year studies Frequency of operabon Once a week . .... .. ..... . .... .......... ..... .. ..... .I..... ... . ....... ..... ... ......... .. .... ... .. ........ ........ .. ... . .... ... . . .... ......... ..... ..I..... .... .. ..... .. .............. ..... ... ....... .... 3 Evaluate indoor air quality by Project Proposal 5 lakhs/ year rapid surveys to estimate (1) Select about 100 families of lower income group health damage for first year (2) Same number of families of middle income group for second year. (3) Same number of families of higher income group for third year. Monitor 40 families/month and cover all every 3 months Cost of monitonng of CO, RPM, PM, S02, NOx is about Rs 1,000 per set of samples , ...... ... ... ...... ........ .... .................................... ..... ........... ...... . ... ................ .. ....... ... . ... . .-... ...... ........ ........... . ... ......... . 4 Reporting Format (1) Identify type of industnes 50,000 (2) Identify type of pollutants in each with point of MPCB funded emissions (3) Standardize methods of monitonng/analysis (4) Standardize formats for (i) Utilites (ii) Process emissions (iii) Fugitive emissions Circulate to concemed agencies .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ic lt .... ...o.......d........... ............. ........ . . . ...... ... .. .. . ..... .. .. ......... .... ............. ............ ...... ... .. .......... ... ... .. ... .... ..... 5 Identify target industnes to (1) Identify the type of industnes & type of emissions 5 lakhs 3 years generate database of (2) Decide methodology to monitor the missions. CPCB funded fugibve/process emissions (3) Survey 3-4 industnes of same type with different through rapid surveys to capacities with and without control equipment and establish industry specific different types of control systems emission factors (4) Related data collection and compilation per type of industry l Rs 5000/-. 6.Take punitive action against (1) Preliminary survey to identify the no of crushers 350000 6 months units which violate (2) Data collecton for each crusher environmental laws through (3) Survey area wise of crushers better coordinabon amongst (4) Employ staff 3 persons/crusher Approx 10 agencies persons/day for one month/ward and pay 2 Rs 40/day Table 5.5: Annex III Sr. Action Cost Timefra Remarks No. (Rs) me Estimate VEHICULAR POLLUTION 1 Exhaust Monitoring Stncter enforcement of existing legal provisions (1) Four wheelers at annual tax 342 81 1 year There are 33 lakhs Motor Vehicles (MV) in Maharashtra State as of payment lakhs 31 March 1994 Earier it was compulsory for MV Department to routinely check exhaust emissions, but by amendment of CMV URBAIR-Bombay 71 Table 5.5: Annex III Sr. Action Cost Timefra Remarks No. (Rs) me Estimate Rules 1989 which came into effect from 28th March 1993, carrying of PUC Certficate has been made compulsory The MV Dept now has to check validity of PUC Certificate, and only randomly check exhaust emissions (2) Three wheelers vigilance Although there is no legal provision to make it compulsory to check monitonng the PUC Certificate at the time of acceptance of tax, this is usually done. PUC s are checked when MVs are inspected for a fitness certificate. (3) Two wheelers awareness There are six mobile auto pollubon control squads These squads campaign check the PUCs of all Mvs, including three wheelers (4) At all transactons e g transfer, All offices of MV Department conduct awareness campaigns in hypothecation, tax payment, etc respect of auto-pollution. Press notes are issued and banners are exhibited Publicity is given through radio and television media Instructions are being issued to all concemed officers to check PUC Certificate before any transaction (transfer, HPA etc ) pertaining to MV is effected in MV Dept 39 more mobile auto pollution control squads are needed The details are as under PUC PROPOSED RTO SQUADS EXISTING REMAINING OFFICES REQUIRED SQUADS SQUADS 10 2x10=20 6 14 AKTO/Dy RTO OFFICES 25 1 x25=25 0 25 Total 39 Constitution of one PUC Squad Average Cost (Rs) 1 Motor Vehicle 300,000 2 Inspectors of Motor Vehicles 130,000 1 Dnver 34,000 1 Operator 28,000 1 Jr. Gr. Clerk 34,000 1 Petrol Equipment (testing machine) 130,000 1 Diesel Equipment (testing machine) 225,000 Total Average cost of one PUC squad 879,000 Total cost for 39 PUC squads 342 81 lakhs ... . . .. .. .. ... .. ... ... .. .. ... .. ... .. . .. .. ... . .. . .. ...... .... .. ... ... ... - 2 Expiration of PUC Certificates Transport Commission's Office has already initiated new PUC Month of expiration of validity sticker scheme Under this scheme sticker with digit of month should be prominently displayed on showing validity of PUC is displayed on Motor Vehicle These PUC Certificate This wvill enable the stickers are issued by Authonzed Pollubon testing stations along enforcement agency to detect with PUC certificates With this scheme it will be possible to check defaulters more vehicles with limited staff Comparative Figures Before introduction After introduction of stickers (1-5-93 to stickers (1-5-94 to 30-11-93) 30-1 1-94) 72 Action Plan Table 5.5: Annex III Sr. Action Cost Timefra Remarks No. (Rs) me Estimate MVs. MVs MVs MVs Checked Detected Checked Detected 108,850 8,228 267,778 11,912 .... . ... ... ......... ....... . .... .... ......... .... ..... .. ............ ........ ...... ....... ... ...... ... .... ... ...... . ! . .... ........... ..... . .... ..I.... .. .... ... 3 High Polluting Vehicles As per legal provisions, in case a vehicle is found without PUC Identify high polluting vehicles Certificate, seven days show cause notice is issued, directing the (especially commercial vehicles vehicle owner to produce the PUC Certificate. In case of the such as truck/tempos, etc ) and levy owner's non-response, the court imposes a penalty of Rs 1,000 stiff penalties Also prevent entry of For a second offense, the fine is Rs 2,000, and the vehicle cannot such vehicles into the city by operate on the operate pending a PUC certificate Non-producton of posting staff at entry points valid PUC certificate at the time of checking is punishable under secton 177 with fine up to Rs 100 for first offense, and up to Rs 300 for subsequent offenses ......................... ........................... ............ .. .... ....... ....................... ........ ............................. ............. .... .... ... ... ......I. ... .... ................ .............. ......... ..... ........ ........ ....... ...... . .. ......... ... .. ...... .. 4 Inspection and Maintenance 91 lakhs 1 year Registration certificate issued to vehicles other that transport Lower bme span for fitness vehicles is valid for 15 years from the date of issue. For renewal or certification of vehicles to 10 years registration, application shall be made not more than 80 days before from the present limit of 15 years the date of expiration of registration In additon to existing requirement, (See section 30 of Motor Vehicle Act, 1988 and Rule 52 of Central specify engine performance cntena Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989) and establish standard practices for fitness testing Appoint/nominate pnvate garages as authonzed agencies for determinabon of fitness, or initiate procedure for approval of garages to ensure quality Table 5.6: Additional proposed actions and measures, introduced by the URBAIR consultants. Introduce policies to increase use of low-smoke lubncabon oil in 2-stroke motorcycles Ban further sales of new 2-stroke motorcycles. Begin Public campaign to educate owners to maintain their vehicles to reduce smoke emissions (e g cleaning fuel injectors, etc ), resulting in fuel cost savings Reduce sulfur contents of fuel oils and motor diesel Pnce fuels to reflect their quality. Restnct lifetme of public ubility vehicles, and buses Develop parking policy for Central and South Bombay business distncts Develop public awareness campaigns regarding the effects of air pollution, and individuals' responsibility and behavioral opbons Develop the dispersion/exposure model capability and capacity by investing in local institutions and consultants 6. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 6.1. ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN BOMBAY At the Central Government level, the main law-enforcing body is the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in the Ministry of Environment and Forests At the State level, the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) is responsible for monitoring and enforcing all pollution control regulations, and issuing permits for new projects and activities Motor vehicle regulations are an exception. They are enforced by the Transport Commissioner At the city level, responsibility for monitoring air quality is shared by the MPCB and the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB), with the latter monitoring within the city limits Figure 6.1 depicts a flowchart of environmental institutions in Bombay Functions of various boards are described in the following section 6.2. AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION The Government of India has legislated constitutional provisions for protecting and improving the environment The Indian Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Factories Act, Wild Life Protection Act, Forests Conservation Act, Merton Shipping Act, Mines and Minerals (Regulation & Development) Act, Atomic Energy Act, as well as laws relating to local bodies and corporations, etc. contain provisions to regulate and take legal action with respect to specific environmental issues. All these enactments include specific provisions for environmental regulation and legal action As India continues to experience industrialization, modemization, and urbanization, the existing laws have proven to be ineffective in controlling environmental degradation Following the Stockholm Conference on Human Environment in June 1972, it was considered appropriate to create a uniform national legal code that would tackle environmental problems The Indian Parliament brought into operation specific and comprehensive legislation simultaneously institutionalizing the regulatory agencies for controlling pollution of various categories There have been number of amendments to these Acts and a set of Rules also have been laid down for the efficient enforcement of these legislations Environmental legislation falls under * Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 * Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 * Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. * Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 * Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 73 74 Institutional Framework Figure 6.1: Organizational Schedule. ('Source: Coopers & Lybrand and AICE, 1994.) -6 C)~~~~~~~~~~~~- C., cuc, ~ co CD, ~ E~~~~ _ co '2 Co *C 0 0 a 0~~~~~~~~~~~0~ > tu~~~~~~~~~~~~ LU_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C U CL L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~) URBAIR-Bombay 75 These Acts prescribe the Environment and Forests Agency as the nodal regulatory agency at the central level. It is in charge of policy formulation, planning, and co-ordination of all issues and programs related to environmental protection The Central Pollution Board is the law- enforcing body at the Central level It is entrusted with the work of enforcement of environmental legislations in Union Territories. It also has the role of coordinating the activities of State Boards, establishing environmental standards, planning, and executing a nationwide program for prevention control and abatement of pollution, etc Pollution Control Boards, under the administrative control of various Departments of Environment, enforce environmental legislations at the state level 6.2.1. TheLavs and RegulationsforAirEnvironment The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 This Act provides for prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution It can apply to a specific area by issuing a gazette notification Once an area is notified under this Act, no industrial or other pollution-causing activity can commence or be carried out without the permission of the concerned State Pollution Control Board Functions of the Central Board * Advise the Central Government on matters concerning air quality improvement, and the prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution * Plan and arrange to execute a nationwide program for the prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution * Coordinate the activities of the State Boards * Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution, and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution. * Establish air quality standards Functions of State Boards * Plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution, and secure its execution * Advise the State Government on matters concerning the prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution * Collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution * Collaborate with the Central Board to organize training for people who are, or will be, engaged in air pollution prevention and control programs, and organize related mass- education programs. * Inspect control equipment, industrial plants, or manufacturing processes, and give directions to responsible persons to take necessary steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution * Inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as necessary, assess the quality of air and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such areas. * Establish emission standards for industrial plants, automobiles, or other sources (with the exception of ships and aircraft) that discharge any pollutant into the atmosphere This is done in consultation with the Central Board and its standards for air quality. Under this clause, 76 Institutional Framework different emission standards may be established for different industrial plants, depending on the quantity and composition of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere * Advise the State Government on the geographic location of a potentially pollution-generating industry * Perform such other functions as may be prescribed, or as may be entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government, from time to time The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and Environment Protection rules formed under the Act. The Environment (Protection) Act is an umbrella Act. It empowers the Central Government to take necessary measures for a) protecting and improving the environment, and for b) prevention, control and abatement of pollution Under the provisions of this Act, the Government is empowered to set standards for environmental quality, and limits for emissions/discharges of pollutants from various specified sources This Act also empowers the Government to prohibit and/or restrict certain activities, industrial or otherwise, in specified areas to ensure protection of environment; and it also confers enforcement agencies with necessary punitive powers to restrict any activity detrimental to environment The Motor Vehicles Act 1988, and The Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989 Although the Air Act, and the Environment (Protection) Act provide for the prescription of automobile emissions standards by the Central Pollution Control Board, or Ministry of Environment and Forests, implementation and enforcement of these standards is the responsibility of the transport commissioner. (His office is responsible for registration of motor vehicles, and hence better equipped for enforcement) The Bombay Smoke-Nuisances Act 1912 and Rules under the act * No stack can be erected or modified unless it conforms to the regulations of the above Act * No furnace, flue, or chimney may be erected, altered, added to, or re-erected except in accordance with plans and for the purpose approved by the commission * No furnace, flue, or chimney shall be used for a purpose other than that which has been approved by the commission Exceptions may be granted by the Commission for particular cases * A fumace at a lower altitude than 100 feet (30 m ) is not permitted to emit smoke from the firing floor level (unless specifically exempted) The Bombay Municipal Corporation Act, 1818 (section 63 [amended] and section 390) As a part of its civic duties, the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay conducts air quality monitoring 6.2.2. Air pollution standards and regulations National Ambient Air Quality Standards have been established by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India Standards are established for different types of areas (industrial, residential, and sensitive) (Appendix 2) Emission standards are industry specific, and include stack height These standards are mandatory for industries As of June 1992, the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board had granted URBAIR-Bombay 77 about 7, 500 permits to industries in Bombay. Vehicle emission standards are implemented by the Office of the Transport Commissioner Regular emission tests, performed by authorized agents, are mandatory (Appendix 3) Environmental Audit Industries are required to submit an annual "Environmental Audit" report whose purpose is to improve compliance survey techniques Central Action Plan (1992) has been promulgated by the Government of India to speed up enforcement against non-compliance with emission standards. Chembur, Bombay, has been selected one of the 15 sensitive areas that fall under the "Sensitive Area Approach" of this plan Eight industry categories have been identified as highly polluting These are cement, thermal power plants, iron and steel, fertilizer, zinc/copper/aluminum smelters, oil refineries Under the Central Action Plan, strict compliance with Environmental Standards and Minimal National Standards must be achieved within set time limits Monthly progress reports are required Licensing of industries According to the Pollution Acts, industry-specific discharge and emission standards commonly referred to as MINAS (Minimum National Standards), have been prescribed All industries, including small scale units, must comply with MINAS State Pollution Control Boards have the responsibility of enforcing compliance with the Acts The units under their jurisdiction obtain either a permission to operate, or a consent to discharge pollutants All existing units must obtain the consent of their respective Boards New units must obtain an NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the relevant Board before they can start operations Financial institutions and banks demand proof of an NOC before disbursing loans, even though the loans may have been sanctioned on the basis of the project's techno-economic feasibility In order to obtain an NOC from a Pollution Control Board, an application must be made with a complete project-report, including the proposed pollution control measures Since pollution control is site specific, the Pollution Control Board must also be appraised of the proposed project site and, if appropriate, ask for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for site clearance The Boards have declared some areas as "sensitive regions" because of their fragile environmental condition New industries, especially pollution-intensive ones, may not be allowed in sensitive areas or may be prescribed much stricter standards Proximity to protected monuments, national wildlife parks or sanctuaries are also reasons for industries to seek out a prior site clearance Non-compliance invites prosecution, fines, penalties, and even imprisonment Under the Environmental Protection Act of 1986, Pollution Control Boards are empowered to close a unit if they believe it is in the public interest to do so Without going to a court of law, they can implement closure decisions by directly ordering concerned authorities to cut power and water supply to violating units State and local institutions and policies on environmental protection in Maharashtra and Bombay include The Environmental Sajety Comniittee, established after the Bhopal accident, provides experts for safety inspection of major plants, 78 Institutional Framework * Industrial Location Policy, 1984, for Bombay Metropolitan Region This policy disallows the expansion of large and medium scale units in Bombay Restrictions also exist for small-scale unit development; and * Restriction on the Use of Coal, a ban on issuing new permits for using coal in Bombay 6.3. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING INSTITUTIONS AND POLICIES The following suggestions for improvement are extracted from the Bombay EMS Study (Coopers & Lybrand and AIC [1994], Preferred Options for EMS), and discussions held by URBAIR working groups in Bombay * The State Environment Department should have a stronger role in environmental policy making * The environmental wing within BMiRDA must have the responsibility for environmental planning. * Establish, at the metropolitan level, an organization responsible for strategic environmental planning for BMR * Create "environmental cells" in all sectoral organizations to include environmental considerations in their decision making. * Establish a dedicated BMR transportation authority with representation from all relevant agencies and organizations * Use a charge on fuels to raise environmental management funds * Make environmental regulation more effective by tightening emission standards, and introducing fees and fines for pollution offenses * Give the Department of Environment a role in the BMRDA Policy/Executive Committee so that environmental issues will receive proper consideration at the planning stage (Note: This has already been implemented) * The State Environment Department should receive proper orientation for strategic air quality management. It should outline priorities for air quality imperatives and goals Targets should be identified, and a timetable for implementation should be prescribed The Department of Environment should provide leadership and professional management to achieve these goals * The activities of MPCB, MCGB, and other organizations concerned with air quality monitoring and air pollution control are uncoordinated, largely sector-driven, not systematically integrated, and often duplicated Cross-sectoral issues between environment, development and investment are not properly addressed As a nodal agency, this should be done by the State Environment Department * MPCB needs finance, equipment, and adequately trained and technically qualified personnel. * The Department of Environment would benefit from a special Advisory Committee to help with policy-making and program development. The same Committee can also help to coordinate the functions of air quality management agencies * The Air Act (1981) permits action against defaulting industries. However, this action is time consuming since the complaints filed in law courts are not dealt with expeditiously Closing polluting industries may be too harsh and other departments, especially Labor, often oppose such action It is therefore necessary that MPCB should be able to penalize the defaulter on the spot, in keeping with the "Polluter Pays" principle This provision should be included in URBAIR-Bombay 79 future legislation Special courts for trying cases under The Air Act (1981) and the Environment Protection Act (1986) are necessary (Central Environment Ministry) * There is a dire need to establish an "Environmental Training and Information Center" for decision makers and managers in governmental departments, industries and NGOs Such a Center should be equipped with a database, environmental status and survey reports, and other information that may be vital to decision making by the Department of Environment and other agencies * MCGB's air quality monitoring and research laboratory needs strengthening This is necessary in order to undertake the monitoring of air pollutants related to global warming and ozone depletion This would require staff training, and the provision of sophisticated instruments and equipment * Effective monitoring and work reviews are necessary to improve MPCB and MCGB operations * Present procedure requires checking vehicles and issuing "Pollution Under Control" certificates only through approved centers. 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Mehta, K H et al (1993) Philippines Environmental sector study Toward improved environmental policies and management World Bank (Report No 11852-PH) Mehta, K H (1993) Air pollution control measures and strategies for Bombay International conference on computerized air quality management Monitoring, modeling and emission control strategies, Bangkok 1993 Bombay, Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Midgely, P (1993) Urban transport in Asia An operational agenda for the 1990s (World Bank Technical Paper number 224) Ostro, B (1992) Estimating the health and economic effects of air pollution in Jakarta a preliminary assessment (Draft) Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the International Society of Environmental Epidemiology, Cuernavaca, Mexico, August 1992 Ostro, B (1994) Estimating health effects of air pollution, a methodology with application to Jakarta PRDPE's Research Project (676-43) Paassen, C W C van et al. (1992) The environmental benefits and cost of reducing sulfur in gas oils Brussels, Concawe (Concawe report 3/92) Parkes, D (1988) Matching supply and demand for transportation in the Pacific Rim countries post 1990 Selected papers London, Shell. Perissich, R (1993) "Auto emissions 2000", "Stage 2000" of the European regulations on air polluting emissions of motor vehicles Written proceedings of the symposium Brussels, Commission of the European Communities, UCSC-EEC-EAEC Semb, A. (1986) Measurement of emissions from open burning. Lillestran (AS/SBH/0-8622/10, June 1986, in Norwegian) Shin, E, Gregory, R, Hufschmidt, M, Lee, Y -S., Nickum, J.E., and Umetsu, C (1992) Economic valuation of urban environmental problems Washington DC, World Bank Tharby, R D, Vandenhengel, W and Panich, S (1992) Transportation emissions and fuel quality specification for Thailand (draft report Feb 1992) Monenco Consultants Tims, J M et al (1981) Exposure to atmospheric benzene vapor associated with motor gasoline Brussels, Concawe (Concawe report 2/81) Tims, J M (1983) Benzene emissions from passenger cars Brussels, Concawe (Concawe report 12/83). Turner et al (1993) Cost and emissions benefits of selected air pollution control measures for Santiago, Chile. Report to the World Bank Sacramento, EF & EE U S Environmental Protection Agency (1986) Fuel oil combustion In Compilation of air pollutant emission factors, 4th ed., Suppl. A Research Triangle Park, NC, EPA (Environmental Protection Agency , AP-42) pp 1 3-1 to 1 3-I 1 Wang, Q., Kling, C and Sperling, D (1993) Light-duty vehicle exhaust emission control cost estimates using a part-pricing approach .1. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., 43, 1461-1471 Weaver, C S and Lit-Mian Chan, P.E (1993) Motorcycle emission standards and emission control technology Draft report Report to the World Bank and The Thai Government Sacramento, EF & EE WHO/UNEP (1992) Urban air pollution in megacitles of the world Earthwatch Global environment monitoring system Oxford, Blackwell WHO (1993) Assessment of sources of air, water, and land pollution. A guide to rapid source inventory techniques and their use in formulatinQ environmental control strategies Part 82 Institutional Framework One Rapid inventory techniques in environmental pollution By A P Economopoulos Geneva (WHO/PEP/GETNET/93. I-A) WS Atkins International (1993) Comprehensive transportation study for Bombay Metropolitan Region Development scenarios Bombay (Technical working paper, 3) APPENDICES: PREFACE In view of the potential environmental consequences of continuing growth of Asian metropolitan areas, the World Bank and UNDP launched the Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP) in five Asian metropolitan areas: Beijing, Bombay, Colombo, Jakarta, and Metro Manila. In 1993, Kathmandu joined the intercountry program as the sixth MEIP city The mission of MEIP is to assist Asian urban areas tackle their rapidly growing environmental problems. Presently, NMEIP is supported by the govemments of Australia, Netherlands and Belgium. Recognizing the growing severity caused by industrial expansion and increasing vehicle population, the World Bank started the Urban Air Quality Improvement (URBAIR) initiative in 1992 as a part of the MEIP The first phase of URBAIR covered four cities Bombay, Jakarta, Kathmandu, and Metro Manila URBAIR is an international collaborative effort involving governments, academia, international organizations, NGOs, and the private sector. The main objective of UR1BAIR is to assist local institutions in these cities to develop action plans which would be an integral part of their air quality management system (AQMS) for the metropolitan regions The approach used to achieve this objective involves the assessment of air quality and environmental damage (e.g. on health, materials), the assessment of control options, and comparison of costs of damage and costs of control options (cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis) From this, an action plan can be set up containing the selected abatement measures, for implementation in the shortlmedium/long term The preparation of this city-specific report for Bombay is based upon the collection of data and specific studies carried out by the local consultants, and upon workshops and fact-finding missions carried out in April and August 1993, and May 1994 A first draft of the report was prepared by Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) and Instituut voor Milieuvraagstukken (IVM, Institute for Environmental Studies) before the first workshop, based upon general and city-specific information available from earlier studies A second draft report was prepared before the second workshop, with substantial inputs from the local consultants, and assessment of air quality, damage and control options, and cost analysis carried out by NILU and IES. This report contains the appendices to the main report. Acknowledgments are presented in the main report Here, the contribution from the Air Quality Monitoring Section of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) is especially acknowledged Their contribution of air quality data, as presented in Appendix 1, was made available through Mr V.S Mahajan, Deputy City Engineer and Mrs J M Deshpande, Scientist in Charge of Air Quality Monitoring 83 84 Appendix 1 APPENDIX 1: AIR QUALITY STATUS, GREATER BOMBAY CONTENTS 1. Description of past and present measurements programs 2. Analysis of measurement results 3. References ANNEX 1 Intercomparison of gravimetric weighing analysis of glass-fibre high-volume filters between MCGB and NILU laboratories ANNEX n1 Monthly averages for SO2, TSP, NO, and NH3, MCGB sites, for the period 1978-1990 ANNEX I:I Monthly average SO2, NO, and TSP at MCGB and GEMS (NEERI) stations, for the URBAIR period June 1992 to May 1993 URBAIR-Bombay 85 DESCRIPTION OF PAST AND PRESENT MEASUREMENT PROGRAMS Stations and parameters The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) monitors the air quality within the city limits, and Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) monitors air quality in the rest of Bombay Metropolitan Region (BM). The MCGB has adapted the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) designed method to establish an air quality monitoring program This includes determining the frequency and procedure of sampling and analysis of the samples MCGB has measured ambient air quality regularly at 22 stations in Greater Bombay over 15 years now The pollutants measured are sulfur dioxide (SO2), total suspended particles (TSP), oxides of nitrogen (NOJ) and ammonia (NH3) Ambient air quality is also occasionally measured at selected traffic junctions in Bombay for SO2, NO,, carbon monoxide (CO) and benzo(a)pyrenes from total and respirable particulates The MCGB air quality monitoring network in Bombay is shown in Figure 1 There are few details available as to the location of these measuring sites, except that they are located at fixed points, most of them on terraces of municipal buildings, 10 to 12 meters above the ground. A few stations are located 3 - 4 meters above the ground. The stations are visited once a week and operated continuously for 24 hours, but the sampling period is 8 hours, giving three samples in 24 hours Sampling is performed 1-4 days a month and not necessarily on a fixed weekday Since 1978 NEERI (National Environmental and Engineering Research Institute) has operated United Nations GEMS (Global Environment Monitoring System) air monitoring stations in Bombay These sites are also shown in Figure I At these sites SO2, TSP and NO2 IS measured Monitoring was discontinued in 1988 and recommenced in January 1990 Both MCGB and NEERI monitor at Parel The results are somewhat different, as shown e g in Annex I, since the sites are not exactly the same, measurements are done on different days, and analysis is done in different laboratories In 1991 and 1992 an air quality monitoring program was performed at 7 stations around the Thal RCF industrial complex south of Bombay This study was coordinated by Projects and Development India (PDIL) and RCF The measurements included TSP, SO2, NO, and NH3 on an 8 hourly basis Also in 1991 and 1992 measurements of air quality was performed at 5 stations even further to the south around the Vikram Ispat Ltd, Salav Project site The measurements included TSP, SO2, NO,, THC and CO on an 8 hourly basis 8 days in each two month periods The measurement stations were located 1-7 kilometers from the plant There are no information as to which agency actually did the analysis 86 Appendix 1 Figure 1: MCGB and GEMS air quality monitoring network in Greater Bombay. Bombay /f ' 10 ''" is! ~ 2.Babula Tank QI/R) 120 4 2 3. Worli Naka (C) 4. Dadar (C) 5. Parel (I/C/R) 9 10t *11 )0f/ 76. Sewree (I) 7. Sion (C) 8. Khar (C/R) )13 9. Supan Tank (R) 10. Andhen (I/C) 11. Saki Naka (I) 12. Jogeshwan (I) 90011 / 18 " ~-- ) 13 Ghatkopar(l/C/R) L/} 7s,j va 226-.. 14. Bhandup (I) eig , ,:/ " *19 S 15. Mulund (I) 0 zA i-20 > 16. Bonvali (R) 17. Tilaknagar (C) 18. Chembur Naka (CIR) 19. Maravali (I) * 3: [ / \ 20. Aniknagar (I) 21. Mahul (I) 22. Mankhurd (R) GEMS 1: Parel IL. Kalbadevi Il. Bandra Main road -------- Railway I Industnal C. Commercial R: Residential URBAIR-Bombay 87 Measurement and Table 1: Measurement methtods used by MCGB in Bombay. analysis methods The Parameter Analysis method measurement methods Suspended particulates (TSP) Gravimetnc High volume sampler used by MCGB are Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Pararosaniline method listed in Table 1 SO, is collected in midget impinger and absorbed in a solution of TCM (Potassium Tetrachloromercurate) URBAIR study, a Nitrogen oxides as NO2 TGS Ansa Method Midget impinger comparison of results of gravimetric weighing of glass-fibre high-volume filters were carried out Pre-weighted filters from NILU were brought to Bombay, weighted, exposed (24-hour sampling), weighted again and returned to NILU for last weighting Also MCGB-type filters went through the same procedure The results were quite good, in that the net particle weight on 6 filters (net weight range 66.4- 13 1 6 mg) (NILU figures) deviated on the average about 4 percent (highest at NILU) Maximum difference was about 15 percent ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT RESULTS The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay (MCGB) has operated 22 measuring stations in Greater Bombay for the last 15 years In addition NEERI has operated 3 GEMS stations in the same period At all stations SO2, TSP and NO, is measured and in addition NH3 at the MCGB stations The MCGB stations are operated once a week, 1-4 days a month There are few details about the results other than annual mean concentrations Annual mean values for fixed 8 hour periods (1200-2000 hrs, 2000-0400 hrs, 0400-1200 hrs) for the period June 1992-May 1993 are also given Total suspended particles (TSP). Annual mean and 98th percentile TSP levels from the GEMS/NEERI stations are shown in Figures 2 and 3 The TSP concentrations are well above the WHO guidelines In 1990 annual TSP levels were about 170-220 pg/m3 and 98th percentile levels about 400-500 [tg/rn3 at these stations Annual TSP levels at the MCGB stations are shown in Figure 4, for the period 1978-1990. These values are probably mean values from all the 22 stations in operation The 1990 level was 243 g/nm3, a little higher than at the NEERI stations The 1990 level was the lowest since 1984 The highest level, 383 pg/m3, was recorded in 1987 Data from 18 stations from the period June 1992-May 1993 show a mean value of 207 plg/m3, that means an even lower level than in 1990, and about the same level as during the period 1978- 1984, see Figure 5. 88 Appendix 1 Figure 2: Annual mean suspended particulate matter (TSP) at GEMSNAEERI stations (,qg/M3)% 300 225 150~~~~~~~~ C 10 a 2s0 -- - - -- - - -- - - - ~I0 o > Bancra (Resxdental) - Kabaey (C4mme=aI Manam.eLns(Co*meroaO - Pagw(hdusai) , WHO Gupdebne Figure 3: Annual 98 percentile suspended particulate matter (TSP) concentrations at GEMSINEERI stations (yg/m3,). 600. SW0 0 E 400 C 0 300 0) 200 - ~''e-A o __ _ . 0 o 100 Baldra (FResdenj ) Pared (wusma Kabadevi (Commerc_a X WHO GuidOhne URBAIR-Bombay 89 Figure 4: Annual mean concentrations of SO2, NO2, and TSP at MCGB stations (,ug/m3). 0) Fo-- - 0t e co co co U0 1 -K-- . ': -. s :- - C tl c 0) r 0 Q) C)~~~~~~~~~- ~ C S CS 0U Ci) Z N- - CD 0 in C, to 0 U) (Z) LC)~~~~0 v m C.) C14 CNI VW/f)d~~~~~~0 90 Appendix 1 Data tables for all stations, with monthly F average SO2, TSP, NO, and NH3 values are igure 5: Mean TSP concentrations at MCGB enclosed as Annex II to this Appendix stations in the period June 1992-May 1993 Figure 5 shows the highest annual concentration at the Maravali station (313 p.g/m3) situated in an industrial area c Bombay The Colaba, Sewree, Mahul and Mankhurd stations observed the lowest concentrations /208 (118-144 L-g/m3). Compared to the year 1987, 1993-92 TSP concentrations has fallen 20-30 percent at the Worli Naka, Dadar, Parel, Sewree and Saki Naka stations, while there is no change in the TSP level at the Sion and Chembur Naka stations Figures 6 and 7 show, as examples, the 0 237 0 177) monthly averages at two selected sites, Parel / and Saki-Naka, for 1987/88 and 1992/93 Similar figures for all available MCGB sites for 1992/93 are enclosed in Annex III to this 0 227 * 203 Appendix There is a considerable variation in the monthly mean TSP concentrations as 1900 shown in Figures 6 and 7 The lowest concentrations are measured during the * * months July-September, the monsoon 1 258 season The hiohest concentrations are 0 129 *258 season Th hihs0ocntain r 272 @2 usually measured during the months @ 313 November-March During the rainy season *199 mean concentrations are usually lowered by @/ @19811 a factor between 2 and 3 compared to the 265e 0 1 dry season. i197 There is a very little information 143 available as to maximum 8 hour TSP levels 1430 Data from April 1992, however, show maximum values much higher than the * monthly mean values, see Table 2 During *Stations not monitored April 1992 maximum 8 hour values varied Air quality between 265 Vg/m3 and 1 365 ,ug/m3 Standard Guideline Maximum values seems to be between 1 5 *144 Bombay WHO and 3 times higher than monthly mean values 360 pg/M3 60 -90 pg/m3 Figure 8 shows that TSP concentrations usually is about 30 percent higher during the hours 1200-2000 than during the night time and during the morning period This is probably due to the general activity pattern Why NO, and SO2 do not follow this pattern, cannot be explained by available information URBAIR-Bombay 91 Figure 6: Monthly mean SO2, NO,, and TSP concentrations at the Parel station during the periods .June 1987-May 1988 and June 1992-May 1993 (pg/m3). Ambient air quality data Parel (Igl/m3) 600 7 7 S02 1987/88 500 ENOx a SPM3 3 5 - -- R 400 = 300 _ 200 g 3 3 9 - 3 a 3 = ~ - - 100: _e_g9_ 9_ _ _ _ _ 3_ _ _ 3_ __ __ _ JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 1992/93 600 ZJ S02 5001 * NOx 3 SPM n 400 300 (- 200 E _ 100 3 - J - J AUG- S DEC JAN FEB Ml APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 Appendix 1 Figure 7: Monthly mean S02, NO, and TSP concentrations at the Saki Naka station during the periods June 1987-May 1988 and June 1992-May 1993 (',ug/n3). Ambient air quality data Saki-Naka (pg/m3) 1987/88 600 - E l] S02 500 - NOx pE 4001 3 SPM a= ET a300- 0 200 100 = 3 3 O-~ = JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 600 T IS21992193 60T S02 500 NOx r SPM R 400} 300 0s 0 2004 _ _ J00 - =- - 3 - - -- _ - _ MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY URBAIR-Bombay 93 Table 2: Concentrations of SO2, NO2, NH3 and TSP from MCGB stations in April 1992 (,Ug/m3). Sites S02 N02 NH3 TSP A.M. MAX A.M. MAX A.M. MAX A.M. MAX 1 Colaba 8 20 26 36 37 57 176 265 2. Babula Tank - - - - - - - 3 Wodi 13 90 43 78 56 96 281 645 4 Dadar 9 28 31 54 60 79 238 408 5 Parel 23 72 37 61 41 65 360 834 6. Sewree 39 91 31 59 50 82 225 393 7 Sion 18 60 89 126 59 87 465 1 365 8 Khar - - - - - - - - 9 Supan Tank - - - - - - - - 10 Andhen 20 55 32 90 55 97 348 659 11 Sakinaka 16 28 41 93 38 77 273 504 12 Jogeshwan 7 13 26 49 61 109 337 495 13 Ghatkopar 11 29 25 52 48 104 353 556 14 Bhandup 50 96 29 62 56 106 320 662 15 Mulund 7 20 20 38 43 65 275 533 16 Bonvali 6(?) 6 15 28 37 44 199 291 17 Tilaknagar - - - - - - - - 18 Chembumaka 14 31 45 83 57 88 319 496 19 Maravali 12 54 55 119 73 165 207(?) 381 20. Anik Nagar 23 63 36 59 97 168 259 379 21 Mahul - - - - - - - - 22. Mankhurd 14 56 39 85 46 94 250 395 A M Monthly average conc. Max Maximum 8-hour conc There are only a few TSP data available from highly Figure 8: 8 hour mean annual TSP, NO, and SO2 values exposed traffic sites in Bombay. (18 stations) for the period June 1992-May 1993 (ug/m3). In 1991 and 1992, 3 or 4 days 1 = 1200-2000 hrs, 2 =2000-0400 hrs, 3 = 0400-1200 hrs measurements of S02, NON, TSP and CO were performed at 250 - 6 traffic junctions in Greater Bombay TSP mean values \ ranged from 480 1ig/m3 to more 200 TSP than 1 300 pig/m3 and maximum 8 hour values ranged from 150 1 about 550 pg/m3 to more than I 3 100 Lg/m3 These values are 100 considerably higher than from T the stations in the MCGB air quality monitoring network and 50 NOx show that TSP could be a very s02 serious problem close to the main roads These high values 0 . are proba0 1 2 3 4 are probably caused by 94 Appendix 1 resuspension of road dust and not so much by direct exhaust emissions from the cars. In 1989-1990 Sharma and Patil (1991, 1992) did some measurements of mass concentration of size-distributed aerosols using a quartz crystal microbalance cascade impactor (QCM-CI) The instrument operates at a low flow rate (O 24 1/min) and separates the aerosols into 10 size fractions The 50 percent cut-off sizes varies from 25 um to 0.05 pim For comparison conventional High Volume Sampler was also used These samples were analyzed for size distribution by a Centrifugal Analyzing System (CAS) and Image Analyser System (IAS). Samples were taken one day on hourly basis each week at two sites Site I (CESE, IIT, Bombay) is a relatively clean area and Site 2 (Hindustan Ciba-Geigy Ltd, Bhandup) is a "mixed region" with highly polluting industries surrounded with dense population Site 2 was along the highway Lal Bahadur Shastri (LBS) Marg with a peak traffic density of about 2 000 vehicles per hour It is not clear if the Bhandup site is the same as the Bhandup site in the BMC network, but from maps it is obviously in the same region. The TSP values collected by the high volume sampler were much higher than total particulate collected by QCM-CI (' 25 prm) for both sites 180 and 541 Vg/m3 by high volume sampler as compared to 86 and 1 lI O cg/m3 by QCM-CI But the cumulative percentage of particulates < 25 jim was approximately equal by the two instruments PM10 values (particles with diameter < 10 jim) were about 85-90 percent of total mass collected by the QCM-CI measurement method and the mass segregated by the CAS/LAS analyzer system (< 45 jim) on high volume and ts components (ngm-ie. samples This shows that PM1O levels are much lower than Mean Mean TSP levels and that the difference is highest in the most TSP 130 21 800 71 polluted areas where the mass of particles 2 45 pim Al* 2 31 10 54 dominates As 273 60 695.50 TSP high volume samples at Site I and Site 2 in 1989 Br 244 20 384 40 were analyzed for 27 chemical species using inductively Ca* 482 843 Cd 35 70 75 70 coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP-MS), energy Cd* 9 13 11 08 dispersive x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and Co 25 70 30 50 UWVNIS spectrophotometry Factor analysis applied on 19 Cr 3900 104 10 marker elements extracted 7 factors indicating 7 major Cu 290.80 436 20 source types contributing to aerosol mass at the sampling Fe* 2 95 5 06 sites It was found that soil related elements were attached K* 1 27 2 27 La 36 70 48 20 with more than one factor indicating collinearity of Mg 705760 802 05 sources However, results obtained indicated many Mn 401.90 63500 anthropogenic sources present in the region like ferrous Na* 5.87 8 20 and non-ferrous industrial emissions, combustion processes Ni 35.00 79 10 such as refuse burning, oil and coal burning, road transport Pb* 0 55 1 21 and secondary emissions S* 0 94 4 75 Table 3 shows the annual average concentrations of Sb 3865980 9048 TSP and the 27 analyzed elements at the two sites for Sn 95.10 189 10 1989 The concentrations were much higher at Site 2 than Ti 471 50 661 00 at Site 1, especially for TSP, Al, Cr, S, Si, V, and Zn V 109 50 311 00 Zn 204 90 785.50 Background TSP levels There are no data available from SO4-* 1 59 1 77 real background stations, but measurements are performed N03* 1 03 1 14 NH4 + 739 90 868 90 URBAIR-Bombay 95 south of Bombay both around the Thal RCF industrial Complex and during the Vikram Ispat Ltd. Salav Project Especially the Thal RCF data are interesting. During the 1991/92 Thal RCF project TSP, S02, NO, and NH3 were measured at 7 locations The number of 8 hour observations ranged between 84 and 141 Arithmetic mean TSP values ranged between 79 8 ,ug/m3 and 117 6 ,ug/m3 and maximum 8 hour mean values ranged from 164 j.g/m3 to 234 ig/m3 Even though local industrial emissions are supposed to contribute, the measured TSP levels around the Thal RCF Complex are quite lower than at all MCGB stations in Greater Bombay, pointing out the great importance of local emission sources in Bombay. Sulfur dioxide (SO2). Annual mean SO2 concentrations from the GEMS/NEERI sites are shown in Figure 9 The concentrations dropped significantly between 1980 and 1987 to well below WHO annual guideline levels, and increased substantially again in 1990, but are still within the WHO guideline range Annual S02 levels at the MCGB sites are shown in Figure 4. These values are Figure 9: Annual mean sulfur concentrations at mean values from all the 22 stations in GEMS/VEERI stations (Iug/m3). operation. The 1990 level was 18 gg/M3, well below that at the NEERI stations. s0 The 1990 level was the same as in 1987, 70 while the SO2 concentrations at the E NEERI sites increased substantially from . - 1987 to 1990 The reason for this 2o . - ;.- difference between NEERI and MCGB _ -- C sites is not known The MCGB data from 30 0 the period June 1992-May 1993 show a 0 20 mean value of 22 gg/m3, that is a little bit to higher than in 1990 o_. Figure 10 shows annual mean SO2 - 9 4 4 levels for the period June 1992-May 9 N 9 1993 These levels are ranging from 7 [Ig/m3 at the Mankhurd station to 50 0 BanMr (Res devmai) K Para (Ckojmmm) Ig/rM3 at the Bhandup site These values _ _ -cs are all within the WHO guideline of 50 8fiJ WHOGtde jg/mi As shown in Figures 6 and 7, there is a quite similar seasonal variation for SO2 and TSP at the Saki Naka station, while this seasonal variation is not so clear for SO2 at the Parel station The reason for this is not known It is also difficult to explain why SO2 levels at most stations usually are higher during the late night and morning period than during the rest of the day as shown in Figure 8 96 Appendix 1 Available data from April 1992 from 17 MCGB stations show maximum SO2 Figure 10: Mean SO2 concentrations atMCGB values (8 hour mean values) between 13 stations in the period .June 1992-May 1993 p.g/m3 and 96 .tg/m3, see Table 2. (Ig/m3). A few measurements at traffic junctions in 1991 and 1992 show mean Bombay values ranging from 38 [Ig/m3 to 117 gjg/m3 at 6 stations and maximum 8 hour values from 80 [tg/m3 to 162 y1g/m3 SO2 / 8 concentrations at traffic junctions therefore seem to be considerably higher than at the MCGB network. The Indian Guideline value for short-term (24 hourly) in Industrial & Mixed Use areas is 120 jIg/m3 *35 Air quality data around the Thal RCF Complex in 1991 and 1992 show mean C\ *0i 0 50 values from 2 3 [ig/m3 to 5 7 ,ug/m3 and maximum 8 hour values from 11 4 pg/m3 X to 24.8 ,Ig/m3 at 7 stations. These values 0 m / are considerably lower than in the *35 015 Greater Bombay area 190 X MS * ~~~019 . 0 21 013 0 21 021 0 ~ ~ ~~~1 *Stations not monitored Air quality Standard Guideline 0j1yt Bombay WHO 80 pg/m3 50 pg/m3 URBAIR-Bombay 97 Nitrogen oxides (NO, as NO2). Annual 98th percentile NO2 levels at Figure 11: Annual 98 percentile nitrogen oxide GEMS/NEERI sites are shown in Figure concentrations at GEMS/NEERI stations (,ug/m3). 11 (annual mean levels are not shown in reports available at NILU) Annual 98th 2s percentile levels have dropped significantly from 1987 to 1990 Concentrations are relatively consistent 0 ISO - - - - - _ suggesting NO2 concentrations to be evenly distributed throughout the city Annual mean concentrations at . MCGB sites are shown in Figure 4. 5. These values are probably mean values from all 22 stations The mean value in 0 1990 was 40 pg/m3, and the level has SI! ql! °N 4i varied between 30 gg/nM3 and 44 jig/m3 the last ten years MCGB sites NO, level has increased about 10 percent from 1987 KW Gu(idueSwJ) to 1990, while 98th percentile values at d(Com -- WHOGud. GEMS/NEERI sites have dropped significantly from 1987 to 1990 As very little details about monitoring methodology and site location are available for both monitoring networks, direct comparison of the data is not attempted. MCGB data from June 1992-May 1993 show a mean of 46 pg/m3 indicating that the NO, level still is rising Figure 12 shows mean NO, concentrations for the period June 1992-May 1993 The levels are ranging from 20 pg/m3 at the Mahul site to 83 ,jg/m3 at the Sion site As shown in Figures 6 and 7 the seasonal NO, variation seems to be quite similar as for TSP The NO, levels usually are highest during the night time (Figure 8), while TSP concentrations are highest at daytime and SO2 concentrations are highest at late night and morning hours Available data from April 1992 from 17 MCGB stations show maximum NO, values (8 hour mean values) between 28 jig/m3 and 126 jig/m3, see Table 2. The Indian guideline value for 24 hours in industrial areas is 120 1jg/M3 1991 and 1992 NO, measurements at some traffic junctions show mean values from 56 jig/m3 to 175 jig/m3 and maximum 8 hour values from 83 jg/m3 (Worli Naka site) to 296 jig/m3 (VT site) As for TSP and SO2 these values are much higher than at the MCGB monitoring stations, indicating traffic emissions to be very important Air quality data around the Thal RCF Complex in 1991 and 1992 show mean NO, values between 10 2 pg/m3 and 17.0 i,g/m3 and maximum 8 hour mean values between 28 0 ig/mi3 and 52 2 jig/m3 at 7 stations These values are considerably lower than in the Greater Bombay area 98 Appendix 1 Figure 12: Mean NO. concentrations at MCGB stations in the period June 1992-May 1993 (jIg/IM3). l-- * f3z -' Bombay @ 30 e42 * 33 @39 . 48 @49 40. ** *61 @ 83 @650 450 2 .59 * Stations not monitored Air quality Standard @4 tBombay 80 pg/m3 (NO, as NOJ URBAIR-Bombay 99 Lead (Pb). Monthly Figure 13: Annual trend of lead in Central Bombay during the years mean concentrations of 1980-198 7 (ug/m3) (Worli Naka, Dalar, Parel and Sevree stations). lead during the Air Lead pollution survey of (pg/mn) Greater Bombay in 8- 1971-1973 ranged from 0.4 pg/m3 to 2.4 Lead was Max monitored at the 22 6- MCGB sites during the years 1980-1987 The Greater Bombay area was divided into 6 . - . . sub-areas, South 4 .. Bombay, Central Bombay, Western . .. .* Suburb, Eastern _ Suburb, Petrochemical Complex and Urban 2 - Clean (Borivali station) Average This study showed an increasing trend in the whole area and the 0- I l I l I highest levels in the 1980 1982 1984 1986 Eastern Suburb zone The annual mean levels ranged from 0 5 pg/m3 to 1 3 I g/m3 The highest monthly mean level was 17 9 pg/m3 at the Mulund site in October 1984. As an example annual mean Pb concentrations in the Central Bombay area are shown in Figure 13 Annual mean concentrations for 4 stations range from 0 2 ug/m3 to I I 1g/m3 The highest level (probably mean monthly value) was 8 4 gjg/m3 at Dadar in January 1985 The second highest level of 6 2 pg/m3 was recorded during February 1987 at Parel The annual mean levels of Pb in this area showed an increasing trend during the years 1980-1987 From 1980 to 1987 the annual mean Pb level nearly doubled There is no information available about Pb monitoring at the MCGB stations after 1987 Monitoring undertaken in 1990 at the GEMS/NEERI sites indicates that annual airborne Pb levels have fallen significantly since the 1970's to between 0 25 Rig/m3 and 0 33 [tg/m3, well below the WHO guideline of I ,Lg/m3 It is likely that curbside levels will be much higher. As shown in the TSP paragraph annual Pb levels at two sites in 1989 were 0 55 pig/m3 and 1 21 Vg/m3, the latter site being close to a road In the most heavily traffic-exposed city center streets it is likely that Pb levels are even higher 100 Appendix 1 Carbon monoxide (CO). Some short-term CO roadside surveys have been undertaken between 1984 and 1987 Monitoring was performed at several roadside sites during periods of peak traffic flow 8 hour mean values ranged between 4 mg/m3 and 21 mg/m3. A maximum hourly concentration of 50 mg/m3 was recorded at the Haji Bachoo Ali Hospital. Maximum hourly concentrations were generally around 23-29 mg/m3, close to the WHO guideline of 30 mg/m3 These roadside surveys are not representative of ambient background levels which are likely to be much lower CO has also been measured at 6 traffic junctions on a few days in 1991 and 1992 Mean values ranged from 5 1 mg/m3 (Worli Naka) to 11 1 ,Ig/m3 (VT station) and maximum values ranged from 7 mg/m3 (Nana Chowk) to 15 6 mg/m3 (Mahim) CO was also measured during the Vikram Ispat Ltd Salav project south of Bombay in the period January 1991 -June 1992. The values usually ranged from 0 3 mg/m3 to 0 5 mg/M3, and only a few 8 hour values were above 1 mg/M3. These values seem to represent ambient background levels Ozone (03). Ozone is not measured in Bombay Some monitoring should be started to identify the levels of ambient urban 03 in and near Bombay. Ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is routinely measured at the MCGB sites, but information about the results are very limited. The April 1992 report shows mean values between 37 .ig/m3 and 97 f1./m3 and maximum values between 44 1.g/m3 and 168 ig/m3 The highest observed 24 hour maximum NH3 value was 1 995 ,ug/m3 at the Maravali station in 1985 There is no available information on NH3 standards. Air quality data at 7 stations around the Thal RCF Complex in 1991 and 1992 show mean NH3 values ranging from 5 5 ,ug/m3 to 46 7 pg/m3 Maximum 8 hour values ranged from 15 1Ig/m3 to 233 ,ug/m3 These values are somewhat lower than in the Greater Bombay area Benzo(a)pyrenes Occasionally samples of total and respirable TSP are taken at traffic junctions with heavy traffic The level of benzo(a)pyrenes from total TSP ranges between 2 7 [t,g/m3 and 13 gg/m3, and the level of benzo(a)pyrenes from respirable TSP ranges between 2 3 pg/m3 and 8 4 .g/m3. There are no information on standards for benzo(a)pyrenes, but the measured levels seem to be quite high REFERENCES Sharma, V K. and Patil, R S (1991) In situ measurements of atmospheric aerosols in an industrial region of Bombay .1. Aerosol Sci., 22. 501-507 Sharma, V.K. and Patil, R S (1992) Size distribution of atmospheric aerosols and their source identification using factor analysis in Bombay, India Afmos. Environ., 26B, 135-140 Sharma, V K and Patil, R S (1992) Chemical composition and source identification of Bombay aerosol Environ Technol, 13, 1043- URBAIR-Bombay 101 ANNEX I INTERCOMPARISON OF GRAVIMETRIC WEIGHING ANALYSIS OF GLASS-FIBRE HIGH-VOLUME FILTERS BETWEEN MCGB AND NILU LABORATORIES 102 Appendix 1 NORSK INSTITlIT FOR LUFTFORSKNING - NORWEGIAN INSMT rE FOR AIR RESEARCH POSTBOKS 64. N-2001 LlL ISTROM N M LU Office of the Dy. City Engineer (Civil) Env. Sanitation & Projects New Transport Garage Bldg. 3rd Floor Dr. E. Moses Rd. Worli BOMBAY 400 018 INDIA At.: Mr. V.S. Mahajan, Dy. City Engineer Deres refl.Your ref: Var ref./Our ref: Dato/Date: STL/EMN/0-92117 20 August 1993 Dear Sir, with reference to your letter of 4 May this year I hereby enclose Tables and Figures giving the results of our comparison of weighing results on the High volume sampler filters performed by your laboratory, and by NILU, as also handed over to you in Bombay on 4 August. The comparison of weighing results comes out quite favourably. The results show the following main features: The weights recorded at your laboratory are on the average about 4 mg higher than those recorded at NILU. varying between -15 mg and +11 mg * The net weights recorded at NILU were also on the average somewhat higher than recorded by MCGB. NILU net weights were on the average 4.9% higher than MCGB net weights (for 6 samples), varying between +15.3% and -8.8%. * Companson of results from co-located samplers, one with MCGB filter paper, and one with Whatman GF/A filter paper (used by NILU) show that the MCGB filters give somewhat higher concentrations. This is an interesting resulL The reason for this effect cannot be determined from this experiment. It may possibly be connected with irreversible absorption of water wapor in the MCGB filters, or to loss of fibers from the Whatman filters. The results from this limited experiment supports the good quality of the particle weight data given by your laboratory. Sincerely your , Steinar Lars n Head of department LOCAL AIR QUALITY URBAIR-Bombay 103 c 0 X | r $ T i i-i 0 E _ _ J N _ N N N __ _ _ _ > 1 > > 0 _ Q_ _ D O 0 8 _ ___ _ _ _ N -, ~4O('C Iq9( O < 0 O r ) ) 4 z . c U*ne 00l o> 0) 0 < Ooc , - 1s 1 E t eo 0°' 0 r In - _ O~~~~~r c Oq C _4 8i mv '0 a 4 -C " - 4I 1 . 4 0C4.0c - o l C) C ") C" ) C' 31 `7( I l ~O un-Or~ co - 10c -W 0 ''0I . N'4 C4CCC'C 0 Inr co ' u,~ 0) fl~~~~~o ~c 4CV) S C,Oi8U I- - - ~ , 0 )m o oo c ocor l CD -I N C- aU3 J 8 o 104 Weight before, filter 1 - 6 4280.0 4270.0 4260.0 4250.0 am 4240.0 4230.0 4220.0 4210.0 4200.0 4190.0 4180.0 4180.0 4190.0 4200.0 4210.0 4220.0 4230.0 4240.0 4250.0 4260.0 4270.0 NILU Weight after, filter K-488, K-489, K-500, K-501, K-506 and K-507 2940.0 2920.0 2900.0 e 2880.0 2 2860.0 2840.0 2820.0 2800.0,- ,,E 2800 0 2820.0 2840.0 2860.0 2880.0 2900.0 2920.0 2940.0 NILU Weight after, filter 1 - 6 4400.0 4380.0 4360.0 4340 0 V 4320.0 4300.0 4280.0 t 4260.0 4240.0 4240 0 4260.0 4280.0 4300.0 4320.0 4340.0 4360.0 4380.0 4400.0 NILU URBAIR-Bombay 105 Net weight, filter 1 - 6 140.0 130.0 120.0 110.0 c 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0-, E 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 120.0 130.0 140.0 NILU 400 350 250- )o 1 00 -/ 150- 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 NIW flnen I - 6 106 Appendix 1 ANNEX n MONTHLY AVERAGES FOR SO2, TSP, NOX AND NH3, MCGB SITES, FOR THE PERIOD 1978- 1990 URBAIR-Bombay 107 AMBEENTAIR CUALrY IN BOMBAY w v STATION - COLABA (Al) lMtAAY FERURY YWR S02 SPM NO. I | C PTIP E p T9P W PM WYM YEAR I 02 j SPM I NOo I" RELATIVE 1BJP WWIE YtiAorrv DIR ___ SPED02___ SPEED -"" _ _f 3Y Ol=C Spl ___ __ _2 S2X " 100 1 1 2 2 1 31 42 .1 13 1 t 2 1 I" a Il I 3 211 7 l so 214 1 SI -3 IIM¶ i I 13 210 71 9 IN41 12 " 4 121'6 10 2 2U SC 71 1 2" 1 2 1 le 21 DCSE I; I I , 7 r 1002 IN2 1 lad 11,li 1 1 i 01 I ,.E 1 1 ' n I IN MARCI APR!L YEAR s50 I s*04 ta0 Mon Rr.LATIV T2aip w01 weeO YEA f 02 5 PM I No. MSO JRELAThV'5 TAP I Il 01 ____140IDrr DIREan11 SPEED - - ___ MOIY IET SPEID 107 Jio 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I Ion s ISA32 304 lWK S7 137 21 I 2 I I is" 0 IN 1504 S A I II2 7225 17 54 "AS S 8 3 IM IC 174 20 07 I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~In I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 1102 4 INS IN5 MAY YEAR S502 IS*0M I NO, MO" RSPATTvE rasp WMo WMn YEAR 502 I5PM Ndo. M O RI.ArvEl laiwp I 12JWNl - - I 14~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~mCITYl DIR TC4SPMD - ___ -OAJAIy- DIR=T -SPEED to7l 1001 1N 9 0 14 11142I 1514 12 5 0m 3 01 12 I I I 1 Is"I II 156 I '2 .10 5 I 151 21 27 ' o I 1 2000 W I 156"?I IN 20 1 lAOS 14 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 2 I"II112 I I 1001 1001~1 l~12 2 4 1 O 1 7 3 4 1 12 IS 9 II I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M 108 Appendix 1 JULY _ _51 YR £02 SFP W. NM REIA1VE TP I WM WOW YAR £02 SPM NO. NM REL4AYE TEMP WIND I WN _ _ 51Y WRECn SPEED 48ID8rTY rRECTno4 SPED 197 g_9 81 1 _1 = la p 4 7 7 19" 7 SI 14 19" ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ I II 2 197 1 a1 1 20E 'M 7' 1. 7 SST OCrOSER YE.R £ 02 SN|Nb REi 92 | 9W N W18 YER £02 SF9. NO M REULE|Te | WND I WN4D~ I91 ! IIn DI1981D lRCCZ PE is 2 115 15*3'0 3 I.. 19 -- 15. so" 4 &I 17 27 9~~~~~~~~~~~IA I88 W :0.01 111.01~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 14 ,M~~~M 2 I-I I"? #82VShER DE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I8rOER Y|AR 502 SP4 NO. NM | RaATlVE TBdP I WPM WM | I YEAR S02 SPM NO. NH8 RELATIVE TEMP I WND | WMO I___j___I___I I ___ IHUl O rI DRE SC | L ;Ili SF0 l .4rLDYI DIRECnT" SR C PED I 72 1:: 1 7 1 1 1 I *71o I i 10 I lS41880 2 13 17 "I I1 3el I 31 I 15 1 1 12 1s 18 1 ° II 1882jl 48 I2S1 2 12I 1 Nj l 2 1 .7 2 72 5 1 3 I11 Is" 5 1 2 8 22 2 lo"l 12 is 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I 1981 1921 IM ~~II= I ~~~~~~~~~IM iSASi ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 IIISj I~~~~~~~ODAADEBB Y_R_ 02_P__O._M_R_AT___A_WP_W MYEA_S0 SP____ _____ ______NO.__________ MO l i iEiWP W W"___ l~~2 0 * 8i L _ _ _ _ _ _ L . . . . 1 _ __Drv tREC IC1 SP_D_HU_ _Drr _I_ _C_C__ _SPEE URBAER-Bombay 109 AMBIENT AJR OUAJLrr IN DOkuAY IUn od u.o STATION -BkUABIATAW ( 2) JWJR- VBFM 1379 I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~17 ,"1 S20M 1 14I9123 9842 II 17 2 1 1 1903 213 3s I i4 a4 1Is4 109 2 I111 7 211 7 I SW ¶2 oIO d 21 a I 5 521 " ISO to 1 210 71 1906 SU0 2 12 1067 12 211 171 I 2I4llo ' Il 2 0 1092100 94 7 1 is917 In% 190 111 19914 Y £R 02 IS NO. H oTEITA N WM91 S02TNM TSOAP I ID WMl 4. jolAd~~~~K orry CROcnl spEm J S_M_IM lRO'UITDrrlY DIRFClj SP90 19791 1 I7j 1791 I 7 19 300211101 11 ,902 II 13 29 395j 09 II 19s" 1 15 A 21 4 '1 175 17 1990 20 225013 8 17 15 9 9 to" 20 7 42 7t" I 7 3 1909 9 290 23 5 lo"j 1I 29 110o ISoo 1091~~~~~~~~~~~i .104 IS" 199- '11117~~~~'~ ~ 9.? H4 H HILWOrTY DIREC11CF4 SPSM ~ ~~~~~~INJAOITfY - .D19£C1I S9.D 1972 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~919 '9921 9 86 14 942~~~~~~~ 1 901' 1003' 141 90~~~5 10 121 I1 194I 2 12054 1158 11 J3 205 2 72'o 129 75 I97 I! 21: 1520 114 9 1 24 91 991 91 I7I 47 5 19141 9 11 2s9 2 1091 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~109110 :0,04I 1995 91102 109, j 199 2997i 110 Appendix 1 JULY AUI6T YE SS S| N. WIC PRATNE TEMP I W90 WPM YEAR S02 SP N I NO REATIVE T9AP I WlD I WiD I_____ J WLI.M1'TY D_AECT_O_ SPD _U DITY DIRECT1OI SP9D _; Is m I _ 19~~1 at teat~1 71 I_ I - 74 aN 13 a9 is~ a 0 at la 1999 S 2 t a 12 I aI US it a I I I I I :10 7 T3 :4 jiJ 1: 0 0 7 a II 2N < I I7 I24 IN7 19 N1 1 : ^ II 3 71 I 1 1 1 I S I . I I 1_ I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I Zoo I a ¶ Ia 139991I I I I l1 I oo . l l am aW | WV~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~EPT0ER O CDEIR lowR SO I O RlAIE TA 910 Wl ER SO PA t O EAIE TAPImi 0 tal | YBR | SO2 | ~~SPU | . NI| 0 |RE.A1TrVE| TEP | |WN | | YEAR |S02 I SPM NO. I N9D IRELAT1VE| TEPAP I,NDC> WhDm I I I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~w1DID> I DIP SP-GM I IU II DrrY W PECn .4 SPEEDI I :979 IF)* | X I F tU I | I I 1 ea 19# 52 1 9 9 I I I I I 1q IsA II a a9 29 22 I 1: ' '1 a1 1991 12 Ss 29 tOm. 1 i 42 U ,"It 'at 1 a1 am 1979| 22 t @| 0 l l 7 03 '"'!1f | r| i | | 2970 -…_ - - _ I979 I ta ,ann I I 1va 929 491 7 I1 1 1 71 S73 1 27'1 1 Ia 71 26 0 I9OU 5 IG t 2ao"Ia U 10 I94 SC 2am U 1 dl 294 3 19 14 2t5 79 IS la a I 5 Mr.7 'a 242 ~ 71 99194 9 St 8 199 1 21512 Is"1 am _ __ _ _ _ _ _ K . _ _ _ _ _ _ > 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~10 2000 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~so URBAIR-Bombay 111 AMBIENT AIR OUALrrY IN OMaAY STAllON - WORLUA (A3) AQGJARY ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~FEBRUARY AR |S02SW s| sonP 0 REATW P I WND I | VO W 5 02 sPM 1)0. 340 AELATVE| TleP | W WmO I I _____ 14bufla* DIP SPED WJAdfly tiREwncl SPEED 1)1 ?1 I)n_ 942 r 21 4)l 1) 41 2 4 25 1)12 I 21~~35 7S2I3 1"A4 10) 274 I aI 4 8 I14 I 273 241 i II 2 52 44 1)14 4) dl 17 I 27 U 2 1'" 'i ao I 41 2 2 1 171 ,"a 4 1 40 1 14 I SI 4'1 is" 27 44C 111111 12 a " II ,101i 1)0 t: s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~18 I I" I 1)14 I'I 2COOI _ 2e0 _I I - - __ ___ I_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~APR21 YEAR S02 SPM NO | RoATIVE P | W D W | ISR|0fI sP S If NO4 I=aREATIVE| TelP W IND | WVD IWI J I IDm )1rYE SPg D _ o|REcnoN SPEED 1)7)1 1)78Isl ,"I A 244 24 "I 1)92 1 1 1I4 I I i ) 901 l l| I1tl l 10 24 20.4 203 lm 17 221 IS is" + el 9 - 30 44 la"1l l "1)14 1 :20 41 1 ) 4 " 21 5'1)|t *942 370 7) 20 I dl 2) 102 4 23 7 50I 4)) 2 23) 32) I0 1)71 1) 27I 4 11 20 22 11 tl4 '9 27E 40Ul M1 al I I 50^ 2eo a1 fo| .... l l low 10 3 71 27 is1 7 40 7) 1,"9 2' ° 1)us I 2)7 Is 1,02 47 lo 1 1)01 1)091 la 2,4 2 1)15 _ I - - - I i- 1907 1)00I _~~~ _ ,_ I __ MOAY 1344 YEAR I S02 | SPIA |R PATVE R TAP iWO WM y SO pmj I)D O I YE |0|P |VE | WN|n wnl | i ~~~~~~~~~~~mDIrry DIREcnM SPEED W ^l l | |DIrrY DIRSC11ON SPEE 201II 71 71 11)1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 2171111 4 7 1)421 121 227 1) 1 o 21 171 1) 19)31 X3 1 10 1 1, 1 4 17 a"1 1 2)1 )1 1 1 45 142 I 11)5 2 1 2 2:, 3'j 1 I I)&Sj |,3 20) I) 2 19)1 201 27) 2 2l ' I)171 x 2)0 "2 I 2) 20 siG7 *94 4 94 0 I 7S 44 1)111 I I j I I I I I I su I I I I I I I i )901 IoC 175 241 j l l l I 2:51 'I |)l 1)01l 1 1 J ! I I I J I I I 1)11 l IWI*1 11 1 '9"1 1 I 11147 1l l l 112 Appendix 1 JLY AU65T Y I SO2 S P I I HO I P TVE RaP9|4WND WD WM YER 402 I SP 88O I RELATNVE 2EUP I WP4D WIND SO, I I IISP DIRE=C10 SPED IDrr1Y DDiRCT-n SPEED I 171 _ a N 21 1 6 IG 15 ZI *12 04134 1 44 1 10 7 :u "I9 12 I'l 1 O, 's 7 3 N 1 181 i II 217 14 I :Su 14 3 Is" I IS 2 n _m I o I I l I01 IW I 1 . _ :9"07I IW 1it I I 2 YW S02 sm No. MG94BE OCATOBTAPTER W YEAR £02 *°4 840 RElATIVE 79 I IHO 1448£ YEAR S02 £44 No7 10 RE LATIVE DI4 W I NHO WpO 1471 z1 *______ i4S0T ORC IG *1~ I4MOT I RECf1 1S1 1 1174 l I 1 ls 1 lo 74 I to 14 7|1 *71 241 1*: I1 l 1 ¶10 4 ,m I 'I "II X I I I *1 #I 147I In I I I144 '1 154 '1 X 24 21 1 1I liii Is16 217 1S" II 24 I ,Iu 41 174 6 , a 2 I 1 I4 1 11 1 1 1 14 1 1 5 I *~~~~~~~~~'9 ,|..7 2 l*11111II 1*721 "6 42 I 44I 712 124 4 161 I *, .146! 11,6I I11 Is* ,11671 I I 1 161 1 1 1 2400~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~20 NOVEMBER oecetaIq IEA1S0 P MD NM RELAThE 7949 WHO4V.4 YEIA £02 £984 NO N424 3840 RL TV E ,P ID WHNO WHo 1474' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~wtry DIREmIk SPEE ltOYOEnN pE lo0 I04 44 no4 178 241 44 ,"I "1 "I 141 us2 I82 135 I7 l I I I4 1644, 73 1164 1,821 11 37I10 u 47 24 4 130 1946! 65 I 78 I96 537 70 18£ '"47 21 252 I I 47 255 04 122 114u1 70 30 5 j I$Ml 23 71 65 14 1 Z'~ ~~~I 214 114 URBAIR-Bombay 113 AMBIENT AIR OLJTY IN BOAY LA% to=.n_nJ STATION - DADAR (A4) FRV VWAR S02 SPt 1MM NO RPIAWVE 1UP I WO WIM 'IEAR 502 1 NM RELAIT0E| TlAP WM I WND tO71 I.IOIXDIY DIRECI'IN SPEED t27 _ Hl4DrY DIRECI1G SPED t.ioj a4 2 KK Sl iX IK 4 212 4 1 aim ¶4 2 : 2 m 3 2a IO 2 K @ 'mm 21 3712a am" a5 2a au 1 n 1 u a . 2s a2 tK so 321 73 4 n I 411 :80u L LI a l tl *I rII| tK2 22 2 102 2 ; Ia a 2 4l l1 ; 21 2| 4 am a YE" I4 N IO 50 laAZV0 1p IP WPM Woo 0E I W j I tDIf1Y DIRECnIl SPEED ___S, ___ I miDfo 4RCfO II9 Ii9 £ 241 20 ,I 40 21 33 "I U 21 a I" 2 255 oi a is a4 2a 1W3 12 201 2 I I 1 * 271 is" 43 22 IM 21 214 31 a94 I 2 40 a 8 _ 2 2 am_ .2 43 a__ I"? 1A 204 3 104 IN7 0 205 26 720 9 a1 41 a1 Is" 2. '1 22 15 |2 13 207 37 IK 17 2.1 31 74 10a a Is ' 29¢ I '20 "2 , s | | .M 1 1J,| 24 112 22 RlAIE SP Wl Wl oEA £02 SI3O 21o NG R2ATE 731 W 1ERS2 SPSINoj 21EC SpED I &OI5 ORC0 a1s45 24 173 22i7i" aa as INS1 20 373 a, 21 aas1 201 4 a021 I ~~~~I24 is I 2 I*" I0 I12 2 I Ii 17~~~~z 2 0 Oa 22 27 a2. 4 1no 161~u Is lao " 3 am ,a Dl m am aa IN £5~~~~~~~In 114 Appendix 1 AULY AUIST YEAR 0 SC2 PU Y Io PG RLATIVE TOAP I WM| WM2 YEAR £02 IS8 1W. I NO 1 RELAITvEJ TA1P | w| D__ inY VIREcnc SPEED s_ _ IDly 1 PcI=Nw I,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o I: 33 INI II 1 1 2 I$ ZI a I a I M~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I88 42; 17 'I tooIS 4 UI 3 I I4 %" S " I S I I 4I 1S n 11, 14a 21 7 2 a 181 j 61 es 1 1 YEAR £02 SOlI lCFD8 REaTiVE 7918 WIlD WND. YEAR £02| St ||aM IPIl $80 _r_- 14J401lY IoIRECIl SPwD ______ ____ IIIT f Sol110 1 : 2, 3 u.r £1 121 II "1 S II 22 is" I 1,44 2II 19 1so 1, 1 I 18 11 24 41 I4 IS lo 3 121 2I I Io 2 22 lAm 15188 la* rs I jY 1 0 YI M ' I 7 I" ! 8 I IS ISO 86 I I ICD l I 271 8 " 281 21 18 1 345I 2, YA S2 P 740. NM RtELATIE TAP W 0 WM YEAR £02 I1 SPM NM RELATVE TA I I _______ I~~~~~Dl.8i8 rfY OIRECTION SPEED NoIIII' RE=CTl i IIU21 :7 4sX1 Q51 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ion 188 2 1 I813J 88 278 74 1 1 SI V I 'I 244 14 1 270 a j i I 1I02 'I 21 8 2 ll 1 3I II 38 227 IR113 3 2 288low 21 :4M 43 | 87 14 27 2 7 3 1 1 7 3 4 is" 12l 11 12 u 78 "M t10 1 1 46 I. l1@l 3* 378 3 1 I 1 2 2 l l I Inrl ! I I I I I2I I S 5 I I Su j18 21 Su288135 3 I ,106 2 $I 3I So I4 lo I5 I ,, I I7 ,1887 1,2 URBAIR-Bombay -115 AMBIENT AIR OLALITY IN BOMBAY U V-M STATION -PARtEL A3) FERUIARY YEA s I N, N IRFATI11 T OP JD= W YEAI 02 I2SM NO, NO PBATIVEI TBAP Wee104 Is 124 2 107 141 217 3 1171 I 3 I 'W 1 Su 13 I 211 "I 1* " 2 1111 44 5~ ~ ~~47 As 101 154 39 S I ~~~~~~~~330 Im 52 S 41 IS"4 414 II 1064 7 " s I 44 4mIs 31 30 I 33 5m 10 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~is" I7 s 8 lI SI I 11101 00 100 1 7 MAR04 APRIL YM S02 I" I 10, IIMIPBATrv TDAP IWIm WM01 YEA S 02 2PM NO. 10 RELATWIVTE 7AP WM LD YEAR *. L~~~~L. I '~~ '*a WIJAO~M Itryl DIREC11CAIJ SPEED - ___ - ___ ISIDrrY DIRECTI SPEED 1171 0. IIio 1 II7 P4 304 I n 1 IU1O 123 303 Iw 2 21 ,1112 31 2 123 IN21 Om 1 0 27 3 161013 I 13 I IS" 10 30 l1 so 22 3 ISVI 37 420 ~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~100114 7 0 S Ios I1 3 3lw 2 " 3 1 2 1 0 4 _ _ _ _ I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00 MAY I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1000 I4~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ISA II~~~~~~~~~~~~ IWO~~~20 J011 2 104 12 1 24 I IIH ""I2 132, 24 I 12 24 15 21 3 11 21 1142 01 1341 IS 104 s7 24 I84 70 144 2 12 25 22 21 2I 1 I-0 -O 101 21 21 me0 25 1 221121 2.1 2I II S 10131 I~~~~~~~~~31 230 S "I41 "I llE 10021 1 I 1o.I __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __3_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 116 Appendix 1 VW S02 SPM I NO. NM nUP WM WM YEAI S02 SP" NO. I Pi RATIIE TSAP WM WM YEAR SOS SAM NOi isoAaATTVEj 1DJP I wHMO DI (*SEMWDADr ___DESCrI0 SPEED 19 I 211~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rn :1a II 54~~~~~1. I IW toI 2 14 100 d I0 22II.9 2 1 42 154 I4 I0 Iat IS I I 1.4 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 *I I3 17 11147 31 ISO I4 SI 140 _2 ,1 IsI 7l Im I YEA SOS SF9 NO. P&G RELATN TDLP 001 WMC YEA SS SAM MO, 1NM PSAThVEI TEWP I WI40M WM1 14mmirTy Dirz SPEM - .14mivrYl ____ ectloP SPRED I47 100 1711 5 I* * 254 r Io U4 I 1 294 1 ,n III 129 14is t 3 S ' I 74 ISA 2 1"I I5 tsIl 4. IU 51 lAO 2 ¶m so20 ~ ISm 44 74 Im 71 15 AA IM1I IMI 45 0 III 42 lOS 11020I 471 5 0 ' I 56 3 3 IS In .7 32 Is W I. 1 3 : 67 25 47 0 1501 185 INS 1 ln$IW 185 1ff It In NOVEMBER DECDUER YEA.R ISO2 SAM NO, MOIREAW TWP I VIMO 00W YEAR SOS2 SAM "DI, NI REIATIVE TBAP W 014D 0014 -~~~~~~~~ DY~~~~~~~~WM flIRECCI1W SPEEDl ____ blJDt*y DIREC7101 SPIED 19711 260 9n 07 2" t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~26 I879 229 35 Irn 79~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14 32790 I"I 246 57 ~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~1141 107 177 3 481 4111 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l 29 2 104 290 424 3429, 09:1 9 40 9 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~1~~~~~~~~18 21 041 URBAIR-Bombay -117 AMBIENT AIR QLALrT`Y IN BOMBAY STATION -SEwREE oAS AVOJARY ~~~~~~~~~~~~FEBUARY YrAR $2 I SP I MO M0 IFtEAThETA$NDYA W p o I N*00IREATTB Tiwp I wOO wpm 3PM - _____ I4~~~~mW1Ty DI= SPED ____ I0jJDffy' OiOBcT SpEED 1070 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~101 42 IN 47I 11im 4 22 2 Ion AD 7I3 lOS 16 22 2 I 5 ~~~~~~~26 0IIW 4 2 * ¶90 3 320 71 I= 24 71 ,I In Is I"` Im Im 2000 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~20 MARCH AP0*L YEAR sc,2 s004 No.I MCo RATIVE TB4p IwOO wOO YER 02 SP0A #3, NI IRELATIV1 TEIAP .0*14J W*14 _______ _______ I &uon~~~~~~~~~mefy D__ _ IPIECT"I SPEM _____ -I _ __ __ m. rdIfyDI B SIRED on 10711 1121 0 2 1 9 2 Im T319 26I 09" 04 ~ 254 40IS 43 22I :1101 1 32 4 IS" SO 22*2 2 IO11 253II 11047 2 36 3 is" 2 221 3 s1 3 II 34 a '"I 131 45I 0 5 Su "4I " 190 23 21 l IN 3 ,4111 51 2Ian 1* 0 I0 21 21 20I I 21 I 21 30~~~~~~~~~~fAYJLN 110~~~~~~~41 1 s s 2 o is"i 4. 216 7513137 16 25 s I .I I~~ I I 1 1145 10 A 1*75212 1,.*1 4* 71 . II7 I 2 I**L 37 2511 3 a" I0 s I I 7 1*0 14 02 1 2 I2 I7 I10- IW 1*07 1*0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i I'*~~~~~~~~~~~~ I I~~~~~~" '2 0 0 0 2 I I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - 118 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Appendix I .JULV VE#A 502SI s,uChI NH RELATNE ma WHOP WOW 'yEA s02 spm NOm me0 R2ATrvEj TmAP. IwHO W ___ &uorry Di SPEE ____buArry DlfkeTcn~ S-m IV"I 1 II 1 15 "I 1 III II 57 tal I1 ¶. 5 IQ I 10~~ ~0 171 2211i" 7 1= 21 a 1 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~11 ¶m I. is"~ ~ ~ L YER S02 Sl O MoRELATYV T13P I lWH WmO YVM S02I SPMj NO. NHI IPELATNEI 'r4p WHo WO jP 10 " I*VDrrY RETO NISPEO NmItoSryl OIOtEc¶CP4 SPEED 1*71 IIs", ,"I1 21 i7ol lost 4 II Z I02 II " 1m ¶06 'm 20 95 1 im~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 I 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" 10 I 2 I"7 24 91 ti Io I9I7 26 IS7 1 Is"* 21 M IIj1 2I 1`, 2 4 is" 2 157 42 I 40 I 5 *4 1150 1901 "I ee YER S?I1" O IM EATV UP H H 'yER 22 S O 0 EIoV~1A H H I ~ ~ ~ ~ &u~~WIrry OIRSCTIM SPEED .. 4MIrrvoIRCT Sp.6 I"a 76 271 26 51 so 2 1 I"I 59 17,I 1 04 1601 4 1U 4 '10 I loLI 1*1 22 6 1 3 0 IOm4 2 47 147 1*50 26 " a 17 1 7 4 6s lULl . 23 0 s 1501 9 171 150 IL I650 24 2*4 ,"IIlos I ~ ~~II I".~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 I50 I 150 :047 _ I"1_ _ _ URBAIR-Bombay 119 AMBIENT AIR OUALfrY IN BO&AY 1Mm 6qWl_wrh0 STAfON SSION (A7) 4011RAMW FEBRLA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~204ARY YEAR SWS SP I , IO ZEILA1TVE TUP I WND wIe YEAR S c 52 Sw PO MRAT1E lP I W D I WMN wIIDIfTY D SPED i_O0l R C_ OICnT SPED I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'I 7 u tM U 4 30 1 *223 .143 I~~ ~ I 114134 5 INI 47 a" is" 30 _ _ Su 1 502 S4NX|NBIRUV EPIwe WDYA I52 SM NS|6 IPN N N 1m 1374 IIt 337 Io 41 l lo" I D 13 1 2 41 27 1 I I I I I ' s I I wg" lI * 9n$1 ,, X l1 II I Z1IU . I14 I I I I- I__ 1 ,,7* 1 1 1 1 1 i g | 1,7I VW " s' S'I PCI me I IATN TWP I WM SOS SPIJ I NM PAT TUAP W W0 WMnO i Kwffy IRECIC14SPEED I ___M4401IREccp SPM0 I:71, In *"1 l 2 1 l l l l | [ IU X *2 1 W14 l U l11 1 1 W 1 *1 * I4 l l 31 m i 21 1 1 11 1 l " y z I I I I i 1144 l4 20|1 I 21 2 *7 4X 194 9650I 1 1 ,"I 30 273 50 "I 32 27 24 ,I111 Id 335 1 84 IN:19 1 Io 29 21 8 I" 22 2 1W 1 I l 21 328 8 111 33 33 4 0I1141 7 2" 3 ,99I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 1902 I"2 YEAR S02 SPM d 4 1*0 M O LATIV TMP VIDwn WMn WMA I502 S161 NO.I M0 RAELAIV T94P IWMl) Wn 1871 - . IM~~~~~~~KoITy - r)RE=I1 SP14O ] ___m.UIOIy pwtr=C2C~SP0 1:71 1: 78~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~18 1 "IW I5i I I4 131 ISO I I94 30 8I it A0 l0I3 25 22 is" 22 $01 A7 1941 4 21 a A 114187 ou 23 249 42 I II.., 7:9 7 _ _ _ _ I _ _ _ I _i s"00 I 120 Appendix 1 JJL'tY A5T_ YEAR 502 SP PAD MO REIATIVE TfMP | WP/D WMD YER 502 SFW N I¢ NM P.ATIVE TBEP | 10 WiD lDfr WREY n SPEED . ylDY flRECll PEED , 1 171 1 I 1,"I _ - 1: I 141II I 2 I IM 13 110 1 1 71 I15 : * I I 25 S 2 1 q III 1 2 I 204~~~~~~ I0tm 1 158 16 58 11518 24 2 Il" I _ 0 | ERI 5 0 ¶ 1 IPLITP|WDIDIIYN|50| PiNO|||P|D|WD| I I 92ni r x 5g l l l | lD y Rclw5S I I2g 2 1 r I I2 " 11 S I I I I I ; $ IN2 2 7 2 158 1; I 1 SEPTBD3ER OCT00E YEA S012 SPAl NO, MO IRELATIVE T1NP WM840 53 'PA 0 A P, M EAiV BI 84 wil _____ _____ _____ _____ M~~~~~~~b#MlIoTv - SPEED j IOflIDrrYl __ __ C7 Sp .D ¶ 2' 50 I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O s 2502 2 351 1 "I 21 1581 71 170 2 is tW ~ 24 I SI 213 20 37 20 '::~~~~~~~~~~~ 41 211 3 lo"1 1581ni 41 3 lo"4 17Is 3 4N" 3 n 3 I7 I 2 3 9 W7 t " 8 lo" im~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~D~8 1114141 419 m 111415~~221 2 oft ~ ~~ 22 111107 1000 20I I58~~~~~~~~~~~~~OBE DCME VWS1P5N87 1LAr !GP P P 02- M W l58~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - . . P _ _ _ _ I _ _ - _ _ - _ _ - _ _~~~~~~wumoff _ _ L _ _vc _ _E _ _ _ _ UM__DrrY URBAIR-Bombay 121 AMENT AIR OUALrJY IN BO&UAY om SrATION - SANTACRZ (AD) VW oS W. we REL| V TP |I 2YEAR -02 _P O. NO R7AT1VI TEMP I WM WM 17 I 23 I wn 3a 21 19_9 n 21 1'i ognl 2: I I2311 44 241 1 001 2' I~~~~~~~~ _S. I305~~~ II 2~0 is 1 20 3 R SO123 1a2n vE 7 Is"3 I2AI a"1 [ son 26 I 3 3 0 is rn 2 d 1" IM7 32 MO l 2 1> 11 312 'o 2; ax aI "2 1. 35 7i| I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Iw '31 1271 I mff s 1 1 2 1 2 I., 8 19°073 > &t I _ __ _ MARCH APRIL V7A5 S02 SF04 I NO. No IRBLATW TRAP WI 230 WM ~ YOO S20 I SAIM PION INM RO.ATTV TRAP 020 02 I1 27I2 1 2 10t Is 24 0 I 1_ _ I j ji I | |tlY IEI0 PD| | 17 3 I tD IIP S D "7al u :17 ll l l t 17 1234 47 27 301 W If 1 12 123 S I 201 ¶ W s 27 S i s I i 24 75 114 201 z 21 Iv2 24 12 1000 IN I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IS 1 I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 1023 I~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MAY UOE IUWI1ry D___ C lJCI SPED No'_ RELAIVE CIRtECTICN SPEED l00 jI 120 I o 12 I00 iso3 I lUll 7 ~ 1301 I 1423194 1 19231 7o DzjI ¶ u 1 17 1 IDu 132 Is"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~12 12 11t I '"s I: '43 ius I '21 5 'Su37 2) 217 12 2 21 24 3 1237 I oI u4I ? a " 2 123 I"Is '"s la"~I100 1.03 no 100~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o 122 Appendix 1 YEARm SW IC, MO RELATM| TBAP I WND WPM YEAR £02 | NO. M PaATMVE TeAP I WtD I vim I071 _5 135rIUDITY DIRECTn SPMD 'I _ tDITY DIRECgn2 SPEED 1376 1 IXn 7 I" I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14I I I7 6 1 I 4I 9 II "I I: I: 125 11111t1 4 1 I tS 1901 1 Al I I _ 1 1 1641 164 2OWI SEmrMdER OaCTCRE VW ^ NO. IP NM RELATME TEMP |WND WIND YE^ 502 ISPM |NO. I NM |ELATIVI TBAPI WPM| N 1978 30 MMI~~DnrY DlRECllCI SPEED l I | IDIy Dmcnm =P. *940 Z n s4 J ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1073 30 I" 3 l l 174 1 1 1 79 1: . 4] 22 32 160 17 1g1 1 2 S Il I ,I 1E I l _ to" I I 14 | IR I DE |EA | 502 |SW |C Ma S RElATIVE |TBaP | WND | WNDC YEAR |£02 iSPU | NOX Ma Ni |RATTV0 TEBJP |40 WN | WND - I - [ ~~~~~l&UII___CIET SPRED - - - - - H ulDn IRSCT1ct SF062 Ionj U0 r4 2 1 r1 so 1641 ^ l z| l l | 1'''1 £: I°| : IU17 IS AS1 20 M 2 i I 7 II~~27 27S 164' I1 .10 I2 I 1 I 14q I 1 5I 2, I ! I 3u x 1 1 1 !0 s4 1 4 U1 . 2 ! '1 5^ 1 20 164 4I | 44 641 4II It I I I 4; 4 U n ,II Ina I", II1I .169 I I 1 1 641 I I I I 111 l I SO !I YEA N0 SV4 P&G RELA1TVE T94P iM vSim YEA S02 SF5 NO. Ma RtELATIVEI 19W WHDcJ WHO0 137£~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~LIDr i SM 44 124 y4 l,,',l e £SPEED 1930 4 2 164 ioj:7 3 204 16711 14 56 16411 24 1634 40 20 23 1SW4 44 £1 4 164 S 247 IAU 0s 164 51 34 "645 24 All lOW 267, 3 11413 64 2s 4 ,BS 49 0 4) 1647 24 72 1645 220 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~It" 10 w 64 204 1648 II I64~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 1631 1641~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 1 1 64~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N 13W ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IO URBAIR-Bombay 123 AMBENT AIR LUALrrY IN SOASAY Wm V STAT1oN ANDHERU (AIO) UMFRY F VWWUR 5 W02 SW1 I PAMS 'UP I WID WI"A $ 502 S M NOM PGATIA TP I Wm| WIP4 I I I4MIrY DIe SPED _ AGTY DIP£--TWH SP£D 1971 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1971 I17 IM II ISB - ¶TfI 194 I= I 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I iN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s IM IM lo I Ift I: lOll lool I,._ _ I. 1002~~ I . I9" 200 _0 | AR | 502 |G SPIA | NOS | N leELATNE, TAP W WIG WM WrAR $02 s| I M NO IRELAT1VE| TAP I Wvim Wm | L __SO, I_____ I I UIr' Di_KPMD - I I ..y. DI.ECnCN . SPEED | 1.7*1 low~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ll In4 IN7 I9 In ION I OI I.' IN' SAAY Alme S02 I SPM NO. WO PMATME '"UP WOV WIND02 SPA I NO MG IPSATVE TEIAP WoOI WmO lHwmrt DIR _____SPE I I LAldOfy DIRECnoJ sPWED 1:71 1 io, 1*79 low17 ,102 1 193I 19*4 1144 9IU* 1"71~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 ig**I Ois" 1142 nO' 124 Appendix 1 JJLY lAULWST S PAR S02 SWM Wt NO RBATVE T._P WM WM EAR I02 SM W. I40 RBATI TBPI WND |vWND _ UCIIY DIRECnlb SPD _ RenY DEla SPew _ . . I ::1 IS7 . _ 'IM2 1884~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 I" IU Sul tito" YE^| 0 S th||£TIETP|WN| D|Y6RS2Pi _ RAIE BP|WDiWND I _ YER|S2|SI|NX| 1 P>RE AP|WN|WtDYR|S2 | M 1 PA 9P|WD|WI Xl_e"-- 1907 IN7~~~~~~~~5P IdDI IRClV PE la" I, lilt lilt lEAD 1187 IlM 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~110 tIll~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e 1885~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10 NOVEMBER DECEAGER YE-AR I59 2 S5P M I 0N N4M IRBLAIVS TElMP 18140 I WE YEAR SW0 I SPM NO. 14 RLTOI TDdP WNLD IWELD - 141.U~~~~~mmorry DIP.EcnON SPEED itE.UDflyIl DIRECnION SPREW 1011 217 1184~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~is 1518 1"4 lilt~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s 11841 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IM 11884 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o ~~~ilI I ME~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" URBAIR-Bombay 125 AMBIENT AJR QLALrrY IN 9O&kAY Lhu STATIONd sAMNIAKA (All) .ANURY FEMRYAr YEA SOW SPM 0`1, 90O F I.AI18 IP Iwm *98YEAR S02 SPU NO 9040 FtEA7lvI TB4P WMl 9 U I I,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~WIorvIVS 73 j I'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~17 1 1921 "I 198 2 11 4 ,lou 3 31 d 'D 17 5801 lw iid ow 343 10 OD 14 1111 2I 25 438 30 15, ~~~~~~~~~~* If 541 30 III 1 i9s5 344 3 is 30a 5 4 1991 6 30 I3 1629U1 2 is"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 11978 7 19114I I69 I I 2SEE1moT 0Rcp PE 19721 1697 19 1*831 Z _ _ _ _ IN 1 I 187 31 owI 191 25 3I 4IIus 3I RSCTI2 19*1 14 9 103 111W1 7 0 I 7 I6971 il197 llA I"'8 low0 2 91 24 2 'ON7 Is 1963 1 17 INM I _ _ 126 Appendix 1 ir _______ y__ __ R__ C____ SPED ___ I4 r1T DIRS= sprED I 16 l M 5 75l 16 ~~~~~ ~~I 1is" 2 12 1 I II14 I. I4 121 116 I4 107 17 186 1210 too 12 ~ ~ ~ 4 io 19 "1 I: la" 19"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I IT 1"64 XiW 21 ¶16"7 1 29 1 1 1~~~~~~~~~~2 2 s 17 1. I10 1S 1IIw I 1I ::'. _ ___ - 116 1973 I"7 ~ ~ ~ II 54 I*" 1964 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~.ry DR;nF4SE m0 Rcc pF 716 I 11606 Ig7 ' I 1679j 10 116 III u5 s44 Ion 27 ~ ~~~~121 25 1161 SI " 1M Ia 2 I4 Is' 4 2166 5 s,81 IM17 2 24 481 13 IWOf 4 Is 21 241 513 S 1101 11ol I m 'm~~~ I18 I996 I i 1 is" _ _ _ I . _ _I_ _ _ _ URBAIR-Bombay 127 AMBIENT AIR 0U.MLT IN B0LeAY I STATION GNATKOPAR (AI3) .VIAAARY FEBRU~~~~MRY V8Af SW2 S13 1Q MO PBAT7E 798P I I8WM 6 S* MN NO, LTI M P WPM8 __ _ _ 4M10o3ry C'4_____ SPEWD - I___ _ _ ___ DIR___C SP80D i,o 10 u 2 1111 I7 = I"I 204 11 18 1 S 316 300 21 3 4 I i S I 3 32 3m U7,3 3368s 3 N 3 18 3 YER 302 4u 30w is, AIE 08 IWiD W ~ Y I. g02 o ~ 1 B4 612 W8 is" 32.1 1 241 la 4 43" 0 Im I0:" is" In 4 280 ¶ 34 2123 3 11111 21 48 21 37 22 2 I m I I*01 1 - _ __ _ WMY S02I SO2PINO. NO IPaATiE TOIP I WI W016 FE"I32 S~38 0 IRaA'MVI T1B4P WM 000 I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~WI360TY m3c1Tk spErD "W-____ iorry I3IRECTIC SPOED im 75 Ws~ I Ion~ 128r I 323I 1 23 213364 43 323 22 ,Su 2~~30 22 3812 18 103 i 19" 46 372 la" 10~~~~~~~~~~~~~86 304 27 I 4 I2 407 3 1 I3880 7 238 I0 01 2 6 3 4 ,10) I 32 e3I6413 2 I I 11200_ __ __ _ _ _ 128 Appendix 1 JAJLY AUL2tT YEAR 502 SPtt NO. h%C1 REATIVE t?P I WPD W13 YER 502 5M 68, It It t ATVEIr TEPI WM I W| _ _tD TY 1 t6EUcf SPEED - MVIY! D1RECT1Cp SPEED 611 11 13 I 6 I C 16A4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 6~~~~~~~~~~~a 61 11 _ _ - 1612 1 1 6 ila I in It 604 tI I II z IU1 120 C 1 6S 1 1U2 ItUt 21 f Sll I" 4 _ 1 4 C u .U7 " 1|1 tl7 198 2 tt X I 21 I6 1 = : 2 Is a M IInIIa1I I '901 '6*I 6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1" 114 I _ - I IE ID E IN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: SEPYDiBER OCT~~~~~~~~OBER |m NO- WC RaM 1 TMP im WM YEAR | I0 SPM N I MO | PtRELATNEI TEltP I W Wn | Pt2 I I |DffITYI _ DlREcJ YEED ____ I L n ____Drry DIRECTI14 SPWED 1676 76 on44 Im Io asI61 616o I 60o 17 'SU6 an 1 "I l g l31 Io 10l 1 I IV o2tsi 22 161 1O" 66t l72 jl It * SIW 6 I "I low t 2I1 1 6 i t1 141 20 I:: I 1 1 I7 Ul wi 57 I" 1 :1 I: 0 67 17 1.i '1 iS 'IX t 1 .I 5 63 .0 I I | | I I ! III IS II I664I I I I I0 614 61 613 22 6 44 264 5 6 4no0 6 2II 6666~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,o 114111 _ _ _ _ ~~~ I MORS~~EiTE1wIw?c1wNsojwo 6:140 8 205 la640 204 4 111 is.6 31 6146 6 21 I4 66831 73 ~~~345 1 IM 60 207 C 2031 6644" 7 361 41 614 47 436 48 66 I"17 21 27 142 647 2033 4 I101 6491 I64 7I 4 4 V"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~64 I2000' URBAIR-Bombay 129 AMENT AJR OULIA Y IN BOElAY t,m zw w STATION - BUANDP (A14) YI I S 2 Sd NO #60 RAITIVE TDAP |,WY WO YEAR S02 SPi NO I6 R BATVEA T9E P I WIND WND I I LI4IoYD DI n SPEED _uomrry DIREcnT1 SPEED I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ WS m Ism II lls 11 00 iwSil l lI loolI I ._ INS IM~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:0 1M71~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~W '2 - 12 m9 D7,;2= Z IN'o Im~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 1gg1,I Y$A S2 11 N ~ 6 EAN jTJ ~ WtDYA 02 5M IO 6 EANJT.P IWD Wl INO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~n 2IN __ IN21 IlM 1N4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N 1gM~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M 130 Appendix 1 JJLY LAJOST YR |02 SPU NO IMO RELATVE TP I WN WM YEAR S02 | mo. NO RELATvE T VE i I WND I IDnY DIREICj SPEED I_____I b PS-RnC SPEED I lol" IM |52 SF O BT loTP|WN|WN |50|S |DRLVETP|WD|WD Is" IM ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I. im ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IN' "No 11*1 YEA S02 SPMd NO. N MO REIJ.TrlE TD.P IWHO Wpm WMA $02 S PM NO. MO0 I RELAWEIV TElA I WND WND jM.EIorIy DIREMiaIO SPED ___tD_r_ DiRecTh SPEED IWO IirI II l.a ins l9M tA3 190 N7 NOVEM$ER DECEAER YEAR I $02 $PU NO O RELATIVEI TE)IP IWHO WMn YEA S02 I~ jP 140~ NO JRELATTV$ TDAP WHO) WHO I j ___ LSoTIy DIRECTtr4 SPGD I tt.UAVIy DIRECItON SPEED 1979 Is" I-~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* 'us. 19W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* 19051~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1" lo"i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E URBAIR-Bombay 131 AMII0ENT AR OUkALffY IN 80OM1AY STATION - MULLUND (Al S) AgMMfrf FEBMRYA YW SW sm WC~~*0 RELATIVE TWlp. mI Wm *0015 NO. M id W% 11UPIWm I m lni "I 31 1 1 143~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~S in1 I 108* 1 1 21 * I' 47 S 2 I ~~~~~~~A NI., 2 6 :a logs1 7 i" 5 11 1 8 on 3I2 7 8 m 4 u M 8 ,W I542 II10 3 27 3 I9N I" 1110 11W-7T 7 1*11 *5 24* SI 1*01~~~~~~~~~~:$ I 52 II I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o I U SI Si I 17j IA~~~~2 k"PICH APFUL~~~~~~~~~~~~~75 5 10*4 21 SI~~~~~~~~~~mowy DRCnWSEMHMDrY 0RCnNSE 1*45 11 245 20 :96 47O 321 II 15 11142 ~242 is I: 2' 1 20 I$" II 245 I 1s" 1S4 271 I 1 Is 20 31 50 !1"3 I 62 I is I4 30 6 3 20 47 1*0 is 31*0noI129 2 I I111 I OU im~~~~1 ______ ______ l&*a~~~HMDFrY SPW-IMo DIRECnoN SPEEDEO" I_Cl0 *5 'I I W 7 1*1 175, IlU2 I 4 DuE 5213 20 a* so"4 I", 0 I1 I2 to"2 1: 2 Im IS IS 1** 4k20 I 4is" 2 105 12I 1* II 1 2 1I I I 2 O F F 1*00 7 ISO 10 41 10*" U0 2*0 2'I 0II I0 0 I2 24 201 1000 182 123 'o IN 14 lOOTl _____-_ ___ 2 _ _____~~~~i 1017 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1*0I M 132 Appendix I JULY ALKILIT VW SW I SPU NO, N0 RElATIV TMP I Woo WM VWA S02 SDM NM2 M I NMP1T4EI TBAP WM W J I~~~~~~~~~woJIOy DIRECI1F SPEED ____. IRC SPrED IonIr 132~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14 I", 11 :1 1*f I3 I Im 1: to S IL I16 Is I I 21 lo1 0 1 1: A 12 O S I ~~~~~~15I SEPTRE84E =OCTER YEIR S02 | SP4 NO. j -0 N RELATIVE TMP WP| I O WND YEAR S02 SPM I NMO NO0 REIATIVEJ TE4P WN0 WMO I82l j MO r __ IVRECT#IC SPEED __ .04FY PRECTI SPED i971 4A 1 0. I 7971 I lerI 124 4 21 154 II l1 12! 11 0 l Il 10 104 21X lUi7 *14 l" I| 1084l " 21 225 I ' iLI !. I I Ii I71 1t 1t I0 I I3 I |20 2 2084 i 10 tO _ 184l It ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I~~~~~l" 5 in4 is 2 I 30 2_ I 1 17- I 001 "P|S I2 10| 1003 11 23 I M 100 5j II I S I NOVEMBER DEc.eRa YEAR S02 WMR KIO Mo I REATWE TBAP I l WHVOOYAR 1012 SP"I NO, MO RELATIVE{ TRAP WM wonjWO 122 210 24 :110 29 30 ,14I 041~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~ I1 Su l -9 2W 24 ISM 49 3tQ~~~~~~ 21 10 101 35 34 1 24 I 50 374 3 I87 321 0O 1184 2224 3 ~41 1I6 A l1t de 311 41 4 I0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10 19031 18 URBAIR-Bombay 133 A&tBENT AIR OUALtY IN BO&eAY Ul a STA710N SORAU (A16) -QJAY FERUARY YFAR s00 SPU I M ATI41 1PI V| 0I WM YE 2 SRSW M. NO | RA1I VE P IWPM I WN I07 Iory DiTY! WRE spmO wu Dnif DRE=CnO SPEEO 197 21 _ _ 1 7 1 *uo 1 271 21 l ow 7 is2r 230 21101 8 2 20 'I -~17 SI Im 3 10 I Ism 10 1 32 low 2 Z la" .i 2 1 is" ii 31 37 1011 20 39 C3 199 7 35 40 IM I1 .. ====34 WEAR SD22 SPIA 1 MC RAIV lWP8 WN I W"DRI502 WII SP U I SOS I N MO R2AIMVEI TRP | WOOD WOO I I 88.UIOTY - IRC SPED I I__ I__ I__ M.UTYI D:RECflE SPED I 0771' 18. 2C 1IIZ J 1.701 £ --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~91It II IE IS I8 1; I 10 3 2 ' 1 *I ; M 1 13 1I 4 IS 13 s7 2S I3 1 I I It; 41 ,,9~~~1 ',2521 8 '13;$ I 4 I 29 I !4 I8 I0 10801~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~01 11001 514 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I18141 I j ____ ____~~~~AAC AP- _L _ _ _1 _ _ _22 - _ _I__ _ , I _ 134 Appendix 1 AMENT AIR OUAJIrY INOY LNE nOvOmY STATION -lLAXNAGAR(A17) 1978. _ _ _ I 4%lAAY _ -B_U_ Y60~~~~~~~~~O I S0NtM PLELATYVE T P I WMt WM YfiS 302 SPM N(h Ip M IRLTIVE TNUP |WD | WM i iZlt7Y IDtEPK SPrED MIADrrY DtIOFtne SPrED 1 2 571 OZ 74 a s 2 4 Z 7S n so 40 U n 3 II SI 43 350 .1 Affi Su a I _ . _ . . . I ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~I_ _ _ Im s7 I" I I I= 13 356 36I 18*313 3 iE|II K _-, , I | II 1'9''1AR1 AP 0 I I 7 I 11I I IU7 37 SW I2 I 7 22 O 1}94|"~~~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ a1 l l 1i §g Su1 71 2 7 *1 2 I83 434I 24 3 18*4~~~~~~~~~ 34* I IA~~~~~~~~~~~~10 IN5 Is"3 118* SI 42 4* 1 I I 314*2 11871 II 5~42* 43 IINt 37 38* I7 m 3e32 45 a 41 22 3 18*0 295 54 18*0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m 25 30 6 I 1914 18*14 293 4 6 I ~~~~~~3 4 .Is 1982 ,IAN :Ns MAY JOE0 l878~~~~~~ 32 3111 2*1 I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1:79j 321 S 18*1 1 ~ 2 2 ei 23 1 I 79 2 IA1 220 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~183 0 132 36 13=1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 :~~~~ !~ ~~" S 0 18* 131 184* U 1 URBAIR-Bombay 135 JULY AU5T _ ___ AMY____ _ _.P0* YE,-R S 02 | SPU tV NPO RELATtVE TELtP |WPM1 WMN YE,1R1 I 0 S Ptt I SNWl NO| 1 ROATIVE TBAP I WMN I WN17 i I _ N~~~~~~~~~WootD DIREICI SPED WLMOT | t21g1 RECntCiN spemD 1n73 4 20 v 1073 2 IN 10 l2~~~~ I. 14 1n 201 1 1 1 02 7 121 3 31 Its o Itt tl I I"1 1 10 I 1tll2 27 *03 1 I IS I 1314j 1 :1A7 1I Itb3 : 12i Z 13051 1 III I 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~is 20I 21 1141.l 170 67 11 206 I 1 Z 0 S 10 I7 17 143 t 1 11 171 1 I 13 7 51 2 is I It13 Itl I is 1314 333 I ~~~~~~~~~~~~I. SEP72t04R OCTOBER YEAR |S502 | SV TOs | NS3tP | WND | WtND YEA S02 | SPtt |OX REL t | ATIVE TBEP | Wi WN _______ IH.LEUAOTIy DIREC.J SPrED "wrD> RON SPD| 197lI 25 173 121 1: ll70 30 1fi 21 I137 2 Z4 127tI 4* 214 190 55 134 '1 l lR $1 200 2 1"11 20 11 11 31 40 213 3 .E2 20 13, 30| 1 31 270 7 IN3 2 is2 1t t 20 32 ,1301M 27 01 is" 1 206 0 I 01 Si I 2 _0 0 21 5 44_ _ 11 r I t l 20w 221 r24 r01 17 a 40 1r1 3to1 13I 48 5 I | 2 | 3 'No ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~19000 i9o. aM4 3000 2031 NO1VEMBER DEC44ER YE&q S2 SPU NO. ~ EAETM IN MS2 SI O NIOIIEJLTIVEDPW P NLRArry IRECTIO SPEED DIR_nN_ SEE 3573 24 11 137 Ii t ; : 2 1000 tIl 306 20 am 1311 04 1~ 1311 01 213 j tbl lZ 3K1 xI l l I | IU 42471 4 l l l I300 SI 430 00 119 004 32 o l Ia o o * 27 'mI 4s74 521 j 3 3 1 42 1 5I I I* 2 es lo" _ _ _ lo" _ _ 47 .4_ =_ 136 Appendix 1 MUw4T AIR CtJMJTY H 4B4Y m ,-w,y STATtc4 - CHEUAUR NA (AIB8) R418FY FiURY YEAR S02 SPR NO. P80 RELATIVE TRAP Wm vow YEAR S02 SnM NO. N8o PnATWE Te P WmO Wt4D 1081 I I | 8 IiJI8...c sPC Y 4D - I --I Dl -m - 'I8 71 1 n3 l88l1 42 274 32 'Ml 92 47 3 188 S2 2SS 11Z2 71 72 A 1883, 71 3* I 51 3 I5 'W- _ V 2281 188 4 a Ud U ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IM 4 SI" 7 4I 2u s 38* 1NS I35 YEARASD2 SPU N:0X sbo IaAMVE TBIP W IbSNDYE^R S 2 SFI4 401 IW IIE>XIVE TDP WSD1W8 "a| 23 34 as Ir 29 SU 83 78 1901 1.8 1r 22 I 1 2 Id ,M I. 5_ _I I n 2. I5 10116 IS MARCH APWUL YEAR 502 SI"' No, Ma RELATIVE TBAP 89ND WND187 YEVR S02 SPU NO. Ma RELATIVE TBAP WND WHm I= 3 Is" nl I 1 it s 11l711 __ j90 -Z - - - __ _ l1 DIRECI1ISPRED l l l l Iuo ,0 On 37 Io I 'd s I I I I .,81 $I 28 *9, 1841 I1 241 23 188 48Lf 52 2F1 31 l9 1 S1 18 112 8IU2 27 22. 0 l 1 171 21 1881 38 2*1 71 SI 21 _"21 188 33 26i 4 06 IleII 199 i 32a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~188 12 358 I311 ; 3 29 on 3 32 AS 254 lost 18 37* 8* 18 22 282 47 8* IICI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i 1885 Is 18841 1lST, 1188 MAY I YEAR 502 384 No. Ma RELATIVTE) vim8 949 91 YEAR SO S 2M NC PMa RELTIVE T9AP WHO WHO 19751 ULad~~~~~~~~~HoITY DIRECTIC8J Spew 1871'8 IoREcn SEE 1871, *1 I 179 13 1 1882 4 71I 2 1883' 24 1808la3MI 3* 121 58 19*31 I ?II 188 3 1 I 2 1 5m I200 3 11 :" 4l 151 3* 71 low ~~24* 128S" I OA :si 93 24 1887 1 2 4 18*4, is 2 4911 1507 5141 1883 9I23 297 1 4 I m. I _ _I _I_Owj, URBAIR-Bombay 137 _ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~JAY M _ - VWAR S02 SPWJ 1x0 P&G REULATE TWP WIND Wvim YER s02 SPM Po F* REUATVE TEP Wvi WND @7s1 1 1 | |DnfI UIRECnCO SPfED 1IaMvfl WIESCT0IO SPED 1z71 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ___ - -4 - - ____ 2 _____ 1 1 4 1 1 O : 2 I 1 1001 0 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1101 II~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 401 1 1U Is 113 ton 11 1 I 2i 11 SI 31 1 5 13 31! 51 I 1C 21 a I1 2 -n " 2 III Ill I I22 24 IIN7 III I9 177 _ I :1 54- I | I ton D r 2I I |I I D 197I 2 20, 11 I I liO! _221 2I2I 71 Is" 1000~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 I^0 ,2 III: : : 2 I9| I 2 9 1s e 2 ,, 711W2. 100 .I *9 '#3 I ' 21I I1 . 11 0 11 I9 5 2 1 32 &1 " SSPTB4BER OC?0BER YEAR S02 5004 N1O. NM 03.AT7VE OAiP WPO W m14 YEAR 52 5Pm N02 N*0 IELATm'S T33.P 1014D wpm 1,7j 4 ~~~~~0, luerly - DIRWTIO14* SPED ~ U~lYu DISSCTION SPED 11 53 1II 1 im 21I 1001 52 102 St I lul l 2 271 I I0~ lOl 51 Z,91 ,91 1 1 1 1 29 124 24 I 117 41 t*w II " 7 1002s 3i I17" 31 15 32 I 22 '.U5 27 4 1 21 1 | SW I 103 531 l I Id I54 1000 1 152 a l 2 250 40! 133 1032 0 I 4 12_ II a' 02 iouR 50 SPIA 3iX ,a REIV 59l WN44 0 P 10 RITV N N ,71 25 3A 3 91 l l3 1:7 AS 20 51 1 | 1.401 1 9 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 001~ X # 1.20I I," I I YEAR S02 50P.A NO. NM0 RELATIVE T9.4P Wmd vim YEAR So2 NOj .3 NMo RELATIVE T9.lP WIND WEDs 10711 21 1 ._ -" 194 54 I I 0 IDI I 1'751 42I 00 Bi -ol I I I I I I q 411 3I I00 I - I_ 1000 2 t Z Al w 71 04 218 19. 71 I 4 2 1001 43 IO 244 1 I 1"1 21 32 11121 7 21 4 I 10 O II I 5 1 I 2 St I. I 2 42! I03 soj 031 2 I - ! I 4 2! 1"A ' . I 1851 37 361 33 0I ION 3 4311 3 1 04 I 200 124 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~S 40 40 to lus 43 201 55 IS 37 340171 I000 7030 1 85,9 2 53 so 0? 1001 138 Appendix 1 AMENT AIR OUAUY IN B0&eAY L m 3 STATION - AMIV4AR (s) Y| 502 SP W.o MG I .EAT1 T 9P | WETP WIW YiSR 502 5I 4 MO I RNM RLATV TDJP TE|AP WND I W IDtVlY _____ E SPED _mDI3ty DIRECT1CN SPED 11 de 1 2_ 1 O I1 237 187 47 1%al 12 1wo 15 Is 29 21 1041 15 160 I 11 58 3w 20 IN 4 Is is 114 2 171 II IOM 25 1 1 21 4 INS I S2 st 152 1t 2 tn 55 I111 27 Dl so 3I i1 X 22 42 Ise 1181 32 S 2 1967 22 318 58 Yl Is" .7 _6 as _ - s 2 , I _ _ _ I -- ,I I I 1902 1, I911 :888 100 YEAR |I502N|SSP | NOs j 00 PTIVE T94P | WPID | R 502 SP 1 0|N RBAI1VE| 1|N | 0 l ! | ____ 18.DII1Y 4 EU kSE l l In I IET SPED 1'No in 1880 2710zql l 1 17q 4 7) ° 19n7 30 U 1l l I ., 1l low1 184 I 20 0 0 11 11841 2831 24 I XH22 *2 0 1 I I 1185 1 -8 1 R 118 _ 1 _8 2 I _8 I| I7 I _ _ ! 8 I3 IO I| I I I ! I 17794 I 41 18* 1980 20 20 11 W5 1 118t 1881 i"1.1 1 l"1 IS 254 2I 1805 IM G 228054 I 10 1 41 837 24 291 IS5 40 *S 2 1 1I I 50 027S 3321 2.1 01 2I I I037 I20 I 4 1 72 4 231 Td I I I I I stmw y *1S o 2021 r 274 1 1 11 *121 1 1241 *ul 23 221 low *31 | I I I I . 24 *9a 321 1 II ' t: i 1 1 I i I I .# 201 *r 21 1801 18791 41 20 187 |5| | l i l l ! 080l7 1 0]1 1 : 1 l8 108 14 I !8 IS I 08 , } 1994 is"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 I l~~~~i 1-~~~~~i VEM 02 S NO. POO SATM '11P.1WM80M2 SPM PO. to211W TAP WN P I I AS if t low___ ___ __ 133 _ __ __ 29__ __ _ _ _ 1 1.......... 17___ _ __ URBAIR-Bombay 13)9 JLILY ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AL2KST YVFAR 502 SP' MC. N0M IRMA.AT TSAP I W01.8 Y0.8AR 002 muS Po. I 4 NM 1V TA I m IW 1979f 19~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l" 2 211 I I i 1itu 3 its 1 "I I I 12 I3 7 2042 14 4~~ ~~ 1042 I 1044 121 1044I 2* III 2 I"A 11 I II I I7 7 Is"I Is I$ 5 2 157 lo 7I3 Z I 2 42 2 IN ¶902 1041 _ _ _ __ A_ - _______w292mORCTO P0 LA ICIPINOj RITV "aR SO 94 90 0 RA::229IWES 01390IIP IWl 00 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I S flaS E I 245 12,27, " I97 32 230 1043 19 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m 3 11 1 104 4 1* I IOU44 1 IN 2¶ 121 9 IN I * II 17 190 32 10 Is" 172 2 217 's" 28 47 so~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~33 4 '900 ~ ~ ~ ~ 100901DS40 YEAR 9O 42 DRClJS02 O *- _ 2111 2001 11994 25 22~~~~~13 197 202i,3 29 2i 290 30j723 1, 12 209 5- 1 2 1279 2* 141 2* -2 4* "I, 12 1I 45 104 2 32 134 22~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U I I p25 21 _ A Ns 1 5 29072 31I 0 3 3 Z 41 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _3_1S _ _ _ _ _ 2__ _3 -go 140 Appendix 1 ANNEX m MONTHLY AVERAGE SO2, NOX AND TSP AT MCGB AN" GEMS (NEERI) STATIONS, FOR THE URBAIR PERIOD JUNE 1992-MAY 1993 URBAIR-Bombay 141 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - COLABA MONTORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 400 - 300 - 200 3 100 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx s SPM AU values In micz.ra/cum. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - WORLI NAKA MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 500 100 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 SOZ NOx 3 SPM AU values La Ucrogram/cu-m. 142 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUAIITY DATA - PAREL MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.GJC. Conean. in (ug/m3) 400- 300 200 10 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOX SPM AU "Ine In Mk ogam/eum AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - PAREL MONITORING AGENCY: NEERI (CEt%S) Conen. in (ug/m3) 500- 300- - - --_ _ 200 - 100 -- __ _-- __ _ JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB M;AR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOZ SPM &U wanes in bUcrogram/cun.. URBAIR-Bombay 143 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - DADAR MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.C.8. Conen. Ln (ug/m3) 400 - 300 - 200- 0o I ; I ihL _ I JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 292 93 SOZ NOx = SPM AU nhues In 10crogram/cu AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - SEWREE MONtTORING AGENCY: K.C.G.B. Conon. in (ug/m3) 500 - 400 300 200 -. 300 - _ - 0- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MAR APR MAY 92 I 93 S02 NOX M SPM AU vaiue ln )Ucrogra/c jlm. 144 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA- SION MONITORING AGENCY: I.C.G.D. Conen. an (ug/m3) 500 400 - 300 200t JUN DEC FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 2 S02 NOx m SPM AUl values In Wlc,r&M/eu.m. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - ANDHERI MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. am (ug/m3) 400 - 300 - 200 - 100 20 I i _ I I JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 SOL' NOx SPM AU vaues In l(crogram/cm m. URBAIR-Bombay 145 AMBIENT AIR QUALIMY DATA - SAMI NAKA MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 500 400 -_ 300 200 100 - - 0 . . . . . . . . JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 a SOz NOx SPM *11 y1. to iaerolrrcam/uu. AMBIENT AER QUALITY DATA - JOGESHWARI MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. In (ug/m3) 500 300 200 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MAR APR BLAY 92 I 93 SOZ NOx 1 SPM AU vaues in Mlerogram/cum. 146 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - GHATKOPAR MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 500 400 - 300 20 0 - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 00*- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 92 S02 NOx E SPM LU alues in MlXactgrm/cum AMBIENT AIR QUAIITY DATA - BHANDUP M[ONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. m (ug/m3) 500 400 300 200 0 JUN JUL AUG SEP NOV DEC JAN 9 92 93 SOZ NOx SPM AU values in XLlrotram/cm w. URBAIR-Bombay 147 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - MULUND IKONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 500 -. 400 - _---- - _ __._____ ___ 300 -- - - - 300 - -______ __ _-- l _ _ _ 200 ; 100 - JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 1 93 S02 NOX 12 SPM AU vlues in Microgram/c'Lm. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - BORIVALI MONITORING AGENCY: 1.C.G.8. Conon. in (ug/m3) 500- 400 --__- _ . -_ __ 300 200 100 JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx SPM AU values en MIcrroram/ec.m. 148 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - CHEMBUR NAKA MONITORrNG AGENCY: I.C.G.B. Conen. In (ug/m3) 500 - 400 - 300 200 _ JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC FEB MAR APR MAY 92 93 S02 NOx S SPM Au vanes in lIceogram/w. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - MARAVALI MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Concu. in (ug/m3) 400- 400 --- 300 ------------------____ -- -D - 200- 100j - -- JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC FEB MAR APR MAY 92 I 93 S02 NOx SPM A Uralues il Mcrogram/cn- . URBAIR-Bo mbay 149 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - ANIKNAGAR MONITORING AGENCY.- M.C.G.B. Conen. in (ug/m3) 500 - 400 300- - _ 200 - 100 - JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MAR APR MAY 92 I 93 S02 NOx m SPM AU values In arogram/c.m. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - MAHUL MONITORING AGENCY: M.C.G.B. Conen. La (ug/m3) 500 - 400 - --- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 300 _ _ ___ _ _ __ -____ 3200 . _____-_______ __ ___ ____.___ 200---- -- -- _i 100 _ __ _____ _ AUG SEP OCT MAY 1 92 I 93 S02 NOX SPM 150 Appendix 1 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - BANDRA MONITORING AGENCY: NEERI Conen. in (ug/m3) 400 300- __ ____- 200 -- 0 I JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN 1 92 93 S02 N02 m SPM AU vnues La Incrogran/cum. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY DATA - KALBADEVI MONITORING AGENCY: NEEM! ConCD. In (ug/m3) 400 300 . ___________ r--- 200 - - --- - JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY 92 I 93 S02 N02 SPM AU values In Wlcrogr.mj/cum. APPENDIX 2 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES 151 152 Appendix 2 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES National Ambient Air Quality Standards in India These were established in 1994, and are given in Table I below. The Indian Standards differentiate between Industrial, Residential and Sensitive areas Bombay is considered an Industrial area The Indian Standards for industrial areas are less restrictive than the WHO guidelines (see below) for S02 annual average, and especially for TSP and PMIo (the WHO recommended guideline for PMIo is 70 gg/m3, as 24 hour average) For NO2, the Indian standards are stricter than WHO WHO Air Quality Guidelines and Standards. WHO air quality guidelines and standards are listed in Table 2. Table 1: National Ambient Air Qualit Standards. Concentration in ambient air Pollutants Time weighted Industrial Residential, Sensitive of Method of measurements average area Rural and Area other areas Sulfur Dioxide S02 Annual average* 80 pg/m3 60 pg/m3 15 pg/m3 1. improved West and 24 hours** Geake method 120 pg/m3 80 pg/m3 30 pg/m3 2. Ultraviolet fluorescence Oxides of Nitrogen as Annual average* 80 pg/m3 60 pg/m3 15 pg/m3 1 Jacob & Hochheiser N02 modified (Na-Arsenite) Method 24 hours* 120 pg/m3 80 pg/m3 30 pg/m3 2 Gas Phase Chemiluminescence Suspended Particulate Annual average* 360 pg/m3 140 pg/m3 70 pg/m3 High Volume sampling, Matter (SPM) 24 hours"* 500 pg/m3 200 pg/mr 100 pg/rm3 (Average flow rate not less than 1 1 m3/minute) Respirable matter (size Annual average* 120 pg/m3 60 pg/rm3 50 pg/m3 Respirable particulate less than 10 pm) (PMio) 24 hours** 150 pg/m3 100 pg/m3 75 pg/m3 matter sampler Lead (Pb) Annual average* 1 0 pg/m3 0 75 pg/m3 0 50 pg/m3 ASS method after sampling 24 hours`* 1 5 pg/m3 1 00 pg/m3 0 75 pg/m3 using PM 2000 or equivalent Filter paper Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8 hours- 5 0 mg/m3 2 0 mg/m3 1 0 mg/m3 Non dispersive infrared 1 hour 10 0 mg/m3 4 0 mg/m3 2 0 mg/m3 spectroscopy * Annual Anthmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval ** 24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98 percent of the time in a year However, 2 percent of the time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days NOTE 1 National Ambient Air Quality Standard The levels of air quality with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health, vegetation and property 2 When every and whenever two consecutive values exceed the limit specified above for the respective category, it would be considered adequate reason to institute regular/continuous monitonng and further investigations 3 The State Govemment/State Board shall notify the sensitive and other areas in the respective states within a penod of six months from the date of Notification of National Ambient Standards URBAIR-Bombay 153 Table 2: WHO Air Quality Guidelines/Standards (WHO, 1977a, 1977b, 1978, 1979, 1987) Parameter 10 15 30 1 hour 8 hours 24 hours 1 year Year of minutes minutes minutes standard S02 4gIm3 500 350 125a Soa 1987 S°2 Ag/m3 100-150 40-60 1979 BS pLg/m3 125a 50a 1987 BSb 4.g/m3 100-150 40-60 1979 TSP ig/mm3 12a 1987 TSP 1tg/m3 150-230 60-90 1979 PM1o .Lg/m3 70a 1987 Lead ug/1m3 0 5-1 1987,1977b CO mg/M3 100 60 30 10 1987 NO2 4g/m3 400 150 1987 NO2 ug/m3 190-320C 1977b 03 4g/m3 150-200 100-120 1987 03 4g/m3 100-200 1978 Notes (WHO/UNEP 1992) a Guideline values for combined exposure to sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter (they may not apply to situations where only one of the components is present). b Application of the black smoke value is recommended only in areas where coal smoke from domestic fires is the dominant component of the partculates It does not necessarly apply where diesel smoke is an important contnbutor c Not to be exceeded more than once per month Suspended particulate matter measurement methods (WHO/UNEP 1992) BS = Black smoke, a concentration of a standard smoke with an equivalent reflectance reduction to that of the atmosphenc particles as collected on a filter paper TSP = Total suspended particulate matter; the mass of collected particulate matter by gravimetnc analysis divided by total volume sampled PM,o = Particulate matter less than 10 ,um in aerodynamic diameter, the mass of particulate matter collected by a sampler having an inlet with 50 per cent penetration at 10 .Lm aerodynamic diameter determined gravimetncally divided by the total volume sampled TP = Thoracic particles (as PMio) IP = Inhalable particles (as PM1o) APPENDIX 3 AIR POLLUTION LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR INDIA AND BOMBAY CONTENTS 1. Legal aspects of pollution control - operational requirements. A note prepared by Mr. U. Joglekar, ADITYA, Bombay 2. Mass emission standards for motor vehicles, effective from 1.4.1995 3. Fuel specifications for India 154 155 URBAIR-Bombay LEGAL ASPECTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL - OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS The Govt. of India has promulgated 3 important Acts in the field of pollution control. These are:- i. The Water Pollution (Prevention & Control) Act, 1974 ii. The Air Pollution (Prevention & Control) Act, 1981 iii. The Environment Protection Act, 1986 According to these Acts, industry-specific discharge/emission standards called MINAS (Minimum National Standards) have been prescribed. A few general standards as applicable to SSI units for air pollution are given in Annexure. All industries including SSI units are to comply with these standards and meet other stipulations laid down in these Acts. The responsibility of enforcing the provisions of these Acts rests with the Central/State Pollution Control Boards. Depending on the location of unit, the concerned State Boards expect that the units in their jurisdiction will obtain their permission to discharge the pollutants, or their 'CONSENT.' The legal position, is that all the existing units are to obtain the CONSENT. of their respective Boards. New units, even before they start putting up the industry, have to obtain a NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the Board. In fact, now,financial institutions and banks, too, demand production of NOCs before disbursement of loans. even though the loans may have been sanctioned on the basis of the techno-economic feasibility of the project. In order to obtain the NOC from a Pollution Control Board (PCB), an application is to be made with a complete project-report, including the proposed measures of controlling pollution. Since, pollution control is sitespecific, the PCBs also have to be apprised of the proposed project site and, sometimes, depending on the need. the Board may even ask for EIA (Environment Impact Assesment) reports for site.clearance. The Boards, because of fragile environmental condition. have declared some regions as sensitive. New industries, specially 156 Appendix 3 pollution-intensive types, may not be allowed in sensitive areas or may be prescribed much stricter standards. Proximity to protected monuments, national wild life parks or sanctuaries could also be the reasons for industries to obtain a prior site-clearance. Non-compliance with the legal stipulation invites prosecution with fines and penalties and even imprisonment. Under EPA 86 the PCBs are even empowered to order closure of an unit if they believe it to be in public interest. Without going to the court of law, they can implement closure decisions by appraoching the authorities concerned directly to cut power and water supply to the violating units. URiBAIR-Bombay 157 SALIENT FEATURES OF POLLUTION RELATED ACTS rhe Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, given assent by the President of India on March 29, 1981. The Act has the following chapters: Title of chapter 1. Preliminary 11. Central and State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution ill. Powers and functions of Boards lv. Prevention and Control of Air Pollution v. Fund, Accounts and Audit vi. Penalties and procedure vil. Miscellaneous Salient Features Preliminary Application': 'Thi's Act id: a lb'd'ai4i0 tih 1hdi bt'tndia. Central and State Boards for the prev'entlbn''and C6ontrol of Air Pollution Constitution of State Board: a. The State Government will appoint a Chairman, member represent- ing institutions, industries, government departments and social bod- ies etc. and a member secretary as executive head. b. In union territory Central Board is to act as State Boards. c. The Board may appoint officers and other employees as it may fit for efficient functioning of the Board. Powers and Functions of Boards Functions of Centtal Board The Central Board may a. Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air and the prevention and control of abatement of air pollution, b. plan the nation wide programrrim for air pollution abatement, 158 Appendix 3 c. co-ordinate the activities of State Boards, d. provide guidance and technical assistance to the State Boards, e. plan and organise training of persons engaged in air pollution abatement programmes, f. organise through media abatement plans. g. collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution, h. lay down standards for the quality or air, e. to establish and recognise a laboratory to enable it to perform its function under this Act. Functions of State Boards The functions of State Board shall be a. to plan comprehensive programmes for air pollution abatement, b. to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the air pollution abatement, C. to collaborate with Central Board, d. to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution, e. to inspect industrial plants at intervals as it may considers necessary and to give directions to related persons for air pollution abatement, f. to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board standards for the quality of air, standard for emissions of air pollutants into the atmosphere for industrial plants, automobiles and other sources excluding ships and air crafts, g. to establish or recognise a laboratory/laboratories to enable it to performs it functions efficiently. Powers to give directions: a. Central Board shall be bound by written direction issued by Central Government b. and State Board shall be bound by written direction issued by Central Board or the State Government. Prevention and control of Air Pollution Power to declare air pollution Control Areas The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board by official Gazette notification declare; a. any area or areas within the State as "Air pollution control Area or Areas" for the purposes of th#s act. b. alter any air pollution control area. URBAIR-Bombay 159 c. prohibition of usage of any fuel other than the approved fuel in air pollution control area, d. prohibition of burning of any material (other than fuel) in any air pollution control area or part of it. Restriction or use of certain indusrial plants: a. No person shall without the prior consent of the State Board, operate any Industrial plant for the purpose of any industry specified in the schedule in an air pollutions control area. b. An application for the consent of the Board shall be accompanied by prescribed fee and shall be made in the prescribed form and shall contain the particulars of the industrial plant and other prescribed particulars. c. The State Board may make such inquiries at it may deem fit in respect of the application for consent and shall follow the prescribed proce- dures. d. Within a period of 4 months after the receipt of consent application the State Board shall by order in writing either grant or refuse it, for reasons recorded In the order. e. Every person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board shall comply with the following conditions: 1. The prescribed control systems shall be installed and operated in existing/proposed industry. ii. The existing control equipments if any shall be altered/replaced in accordance with the directions of State Board. iii. The control system a,s per clause (i) or (ii) will be kept under good conditions. lv. Chimney wherever necessary of prescribed specifications, shall be erected or reerected in the premises. v. And the condition prescribed from (i) or (iv) complete within the prescribed period. f. It due to technological improvement, State Board may alter as a whole or part, of the conditions mentioned above. h. In case of the transfer of the unit from of person to the other person the consent will deemed to be transferred with conditions. Persons carrying on industry etc. not to allow emission of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by State Board No person carrying on any industry specified in the schedule or industria' plants in any air pollution control area shall discharge or cause or permit to be discharged, the emission of any air pollutants in excess of the standard laid down by the State Board. 160 Appendix 3 Power of entry and inspection Any person empowered by a State Board shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with necessary assistance, any place, a. for the purpose of performing any of the function entrusted to him, b. for the purpose of examination of control system, Inspection of related documents, to conduct search and to check weather all directions/ instruction. issued time to time are being followed. c. all persons carrying on any industry specified In the schedule are bound to render all assistance to the persons empowered by the Board and delay or non co-operation shall be an offence under this Act. Power to obtain information The State Board or its empowered person may ask for any Information like the type of pollutants and the level of emission from the occupier or the person carrying on any industry and can inspect the premises/control equipment for varifying purposes. Power to take samples of air or emissions and procedure to be followed: The State goard or any officer empowered by it shall have power to take. for analysis purpose sample of air or emission from any chimney, flue, duct or any other outlet in prescribed manner. Report of the results of analysis of sample taken by Board Where a sample of emissions has been sent for analysis by Board to the laboratory established or recognised by the State Board the Board's analyst shall analyse the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form. State Air Laboratory State Government may, by official notification, establish or specify one or more laboratory or institutions as state laboratory. Analyst *The State Government may by official Gazette notification appoint Govern- ment Analyst. Report of Analysts The report of Government Analyst may be used as evidence in the court of the law. URBAIR-Bombay 161 Appeals Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board will in 30 days may appeal to an appropriate Appellate Authority. Fund, Accounts and Audit a. The Central Board and every State Board shall have its own fund funded by Central Government/State Government. b. The Central Board and every State Board shall prepare annual budget and annual report duly audited by competent authority. Penalties and Procedures Failure to comply with the orders or directions of the Board issued under the Act: a. Whoever fail to comply with the provisions mentioned above be punishable with imprisonment upto 3 months or fines upto Rs 10,000 or both and incase the failure continue, with an additional fine upto Rs 10/- day during which the failure continue after the conviction for the first such failure. b. If the failure continued beyond 1 year after the date of conviction the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment upto 6 months. Penalties for certain acts Who ever damage the Board's property fails, to furnished information asked for, obstruct any board's officer to perform his duty and makes false statement etc.. shall be punished imprisonment upto 3 months or fine upto Rs 500/- or both. Penalty for contravention of certain provisions of the Act For any contravention of any the provisions of the cat for which no penalty has been else where provided in this Act shall be punishable with fine upto Rs 5000/- and with continuation of contravention a fine Rs 100/day after conviction for first contravention. Offences by Companies and Government Departments Where an offence under this act has been committed by a company/ government department every person who was at that time directly incharge of the company/department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be prosecuted and punished accordingly unless he proves that the offence has been made without his knowledge. 162 Appendix 3 Miscelaneous a. State Central GovernmenlState Government may supersede t Central Board/State Board respectiveli. b. The Central Government may amend the schedule of InOustries URBAIR-Bombay 163 THE SCIIEDULE 1. Asbestos and asbestos product Industries 2. Cement and cement prQducts industries 3. Ceramic and ceramic ;o±-.ct industries 4. Chemical ahc all;ad jnps.:;as 5. Coal and lignite based chemical industries 6. Engineering Industries 7. Ferrous metallurgical industries 8. Fertilizer Industries 9. Foundries 10. Food and agricultural product industries 11. Mining industries 12. Nonferrous metallurgical industries 13. Ores/mineral processing industries includ- ing benefaction, pelletization etc. 14. Power (coal, petroleum and their products) generating plants and boiler plants 15. Paper and pulp (including paper products) industries 16. Textile processing industries (made wholly or in part of cotton) 17. Petroleum refineries 18. Petroleum products and petrochemical industries 19. Plants for recovery from and disposal of wastes 20. Incinerators 164 Appendix 3 t PCON IN = ~~~~~~~~~C\ =. (q2Tfwlv rsrw~~~~x zm 4-+wrTzf, l;rua RimTT) VA" CENTRAL POLLUTION CON'FIOL BOAItD tMINISTRy OF ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA) No.B-31012Q2/91/PCI-II/ Septcmber 17, 1992 DIRE CTIONS FROM TIIE CENTrRAL POLLUrION CONTROL BOARD UNDER CLAUSE (b) OF SUB-SECriON 1 OF SEC1ION 18 OF TIlE AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUrION) ACT, 1981 Whereas Clause (g) of Sub-section I of Scction 17 orthc Air (Prcvctntion ndl Colntrol (if Pollution) Act, 1981 provides for laying down stanldnrds by a Statc Pollutioni Conitrol Board Ill consultationwithCentral Pollution Control Board for cmiscion ofairrpollilanilc ililotilhe ailo;ljili c from indusirial plants and automobilcs. And whereas the mass emission standards for petrol and dicscl drivctn vchlicics na given in Anncxure I & 11 rcspcctively, have hecn evolved and proposed to bc madntc cifCctivc froLim Ist dInv of Apfil, 1995. As whereas it is furilter ptoposed to strive to attain tihe intdicative stand:ards by all thie pcirol and diesel driven vehicles as given in Annexure Ill & IV respectively for tile year 2000. Now, ilerefore, in exercise of the power vested witl thilie Central Polluiition Conltrol Board under Clause (b) of sub-section 1 of Section 18 of tile Air (Prevention annd Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, tile following directions are issued herewithl:- Fliae Sbic IPoilutioII Cottrol Board sizoll ensture tlhnt on nod fronlli tle I-St dav orApril 1995 ull petrol and deisOl tIriven vellicles slnall le so iii:uiiifaclti cd tktt they comply witih thle mass enmission stanidards as speciried In tihe Anstlexure I and 11 respectlvely given herein above; The Slnie Pollution Control Board sl;all also ensure to sutive to nittlin (lie In(dicative s:nisdintds by tihe lietrol no sd diesel drlveit velticis ror (lie 3 C:r- 20)00 as given in Annexure Ill anid IV respectivelvy. (A. BIlj,t'A'I'ACIAR.lYA) "Psl44T i BlT;1aw ;C..o umo zrnc 3 ComT- lex EsAin iNagar, t T I Di-1 900 2 'ParivesiBl ihawan' C.S.D.-curn-Office Complex, East Arjun Nagar. Delhi-110032 URBAIR-Bombay 165 Annexure-I A) MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR PETROL DRIVEN VEHICLES EFFECTIVE PROM 1.4.1995. TYPE APPROVAL TESTS i) Passenger cars Reference mass CO HC + NO R(Kg) ¢/km g/km X R ( 1020 5.0 2.0 1020 < R < 1250 5.7 2.2 1250 < R < 1470 6.4 2.5 1470 < R <1700 7.0 2.7 1700 < R < 1930 7.7 2.9 1930 < R < 2150 8.2 3.5 R > 2150 9.0 4.0 Note 1. The test will be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. 2. There should be no cranckcase emission. (To be implemented from 1.1.1994) 3. Evaporative emission should not be more than 2.0 g/test. (To be implemented from 1.1.1994) ii) Two wheelers (For all categories) CO - 3.75 g/km HC - 2.40 g/km Note The test will be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. iii) Three wheelers(For all categories) CO - 5.6 g/km HC - 3.6 g/km Note The test will be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. II CONFORMITY OF PRODUCTION TESTS i) Passenger Cars (For all categories) A relaxation of 20% for CO & 25% for combined cC+NO x ')r the corresponding values of Type Approval Test given azove would be permitted. ii) Two & Three Wheelers (For all categories) A relaxation of 20% for CO and 25% for HC for the va:_es of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted. 166 Appendix 3 Annexure :7 (Page 1 of 2 Pages) MASS EMISSION STAX,DARD FOR DIESEL VEHICLES EFFECTIVE FROM 1.4.1995. TYPE APPROVAL TESTS ------------------------------------__--__________________- Vehicle category HCCo* 'NO Smoke (g/KWH) (g/KWH) (gRKWH) ---------------------------------------______-------------- Medium & Heavy 2.4 11.2 14.4 'a' over 3.5-Ton/GVW ----------------------------------------------------------- Light diesel 2.4 11.2 14.4 upto 3.5 Ton GVW OR Reference mass CO** HC + NOX** R(Kg) g/km g/km R < 1020 5.0 2.0 1020 < R < 1250 5.7 2.2 1250 < R < 1470 6.4 2.5 1470 < R < 1700 7.0 2.7 1700 < R < 1930 7.7 2.9 1930 < R < 2150 8.2 3.5 R > 2150 9.0 4.0 Note * The test cycle is as per 13 mode cycle on dynamometer. **l) The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. t*- The emissions of visible pollutants(smoke) shall not exceed the limit values to smoke density, when expressed as light absorption coefficient given at Page 2 of Annexure I for various nominal flows when tested at constant speeds over full load. I CONFORMITY OF PRODUCTION TESTS A relaxation of 10% for the values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted URBAIR-Bombay 167 Annexure II Page 2 of 2 Pages) Nominal Flow Light Absorption G(lIs) Coefficient (R(m 42 2.00 45 1.91 50 1.82 - 55 1.75 60 1.68 65 1.61 70 1.56 75 1.50 80 1.46 85 1.41 90 - 1.38 95 1.34 100 1.31 105 1.27 110 1.25 115 1.22 120 1.20 125 1.17 130 1.15 135 1.13 140 1.11 145 1.09 150 1.07 155 1.05 160 1.04 165 1.02 170 1.01 175 1.00 180 0 .99 185 0.97 190 0.96 195 0.95 200 0.93 168 Appendix 3 Annexure III MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR PETROL DRIVEN VEHICLES EFFECTIVE FROM 1.4.2000 I TYPE APPROVAL TEST i) Passenger cars(for all categories) CO - 2.72 g/km HC + NOx 0 0.97 g/km Note 1. The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. ii) Two wheelers(for all categories) CO - 2.0 g/km HC - 1.5 g/km Note 1. The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. iii) Three wheelers(for all categories) CO - 4.0 g/km HC - 1.5 g/km. Note 1. The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with cold start. II CONFORMITY OF PRODUCTION TESTS i) Passencer Cars (For all categories) A relaxation of 16% for CO & combined HC + NO f r corresponding values of Type Approval Test given aDove would be permitted. ii) Two & Three Wheelers (For all categories) A relaxation of 20% for CO as well as HC for the values of Type Approval Test given above would be permitted. URBAIR-Bombay 169 Annexure IV MASS EMISSION STANDARD FOR DIESEL VEHICLE EFFECTIVE FROM 1.4.2000 I TYPE APPROVAL TESTS --------------------------------------------------------- Vehicle category HC* CO* NOX* PM* Smoke (g/KWH) Medium & Heavy 1.1 4.5 8.0 0.36 over 3.5 ton GVW- Light diesel 1.1 4.5 8.0 0.61 a* upto 3.5 ton GVW OR CO HC + NOx** PM*s g/km g/km 2.72 0.97 02.: Note * The test should be as per 13 mode cycle. **1) The test should be as per Indian driving cycle with co-' start. '** The emission of visible pollutants (smoke) shall not exceed the limit values of smoke density , when expressed and light absorption coefficient given at Page 2 of Annexure 7_ for various nominal flows when listed at constant speed, over full load. I CONFORMITY OF PRODUCTION TESTS A relaxation of 10% for the values of Type Approval Tes: given above would be permitted for Conformity Of Producti-_ Test for all vehicles. 170 Appendix 3 Annexure IV Page 2 of 2 Pages) Nominal Flow Light Absorption G(1/S) Coefficient ((m ) 42 2.00 45 1.91 50 1.82 55 1.75 60 1.68 65 1.61 70 1.56 75 1.50 80 1.46 85 1.41 90 1.38 95 1.34 100 1.31 105 1.27 110 1.25 115 1.22 120 1.20 125 1.27 130 1.15 135 1.13 140 1.11 145 1.09 150 1.07 155 1.05 160 1.04 165 1.02. 170 1.01 175 1.00 180 0.99 185 0.97 190 0.96 195 0.95 200 0.93 URBAIR-Bombay 171 REQUIREMENTS OF LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GASES Sr. Requirements Method of No. Characteristics Commercial Commercial Commercial Test Pei. To Butane Butane Propane - (P) of IS-1448 Propane Mixture i. Vapour Pressure ii 650C, kgf/cm2. 10 max. 16.87 max. 26 max. P:71 (see note 1) (see note 2) ii. Volatility evaporate temperature in °C, for 2 2 -38 P:72 95% vol. (a 760 mm. pressure. max. iii Total volatile sulphur, % by mass, max. 0.02 0.02 0.02 P:34 iv. Copper stnp corrosion is 38C for one Not worse than no. 1 P15 hour. v. Hydrogen Sulfide absent absent absent P:73 vi. Dryness No free No free shall pass the P.74 entrained entrained test (see note 3) water water vii. Odour (See note 4) Level 2 Level 2 Level 2 P:75 NOTE 1. Vapour pressure may be determined at any temperature and convened to 65C by means of suitable v'=aur - - pressure temperature graph. The same can also be determined by analysing the gas by means of gas chromatograph and then using the composition. the vapour pressure can be calculated @ 650C from the standard value of vapour pressures at various temperatures. NOTE 2. Each consignment of commercial butane - propane mixture shall be designated by its maximum vapour pressure in kgf:cm2. ((a 65C. Further, if desired by the purchaser and subject to prior agreement between the purchaser and the supplier, the minimum vapour pressure of that mixture shall not be lower than 2 kgl^/-rr2. gauge compared to the designated maximum vapour pressure and in any case the minimum for the mixture shall not be lower than 10 kgf/cm2 6i 650C. NOTE 3 The presence or absence of free entrained water in commercial butane or commercial butane - propane mixture shalt be determined by visual inspection of the sample. NOTE 4 Subject to agreement between the purchaser and the supplier, odour requirements of LPG rmay be changed for cenain applications where unodounsed LPG is required. CONFORMS TO IS:4576.1978 FOR LPG. 172 Appendix 3 SPECIFICATION OF MOTOR GASOLINE Sr. Characteristics Test Requiremonts No. Method 87 93 IS 1448 OCTANE OCTANE i Colour, Visual Orange Red i Copper Strip Corrosion for 3 hours at 50"C P.15 Not worso than Not worse than No.1 No.1 Oi Density at 150C, g,ml P16 To be reported To be reported iv Distiltation P:18 a) Initial Boiling Point *C To be reported To be reported b) Recovery upto 70°C. % v. min. tO 10 c) Recovery upto 125C, % v, min so so d) lecovery upto I180C. % v. min 90 90 e) cinal Boiling Point YC, max. 215 215 n lesidue, % v. max. 2 2 v Oct we number (Research Method) mm. P27 87 93 v. Oxidation Stability in Minutes, min. P28 360 360 vii Residue on Evaporation, mg/100 ml, max. P29 4.0 4.0 (Air-Jet, Solvent Washed) vIii Sur,ur. % wt. max. P:34 025 020 ix Lead content (as Pb). g/l max. P 38 0.56 0.80 r Reid Vapour Pr6ssure at 3&C. kgt/cm. max. P:39 0.70 .0.70 CONFORMS TO IS2S791971 SPECIFICATIONS FOR MOTOR GASOUNES 173o URBAIR-Bombay SPECIFICATION OF DIESEL FUELS Sr. Characteristics Test Method HSD LDO No. IS.1448 1. Acidity, inorganic P:2 'Nil Nil 2. Acidity, total, mg KOH/g, max. P:2 0.50 - 3. Ash. % wI., max. - P:4 0.01 0.02 4 Carbon residue (Ramsbottom). % wt.. max. P:8 0.20 1.50 5. Cetane number,-min. P.9 42 - 6 Pour Point, °C. max. P.10 6 Winter 12.. Summer 18 7 Copper stnp Corrosion for 3 hrs at 100°C P:15 Not worse than Not worse than No. 1 No. 2 B. Distillation, percentage recovery at 366°C. min. P:1B 90 9 ' Flash Point a) AbeltC, mm. P:20 32 - b) PMCC °C, min. P:21 - 66 10 Kinematic Viscosity, cSt at 38°C P:25 2.010 7.5 2.5 to i5.7 11 Sediment, % wt.. max. P:30 0.05 0.10 12 Total Sulphur. % wt.. max. P.33 or P:35 1.0 1.8 13 Water Content. % V., max P-40 0.05 0.25 14 Cold Fitter Plugging Point (CFPP) °C. max. IP 309/76 To be revorled -' 1 5 . Total Sediments. mg/100 ml. max. Appendix 'A of 1.0 the Specification REMARKS Cetane Number Diesel Fuel for Naval applications shall have a cetane number of 45. mm. When an engine for determinat3ln oi cetane number is not available, diesel index determined by IS:1448-1960 'Methods of test for petroleum and it; pro- ducts' P 17, Diesel Index may be used as a rough indication of ignition quality. A diesel index of 45 iS norrrally con- sidered sufticient to ensure a minimum cetane number of 42. This approximate correlation holds good only ir case of fuces which are of petroleum origin and contain no additives. For arbitration purposes, the direct determina on of cetane number by means of the standardized engine test shall be used unless the buyer and the seller sgree cnervt,se Appendix 3 174 Pour Point Subject to agreement between the purchaser and the supptier a lower or higher maximum pour point may be accepted. The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas issues instructions periodically to the Refineries to reauce/increase pour poin' cf HSD according to ambient temperature conditions. ''' Winter shall be the period from November to February (both months inclusive) and rest of the months of the year shall be called as summer. F... flash Point Diesel Fuel for Naval applications and for Merchant Navy shall have a flash point of 66QC, min, when tested by the method prescnbed in IS:1448 (P21)-1970 'Methods of test for petroleum and its products', P.21 Flash Point (Closed) by Pensky-Martens apparatus (first revision). - .T total Sediments This test shall be carmed out only at the refinery or manufacturees end. CONFORMS TO IS:1460-1974 SPECIFICATIONS FOR DIESEL FUELS SPECIFICATION OF DIESEL HIGH POUR POINT-A Sr. X haracteristics Requirements No. 1. Colour. ASTM, max. 3.5 2. Flash Point. min. *y nC (Navy - min. 65C) 3. Cetane No.. mm. 45 4. Diesel index, min. 48 5. Distillation: % recovered upto 357°C. min. 90Yo F.B.P., max. 385*C 2.0 Residue. % vol., max. O. Total sulphur. % wt., max. 0.5 5.0 7. Olefins. % vot., max. S. Aromatics. % vol.. max. 20,0 9. Carbon (Ramsbottom on 10% residue). max. 02 OTHER REQUIREMENTS AS PER IS:1460-1974 SPECIFICTIONS FOR HSD URBAIR-Bombay 175 SPECIFICATION OF FURNACE OIL Sr. Characteristics Test Requirements for No. Melhod Grade Grade Grade Grade IS.1448 LV MVI MV2 HV 1 Acidity, inorganic P.2 Nil Nil Nil' "Jil 2. Ash, % wt., max. P.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 (Method A) 3. Gross, calorific value. cal,g. P:6 or 7 Not limited. but to be reported (typical-!0260) 4 Relative density at t5/15*C. P:32 Not limited but to be reported (typical-0.950) 5. Flash point. (PMCC)°C. min. P:21 66 66 66 66 6. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes at 50°C. P.25 80 Max. 80-125 125- 180 180 -370 7 Sediment, % wi . max. P:30 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 S ' Sulphur, total, % by wi.. max P:33 or P:35 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 9 Water content. % by vol. max. P:40 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 REMARKS:. Furnace oil for marine uses in diesel engines shall not exceed a limit of 0.99 Sulphur Content Recognising the necessity for low-sulphur fuel oils in some specialized use, a lower limit may be specified by mutual agreement between the purchaser and the supplier. CONFORMS TO IS:1593-1988 SPECIFICATIONS FOR FUEL OIL APPENDIX 4 EMISSION INVENTORY INTRODUCTION Several attempts have been made to establish a comprehensive survey of air pollution emissions for the Bombay area (refs) The most recent survey was worked out by Coopers & Lybrand and AIC, as part of their Study on Environmental Strategy and Action Plan for Bombay Metropolitan Region (Government of Maharashtra, 1993) For the URBAIR project for Bombay, a more through procedure was conducted to work out the best Most of the data collection and emission calculations was performed by Aditya Environmental Services of Bombay The production of gridded emission files (emissions distributed in a km2 grid net) was done using the supporting software programs for the KILDER dispersion modeling program system developed by NILU The road traffic activity and emissions distribution was calculated by NILU, based on traffic and road data provided by W.S Atkins 1993, produced in connection with their Comprehensive Transportation Study for Bombay Metropolitan Region The area selected for air quality modeling, and thus for emission inventorying, is shown in Figure 1 It consists of 42x20 km2 grid squares, covering the area from the tip of Colaba in the South to Bassein Creek in the North, and from the ocean in the West to Thane Creek in the East It includes the Chembur-Thane industrial area In the following, the data sources and methods for distributing the consumption and emissions is described, and then the calculated emissions are presented An evaluation of data gaps and short-comings is presented at the end of this Appendix. POPULATION DISTRIBUTION The spatial distribution of the population within the grid system is important information when the fuel consumption, especially domestic fuel consumption, is to be distributed within the grid system The fuel consumption practices differ for the non-slum and slum populations For Bombay, separate spatial distributions Table 1: Total Population of has thus been worked out for the two populations. Tabl 1: Modeling The total population for the URBAIR modeling area for Bombay URBAIR Modeling Bombay, for the year 1991, is given in Table 1 Area Details of the procedure for distribution of the population is Non slum populabon 7,056,760 Slum populabon 2,806,260 given in Annex I Total population 9,863,020 176 URBAIR-Bombay 177 The distribution of the total population is given in Figure 2 Figure 1: Greater Bombay air quality modeling area. Greaterr Bombay boundary Area selected for dispersion /exposure modelling Arabian Sea:c 0 5 10 km ts ) -u--u- Railway mALESro t I RUTE EF Yaw frER 1 78 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 3 9 lO I l2 13 t II 5 17 IS IS 20 J-42 2 2 5 3 32. 248 271 320 34 3.41 2 S 4 152. 264 ISC . lo I t 38 40 J.0 2 J 2 102 237 28? 43 lOs lag lOS J."8 4 1 2. 2:7 717 2234 10 106 106 106 J-= s 4 134 346 375 248 lOC 105 106 J.27 s IS 2. J . 310 31 274 222 134 23 44 2 1 1I J3.3 4 2. 45 128 200 264 30m 11 146 145 46 146 44 12 30 26 3.35 S 5 67 137 13 241 43S 304 144 153 141 I" 13 i8 23 30 J2.4 135 201 J5 31 US 571 375 733 135 13S 13 * 2 21 19 3. 71 105 26 .3.33 73 1. 335 483S 364 1323 13 139 43 30 30 tC 210 253 242 J232 I is. 32. 273 427 342 123 124 124 75 020 30 101 2S 28 267 .331 14 414 35t 134 43 43 43 23 20 2 15 163. 249 2C. 225 J320 S J 305383 42 43 43 38 14 2234 242 4318 J239 30 10. 379. 27 313 371 313 173 33 43 71 73 SI 184 243 22 35 J-22 3n 2 f4 137 21 406 420 507 50 23 Ifg F33 171 Is, 243 252 223 J.27 63 213 SW 406 33 334 29l 233 252 228 134 263 143 72 J.26 14 23 431 387 2n1 231 231 235 203 302 278 272 272 8n 2.23 127 I8 220 238 286 285 237 305 320 4*S 297 263 20 J.24 8A 16l 220 237 224 220 284 305 421 444 23 204 J223 53 231 315 348 222 218 235 271 422 371 230 32 3-22 38 08 . 24 341 340 345 422 3223 355 31 136 .2.1 34 341 68 49 224 224 330 84 243 :03 383. 213 J-20 29 295 342 603 113 *0 439 33 428 222 24 231 IS& J.13 57 2523 10 344 S3 267 0 2533 421 421 40 260 168 J.18 23 11 827 838 832 203 143 286 322 260 280 I35 J.17 210 a4" 64 SW 134 260 *n J.19 67 IS 437 731 23 554 38 260 280 260 2 30 37 u13 312 430 34 477 43,8 343 24. 2C0 260 J.14 34 507 34 372 550 390 140 260 260 280 J.12 04 434. 342 374 412 21 J-.2 SI 333 554 53l 230 IS6 J.11 44 34 383 437 304 183 J.10 34 46S 5c0 746 332 318 2, I 138 40 84 1238 550 28. J. a 38 281 133 343 971 406 233 J.27 73 33 I38 341 144 of J. * 6 12 1S8 42 J. 3 I . 102 IS J. *4 1S 227 28 2 J. 2 3 103 33 48 J.22 Fs3 f32 24 -.2.I I? Figure 2: Distribution of total Bombay population within the km2 grids of the modelling area. 1990. URBAIR-Bombay 179 FUEL CONSUMPTION The consumption of various petroleum fuels by industries is available from four Petroleum Refineries selling their products in Bombay Data for LPG and SKO (Kerosene) consumption for domestic purposes is available from the Rationing Office of Bombay. Consumption of wood was considered for the slum population, and for bakeries and crematoria, according to information and evaluation from various agencies The evaluation and considerations made by Aditya E.S. Inc regarding the calculation and distribution of the fuel consumption for domestic purposes and for industries, are given in Annexes II and V of this Appendix The resulting fuel consumption data are given in Table 2 (Fuel Table 2: Fuel consumption data for Greater Bombay, consumption for road traffic is for 1992-93, for industrv, domestic purposes, and by considered in Chapter 4 of this ships in Bombay port/bay area. Appendix) Category Fuel type 103 Metric tons/yr Tata Power Plant LSHS 927 Coal 298 COMMENTS Gas 496 Industnal LSHS 499 279 in Petrochem ind Domestic 164 in large/medium ind 56 in small scale ind * LPG. was distributed grid-wise FO 306 183 in large/medium ind in the non-slum population 123 in small scale ind. Combustion takes place during LDO 42 10 hours of the day Diesel (HSD) 40 * SKO was distributed gridwise in LPG 7 thotlpp i n CDomestic Wood 289 the total population Combustion SKO 480 takes place during 10 hours of LPG 233 the day Manne (port/bay) FO 100 LSHS 56 Wood consumption Diesel 6 * Bakeries: a total of 440 tons/day, LDO 3 in 1100 bakeries, distributed in the total population, 12 hours per day * Crematoria: a total of 87 5 tons/day in 76 crematoria, distributed in the total population, 24 hours per day * Combustion in slums a total of 276 tons/day, distributed in the total population, 10 hours per day Industrial: * There are some 40,000 commercial establishments and industries in Bombay of which 400- 500 use fuel for combustion * A total of 280 large- and medium-scale industries were identified and located, based on the following criteria - LSHS consumption greater than 500 tons/year - FO consumption greater than 200 tons/year 180 Appendix 4 The industries were mainly in the categories engineering (10-15 large industries), chemical, pharmaceutical and textile For these industries, emission data were given based on reported measurement data, and, where not available, emissions were calculated based on emission factors Stack data were also given. This list of industries included the Tata Power Plant, three chemical/ petrochemical plants and a fertilizer plant, all in the Chembur area The gridwise distribution of the fuel consumption was done in the following manner: * The fuel consumed by the identified large/medium sources was assigned to the grids where the industries were located. * The remainder (balance) fuel was distributed in the grids according to the number of medium/small industries in the grid for which data was not available TRAFFIC ACTIVITY, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND EMISSIONS The basis for the calculation of vehicle exhaust emissions, and their spatial distribution, is the file with traffic and road data provided by Atkins Inc, produced within their Comprehensive Transportation Study for Metropolitan Bombay Region. This file basically contained. * the main road network, separated into links (a total of 275 links), with the link endpoint co- ordinates (nodes) fixed in an arbitrary co-ordinate system * traffic data for each link, for morning rush hour (10-11 A M) - light duty traffic (cars + MC/TC), in passenger car units (PCU) - truck traffic, in PCU (I truck = 2.4 PCU) - bus traffic, in PCU (I bus = 3 4 PCU) - traffic speed It was considered that the morning, rush hour (10-11 A M ) accounted for 6 percent of the annual average daily traffic The traffic activity, for each vehicle class, has been calculated separately for the "Island" Area and Table 3: Vehicle Classes and Gasoline and Diesel "Suburb" area (see Figure 1), and Consumption distributed in the km2 grid. Vehicle classes Gasolineldiesel Fuel cons. (Ilkm) Additional data from the Atkins' Passenger cars 80% gasoline/20% diesel 0 1 report, and from Aditya were used to Motorcycles/tricycles 100% gasoline 0.067* estimate the overall distribution of Trucks 100% diesel 0.3 traffic activity between the vehicle Buses 100% diesel 0.3 classes, and the gasoline/diesel mix * Based on Motorcycles 40% 0 05 I/km (Table 3) Tricycles 50% 0 075 I/km The total fuel consumption for road traffic in Greater Bombay used in this analysis, is, as provided by Aditya * Gasoline 248,578 tons/year * Motor diesel 243,444 tons/year The calculated traffic activity for separate classes/road systems is given in Table 4 URBAIR-Bombay 181 The methodology used was as follows- Table 4: Traffic activity (103 vehicle km/day), Greater Bombay I The traffic activity on 1992, distributed between vehicle classes and the the main road "Island'/"Suburb " areas. (Atkins') network, and Cars MCITC Trucks Buses Total the associated fuel Traffic activity consumption was Main roads (Atkins' data) "Island' 1 827 457 306 177 . 2 767 calculated "Suburbs" 1 353 1 793 833 234 4 213 2. The traffic activity Sub-total 3 180 2 250 1139 411 6 980 was distributed in the Additional ('small") roads km2 grids, according o"Island' 2097 480 148 86 2811 to the location of the "Suburbs' 1771 2 160 177 113 4 221 road links Sub-total 3868 2 640 325 199 7 032 3 The fuel consumption Total 7 048 4 890 1 464 610 14 012 not accounted for by this main road traffic, was calculated by difference (total minus main road fuel consumption) 4. This balance fuel consumption was used to distribute the balance traffic activity, assuming - the same vehicle composition in the traffic as on the main road system - the spatial distribution of this balance Table 5: Exhaust Particles and NOQ traffic activity within the km2 grid system is Emission factors (glkm) Exhaust particles NOx as the distribution of the non-slum Cars, gasoline 0 2 2 7 population Cars, diesel 0 6 1 4 Using the following emission factors, the MO/TC, gasoline 0 5 0 1 * r S _ ~~~~~~~~Trucks, diesel 2 0 13 0 calculated emissions of TSP (e g. exhaust Buses, diesel 2 0 13 0 particles) and NO, from traffic is as given in Table 5 EMISSION FACTORS The emission factors used in this URBAIR calculation for Bombay were selected based on the following sources of data. * USEPA emission factors of AP42 publication Table 6: Exhaust emissions from road traffic, Greater * Emission factors of the Bombay, 1992 (kg/lh, averaged over the year, all hours). WHO publication TSP NOx "Assessment of Sources of main roads "small" roads main roads "small" roads Air, Water and Land Gasoline Pollution", Part I Rapid Cars 26 5 29 7 358 401 inventory techniques in MC/TC 29 1 550 9 11 Environmental Pollution Diesel (Geneva,1993) Cars 79 5 7 7 186 18 (Geneva, 199o) Trucks 949 460 617 299 * Emission factors worked Buses 34 2 16 6 222 108 out by the Bombay Urbair Total 264.2 155.0 1 392 826 Working Group I (on Air 182 Appendix 4 Table 7: Total annual emission in Greater Bombay, 1992. (metric tons/year). Vehicles TSP PMIO S02 NOx Hours of operation Gasoline Cars 492 492 160 6 643 12 MC/TC 737 737 250 179 12 Diesel Cars 765 765 395 1 783 12 Buses 445 445 566 2 891 12 Trucks 1234 1 234 2120 8 024 12 Sum vehicle exhaust 3 673 3 673 3 490 19 520 12 Resuspension from roads 10 200 2 550 - - 12 Power plant -1 500 -1 500 -26 000 -11 200 24 Fuel combustion Industnal LSHS 1401 84 11 9201 1 690 24 FO 16521 1399 24 4801 2140 24 LDO 121 6 1 5101 120 24 Diesel 121 6 8001 115 24 LPG 0,5 0 5 - 20 24 Sum industnal 1 817 1 496 38 710 4 085 Domestic Wood 4 395 2 198 59 410 12 (day) Kerosene (SKO) 23 23 1 628 258 10 (day) LPG 14 14 0,7 676 10 (day) Sum domestic 4 432 2 235 1 688 1 344 Marine (docks) FO 540 459 8 000 750 24 LSHS 16 8 1 120 425 24 Diesel 2 1 120 45 24 LDO 1 1 110 25 24 Sum manne 560 469 9 350 1245 Industrial processes2 Refuse buming Domestic 3 700 3 700 Dumps 408 408 26 153 12 (3 PM-3 AM) Construction Stone crushers 6 053 12 (day) 1 Uncontrolled 2 Emissions from processes in Bombay is considered less important than to the fuel combustion emissions Quality Assessment), shown in Table 8 * Emission factors for road vehicles described in Appendix 5. * Emission factors from Indian vehicles (IIP, 1985, Luhar and Patil, 1986) The selected emission factors for fuel combustion and road vehicles are shown in Table 7 URBAIR-Bombay 183 Table 8: Emission factors used for URBAIR, Bombay, 1992. TSP PM1oITSP S02 NOx %S max. Fuel combustion (kgit) Coal, bituminous, power plant - uncontrolled 5A1) 19 5S1) 10 5 - cyclone 1 25A 0 95 19 5S 10 5 - ESP 0 36A 19 5S 10 5 Residual oil (FO) ind /comm 1.25S+0.38 0 85 20S 7 4 Distillate oil ind /comm 0.28 0 5 20S 2 84 LSHS 1 (LSHS, HSD, LDO)residential 0 36 -> 1 62) 0 5 20S 2 6 HSD 1 LDO 1 8 LPG ind /dom 0 06 1 0 0 007 2 9 0 02 Kerosene dom. 0 06 1 0 17S 2 5 0 25 Natural gas utility 0 061 1 0 20S 11 3 f ind /dom 0.061 20S 2 5 Wood dom 15 0 5 0 2 1 4 Refuse buming, open 37 1 0 5 3 Road vehicles (glkm) Gasoline Cars 0 2 1 2 7 87 025 Trucks, light duty 0 33 1 83.0 20 Buses and trucks, heavy duty 0 68 1 MC/TC 0 5 1 0 1 Diesel Cars 06 1 1 4 1 Trucks, light duty 0 9 1 13 Buses and trucks, heavy duty 2 0 1) A Ash content, in %, S sulfur content, in % 2) Well -* poorly maintained fumaces 184 Appendix 4 Table 9: Emission factors as worked out by thze Bombay URBAIR Working Group I on Air Quality Assessment. Type of Source Fuel Burned Unit Particulates (kglunit) S02 (kglunit) NOx (kglunit) Power plants Coal t 8(A) 19(S) 9 Fuel Oil t 1 04 (controlled) 19 9(S) 13 2 Natural Gas 103m3 0 24 16 6(S) 9.6 t 0 29 19 9(S) 11.5 Industrial & Commercial Coal t 6 5(A) 19(S) 7.5 Fumaces Fuel Oil t 2.87 19(S) 7 5 Oil, distillate t 2 13 20 1(S) 7 5 LPG m3 0 21 0 01(S) 143 t 0 38 0 02(S) 2 6 Natural Gas 103 m3 0 29 6 6(S) 3 t 0 34 20(S) 3 6 Domestc Fumaces Coal (hand fired) t 10 19(S) 1 5 Wood t 13 7 0.5 5 Kerosene t 3 17(S) 2 3 LPG m3 0 23 0.01(S) 1 t 0.42 0 02(S) 18 Solid Waste Dumps Refuse t 8 0 5 3 Wood t 13 0.1 4 Rubber Tires t 138 - - Municipal Refuse t 37 2 5 NOTE: I) A is % ash content (combustible by wt.) ii) S is % sulfur content (combustble by wt) iii) Coal used in Bombay by Industnes and for Domestic purposes is of Bituminous type The selected factors for fuel combustion is in some cases somewhat different from those worked out by the Bombay Working Group I The factors in Table 7 (from EPA AP42) were used because factors from the AP42 reference were used also in the other URBAIR cities (Manila, Jakarta), and because the Bombay factors were worked out a bit late in the process, after dispersion calculations were well under way. The Bombay factors would modify the emission inventory and calculated concentrations somewhat, but would not change the main results from the calculations The emission factors for Indian vehicles referenced, include For NO,, these are in fair agreement with the selected factors in Table 7 For "TSP" (presumably exhaust particles) from buses and trucks, they are considerably lower, and seem quite a bit too low compared to all other references Total emissions. Table 10 Table 10: Emission factors for Indian vehicles gives the total annual emissions Luhar and Patil (1986) Light duty, gasoline 2 1 g/km at 30 km/h of TSP, PM10, SO2 and NO, MC/3-wheelers 0 06 g/km at 30 km/h associated with the various NO, "TSP" source categories, fuels and IIP, 1995 (Tata, 1995) Buses, suburban 11 1 0 37 vehicle types Those emission urban 8 52 0 28 vehicle types Those emission Trucks 6 65 0.22 figures were calculated by cks Light commercial vehicles 2 5 0 1 URBAIR-Bombay 185 multiplying the fuel consumption with the emission factor The table also gives the operation hours of the various sources Comments to Table * There is no specific file of data available regarding industrial process emissions Based on their survey work in Bombay, Aditya is of the opinion that the process emissions are not significant totally in Bombay, compared to emissions from fuel combustion. Still, process emissions will in many cases give significant exposure in areas near industrial process plants * There is a large discrepancy between the calculated emissions of SO2 and NO, in Table 11, and those from the emission data file produced by AES Inc for the input to the Kl:LDER model (see below), regarding industrial emissions. The discrepancy is as Table 11: Discrepancies behveen emissions follows. Emissions Emissions from the AES * Part of the discrepancy may be explained as in Table 6 Point source file follows S02 (Vyr) 66,710 18,290 - In the AES point source file, results NOx (tlyr) 15,285 5,590 from actual emission measurements were used, where available. Where not available, a calculation of the emissions was based on fuel consumption and emission factors. - Table 5 is based on the maximum S contents of oil, while the average actual S contents may be considerably lower * Refuse burning, open burning on dumps AES has estimated the total emissions from the Dumps Deonar, Chincholi + Gorai, and Mulund The estimation was based on TSP, SO2 and NO, measurements carried out by MCGB near Deonar, by means of box model The details are described in Annex IV to this Appendix NEERI has also estimated total emissions of the same Table 12: Summary ofestimates compounds from open burning on dumps in Bombay, 11 : of enmissionsfrom open burning based on some measurements of their own. Table 12 below summarized the results TS dup NOx There is a fair agreement between these estimates, AES kg/hr 54 3 3 4 20 4 considering that the burning mainly takes place during I0- NEERI kg/day 950 71 175 15 hour periods evening-nights The AES estimates have been used in Table 6 Refuse burning, domestic Several discussions within the URBAIR groups have not led to a conclusion regarding the amount of refuse burnt domestically (street sweepings, vegetation debris, domestic refuse) in Bombay It might be estimated that a total of 2 mill households in Bombay each burn 1 kg of refuse per week Using a SPM emission factor of 37 g/kg, this produces annually some 3 700 tons of SPM Stone crushers. The SPM emissions from 47 registered stone crushers in Greater Bombay has been estimated by AES, as described in Annex V to this Appendix 186 Appendix 4 Spatial emission distributtion Table 13: Spatial emission distribution The total emissions from Fuel consumption Operating time Distribution each source category has (hrslday) been distributed within the Road traffic, gasoline 12 According to traffic activity on krn2 -rid system based on roads, and non-slum population Inh cul oaino Road traffic, diesel 12 According to traffic activity on • the actual location of ~~~~~~~~~~roads, and non-slum population point sources LPG, domestic 10 (day) Non-slum population * the population SKO, domestic 10 (day) Total population distribution, separate for Wood, domestic 10 (day) Slum population non-slum and slum Wood, bakenes 12 (day) Total population populations Wood, crematona 24 Total population the traffic activity Refuse buming, dumps 12 (evening-night) 3 dumps S ~~~~~~~~~~~Stone crushers 12 47 units distribution Balance fuel 24 Non-slum population ABS and NELU has Point sources 24 Actual locations produced the spatial emission distributions listed below For each distribution, an average emission rate was calculated for each grid square, in kg/hr, representing the average emission during the operating hours of the source For some further details, see Annex VII of this Appendix. Rfereiences Luhar, A K. and Patil, R S (1986) Estimation of emission factors for Indian vehicles IndianJ. Air Pollution Control, Vol 7, no. 4 Tata Energy Research Institute (1992) In: Environmental,Effectsof Energy Production, Transportation and Consumption in National Capital Region, 1992 New Delhi URBAIR-Bombay 187 ANNEXURE - I DATA ON POPULATION DISTRIBUTION - GRID WISE TOTAL POPULATION Data Available * Total population and area of each Census District obtained from BMRDA. (There are a total of 88 Census Districts in Bombay). * Map of Bombay. Distribution of Population * Population Density per sq. km. area was calculated using data obtained from BMRDA. However, it was noticed that area with no possible human habitation (like waterbodies/marshy lands/airport/ industrial area etc.) was also included in many of the census districts. Hence, new population densities were derived after deducting such areas. * Actual habitable area of each of the census districts in a grid was measured and multiplied by population density to arrive at population per grid. Data Constraints : Non-availability of Specific Zoning Maps showing clearly the land use pattern. SLUM POPULATION Data Available * Wardwise list of slums in Bombay on Private land/Central Govt. lands/State Govt. lands/BHADA (Bombay Housing and Area Development Authority) and M.C.G.B. land giving number of tenements in each slum pocket. List obtained from Slum Improvement Dept., M.C.G.B. and is for the year 1985. (No updated list was available from the Dept.). ..... ..2/- 188 Appendix 4 * Map of Bombay from MHADA (Maharashtra Housing & Area Development Authority) showing positions of these slums. Slum Population Distribution : No figures were available on actual population in the slums. Also distribution of slums in each Census District was not available. Available data on total population and number of households obtained from BMRDA and discussions with faculty of Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Deonar indicates average number of persons per tenement as 5. Hence total slum population was derived as 5,61,252 x 5 = 28,06260 (no of tenements) x (avg. no. of persons per tenement) = (Total slum population) The slum population was then distributed in the grids based on number of tenements in each grid. Data Gaps Conflicting reports exist on total population of Bombay residing in slums. Estimates indicate upto 40-45% (of total population) as total slum population. The Book "Slums Squatter Settlements & Organised Sector Worker Housing in India some Affordable Myths" authored by R.M. Kapoor and M.S. Mitra published by the Times Research Foundation (1987) puts Task Force Estimates on slum population for million plus cities for 1981 (based on 1981 population) as varying from a low of 40% to a high of 45% of total population. It is suspected that data given by Slum Improvement Dept. gives number of registered slums only and hence total slum population as worked out for URBAIR is only 28.5% of total population. This is a major data gap as this will affect the consumption pattern of SKO/Wood in the grids. NON-SLUM POPULATION The slum population in each grid was sub\tracted from total population in that grid to arrive at non-slum population in that grid. URBAIR-Bombay 189 ANNEXURE - TI DATA ON DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DATA AVAILABLE * LPG Consumption for Domestic purposes) as indicated by Rationing * SKO Consumption for Domestic purposes) Office. (Data on LPG/SKO consumption for domestic purposes was not seperately available for one of the Petroleum Companies and hence data from Rationing Inspectorate was used). * Total Population/Slum Population/Non-slum population gridwise from POPDIST1.WK1 files. BASIS FOR DISTRIBUTION OF DATA LPG CONSUMPTION Total LPG consumption per day for domestic purposes as indicated by Rationing Inspectorate is 639 MT/d. As this is predominantly used in well to do households, the entire LPG consumption was distributed gridwise in the non-slum population. Daily use of LPG is for cooking purposes and hence restricted to 10 hours/day LPG consumption in Kg/hr was calculated for this period. SKO CONSUMPTION The total SKO consumption for Domestic purposes and by establishments is 1236 KL/d or 1062.96 T/d. This was distributed in the grids according to total population in that grid. Daily use of SKO is mainly for cooking and to some extent water heating. Total daily period of such use is restricted to 10 hours. Hence, SKO consumption in Kg/hr was calculated for this period. WOOD CONSUMPTION Major wood consumers in Bombay were identifid as bakeries, other small establishments, domestic households (slums/pavement dwellers) and crematories. .......... .2/- 190 Appendix 4 Wood Consumption in Bakeries/Small Establishments Data Available No figures were available on wood consumption by small establishments. The Indian Bakers Association indicated that there are about 1100 bakeries in the city which are using wood for their fuel needs. The average wood consumption in each bakery was estimated by them as @ 400 kg/day (Large bakeries in the city are not using wood but are using HSD or electricity). Based on these figures the total wood consumption by bakeries works out to be 440 T/day. Basis for Distribution The bakeries are more or less evenly spread out in the city and hence wood consumption was distributed based on % of total population in a particular grid. Wood Consumption in Cremetoria Data Available • Wardwise list of Hindu cremetoria. ' Death figures for 1991 from Health Dept., M.C.G.B. * Wood consumption per dead body 500 Kg (obtained from a visit to cremetoria). Data Derived Deaths in Bombay 80,000 (1991). Hindu Deaths (approx. 80%) = 64,000. Deaths/day (approx.) = 175. Hence wood consumption (Kg/day) = 175 x 500 for cremation (deaths/day) (wood reqd./body) = 87,500 Kg/day = 87.5 T/day No. of cremetoria (Pvt. & Municipal) = 76 ...... ..3/- URBAIR-Bombay 191 Hence the total wood consumption was distributed in the wards based on location of cremetoria in the wards. Daily use of wood in cremetoria is for burning purposes for dead bodies. Such use covered whole 24 hours period. Hence use of wood in Kg/hr was based on 24 hours usage period. Wood Consumption in Slums Data Available Discussions with faculty members of Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Deonar showed that wood and not charcoal (as shown by the E.M.S. study) was used as fuel in slums. However, no figures were available to substantiate the total slum population using wood or the per capita wood consumption. Data Derived A study on "Energy Consumption in Pune City" conducted by S.P. College, Pune (1989) indicates that 20% of slum dwellers use firewood and average consumption is 180-200 Kg/capita/year. Since Pune city has a colder climate compared to Bombay the lower figures of 180 kg/capita/year was assumed for Bombay city. Based on the above, the total wood consumption by this source per day works out as given below : Total Slum Population = 28 lakhs Assuming 20% population using wood = 5.6 lakhs Total wood consumption per year = 5,60,000 x 180 (persons) x (kf/cap/day) = 1,00,800 T/year = 276 T/day. This was distributed in the grids based on slum population in the grid. Daily use of wood in slum is extended over 10 hours period. Hence, to calculate the load in kg/hr this period was considered. Total wood consumption Since, bakeries and crematoria are situated in predominantly domestic areas the total wood consumption by these sources was added to wood consumption by slum population for estimating total wood consumption for Bombay city. 192 Appendix 4 Total wood consumption = (Wood) cemetries + (Wood) bakeries + (Wood) slums = 87.5 + 440 + 276 = 803.5 T/d. Gridwise distribution of wood was added to arrive at total wood consumption per grid. Data Gaps * From the available data no energy consumption pattern could be derived for the urban population of Bombay. Attempts to derive energy consumption pattern gave rise to very conflicting results. The S.P. College, Pune showed the fuel consumption pattern in slums is as below : Energy requirements in slums SKO 70% Wood 20% Others 10% (LPG/others) The per capita consumption of SKO is indicated by the study as 50 L/capacity/year. This works out to a average figure of 135 ML/capita/day. Assuming a higher value of 150 ML/capita/day the consumption pattern of SKO works out as under : Slum Population (28 lakhs)==> Population using SKO (20 lakhs)(@ 70%) SKO used in slums = 300 KL/day (@ 150 ML/capita/day) Available data indicates total domestic consumption for SKO as 1198 KL/day. Balance SKO of 898 KL/day when distributed on the basis of 150 ML/Capita/Day shows a total of 59.86 lakhs people using SKO. This means about 85% of non-slum population uses SKO which is a unreasonably high figure. Even assuming 45% of total population as slum population (i.e. including the non-registered slums) the total SKO consumed by slums works out as under .......... .5/- 193 98 lakhs=======> 44.1 lakhs=========> 30 lakhs========> 463 KL/d (Total Population) (Slum Population) (SKO users) (SKO consumed based on 150 ML/cap/day) The balance 735 KL/day when distributed @ 150 ML/cap/day shows 49 lakh non-slum population using SKO which also works out to a high figure of 70%. The LPG consumption for domestic purposes has been indicated by Rationing Inspectorate as 233235 MT/year (1,64,25000 cylinders/ year). Assuming requirement of each household as 1 cylinder/month or 12 cylinders/year. No. of households using LPG works out to = 1,64,25000 12 = 13.69 lakhs. Assuming average size of each household as 5; total population using LPG works out to @ 68 lakhs which is @ 70% of Bombay's total population which is a very high figure. The SKO consumption by establishments (Hotels/Restaurants) has been shown as 38 MT/day which is a very low figure consider-ing numerous such establishments in the city. Available data for Pune indicates that charcoal is used in slums by a very small amount of population (<5%). However, no quantification exists for Bombay. Considering the above, it is very much apparent that data on fuel distribution by domestic sector is very much rudimentary and there is a urgent need to study the pattern of usage in these sectors and consider cost effective alternatives to reduce pollution from this sector. Appendix 4 ANNEXURE III EMISSION FROM DOMESTIC SOURCES Data Available Fuel consumption by Domestic Sources for Total SKO/LPG and Wood consumption (inclusive of usage by establishments) Emission Factors used : Type of Fuel burned Unit Particulates S02 NOx Source (Kg/unit) (Kg/unit) (Kg/unit) Domestic Wood t 13.7 0.5 5 Kerosene t 3 17(s) 2.3 Furnaces LPG t 0.42 0.02(s) 1.8 SOURCE Rapid Assessment of sources of Air/Water and Land Pollution WHO Offset Publication No. 62. URBAIR-Bombay 195 ANNEXURE - IV EMISSIONS FROM REFUSE BURNING disposed - 4000 T/day. Quantity (T/day) Available Area 2526.5 200 acres ka) 631.5 50 acres 421.0 60 acres vali) 421.0 20 acres : Mr. D.K. Dhokale Astt. Engineer) nagement, M.C.G.B. d Waste has the following composition - 40% (by wt.) - 22% (by wt.) - 38% (by wt.) 1 00% ition - 10% (by wt.) - 0.2% (by wt.) - 0.2% (by wt.) - 2% (by wt.) - 3.6% (by wt.) - 20% (by wt.) - 38% (by wt.) - 26% (by wt.) 1 00% 196 Appendix 4 Although municipal officials claim that no refuse burning takes place (or is very negligible), a number of complaints are received and the fact that refuse burning does take place is definitely established. The Air Quality Monitoring laboratory of the M.C.G.B. (Environmental Sanitation & Projects Dept.) has carried out air monitoring near the solid waste dump site at the time of refuse burning. The reports are as given below : Parameters Concentration Sampling Period TSP 2011 ug/m3 16:30 to 22:15 hrs. SO2 702 ug/m3 19:00 to 22:15 hrs. No2 164 ug/m3 19:00 to 22:15 hrs. NH3 1014 ug/m3 19:00 to 22:15 hrs. There is no documented data on rate of burning; area of dump which is burnt or the emission factors. To find out the rate of burning of the Solid Wastes it was decided to develop a Box Model and back calculate from the ambient monitoring data. To find out total emissions from refuse burning discussions were held with residents in the neighbourhood, N.G.O.'s and factory owners near the Deonar dump. The findings from this discussions are as given below : 1) Refuse burning is an unauthorised activity of rag pickers operating at the dumps. Objective is to recover metallic scrap, glass and other valuables. 2) Fresh refuse is high in moisture content and is left to dry for 10-15 days. Generally the dry refuse is lighted at 4-5 p.m. and burns till late night 2-3 a.m. 3) The nuisance of the smoke is felt upto 3rd/4th floors and hence height of smoke plume can be guessed as 10-15 mt. Nuisance is felt upto a downwind distance of 3-4 km. .......... .3/- URBAIR-Bombay 197 Box Model Calculations From the above the emission from refuse burning (from Deonar site) were back calculated as below Cj = Qj u.W.D. It is assumed in the development of the box model that 1) Air is transported through the volume with a face velocity of u and 2) the pollutants are assumed to be instantaneously and uniformly mixed throughout the volume of the box. From the available data the following values were assigned to various variables : u = Avg. wind velocity = 1 m/sec. (Observed for night time from Santacruz data) W = Width of box normal to wind direction = 500 m. D = Depth of box normal to wind direction = 15m (Elevation of 4 storeyed building) Cj = Concentration recorded = 2011 ug/m 3 -6 3 = 2011 x 10 gm/mi Therefore 2011 x 10 = Qj 1 x 500 x 15 Qj = 15.0825 gm/sec. = 54.297 Kg/hr. Assuming WHO emission factor 8 Kg/T for SPM from Refuse burning, Quantity of Refuse burnt was calculated. ..... ..4/- 198 Appendix 4 Quantity burnt/hour = 54.297 = 6.787 T/hr. 8 Further calculations were carried out by applying WHO Emission Factors for S02/NOx (by assuming above rate of burning). Thus emissions at Deonar for S02 and NOx are estimated as S02 = 3.393 Kg/hr. NOx = 20.361 Kg/hr. As no details regarding other sites are available it is assumed that refuse burning is proportional to daily quantity of waste dumped. Applying WHO emission factors the emission from these dumps are calculated as below : Grid No. Site Wastes SPM S02 Nox Dumped/day (kg/hour) 16-17 Deonar 2056 54.29 3.39 20.36 6-36 Chincholi + 842 22.22 1.39 8.34 Gorai 17-30 Mulund 631.5 16.66 1.04 6.25 Data Gaps No specific studies have been carried out as burning of refuse and the air pollution impact of these. NEERI is currently carrying out a study under M.E.I.P. on this aspect. Results of this study will be shortly available. URBAIR-Bombay 199 ANNEXURE - V STONE CRUSHER EMISSION Data Available Data on capacity of stone crushers was obtained from M.P.C.B. records. The data collected shows that there are 19 registered stone crushers in Kandivali (Ward 'R'/North); 21 registered crushers In Dahisar (Ward R/North) and 7 in Andheri (Ward K/W) area. No data is available of any air monitoring carried out close to these sites. Emissions from Crushers Emissions from stone crushers were calculated by using EPA emission factors as outlined below Type of Process Suspended Dust Emission Dry Crushing Operation (Kg/MT) -----------------------------------------------------------__--- Primary Crushing 0.05 Secondary Crushing/Screening 0.30 Tertiory Crushing/Screening 1.80 Recrushing & Screening 1.25 Fines Mill 2.25 The capacity of each crusher and the emission from them work out to very high loads as indicated in enclosed sheets. Hence, seperate box file has been prepared for this source. PreDaration of Box File While preparing box file the following assumption were made 1) The exact locations of the crushers on map were not known but as it is well known that these crushers are very close to each other they have been clubbed together and total emission has been shown from one particular grid only. ............. 2/- 200 Appendix 4 2) Micro level details of each crusher like the types of control measures existing, the method of transfer of rock, the moisture content of rock etc. are not known and it is assumed in preparation of the box file that all crushers have no installed control systems. 3) It has been assumed that crusher operates for 24 hours and suspended particu7ate em7ss7ons reported as Kg/hour accord7ng7y. However, norma7 period of operat7on of crushers is between 8:00 hrs. and 19:30 hrs. and emiss7ons shou7d be corrected for further accuracy in the box fi7e. URBA[R-Bombay 201 ANNEXURE -VI BALANCE FUEL EMISSION FILE Data available The consumption of various Petroleum fuels by industries in Bombay is available from four Petroleum Refineries selling their products in Bombay.The data on fuel consumption obtained from emission inventory carried out for URBAIR was compiled and used to prepare box file (area files) for industries for which adequate data was not available and for small scale industries. Emission Inventory : Data available thus far from emission inventory indicates the following : 1) There are about 40,000 odd commercial establishments and industries in Bombay. About 500-600 of these use fuel for combustion. (Very small scale and tiny units are not considered in preparing this estimate). 2) The data indicates the following pattern of fuel use Industry Type Estimated Nos./Area Where Present Fuel Large (Chemical/Petrochemical) 3 (Chembur) LSHS/Gas Large (Engineering) 10-15 (Western/Central Suburbs) LDO/LPG & small quantity LSHS. Medium (Chemical/Pharmaceutical/ 250-275 (Western/Central FO/LSHS & Textile) Suburbs) small (Textile Industires:Bombay quantity Island) LDO. Medium (Dyeing/Printing/ 50-75 (Western/Central Suburbs) FO Bleaching works) Small Scale 100-150 (Western/Central Suburbs) FO/LDO ...... .2/- 202 Appendix 4 In general, usage of LPG and SKO is restricted to Engineering industries. Usage of HSD is generally in Diesel generators/compressors and in large bakeries. Fuel Usage Furnace Oil About 839 T/d of Furnace Oil was sold in Bombay city in 1992-93. F.O. is used by industries in boilers for steam generation; of this 500 T/day was accounted for in the emissions inventory data gathered for preparation of POISOURC.DAT file. The balance 339 T/d was distributed in the grids based on number of industries in each grid for which adequate data is not available. LSHS The two Petroleum Refineries, Fertilizer Plant and the Power Plant together account for more that 3/4th of the LSHS consumption in the city. These units are not allowed to burn Furnace Oil and use Associated Gas (available through pipeline from GAIL/ONGC) alongwith LSHS. For some part of the year, the Associated Gas supply from ONGC was affected and consequently LSHS consumption in the city has increased considerably. LSHS Consumption by Tata Thernal Tata Thermal has 6 units for power generation at Chembur. Unit Nos. 1,2,4 are normally on stand by and used for peaking the supply. Unit 3 has been decommissioned and is not in use. Unit 5 & 6 are of 500 MW capacity each. All units have multi-fuel capabilities. Unit 5 can fire LSHS/Coal/Gas whereas unit 6 can fire LSHS and Gas. The total daily heat requirement at Tata Thermal is estimated at 5.25 x 10 Kcal/d and the fuels burnt for this consumption for 1992-93 work out as an average daily basis as (please refer enclosed sheets) : 2710 T Oil (LSHS) ) based on annualised sales figures of 1448 T Gas ) these products. 870 T Coal ) ..... ..3/- URBAIR-Bombay 203 The higher LSHS requirement may be due to reduced supply of gas during the year form ONGC. LSHS Consumption by Refineries The Refineries (BPCL & HPCL) have daily usage of LSHS as 230 T and 534 T respectively (baed on MPCB Consent figures). Fertilizer Factory (RCF) RCF uses associated gas for steam generation and as feedstock for their plants. They have no consented LSHS usage. Emission Inventory for URBAIR The emission inventory could account for additional 450 T of LSHS usage by other Large/Medium Industries. LSHS Consumption from Refinery Sales Figures The total average per day sale for LSHS is put at 3312 T/day. The difference between the consumption figures (indicated above) and average sale per day comes out as : { 3312 } - { 2710 } - { 450 } (Estimated Avg. Supply} {Tata Thermal) {Emission Inventory) = 152 T/day The total average daily usage of LSHS is estimated at 3312 + 534 + 230 = 4076 T/day (Estimated Avg. Supply) (Refineries Own Consumption) .......... 4/- 204 Appendix 4 is highly variable, the daily consumption large factories in Chembur. iated Gas changes the entire consumption units. This makes it very difficuilt to 3ily consumption figure based on yearly ,onsidering the above, the balance LSHS of istributed in the grids while preparing 'iles (*FUE.DAT). plied per day in 1992-93. Of this about d for in the Emission Inventory. The buted in the grids based on number of r which adequate data is not available). ipplied on an average basis in 1992-93. *ccounted for in the Emission Inventory. ributed in grids based on number of which adequate data is not available. URBAIR-Bombay 205 CALCULATION FOR TATA THERMAL 2 units 500 MW each Each 500 MW requires 5000 T/d Coal OR 2500 T/d Oil. Therefore Total requirement of fuels works out as 10000 T Coal or 5000 T Oil. Therefore requirement works out to 10 5000 x 10500 x 1000 = 5.25 x 10 Kcal/d Oty. in Tons x Kcal/kg x convert to Kg. = Tot. Heat Requirement Tata have reported annual purchase of fuels as follows 9,26,886 T LSHS 4,95,082 T Gas 2,97,556 T Coal Corresponding Heat load/year works out as 9.73 x 1012 Kcal/yr. 6.67 x 1012 Kcal/yr. 1.56 x 10 Kcal/yr. ____________________13_ TOTAL 1.796 X 10 Kcal Fo[oa total of 342 working days this gives a heat load/day as 5.25 x 10 Therefore Total Oil required/day = 2710 T/d. Total Gas supply/day = 1448 T/d. Total Coal supply/day = 870 T/d. Comments : This has been worked out considering tat total fuel purchased by the plant in the year has been utilized. Quantities in stock have not been considered and daily average consumption may vary to that extent. 206 Appendix 4 ANNEXURE - VII BASIS OF PREPARATION OF POISOURC.DAT Data Available Data on emissions from industries was gathered from the applications made by them to obtain MPCB consents. Data was gathered for about 210 industries belonging primarily to large and medium sector. Data was collected on the basis of following criteria F.O. consumption > 200 T/year LSHS consumption > 500 T/year Data collected included, physical details of stacks and data on type of emisions, velocity, flow rate and monitoring data wherever available. Preparation of Poisourc.dat File This is on following basis : 1) Wherever possible monitoring data (as submitted by Industries) has been used to calculate emission load. Only where monitoring data was entirely absent, emissions were calculated from fuel quantity. 2) No data is required to be submitted by Industries on total NOX emission and hence this data was entirely computed from emission factors. 3) Emission Factors used for calculations are as given below Type Of Fuel Unit Particulates SO2 NOx ------------------------------------------------------------------ Bituminous Coal t 6.5 (A) 19(s) 7.5 Fuel Oil t 2.87 19(s) 7.5 LPG t 0.38 0.02(s) 2.6 Natural Gas t 0.34 20(s) 3.6 ..... ..2/- UREBAIR-Bombay 207 where A = % Ash S = % Sulphur by wt. There is only one power plant in Bombay and emissions were directly taken from actual monitored levels at the plant. Process emissions in Bombay are unimportant compared to the large number of stacks connected to fuel sources. Wherever available data from such sources is collected and complied in Poisour.dat file. 4) Suilding heights and widths were not available for buildings nearest to the chimney and hence default width and heights of 30m aind 1Om were given in the file. Data Gaps A A wide variation is observed in the monitored data and data calculated from emission factors. This maybe because of any of the following reasons : a) Low amount of sulphur in fuels compared to those available in standard specifications. For example BPCL specifications for FO shows Sulphur content between 3.5 - 4% whereas actual observed level is between 2.5-3%. Similarly for LSHS actual % observed is between 0.5-0.7% whereas specifications shows sulphur content of 1%. b) Greater amount of excess air used by the industries. C) Inaccurate monitoring practices adopted. * The type of data in MPCB files is not up-to-date and should be improved. * NOx monitoring is not required by MPCB, even when there is a ambient air standard prescribed for the same. 208 Appendix 4 ANNEXURE -- VIII BASIS FOR DATA FILES Sr. File Name Basis Source Additional Details No. IORKSREET FILES 1. POPDlSTI.WK1 Census districtwise popu- B3RDA Annexure-I -lation distribution for year 1991. Distribution into grids based on actual area of census districts in eacn grid. 2. FUELCOND.WKI - - Annexure-1l LPG Total Usage: 639 TP0. Rationing (Domestic) Period of Use: 10 hrs/day. Office. User Non-slum population. SKO Total Usage: 1236 KIL/day. Rationing (Domestic) Period of Use:10 hrs/day. Office. User : Slum/Non-slum population. Wood Total Usage: 276 TP0. S.P. College - (Domestic) Period of Use: 10 hrsfday. Pune study. User: 205 slum population. lood Total Usage: 440 TPD. Bakeries (Bakeries) Period of Use: 12 hrs/day. Association. User : Bakeries. food Total Usage: 87.5 TPD. Health Dept./ - tCrematoria) Period of Use: 24 hrs/day BUC I Visits User : Crematoria. to crematoria. URBAIR-Bombay 209 Sr. ,File Name Basis Source Additional Details ko. Total Gridwise addition of Wood wood consumpt ion by domestic source + bakeries t crematorai. 3. EUISHDOM.WKl Emissions from Domestic Fuel Data Annexure-Ill fuel usage. from FUELCOND.VKI. Emission Factors-W.H.O. BOX FILES 4. POPDIST.DAT Population distribution Data from Annexure-i in box. POPOISTI.I file. 5. SLUMDIST.DAT Slum population distri- Data from Annexure-l -bution in box. POPDISTl.WK1 file. 6. BLOG-KT.DAT Average building height Own in grid. observations. 7. DOMESTIC DATA FILES 7.1 SPUARDOU.DAT Area source SPU from Data from LPG /SKO/Tatal wood. FUELCOND.M11 EVISNOOM.WKI. l~.1 210 Aooendix 4 Sr. file Name Basis Source Additional Oetails go. 7.2 S02ARDOU.DAT Area source S02 fron Oata from LPG/SKO/Total Wood. FUELCOND.WK a EMISNDOU.WK1. 7.3 ROXARDOM.OAT Area source WOx from Data from LPG/SKO/Total Wood. FUELCOND.WKI EKISNDOO. 1K I. 8. REFUSE BURNING 8.1 SPWARSW.DAT Area source SPM from Box Model Annexure-JY Solid Waste (Refuse calculations. burning). E.F. - W.H.O. & moni- -toring data fron W.C.G.B. 8.2 S02ARSW.DAT Area source S02 from Box Model Annexure-IY Solid Waste (Refuse calculations. burning). E.F. - 1.H.O. 8.3 NOXARSW.OAT Area source NOx from Box Wodel Annexure-IV Solid Waste (Refuse calculations. burning) . E.F. - w.H.O. 9. STONE CRUSHERS 9.0 SPUARCRU.DAT Area source SPM from E.F. - EPA Annexure-Y Stone crushers. Capacity of crushers MPCB files. URBAIR-Bombay 211 Sr. File Name Basis Source Additional Details No. tO. BALANCE FUEL DISTRIBUTION 10.1 SPMARFUE.DAT Area source SPN from Total fuel Annexure-VI from Balance Fuel consumption consumption. from POISOURC .DAT and Sale Figures from Pet roleun Companies. 10.2 S02ARFUE.DAT Area source S02 from Total fuel Annexure-VI from Balance Fuel consumption consumption. from POISOURC.DAT and Sale Figures from Petroleum Companies. 10.3 NOXARFUE.DAT Area source NOX fron Total fuel Annexure-VI from Balance Fuel consumption consumption. from POISOURC.OAT and Sale Figures fron Pet rol eun Companies. I. POINT SOURCE DATA FILES 11.0 POISOURC.DAT Emission from UPCB files Annexure-VII industries. (Nonitoring data subinit- -ted by industries) t E.F. - WHO. APPENDIX 5 EMISSION FACTORS, PARTICLES INTRODUCTION Emission factors (emitted amount of pollutant per quantity of combusted fuel, or per kilometers driven, or per produced unit of product) are important input data to emission inventories, which again are essential input to dispersion modeling The knowledge of emission factors representative for the present technology level of Asian cities is limited For the purpose of selecting emission factors for the URBAIR study, references on emission factors were collected from the open literature and from studies and reports from cities in Asia This appendix gives a brief background Table 1: Emission factors (g/km) for particle for the selection of emission factors for emissions front motor vehicles, relevant as a particles used in the air quality assessment basis for selection offactors to be used in South- part of URBAIR East Asian cities. Fuel and Vehicle Particles (glkm) Reference Motor vehicles Gasoline Passenger cars 0 33 USEPA/WHO 0 10 VECP, Manila The selection of emission factors for motor 0 16 . Indonesia (Bosch) vehicles for use in the URRBAIR project to 0 07 Williams produce emission inventories for South- Trucks, ublity 012 VECP, Manila East Asian cities, was based on the 0 33 USEPA following references USEPA * WHO ( 1993) Trucks, heavy duty 0 33 USEPA WHUSEPA (EPA199reortserie 3-wheelers, 2-stroke 0 21 USEPAMNHO * USEPA (EPA AP42 report series) MC 2/4 stroke 0.21/ USEPAANHO (1985) 2 00/ VECP, Manila * Vehicles Emission Control Project 0.21/0 029 Indonesia VWS (VECP), Manila (Baker, 1993) 0 28/0 08 Weaver and Chan * Indonesia (Bosch, 1991) Diesel * Williams et al (1989) Car, taxi 06 VECP Manila 0 45 USEPA/MHO * Motorcycle emission standard and 0 37 Williams emission control technology (Weaver Trucks, utility 0 9 VECP, Manila and Chan, 1993) 093 EPA Table I gives a summary of emission Trucks, heavy/bus 0 75 WHO factors from these references for various 15 VECP, Manila vehicle classes. From these, the emission 0 93 USEPA 12 Bosch 2 1 Williams 212 URBAIR-Bombay 213 factors given in Table 2 were selected, for use as a basis for URBAIR cities Table 2: Selected emission factors (g/km) Taking account of the typical vehicle/traffic for particles from road vehicles used in activity composition, the following vehicle classes URBAIR. give the largest contributions to the total exhaust Vehicles class Gasoline Diesel particle emissions from traffic Passenger cars/taxies 0 20 0 6 * Heavy duty diesel trucks Utility vehicles/light trucks 0.33 0 9 * Diesel buses Motorcycles/tncycles 0 50 * Utility trucks, diesel Trucks/buses 2 0 * 2-stroke 2- and 3-wheelers Thus, the emission factors for these vehicle classes are the most important ones. COMMENTS It is clear that there is not a very solid basis in actual measurements on which to estimate particle emission factors for vehicles in South-East Asian cities. The given references represent the best available basis Comments are given below for each of the vehicle classes Gasoline * Passenger cars Fairly new, normally well maintained cars, engine size less than 2 5 1, without 3-way catalyst, running on leaded gasoline (0 2-0 3 g Pb/I), have an emission factor of the order of 0 1 g/km Older, poorly maintained vehicles may have much larger emissions The USEPA/WHO factor of 0 33 g/km can be used as an estimate for such vehicles * Utility trucks. Although the VECP study (Manila) uses 0 12 g/km, we select the EPA factor of 0.33 g/km was selected for such vehicles, taking account of generally poor maintenance in South-East Asian cities * Heavy duty trucks Only the USEPA have given an estimate for such vehicles, 0 33 g/km, the same as for passenger cars and utility trucks * 3-wheelers, 2-stroke The USEPA and WHO suggest 0 2 g/km for such vehicles * Motorcycles, 2-stroke The Weaver report supports the 0.21 g/km emission factor suggested by USEPA/WHO In the VECP Manila study a factor of 2 g/km is suggested This is the same factor as for heavy duty diesel trucks, which seems much too high Visible smoke emissions from 2-stroke 2- and 3-wheelers is normal in South-East Asian cities Low-quality oil as well as worn and poorly maintained engines probably both contribute to the large emissions The data base for selecting a representative emission factor is small In the data of Weaver and Chan (1993), the highest emissions factor is about 0 55 g/km. For URBAIR, we choose a factor of 0.5 g/km Realizing that this is considerably higher than the factor suggested by USEPA, we also have a view to the factor 2 g/km used in the VECP study in Manila, which indicates evidence for very large emissions from such vehicles * Motorcycles, 4-stroke. The emission factor is much less than for 2-stroke engines The Weaver report gives 0 08 g/km, while 0 029 g/km is given by the VWS study in Indonesia (Bosch, 1991) 214 Appendix 5 Diesel: Passenger cars, taxis The factor of 0,6 g/km given by the VECP Manila is chosen, since it is based on measurements of smoke emission from vehicles in traffic in Manila. The 0,45 g/km of USEPA/WHO was taken to represent typically maintained vehicles in Western Europe and the United States, as also measured by Larssen and Heintzenberg (1983) on Norwegian vehicles This is supported by the Williams' factor of 0 37 g/km for Australian vehicles * Utility trucks The USEPA and the VECP Manila study give similar emission factors, about 0,9 g/km * Heavy duty trucks/buses The factors given range from 0,75 g/km to 2,1 g/km. It is clear that "smoking" diesel trucks and buses may have emission factors even much larger than 2 g/km In the COPERT emission data base of the European Union ( factors as large as 3-5 g/km are used for "dirty" city buses Likewise, based on relationships between smoke meter reading (e g Hartridge smoke units, HSU) and mass emissions, it can be estimated that a diesel truck with a smoke meter reading of 85 HSU, as measured typically on Kathmandu trucks and buses (Rajbahak and Joshi, 1993), corresponds to an emission factor of roughly 8 g/kmi As opposed to this, well maintained heavy duty diesel trucks and buses have an emission factor of 0,7-1 g/km As a basis for emission calculations for South-East Asian cities we choose an emission factor of 2 g/km This corresponds to some 20 percent of the diesel trucks and buses being "smoke belchers" A larger fraction of "smoke belchers", such as in Kathmandu, will result in a larger emission factor FUEL COMBUSTION Table 3: Emission Jictors for oil conmbustion (Refi: US EPA, AP 42). (lg/m3) Oil The particle emission factors Emission factor suggested by USEPA (AP 42) is Uncontrolled Controlled taken as a basis for calculating, Utility boilers Residual olja) emissions from combustion of oil in Grade 6 1 25(S)+0 38 xO 008 (ESP) South-East Asian cities The factors Grade 5 1 25 xO 06 (scrubber) are given in Table 3. Grade 4 0,88 xO 2 (multicyclone) Industnal/commercial boilers References Residual oil (as above) xO 2 (multcyclone) Dstillate oil 0 24 Baker, J., Santlage,R,Villareal, T Residential fumaces Baker, J., Sanbiage, R, Villareal, T Distillate oil 0 3 and Walsh, M (1993) S Sulfur content in % by weight Vehicular emission control a) Another algonthm for calculating the emission factors is as follows in Metro Manila Draft final 7,3xA kg/m3, where A is the ash content of the oil report Asian Development Bank (PPTA 1723) Bosch, J (1991) Air quality assessment in Medan Extract from Medan urban transportation study Final Report. Washington D C, World Bank Larssen, S and Heintzenberg, J (1983) Measurements of emissions of soot and other particles from light duty vehicles Lillestr0m (NILU OR 50/83) (In Norwegian) URBAlIR-Bombay 215 Rajbahak, H.L and Joshi, K.M (1993) Kathmandu Valley vehicular transportation and emission problems Metropolitan Environment Improvement Program. Urban Air QOlality Management Workshop (URBAIR), December 2, 1993 U S. Environmental Protection Agency (1985) Compilation of air pollutant emission factors, 4th ed Supplement A Research Triangle Park, NC, EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42) Weaver, C S and Chan, L.-M (1993) Motorcycle emission standards and emission control technology. Draft report Sacramento, CA, Engine, Fuel, and Emissions Engineering, Inc. WHO (1993) Assessment of sources of air, water, and land pollution A guide to rapid source inventory techniques and their use in formulating environmental control strategies Part One: Rapid inventory techniques in environmental pollution. By A P Economopoulos Geneva (WHO/PEP/GETNET/93. 1-A) Williams, D J, Milne, J W, Roberts, D B and Kimberlee, MC (1989) Particulate emissions from in-use' motor vehicles - I. Spark ignition vehicles Atmos. Environ., 23, 2639-2645 Williams, D.J, Milne, Quigley, S M, J W, Roberts, D B and Kimberlee, M C (1989) Particulate emissions from 'in-use' motor vehicles - I1 Diesel vehicles Atmnos. Environ., 23, 2647-2662 APPENDIX 6 POPULATION EXPOSURE CALCULATIONS The basis for the calculations of the exposure of the Bombay population to TSP is the following I The population distribution, calculated per km2 as described in Appendix 2, Chapter 2, and shown in Figure 2 in that appendix 2. The TSP distribution in Bombay, calculated by dispersion modeling as annual average concentration in km2 grids (city background) described and shown in Chapter 2 3 2 in the main report These two distributions are combined, and give an estimate of the residential exposure frequency distribution shown in Table 1 of this Appendix, 1 and 2 columns This residential exposure is modified to account for additional roadside exposure experienced by drivers, commuters and roadside workers This modification is done in the following way * 300,000 drivers are given fairly high annual exposures: - 100,000 at 195 ,ug/m3 - 100,000 at 205 jg/m3 - 100,000 at 215 pg/m3 * 1,500,000 commuters are given a moderately high annual exposure (see 3rd column, Table 1) - 500,000 at 125 ,ug/m3 - 500,000 at 155 ,g/m3 - 500,000 at 175 VIgIm3 which is thought to correspond to commuting on intermediate, high and very high traffic density roads These 1 8 million people are then subtracted from the residence distribution, somewhat arbitrarily at equal rate from exposure classes between 95 ug/m3 and 185 PIg/m3 (see 4th column, Table 1), i e. the residents of the commuters and drivers are thought to be in moderately-to-fairly highly exposed areas This modification gives the total exposure frequency distribution of Table 2, column 5. Columns 6 and 7 of Table I give the resulting cumulative distributions Figure 1 shows the calculated exposure distributions The residential distribution show that most people are exposed to annual concentrations between 110-140 pjg/m3 (annual average TSP). Small fractions of the population are exposed to higher concentrations near specific particle sources, which are stone quarries The roadside exposure causes a considerably increased exposure for a considerable part of the population 216 URBAIR-Bombay 217 Table 1: Calculated distributions (%) of population exposure to TSP (annual average, ,ug/m3) in Bombay, 1993. Exposure class (TSP, Residential Traffic exposure Total Cumulative distr. ,ug/m3) exposure, modification exposure freq. distr. freq.distr. Add. Subtr. Residential Total 55 0 0 0 0 99 843 99 873 65 0 0 0 0 99.843 99 873 75 1 085 1.085 99 843 99 873 85 6 007 6 007 98 758 98 788 95 8.405 1 83 6 575 92 751 92 781 105 10 800 1 83 8.970 84 346 86 206 115 19 008 1.83 17 178 73 546 77 236 125 22 662 509 1.83 25.922 54.538 60 058 135 19 600 183 17 770 31 876 34 136 145 3 900 183 2 070 12 276 16 366 155 1 100 5 09 183 4 360 8 376 14 296 165 1 400 183 -0 430 7 276 9 936 175 0 846 5 09 183 4 106 5 876 10 366 185 1 868 183 0038 5 03 6 260 195 0 143 1 02 1 163 3 162 6 222 205 0 218 1 02 1 238 3 019 5 059 215 0466 1.02 1 486 2801 3821 225 0 302 0.302 2 335 2 335 235 0 606 0 606 2 033 2 033 245 0093 0093 1 427 1 427 255 0.518 0 518 1 334 1 334 265 0.108 0 108 0 816 0 816 275 0 0 0 0 0 708 0 708 285 0.020 0 020 0 708 0 708 295 0 270 0 270 0 688 0 688 305 0.152 0 152 0 418 0 418 315 0.266 0.266 0.266 0 266 325 0.0 00 00 00 335 00 00 00 00 218 Appendix 6 Figure 1: Calculated distributions of population exposure to TSP (annual average) in Bombay, 1993. 100 90 -t esdentmi expoumre E R t _ ~~~~~~~~~~Total exposurel 80 70+ F 60-j 50 E T 40j 30 20 i 10+ 55 75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 235 255 275 295 315 335 TSP (ug/m3) * Residenuwa exposu re IS Total exposure 20 4 15- :j. 75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 235 255 275 295 315 335 TSP (ug/m3) APPENDIX 7 SPREADSHEET FOR CALCULATING EFFECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSIONS 219 220 Appendix 7 SPREADSHEET FOR CALCULATING EFFECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSIONS Emissions spreadsheef The spreadsheet is shown in Figure 1. (Example TSP emissions, Greater Bombay, Base Case Scenario, 1992 ) Figure 2 shows emission contributions in absolute and relative terms. The purpose of the spreadsheet is to calculate modified emission contributions, due to control measures, such as * new vehicle technology * improved emission characteristics, through measures on existing technology * reduced traffic activity/fuel consumption * other. The emissions are calculated separately for large point sources (with tall stacks) and for area sources and smaller distributed point sources The reason is that air pollution concentrations and population exposures are calculated differently for these two types of source categories. The columns and rows of the worksheet are as follows Columns a) q: Emission factor, g/km for vehicles, kg/m3 or kg/ton for fuel combustion and process emissions For vehicles, emission factors are given for "existing" and "new" technology b) F,T Amount of "activity" - T (vehicle km) for traffic activity - F (m3 or ton) for fuel consumption in industrial production c) qT,qF: Base case emissions, tons, calculated as product of columns a) and b) d) fq, fF, fT, f- Control measures Relative reduction of emission factor (fq), amount (fF, fT) or other (f-) resulting from control measures e) qFfqfFf-. Modified emissions, due to control measures f) d(qFfqfFf-) Relative emission contributions from each source, per source category: - vehicles - fuel combustion - industrial processes - miscellaneous g) d(qFfqfFf) Relative emissions contributions, all categories summed Rows a) Separate rows for each source type and category, "existing" and "new" technology. b) "Background" Fictitions emissions, corresponding to an extra-urban background concentration c) Modified emission/emissions Ratio between modified and base case emissions URBAIR-Bombay 221 Figure 1: URBAIR spreadsheetfor emissions calculations, Greater Bombay TSP, Base Case, 1992. Emissions spreadsheet, Greater Bombay TSP, Base case, 1992 Em:ssion Amoumnt 8a3 Control meiasurms Moftid Rtnli Rui v. tacsr emuU Of *,1955w11 5flUoft5 E_ssimaons DWt catqeqr totw LARGE POINT SOURCES .__ q F qF lq tF t. qF tq tFF I (dqF tq IFt) (tqF fq tF)lot (191) S 103g) o, 100 tOn..) 0..etl toW,s (ptt*u Powwpsani LSHS 010 927 93 1 00 100 1 00 93 67 Coal 050 298 149 100 100 100 149 108 Gas 006 496 30 100 00 100 30 22 Petvohtr onc LSHS 028 279 78 t00 100 1 00 78 56 Largalned nd LSHS 028 164 46 100 100 100 46 3 3 FO0 5 40 183 988 100 1 00 100 988 714 Sum 1wg. pott sous ts 1384 1354 100.0 MI 1061 nhstk ttwtlonsistons. point sourc 1I DISCRETE AREA SOURCES Wats dutnDs 100 1 00 1 00 Ston olushot1o 00 10 100 I 00 Sumn dttnt. alma stutm 000 0 Mt "d .rnsu,onWsns,stons. dose?. ama srue. DISTRIBUTED AREA SOURCES Vehicles q T 'T q IT 1. qT tft m (dqT tq iTf) dqT tq gfn (1 0 cEtrt-1 (toExo ,< > Gasboln esmsustn Ca s.taons 0 20 2 46 4*2t 1 1 492 13 4 2 0 Mi-TC 0 S0 1 47 735 I 1 735 20 0 3 0 Sum gasolns 1227 12227 5 0 aktd4sd tm,issionsismlss)ots qasootnO 1 Di.50 ollmaust1 CarsI. tass 0 6 1 27 762 1 I 1 762 20 8 31 Tna k2 2 0 0 62 1240 1 t 1 1240 33 8 50 Buets 2 0 0 22 440 1 1 1 440 12 0 1 8 Sum dessi 2442 2442 100.0 9 9 MoOd3xd Stsnssste)m. Sons d0lisl I dS3619 148 Surn total venrw exnaust 36691 366S __ 6 Modaxted mtrszeons/tYemsions totalt vdehmtt twdaust 1 0i ARgsoonnoI 20 6041 12001 1 I 1 12080 488 SuLla tlota vslucIs sexn..rsuso. 1 15749 15749 63. Ma6111.6 *zswononnisdtsxsons. lttal V*ehlCIS (OxIh4S111uP.) 1 00- Fuel Combustion q F qF tq tF t. qF tq IF I (OqF tq IFI)Fuel (oqF Iq IFI)lol (w) (IEt.S pm1i (oES (W 1 S ft-Ct Ir _ LHSH 028 56 15 68 100 1 00 100 15 68 0 2 0 1 FO0 5 40 123 664.20 1 00 100 100 664 20 7 4 2 7 LDO 0.28 42 11 76 100 100 100 11 76 0 1 O 0 Dsel (HSD) 028 40 11 20 1 0 1 0 10 0 11.20 0 1 0 0 LPG 0 06 7 0 42 100 100 1 00 0 42 0 0 00 Sum flOusial 703 26 703.26 2 8 *WAdded imnsonserISwSIons maustnal 1 00 Wood 15 00 293 4395 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 4395 00 48 9 17 8 SKO 0 06 480 2880 1 00 1 00 1 00 28 80 0 3 0 1 LPG 006 233 1398 100 1 00 I 00 1398 02 01 Coal 1000 000 I 00 1 00 1 00 000 0W0 00 Dung 10W 000 100 00 100 0 00 00 00 Relusj 37 00 104 3848 00 100 1 00 10 0 3948 00 42 8 15 6 Sumn domest3c 8285 78 8285 78 335 Mod(b d emasssonsinrss.ons doorseac 1 00 Su tudl comouston 8959.04 8989.04 100 0 363 Moothd sexmaonnSmillsnlx. ttt 1 00W Miscellaneous q m qm tq 1. I gMIqIMt (dqM tq ltM)msc (dqM tq fMt)1 Cone*oCuon San" mowxilnsu 0 1 1 1 0 0O0 00C MoIid anaaonsim,gssons. mIsc. SCIVIG' _ |Sumt tOt8 dostntblted area sources 24723.04 247381 4L 100 Moddifed emtssuonsnemisssons. distr. area sources .. _ 100 _ 222 Appendix 7 Figure 2: Emissions contributionsfrom various source categories. 14000 12000 a Present (n0 8000 0 V5 6000 E a) a) 4000 Ihm - o 2000[7 Large Discr Gasoline Diesel Resusp Ind fuel Domestic Msc point area comb fuel sources sources comb APPENDIX 8: PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS, LOCAL CONSULTANTS 223 224 Appendix 8 PROJECT DESCRIPTION REGARDING AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT URBAIR-Bombay 225 Project Description This Project Description describes the work to be carred out under the Contract of 18 May 1993 between Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) and Aditya Environmental Services, Bombay. Information shall be collected regarding the items descnbed below. The information to be col- lected shall go beyond the information contained in the material referenced in the Draft Report from NILU and Institute of Environmental Studies (IES) of the Free University of Amsterdam prepared for the Workshop, and summranzed in that report. Available information shall be collected regarding the following items, and other items of interest for Air Quality Management Strategy Development in Bombay: * Meteorological measurements in and near the city • Activities/population data for Bombay: Fuel consumption data: Total fuel consumption - per type (high/low sulphur oil, coal, gas, firewood and other biomass fuels, other) - per sector (industry, commercial, domestic) Industnal plants: - Location (on map), type/process, emissions, stack data (height, diameter, effluent velocity and temp.) Vehicle statistics: - No. of vehicles in each class (passenger cars, trucks (small, med., large), buses, MC (2 and 3-wheels, 2 and 4 stroke - Age distribution - Average annual driving distance per vehicle class Traffic data: Definition of the main road network marked on map. Traffic data for the main roads: - annual average daily traffic (vehicles/day) - traffic speed (average, and in rush hours) - vehicle composition (pass.cars, MCs, trucks/buses) Population data: Per city district (as small districts as possible) - total population - age distribution 226 Appendix 8 * Air pollution emissions Emission inventorv data (annual emussions) - per compound (SO2, NOx, particles (in size fractions: <2 jim, 2-10 gm, >10 im), (VOC, lead) - emissions per sector (industry, transport, domestic, etc.) * Air pollution data: - concentration statisucs per monitoring station: annual average, 98-percentile, maximum concentrations (24 hr, I hr) - trend information - methods description, and quality control information on methods * Dispersion modelling: Reports describing studies and results * Air pollution laws and regulations: Summary of existing laws and regulations * Institutions: Description of existing institutions working in, and with responsibilities within, the air pollution sector, regarding: - monitoring - emission inventories - law making - enforcement The information shall include: - the responsibilities and tasks of the institutions - authority - manpower - expertise - equipment (monitoring, analysis, data hard/software) - funds It is important that the gathering of information is as complete as possible regarding each of the items, so that we have a basis of data which is as updated and complete as possible. Remember that this updated completed information data base is to form the basis for an action plan regarding Air Quality Management in Jakarta. Such an action plan will also include the need to collect more data. In that respect, it is very important that the gathering of existing data is complete. URBAIR-Bombay 227 PROJECT DESCRIPTION REGARDING DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC VALUATION 228 Appendix 8 Project Description URBAIR Topics for research A Phyzfcal Impacts 1. Descibe available sdies oa rclatOns betwecn ar poThuton and hcalth. 2. Decide on SC zcptabillry of dose - efect relationships from USA (tsLbis 5.7 - 5.9). a. Mormliry: 10 pg/rn TSP leads to 0.682 (rangc: 48A-0.89) peecatage change in maz1ity. b. Wor3k loss days (WLD): 1 pg/,m' TSP kids to 0.00145 percentage change in WLD. c. Restr.=ud ac3vty days (RAD): 1 pg,/rn TSP kads to 0.0028 percentage change in RAD per yea. d. Rzspir'=rY hospiml disewes (RHD): 1 pg TSP adsto 5.59 (range: 3.44-7.71) cases of RHD per 100l000 pesoss per yeu. e. ErSregncy room visis (ERV): 1 jig/n' TSP lkds to 12.95 (range: 7.1-18.8) cases of ERV per 100,000 persons per ye=. L Bronchlids (children): I pgf/n3 TSP leads to 0.00C86 (rmnge: 0.00043-0.00129) chac in bronchiri. A. dzzza *ack: 1 pgrn' TS? leds to 0.0053 (range: 0.0027-0.0079) changc in daily aszdna artacks pa asthmazic perso. h. R ir y symptom days (RSD): I pgin' TSP lods t 1.13 (range: 0.90-1.41) RSD per peraon per year. i. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP): change in DBP = 2.74 ([Pb In bloodL - (Pb in bloodL wich [Fb in blood] is blood lead level (pgfdi) j. Cotonary heart d1scase (CHD): change in pbability of a CHD event in the following ten yea is [1 .*i exp - ( - 4.996 + 0.03036S(DBPI))1._ (1 csp - I - 4.996 + 0.0030365 (DBP,) r' k. Decrne:t IQ pcints: IQ dec.=t = 0.975' change in air lead (pl/a'). URBAIR-Bombay 229 C11z1ion exampir- LA: popaulon be 10 million People. Le threshold vat= of TSP be 75 pghm' (thc WHO smndard) LAt the cc5nt-ion TSP be 317 pg/rn3. -> Conccraiu dtreshold = 317 - 7S 242 = 24.2 10 pg41. -> Cang in monrity - 24.2 * 0.682 16..5%. Let cude mortaliy be 1% per year. -> Cude moralixy a 100,000 peoplc per year. - C Cu in mortality due tO TSP = 16.5% of 100.000 people = 16.500 peopkc per year. 3. For those close -effec relonmships that are ac:ptabl, base value must be gathered, .L cude mortality b. presen work days loct B. Valuation 1. Moraliry. L W-llingness to pay. I USA sesrc hS been carried out on the relaton bwen risks of jobs and wage. apped thz 1 promnill of change n risk of lizy kads to a ag diffr=ct of C; SIOOO. If this igure is applicable to aL pebons of a large popul-idon (say 10 million), the wholk populadon vuhiu I prouiie change in ds of mortality at S1000 * 10 * 10' = S 10 billon. An fi¢xse in risk of 1 promilc will kd to ca. 10,000 dcah c 3. so per deathcase t evaahuion is S I mllikn. It should be decided if in othcr countris, c.q. cides, this valuation should be corTected for wage differenc-s (e.g. if the averagc wage is 40 tDies lower than in USA, the valuation of I death case is $25,000). If this approach is acceptable, the only norrnadion needed is avcragc wage. b. Producon loss. If the approach of wiLingn±-s to pay is not a=pube, the akc.Manve is valuing human life through producdon loss, i.c. foregonz incorre of the deccased. Again, 23 0 Appendix 8 the informanton nccdd Is average wage. Moeover, information iZ needed c the average number of years that people have a job. However, those withoM a job should also be assigned a value. An csdmn= of the Incrme from infmrmal actividcs can be an indicatio.L Otherwise a value deived from the wagu (e.g. half tie average wage) cz be a (somewhat arbitrAry) esdmation. 2. Morbidity. Estimates ar needed, for aL cases of morbidiry, of sh duration of the illn=z, to as to dtrive in estimation of foregone producdion duc to fllness. Jus as in the cms of mortaury (B. l.b.) wages can be used for valuation of a lost woring day. Moreover, tie hospital costS and other nedical cosu ame o be estmaed These costs stdU do not yet include the subjectve cons of illness, which can be cstimated using the wiling=s to pay to prevmnt a day of illness. 3. WUilingnss to pay to prtvent a day of ilness. Valuat= in USA. based on staveys among respondents, indicate that the wfingneus to pay to prevent a day of ilness is ca S15. This amount cculd, juSt lik the amount of willIness to pay for risk to human health be corrctd for wage diffens. The acptzbiliry of such a procedure is, pcrhaps, somewhat lowc:. 4. IQ poinn. Lz of IQ of children may lead to a lower enroing capacity. A USA exiax is cL $4600 per child, per IQ point. summed over the child's lifeime. If dtis is accptpable, the figre could be conrcted for wagc differcrus between USA and the ciy. C. Other impacts 1. Buildings. An estimate by Jackson ct al, (scc URBAIR eport table 5.18) Is dus prevented cleanina costs per household per year are $42 for a Jcducsion in TSP concnstion: from 235 pig/rn3 to 115 Pg/mr. Tis would imply a bencfit of $0.35 per household per gigr/n' reducSon. This figure could be corrected for wage diffcrcncs bkswcn USA and the city. If that is Acceptable, di lnformntion needed is the number of households in tie city. URBAIR-Bombay 231 2. ?Monnnient It is difficult to say which value is artached to monu=nti, as they ac often nmique and didr value is of a subjective characr. NcvCthe1ess, the restorarion and clesning coss cf monuments could be an indicadon of thc order of ragnirude of damage to -muments. Revenue of tourism might also givc a certain indicaton of II= valuation of furure danagc to monuments. D. Rtnx* La most cases, the valuation of damage is not vcry precise. and certainly noct mor than an indicaton of the order of mapitude. L Technolollc2l Reduction Options To give a reliable esimate of die cosus of technological reduction options, one needs a rellable emission inventory in which is included the currendy used technologies ard the age and replacement period of tie installed equiprnent. In the absence of this, the study by the city team night wish to concentare on a case study (e.g. trffic, fcrili:xr industry, lage crmbustion sourCes). The nt step is to identify options. Cooperation with YES is possible, once a case study is id,i.9cd. The second ep is to cstimate the costs, Le. investmen costs and O&M (op&rzion and mainenanec) costs. Based on the economic lifetime of dte invested e4ulppenn, the investr=c costs can be transformcd to annual costs, using writing-off procedures. Costs will often depend to a large extent on local conditions. Corrections of the cosu ar dcsinied in chapter 6 of the UR3AIR reporL Te third step is to estimate the etission reducions of the various rcducdon options. Tthc fouth ssep Is to rank the options acording to cost-effectivenss. For this purpose the various ypes of poUution have to k brougbt under a cornmon denominator. A suggestion could be to calcuLate a weighc4 sum of the pollutants, using as weights the aznotut by which ambieat standards arc exceeded on average. TIe calculion of the cost-effcctiveness consiss then of the calculton of the ratio of rcducao over annual cost (R/C). lhe options with the highest ration R.C are the most cost-effecrive ones. 1^l The World Bank 7 1EIP Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program Environment and Natural Resources Division Asia Technical Department, The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 telephone: (202) 458-2726 facsimile: (202) 522-1664