79300 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA SKILLS DEVELOPMENT FOR DYNAMIC ECONOMIC GROWTH POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA SKILLS DEVELOPMENT FOR DYNAMIC ECONOMIC GROWTH February 2013  iii Contents Introductory note. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Abbreviations and Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Résumé Exécutif. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Chapter 1: Economic Growth, Skills Development, and The Role of Pbet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1  Rwanda’s Vision of Export-Oriented and Knowledge-Based Economic Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2  The Changing Nature of Required Labor Force Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 The Role of Education and Training in Supporting Economic Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Chapter 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Overview of The Labor Market 2.1  Overview of Labor Market Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2 Labor Supply: A Young Labor Force Slowly Develops Higher Skills Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.3 Labor Demand: Good Jobs for Workers with Higher Levels of Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.4 Earnings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.5 Summary and Potential Policy Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Chapter 3: Rwanda’s Postbasic Education and Training System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.1  Contribution of Postbasic Education and Training to Economic Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2 Structure of the PBET Sector in Rwanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.3  General Upper Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.4  Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.5 Technical and Vocational Education and Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 iv POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Chapter 4: The Governance, Management, and Financing of Pbet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.2 Governance of Postbasic Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.3 Decentralization of Secondary School Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.4 Higher Learning Institutions and Autonomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.5  Other Aspects of PBET Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.6. Recent and Forecasted Education Expenditures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.7. Cost Characteristics and Unit Costs of PBET Subsegments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.8  Budget Execution and Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Chapter 4: The Way Forward: Strategic Objectives and Reform Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.1  Maximizing the Potential of PBET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.2  Strategic Objectives and Reform Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 5.3  Prioritizing Reform Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Selected bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Annex 1: Employment categories by level of education, gender, and location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Annex 2: Understanding the Relationship between Education and Earnings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Annex 3: Typologies of PostBasic Education and Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Annex 4: Public and Private Universities and Higher LEARNING Institutions IN RWANDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Annex 5: Vocational Training Center EnrolLment by Occupation and female Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Annex 6: Technical Secondary School EnrolLment by Occupation and FEMALE Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Annex 7: TVET Policy: Interventions and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Annex 8: Principal Objectives and Actions of WDA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Annex 9: The DACUM (Developing a Curriculum) approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Annex 10: Autonomy in Higher Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Annex 11: Internal and External Quality Assurance in PBET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Annex 12: Analysis of Teacher Salaries in RWANDAN School Districts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Annex 13: Polytechnic institutions: purposes, scope, and focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Annex 14: School-to-work Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Annex 15: Career Academies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Annex 16: Functions of Workforce DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Annex 17: School Financing and Governance Reforms: Understanding the Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Boxes Box E.1 Summary of Strategic Objectives and Associated Reform Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii Encadré E.1 Récapitulatif des objectifs stratégiques et des choix connexes de réforme possibles . . . . . . . . . . . xxx Box 3.1 Transition to a New TVET System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Box 3.2 The DACUM Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Box 5.1 Key Features of Well-Functioning Quality Assurance and Accreditation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Box 5.2 Nonformal Training Provision in Area Vocational Centers in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Box A15.1 Career Academy Clusters in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Figures Figure 1.1 Gross Domestic Product by Economic Sector, Selected Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Figure 1.2 Trends in Educational Attainment of the Labor Force in Korea, Kenya and Rwanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3  v Figure 1.3 Most Difficult Skills to Find among Workers in Cambodia, 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 2.1 Labor Force Composition by Age, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 2.2 Labor Force Composition by Educational Attainment, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 2.3 Educational Attainment Gains in the Labor Force, 2000–2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 2.4 Percentage of Employed Workers by Broad Sector, 2000 and 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Figure 2.5 Sectoral Allocation of Workers by Educational Level, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Figure 2.6 Changes in the Relative Sizes of Employment Categories, 2000 to 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 2.7 Skills Mix by Employment Category, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Figure 2.8 Employment Type by Level of Education, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Figure 2.9 Comparison of Median Earnings by Educational Level, Type, and Gender, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 2.10 Trends in Median Earnings by Skills Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 3.1 Structure of Rwandan Education System, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Figure 3.2 Enrollment Growth by Educational Level, 2000–08. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 3.3  Upper Secondary and Higher Education Enrollment Rates and Gross National Income per Capita in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, Latest Available Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 3.4 Upper Secondary and Higher Education Enrollment and Gross National Income per Capita, Selected Countries Worldwide, Latest Available Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 3.5 Enrollment Rates in Higher Education, 2000–2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Figure 3.6 New TVET Structure and its Relationship to General Education System and Labor Market. . . . . . . 36 Figure 4.1 The Rwanda Education Board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 4.2 Intrasectoral Allocation of Education Expenditures in Rwanda and Comparator Countries, 2007. . . 46 Figure 4.3 Relative Unit Cost by Education Level in Rwanda, 2008 (primary education unit cost = 1) . . . . . . 47 Figure 4.4  Frequency Distribution of Variations in Budget Execution of Secondary School Teacher Salaries, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure A3.1 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Figure A5.1 VTC Enrollment by Occupation and Female Students, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figure A6.1 Technical Secondary School Enrollment, by Occupation and Female Students, 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Figure A9.1 Structure of a DACUM Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Figure A9.2 DACUM Research Chart for a Registered Nurse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Figure A11.1 Aspects of the Internal (Self-) Assessment of PBET Programs and Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Figure A11.2 Dimensions of External Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Tables Table 2.1 Disaggregation of Rwanda’s Population, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Table 2.2 Labor Force Composition by Educational Attainment and Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Table 2.3  Labor Force Participation Rates in 2000 and 2006, Disaggregated by Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Table 2.4 Change in Activity Status among 15–24-Year-Olds, by Gender and Poverty Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Table 2.5 Labor Status of Working-Age Population, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Table 2.6 Educational Attainment of Workers by Sector, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Table 2.7 Share of Workers Employed in Different Employment Categories, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Table 2.8 Mean and Median Annual Earnings by Economic Sector, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Table 2.9 Mean and Median Annual Earnings by Employment Category, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Table 2.10 Mean and Median Annual Earnings by Educational Attainment, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Table 2.11 Median Annual Earnings by Educational Level and Location, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Table 2.12 Median Earnings by Educational Level and Gender, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Table 2.13 Median Earnings Comparison by Educational Type and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Table 3.1 Enrollment in Rwandan Education System by Level, 2000–08. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Table 3.2  Examples of Existing Curriculum Combinations in Upper General Secondary Education. . . . . . . . . 29 Table 3.3 Key Characteristics of TVET Schools and Students, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Table 4.1 School-Based Management Initiatives in Rwanda in 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Table 4.2 Indicators for Measuring the Autonomy of Rwandan HLIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 vi POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Table 4.3 Academic Ranks and their Respective Appointment and/or Promotion Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Table 4.4 Faculty Turnover Rates at Four Rwandan HLIs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Table 4.5 Trends in Public Expenditures, 2005–2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Table 4.6 Education Budget Execution by Education Subsector in Rwanda, 2003–2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Table 5.1 Summary of Possible Government Interventions in PBET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Table 5.2 Reform Options Listed by Strategic Objective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Table 5.3 Guiding Principles for a Possible TVET Funding Mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Table 5.4 Key Reform Options that Improve Cost Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Table 5.5  Policy Options for Expanding Access to and Increasing the Relevance and Quality of PBET, by Impact, SubSegment, and Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Table A1.1 Type of Employment by Educational Level and Location, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Table A1.2 Type of Employment by Educational Level and Gender, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Table A2.1 Determinants of Log Earnings (Spline Regression, 2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Table A3.1 Examples of the Tripartite Typology in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Table A7.1 Summary of TVET Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Table A8.1 Summary of Draft WDA Strategic and Action Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Table A10.1 Roles and Responsibilities of HLI Governance Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Table A12.1 Budget Execution of Teacher Salaries, by District, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 I ntroductory note vii Introductory note Improved access to and quality of upper secondary schools, teacher training colleges, Higher Learning Institu- tions (HLIs), and demand-driven Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) courses to supply the demand for the higher-level skills and competencies relevant to labor market needs remains a central priority for the Ministry of Education in Rwanda. Since the original analysis and drafting of this report took place there have been a number of changes within the PBET sector and progress has been made on various areas of policy implementation discussed in the report. Most significantly, the government of Rwanda announced in 2010 that all students would be entitled to access fee-free education until the end of upper secondary school (or equivalent). Following the introduction of this 12 Year Education Policy, access to fee-free education beyond lower secondary is being phased in, starting in 2012. This policy move addresses some of the concerns raised in the report to ensure that increasing numbers of basic edu- cation graduates can move on to PBET. The transition rate from basic education (S3) to upper secondary (S4) has now reached 94 percent—against a 2008 baseline of 86 percent. Access has continued to expand across all areas of capacity development at all levels and new financing mecha- PBET over the last few years. As of  2011, 144,695  stu- nisms, plus additional funding to increase infrastructure, dents (of which  49  percent were girls) were enrolled in equipment, teachers, and trainers. This implementation upper secondary education, including technical secondary will be led by the Workforce Development Agency, which schools (55,033 students). An additional 11,315 students was a relatively new institution at the time this report was were enrolled in Vocational Training Centers (VTCs), drafted, but has since become well established and will and 73,674 students were enrolled in higher learning insti- address some of the issues raised in this report regarding tutions, of which 43 percent were female. In addition to the management and governance of TVET. improved access, progress has also been made on curriculum The higher education sector also continues to undergo development and private sector partnerships to promote the reforms. Most significantly, these include the proposed cre- development of catalytic skills and expand practice-based ation of the University of Rwanda, which will amalgamate learning to ensure that learning within PBET institutions is all public HLIs under one umbrella body. Once established, more closely aligned with labor market demands. this will have significant implications for the management, Plans to implement the 12 Year Education Policy include governance, and quality assurance of public HLIs. Financ- further expansion of TVET provision, recognizing that equip- ing of higher education has also been under review, with ping young people with technical and vocational skills is one potential reforms to be made to student financing and of the key elements for economic growth and job creation financing mechanisms to ensure that the financing of higher within Rwanda. Implementation of this policy will require education remains sustainable. viii POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA The government of Rwanda continues to prioritize PBET, in Teacher Training Colleges and Colleges of Education, recognizing the investment required to provide quality edu- 14 percent to TVET, and 26 percent to higher education, cation and training, and to respond to increasing demand including teacher training at the degree level. for postbasic education. In  2012/13  public expenditures on PBET are budgeted at RWF 66,110,502,955. This rep- resents 55 percent of the education sector budget. Of the Dr. Vincent Biruta total education budget, 13 percent has been allocated to Minister of Education upper secondary education, 2.3 percent to teacher training Republic of Rwanda ACK N OW L E DG MENTS ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was prepared by the government of Rwanda and the World Bank, and cofinanced by the Norwegian Post Basic Education and Training Fund. The Rwandan government team worked under the overall guidance of the Minister of Education, initially the Honorable Minister Daphrose Gahakwa and subsequently the Honorable Minister Charles Murigande and the Honorable Minister Vincent Biruta. The technical government team was led, in turn, by Claver Yisa, former Act- ing Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education (MINEDUC); Samuel Mulindwa, former Acting Permanent Secretary and Director of Planning of MINEDUC; and Sharon Haba, Permanent Secretary of MINEDUC. A large number of MINEDUC staff and various educational institutions also contributed to the development of the report, including Joseph Mfinanga, Charles Gahima, Jean Damascene Gatabazi, Callixte Kayisire, Narcisse Musabeyezu, Papias Musafiri, Emmanuel Muvunyi, Emma Rubagumya, and John Rutayisire. The World Bank team consisted of Margo Hoftijzer Development partners in Kigali also contributed to the (task team leader), Sam Mikhail, John Middleton, and report by providing details on recent policy reforms, as Paul Masterjerb. The team greatly benefited from the con- well as comments and suggestions at various stages of the tributions of Richard Johanson, Anke Weber, and Richard drafting process. In particular, U.K. Department of Interna- Sack. Michel Welmond (lead education specialist) provided tional Development (DFID) colleagues Richard Arden, Iris overall technical guidance. Peer reviewers for the concept Uyttersprot, and Allison Girdwood provided strong support. note were Erik Bloom and Alexandria Valerio, and for the World Bank Country Managers Victoria Kwakwa and final report, Andreas Blom, Erik Bloom, and Soren Nelle- Omowunmi Ladipo and Sector Managers Lynne Sherburne- man. The authors further benefited from the comments Benz, Christopher Thomas, and Sajitha Bashir strongly and contributions of Fadila Caillaud, Peter Darvas, Kene supported the development of the report. Excellent admin- Ezemenari, Keiko Inoue, Pierre Kamano, Peter Osei, Atou istrative assistance was received from Nadege Nouviale, Seck, and Ryoko Wilcox. Sylvie Ingabire, and Norosoa Adrianaivo. Finally, Peggy McInerny edited the document. P RE FACE xi PREFACE The government of Rwanda, like governments in many other countries in the developing world, has in past years paid particular attention to increasing access to and improving the quality of basic education. These efforts have resulted in large increases in enrollment rates and progressive improvements in the quality of education available to the countries’ youngest pupils. Past progress has been such that the government has been able to expand its focus to postbasic education and training (PBET). This is not to say that the government’s agenda in basic education is complete: increasing access, particularly to lower secondary education (i.e., the last three years of the nine-year basic education cycle), and improving the quality of basic education as a whole will require continuing attention in the short- to medium- term. Nonetheless, the expansion of the government’s focus to include PBET is justified for two main reasons. First, from the perspective of the education sector, demand for postbasic education is on the rise, as increasing numbers of pupils complete basic education and want to continue learning before entering the world of work. Second, from a broader and perhaps more important perspective, the skills base of the country’s labor force needs to be substantially upgraded if Rwanda is to maintain strong growth performance and reach its ambitious economic and social development goals. Postbasic education and training is the principal vehicle through which these goals will be achieved. In order for postbasic education and training to be the foreseeable future is a dual challenge. This challenge a strong contributor to Rwanda’s continuous economic can be met with carefully considered investments and development, it needs to provide access to a growing and policy reforms that create an enabling environment for increasingly diversified student body. At the same time, public and private education providers to help students the knowledge content and type of skills acquired through acquire appropriate knowledge and skills in a cost-efficient PBET must be better tailored to labor market demand. manner. Key PBET stakeholders in Rwanda, from civil PBET not only needs to prepare graduates for the labor servants in the Ministry of Education to management market that they will enter right after graduation. Given and teaching staff in educational institutions, are well that graduates are expected to be active labor market par- aware of these challenges and are progressively taking ticipants for around four decades, it also needs to prepare steps to address them. This is evidenced by, among other them to work in a continuously changing environment things, the increasing extent to which the ministry and and adapt appropriately. educational institutions are reaching out to private sector Increasing access and demand-responsiveness in a representatives to help shape the content of the education resource environment that will remain constrained for and training that they provide. xii POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA This report was developed in conjunction with the The subsequent two chapters look at the postbasic educa- Rwanda Education Country Status Report,1 which provides tion and training system in more detail. Chapter 3 describes a description of key aspects of the education sector as a the context of PBET policies and strategies and the structure whole with particular emphasis on quality improvement of the PBET system, highlighting the key features of its in basic education. The present report takes the perspec- various segments. Chapter 4 focuses on the governance, tive that Rwanda’s PBET system is the country’s principle management, and financing of the PBET system. Finally, mechanism for generating the skilled labor force needed Chapter 5 builds on the preceding chapters to offer a set to become a middle-income, knowledge- and expert-based of policy options that, when implemented, are expected economy. It therefore starts by describing Rwanda’s recent to contribute to the promotion of a well-integrated and growth trends, ambitions for the future, and the role that skills -managed system, one that would provide education and development—particularly post-basic education—must play training both of high quality and relevant to a diversified to ensure that these ambitions can be reached (chapter 1). student body in a cost-efficient manner. It then proceeds to an analysis of the Rwandan labor PBET in this report is defined as all formal educa- market, exploring trends in both labor supply and demand, tion and training for which the entry requirement is the with an emphasis on the educational attainment of the completion of at least basic education. While recognizing labor force (chapter 2). Among other topics, this chapter that out-of-school and in-service education and training describes the skills composition of the current labor force can be important vehicles for acquiring knowledge and and attempts to answer the following questions: To what skills, these types of education fall outside of the scope extent is education valued by the labor market? Which of this report. However, they merit attention in a follow- levels and types of education are most in demand? In which up publication. economic sectors are certain levels and types of skills val- ued more? The overall findings of the chapter help broadly identify where skills gaps seems to be most evident (i.e., in which types and levels of education and in which economic 1  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report: Towards Quality Enhancement and Achievement of Universal sectors). These findings provide guidance on which parts Nine-Year Basic Education—An Education System in Transition; of the postbasic education system could be expanded to A Nation in Transition,� Report 57926, AFTED (Africa Education produce the greatest economic benefit. Sector Unit), World Bank, Washington, DC. A BBRE V I ATI ON S A N D ACRONYMS xiii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AEA autonomous education agency GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale AVC Area Vocational Center Zusammenarbeit (German Technical BBM Bachelor’s of Business Management Cooperation) CA career academy GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische CCDTHA Consortium Canadien de Développement Zusammenarbeit (German Technical Touristique en Afrique (Canadian Consor- Cooperation) tium of Touristic Development in Africa) HE higher education CFJ Centre de Formation de Jeunes HEC Higher Education Council (Youth Vocational Training Center) HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired CSR Country Status Report Immune Deficiency Syndrome DACUM Developing A CUrriculuM HLI Higher Learning Institution DFID Department for International Development, ICA Investment Climate Assessment UK ICAM International College of Accountancy and DG director general Management ECIV1 Enquête Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie ICT information and communication des Ménages, 2000 (Rwanda Integrated Liv- technology ing Conditions Survey 1) IFC International Finance Corporation ECIV2 Enquête Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie IGE Inspectorate General of Education des Ménages, 2006 (Rwanda Integrated Liv- INES Institut d’Enseignement Supérieur (Higher ing Conditions Survey 2) Teaching Institute) EDPRS Economic Development and Poverty Reduc- IPB Institut Polytechnique de Byumba tion Strategy IPRC Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center EMIS education management information system ISCED International Standard Classification of ENGA European Association for Quality Assur- Education ance in Higher Education ISPG Institut des Sciences Pédagogiques de Gitwe ESSP Education Sector Strategic Plan (Gitwe Institute of Pegagocial Sciences) ET École Technique (Technical Schools) JRES Joint Review of the Education Sector ETO École Technique Officielle KHI Kigali Health Institute (Official Technical School) KIE Kigali Institute of Education GDP gross domestic product KIM Kigali Institute of Management GER gross enrollment rate KIST Kigali Institute of Science and Technology xiv POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA MINECOFIN Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning TTC Teacher Training Center MINEDUC Ministry of Education TVET technical and vocational education and MIFOTRA Ministry of Public Service and Labour training MSM Maastricht School of Management, The UCK Université Catholique de Kabgayi Netherlands (Catholic University of Kabgayi) NCDC National Curriculum Development Center UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Montreal NCHE National Council for Higher Education UNATEK Université d’Agriculture, de Technologie et NGO nongovernmental organization d’Éducation de Kibungo NQF National Qualifications Framework (Kibungo University of Agriculture, NUFFIC Netherlands Organization for International Technology, and Education) Cooperation in Higher Education UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and NUR National University of Rwanda Cultural Organization ODeL open, distance, and e-learning UNILAC Université Laïque Adventiste de Kigali OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation (Adventist Lay University of Kigali) and Development UP Umutara Polytechnic PBET postbasic education and training US upper secondary (education) PSF Private Sector Federation USA United States of America QAAS Quality Assurance and Accreditation VET Vocational Education and Training System VT vocational training RDB Rwanda Development Board VTC Vocational Training Center REB Rwanda Education Board WDA Workforce Development Authority RTC Rwanda Tourism College WEI World Education Indicators Programme, RWF Rwandan franc (national currency) UNESCO SFAR Student Financing Agency of Rwanda YVTC Youth Vocational Training Center (Centre de STI science, technology, and innovation Formation des Jeunes, or CFJ) STW school to work TE technical education All dollar amounts in U.S. dollars unless otherwise TSS Technical Secondary School specified. E X ECUTI V E SUMMARY xv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In conjunction with the Rwanda Education Country Status Report (CSR),2 this publication constitutes the second of a two-part overview and assessment of Rwanda’s education sector. While the CSR provides an overview of key aspects of the overall education system, it specifically focuses on the government’s emerging emphasis on quality improvement in basic education. This publication, on the other hand, provides an overview and assessment of the country’s Postbasic Education and Training (PBET) system. In particular, the report reviews the extent to which the PBET system is geared toward generating skills that are in demand in Rwanda’s fast-changing economy and offers potential policy options for improving the quality and demand-responsiveness of, and access to, this system. Rwanda’s transition to an export-based knowledge economy requires a fundamental change in the skills base of the labor force. Rwanda is making steady progress toward changing its economy from one largely based on subsistence agriculture to one that is knowledge based, export oriented, and increasingly reliant on the manufactur- ing and service sectors. The growing share of gross domestic product (GDP) generated by these latter two sectors has coincided with a substantial shift of labor out of agriculture into these sectors. Between 2000 and 2006 (the most recent year for which comprehensive data are available) the proportion of jobs in manufacturing tripled—from a low base to 5.1 percent—and the share of employment in services approximately doubled, from about 10 percent to 20 percent. This shift is expected to have an important poverty-reducing impact, since both formal and informal jobs in manufacturing and services tend to generate substantially higher earnings than employment in agriculture. Despite these trends, two-thirds of Rwanda’s workforce Economically successful countries do not simply continues to be employed in nonwage agriculture, where require a workforce with higher educational attainment, productivity and earnings are low. For the country to but also a different skill set than less dynamic and less meet its ambitious economic development goals, the diversified economies. In particular, employers increas- move to a more modern, productive economy needs to ingly demand a higher level of behavioral, or catalytic, be accelerated, which requires enhancing the skills of the skills from their employees, including communication, labor force. Countries worldwide that have succeeded in team work, and decision-making capabilities. The absence making the transition to which Rwanda aspires have seen of these skills can strongly constrain growth in develop- major transitions in the educational attainment of their labor ing countries. Employers in Cambodia, for example, find forces as their GDP per capita steadily rose. For example, in it more difficult to find workers with catalytic skills than Korea during the 1960s, 80 percent of adults had at most with technical skills. completed primary school. In  2000, four decades later, 80  percent of Korean workers had completed secondary or higher education. 2  Ibid. xvi POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Despite the government’s consistently strong empha- been developed for this subsector. The challenge is for the sis on education and skills development and its very newly established Workforce Development Authority to successful expansion of access, educational attainment operationalize these documents in an effective manner. in Rwanda remains limited. Indeed, three-quarters of In addition to efforts to increase access, the Ministry working-age adults have not completed primary school of Education (MINEDUC) has begun to address the quality and only 3.6 percent have completed secondary or higher and relevance of PBET. In upper secondary education, for education. The better educated receive higher wage pre- example, the curriculum was streamlined in 2009 to respond miums, particularly in manufacturing and services, while to concerns that it was too demanding and overloaded. Cur- the unskilled continue to be disproportionally represented rently, challenges related to teacher qualifications and teaching in agriculture and earn significantly less. Consequently, the methods are key issues that impact the quality of education government should both expand its efforts in education at this level. At the same time, relatively low student-teacher and skills development and improve the effectiveness of its ratios represent an upward pressure on expenditures. As strategies and policies in order to enhance access and qual- described in MINEDUC’s Education and Sector Strategic ity. With well-developed, successful efforts already under Plan (ESSP) for 2010–2015, the ministry plans to revise the way in basic education, postbasic education and training upper secondary curriculum to improve its relevance to remains an area where optimal strategies and policies—and the labor market. It also intends to train teachers in upper the most effective way to implement them—remain to be general secondary education in student-centered teaching. further explored and elaborated. In higher education, growth in access has coincided with strong diversification in supply, with a rising share of stu- dents enrolled in private institutions. The National Council Status of the PostBasic Education and for Higher Education is responsible for quality assurance and Training System ensuring the accountability of both public and private higher learning institutions. The ESSP 2010–2015 plans to expand Access to PBET has increased substantially in recent years. access to higher education and strengthen its linkages with In tertiary education, enrollment grew more than fourfold, the labor market by, among other things, using open and from less than 10,000 students in 2000 to over 45,000 stu- distance learning and providing incentives to students to dents in 2008. As a result, tertiary enrollment is relatively study science and technology subjects. The government is high compared to other low-income countries in Sub-Saharan also working to widen access to higher education for poor Africa, but nevertheless very low compared to good perform- and vulnerable students in a cost-efficient manner, using ers, such as South Africa or Mauritius. Enrollment in upper means testing to allocate scholarships. secondary education increased by a factor of 2.3 over the The PBET system is characterized by a small core same period. Nevertheless, the gross enrollment rate at that ministry, autonomous education agencies with policy level is rather low compared to that of other low-income implementation mandates, and decentralized operational Sub-Saharan countries. In addition, there are indications responsibilities. The decentralization of responsibilities to that increasing numbers of basic education graduates are not districts has not yet been accompanied by sufficient increases gaining access to upper secondary education. These numbers in staff numbers at the district level. Communication between are likely to rise as a result of government efforts to further the core ministry and the autonomous education agencies expand access and completion rates for basic education. (AEAs) is generally relatively strong. The relatively weak While the government recognizes that upper secondary capacity of the ministry results in a strong voice for the education may become a constraint to further expansion AEAs in policy decisions. Quality management systems and therefore access to it also needs to be increased, it is and processes are, to varying degrees, still being developed uncertain whether it can make the investments needed in in all PBET subsectors. Likewise, a framework that would the near future, given that substantial resources are still encourage lifelong learning and facilitate transitions between being allocated to expand lower secondary education. PBET subsectors has yet to be developed. The Workforce Access to formal technical and vocational education Development Authority has, however, started to design and and training (TVET) is limited; the quality and relevance operationalize a TVET qualifications framework. of this training is also generally considered very weak. A Allocations to the education sector in Rwanda comprehensive set of strategic and policy documents have have consistently been below internationally accepted E X ECUTI V E SUMMARY xvii standards.3 Although public expenditures on education have students enrolled in PBET, the more important it becomes grown strongly in nominal terms over the past decade, recur- that they learn what is needed in the most efficient manner. rent educational expenditures remain less than 4 percent For each identified weakness in PBET delivery, the of GDP and less than 25 percent of total public recurrent justification for public intervention needs to be deter- expenditures. In recent years, a relatively large share of mined before government action is considered. The “public resources has been allocated to higher education. While good� nature of essential elements of the PBET framework this policy can be justified by the underdeveloped state of and positive externalities associated with the presence of higher education in Rwanda, the trade-off has been fewer well-skilled workers in the workforce are strong reasons resources for other segments of the education system. MIN- for structural government involvement, as are the imper- EDUC has begun to reduce the higher education allocation fect information and myopia that limit demand for PBET. of the budget and is developing and implementing reforms Equity considerations related to access to and the relevance to improve cost-efficiency that would promote further of PBET for disadvantaged groups are another justification expansion of tertiary education. for governmental involvement. Yet other reasons provide The public unit cost of secondary education is only temporary arguments for public intervention, such as approximately 6 times that of primary education. Pub- current financial market failures that limit access to capital lic expenditures per student in higher education are for both (potential) providers and students and the fact that around  56  times the unit cost of primary education, the emerging private PBET market requires support until it which is considerably higher than the average East African is better established. ratio of 24:1. As cost data do not disaggregate general and The appropriate role of government thus needs to be technical streams in secondary education, there is some carefully determined. Given limited public resources and ambiguity about the relative unit costs of general upper a preference for strong private sector involvement, PBET and lower secondary education. While higher unit costs in reforms in Rwanda may be most effective by emphasizing general upper secondary are expected, it is unclear whether the role of government as a “facilitator� that provides an this is the case in Rwanda. optimal enabling environment for private sector stakeholders, Private contributions make up an increasing share of rather than as a “financer� or “provider.� As noted above, total PBET expenditures for a number of reasons, including however, there are strong arguments for the government rising enrollment in private higher education institutions. to finance and/or provide PBET for specific subjects, in Nevertheless, household contributions to higher education specific locations, or to specific students, not least because as a share of total expenditures are, at 40 percent, consider- nonpublic stakeholders (i.e., students, enterprises, and ably lower than private contributions to general secondary providers) each face constraints that prevent them from education (59 percent for lower secondary and 86 percent for optimally participating in the PBET system. upper secondary education). MINEDUC’s efforts to rational- Improving the PBET system is a continuous process; ize the allocation of scholarships in the sector by awarding it is clear that not all reform options presented here them to students in most need may reduce this discrepancy. can be implemented simultaneously. Ideally, the set of interventions that the government decides to implement should (1) target the most crucial objectives in the most The Way Forward: Expanding Access efficient manner; (2)  achieve both a short-term and a while Improving Quality and Relevance more structural medium- to long-term impact; and (3) be successfully implemented on the basis of existing human Rwanda faces the dual challenge of expanding access resources, financial capacity, and stakeholder commitment. to PBET and increasing its quality and relevance. Con- The following five strategic objectives are identified sidering both the substantial wage premiums associated for accelerating the expansion of access and improving with any type and level of PBET and the low educational the quality and relevancy of postbasic education and attainment of the labor force, expanding access can be training. Various reform options for achieving each of considered Rwanda’s principal challenge in the sector. these objectives are then described, a key set of which Investments to increase access should be accompanied by interventions that improve the quality and relevance of 3  These standards are 5 percent of GDP and 25–30 percent of total this level of education. After all, the greater the number of public recurrent expenditures. xviii POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA are described in this report. The options are a mix of new Possible interventions to improve the quality and possibilities and those that the government already intends relevance of general upper secondary education include to implement. Indeed, several reform options have already strengthening in- and pre-service training to enhance teach- been incorporated into MINEDUC’s ESSP 2010–2015 and ers’ knowledge of subject content and student-centered are envisaged to be included in the ESSP 2013/14–2017/18. teaching approaches. Also, general upper secondary curricula and examinations would benefit from a stronger alignment Strategic objective #1: Expand access and with labor market demand for knowledge and skills. The cater to a more diversified student body current curriculum is considered quite content heavy, so the challenge here will be to strike the right balance between This objective could be fulfilled by a number of reform improving the extent to which students acquire catalytic options, including actions to increase access to publicly skills through education and at the same time, achieving provided general upper secondary education, implement an appropriate transfer of content knowledge. Given that the existing open- and distance-learning proposal in a a large share of general secondary graduates will enter the sustainable manner, and support high-quality technical labor market rather than pursue higher education, it is also education through Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centers crucial that secondary schools forge stronger links with the (IPRCs). General upper secondary education risks becom- world of work so that students acquire the knowledge and ing a bottleneck to PBET expansion, hampering both the skills demanded by employers. entry of graduates into the labor market and the inflow of With respect to providing quality and relevant vocational students into higher education. Considering the relatively training, there are constraints on most types of system low cost of providing general upper secondary education inputs; ideally, these would be addressed in an integrated compared to, for example, quality TVET, expanding publicly manner. One reform option is to improve the quality at provided general upper secondary education would be a entry of vocational training students. This option is already cost-efficient approach to the access challenge. being implemented, as vocational training (VT) entrants are The government’s existing proposal for a senior second- increasingly expected to have completed basic education ary open- and distance-learning program would provide and thus have a higher potential to acquire appropriate additional, cost-efficient pathways to secondary education skills than primary education graduates or dropouts (who for basic education graduates of any age. A government- mostly used to populate training centers). financed approach may be appropriate to kick-start the Other reform options include actions to: redesign implementation of such a program. Finally, the IPRCs offer competency-based curricula and associated assessment opportunities to strengthen synergies and achieve economies mechanisms, retrain teachers, develop and implement of scale across different levels of technical and vocational industrial attachment programs,4 and ensure that providers education, including by offering shorter and less costly have both the physical and human capacity to effectively alternatives to traditional higher education. run vocational training programs. Substantial private sec- tor involvement will be needed in the design and delivery Strategic objective #2: Improve the quality of new vocational programs, particularly of curricula and and relevance of both PBET and general industrial attachments, in order to ensure their relevance upper secondary education to the workplace. As part of these reforms, the reasons for the underperformance of vocationally trained women This objective implies a number of reform options. Options on the labor market should be analyzed and addressed. for improving the quality and relevance of all subsegments Immediate actions in this sphere could include ensuring the of PBET include the establishment of a harmonized quality “girl-friendliness� of TVET institutions by providing separate assurance and accreditation system and the creation of quality lavatories (and showers, where required) for boys and girls assurance units in all PBET institutions. Reforms could also and incorporating gender-sensitivity into teacher training. include continuous monitoring of the level of skills attain- With respect to nonformal training, options to facilitate ment of PBET students and the alignment of these skills with private provision include establishing a competitive training labor market demand, enabling policy makers and education fund that would subsidize private (and public) providers and training institutions to respond to identified weaknesses through improved or new interventions and policies. 4  In the Rwandan context, “attachment� is the term for internship. E X ECUTI V E SUMMARY xix that offer quality, relevant training; transfer underutilized relatively easily among them. In order to support student youth VTCs to local governments or NGOs through a com- mobility and lifelong learning, an appropriate, cost-efficient petitive process; and support the sound monitoring and qualifications system is needed for PBET. Although National evaluation of nonformal training in order to disseminate Qualifications Frameworks (NQFs) have been the object of lessons learned to all stakeholders. growing international interest, their performance has been mixed, implying that a cautious approach is recommended, Strategic objective #3: Increase and diversify including regular strategic reviews, when this approach is funding for and improve the cost-efficiency of implemented in Rwanda. PBET expenditures A well-integrated PBET system will ensure that reforms in any subsegment of the system are developed taking into There are two principal approaches to improving the out- account the interdependencies of system elements. A strong comes of the PBET system in a resource-constrained environ- coordination and decision-making framework is thus needed ment, which should be pursued simultaneously: (1) increase to align and coordinate the activities of all AEAs with a the amount of (private and public) funding available for PBET mandate with one another and with the Ministry of PBET, and (2) improve the cost-efficiency of expenditures. Education, guided by a clear sense of overall goals and a In other words, acquiring more funds and spending them concrete strategy for addressing the subsector’s key chal- better. Public resources for PBET could be increased by lenges. The strategic and policy guidance of MINEDUC is making more funding available to the education sector or, particularly needed with respect to TVET (a new respon- alternatively, allocating a larger share of education funding sibility for the ministry), both to ensure its integration into to the PBET subsector. Clearly, these options need to be the overall PBET system and to assist the relatively new carefully considered in the light of available fiscal space and WDA in fulfilling its extensive mandate. alternative spending priorities in the education sector and beyond. Various options exist to encourage private invest- Strategic objective #5: Improve governance, ments in PBET. Examples include reforming the existing the management framework, and PBET policy framework to better facilitate private provision management capacity of education and training, while safeguarding its quality; providing government guarantees to banks that provide An appropriate degree of autonomy of educational insti- credit to private schools, provided that they meet specific tutions, when combined with suitable accountability criteria; and strengthening the capacity of public providers and sufficient capacity at all levels to effectively man- to conduct resource-generating activities. Investments by age the system, can greatly contribute to the quality and households could also be encouraged by facilitating access cost effectiveness of PBET. To optimally benefit from the to credit for students. decentralization reforms undertaken to date in Rwanda, The use of performance-based financing is a potentially accountability reforms could be introduced and efforts promising option for improving the cost-efficiency of PBET made to strengthen the management capacity of schools. expenditures, including their allocation and deployment. Strengthened accountability mechanisms and management Regardless of whether the government introduces this type capacity will, in turn, allow for further decentralization of of funding, a sustainable, effective, and transparent fund- responsibilities to schools, with a further expected positive ing model for TVET will be needed. As a first step toward impact on cost efficiency. such a model, MINEDUC and the Workforce Development Finally, MINEDUC’s increasing focus on educational Authority (WDA) could adopt a set of guiding principles quality and PBET may justify a review of staff responsibilities that target funds from different sources for particular uses. throughout the education sector (particularly at MINEDUC and the AEAs). Ultimately, the shift in priority areas may Strategic objective #4: Establish a better- be translated into a revised ministry organizational chart. integrated PBET system Efficiency gains could potentially be achieved by clarify- ing or revising roles and responsibilities across various A well-integrated PBET system requires a well-coordinated governmental bodies (i.e., the core ministry, AEAs, and decision-making framework that involves all PBET subseg- lower-level government administrations), as well as among ments and offers students the possibility of transitioning staff in these institutions. xx POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Several reform options for improving the quality and Summary of Strategic Objectives Box E.1  |  relevance of PBET can be implemented simultaneously and Associated Reform Options by different implementation partners, often at relatively moderate cost. The task of MINEDUC is to identify the most Strategic objective #1: Expand access and cater to a more diversi- appropriate interventions based on their expected impact fied student body and the feasibility of their successful implementation. Increase access to publicly provided general upper secondary education Improvements in governance and management, Implement the existing open- and distance-learning proposal in a management capacity, and cost efficiency are cru- sustainable manner cial. Policy options related to these aspects should be Support high-quality technical education through Integrated Polytechnic considered seriously. While implementation of these Regional Centers reforms requires relatively strong leadership and plan- ning capacity on the part of MINEDUC, the potential Strategic objective #2: Improve the quality and relevance of both positive impact of these reforms strongly outweighs PBET and general upper secondary education their cost. An appropriate approach may be optimistic Establish a harmonized Quality Assurance and Accreditation System for caution, starting with one of the few relatively uncompli- PBET, including quality assurance units in all PBET institutions cated reforms and implementing it in a well-planned and Continuously monitor the level of skills attainment of PBET students and -monitored fashion so that lessons learned can subsequently the alignment of these skills with labor market demand be incorporated into the design and implementation of more Improve upper secondary teachers’ knowledge of subject content and complicated, far-reaching reforms. student-centered teaching approaches through in- and pre-service training Rwanda may prioritize the expansion of upper general Align general upper secondary curricula and examinations with revised secondary education by expanding public schools and requirements for knowledge and skills acquisition at the secondary level improving the enabling framework for private provision. Improve secondary school linkages with the labor market The former should be accompanied by interventions to improve cost efficiency and increase the fiscal space avail- Improve the quality and relevance of all VT “inputs,� including students able for constructing and equipping classrooms for upper Develop and implement actions to improve the quality and relevance secondary education. Regarding TVET, the government is of vocational training for girls taking the correct approach by addressing weaknesses in Support the private provision of relevant, quality nonformal training quality and relevance hand in hand with expanding access. Strategic objective #3: Increase and diversify funding for and improve the cost-efficiency of PBET expenditures Increase public and private resources for PBET Improve the cost-efficiency of PBET delivery Strategic objective #4: Establish a better-integrated PBET system Develop an appropriate, cost-efficient qualifications system to support student mobility and lifelong learning Strengthen the PBET decision-making framework and ensure the integration of TVET into this framework Strategic objective #5: Improve governance, the management framework, and management capacity Strengthen the autonomy-accountability-capacity triad for public PBET institutions Align staffing and staff responsibilities at MINEDUC, AEAs, and the decentralized level with the Education Sector Strategic Plan RÉ SUMÉ E X ÉCUT IF xxi RÉSUMÉ EXÉCUTIF La présente publication constitue, avec le Rapport sur la situation de l’éducation au Rwanda (CSR),5 la seconde partie d’une présentation générale et évaluation du secteur de l’éducation au Rwanda. Parallèlement à une présentation générale des principaux aspects de l’ensemble du système éducatif, le Rapport sur la situation de l’éducation se concentre principalement sur l’amélioration de la qualité de l’éducation de base, un thème sur lequel insistent de plus en plus les pouvoirs publics. Cette publication propose en revanche une vue d’ensemble et éva- luation du système d’éducation et formation post-primaire (PBET). Le rapport examine en particulier la question de savoir dans quelle mesure la conception du système d’éducation et formation post-primaire permet de créer des compétences dont la demande existe effectivement au sein de l’économie rwandaise qui passe par une phase de transformation rapide ; il propose des moyens d’action possible pour améliorer la qualité, la sensibilité à la demande et l’accessibilité du système. La transition du Rwanda vers une économie du savoir fondée sur l’exportation fait appel à des changements fondamentaux au plan de la base des compétences de la main-d’œuvre. Le pays amorce une évolution soutenue visant à transformer son économie pour passer d’un modèle basé sur l’agriculture de subsistance à un modèle fondé sur le savoir, soutenu par l’exportation et davantage adossé à l’industrie de la transformation et au secteur des services. La part croissante du produit intérieur brut (PIB) généré par ces deux secteurs coïncide avec un chan- gement marqué par le transfert de la main-d’œuvre, de l’agriculture vers ces deux secteurs. Entre 2000 et 2006 (les deux années les plus récentes pour lesquelles des données exhaustives sont disponibles), la proportion d’emplois dans le secteur manufacturier a triplé, passant d’un niveau relativement bas à 5,1 %, et la proportion d’emplois dans les services a presque doublé, passant de quelque 10 % à 20 %. Ce changement devrait avoir une incidence importante sur la réduction de la pauvreté, dans la mesure où les emplois formels et informels dans les secteurs de la transformation et des services ont la particularité de contribuer à créer des revenus sensiblement plus élevés que ceux du secteur agricole. Malgré cette tendance, les deux tiers de la main-d’œuvre Les pays du monde qui sont parvenus à opérer la transition du pays continuent d’être employés dans le secteur agricole à laquelle aspire le Rwanda ont vu prendre forme des chan- non salarié dans lequel la productivité et les revenus sont gements majeurs au plan du niveau d’instruction de leur faibles. Pour que le pays soit en mesure de réaliser ses main-d’œuvre, parallèlement à une augmentation soutenue ambitieux objectifs de développement économique, il de leur PIB par habitant. Par exemple, en Corée, durant les y a lieu d’accélérer l’évolution vers une économie plus années 1960, 80 % d’adultes avaient tout au plus achevé moderne et plus productive, et cela passe inévitablement par le renforcement des compétences de la main-d’œuvre. 5  Ibid. xxii POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA le niveau scolaire primaire. En 2000, soit quatre décennies au moins, passant de moins de 10 000 étudiants en 2000 à plus tard, 80 % de travailleurs coréens avaient achevé le plus de 45 000 en 2008. Il s’en suit que les effectifs sont niveau secondaire ou tertiaire du système éducatif. relativement élevés dans le supérieur, comparé à d’autres Les pays qui enregistrent des succès au plan éco- pays à faible revenu d’Afrique subsaharienne, mais tout de nomique ne se contentent pas de se doter d’une main- même très faibles lorsqu’on les compare à ceux de pays d’œuvre ayant un niveau d’instruction plus élevé, mais tels que l’Afrique du Sud et l’Île Maurice qui obtiennent de offrent aussi à leurs travailleurs un ensemble différent de bons résultats. Les effectifs du second cycle de l’enseigne- compétences, comparé aux pays dont les économies sont ment secondaire ont été multipliés par 2,3 durant la même moins dynamiques et moins diversifiées. En particulier, période. Cependant, le taux de scolarisation brut enregistré les employeurs exigent de plus en plus de leurs employés dans ce cycle scolaire reste plutôt faible, comparé à celui un niveau plus élevé de compétences dans les domaines d’autres pays subsahariens à faible revenu. De plus, il semble du comportement et des aspects catalyseurs, notamment la qu’un nombre croissant d’élèves ayant achevé l’éducation communication, le travail d’équipe et les capacités de prise de base n’accède pas au second cycle d’études secondaires. de décisions. L’absence de ces compétences peut fortement Les chances sont élevées de voir ces chiffres augmenter en freiner la croissance dans les pays en développement. Par conséquence des actions menées par l’État pour élargir l’accès exemple, au Cambodge, les employeurs éprouvent plus de dif- à l’éducation de base et en accroître le taux d’achèvement. ficultés à trouver des travailleurs possédant des compétences Si les pouvoirs publics sont conscients que le second cycle catalytiques que ceux ayant des compétences techniques. du secondaire peut poser des problèmes à une expansion Bien que le gouvernement insiste invariablement plus grande et que, par conséquent, l’accès à ce cycle d’édu- sur l’éducation et le perfectionnement, et en dépit des cation doit être accru, il n’est pas certain qu’ils soient en résultats très positifs obtenus dans l’expansion de l’accès mesure de consentir les investissements nécessaires dans à l’éducation, le degré d’instruction reste insuffisant au l’avenir proche, étant donné que des ressources importantes Rwanda. En effet, les trois quarts des adultes en âge de continuent d’être allouées à l’élargissement de l’accès au travailler n’ont pas achevé l’école primaire et seulement 3,6 premier cycle de l’enseignement secondaire. % ont achevé l’éducation secondaire ou supérieure. Les L’accès à la formation technique et professionnelle personnes les plus éduquées perçoivent des salaires plus est limité et, en général, la qualité et l’adéquation de ce élevés, en particulier dans les secteurs de la transforma- type de formation sont aussi très faibles. Un ensemble tion et des services, alors que les travailleurs non qualifiés global de documents de stratégie et d’actions à mener ont continuent d’être représentés de manière disproportionnée été élaborés pour ce sous-secteur. Il revient à l’organisme dans l’agriculture, et sont nettement moins bien rémunérés. récemment créé pour la valorisation de la main-d’œuvre Le gouvernement doit par conséquent intensifier ses efforts (Workforce Development Authority – WDA) de traduire dans dans les domaines de l’éducation et du développement les faits, et de manière efficace, le contenu de ces documents. des compétences et accroître l’efficacité de ses stratégies En plus des efforts visant à élargir l’accès, le ministère et politiques pour améliorer l’accès et la qualité. Alors que de l’Éducation (MINEDUC) a commencé à s’attaquer à des initiatives avancées et très positives sont en cours à la question de la qualité et de l’adéquation du système l’échelon de l’éducation de base, l’éducation et la formation d’éducation et formation post-primaire. Par exemple, au post-primaire reste un domaine dans lequel les stratégies niveau du second cycle de l’enseignement secondaire, le et les politiques optimales —et la meilleure manière de les programme scolaire a été rationalisé en 2009 pour répondre mettre en œuvre— gagneraient à bénéficier d’un surcroît à l’observation suivant laquelle il était bien trop astreignant de recherche et de travail de formulation. et excessivement chargé. Les questions relatives aux qua- lifications des enseignants et aux méthodes didactiques constituent actuellement les principaux problèmes qui Situation du système d’éducation et influent sur la qualité de l’éducation à l’échelon du second formation post-primaire cycle de l’éducation secondaire. Parallèlement, les ratios élèves-enseignant relativement faibles observés exercent L’accès à l’éducation et à la formation post-primaire s’est une pression sur l’augmentation des dépenses. Comme amélioré sensiblement au cours des dernières années. Au décrit dans le Plan d’éducation et de stratégie sectorielle niveau tertiaire, les effectifs se sont multipliés par quatre (ESSP) pour la période  2010–2015, le ministère entend RÉ SUMÉ E X ÉCUT IF xxiii réviser le programme du second cycle de l’enseignement des dix dernières années les dépenses publiques consacrées secondaire pour en améliorer l’adéquation par rapport au à l’éducation ont fortement augmenté en valeur nominale, marché du travail. Il envisage également de former les les dépenses de fonctionnement restent inférieures à 4 % enseignants du second cycle aux méthodes d’enseignement du PIB et représentent moins de 25 % du total des dépenses centrées sur l’élève. Dans le cycle supérieur, l’élargisse- publiques de fonctionnement. Durant les dernières années, ment de l’accès a coïncidé avec une forte diversification une part relativement large des ressources a été allouée à de l’offre, une proportion croissante d’étudiants s’inscri- l’enseignement supérieur. Bien qu’une telle politique puisse vant dans des établissements privés. Le Conseil national être justifiée au regard du niveau relativement peu avancé de l’enseignement supérieur (National Council for Higher de l’enseignement supérieur au Rwanda, il en a résulté, Education) est responsable de l’assurance qualité et veille en contrepartie, une réduction des ressources allouées à l’éthique de responsabilité des établissements publics aux autres segments du système éducatif. Le ministère de et privés d’enseignement supérieur. L’ESSP couvrant la l’Éducation a commencé à réduire la part du budget allouée période  2010–2015  prévoit l’élargissement de l’accès à à l’éducation supérieure ; il procède à la formulation et à l’éducation supérieure et le renforcement des liens avec le l’application de réformes destinées à améliorer l’efficacité marché du travail à travers, entre autres, l’apprentissage au plan des coûts, de manière à promouvoir plus avant libre et le téléenseignement, et au moyen d’incitations aux l’expansion de l’enseignement supérieur. étudiants pour les attirer vers les disciplines scientifiques Le coût unitaire de l’éducation secondaire supporté et technologiques. Les autorités œuvrent aussi à élargir de par l’État est six fois supérieur à celui de l’éducation manière économique l’accès à l’enseignement supérieur primaire. Les dépenses publiques par étudiant dans le des étudiants pauvres et vulnérables, ce en utilisant, pour cycle supérieur sont environ  56  fois plus élevées que l’attribution de bourses d’études, un système d’évaluation le coût unitaire de l’éducation primaire, qui est de loin des ressources. supérieur au ratio moyen de 24:1 observé en Afrique de Le système d’éducation et formation post-primaire est l’Est. Dans la mesure où les données ne sont pas désagrégées caractérisé par un ministère central de petite envergure, en fonction des filières générales et techniques du cycle des entités autonomes d’éducation (Autonomous Edu- secondaire de l’éducation, une certaine ambiguïté persiste cation Agencies – AEA) dotées de missions d’exécution autour des coûts unitaires relatifs du second cycle et du des mesures envisagées et de responsabilités décen- premier cycle de l’enseignement secondaire général. Si l’on tralisées au plan opérationnel. La décentralisation des peut s’attendre à des coûts unitaires plus élevés à l’échelon responsabilités vers les districts ne s’est pas accompagnée du second cycle d’études secondaires générales, il n’est pas d’une augmentation suffisante du nombre d’agents au certain que cela se soit confirmé dans le cas du Rwanda. service de cet échelon infranational. Le ministère central Les ressources privées prennent une part de plus en et les AEA maintiennent entre eux une communication plus importante dans les dépenses totales d’éducation relativement bonne. Face aux capacités relativement et formation post-primaire, cela pour un certain nombre faibles du ministère, les AEA pèsent lourdement sur les de raisons dont notamment l’effectif croissant d’étudiants décisions stratégiques. À des degrés divers, les systèmes et inscrits dans des établissements privés d’enseignement les processus de gestion de la qualité sont encore en cours supérieur. Cela dit, la contribution des ménages à l’en- d’élaboration dans les sous-secteurs de l’éducation et la seignement supérieur en proportion des dépenses totales formation post-primaire. De même, il reste à formuler un à hauteur de  40 % est considérablement inférieure aux cadre favorable à l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie et contributions privées au cycle secondaire général (59 % susceptible de faciliter la transition entre les sous-secteurs pour le premier cycle secondaire et 86 % pour le second de l’éducation et la formation post-primaire. L’organisme cycle d’études secondaires). L’initiative prise par le ministère chargé de la valorisation de la main-d’œuvre (WDA) a de l’Éducation de rationaliser l’allocation des bourses dans cependant commencé à concevoir et mettre en application le secteur en les attribuant aux étudiants qui en ont le plus un cadre des qualifications pour la formation technique besoin pourrait contribuer à réduire cet écart. et professionnelle. De tout temps, le budget alloué au secteur de l’édu- cation au Rwanda a toujours été inférieur aux normes 6  Cela donne les normes suivantes : 5 % du PIB et 25 à 30 % des reconnues au plan international.6 S’il est vrai qu’au cours dépenses courantes totales. xxiv POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Perspectives : Élargir l’accès à l’éducation l’accent est mis sur le rôle des pouvoirs publics en tant que tout en en améliorant la qualité et « facilitateur » capable de créer un environnement favorable l’adéquation optimal pour les acteurs du secteur privé plutôt que celui de « pourvoyeur de financements » ou « prestataire de ser- Le Rwanda est confronté à la fois au problème de l’élar- vices ». Cependant, comme indiqué ci-dessus, de bonnes gissement de l’accès au système d’éducation et formation raisons expliquent que l’État finance et/ou fournisse des post-primaire et à celui de l’amélioration de la qualité services d’éducation et formation post-primaire en termes et de l’adéquation de son système éducatif. Étant donné de disciplines spécifiques, dans des localités précises, ou les salaires substantiellement élevés liés à l’éducation et à des élèves donnés, ce notamment parce que les acteurs la formation post-primaire, quel qu’en soit le niveau et non publics (les élèves, les entreprises et les prestataires de le type, et compte tenu du niveau d’instruction relative- services) sont individuellement confrontés à des problèmes ment faible de la main-d’œuvre, l’on peut considérer que qui les empêchent de participer au système d’éducation et l’élargissement de l’accès du système éducatif constitue le formation post-primaire de manière optimale. principal problème que rencontre le Rwanda dans le secteur. L’amélioration du système d’éducation et formation Les investissements consentis pour accroître l’accessibilité post-primaire est un processus continu ; à l’évidence, doivent s’accompagner d’interventions visant à améliorer la tous les choix de réforme présentés ici ne sauraient être qualité et la pertinence de cet échelon du système éducatif. appliqués simultanément. L’idéal serait que l’ensemble des En dernière analyse, plus nombreux sont les élèves inscrits interventions que les autorités publiques décident de mener dans le système d’éducation et formation post-primaire, puissent : 1) cibler les objectifs les plus fondamentaux, et plus il est important qu’ils apprennent ce qu’il y a lieu ce de la manière la plus efficace qui soit ; 2) obtenir un d’apprendre de la manière la plus efficace possible. impact à court terme et un impact à caractère plus struc- Pour chaque faiblesse identifiée dans la prestation turel à moyen, voire long terme ; et 3) être exécutées avec de services d’éducation et formation post-primaire, il est succès sur la base des ressources humaines, des capacités indispensable de justifier l’intervention publique avant financières et de la détermination des acteurs concernés. d’envisager toute action de l’État. Parce que les éléments Les cinq objectifs stratégiques suivants contribueront essentiels du cadre d’éducation et formation post-primaire à accélérer l’expansion de l’accessibilité et à améliorer sont un « bien public » et qu’il existe des externalités posi- la qualité et l’adéquation de l’éducation et la formation tives liées à la présence de travailleurs qualifiés au sein post-primaire. Divers choix possibles de réforme per- de la main-d’œuvre, l’implication des structures étatiques mettant d’atteindre chacun de ces objectifs sont ensuite est pleinement justifiée, comme elle l’est en raison du décrits, dont un ensemble clé dans le présent document. caractère imparfait des informations et de la myopie qui Les options envisagées réunissent à la fois des possibilités contribuent à restreindre la demande d’éducation et forma- nouvelles et celles que le gouvernement prévoit déjà mettre tion post-primaire. La participation de l’État trouve aussi en application. De fait, plusieurs options de réforme ont sa raison d’être dans les considérations d’éthique liées à déjà été incorporées dans le document ESSP 2010–2015 du l’accès à l’éducation et la formation post-primaire et à sa ministère de l’Éducation et seront reprises par le document pertinence pour les groupes défavorisés. D’autres raisons ESSP 2013/14–2017/18. encore permettent d’avancer des arguments provisoires pour justifier l’intervention publique, par exemple, les fai- Objectif stratégique numéro 1 : Élargir l’accès blesses actuelles du marché financier qui limitent l’accès et prendre en charge une population d’élèves au capital, aussi bien pour les fournisseurs potentiels que plus diversifiée pour les étudiants, et le fait que le marché émergent des établissements privés d’éducation et formation post-primaire Un certain nombre d’options de réforme peuvent aider a besoin d’être soutenu jusqu’à ce qu’il soit mieux établi. à atteindre cet objectif, notamment des actions visant Il convient donc de bien définir le rôle que l’État à : élargir l’accès aux études secondaires générales du est appelé à jouer. Compte tenu des ressources limitées second cycle financées par les ressources publiques, exé- et de la préférence portée à une forte participation du cuter durablement l’actuel projet d’éducation libre et par secteur privé, les réformes de l’éducation et la formation téléenseignement et soutenir une formation technique de post-primaire au Rwanda seront peut-être plus efficaces si qualité élevée à travers des centres polytechniques régionaux RÉ SUMÉ E X ÉCUT IF xxv intégrés (Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centers – IPRC). Le Au nombre des interventions pouvant être envisagées second cycle de l’enseignement secondaire général risque pour améliorer la qualité et le degré d’adéquation du second de devenir un goulet d’étranglement de l’expansion du cycle d’études secondaires générales figure le renforcement système d’éducation et formation post-primaire, mettant de la formation en cours d’emploi et avant emploi, à l’effet à mal aussi bien l’entrée des diplômés sur le marché du d’améliorer les connaissances des enseignants sur le contenu travail que la poursuite d’études supérieures. Étant donné de l’enseignement et les méthodes d’approche didactiques que le prix à payer pour fournir l’éducation générale au centrées sur l’élève. En outre, les programmes et examens niveau du second cycle du secondaire est relativement du second cycle d’enseignement secondaire général auraient faible, par exemple, comparé à la formation technique et tout à gagner à être davantage alignés sur la demande en professionnelle de qualité, l’expansion de l’enseignement connaissances et compétences émanant du marché du travail. secondaire général du second cycle au moyen de ressources Dans les programmes actuels, l’équilibre entre contenu et publiques serait une manière économiquement avisée de compétences catalytiques est plus favorable au contenu ; la faire face au problème de l’accessibilité. question à résoudre dès lors est de trouver le juste milieu Le projet envisagé par l’État de lancer un programme entre la nécessité d’améliorer l’acquisition de compétences d’éducation libre et par téléenseignement permettrait de catalytiques à travers l’éducation et, simultanément, celle disposer de moyens supplémentaires économiquement d’assurer un transfert adéquat des savoirs liés au contenu. avantageux d’ouvrir l’éducation secondaire à toutes les Étant donné qu’une proportion élevée d’élèves ayant achevé personnes ayant reçu l’éducation primaire, quel que soit leur les études secondaires générales entreront sur le marché du âge. Une méthode d’approche passant par un financement travail plutôt que de poursuivre des études supérieures, il public serait indiquée pour démarrer la mise en œuvre d’un est également crucial que les écoles secondaires tissent des tel programme. Enfin, le système de centres polytechniques liens plus solides avec le monde du travail, de manière que régionaux intégrés (IPRC) offre des possibilités de consolider les élèves acquièrent les connaissances et les compétences les synergies et réaliser des économies d’échelle à différents que recherchent les employeurs. échelons de la formation technique et professionnelle, S’agissant de la mise à disposition d’une formation pro- notamment en proposant des alternatives plus courtes et fessionnelle de qualité et adaptée, la plupart des contributions moins coûteuses, comapré à l’éducation supérieure classique. possibles comportent des difficultés face auxquelles l’idéal serait de rechercher des solutions suivant une démarche Objectif stratégique numéro 2 : Améliorer intégrée. Un choix de réforme possible serait d’améliorer la la qualité et l’adéquation du système qualité à l’entrée du profil des élèves candidats à la forma- d’éducation et formation post-primaire et tion professionnelle. Cette option est déjà mise en œuvre, à des études secondaires générales du second mesure que les élèves qui accèdent à la formation profes- cycle. sionnelle doivent, de plus en plus, avoir achevé l’éducation de base et donc présenter un potentiel d’acquisition de Cet objectif implique un certain nombre de choix de réforme compétences appropriées plus élevé que leurs homologues possibles. Les options envisageables pour améliorer la sortant du cycle primaire ou ayant interrompu les études qualité et la pertinence de toutes les filières de l’éducation (ceux-là même qui constituaient par le passé le gros des et formation post-primaire comprennent l’établissement effectifs des centres de formation professionnelle). d’un système unifié d’assurance qualité et d’homologation D’autres choix de réforme possibles sont envisageables et la création de services d’assurance qualité dans toutes : reformuler la conception des programmes de formation les institutions d’éducation et formation post-primaire. Les basés sur les compétences et les mécanismes d’évaluation réformes pourraient aussi porter sur le suivi permanent du connexes, procéder au recyclage des enseignants, élaborer et niveau des compétences acquises par les élèves fréquen- exécuter des programmes de stages en entreprise7 et assurer tant le système d’éducation et formation post-primaire que les prestataires de services d’éducation possèdent les res- et l’alignement de ces compétences sur la demande du sources physiques et humaines nécessaires pour administrer marché du travail, ce qui permettrait aux décideurs et aux efficacement des programmes de formation professionnelle. établissements d’éducation et formation de répondre à des insuffisances bien identifiées en utilisant des interventions 7  Dans le contexte du Rwanda, le terme « attachment » signifie et des politiques améliorées ou totalement nouvelles. « stage ». xxvi POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Une forte participation du secteur privé sera nécessaire pour ces options doivent être soigneusement étudiées en tenant la conception et l’administration des nouveaux programmes compte des recettes publiques disponibles et des autres de formation professionnelle, en particulier la formulation dépenses prioritaires dans le secteur de l’éducation et dans des programmes de formation et la promotion des stages les autres secteurs. Il existe diverses possibilités d’encourager en entreprise, afin d’en assurer l’adéquation par rapport au l’investissement privé dans la filière éducation et formation marché du travail. Il convient de saisir l’opportunité offerte post-primaire. Par exemple : réformer l’actuelle politique par ces réformes pour analyser et trouver des réponses au générale d’éducation et formation post-primaire pour faciliter problème des performances insuffisantes observées chez les davantage la contribution du secteur privé à l’éducation et femmes ayant reçu une formation professionnelle, une fois à la formation, tout en en préservant la qualité ; fournir des sur le marché du travail. Des actions immédiates peuvent garanties de l’État aux banques qui accordent des crédits aux être menées dans ce domaine, par exemple, en veillant à établissements privés, sous réserve de satisfaire à certains ce que les établissements de formation technique et pro- critères spécifiques ; et renforcer les capacités des prestataires fessionnelle respectent les besoins spécifiques des filles en privés à mener des activités génératrices de ressources. L’on construisant des toilettes séparées (et des douches, comme pourrait également encourager l’investissement des ménages de besoin) pour garçons et filles et en prenant en compte en facilitant l’accès des élèves au crédit. les questions de parité entre les hommes et les femmes L’utilisation du système de financements basés sur les dans la formation des enseignants. résultats pourrait être une option prometteuse pour amélio- Concernant la formation non formelle, les possibilités rer l’efficacité-coût des dépenses d’éducation et formation pouvant être exploitées pour faciliter la prestation de services post-primaire, notamment pour l’affectation et la répartition d’éducation par le privé comprennent : la création d’un fonds des dépenses. Que les autorités mettent en place ou pas un de financement de la formation accessible sur concours, tel système de financement, un modèle de financement de qui permettrait de subventionner les prestataires privés (et la formation technique et professionnelle viable, efficace publics) offrant des formations pertinentes et de qualité ; et transparent sera nécessaire. Le ministère de l’Éducation le transfert, par voie de concours, des centres de formation et le WDA pourraient, dans une première étape d’évolution professionnelle des jeunes (youth VTC) sous-exploités à des vers ce type de modèle, adopter un ensemble de principes collectivités locales ou à des ONG ; et l’appui au bon suivi directeurs qui ciblent des financements de sources diffé- et à la bonne évaluation des formations non formelles dans rentes et destinés à des emplois particuliers. l’optique de partager les leçons de l’expérience avec tous les acteurs intéressés. Objectif stratégique numéro 4 : Établir un système d’éducation et formation post- Objectif stratégique numéro 3 : Augmenter primaire mieux intégré et diversifier le financement des dépenses d’éducation et formation post-primaire et en Un système d’éducation et formation post-primaire bien améliorer l’efficacité-coût intégré nécessite un cadre de décision bien coordonné qui implique tous les sous-segments du système et permet Deux approches principales sont envisageables pour améliorer aux étudiants d’évoluer relativement facilement entre les les résultats du système d’éducation et formation post-pri- sous-segments. Il y a lieu de mettre en place un système de maire dans un environnement où les ressources sont limitées certification approprié et d’un bon rapport coût-efficacité : 1) accroître le volume de financements (publics et privés) pour l’éducation et la formation post-primaire, afin d’ap- disponibles pour l’éducation et la formation post-primaire puyer la mobilité et la formation permanente des élèves. Si et  2) améliorer l’efficacité-coût des dépenses. Autrement les cadres nationaux des certifications ont été l’objet d’un dit, il s’agit de mobiliser davantage de fonds et de mieux les intérêt croissant à l’échelle internationale, les résultats qui dépenser. L’on pourrait augmenter les ressources publiques en découlent restent mitigés ; d’où la nécessité d’adopter allouées à l’éducation et la formation post-primaire en aug- une démarche prudente, notamment en menant des examens mentant l’enveloppe de financement du secteur de l’éduca- stratégiques réguliers, lorsque cette approche est adoptée. tion ou, en lieu et place, en allouant une proportion plus Un système d’éducation et formation post-primaire importante du financement de l’éducation au sous-secteur bien intégré assure que les réformes appliquées dans un éducation et formation post-primaire. Il va sans dire que sous-segment donné soient élaborées en tenant compte de RÉ SUMÉ E X ÉCUT IF xxvii l’interdépendance des éléments du système. Il est donc néces- pourraient être réalisés en clarifiant ou en révisant les rôles saire de disposer d’un cadre de coordination et de décision et les responsabilités des différents organismes étatiques (le solide pour harmoniser et coordonner les activités de toutes ministère proprement dit, les AEA et les services adminis- les AEA ayant une mission à remplir dans le domaine de tratifs de rang inférieur), et aussi au niveau du personnel l’éducation et la formation post-primaire les unes avec les de ces institutions. autres et avec le ministère de l’Éducation, tous adhérant à Plusieurs options de réforme envisageables pour une ligne directrice axée sur des objectifs généraux clairs améliorer la qualité et l’adéquation de l’éducation et et à une stratégie concrète pour faire face aux problèmes la formation post-primaire peuvent être appliquées clés du sous-secteur. Les conseils stratégiques et d’orien- simultanément par différents partenaires d’exécution, et tation du ministère de l’Éducation sont particulièrement cela de manière relativement peu coûteuse. Il incombe au nécessaires à la formation technique et professionnelle (une ministère de l’Éducation de recenser les interventions les charge nouvelle pour le ministère), tant pour assurer son plus appropriées en fonction des effets escomptés et du intégration dans le système global d’éducation et formation potentiel de succès de leur mise en œuvre. post-primaire que pour aider la WDA nouvellement créée à L’amélioration de la gouvernance et de la gestion, les remplir l’ambitieuse mission qui lui est confiée. capacités de gestion et l’efficacité-coût sont des aspects essentiels. Il convient d’étudier avec attention les possi- Objectif stratégique numéro 5 : Améliorer bilités d’action liées à ces aspects. Si la mise en œuvre la gouvernance, le cadre de gestion et les de ces réformes fait appel à des capacités relativement capacités de gestion robustes de leadership et de planification de la part du ministère de l’Éducation, leurs effets positifs potentiels Lorsque les établissements scolaires jouissent d’un degré l’emportent sur leur coût. Il serait peut-être indiqué de d’autonomie approprié, tout en étant parallèlement tenus faire montre d’un optimisme mesuré en commençant par dûment comptables de leurs actions et qu’ils disposent l’une des réformes relativement simples en la mettant en de capacités suffisantes à tous les niveaux pour gérer effi- application suivant une bonne méthode de planification cacement le système, cela peut contribuer énormément à et de suivi, de manière que les leçons de l’expérience la qualité et à l’efficacité-coût du système d’éducation et puissent être intégrées par la suite dans la conception et formation post-primaire. Pour tirer le meilleur des réformes la mise en application de réformes plus complexes et plus de la décentralisation appliquées à ce jour au Rwanda, l’on en profondeur. pourrait prendre des mesures de réforme de la responsa- Le Rwanda peut se fixer la priorité d’élargir l’accès au bilité et s’efforcer de renforcer les capacités de gestion des second cycle de l’enseignement secondaire en augmentant établissements scolaires. Par ricochet, le renforcement des le nombre d’écoles publiques et en améliorant le cadre mécanismes de responsabilité et des capacités de gestion d’intervention du secteur privé dans la prestation de permettrait de décentraliser davantage les responsabilités services d’éducation. L’élargissement de l’accès au second vers les établissements scolaires, cela devant influencer cycle de l’enseignement secondaire doit être appuyé par encore plus positivement l’efficacité-coût. des interventions destinées à améliorer l’efficacité-coût Enfin, le fait que le ministère de l’Éducation insiste de et augmenter les recettes publiques disponibles pour la plus en plus sur la qualité de l’éducation et l’éducation et construction de salles de classes et la dotation de celles- la formation post-primaire est peut-être une bonne raison ci en matériel pour le second cycle d’études secondaires. de procéder à un examen des responsabilités du personnel S’agissant de la formation technique et professionnelle, la de l’ensemble du secteur de l’éducation (en particulier au démarche suivie par le gouvernement, qui consiste à faire sein du ministère de l’Éducation et des AEA). Le change- face aux insuffisances liées à la qualité et à l’adéquation ment de domaines de priorité est peut-être l’occasion de tout en procédant à l’élargissement de l’accès, est la bonne réviser l’organigramme du ministère. Des gains d’efficacité marche à suivre. xxviii POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Récapitulatif des objectifs stratégiques et des choix connexes de réforme Encadré E.1  |  possibles Objectif stratégique numéro 1 : Élargir l’accès et prendre en charge une population d’élèves plus diversifiée Élargir l’accès aux études secondaires générales du second cycle financées par l’État. Mettre durablement en œuvre l’actuel projet d’apprentissage libre et par téléenseignement. Promouvoir l’enseignement technique de qualité par le biais des centres polytechniques régionaux intégrés. Objectif stratégique numéro 2 : Améliorer la qualité et l’adéquation du système d’éducation et formation post-primaire et de l’éducation générale au second cycle du secondaire. Établir un système unifié d’assurance qualité et d’homologation pour l’éducation et la formation post-primaire, notamment des services d’assurance de la qualité dans tous les établissements d’éducation et formation post-primaires. Faire le suivi permanent du niveau des compétences acquises par les élèves fréquentant le système d’éducation et formation post-primaire et aligner ces compétences sur la demande du marché du travail. Améliorer les connaissances des enseignants du second cycle de l’enseignement secondaire sur le contenu des disciplines enseignées et les méthodes didactiques centrées sur l’élève par le biais de la formation en cours d’emploi et avant emploi. Harmoniser les programmes et les examens du second cycle de l’enseignement secondaire avec les conditions révisées relatives à l’acquisition de connaissances et de compétences à l’échelon du cycle secondaire. Améliorer le degré d’adéquation des programmes du cycle secondaire par rapport au marché du travail. Améliorer la qualité et l’adéquation de tous les « intrants » de la formation professionnelle, notamment le profil des élèves. Formuler et mettre en application des mesures visant à améliorer la qualité et le degré d’adéquation de la formation professionnelle des filles. Soutenir la prestation de formations non formelles de qualité fournies par le privé. Objectif stratégique numéro 3 : Augmenter et diversifier le financement des dépenses d’éducation et formation post-primaire et en améliorer l’efficacité-coût Augmenter les ressources publiques et privées allouées à l’éducation et la formation post-primaire. Améliorer l’efficacité-coût de la prestation de services d’éducation et formation post-primaire. Objectif stratégique numéro 4 : Établir un système d’éducation et formation post-primaire mieux intégré Mettre au point un système approprié et économiquement rationnel des qualifications pour accompagner la mobilité et la formation permanente des élèves. Renforcer le cadre de décision du système d’éducation et formation post-primaire et veiller à y intégrer la formation technique et professionnelle. Objectif stratégique numéro 5 : Améliorer la gouvernance, le cadre de gestion et les capacités de gestion Renforcer le triptyque autonomie-responsabilité-capacité des établissements d’éducation et formation post-primaire. Harmoniser la dotation en personnel et les responsabilités des agents du ministère de l’Éducation, des AEA et des structures décentralisées avec le Plan stratégique du secteur de l’éducation. ECO N O M I C G ROWTH, SK I L L S DE V E LOP ME N T, A N D THE ROL E OF PBET 1 CHAPTER 1 ECONOMIC GROWTH, SKILLS DEVELOPMENT, AND THE ROLE OF PBET 1.1 Rwanda’s Vision of Export-Oriented and Knowledge-Based Economic Growth Rwanda’s commendably ambitious development objectives are reflected in its Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) and Growth for Jobs and Exports Flagship Program. These documents describe Rwanda’s vision of sustaining high growth levels (averaging eight percent annually) by transforming into a knowledge-based, export-oriented economy that increasingly relies on manufacturing and services, both in terms of production and employment. Rwanda’s recent pattern of economic growth demonstrates the progress made to date in achieving these goals. As illustrated in figure 1.1, the country’s manufacturing and service sectors have become increasingly significant in its steadily expanding economy. The service sector in particular has grown substantially. It currently generates almost half of Rwanda’s GDP—compared to 40 percent in 2000—and has been the country’s major source of economic growth in recent years. The manufacturing sector has contributed almost as much to overall economic growth as the agriculture sector, even though the former is much smaller than the latter.8 The agriculture sector, which has generally not grown as rapidly, remains the largest sector of the economy, although its share of overall production is decreasing.9 Certain subsectors have been essential drivers of growth GDP) and wholesale and retail trade (9.9 percent of GDP). As within each economic sector. For example, the mining noted, the largest sector of Rwanda’s economy is agriculture: and quarrying (manufacturing) and the financing and the production of food crops accounts for 28.1 percent of insurance (service) subsectors more than doubled in size overall national production. Coffee and tea, the main cash between 2000 and 2006, while tourism receipts increased crops, generate more than 80 percent of total export receipts.10 substantially. Nevertheless, these subsectors are still rela- To ensure that economic growth is broad based and has tively small; in 2006, mining generated 0.6 percent of GDP; a maximum impact on poverty reduction, the government tourism (hotels and restaurants), 1.0 percent; and financing is implementing reforms to unleash the growth potential and insurance, 4.7 percent. Construction, another important source of growth and one of the largest components of the 8  The manufacturing sector generated 15 percent of GDP in 2010 manufacturing sector, generated almost 7 percent of GDP. (NISR, 2010, “Rwanda National Accounts,� NISR, Kigali). 9  Agriculture made up 37 percent of GDP in 2010, down from 41 per- The largest subsectors in services are public administration cent in 2006 and 47 percent in 2000 (Ibid). and education (which together represent 14.0 percent of 10  NISR, 2010. “Rwanda National Accounts.� 2 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure 1.1  n  Gross Domestic Product by support for capacity building. These sectors are coffee and Economic Sector, Selected Years tea production and processing, mining, and tourism. (2006 RWF, billions) 2500 The Changing Nature of Required 1.2  2000 Labor Force Skills 1500 500 A more technologically advanced economy 0 requires a more highly skilled labor force 2000 2006 2010 Agriculture Manufacturing Service The emphasis on skills development in the EDPRS and the Growth Flagship Program highlights the importance Source: National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR), 2010, “Rwanda National of a well-educa1ted labor force to achieving Rwanda’s Accounts,� NISR, Kigali. economic growth objectives. Only a labor force with a sufficient number of workers who are able to operate in an increasingly sophisticated and continuously changing of all sectors of the economy. Its strategy is to address business environment will enable the country to develop constraints that are currently impeding this kind of growth. the competitive and diversified economy it aspires to have. As identified in the Growth for Jobs and Exports Flagship The transformation of Rwanda’s economy will thus Program and repeated in the EDPRS, this goal requires need to go hand in hand with changes in the skill set of policy actions in four key areas: its workforce. To understand changes in the nature of required skills, it is helpful to review changes in the skills 1. Developing skills and capacity for productive employment composition of the labor force in countries that, a number 2. Improving economic infrastructure (particularly energy, of decades ago, were similar to Rwanda today and which transport and communications) have since made the economic shift to high value-added 3. Promoting science, technology, and innovation (STI) agriculture, manufacturing, and services as sources of for economic growth growth and employment. 4. Widening and deepening the financial sector In most countries, this shift was largely driven by continuous advancements in technology, management, The government is also focusing on the essential and global economic integration. These changes were promising aspects of individual economic sectors. In agri- accompanied by gradual, but eventually drastic, changes culture, this involves raising productivity and ensuring in the skill sets required of productive workers. Initially, food security. Policy actions aim to intensify and develop the lowest-skilled workers in manufacturing performed sustainable production systems, build the technical and repetitive tasks requiring physical dexterity, consistency, organizational capacity of farmers, promote commodity and discipline. Mid-level staff organized and supervised chains and support the development of agribusinesses, the activities of low-skilled workers or maintained produc- and strengthen the sector’s institutional framework at the tion equipment. Higher-level technicians designed and central and district levels. built production equipment and processes and carried out In the manufacturing sector, policy reforms focus on quality control. White collar workers—those with at least enhancing the performance of existing industries, supporting general secondary education—filled the middle ranks of the development of new product lines, promoting exports, the manufacturing industry, while managers tended to be offering incentives for foreign direct investment, and promot- drafted after having completed higher education. ing resource-based manufacturing. In the services sector, the With increased global competition and automation, the government seeks to exploit the country’s potential compara- activities of low- and medium-skilled workers were taken tive advantage in financial services, tourism, transport and over by machines and computers or, in the case of the logistics, and health and education services. At the same countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation time, the government has identified a number of sectors with and Development (OECD), outsourced to economies with high value-added export potential that will receive priority lower wage levels. As a result, employment in manufacturing ECO N O M I C G ROWTH, SK I L L S DE V E LOP ME N T, A N D THE ROL E OF PBET 3 in these economies fell drastically while employment in In Rwanda, the share of workers in the labor force who services tended to rise; the proportion of high-skilled work- had completed at least secondary education was only 4 per- ers increased substantially compared to those with low- or cent in 2006. Of this group, the largest share (equivalent mid-level skills. to 3 percent of the overall labor force) had completed sec- Figure 1.2 illustrates how in economically successful ondary education, but not higher education. The share that countries, economic growth has coincided with improve- had completed higher education was only 1 percent of the ments in the skill levels of workers. Korea, for example, labor force—similar to the share observed in Kenya in 2000. transformed within four decades from a labor force where Thus the difference between the educational attainment of the majority of workers (80 percent) had primary educa- the labor force in Rwanda and Kenya lies in the relatively tion or less in 1960, to a labor force in which 79 percent small share of secondary education graduates in Rwanda of workers had at least completed secondary education (3 percent) compared to the share in Kenya (16 percent). in  2000. Already in  1980, the share of Korean workers A recent study that finds that economic growth is with secondary education (49 percent) exceeded the share strongly linked to a large share of the labor force having of workers with primary education or less (42 percent). secondary education.11 Using data for over 100 countries for By 2000, the share of workers with primary education or the period 1970–2000, the study groups Rwanda with other less had dwindled to a mere 18 percent and 53 percent of countries whose labor forces have similar levels of educa- workers had completed secondary (but not tertiary) educa- tional attainment—that is, countries in which the lion’s share tion (figure 1.2, panel A). of workers has either not started or not completed primary In Kenya, where economic growth has clearly not education (the “baseline scenario�). These countries have been as impressive as in Korea, but where gross national relatively slow economic growth. The model developed by income per capita nevertheless exceeds that of Rwanda by the study concludes that if these same countries had labor more than 50 percent, the share of workers who completed forces in which at least 50 percent of workers had completed secondary or higher education increased from 2.4 percent primary education (the “primary scenario�), their growth in 1960 to 14.5 percent in 1980 and 17 percent in 2000. Of rates would have increased substantially.12 the 17 percent of the labor force who had completed at least secondary education by 2000, the vast majority had 11  W. Lutz, J. C. Cuaresma, and W. Sanderson, 2008, “The Demog- completed secondary education but not higher education, raphy of Educational Attainment and Economic Growth,� Science and a relatively small share (1 percent of the labor force) Magazine 319 (5866): 1047–48. had completed higher education. 12  Ibid. Figure 1.2  n Trends in Educational Attainment of the Labor Force in Korea, Kenya and Rwanda  (percentage) Panel A. Korea Panel B. Kenya Panel C. Rwanda 26% 1% 1% 2000 26% 2000 16% 2006 4% 26% 84% 95% 9% 0.5% 1980 49% 1980 14% 42% 85% 3% 0.4% 1960 17% 1960 2% 80% 97% Tertiary Secondary Primary or less Note: Percentages reflect the shares of the population over 15 years old who have completed primary (or less), secondary, or tertiary education, respectively. For Rwanda, the latest year for which data are available (2006) is depicted. These data are comparable to those for 2000 (not depicted), although there were improvements in the share of workers who completed secondary and higher education in 2006. Also between 2000 and 2006, the share of workers with no education at all declined substantially (by 13 percent) No comparable data are available for Rwanda for the years 1960 and 1980. See chapter 2 for a more detailed analysis of the country’s labor force composition. 4 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA In the same study, the assumption that the labor forces example, over 30 percent of employers deem it very impor- of otherwise identical countries have at least some secondary tant that skilled workers possess “thinking� and “behavioral� education (the “secondary scenario�) results in even higher skills (literacy and numeracy are considered very important growth rates: model simulations indicated a growth boost by  47  percent of employers). For employees in manage- over five times the size of the baseline scenario and approxi- ment and professional positions, the share of firms that rate mately double that of the primary scenario.13 The authors thinking (70 percent) and behavioral (64 percent) skills very note that despite the substantial time lag before significant important is even higher than the share of firms that deem investments translate into a better-educated workforce, only literacy and numeracy skills (54 percent) very important.15 large-scale investments in secondary education (following In Cambodia, an employer survey examined the diffi- large-scale investments in primary education) provide poorer culty encountered by firms in finding workers with desired countries the human capital needed to achieve high eco- technical and catalytic skills in economic growth sectors nomic growth rates and lift large shares of their populations (e.g., tourism, construction, and the garment industry). out of poverty. Considering that Rwanda is landlocked and The survey’s conclusions showed that firms found it more relatively resource scarce, and therefore largely dependent difficult to identify workers with certain catalytic skills than on its human capital to ensure sustainable and sufficient workers with appropriate technical skills, but that the type economic growth, this observation is particularly relevant. of catalytic skills in short supply differed depending on the overall skill level of the worker. For example, among A more advanced, continuously changing unskilled labor, the skill most difficult to find was work economy also requires a differently skilled attitude. For semi-skilled workers, the clearest mismatch labor force concerned decision-making skills. For skilled workers, analytical and decision-making skills topped the list. For Not only has the level of education required for productive all levels of workers, technical skills were among the top employment risen in countries that have made the transition five skills considered most difficult to find, but in all cases toward more sophisticated economies, changes in technology the mismatch between demand and supply was higher for and management have also changed the type of skills needed two to three catalytic-type skills (figure 1.3).16 in these economies. The classic view was that “general skills� (which employees could take with them to any employer) differed from “specific skills� (which were needed to work in The Role of Education and Training in 1.3  a particular company). As economies developed and become Supporting Economic Growth more sophisticated, however, this view was replaced by the notion that workforce skills are largely general. The extent to which an appropriately skilled labor force is in In particular, employers started to expect a high level place in a country largely depends on whether its residents of cognitive and behavioral—or “catalytic�—skills from workers at all levels. These skills include communication, 13  Ibid. Even once the Millennium Development Goal of universal the ability to work in a team, critical thinking, problem primary education is reached, a substantial number of years is solving, pro-activity, independent thinking, the ability to needed before at least half of the labor force completes primary learn, adaptability, the ability to use a computer, and entre- education. preneurial skills.14 Catalytic skills have become particularly The model explores a final scenario in which most workers remain unschooled, but 15 percent and 5 percent obtain secondary and important in the services sector, which in many countries tertiary education, respectively. The projections for this “elitist has expanded at a faster rate than the manufacturing sector. scenario� are similar to that for the primary scenario, but far below projections for the secondary scenario. Although there is still work for unskilled and semi-skilled 14  Other terms used for this type of skill set are noncognitive skills, workers in these economies, this work becomes increas- “soft� skills, new-basic skills, life skills, and employability skills. 15  E. di Gropello, 2011, Skills for the Labor Market in Indonesia: ingly scarce, pays less, and offers little prospect for career Trends in Demand, Gaps, and Supply, with A. Kruse and P. Tan- advancement or higher wages. don, Directions in Development/ Human Development Series The importance that employers in less-developed coun- (Washington, DC: World Bank). 16  World Bank, 2010, “Providing Skills for Equity and Growth: tries currently attach to employees’ catalytic skills is clearly Preparing Cambodia’s Youth for the Labor Market,� Report 59989, demonstrated by employer surveys conducted in Indonesia Human Development Department, East Asia and Pacific Region, and Cambodia, among other countries. In Indonesia, for World Bank, Washington, DC. ECO N O M I C G ROWTH, SK I L L S DE V E LOP ME N T, A N D THE ROL E OF PBET 5 Figure 1.3  n Most Difficult Skills to Find among Workers in Cambodia, 2008  Unskilled workers Semi-skilled workers Skilled workers Work attitude 52 Decision-making 45 Analytical 64 Foreign language 37 Experience 42 Decision-making 55 Technical 32 Analytical 40 Experience 37 Experience 32 Technical 36 Technical 32 Communication 30 Work attitude 35 Work attitude 29 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80 Source: World Bank, 2010, “Providing Skills for Equity and Growth.� Notes: Unskilled worker—laborer or nontechnical person whose work is mostly manual and repetitive. Semiskilled (or specialized) worker—a worker whose work is mostly repetitive, but requires some level of skill or understanding. Skilled worker (or professional staff)—a worker who works independently, performs a variety of tasks, and whose work requires a high level of skill or understanding (Cambodian Federation of Employers and Business Associations [CAMFEBA], 2008, Youth and Employment: Bridging the Gap [Phnom Penh: CAMFEBA], as quoted in World Bank, 2010, “Providing Skills for Equity and Growth,� 21). have sufficient access to high-quality, demand-responsive general education has helped students acquire catalytic formal and nonformal education and training. This reality skills. In such countries, the general education level of new creates a significant challenge for institutions that have apprentices has risen sharply; for example, many apprentices responsibility for providing education and training, includ- have now completed secondary education. In countries ing the actual education, the training providers, and the such as Canada, Finland, and the United States, moreover, institutions responsible for creating an optimal framework pathways between vocational and higher education have for the system. been established. In the United States, secondary vocational Assuming that Rwanda will follow a path broadly similar education has become “career and technical education� to that described in the previous section of this chapter, it offered by a diverse set of institutions, including specialized will become ever more important that larger numbers of technical schools and comprehensive high schools that also Rwandan pupils complete at least basic education, as well offer academic preparation for higher education. as postbasic education and training. Rwanda’s education Efforts by many developing countries to adjust their educa- and training system will also need to adjust to an increase tion systems to serve the changing skills needs of their econo- in the demand for workers with catalytic skills, not simply mies tend to lag behind those of more developed countries. In technical skills. the last part of the previous century, when the vocational and In countries where workers have increasingly been technical education systems of OECD countries were being expected to have strong cognitive and catalytic skills, this reformed to satisfy the evolving skills requirements of their requirement has particularly affected the provision of voca- labor markets, many lower-income countries focused on the tional training, where the initial focus was purely vocational provision of primary education. While this focus provided skills. As in Rwanda, vocational and academic education many benefits, particularly to the poor, it resulted in part from streams in most countries initially tend to be separated. As the fact that previous investments in vocational education catalytic skills became increasingly in demand, traditional and training had neither been affordable (costing about five vocational education—which did not teach these skills times more per student than general secondary education) sufficiently—was seen as a “second-best� option for young nor resulted in economic growth. At the same time, voca- people with no interest or ability in pursuing higher learning. tional education was beset by problems of weak governance, As a result, the students sorted into vocational education, over-regulated economies, and low levels of foreign invest- often from poor families, were by and large condemned to ment. Many development partners of these countries also a lifetime of low-income work. concentrated their efforts on primary education, supporting This situation has changed in the past two decades in demand-based vocational training only on a relatively small countries that have successfully transformed the nature scale—an approach that reflected lessons learned from an and status of vocational education, either by eliminating earlier misplaced faith in supply-based training. the separation between vocational and academic education Recent government efforts in Rwanda have similarly streams, or by postponing vocational education until after focused on expanding primary education. As access to 6 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA primary education reaches 100 percent, the country has long as the great majority of Rwandans continue to be been able to shift its attention to expanding access to employed in low-technology agricultural activities. nine-year basic education and postbasic education, as Among the important decisions that the government well as to improving the quality and relevance of educa- faces in PBET are the most appropriate and cost-efficient tion at all levels. This shift is well recognized in Rwanda’s allocation of public resources, in particular their distribution Education Sector Strategic Plan for the period 2010–2015, between basic and postbasic education and between the which states, “In addition to the continuing priority of various segments of the PBET system. Additional decisions effective nine-year basic education for all our children, pertain to adapting the governance and management frame- this revised plan reflects our new priority of making work to ensure that it facilitates the provision of relevant, postbasic education more accessible and more relevant high-quality, public and private education and training, as to our national needs.�17 well as the delivery of postbasic education to a growing and In light of the substantial challenges ahead and Rwanda’s diverse student body. In order to determine which interven- resource-constrained environment, it will be essential tions are most appropriate and will have the most beneficial that attention and financial resources be targeted to those impact, it is useful to understand the current composition interventions likely to make the maximum contribution to of Rwanda’s labor force and the employment and earnings its economic and poverty reduction objectives in the most patterns of workers with different educational backgrounds. cost-efficient manner. One of these challenges is to ensure The following chapter addresses these topics in detail. that the education and training system not only provides the knowledge and skills required by sophisticated manu- 17  MINEDUC, 2010, “Foreword by the Honorable Charles Murig- facturing and services, but also those needed to increase ande, Minister of Education,� in “Education Sector Strategic Plan, agricultural productivity. This objective will be crucial as 2010–2015,� MINEDUC, Kigali, Rwanda. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 7 CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE LABOR MARKET 2.1 Overview of Labor Market Characteristics A labor market can be described in terms of supply (the size and characteristics of the labor force) and demand (the economy’s need for workers).18 The size of both labor supply and labor demand is influenced by its price: labor supply depends on wage or earnings levels and labor demand depends on labor costs. In addition, earnings pro- vide an indicator of job quality and the relative value of different types and levels of education and training. Labor supply and demand can be disaggregated in terms of economic sector, gender, and educational and skill level. Viewed from the supply side, the Rwandan labor force: in manufacturing (or secondary sector) tripled from  Is young: 44 percent of the population is under 15 years a low base (to 5.1 percent), and the share in service of age and more than 60 percent of the labor force is sector (or tertiary sector) approximately doubled (to under 34 years of age around 20 percent).19  Has limited educational attainment: only 9.4 percent  Having greater numbers of workers with higher educational of the working-age population has more than primary levels in the secondary and, even more so, tertiary sectors education, defined in this report as “skilled� labor  Finds itself in a relatively dynamic situation, as the share 18  A large share of the data described in this chapter is derived from of the labor force with postprimary education increased the household surveys conducted in Rwanda in 2000 and 2006. from 7.5 percent in 2000 to 9.4 percent in 2006 See National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR), 2002, “Enquête Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie des Ménages  1  Recently underwent a sharp decline in the rate of par- (Rwanda Integrated Living Conditions Survey 1), 2000–2001� (in ticipation, which can be attributed to younger people French), NISR, Kigali (hereafter, EICV1); and NISR, 2006, “Labor staying in school longer, particularly in poorer households Market and Economic Activity Trends in Rwanda: Analysis of the EICV 2 Survey (Enquête Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie  Has grown rapidly as a result of population growth, des Ménages 2/ Rwanda Integrated Living Conditions Survey 2), despite reduced labor participation rates 2005–2006; Final Report,� NISR, Kigali (hereafter, EICV2). Little data in the chapter pertains to the period after 2006. Results from the household survey that was carried out in 2010/11 were Viewed from the demand side, the labor force can be not available at the time of the writing of the report. 19  This report defines the primary sector to essentially include described as: agriculture and fishing; the secondary sector, to include manufactur-  Undergoing a significant redistribution of employ- ing, construction, mining, and utilities; and the tertiary sector, to ment from agriculture to manufacturing and services include commerce, community and personal services, government between 2000 and 2006, when the percentage of work- services, and transport. The following terms are used interchange- ably throughout the report for the three broad economic sectors: ers employed in agriculture (or the primary sector) fell the primary or agriculture sector, the secondary or manufacturing by 13 percentage points (to 76.7 percent), the proportion sector, and the tertiary or service sector. 8 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Overall, the labor market is dynamic. The substantial Figure 2.1  n  Labor Force Composition by increase in employment in the manufacturing and services Age, 2006 sectors corresponds to Rwanda’s economic and poverty (number and percentage) reduction objectives, as these sectors are associated with higher-skilled work and relatively high earnings. 264,422 55–64 7% 1,376,899 560,660 45–54 34% Labor Supply: A Young Labor Force 2.2  14% 35–44 15–24 Slowly Develops Higher Skills Levels 25–34 736,809 1,075,327 18% 27% Rwanda’s labor force is young and largely unskilled Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. The population of Rwanda is quite young. Almost 44 per- cent of the population is under 15 years old (table 2.1). In other words, for every 100 persons older than 14 years, almost 80 percent are of working age. Another 13.4 percent there are another 77 who are 14 years or younger. This fact are enrolled in school (table 2.1). Young people dominate has two important implications. First, to escape poverty, the labor force; as illustrated in figure 2.1, over 60 percent workers in a household must earn enough to take care of the labor force is under 34 years old, and one-third is of both themselves and their children. Second, the level under 25 years old. of schooling that these children attain will have a crucial The educational attainment of Rwanda’s labor force is impact on the skills composition of the labor force over the still limited (figure 2.2); the most common educational level next several decades. is incomplete primary school (1.9 million people, or roughly The labor force is defined as all individuals of working half of the labor force). Almost a quarter of the labor force age (15 to 64 years), who are either working or actively seek- (23 percent) is estimated to have no formal schooling at ing work.20 With a labor force of just over 4 million people, all. This report categorizes these two groups as “unskilled.� Taken together, almost three quarters of Rwanda’s labor force—those who either did not attend or did not complete Disaggregation of Rwanda’s  Table 2.1  n  primary school—is thus unskilled. About 1 in 5 workers left Population, 2006 the education system after completing primary school. These (percentage) workers are referred to as “semi-skilled.� Persons in the % of the % within the labor force with educational attainment higher than primary population age group school are categorized as “skilled� workers in this report. Total population 100 Excluding workers with vocational training (3.4 percent 1. Population under six years old 19.5 of the total), only 5.9 percent of workers in the country 2. Child population (6–14 years of age) 24.0 have attained some postprimary schooling. Graduates with   Active 4.2 upper secondary (114,141) and university (31,258) educa-   Inactive – enrolled 76.2 tion together account for only 3.6 percent of the country’s   Inactive – not enrolled 19.7 labor force. Given the low share of skilled workers in the 3. Working-age population 53.4 workforce, even doubling the graduation rate of postpri- (15–64 years of age) mary institutions would leave the labor supply of Rwanda   Active (working or looking for work) 79.5 predominantly unskilled for the foreseeable future.   Inactive – enrolled 13.4   Inactive – not enrolled 7.1 4. Population 65+ years of age 3.1 20 This does not imply that individuals younger or older than this   Active 73.0 age group do not work. For example, among individuals older   Inactive 27.0 than 64 years, as many as 3 out of 4 are actively engaged in the labor market. This chapter, however, focuses on the working-age Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. labor force. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 9 Figure 2.2  n Labor Force Composition by  Figure 2.3  n  Educational Attainment Gains in Educational Attainment, 2006 the Labor Force, 2000–2006 (number and percentage) (percentage) Upper Secondary 80 Lower Secondary 114,141 60 University 93,775 3% 31,258 40 2% 1% % 20 Vocational 136,408 0 3% None –20 932,847 Lower sec. Upper sec. None Prim. incomplete Prim. Complete Vocational University 23% Primary complete 781,803 Primary incomplete 19% 1,923,884 49% Prop. of labor force: 2000 Prop. of labor force: 2006 Change in number of participants (2000–2006) Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICV2. Educational levels of the labor force vary by gender, Note: Prop. – proportion; prim. – primary education; sec. – secondary education. with working females having less education than working males (table 2.2). This reality is driven primarily by the large When comparing labor supply data from 2000 and 2006, number of women who have not received any education. two important trends stand out: the increasing skills level At the higher end of the skills spectrum, 11.1 percent of of the labor force and declining participation rates.21 the male labor force is skilled, compared to just 8.0 percent The bars in figure 2.3 show the composition of the labor of the female labor force. Similarly, 21.8 percent of men force by educational level for 2000 and 2006, with the solid are semi-skilled, compared to just 17.6 percent of females. line illustrating the percentage increase in the number of labor force participants at each level. For example, the number of Recent trends in labor supply: Higher skills workers without education declined by about 13 percent, levels and lower participation rates whereas the number of participants in all other educational categories increased, particularly at the highest levels of A number of factors influence the supply of labor and its education. The number of university graduates recorded the skills composition, including demographic and social change; highest percentage gain (73 percent), followed by gradu- changes in the quality, cost, or availability of schooling; ates of upper secondary (63 percent) and lower secondary other government policies; and external labor demand. (52 percent) education. However, these significant increases occurred from very low base levels: as noted previously, the Table 2.2  n  Labor Force Composition by overall percentage of labor force participants with postprimary Educational Attainment and Gender education levels increased from 7.5 percent to 9.4 percent. Education level % of male LF in 2006 % of female LF in 2006 At the same time, the share of the working-age popula- None 18.1% 27.5% tion that was working or actively looking for work declined Primary incomplete 49.1% 46.9% from 85.6 percent in 2000 to 79.5 percent in 2006. Even Primary complete 21.8% 17.6% though labor participation rates fell, the absolute number Vocational 3.6% 3.2% of labor force participants grew considerably during this Lower secondary 2.9% 1.9% Upper secondary 3.4% 2.4% 21 A trend that was not analyzed for the purpose of this report, University 1.2% 0.5% but which deserves attention in future detailed analyses of labor Total 100.0% 100.0% supply trends, concerns labor migration. Reliable data in this area are unfortunately hard to come by and sound analyses are com- Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. plicated by the fact that a substantial share of incoming workers Note: LF – labor force. may largely be Rwandan nationals who were educated abroad. 10 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA period—by 515,000.22 These findings illustrate the number to 48.4 percent—an increase of roughly comparable size. of jobs that the economy needs to create in order to keep up The percentage that was inactive and out of school also with demographic growth. They also help explain how the declined and thus does not explain the declining labor force educational mix of the youth in the country today quickly participation rate. This finding of roughly off-setting changes impacts the overall mix available on the labor market, as in the active and inactive but enrolled categories of young young people are entering the labor force in large numbers. men is consistently found across gender and age groups. If new labor market entrants are better skilled than The decision of younger individuals to enroll in edu- older generations, the skills composition of the labor mar- cation rather than work occurred particularly in poorer ket as a whole will improve relatively quickly due to this households. As table 2.4 shows, the increase in enrolled demographic dividend. The opposite is also true: should status has been as or more common in poor than in nonpoor the educational attainment of new labor entrants be equal households for each age and gender cohort. This finding to or lower than those of current workers, then Rwanda’s has important equity implications, as it appears that all chance to benefit from the current demographic trend will types of households are increasingly choosing (or able) to have been missed, with adverse consequences for the skills invest in their children’s (both male and female) educa- base of the labor force for decades to come. tion, rather than taking them out of school and obtaining Table 2.3 shows that the decline in labor force participa- immediate returns for their labor. As a result, the increase tion originates primarily in the lower participation rate of the in the skills composition of the labor force is expected to young. The strongest declines occurred among 15–24-year- continue in the years ahead. olds (from 74 percent in 2000 to 63 percent in 2006). While there were also some declines in other age categories, these were much smaller, and labor participation rates remain Labor Demand: Good Jobs for 2.3  very high for these groups (on the order of 90–95 percent), Workers with Higher Levels of a pattern that holds for both men and women. Education The lower labor force participation rates for 15–24-year- olds are likely a direct result of children staying in school As described in the previous section, Rwanda’s labor force longer. Table 2.4 presents the change in the labor force– consists of over four million people. This section examines schooling composition of two key age groups, categorized where they work, recognizing that a working person can be by gender and poverty standing. As seen in the table, among self-employed, active in a family enterprise, or an employee. males 15–19 years old from nonpoor households, 56 per- In this analysis, an individual is considered to be working cent were active labor market participants in 2000, while regardless whether or not he or she has a formal contract only 46 percent were active in 2006—a decline of 10 per- or receives a monetary wage. centage points. In contrast, the percentage of such males who were inactive and in school rose from 35.7 percent 22  World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICV2. Table 2.3   n Labor Force Participation Rates in 2000 and 2006, Disaggregated by Gender  (percentage) ALL Male Female 2000 2006 2000 20006 2000 2006 Total working age 85.6% 79.5% 86.8% 80.4% 84.1% 78.4% Age 15 to 24 73.8% 62.9% 75.1% 64.0% 72.3% 61.7% 25 to 34 94.5% 91.6% 94.4% 90.1% 94.6% 93.6% 35 to 44 96.2% 93.3% 97.0% 94.2% 95.0% 92.1% 45 to 54 95.3% 92.3% 96.5% 93.4% 93.8% 91.0% 55 to 64 92.3% 90.4% 93.7% 92.3% 90.4% 88.0% Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICV2. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 11 Table 2.4  n  Change in Activity Status context of demographic change; without a rising number among 15–24-Year-Olds, by of quality jobs, an ever larger share of Rwanda’s growing Gender and Poverty Level labor force will be confined to low-earning types of work (percentage) that individuals are generally eager to escape. 15–19-year-olds While agriculture still accounts for more than three out of Male Female every four jobs, employment in Rwanda moved significantly towards nonagricultural work over the 2000–2006 period. Non-poor Poor Nonpoor Poor This can be seen in figure 2.4, which shows the proportion Active –10% –20% –11% –21% of total employment by economic sector. As previously Inactive – enrolled 13% 19% 12% 21% noted, the proportion of total employment in the agricultural Inactive – not enrolled –3% 1% –1% 0% sector fell 13 percentage points between 2000 and 2006, to 76.7 percent, and employment in the manufacturing sec- 20–24-year-olds tor tripled, but continued to be relatively small (5.1 percent Male Female of all jobs). The services sector also grew, accounting for Non-poor Poor Non-poor Poor nearly one-fifth of all jobs in 2006 (up from less than one- Active –4% –11% –4% –9% tenth in 2000). If sustained, this strong growth in nonagri- Inactive – enrolled 4% 8% 4% 5% cultural employment will become an extremely important Inactive – not enrolled 0% 2% 0% 4% development in the labor market, given that average job Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICV2. characteristics and quality differ considerably by sector.23 Notes: Table shows the change in percentage of individuals in the relevant expanded labor As noted earlier, the labor force is dominated by workers force category. with little formal education, but there are notable differ- ences by sector. The proportion of workers in the primary sector with more than primary education is very small Employment and educational attainment of (about  4  percent)—a proportion that is much higher in workers by economic sector the manufacturing and services sectors (about 17 percent and 27 percent, respectively). If this finding is considered In Rwanda, almost every person who wants to work finds indicative of the demand for skills at the sectoral level, then an income-generating activity. The unemployed, defined the manufacturing and, especially, services sectors are skill- as persons who do not work but are actively seeking a intensive relative to the agricultural sector. As can be seen job, make up only a very small share of the country’s working-age population. Of all working-age individuals who do not work, less than one percent is seeking a job; the others are inactive—that is, they are neither working Table 2.5  n  Labor Status of Working-Age nor seeking a job. By the same token, of all people who Population, 2006 want to work (79.4  percent of the working-age popula- (number and percentage) tion), only one in every 400 persons was unable to find Total number % employment (table 2.5). Employed 4,000,512 79.2% This finding does not imply that everyone who wants Unemployed 10,102 0.2% to work finds a “good� job. As the next section, which Inactive 1,035,486 20.5% focuses on earnings, will show, many people engage in Enrolled 676,854 13.4% self-employment or household enterprise activities that Not enrolled 358,632 7.1% provide only low earnings. It seems fair to assume that TOTAL 5,051,151 n.a. a large share of Rwanda’s population cannot afford to Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. be unemployed and thus engages in any type of income- Note: n.a. – not applicable. generating activity that he or she is able to find, even if it is for just a few hours per week and does not provide high 23  The shift in employment from agriculture to the manufacturing earnings. The challenge in Rwanda, then, is not to increase and services sectors might to some extent also be due to “push� the number of jobs that are available, but their quality. The factors related to the limited availability of agricultural land for importance of the latter goal is particularly relevant in the a growing population. 12 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure 2.4  n Percentage of Employed  education. Conversely, the likelihood of working in the Workers by Broad Sector, services sector rises steadily with the level of education, to 2000 and 2006 the point where 72 percent of upper secondary graduates and 92 percent of university graduates are employed in it. 100 The relationship between educational level and employment 8.7 90 1.7 18.2 in the manufacturing sector is a more nuanced story, with 80 5.1 workers at all educational levels having a similar and small 70 60 Figure 2.5  n Sectoral Allocation of Workers  50 % 89.5 by Educational Level, 2006 40 76.7 (percentage) 30 20 100 9 10 90 18 16 20 3 31 0 80 5 46 5 6 2000 2006 70 Tertiary Secondary Primary 72 60 15 50 92 88 9 Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICVV2. 40 80 Note: Primary – agriculture; secondary – manufacturing; tertiary – services. 77 74 30 54 46 5 20 in table 2.6, the manufacturing sector appears to have a 10 23 6 relative preference for workers with technical or vocational 0 3 Lower sec. Sr. sec. Total None Some Primary Complete Primary Voc/Tech University education, while the services sector has the highest relative demand for workers with upper secondary skills and beyond. Seen from the perspective of workers, the higher people’s educational attainment, the less likely they are to work in the primary sector (figure 2.5). The large majority of workers with Primary (Ag) Secondary (Mining, Manu, Util, Constr) Tertiary (Commerce, Transport, Finance, Govt Services, Other) primary schooling or less work in agriculture. Beyond this, the proportion drops. Nevertheless, the agricultural sector remains the source of employment for a large share of workers Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Note: Ag – agriculture; constr– construction; govt – government; manu – manufacturing; who have vocational and/or technical (54 percent), lower sec – secondary education; sr – senior; univ – university; util – utilities; voc/tech – secondary (46 percent), and upper secondary (23 percent) vocational and/or technical education.  Educational Attainment of Workers by Sector, 2006 Table 2.6  n  (percentage) TOTAL Agriculture Manufacturing Services None 23% 27% 14% 12% Primary incomplete 48% 50% 45% 41% Primary complete 20% 19% 24% 22% Vocational and technical 3% 2% 10% 6% Lower econdary 2% 1% 4% 6% Upper secondary 3% 1% 2% 11% University 1% 0% 1% 4% Total 100% 100% 100% 100% Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 13 likelihood (3–6 percent) of working in the sector, with the These changes can be summarized as a shift away from exception of those with lower secondary education (9 per- nonwage agricultural work in favor of wage agricultural cent) and vocational and/or technical training (15 percent). work and a considerable expansion of nonagricultural private sector jobs (figure  2.6.) By  2006, wage agricul- Employment and educational attainment of tural work accounted for about 10 percent of all jobs, up workers by employment type from 3.6 percent in 2000. In contrast, there was a steep decline (over 20 percentage points from 2000) in the share Important distinctions in the demand for skills may exist not of nonwage jobs in agriculture, to 66.4 percent of all work- only between economic sectors but also between different ers in 2006. Public sector employment also increased its types of employers. For example, wage-setting mechanisms share of total employment, but still accounted for only a for workers in public or parastatal employment (hereafter, very small slice of the total job pie in 2006. “public�) are different from those used in private employ- Collectively, these findings mirror the decline in total ment.24 There can also be distinctions between those who primary sector employment discussed previously. The manu- work for a wage and those who work for themselves or facturing and services sectors saw a significant expansion their families in nonwage employment. These differences of both wage and nonwage jobs. Wage employment nearly can be assessed by assigning the type of employment to one doubled, while nonwage employment more than tripled, in of five categories: (1) private nonwage work in agriculture; size in these sectors. The increase in nonwage employment (2) private nonwage work in manufacturing and services; (usually self-employment or household enterprise work) (3) private wage work in agriculture; (4) private wage work in manufacturing and services is not—essarily a positive in manufacturing and services; and (5) wage work in the development, however, because earnings and security in this public sector. type of job can be low. The quality of this type of employ- Table 2.7 shows the proportion of workers in each of ment will therefore be further analyzed in the next section. these employment types in 2006. Not surprisingly, nonwage Of the five types of employment identified in figure 2.7, agricultural work dominated employment, while public the highest proportion of skilled workers (57 percent) is employment represented a very small share of the workforce (3 percent, or 128,000 out of around 4 million employed Figure 2.6  n Changes in the Relative Sizes  individuals). The remaining private sector categories each of Employment Categories, accounted for roughly 10 percent of total employment. 2000 to 2006 Just as there has been a recent reallocation of work in (percentage) agriculture to work in manufacturing and services, there has also been significant change in the share of workers 100 2.4 3.2 employed in the aforementioned employment categories. 95 5.3 3.0 10.4 90 3.6 % of total employed 85 Table 2.7  n Share of Workers Employed in  10.7 80 Different Employment Categories, 75 2006 85.7 (percentage) 70 9.3 Type of employment Number Percentage 65 66.4 Public wage 128,027 3% 60 Private wage, nonagricultural 415,592 10% 2000 2006 Private wage, agricultural 373,475 9% Private wage: agricultural Public wage Private non-wage: agricultural Private non-wage: non-agricultural Private wage: non-agricultural Private nonwage, nonagricultural 426,508 11% Private nonwage, agricultural 2,658,424 67% Total 4,002,026 100% Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICV2. Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. 24  “Parastatal� refers to a corporation or enterprise owned by the Note: “Nonagricultural� private wage and nonwage work relates to wage and nonwage jobs in private manufacturing and services. government. 14 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA found in the public sector, followed by 22 percent of wage Alternatively, figure  2.8  illustrates the relationship workers in nonagriculture (i.e. manufacturing and services). between educational attainment and employment category Only  15  percent of people in nonwage jobs are skilled from the viewpoint of the worker. While most relationships workers in these two sectors. The share of skilled workers are straightforward (e.g. the more educated a person, the in nonwage and wage jobs in agriculture is only 6 percent more likely he or she is to work in the public sector), the and 2 percent, respectively. If these proportions are indica- relationship between educational level and work in the tive of the demand for skills in the economy, the public nonagricultural nonwage sector changes as the educa- sector clearly has the greatest demand for skilled workers. tional level rises, peaking for those with lower secondary Public employment is also distinct in its penchant for school and vocational and/or technical training, and then upper secondary school and university graduates, which declines. Unsurprisingly, people are less likely to work in make up a significant share (44 percent) of its employees the agricultural sector as their educational level rises. The (compared with just  10  percent in the next most skills- share of people with a certain educational level who work intensive category, nonagricultural wage work). In contrast, in agriculture falls from almost 80 percent of those without agricultural employment—both wage and nonwage—does education to just 3 percent of university graduates. not appear to demand much, if any, skilled labor. In Employment in private manufacturing and services between, both wage and nonwage work in manufacturing (wage and nonwage) accounts for a relatively large share and services seem to demand relatively similar shares of of total employment for workers with more than a primary skilled work, although the skills level for wage employ- education, while public wage employment is a significant ment appears to be slightly higher. Variations in the share source of jobs for upper secondary and university gradu- of semi-skilled workers across employment categories are ates (38 percent and 51 percent of total employment in the not as dramatic, with the highest share (25  percent) in sector, respectively). Information on education levels and nonagricultural wage jobs. employment categories is further disaggregated in annex 1, which breaks the data down by gender and location (urban versus rural). Figure 2.7  n  Skills Mix by Employment Category, 2006 (percentage) 100 Figure 2.8  n  Employment Type by Level of 7 90 12 14 Education, 2006 33 26 80 21 100% 70 45 15 46 60 80% 7 50 49 6 40 52 60% 30 21 32 25 40% 20 7 5 6 20 20% 10 12 12 7 5 3 0 3 3 1 0% Public Private Wage Non-Ag Private Wage Ag Private Non-wage Non-Ag Private Non-wage Ag Some Prim. Complete Prim. None Voc/ Tech Lower Sec Sr Sec Univ None (Unskilled) Some Primary (Unskilled) Private non-wage: ag. Private non-wage: non-ag. Complete Primary (Semi-skilled) Voc/Tech (Skilled) Private wage: ag. Private wage: non-ag. Public wage Lower Secondary (Skilled) Senior Secondary (Skilled) Tertiary (Skilled) Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Note: Ag – agriculture; prim. – primary education; sec – secondary education; sr – Note: Ag – agriculture; voc/tech – vocational and/or technical education. senior; univ – university education; voc/tech – vocational and/or technical education. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 15 2.4 Earnings Table 2.9  n Mean and Median Annual Earnings  by Employment Category, 2006 Earnings by economic sector and employment (RWF) category Mean Median All workers 120,136 53,335 Job quality depends on many factors, such as earnings, Public wage 379,509 180,277 the number of hours worked, job security (e.g., protection Private wage nonagricultural 214,115 101,134 from dismissal), and job safety (e.g., physical working Private wage agricultural 66,085 51,082 environment). The best single quantifiable measure of Private nonwage nonagricultural 179,284 90,248 job quality is generally considered earnings. With this Private nonwage agricultural 91,226 45,499 in mind, this section investigates differences in typical Source: World Bank calculations basedon EICV2. earnings levels to ascertain which sectors and types of work offer the best-quality jobs and to whom these jobs go.25 Specifically, the section reviews whether more highly Earnings by educational attainment educated workers typically earn more and whether this distinction differs by location (urban or rural) or gender. Earnings levels tend to be higher for workers with higher The section also briefly discusses differences in earn- levels of education (table 2.10). The median-earning primary ings between people with a vocational and/or technical school graduate makes almost 50 percent more than the background and those who completed primary or lower median-earning worker without any education. Compared secondary education. to the median earnings of primary education completers, Earnings tend to differ markedly for work in different those of lower secondary education graduates are one-third sectors of the economy (table 2.8). On average, primary higher, and those of upper secondary and university gradu- sector workers earn less than half the earnings of second- ates, roughly three and twelve times greater, respectively. ary sector workers, and only about one-third the earnings Annex 2 explores the relationship between education of tertiary sector workers. There are also large earnings and earnings in more detail. The results of a multivariate differences across employment categories. The sharpest regression show that the returns to an extra year of educa- divide is between agricultural and nonagricultural work, tion are higher as education levels increase (i.e., additional with the latter tending to provide higher-quality jobs (see earnings from an extra year of education at the lower or table 2.9). Workers who tend to do best are private sector, upper secondary level are higher than those from an extra nonagricultural wage employees and those in the public year at the primary level). sector. It is worth noting that nonwage work in manufac- turing and services also delivers considerable gains over Earnings by educational attainment and nonwage work in agriculture, with median earnings around location twice those of agricultural jobs. High returns to education are not restricted to urban areas— the strong positive link between education and earnings holds in rural areas as well (table 2.11). However, earn- ings by educational level are lower across the board and increase less with education in rural areas compared with Table 2.8  n  Mean and Median Annual Earnings urban areas. Nevertheless, increases by educational level by Economic Sector, 2006 are very significant: for example, primary school comple- (RWF) tion is associated with  44  percent higher earnings than Mean Median All workers 120,136 53,335 Primary 88,223 46,558 25  For people engaged in nonwage work (e.g., on a family farm or Secondary 185,098 104,218 in a family nonfarm business), earnings are calculated as the net Tertiary 236,153 108,693 revenues of the enterprise. If more than one household member works in the enterprise, net revenues are assigned proportionally Source: World Bank calculations basesd on EICV2. to each individual, based on hours worked. 16 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Table 2.10  n  Mean and Median Annual Earnings by Educational Attainment, 2006 Mean Mean Median Mean Educational level (nominal RWF) (relative) (nominal RWF) (relative) None 80,585 59 44,409 68 Primary incomplete 85,928 63 47,571 72 Primary complete 136,613 100 65,724 100 Lower secondary 199,626 146 85,705 130 Vocational 236,803 173 102,861 157 Upper secondary 359,189 263 218,814 333 Technical 465,927 341 351,194 534 Tertiary 1,301,830 953 825,766 1256 ALL 119,353 87 52,949 81 Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. the earnings of workers with no education in rural areas education (table 2.12). Also, while earnings escalate quickly (compared with 80 percent higher earnings in urban areas). for both genders as educational attainment increases, the rate of increase tends to be lower for women than for men. For Earnings by educational attainment and example, the median female earner with primary schooling gender earns 31 percent less than her male counterpart. But her earnings are 36 percent higher than those of uneducated Employment patterns and trends also differ by gender. For women (the equivalent percentage for men is 50 percent). example, the recent large shift from nonwage work in agri- The reasons for the existence of gender differences in culture toward employment in industry and services (as well employment patterns and earnings can be many. Their causes as to wage agricultural work) occurred for both males and may be found in the education system, households, and the females. However, for women this shift was disproportion- labor market, relating respectively to learning environments ately driven by movement into nonwage work, rather than that are better geared to teaching males than females, fam- wage-based employment, in industry and services. Earnings ily situations in which girls are more often prevented from also differ by gender. Both men and women tend to earn attending school or doing homework, and labor market more when their educational attainment is higher. However, women have lower earnings than men with a similar level of Table 2.12  n Median Earnings by Educational  Level and Gender, 2006 Table 2.11  n  Median Annual Earnings by (RWF) Educational Level and Location, Female/ 2006 (RWF) Educational level Female Male Male ratio Educational Level Urban Rural None 40,384 52,875 0.76 None 53,335 43,637 Primary incomplete 43,065 55,722 0.77 Primary incomplete 56,395 46,795 Primary complete 54,804 79,350 0.69 Primary complete 95,805 63,007 Lower secondary 74,442 96,200 0.77 Lower secondary 139,451 74,442 Vocational 74,973 157,851 0.47 Vocational 231,133 81,188 Upper secondary 193,911 266,675 0.73 Upper secondary 298,876 182,237 Technical 178,544 471,306 0.38 University 845,658 706,960 University 676,329 904,330 0.75 ALL 86,435 49,854 ALL 45,491 64,410 0.71 Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 17 discrimination. Another potential cause that has roots both education are assumed to have benefitted from Technical in the education system and the labor market is the pos- Education (TE) under the previous system. sibility that women traditionally choose types of education When reviewing the earnings of workers across all and training that tend to result in jobs that generate lower economic sectors (table 2.10 above), those with VET and average earnings than traditionally male occupations. TE seem to be higher earners than those with roughly cor- Of note, there are particularly strong gender differences responding years of general education. The median earnings in the earnings of workers with vocational and technical of a worker with VET is approximately one-fifth greater than education (see subsequent section). Further analyses of that of someone with lower general secondary education. the gender differences in educational attainment (includ- The median earnings of a person with TE are 60 percent ing specializations) and earnings are needed to ascertain higher than those of a worker with upper general secondary the factors that determine these differences and develop education. While there are various possible causes of these appropriate measures to bridge the gender divide. results, shortages in workers with vocational and technical skills may be one of them. This may be particularly the Earnings by education type: Comparing case for those with TE, as the household surveys identified general education with vocational education more than nine people with upper secondary education for and training and technical education each individual with technical education. A more nuanced picture can be obtained by reviewing The earnings data used in this chapter are derived from earnings differences between male and female workers who household survey data.26 Although respondents to household have general education and those who have VET or TE surveys were asked whether they benefited from vocational (table 2.12). As shown in figure 2.9, the benefits of VET and and/or technical education, survey results do not explicitly TE in terms of higher earnings seem to apply only to men, reveal which type or level of this education was obtained. not women. For women, VET and lower secondary general What is clear from survey results is that the vast majority education produce similar median earnings (figure 2.9A). of respondents reporting to have benefited from vocational Moreover, median earnings for women with technical edu- training had one to three years of postprimary schooling, cation are actually lower—by more than 9 percent—than while those reporting to have had technical education those for women with upper general secondary education tended to have three to six years of education at this level. (figure 2.9B). Therefore, this report assumes that workers who indicated When controlling for key observables such as years having “vocational education� benefitted from Vocational of education, age, and location, the lower earnings of Education and Training (VET), the term used in Rwanda women with vocational training compared to those prior to 2010 when the TVET system was introduced. Simi- larly, workers who indicated that they had had technical 26  See note 15. Figure 2.9  n Comparison of Median Earnings by Educational Level, Type, and Gender, 2006  (RWF) Panel A. Lower Secondary and VET Panel B. Upper Secondary and TE 180000 600000 150000 450000 120000 90000 300000 60000 150000 30000 0 0 Total Men Women Total Men Women Lower secondary Vocational training Upper secondary Technical education Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. 18 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA with lower general secondary education remains signifi- Trends in the relationship between cant. On average, women with vocational training earn educational attainment and earnings around 19 percent less. (See annex 2 for the data related to returns to education that is controlled for these variables.) Having examined earnings and their determinants in 2006, For men, however, the apparent higher earnings related this section assesses how the relationship between educa- to vocational education and training compared to lower tional attainment and earnings is changing. To address this general secondary education are not significant. Similar question, the earnings of unskilled, semi-skilled, and skilled analyses comparing technical education with upper gen- workers in 2000 and 2006 are compared (figure 2.10A). For eral secondary education indicate that the former leads to unskilled workers, median earnings rose by a relatively higher earnings than the latter. However, the number of modest 7.5 percent over the period, while those of skilled observations, particularly of technical education students, workers fell by 12.6 percent. This implies that the skills is so small in the Rwanda household surveys that it is premium—the ratio of the earnings of skilled workers to difficult to make firm conclusions. the earnings of unskilled workers, which can be thought of There is additional evidence that the linkage between as the relative price of skills—fell from 4 to 3.2. vocational education and training and employment outcomes Thus, the skills premium shrank between 2000 and 2006 is troublesome for women. For example, when looking (figure 2.10B), but still remained quite large, with the earn- at earnings by economic sector, the median earnings of ings of skilled workers typically triple those of unskilled women employed in industry with vocational education workers. A compelling explanation for the reduction in the and training are substantially less than those of women skills premium is that the relative supply of skills in the with only primary education (table 2.13). (Further analysis economy, that is, the proportion of the labor force clas- into the causes of these outcomes is recommended for a sified as skilled, expanded during the period. As noted future study.) earlier in this chapter, the share of skilled workers in The particularly large differences between the earnings the labor force increased from 7.5 percent to 9.4 percent of men and women with VET and TE can have many causes, from 2000 to 2006—a 25 percent expansion. including whether the education system adequately teaches All else being equal, an increase in the relative supply intended skills to women, or teaches women skills that earn of skills would be expected to reduce the price of skills (i.e., less on the labor market, or that the labor market excludes the earnings of skilled workers). In this sense, the observed women from entering employment in areas where these skills reduction in the skills premium is expected. The fact that can be utilized. All of these potential reasons, including the skills premium dropped a little less than proportionately the last, can be affected by reforms within the system. For to the rise in relative supply of skilled workers suggests example, subsidized internships may help employers see that the overall demand for skills in the economy may be the value of female workers in nontraditional employment. growing, reinforcing the scarcity of skills and sustaining a Authorities may therefore want to consider examining such large skills premium. issues and developing options that improve women’s labor Semi-skilled workers earned  18.9  percent more market outcomes as part of an overall TVET strategy. in 2006 than they did in 2000. Since this increase was larger Table 2.13  n Median Earnings Comparison by Educational Type and Gender  (RWF) Male Female Primary Vocational Difference Primary Vocational Difference Agriculture 59,605 81,188 36.2% 51,904 64,982 25.2% Industry 129,375 256,963 98.6% 99,050 79,934 –19.3% Services 137,706 236,915 72.0% 82,885 128,705 55.3% All 79,298 175,193 120.9% 55,604 79,056 42.2% Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Note: “Primary� indicates primary school completion; “vocational� indicates attendee of vocational education and training. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 19  Trends in Median Earnings by Skills Level Figure 2.10  n  Panel A. Changes by Skills Level, 2000 and 2006 Panel B. Changes in Skills Premiums and Relative Supply of Skills 200,000 30% 25% Real annual earnings 160,000 20% 15% 120,000 Change 10% 80,000 5% 0% 40,000 –5% –10% 0 –15% Unskilled Semi-skilled Skilled Semi-skilled Skilled 2000 2006 Supply Premium Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV1 and EICV2. than the  7.5  percent increase in unskilled employment, nonwage employment also yields large gains compared with the semi-skilled premium over unskilled work widened farm labor. Different sectors and employment categories from 1.3 to 1.4. The increase in the semi-skilled earnings demand different mixes of educational attainment, with premium contrasts with the decline in the skilled earnings nonagricultural sectors and employment categories being premium described above, and occurred even as the relative more skills-intensive. supply of semi-skilled workers rose from around 17 percent The very strong, positive link between education and of the workforce in 2000 to 19.5 percent in 2006 (a 16 per- earnings confirms the close relationship between skills cent rise, see figure 2.10B). and job quality in Rwanda’s economy. In particular, A simultaneous increase in both the relative supply better-educated people tend to have considerably higher- of semi-skilled workers and their earnings premium over paying, nonagricultural jobs. Differences in employment unskilled workers points to a substantial rise in the relative opportunities are apparent between rural and urban areas, demand for semi-skilled workers. That is, it is possible that and between men and women, but the trend is general while the supply of semi-skilled labor rose, demand rose overall. Increased education leads to higher average pay to a greater degree. Additional analysis indicates that the even after controlling for a variety of factors, and this return labor allocation of workers with primary school education increases with the level of education. When controlling for changed considerably between 2000 and 2006, undergoing key observable variables such as age and location, women sizable shifts in sectoral allocation (from agriculture to with vocational education, however, tend to do worse than manufacturing and services) and intrasectoral employment their counterparts with lower secondary education, while (from nonwage to wage jobs), especially in agriculture. All the reverse is true for males (annex 2). of these findings are indications of the successful imple- Skills levels in the labor force have risen in recent years, mentation of the government’s economic growth agenda. but semi-skilled and skilled workers nevertheless remain relatively scarce. Consequently, the premium for semi- skilled workers has risen slightly, while the premium for Summary and Potential Policy 2.5  skilled labor continues to be exceptionally high. The recent Implications influx of educated workers into the labor force has led to a significant reduction in the premium for skilled workers, This chapter described the clear discrepancies in earnings demonstrating that it may be further reduced in the future. across economic sectors and employment types in Rwanda, The Economic Development and Poverty Reduction noting that high-quality jobs tend to be nonagricultural Strategy (EDPRS 2008–2012) of Rwanda states that: “In edu- wage jobs in the private sector (in both manufacturing and cation and skills development, the emphasis is on increasing services) and public sector jobs (which provide particularly the coverage of nine-year basic education, strengthening high earnings relative to farm work). Nonagricultural, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), 20 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA and improving the quality of tertiary education.�27 Progress In the realm of education, this can be achieved by improving toward these three goals can be assessed in light of the the basic business skills of students in postprimary educa- analysis in this chapter. tion. Also, while not reviewed in this report, there would Given the data, the government’s emphasis on increasing be benefits to expanding available adult education or other coverage of nine-year basic education has strong merit. The nonformal education and skills development programs that goal is to continue the existing trend of a rapidly increas- focus on business skills development. ing skills base of the workforce, in line with the needs Strengthening TVET is an appropriate objective and of a changing, expanding economy. As recognized in the potential trade-offs between investments in TVET and Education Sector Strategic Plan 2010–2015, challenges in investments in general secondary education require careful basic education include increasing access to lower second- consideration. As indicated above, the EDPRS emphasizes ary education and reducing dropout and repetition rates the need to strengthen TVET. Indeed, this chapter’s analysis across the nine years of basic education. showed that workers with vocational and technical education In light of the skills premiums for semi-skilled and tend to earn considerably more and are disproportionately skilled workers, incentives remain strong for individuals more engaged in the manufacturing sector compared to to complete primary and pursue postprimary education. those who left school after completing primary education. The benefits to education are large in all economic sec- However, the benefits of VET and TE compared to general tors, particularly in manufacturing and services, to which secondary education are more ambiguous and would ben- increased education tends to improve access. Although efit from further analysis. This comparison is particularly there are some caveats to this finding, there is little sign important because (1) access to general upper secondary that existing skilled labor is underemployed. The govern- education risks becoming a bottleneck for the expansion of ment has successfully facilitated the growth of sectors that the PBET system overall (see chapter 3); (2) unit costs of require more skilled labor. Over the 2000–2006 period, a quality TVET are substantially higher than those of quality rapid increase in employment in those sectors and types secondary education; and (3) labor demand in the services of employment that require skilled workers occurred; skills sector, where growth rates exceed those of the manufac- premiums will continue to be high for these workers as long turing sector, seems to prefer general education graduates as similar growth levels are maintained. over workers with a vocational and technical education Focusing on the growth of the private nonagricultural background. As will be highlighted in subsequent chapters, sector appears to be the most obvious way to foster increased Rwanda’s TVET system is underdeveloped both in terms of demand for semi-skilled and skilled workers. Options for access and the quality and relevance of the education and how to encourage private labor demand can be found in training provided; it therefore requires the government’s Rwanda’s Investment Climate Assessment (ICA).28 One attention. However, substantial investments in general finding of this assessment is that large skill premiums were secondary education may prove to be a more cost-efficient found to be a major hindrance to lowering the unit costs of way to equip the future labor force with required skills in manufacturers and increasing production (and demand for the medium to long term. such labor). The analysis of skills premiums and returns Particular attention to addressing gender differences is to postprimary education in this report reinforces these needed when implementing reforms to improve quality and concerns. An increase in the supply of semi-skilled and equity within TVET. As described in this chapter, the pay- skilled labor can help reduce (or limit the increase of) labor offs to VET and TE appear considerably lower for women costs, but skills premiums are unfortunately currently so than for men. Vocationally trained women who work in high that even if they become less pronounced, it is likely that individuals will continue to find it profitable to pursue 27  Republic of Rwanda, Ministry of Finance and Economic Plan- more education for the foreseeable future. ning (MINECOFIN), 2007, “Executive Summary,� in “Economic Growth in private employment in the manufacturing and Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2008–2012)� (EDPRS), MINECOFIN, Kigali, point 7. services sectors is resulting from increases in both wage 28  World Bank, 2009, “The Republic of Rwanda: Investment Climate and nonwage employment.29 Thus, policies that improve Assessment,� draft for discussion, World Bank, Washington, DC, 16. 29  The latter is sometimes referred to as the informal sector. How- the productivity of the self-employed and facilitate private ever, as the definition of informal sector and informal employment entrepreneurship would contribute to the growth of higher- tend to vary across different analyses, this report uses the term quality jobs (compared at least to nonwage agricultural jobs). nonwage employment. OV E RV I E W OF THE LA BOR MA RKET 21 the manufacturing sector earn even less than women who however, that improving access to higher education is at only completed primary education. The gender disparity least an equally appropriate approach than improving its is starker when the returns to education are controlled for quality, thereby ensuring that increasing numbers of highly observable variables such as age and location; women who skilled workers enter the labor market. completed vocational education in particular appear to have In conclusion, the large share of young people in the worse labor market outcomes than those who completed population and the observed fall in youth labor market lower secondary education. There is therefore a need to participation rates suggest that the rapid increase in the rethink and improve vocational education for girls. skills level of the workforce will continue over the medium Improving the quality of higher education would ideally term. It is a testament to current education policies and go hand in hand with its continuing expansion. The small social conditions that this change appears to be happening sample sizes of university graduates in the household survey in both poor and nonpoor households and for both girls and data used in this chapter preclude a detailed investigation boys. The dual goals of policy makers will be to provide of higher education outcomes. The high skills premiums for education for increasing numbers of students and keep that university-educated workers revealed by the data suggest, education relevant to the private sector’s demand for skills. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 23 CHAPTER 3 RWANDA’S POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM 3.1 Contribution of Postbasic Education and Training to Economic Growth Rwanda’s education and training system has produced enough secondary and tertiary graduates to permit sub- stantial economic growth in the past year, beginning the transition of the workforce from traditional agriculture to wage and self-employment. Skills shortages are an existing but not the paramount constraint to economic growth; in a recent study, an inadequately educated work force ranks 11 out of 21 constraints on growth cited by manufacturing firms, generally considered less of an impediment than constraints related to the electricity supply, tax rates, transport, and access to finance.30 During the five-year period 2003–2007, an estimated 180,000 skilled graduates entered the labor force. Of these, slightly more than half were lower secondary education graduates, a third were upper secondary educa- tion graduates, and 14 percent were university graduates. While the data on wage employment and graduation rates are for different periods (2001–2006 and 2003–2007, respectively), recent patterns of growth in enrollment and wage jobs have been similar. On average, workers who at least completed lower secondary education were available to fill somewhat more than one-third of all new wage jobs; those with an upper secondary diploma or university degree filled 20 percent of these jobs. Chapter 2 illustrated that compared to workers with lower quantity and quality of skilled labor. A number of reasons educational attainment, postbasic education and training explain this situation: (PBET) graduates have a higher likelihood of working in the manufacturing and services sectors in relatively highly  Employers may recruit PBET graduates partly due to paid formal jobs. Therefore, individuals reap a clear benefit a “signaling� effect, not directly due to the quality and from obtaining postbasic education, as it increases their relevance of their education. Employers looking for highly likelihood of getting a “good’ job, while at the same time skilled workers recruit these graduates because the PBET providing the skills required by an increasingly sophisticated system provides students knowledge and skills that are economy. Likewise, employers value postbasic education valued on the labor market. It is possible, however, that because they are willing to pay higher salaries to those there are additional reasons for hiring these graduates. workers who have obtained it. While these are encourag- For example, employers are aware that access to PBET ing results, they do not necessarily imply that Rwanda’s PBET system is fully successful in generating the needed 30  World Bank, 2009, “Investment Climate Assessment,� 16. 24 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA is to a large extent restricted to the most able students. Rwanda would clearly benefit from increasing both the By hiring such graduates, they have reason to believe quantity and quality of PBET graduates. Given limited public that they are hiring competent workers, regardless of the and private financial resources, funds should be allocated skills and knowledge that the latter acquired through to policy actions that are expected to produce maximum PBET. This so-called signaling function—to the extent impacts. In an environment of severe fiscal constraints, there that it exists in Rwanda—implies that employers prefer are trade-offs between expanding PBET at current levels of to hire PBET graduates partly due to exogenous factors quality and improving the quality of learning at this level. unrelated to the quality and content of the postbasic While existing skills premiums imply that increasing access education or training that they received. is the best approach to improving the skills level of the labor  The provision of better and more relevant PBET force, efforts to improve quality and relevance are needed would enhance Rwanda’s economic growth to an to ensure increased access to appropriate education and even greater degree. As noted, employers are not training. Achieving this goal would substantially increase necessarily fully satisfied with the skills sets of PBET the individual and economic benefits associated with what graduates.31 Those looking for well-skilled staff have are typically cost-intensive interventions to increase access. little choice other than to hire PBET graduates, even if In order to alleviate financial constraints, the design of they would potentially prefer to recruit workers with the PBET system should also ensure that education is pro- more advanced, or with different, skills. One alternative vided in the most cost-efficient manner possible. There are is to recruit migrant workers. While this report does a number of reform options that could facilitate cost savings not assess labor migration flows, anecdotal evidence in the current system, freeing up resources that could be implies that both private and public employers resort to directed either to further expansion or quality improvements. this option, suggesting that there is indeed a perceived The government’s intention to facilitate and increasingly shortage of adequately skilled workers in Rwanda. rely on private education provision offers a promising Whether this shortage concerns the quality or quantity approach to expanding the amount of resources available of skills (see below) is difficult to assess at this stage. to PBET beyond public financing. (See chapter 5 for policy An increase in the quality of PBET graduates would options for improving access to and the quality, relevance, likely result in higher productivity, increased business and cost-efficiency of PBET.) expansion and job creation and, ultimately, increased In sum, Rwanda’s PBET system should provide high- economic growth. quality education to the largest possible number of students.  Greater numbers of PBET graduates would also enhance The fact that investment in this system presents a number economic growth. The high skills premiums paid to of difficult trade-offs is well recognized by the government. PBET graduates (and even to those who have completed The remainder of this report seeks to provide guidance to primary education) signal a shortage of skilled workers policy makers in making decisions on these trade-offs. This in the labor market. This assumption is supported by chapter describes the present policy and strategy context of the findings of the recent Investment Climate Assess- the PBET system, as well as its current structure and overall ment in Rwanda, which concluded that large skills enrollment, including those of its subsectors (i.e., upper premiums raise production unit costs and prevent an secondary and higher education). The vocational training expansion of production.32 If the demand for skilled provided in Vocational Training Centers (formerly Youth workers increases further, so will shortages of skilled Vocational Training Centers)33 will be briefly discussed, labor, which in turn will likely result in higher costs. An increase in the number of PBET graduates would 31  In this regard, the fact that approximately half of all university dampen this pressure and help reduce unit costs, expand graduates in the labor force work in the public sector merits fur- ther analysis. The skills premium paid to university graduates in production, improve the international competitiveness this sector seems to be higher than that paid in the private sector, of Rwandan businesses, and, consequently, increase which raises a question about the extent to which skills obtained through university study are appropriate for the public sector as economic growth. As highlighted earlier in this report, compared to the private sector. a focus on increased access seems particularly appro- 32  World Bank, 2009, “Investment Climate Assessment,� 16. 33  VTCs were previously known as Centre de Formation des Jeunes, priate for upper (general) secondary education, which or CFJs. The name change occurred at the same time that these otherwise risks becoming a bottleneck for the expansion institutions were placed under the authority of the Workforce of the overall PBET system. Development Authority. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 25 although these centers currently cater to primary school higher education (figure 3.1).36 The PBET sector includes: dropouts and graduates and are thus not actually part of (1) upper secondary general education; (2) Technical Sec- the PBET system. However, it is expected that they will ondary Schools (TSSs), which provide technical education progressively serve basic education graduates. at the upper secondary level; and (3) tertiary education, including public and private universities; other degree- Context of current PBET policy and strategy level, specialized higher learning institutions (HLIs), and the alternative higher education sector, which includes The education system in Rwanda must adjust to demo- colleges of nursing and education. Integrated Polytechnic graphic change, particularly the increasing numbers of Regional Centers (IPRCs) are expected to offer all levels of primary school-leavers who will seek access to secondary TVET under a new arrangement initiated by the Ministry and higher education. This trend implies that the postbasic of Education in 2009. education and training sector faces a dual challenge. On Vocational schools can to some extent be considered the “entry� side, PBET should offer increased, equitable part of the PBET system. As noted earlier, VTCs tradition- access to students completing basic education, while on ally deliver vocational training mainly to primary school- the “exit� side, the quality and relevance of PBET needs leavers and secondary dropouts, and in some cases, sec- to be improved and aligned with the demands of the labor ondary school-leavers and employed people—regardless market and the economy as a whole. of their level of education. In the future it is foreseen that While great progress has been made in increasing all TVET, including vocational training, will be provided access to primary education in Rwanda, and efforts are to basic education graduates, although it is expected that now being made to increase the quality of that education, some vocational training for basic education dropouts will attention to the PBET sector has in the past been rather continue to be needed. limited and fragmented. This changed in recent years, As noted in its Rwanda Education Country Status Report, however, when Rwanda’s Education Sector Strategic Plan Rwanda has higher gross enrollment rates in primary and for the period 2010–2015 made the goal of expanded, more higher education than do other countries in Sub-Saharan relevant postbasic education a new priority.34 The Ministry Africa, but lower enrollment rates in both lower and upper of Education has developed a range of policies and draft secondary education. Its transition rate between lower and policies that provide a useful foundation for a comprehensive upper secondary education is relatively high in the region.37 PBET system and strategy. In particular, it adopted a Higher Table 3.1 and figure 3.2 summarize enrollment patterns Education Policy and a Technical and Vocational Education over the nine-year period 2000–2008. As table 3.1 shows, total and Training Policy in 2008; an ICT in Education Policy is enrollment in upper secondary streams was about 105,000 pending cabinet approval.35 Within the PBET system, the in 2008; at the lower secondary level, it was about 183,000. government is focusing on improving access to and the quality As seen in figure 3.2 (right axis), primary education enroll- of technical and vocational education and training (TVET), ment growth has slowed in recent years, which is expected which is underdeveloped compared to general education. given that net enrollment is approaching 100 percent. As The challenge today is to develop concrete options for would be hoped, enrollments at the secondary and tertiary a comprehensive PBET strategy that will enable Rwanda levels have expanded more quickly than at the primary to move firmly towards a knowledge-based economy and level. Average annual growth has been the highest for continued growth in skilled jobs in both wage and self- higher education (22 percent) during the 2000–2008 period: employment. The strategy should, moreover, be financially enrollments multiplied by a factor of 5. sustainable and capable of being implemented incremen- tally, starting from the country’s existing institutional base. 34  MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP 2010–2015.� See the following MINEDUC publications of 2008:“Technical Structure of the PBET Sector in Rwanda 3.2  35  and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Rwanda Policy;� “Higher Education Policy;� and “ICT in Education Policy,� draft Rwanda’s education system is organized around four major report; MINEDUC, Kigali. 36  See annex 3 for a description of educational typologies that cycles: preprimary education, basic education (primary and are useful for understanding the structure of PBET in Rwanda. lower secondary education), upper secondary education, and 37  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� 26 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure 3.1  n Structure of Rwandan Education System, 2008 Education System TVET KEY Number of Years Cert: Certi�cate Integrated CoE: Colleges of Education POLYTECHNICS CoT: Colleges of Technology Voc. Cert I-III Dip: Diploma Voc A2 Cert, Dip (A1) HLIs: Higher Learning Institutions G.SEC: General Secondary Level I -III P.G: Postgraduate TECH TECH: Technical Upper Secondary Education 1 2 3 TTC: Teacher Training Center 1 2 ½ TVET: Technical and vocational education and training G.SEC Voc: Vocational HLIs P.G 1 2 3 1 2 3 4+ 1+ TTC CoE 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 ½ PRE LOWER UPPER PRIMARY TERTIARY PRIMARY SECONDARY SECONDARY NINE YEAR BASIC EDUCATION Level In the period under observation, enrollments in lower Figure 3.3 compares enrollment in upper secondary and and upper secondary education have increased at a roughly tertiary education in Rwanda with enrollment levels in other similar pace. Throughout the period the number of students selected low-income countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. The in upper secondary education compared to the number of y axis in the figure displays the income per capita in each students in lower secondary education has been stable at country. The figure shows a correlation between enroll- roughly 57 percent. However, due to the expansion of the ment and national income. It also reveals that Rwanda’s system, the difference between enrollment in lower and gross enrollment rate (GER) in upper secondary education, upper secondary education has steadily grown in nominal 17.4 percent, is relatively low compared to those of the other terms. Whereas in 2000 there were around 35,000 fewer countries depicted. For example, GER in Mauritania, Niger, students in upper than in lower secondary education, this and Nigeria is between 23 and 27 percent, and in Ghana difference had increased to  79,000  in  2008. This figure and Kenya it is substantially higher—35 and 43 percent, indicates that increasingly large numbers of lower second- respectively. Considering its income level, Rwanda’s GER ary education graduates are not gaining access to upper at the upper secondary level is perhaps not surprising: all secondary education. depicted countries with higher GERs also have higher gross The government’s fast-tracking of the Nine-Year Basic national income (GNI) per capita. Similarly, all countries Education strategy is ensuring that increasing numbers of with lower GERs (i.e., Burundi, Niger, Madagascar, and pupils are completing basic education. While this is a very Uganda) also have a lower GNI per capita than Rwanda positive development, it implies that the government will (figure 3.3A). also need to focus on expanding upper secondary educa- tion in order to offer access to this growing number of basic education graduates, thereby avoiding a situation in 38  See the Introductory Note to this report, which provides updated which upper secondary education increasingly becomes a information on how the government is addressing this issue fol- bottleneck in the overall expansion of PBET as a whole.38 lowing the introduction of the 12-year education policy. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 27 Table 3.1  n Enrollment in Rwandan Education System by Level, 2000–08  2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Preprimary 7,844 18,399 14,283 19,991 28,103 na 98,934 94,226 145,409 % Fem. Stud. 49.4 49.6 50.2 50.1 50.6 52.0 51.8 51.1 GER 3 — na 13 — 18 Primary 1,431,657 1,476,272 1,534,510 1,636,563 1,752,588 1,857,841 2,019,991 2,150,430 2,190,270 % Fem. Stud. 50.0 49.6 50.0 50.3 50.5 50.8 50.9 51.2 50.9 GER — — — 123 130 136 145 146 151 Lower secondary 80,209 90,253 99,737 114,217 131,427 142,209 156,299 169,682 183,284 % Fem. Stud. 51.5 51.3 50.5 49.1 47.7 47.6 47.6 47.8 48.2 GER 17 20 22 24 25 28 Upper secondary 44,915 50,910 57,552 64,936 72,124 76,308 83,330 96,836 104,752 % Fem. Stud. 49.5 50.2 49.7 50.1 48.6 47.7 46.6 46.9 46.6 GER — — — 10 11 12 13 14 16 Tertiary 9,357 12,802 15,940 20,393 24,948 27,787 37,149 41,013 45,374 % Fem. Stud. 32.9 33.7 34.1 36.8 39.6 40.4 41.6 na na Num. of Stud. — — — 251 — 315 410 — 474 per 100,000 inhab. Source: MINEDUC, various years, “Statistical Yearbook,� MINEDUC, Kigali, and MINEDUC, 2008, “School Census 2008,� MINEDUC, Kigali, as quoted in World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Educa- tion Country Status Report.� Note: Edu. – education; fem. – female; GER – gross enrollment rate; inhab. – inhabitant; stud. – student. Compared to the other low-income countries shown level is not taken into account. At a rate of  573  stu- in figure 3.3B, enrollment in higher education in Rwanda dents per  100,000  inhabitants, tertiary enrollment in is relatively high, even when its relatively low income Rwanda is only exceeded by that in Mail and Ghana, which are 613 and 879 per 100,000 citizens, respectively. Nevertheless, compared to Mauritius or South Africa (1,340 and 1,536 students, respectively), countries that have Figure 3.2  n Enrollment Growth by  the most developed higher education systems among Sub- Educational Level, 2000–08 Saharan African countries, Rwanda’s enrollment numbers are quite low. 200 2,500 Figure 3.4 broadens the picture by adding a selection of non-African countries, ranging from low-income coun- 160 2,000 tries (e.g., Laos and Kyrgyzstan) to lower-middle-income countries (e.g., Pakistan, Mongolia, Philippines, Paraguay, 120 1,500 Thousands Thousands Guatemala, and Ecuador) to upper-middle income coun- tries (e.g., Peru). The figures shows that the correlation 80 1,000 between enrollment and income also exists at a global level, particularly in higher education, with a rather distinctive 40 500 difference between the enrollment levels of low-income countries and most middle-income countries.39 0 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Tronc Commun Upper second. Tertiary edu. Primary (right axis) The exception is Kyrgyzstan, a low-income country with a higher 39  Source: MINEDUC. education enrollment rate that exceeds that of its economic peers, Note: Edu. – education; second. – secondary; Tronc Commun – lower secondary education. such as the Philippines, Paraguay, and Ecuador. 28 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure 3.3  n Upper Secondary and Higher Education Enrollment Rates and Gross National  Income per Capita in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries, Latest Available Year Panel A. Upper Secondary GER Panel B. Higher Education GER 50 1000 Kenya Ghana 40 800 Ghana 30 600 Mali Rwanda Mali Kenya 20 Mauritania 400 Madabgascar Uganda Mauritania Madabgascar Rwanda 10 Uganda 200 Burundi Burundi Niger Niger 0 0 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 GNI per capita GNI per capita Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) database. Note: GNI – gross national income. GNI calculated using Atlas method. Enrollment rates for higher education are cited as the rate per 100,000 inhabitants. Data is shown for latest available year during the period 2000–05. Figure 3.4  n Upper Secondary and Higher Education Enrollment and Gross National Income per  Capita, Selected Countries Worldwide, Latest Available Year Panel A. Upper Secondary GER Panel B. Higher Education GER 90 7000 80 Mongolia Mongolia 6000 Gross enrollment rate, Gross enrollment rate, 70 Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan upper secondary upper secondary Philippines Ecuador Peru 5000 60 Paraguay 50 Kenya 4000 Paraguay Guatemala Ecuador 40 Ghana 3000 Philippines Laos 30 Mali Pakistan 2000 Guatemala Madagascar Nigeria Peru 20 Burundi Rwanda Mauritania Kenya Laos 10 Uganda 1000 Mali Madagascar Rwanda Ghana Niger Burundi Uganda Pakistan 0 0 Niger Mauritania 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 GNI per capita GNI per capita Source: UIS database. Note: GER – gross enrollment rate. GNI – gross national income. GNI calculated using Atlas method. Enrollment rates for higher education cited as the rate per 100,000 inhabitants. Data is shown for latest available year during the period 2000–05. No data was available for Nigeria, Guatemala, or Peru for Panel B. 3.3 General Upper Secondary Education roughly 44 percent offered both lower and upper secondary education. Private schools host 54 percent of all students General upper secondary education lasts three years in enrolled in upper secondary education.41 Rwanda. At the end of this cycle, students take either the Secondary 6 Leaving Examination or the A-Level Exami- nation. The total number of all secondary schools in the 40  R. Craig, P. Blay, C. Mbaraka, and D. Kibago, 2007, “Public country, both lower and upper, has grown from 405 in 2002– Expenditure Review of the Education Sector—Rwanda,� REPIM and MINEDUC, Kigali. 03  to  689  in  2007. Most of this expansion has come at 41  MINEDUC, various years, “Statistical Yearbook,� and authors’ the lower secondary level. Approximately 60 percent of calculations, as quoted in World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education secondary schools are boarding schools,40 and in  2008, Country Status Report.� RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 29 Curriculum more than one curriculum stream, a share that was signifi- cantly higher in private (38 percent) and publicly financed Although curriculum reforms in primary and secondary (37 percent) schools than in public schools (23 percent).43 education have been ongoing since 2003, the pace of reform The most common combinations were academic and voca- increased considerably in the period 2007–2010. The upper tional streams in one school, followed by vocational and secondary curriculum was streamlined in 2009 because of teaching streams in one school.44 concerns that the previous curriculum was too demanding Small average school size, multiple levels of education, and overloaded, among other reasons.42 The new upper the offering of several curriculum streams, and the presence general secondary curriculum offers several subject combi- of boarding facilities complicate school management in the nations in each of the main sections of science, humanities, country. As noted in a 2004 World Bank report, diversity in and languages. Each combination consists of five examin- curriculum streams may be a sign of school responsiveness able core subjects, which always include entrepreneurship to market demand, but also indicates that schools fail to and the writing of a “general paper.� In addition, each take advantage of economies of scale in service delivery. combination includes four to six nonexaminable subjects, The report goes on to note that the apparent absence of of which some are compulsory. Finally, there are various scale economies (i.e., the unit cost of providing educa- extracurricular activities, including sports, cultural activi- tion is not much lower for larger schools than for smaller ties, and religious studies. schools) might be caused by the fragmentation of course Government statistics presently provide little informa- offerings. It may thus be advisable to expand upper second- tion on the number of schools that offer, or the number ary education without a proliferation of course offerings, of students enrolled in, the various curriculum combina- tions. The most recent comprehensive information on this 42  For example, MINEDUC presented an issues paper during topic dates back to 2001, which predates both the current the  2008  Joint Review of the Education Sector that contended curriculum and its subject combinations. At that time, the that the upper general secondary curriculum was overloaded with two curriculum streams that were offered by most schools too many subject options, leading to poor student performance on public examinations (MINEDUC, 2007, “Reform of Post-Basic were academic (49 percent) and vocational (45 percent). A Education in Rwanda—An Issues Paper for Presentation at the teaching stream was offered in 36 percent of schools, and Joint Review of the Education Sector 2008,� MINEDUC, Kigali). 43  Publicly financed schools are schools that are privately owned a technical stream in only 8 percent. Around one-third of and managed, but largely publicly financed. all schools providing upper secondary education offered 44  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� Table 3.2   n Examples of Existing Curriculum Combinations in Upper General Secondary Education  Combination Core subjects Nonexaminable subjects* Science section Physics, computer science, mathematics Physics, computer science, mathematics, English, Kinyarwanda, technical drawing, chemistry entrepreneurship, general paper Biology, chemistry, mathematics Biology, chemistry, mathematics, entrepreneurship, English, Kinyarwanda, fine arts, physics, computer general paper science Humanities section History, economics, geography History, economics, geography, entrepreneurship, English, Kinyarwanda, computer science, general paper accounting, fine arts, French History, economics, literature History, economics, literature, entrepreneurship, English, Kinyarwanda, computer science, drama, general paper French Languages section Combination 1 English literature, French, Kinyarwanda, Swahili, drama, computer science, secretarial entrepreneurship, general paper studies Combination 2 English literature, Swahili, Kinyarwanda, Drama, French, computer science, secretarial entrepreneurship, general paper studies Source: “Curricula for Secondary Schools,� n.d., webpage of National Curriculum Development Centre, MINEDU, Kigali, www.ncdc.gov.rw/SECONDARYENG.html (accessed October 2012). Note: * Subjects in italics are not compulsory. 30 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA taking advantage of opportunities to consolidate wherever ratio in secondary education is 25:1, which is relatively low appropriate.45 compared to other African countries.50 Given that teacher Lack of recent data on curriculum combinations prevents salaries comprise the largest recurring expense in the educa- an assessment of whether (upper) secondary schools are tion budget, a difficult trade-off exists between promoting currently taking advantage of economies of scale and to educational quality through small class sizes and avoiding what extent they are aligning their course offerings with extreme upward pressure on per student expenditure. labor demand; further analysis of these topics is warranted. Despite a weak evidence base, the widespread perception Teaching methods of key stakeholders is that secondary education is insuffi- ciently aligned with labor demand. To address this concern, MINEDUC intends to promote more student-centered teach- MINEDUC plans to review upper secondary curricula to ing methods in general education, and efforts have begun encourage the acquisition of more appropriate skills for to move toward this goal. For example, curriculum reforms both the workplace and higher education.46 have taken into account student-centered teaching and teach- ers who have gone through training in English have been Teacher qualifications and retention exposed to this methodology. However, a comprehensive strategy encompassing well-aligned reforms in key elements As highlighted in an issues paper that MINEDUC presented of the education system (e.g., teacher training, curriculum, during the Joint Review of the Education Sector (JRES) examinations, inspection, and school environment) has not in 2008, teacher qualification and retention are additional yet been developed. major issues in both general upper secondary education and Teacher training, an essential ingredient of student-cen- technical secondary schools.47 Data from the MINEDUC school tered teaching, does not yet include structural components census (reported in the Rwanda Education Country Status that would provide teachers the necessary exposure and Report of 2011)48 showed that in 2008, only 37 percent of all know-how to teach in this manner. Teachers are generally secondary school teachers had the required qualifications unfamiliar with teaching methods that support the acquisition for their positions. In Rwanda this means that they have not of catalytic skills by students. The great majority of teach- completed a university education and may lack the subject ers are familiar only with teacher-centered, highly didactic matter knowledge needed to teach the curriculum. The share approaches to teaching and learning, with a high level of of qualified teachers is higher in private secondary schools student passivity observed in secondary school classrooms. (48 percent) than in public secondary schools (29 percent). Both MINEDUC and its development partners recognize The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) database this challenge; as a result, a number of partner-funded provides education data that is comparable across coun- teacher training projects are in process, almost all of which tries. Based on the International Standard Classification support some form of student-centred learning or the of Education (ISCED), this database puts the share of introduction of some level of catalytic skills. Efforts in this qualified secondary school teachers in Rwanda at 53 per- area are, however, still relatively fragmented and lack the cent in 2007. While this is considerably higher than the foundation of a sound government strategy. A strategy that percentage calculated using the MINEDUC definition and promotes the acquisition of catalytic skills would ideally not its school census data, it is quite low compared to the quali- only include appropriate teacher training reforms, but also fied secondary teacher rate that the UIS database records ensure that other key aspects of the education system—such for such countries as Mozambique (62  percent in  2007) and Nigeria (69 percent in 2006) and is more comparable 45  World Bank, 2004, Education in Rwanda: Rebalancing Resources to the rates in Burundi (56 percent in 2008) and Burkina to Accelerate Post-Conflict Development and Poverty Reduction, Faso (50 percent in 2009).49 World Bank Country Study (Washington, DC: World Bank). 46  MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP 2010–2015.� In addition to teacher qualifications, the issues paper also 47  MINEDUC, 2007, “Reform of Post-Basic Education in Rwanda.� drew attention to the lack of contact time in classrooms due 48  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� to teacher absenteeism and sickness and pointed out that 49  For Rwanda, the latest data on qualified teachers in secondary teaching frequently takes the form of uninspiring lecture education in the UIS database are from 2007. For the comparator countries provided here, the source year of the data is either 2007 or and note-taking methods, rather than creative enquiry using the year for which data are available that is closest to 2007. a learner-centered approach. The overall student-teacher 50  Ibid. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 31 as curricula, examinations, inspections, and the school (post-secondary, A1) levels. The two-and-a-half- to three- environment—facilitate the acquisition of these skills. year programs result in A1 diplomas for higher technicians. The Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP) 2010–2015 rec- The government is also in the process of operationalizing ognizes a need for greater emphasis on student-centered peda- five IPRCs—one in each region and one in Kigali—which gogy in both pre- and in-service teacher training and includes will coordinate and offer TVET at all levels, including the plans to train upper general secondary education teachers technician level. The IPRCs have two essential functions: in this methodology. The Kigali Institute of Education, for (1) to offer diploma (A1), technical certificate (A2), and example, is slated to work with the Colleges of Education vocational training, and (2) to coordinate and supervise and Teacher Training Centers to incorporate student-centered public and private TVET providers (on behalf of the Work- approaches into its teacher training curriculum. force Development Authority and the government) in each respective region. To carry out the first function, IPRCs will be based in existing TVET institutions and rely on a 3.4 Higher Education network of existing institutions for training provision. The only new programs that will be offered in most regions are Higher education in Rwanda consists of both traditional A1 diploma programs. For example, the IPRC in the Southern public and private universities and other degree-granting Province has established a network of three campuses and HLIs, as well as five Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centers is planning an additional one for agriculture. (IPRCs). The higher education subsector has been expanding It is envisaged that the IPRCs will facilitate an array of rapidly. In 2003, there were a total of 9 institutions (5 public skills programs at different levels, with multiple entry and and 4 private); in 2008, this number had more than doubled exit points. The intent is to enable people with ability to to 20 institutions (6 public and 14 private). While growth progress vertically all the way to university education in a in publicly funded higher learning institutions has been track parallel to general education. IPRCs are intended to have impressive (4 of the 6 public institutions have been set up various facilities, including pedagogic research and teacher since 1997), private expansion in higher education has been learning centers; technical and vocational workshops; an even more striking.51 Some tertiary institutions are managed entrepreneurship development center; a regional labor market by ministries other than MINEDUC, such as the Ministry information system; a curriculum development center; an of Health, which has administrative control over nursing industrial liaison center; an accreditation and assessment colleges. Quality assurance, however, remains the respon- center; an innovation center; and restaurants and hotels sibility of the Higher Education Council under MINEDUC. dedicated specifically to training (see also section 3.5). Degree-granting sector. The 20 degree-granting insti- Two IPRCs have been established thus far: one in Kavumu tutions of higher education in Rwanda offer programs of in Southern Province and one in Kigali (formerly Kicukiro variable duration. Most offer four-year degree programs (or Technical College). The IPRC in the Northern Province will more, in disciplines such as medicine), with some diploma be constructed with the support of the Chinese government. programs of shorter duration. Of the 14 private institutions Other locations for future Polytechnics are the Official Tech- in the subsector, 5 were accredited at the time of the writing nical School (ETO) in Kibungo (Eastern Province) and the of this report and 6 had received provisional accreditation. ETO in Kibuye/Karongi (Western Province). Most of these institutions were created after 1994. Before that Enrollment in higher learning institutions has grown year, the country had only one public university, the National substantially over the past decade, with an average annual University of Rwanda (NUR), which was founded follow- growth rate of 22 percent in the period 2000–2008 (a 15 per- ing the country’s independence in 1963. NUR and all other cent growth rate in public institutions and a 31 percent rate institutions of higher learning that existed in 1994 together in private ones). While total enrollment grew by almost had less than 5,000 students that year. a factor of five during this period, it grew by almost of a Alternative sector. This sector consists of a College factor of 9 for private and only 3 for public institutions. In of Technology (in Tumba), five Colleges of Nursing (one fact, private higher learning institutions now enroll more in each of the five provinces) belonging to the Ministry of students than do public institutions (figure 3.5). Health, and two Colleges of Education. The Tumba College of Technology is a public institution offering technician Annex 3 provides a complete list of universities and HLIs in 51  training at the certificate (secondary level, A2) and diploma Rwanda. 32 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure 3.5  n  Enrollment Rates in Higher jobs accounts for only a small share of total employment. Education, 2000–2008 The government sector appears to offer more attractive benefit packages to higher education graduates than does 50,000 the private sector. This situation merits further analysis 44,974 45,000 as part of efforts to assist higher learning institutions in 40,000 adapting their course offerings to private sector demand. At 35,000 the moment it is unclear whether the current situation has 30,000 arisen because HLIs design educational programs to meet 25,000 public rather than private sector demand, or because the 20,000 government’s wage-setting mechanism remunerates higher 15,000 19,207 education graduates at such a high level that it prevents 10,000 9,357 the efficient allocation of labor. 5,000 6,375 In addition to efforts to improve the relevance of higher 0 education to private sector labor demand, HLIs need to both 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 increase their cost effectiveness and expand their resource Private Public Public + Private base. This is particularly important if they are to continue increasing access as the share of public funding allocated Source: MINEDUC, various years, “Statistical Yearbook.� to the subsector is reduced (see also chapter 4). To achieve this objective, universities will be expected to increase their resource-generating activities through additional partnerships Currently, between one-third to one-half of students in with international agencies and the private sector, reduce higher education have some form of scholarship or spon- their reliance on expatriate faculty, and develop open- and sorship, which places a significant burden on the public distance-learning mechanisms.52 The latter will also promote resources allocated to higher education. The government access to an increasingly diversified student body. Other is accordingly widening the access of poor and vulnerable options to increase access without overburdening public students to higher education by using means-testing to resources include policies that facilitate the private provision allocate scholarships. of higher education—for example, policies that develop a The strategic priorities for the higher education subsector, more conducive regulatory framework and mechanisms that as defined in ESSP 2010–2015, focus on the expansion of increase access to financing for both (potential) providers access and strengthening linkages between higher education and students (chapter 5). and the labor market. The ESSP includes plans to provide incentives to students to study science and technology sub- jects (public HLIs will specifically focus on expanding access Technical and Vocational Education 3.5  to these disciplines), encourage research in areas relevant and Training to Rwanda’s development, and strengthen linkages between HLIs and the private sector. As described in chapter  5, various other options exist to improve the responsiveness TVET structure of (public) higher education to labor demand. Where such options can be implemented at the central level (e.g., the Compared to the general education system, Rwanda’s generation and dissemination of labor market information), TVET system is underdeveloped.53 The government has evidence shows that responsiveness to labor demand and recently begun to implement new policies designed to adaptability to changing environments is best ensured by develop a better-functioning TVET system—one that can HLIs themselves (see chapter 4). The function of the cen- deliver relevant, quality technical and vocational education tral government in this sphere is to create an appropriate enabling framework. 52 This section relies in part on MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP 2010–2015.� As described in chapter  2, approximately half of 53 This section is also based on information derived from inter- views with key stakeholders and visits to training establishments Rwanda’s higher education graduates are employed in conducted in April and May 2010, as well as sources included in the public sector, even though the number of government the bibliography of this report. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 33 and training to increasing numbers of students. The new various crafts and trades, including tailoring, hairdressing, TVET system (box  3.1) has three principal levels: voca- woodworking, electrical installation, and masonry. Courses tional (primarily aimed at basic education graduates, but typically last from six months to one year, resulting in quali- also catering to less-educated pupils); technical (upper fications at the A4 level. Some 65 CFJs exist in the country, secondary education); and colleges of technology and the of which 37 (57 percent) are owned by nongovernmental IPRCs (postsecondary education). A large share of TVET organizations. Public CFJs each average about 170 students in Rwanda is delivered by private providers; the share and private institutions, about 145. An evaluation has found is three-fourths among technical secondary schools. In that, given current conditions, positive employment impacts addition, more than 2,600 mostly small private providers can be expected solely in the vicinity of training centers primarily offer training for work in the informal sector. The that benefit from foreign assistance.54 Workforce Development Authority (WDA), created in 2008, While vocational training graduates cannot at present has begun implementing a major reform in which various proceed to further education or training, current reforms parts of the system are being integrated (both under the seek to change this situation. In addition, following intro- WDA and through the IPRCs). duction of the nine-year basic education strategy, the entry Vocational training is provided mostly to primary school level for formal vocational training is expected to become graduates and individuals who have not completed lower completion of lower secondary education, implying that secondary education through Youth Vocational Training the students and curricula of CFJs will become similar Centers (French acronym, CFJs—Centres de Formation des to those of public and private Technical Schools (French Jeunes). These institutions teach a low level of skills in acronyms, ETOs and ETs—Écoles Techniques Officielles and Écoles Techniques; see below). Vocational training for semi-skilled and skilled work- ers has not yet found a niche in Rwanda, despite several Box 3.1  |  Transition to a New TVET System attempts to establish it. One cited reason is a strong social preference for academic education, even though access to The transition from the old to new TVET system in Rwanda is necessarily this type of education has historically been very limited.55 a gradual process. Elements of both systems are likely to coexist until Efforts to establish public vocational training for skills that the new system is fully established. were expected to be in demand in rural areas have generally The sections below provide key indicators for Rwanda’s training system. been unsuccessful, in part due to limited demand and in Most of the data are from 2009 (the most recent data for which data part due to underfunding. was available at the time of writing). In that year, while the principal Technical education is offered by ETOs and ETs at the policies for the new TVET system were already in place, most institu- upper secondary level, which provide graduates of lower tions still functioned according to the old system. For that reason, the secondary education (S3 level) three years of training, leading terminology used for the training institutions in this section is that of the to an A3 or A2 (craftsman) certificate. Graduates with these old training system. Table B3.1 provides the most relevant term used technical certificates can proceed to university or technical under the new system for each term used under the old system. Thus, colleges. While few used to do so, the situation seems to most CFJs under the old system become VTCs under the new system, be improving. At present there are 160 of these schools, of and most ETOs and ETs become TSSs. which almost three-quarters are not government owned. The schools are relatively small, averaging 240 students Table B3.1  n Institutional Equivalencies each in the private sector and  220  students each in the Old TVET system New TVET system public sector. They teach mainly technical subjects, such as Centre de Formation des Jeunes Vocational Training Center (CFJ, or Youth Vocational (VTC) 54  GTZ, 2008, “Mid-Term Review of the Employment Component Training Center) of the Economy and Employment Promotion Programme in Ecole Technique Officielle Technical Secondary Rwanda: Final Report,� Promotion of Economy and Employment (ETO, or [public] Official School (TSS) Program, GTZ, Kigali. Technical School) 55  Rachel Hayman, 2005, “The Contribution of Postbasic Education Ecole Technique Technical Secondary and Training (PBET) to Poverty Reduction in Rwanda: Balancing (ET, or [private] Technical School) School (TSS) Short-Term Goals and Long-Term Visions in the Face of Capacity Constraints,� Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland. 34 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA construction, information and communication technology driving. At the technical secondary level, women are again (ICT), carpentry, and automotive technology.56 the majority of students in tailoring training, make up a bit Dropout rates in the ETOs and ETs are reportedly low— less than half of ICT students, and are moderately represented less than 10 percent over the three-year course. The final in agriculture and veterinary studies. Females are largely assessment at this level is dominated by a theoretical exami- absent from traditional male programs, such as carpentry, nation previously prepared by the National Examination general mechanics, and automobiles (annexes 5 and 6). Council, with schools conducting their own practical exams. Pass rates on the theoretical examination are relatively high Private TVET provision and enterprise-based (averaging 85 percent in 2009), ranging from 59 percent in training veterinary studies to 91 percent in construction to 97 percent in computer science. Private TVET provision accounts for 57 percent of trainees As described in section 3.4, postsecondary technical at CFJs sand 73 percent at Technical Schools. Until recently, training is offered at the Tumba College of Technology and only associations could establish training institutions, but the two IPRCs that have been established to date. for-profit training organizations are reportedly also currently allowed to do so. ETs must follow a government-specified Schools, enrollment, teachers, and gender curriculum and are typically inspected by MINEDUC two issues Enrollment in CFJs is relatively limited, totaling Table 3.3  n  Key Characteristics of TVET about  10,000  trainees in  2009. Enrollment in ETOs and Schools and Students, 2009 ETs was  37,800  that same year, or roughly one-third of ETOs and total enrollments at the upper secondary level. Enrollment CFJs] ETs in colleges of technology is also still limited. The Kicukiro Institutions Total 65 160 College of Technology, for example, enrolled 450 students Public 28 43 in 2009 (table 3.3). Private 37 117 Instructors teach an average of 21.5 trainees in CFJs, Enrollment Total 10111 37764 35.5  in ETOs and ETs, and  9  in colleges of technology. Public 4743 9484 When public and private Technical Schools are taken Private 5368 28280 together, some 39 percent of teachers have qualifications at Teachers Total 466 1088 the certificate level; 37 percent, at the diploma level (A1); and 24 percent, at the degree (A0) level. Public 214 255 There are gender imbalances in enrollment in voca- Private 252 833 tional training and technical education that become more Graduates Total 10111 n.a. pronounced as the level of education increases. Females, Public 4743 5368 for example, made up 37 percent of trainees in public CFJs Private 5368 n.a. in 2009, 43 percent in private CFJs, and 25 percent in ETOs Averages (no gender data are available for ETs). The share of women Size Public 169 221 students is also very small in Colleges of Technology: report- Private 145 242 edly 6 percent of enrollment at Tumba and 12 percent at P:T Ratio Public 22 37 Kicukiro. Private 21 34 Women students also tend to be concentrated in tradi- Private % institutions 57 73 tional female occupations. In vocational training, for example, % students 53 75 females are a strong majority in tailoring (92  percent), cooking and food processing (88 percent), and hairdress- Source: Statistics provided to authors by WDA in September–October 2010. Note: P – pupil; T – teacher; WDA – Workforce Development Authority. ing (87 percent) training; they also represent 44 percent of students in ICT training. Male students, on the other 56  The data cited in this and subsequent paragraphs of this “TVET hand, dominate training in plumbing, welding, carpentry, structure� subsection was provided to the author by the WDA in electricity, masonry, automobile mechanics, metalwork, and September–October 2010. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 35 to three times annually. ETs must also obtain permission providing adequate-quality teachers, and ensuring sustain- from MINEDUC before introducing new courses or raising able financing. (The policy identifies several key strategies tuition rates. The government does not specify the wages for each intervention area, which can be found in annex 7.) of teachers or the procedures for their hiring or dismissal. The TVET Concept Paper elaborates how the TVET The WDA, with the support of the German Technical system will be integrated, with a focus on the establishment Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale of the WDA and IPRCs. Integration entails the integration Zusammenarbeit, GIZ), undertook a survey of all types of of: (1) vocational training and technical education under training providers in Rwanda in 2009/10. The surprising WDA; (2) all levels of TVET as a separate stream parallel to result was 2,631 training providers, 90 percent of whom general education so as to ensure vertical mobility (through- were private.57 Private providers were mostly small propri- out the TVET system) and horizontal mobility (across etorships and cooperatives. In total, 10,000 trainers were general education and TVET); and (3) TVET programs in then teaching 117,000 trainees in 3,300 courses (averag- the regions under IPRCs, which will be subordinate to the ing 35 trainees per trainer.) More than 80 percent of training WDA. Figure 3.6 depicts the envisaged essence of the new providers offer introductory training. Tailoring was the most TVET structure . popular program, offered by one-third of providers, followed The draft WDA Strategic and Action Plan is a detailed by construction and arts and crafts. Less than 10 percent plan for implementing the TVET policy and concept paper. of all providers followed the official curriculum provided The document identifies nine key objectives with associated by the National Curriculum Development Center; rather, actions. In light of its substantial mandate and relatively most prepared their own curricula.58 Training programs aver- weak capacity, the WDA has begun focusing on four of these aged 11 months in duration, with 34 hours of instruction objectives: integration of the overall TVET system, develop- per week.59 There appears to be no effective government ing demand-led and competency-based curricula, teacher regulation or control over these small training providers. recruitment and training standards, and a robust institutional No organized national system of enterprise-based framework for workforce skills development (annex 8). training exists in Rwanda. Apprenticeship training in the The WDA has made particular progress in developing technical trades is virtually nonexistent and informal sector vocational training curricula for several priority occupations apprenticeships do not appear as common as in neighbor- in the construction as well as the hospitality and tourism ing countries. However, with assistance from GIZ and the sectors. It has initiated the development of further curricula in Private Sector Federation, efforts are being made to estab- agriculture and ICT. The targeted occupations were selected lish linkages between enterprises and Technical Secondary after consultations with private sector representatives. The Schools in the form of internships. private sector is also involved in the actual development of New TVET policies and strategies 57  GIZ was established in January 2011 through a merger of three Rwanda has a recent, well-developed policy framework German organizations, including the Deutsche Gesellschaft für for TVET consisting of three main documents: “Technical Technische Zusammernarbeit (GTZ). Before 2011, support to TVET referred to in this report was provided by GTZ. and Vocational Education and Training Policy in Rwanda� 58  The WDA has started to develop curricula for vocational (April 2008); “Concept Paper: Development and Implemen- training. Previously, the government did not provide or stipulate tation of an Integrated Technical and Vocational Education harmonized curricula. 59  GTZ, 2010, “Private Training Provider Survey: Summary of Main Training System� (June 2008); and “Draft WDA Strategic Findings,� Promotion of Economy and Employment Program, and Action Plan for Implementation of the Integrated TVET GTZ, Kigali. 60  MINEDUC, 2008, “Technical and Vocational Education and System� (December 2009).60 Training (TVET) Policy in Rwanda� (hereafter, “TVET Policy in The TVET policy sets out as its main objective “. . . to Rwanda�), MINEDUC, Kigali; MINEDUC, 2008, “Development provide the economy with qualified and competitive workers and Implementation of an Integrated Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) System: Concept Paper� (hereafter, and to train citizens able to participate in sustainable growth “Development and Implementation of an Integrated TVET Sys- and poverty reduction by ensuring training opportunities tem�), MINEDUC, Kigali; WDA, 2009, “Draft WDA Strategic and to all social groups without discrimination.�61 The policy Action Plan for Implementation of the Integrated TVET System,� WDA, MINEDUC, Kigali. also lays out five priority areas of intervention: developing 61  MINEDUC, 2008,“Technical and Vocational Education and the TVET system, improving access, improving quality, Training (TVET) in Rwanda Policy,� 6. 36 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure 3.6  n New TVET Structure and its Relationship to General Education System and Labor  Market 22 to 23 years of Universities in Rwanda Local, Regional, and International Labor Market age for university 14 years and above to enter labor market 18 years old for Senior Sec Senior Secondary Schools Integrated Polytechnic and Regional Center TVET Centers School Three-year general Diploma Level Courses (A1) Approved Training Providers 21 years old for education at secondary • 3 years duration • Public-run TVET centers Polytechnic school level leading to ‘A’ (current ETOs and CFJs) Level Academic Certi�cate TVET Courses • Private-run TVET centers No age cap on (A2) • Short term Training • NGO-run TVET centers vocational • A-level Technical Certificate Course (A2) • Others, including centers run by faith-based training • NVC Level 3, Level 2, Level 1 organizations Formal NVC courses at duration of three years Approved Training Centers Nonformal short-term courses have no time Structured Apprenticeship Companies constraint Short term Training, National Vocational Certificate Level 1, 2, 3 15 years of age (TC) Basic nine years of Education Unskilled and Unemployed Population Source: MINEDUC, 2008, “Development and Implementation of an Integrated TVET System.� Note: NVC – National Vocational Certificate; Tronc Commun – lower secondary education. curricula, a process that uses the DACUM (“Developing A initiation of industry attachment programs, development of CUrriculuM�) method (box 3.2 and annex 14). a labor market information system, and the strong interest of the Private Sector Federation (PSF) in serving as a link Strengths and challenges of the TVET system between enterprises and TVET in the country. Challenges that remain unaddressed include, among others, employer The current TVET system in Rwanda can be broadly dissatisfaction with current TVET graduates, an oversup- described in terms of its strengths and challenges in five ply of graduates in certain occupations (e.g., automotive key areas:62 mechanics), distortions in the supply of various training levels (e.g., more engineers than technicians graduate each  external efficiency and economic relevance year), absence of systematic training in entrepreneurial skills,  equity an examination system that does not assess practical skills  organizational and management effectiveness in a valid and reliable way, and companies’ lack of interest  quality of training in contributing to and/or providing training.  financing and internal efficiency With respect to external efficiency and economic 62  Since the drafting of this report, some of these challenges have relevance, strengths include the WDA’s adoption of an been addressed by the government, as detailed in the Introductory industry- and demand-driven approach to TVET delivery, Note to this report. RWA N DA’ S P OSTBASI C E DUCATI ON A N D TRA I N I N G SYST EM 37 structure, as well as a clear national qualifications structure. Box 3.2  |  The DACUM Approach Additional challenges include limited employer representation on the WDA Board, limited PSF knowledge of the activities of Pioneered by Ohio State University in the United States, DACUM is a TVET institutions, and limited data on the performance and quick method for carrying out occupational analysis at low cost. It aims development of TVET programs, together with the unclear to achieve results that may be immediately applied to developing training mission, role, and status of the Colleges of Technology. curricula. The method uses teams of workers who have experience in The quality of training is expected to benefit from the the occupation that is the object of analysis. competency-based modular approach to TVET adopted by The result of this teamwork is usually expressed in a so-called “DACUM the WDA. In addition, several Technical Secondary Schools letter� or “DACUM map,� which describes the job position in terms of and the Tumba College of Technology are relatively well the competencies and subcompetencies it requires. DACUM has been equipped, having the financial support of development part- used to analyze occupations at the professional, executive, technical, and operational levels. Its use as a methodology for analyzing indus- ners. In addition, the Colleges of Technology are affiliated trial processes and systems has made it popular in the United States, with the Kigali Institute of Science and Technology, which Canada, and certain Latin American countries (including Chile, Nicaragua, facilitates quality assurance. On the other hand, lack of key Uruguay, and Venezuela). inputs (e.g., teachers, curricula, equipment, quality assur- ance, and examinations) continue to constrain the provision DACUM is particularly promoted to guide the design of training programs and shorten the gap between training content and what actually takes of high-quality TVET education. The resource shortages that place in workplaces. DACUM is also useful for training institutions are at the root of several of these challenges might be further that wish to implement competency-based programs, which require a exacerbated if TVET institutions find themselves pressured careful identification of tasks directly related to the competencies that to expand access to increasing numbers of students. are to be taught. (Annex 14 provides further information on the basic Finally, in the area of financing and internal efficiency, principles of the approach and a typical example of a DACUM letter.) extensive private provision of TVET (including the strong presence of NGOs) and the tuition fees charged by some public institutions increase available resources in the subsec- tor, as well as cost-sharing among stakeholders. Additional With respect to equity, strengths include the reasonably resources originate from development partners as well as good geographic distribution of training facilities and the the income-generating activities of some TVET institutions. existence of TVET institutions, especially those operated In Technical Secondary Schools, relatively low dropout rates by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which cater promote internal efficiency. On the other hand, these institu- to lower-income students. Nevertheless, limited capacity tions are compelled to pay relatively high salaries to foreign and costs continue to constrain access, particularly for teachers and private providers must obtain the approval of lower-income students. In addition, there seems to be a MINEDUC for their fee structures. With respect to internal lack of training opportunities for females, together with efficiency, training programs tend to be long; moreover, gender segregation across occupations. WDA intends to many TVET institutions do not appear to be used during carry out interventions in order to motivate women to substantial parts of the day (or weekends). enroll in TVET programs. The low status of TVET and the In sum, it is clear that both public and private TVET difficulty of moving from secondary-level TVET programs programs suffer from lack of practical content, limited align- to Colleges of Technology also create challenges of equity ment with labor market needs, and constrained financial and opportunity for TVET graduates, particularly those who resources. Furthermore, access to TVET is limited for cer- have completed secondary-level training. tain segments of the population (e.g., low-income students The organizational and management effectiveness of and women) and enterprise-based training barely exists. TVET programs includes strong governmental support for Yet the extensive availability of private TVET programs is TVET and skills development in general, a well-developed a major advantage of the system, as is the presence of key policy and strategic framework, the existence of the WDA, stakeholders in both the public and private sectors who are and a motivated PSF and Private TVET Providers Association, motivated to combine their efforts to build on the current which provides services to its members. Their effectiveness strengths of the TVET system and address its weaknesses. could further benefit from more clearly defined roles of and On the public sector side, the government has clearly relationships among the various actors within the TVET recognized the challenges that the educational subsector 38 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA currently faces and has taken the essential first steps TVET. This may be partly due to the fact that interventions to address them. Most importantly, it has developed an in the TVET system start from a very weak foundation. extensive and forward-looking framework and integrated In general education, on the other hand, a structure and all TVET programs under the WDA. Although the structure framework have already been established, together with and staffing of the WDA is being formalized, the agency policies and instruments related to, among other things, clearly has the potential to create the right enabling environ- curricula, teacher training, and examinations. Whereas the ment for the provision of relevant, high-quality, accessible TVET system is practically being built from the ground up, TVET programs—provided that the necessary human and interventions in general education need to accomplish reforms financial resources are available to it. within existing structures. This task brings about a different set of challenges for general education, including the need to instill among key stakeholders a sense of urgency about 3.6 Conclusion improving the quality and relevance of general education— that is, there will be a high price to pay for viewing general Considering enrollment trends in the education system education as “business as usual.� Other challenges include overall, as well as expected increased demand for better- the need to ensure that the general education system’s exist- skilled workers on the labor market, the Rwandan govern- ing strengths are not negatively affected by new reforms, as ment’s focus on access and quality in postbasic education well as to develop an understanding of and enthusiasm for and training is timely. Various policy and strategic docu- new objectives and needed reforms among existing actors. ments have been developed, such as the Education Sector While the government aims to increasingly rely on Strategic Plan, that describe overall objectives for PBET. the private sector to provide PBET, it is unclear how this Policy reforms and interventions aimed at achieving these objective will be achieved or what the key constraints of objectives are now in various stages of development and (potential) private providers are. The development and implementation. implementation of a well-founded, clear strategy to promote The government’s strong focus on technical and voca- the private provision of PBET could substantially increase tional education and training is demonstrated by the existence access at this level of education without putting a significant of a sound policy and strategic framework for this subsector, burden on public resources. the establishment of the Workplace Development Authority Finally, the availability of more data would allow for (which promises to grow into a strong institution), and the improved assessment of Rwanda’s PBET system. For example, extent to which the implementation of key reforms and inter- updated information on the number of secondary schools, ventions is already under way. The government’s emphasis together with enrollment disaggregated by curriculum on TVET is matched by targeted technical and financial combinations, would help provide deeper insights into support on the part of Rwanda’s development partners. trends at this level. Similarly, at the time of the writing of The existence of a similarly comprehensive approach to this report, no comprehensive dataset existed that would improving the demand-responsiveness and quality of general permit analysis of enrollment or completion rates by higher education is somewhat less evident. While initiatives are learning institution or by subject at the tertiary level. Mak- being implemented or planned in both upper secondary ing this data available could contribute clearer insights into and higher education (e.g., planned curriculum reform and the knowledge and skill sets of new entrants to the labor promotion of student-centered learning in upper secondary market. Eventually, these data could be combined with education and increasing attention to science, technology, and information on the quality of education at these levels, as research in universities), these efforts appear less embedded well as that provided by the labor market information sys- in a clear vision of what is required to deliver high-quality, tem, thereby soundly linking information on labor demand demand-responsive education than initiatives concerning with data on labor supply. T H E G OV E RN A N CE , MA N AG E ME N T, A N D F I N A N CI N G OF PBET 39 CHAPTER 4 THE GOVERNANCE, MANAGEMENT, AND FINANCING OF PBET 4.1 Introduction Some of the key elements of the governance, management, and financing of the postbasic education system in Rwanda include:63 Overall governance of the education sector (including basic and postbasic education) is provided by the central Ministry of Education (MINEDUC), which is small in size, and Autonomous Education Agencies (AEAs). MINEDUC focuses on policy development, monitoring, and evaluation, while the AEAs execute professional services.  Operational functions (i.e., school management, teacher Governance of Postbasic Education 4.2  recruitment, and management) are to a large degree and Training decentralized to the districts and individual educational institutions. Autonomy, the extent of which varies by MINEDUC and the Autonomous Education educational level (e.g., higher learning institutions are Agencies more autonomous than secondary schools), allows institutions to respond to new and evolving knowledge, The objectives of the education sector as enunciated by as well as their own social and economic environments. MINEDUC are to: (1) ensure that education is available  The unit cost of upper secondary education is more and accessible to all people in Rwanda; (2) improve the than 6 times that of primary education and the unit cost quality and relevance of education, including postbasic of higher education, 56 times that of primary educa- education and training; (3) promote the teaching of science tion. At 5 percent of GDP, expenditures on education and technology, with a special focus on ICT; (4) promote represent  26  percent of all recurrent governmental the use of English, in addition to Kinyarwanda and French, spending. Salaries of personnel in the education sector in education; (5) promote an education oriented towards represented 60 percent of total governmental expenditures respect for human rights and adapted to the needs of the on education in 2007, down from 70 percent in 2003. country; (6) sensitize Rwandan youth to the importance  There is currently no consistent quality assurance of hygiene, health, and protection against HIV/AIDS; framework for the PBET system as a whole, with the mandate for different segments of the system fragmented Annex 9 provides definitions of certain terminology used to 63  across various agencies. describe school financing and governance issues. 40 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA (7) improve the capacity for planning, management, and well as in monitoring and evaluating both the policies and administration of education; and (8) promote research the performance of all subsectors of the education system. as a mobilizing factor for national development. These In addition to limited financial resources, only a objectives clearly address the principal identified chal- small number of staff work at MINEDUC and the dis- lenges of PBET, which are, on one hand, increasing access, trict and sector education offices. Since the number of and on the other, improving its quality and relevance. MINEDUC staff was reduced from over 200 in 2004 to They also emphasize several areas that are considered less than 50 in 2008, the ministry has ranked as one of of particular importance for helping Rwanda achieve its the smallest of its kind in Africa. Even including staff in economic development goals and crucial to PBET, namely, the AEAs (see below), these numbers are insufficient to promoting the teaching of science and technology, ICT, successfully carry out the ministry’s mandate. On the and research. district level, there are, on average, less than 4 education Relatively recent developments in PBET governance staff members in each of the 30 district offices; previous and management include the transfer of the mandate for plans to assign one full-time education staff to each dis- vocational education and training, as well as science and trict who would be dedicated to teachers’ issues seem technology, to MINEDUC.64 The incorporation of the for- not to have materialized. mer into MINEDUC’s mandate gives the authority for all MINEDUC has a rather large number of autonomous technical and vocational education and training (TVET) or semi-autonomous bodies, through which it implements to one ministry, allowing for a better integration of this various policies and programs. All of the AEAs have a subsegment with other PBET subsegments. Likewise, since mandate that either fully or partially relates to PBET. the government’s Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Strong and effective coordination is therefore needed to Policy relies to a substantial extent on interventions in enable MINEDUC to carry out its coordination, guidance, postbasic education and training, housing the mandate for capacity-building, and oversight functions. This requires a science and technology in MINEDUC offers the potential to mechanism between the core ministry and the AEAs, which accelerate and improve implementation of this policy and already exists, together with sufficient ministry staff and align it with other PBET interventions.65 resources allocated to PBET. (A 2008 report reviews these MINEDUC develops, evaluates, and implements policies issues in detail).66 Both the establishment of a postbasic and strategies in order to translate its strategic goals into education unit within the central ministry and the creation achievable outcomes. Its work includes the development of the Rwanda Development Board (see below) are expected and monitoring of the budget for all educational subsec- to contribute to this effective coordination. tors and institutions, in conjunction with the districts and National Council of Higher Education (NCHE). education and training institutions themselves, as well as Operational since 2007, the mandate of NCHE is to provide the coordination of service delivery among stakeholders. quality assurance to and ensure accountability within the Its formal responsibilities have changed little since 2004; higher education subsector. Its work includes: (1) enhanc- it continues to perform its primarily oversight role over ing the standards and quality of education and research the delivery of education services in the  5  provinces through, among other things, accreditation and review; and  30  educational districts of the country. The minis- (2)  ensuring the quality and integrity of higher learn- try’s stated strategic goal is to strengthen its position as ing institutions (HLIs); (3) monitoring, evaluating, and a coordinating and policy-making entity to support the execution of a sectorwide education approach. This goal requires the ministry to put in place a major development 64  Vocational education and training was formerly part of the plan for the sector and coordinate the engagement of the mandate of the Ministry of Public Service and Labor (MIFOTRA), and science and technical were formally under the authority of donor community in implementing its Education Sector the Minister in the Office of the President in Charge of Science, Strategic Plan (ESSP). Technology, and Scientific Research. 65  Whether the transfer is conducive to the implementation of The ESSP is a thorough, coherent, and robust docu- those aspects of STI policy that do not specifically relate to (formal) ment that provides a good foundation for planning and education is, however, questionable. 66  Oxford Policy Management, 2008, “Functional Reviews and budgeting in the education sector, processes for which it Institutional Audits of Six Public Sector Institutions to Assess has established a number of policies. However, challenges the Impact of Ongoing Public Sector Reforms� (Draft), Project ID are likely to remain in operationalizing these policies, as PO66386, Oxford Policy Management, Oxford, UK. T HE G OV E RN A N CE , MA N AG E ME N T, A N D F I N A N CI N G OF PBET 41 providing guidance on teaching and learning in Rwandan Figure 4.1  n The Rwanda Education Board  HLIs; (4) developing and diversifying the funding base for higher education; and (5) assessing diploma equivalencies MINEDUC between foreign and Rwandan higher learning institutions. Board of Directors The council has begun to put into place accreditation instruments. It has no line authority over HLIs; rather, it REB CEO is supposed to serve as a resource for the development DG Corporate Affairs of higher education. Workforce Development Authority (WDA). The WDA Curricula Teacher School ICT in Examination Higher is an autonomous agency supervised by MINEDUC that Development Development Inspection Education and Education is responsible for regulating TVET. Created in  2009, its and and and Open, Accreditation Student Pedagogical Management Distance Financing extensive mandate includes: Materials and Production & e-Learning  spearheading implementation of an integrated TVET Distribution (ODeL) system;  monitoring the provision of training in response to Source: MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP, 2010–2015.� demand; Note: DG – director general.  establishing a labor market information system;  establishing a TVET qualifications framework;  developing TVET curricula; Decentralization of Secondary School 4.3   training teachers; Management  promoting industry-based upgrading of worker skills;  facilitating investments in training; and District and sector management  maximizing employment through the development of entrepreneurship. District authorities are responsible for managing secondary schools, including their budget and planning processes, as An advisory committee, which is intended to provide well as monitoring their performance. The mayor of a district WDA policy guidance and oversee its implementation, will is the strategic management decision maker in education, be chaired by the Minister of Education and include one health, and social issues. He or she is assisted by a district private sector representative.67 The WDA is directed by a education director, who is also responsible for youth affairs, seven-person board of directors, for which no minimum culture, and sports, and a district education officer. The latter (or maximum) number of private sector representatives is responsible for recruiting new teachers; reviewing school is stipulated. resource and construction needs, budgets, and financial Rwanda Education Board (REB). The government reports; and managing school performance. A sector-level adopted legislation establishing the REB under the supervi- social affairs officer is responsible for liaising with (primary sion of MINEDUC in October 2009. Its key responsibilities and) secondary schools and auditing their performance. are to coordinate and fast-track education activities that aim School management. Schools are typically guided by to provide quality education to all Rwandans. The REB will parent-teacher associations whose terms of reference are have three administrative organs: a board of directors, a specified by MINEDUC guidelines. School management is general directorate, and a management committee. The REB being increasingly decentralized; table 4.1 provides a sum- has subsumed under its umbrella a number of agencies that mary of key ongoing school-based management reforms. were previously separate AEAs or other education-related All public schools manage their own financial resources entities, including the Inspectorate General of Education, which, in the case of secondary schools, may consist of the National Curriculum Development Center, the Rwanda a substantial share of parental contributions. Financial National Examination Council, the Student Financing Agency of Rwanda, and the Teachers’ Services Commission. The 67  Public sector representatives will include staff from the Presi- current organizational structure of the body is depicted in dent’s Office; the Rwanda Development Board; and the Ministries figure 4.1. of Labor, Industry, Youth, and Finance and Economic Planning. 42 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA  School-Based Management Initiatives in Rwanda in 2008 Table 4.1  n  Initiative Authority and participants Report content Approval and monitoring Annual action plan School management Activity report Approval: general assembly sends report to sector committee and district offices Annual budget School management Detailed budget using MINEDUC Approval: school management committee committee guidelines Monitoring: sector and district offices Enrollment reports School administration School enrollment details Sector and district offices Requests for emergency School management Requests by parents for extra Parents’ council expenditures committee allocations outside approved budgets Funding requests for school School management A budgeted school improvement plan District office and MINEDUC improvement projects committee Head teacher performance Sector office Evaluation of head teacher’s Sector and district offices and MINEDUC contract performance Teachers’ performance Head teacher and head of Head teacher, teachers who are School administration, sector office, and MINEDUC contracts parents’ committee evaluated, and parents’ committee management at the school level is assured by the school indicators that measure the extent to which the knowledge management committee (composed of parents and school and skills of graduates are aligned with local labor demand. leaders), which is supposed to provide frequent reports to parents and sector and district officials. There has yet to be an evaluation of the work of these committees and Higher Learning Institutions and 4.4  no computerized monitoring system is in place to verify Autonomy whether these actions actually take place. The relationship between central and decentralized edu- As in most other countries, the governance and manage- cational authorities increasingly emphasizes accountability ment of HLIs is distinct from that of primary and second- and performance. Each district mayor signs an agreement ary schools.68 Given the decentralization of the Rwandan with the president of Rwanda that sets out targets for the education system and the particular importance assigned districts across a range of governance and service issues, to autonomy in the literature on higher education,69 this including targets for education. There are also agreements section focuses on the extent of HLI autonomy and how between the Minister of Education and individual districts well it is working. The importance of autonomy in higher regarding the use of capitation funds, which cover a wide education is related to the capacity of institutions to respond range of ministry and district responsibilities related to school to new and evolving knowledge and their social and eco- operations and accountability. Secondary school directors nomic environments. Because they are economic actors, it sign performance contracts with the district education is crucial that HLIs be responsive; evidence shows that this officer, and head teachers are slated to sign performance responsiveness, or adaptability, to changing environments contracts with the relevant sector office. is best ensured by the institutions themselves.70 In principle, the combination of progressive decentraliza- The fundamental law for higher education in Rwanda tion and emphasis on accountability and performance allows states that that “higher learning institutions shall enjoy schools to increasingly respond to local social and economic environments, while the central government—through its 68  For the development of this section, interviews were conducted financing mechanisms and performance contracts—provides in February and March 2009 with the Higher Education Council (HEC) and four of the five largest HLIs in the country: the National these stakeholders incentives to promote the achievements University of Rwanda (NUR), The Kigali Institute of Science and of specific ESSP objectives. As these mechanisms, along with Technology (KIST), The Kigali Institute of Education (KIE), and the Education Monitoring and Evaluation System, develop, the Kigali Health Institute (KHI). 69  See, for example, Guy Neave, and Frans A. van Vught, eds. they are likely to focus on key indicators that are relatively Government and Higher Education Relationships across Three easy to measure (e.g., enrollment and completion rates). Continents: The Winds of Change, Issues in Higher Education Series, vol. 2 (Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press/ Elsevier Science Ltd). Eventually, however, more sophisticated objectives could be 70  Ibid.; interviews conducted in February and March 2009 with included; for upper secondary education, these might include HEC, NUR, KIST, KIE, and KHI. T HE G OV E RN A N CE , MA N AG E ME N T, A N D F I N A N CI N G OF PBET 43 Table 4.2  n  Indicators for Measuring the Table 4.3  n  Academic Ranks and their Autonomy of Rwandan HLIs Respective Appointment and/or Indicator Practice Promotion Criteria Appointment of Rectors appointed by presidential decree Rank Criteria for Appointment and/or Promotion HLI institutional Chair of HLI boards of directors appointed by the Tutorial Bachelor’s degree with distinction (i.e., pass with at leadership prime minister Assistant least 70 percent) Appointment According to statutes: deans, vice-deans, and Assistant Master’s degree equivalent to Level 6 in Rwanda NQF – of academic department heads are elected by a faculty council Lecturer Bologna 2nd cycle leadership In practice: these leaders may be temporarily appointed by an institution’s leadership (especially Lecturer Master’s degree and experience as an Assistant Lecturer for expatriate staff); at the Kigali Health Institute, for not less than three years, with demonstrated teaching for example, all department heads were and research potential through publications, contributions temporarily appointed, not elected. However, this is to module and program specifications, and production of not general practice. e-learning courses Appointment of Academic departments select, then send recom- Senior Ph.D.; at least two publications since last promotion; faculty members mendation to the faculty council. Final decisions Lecturer minimum of three years’ experience as a lecturer, with are made by top management; formal appoint- evidence of teaching excellence ments are made by order of the prime minister. Associate Ph.D. with at least three years of relevant teaching Faculty promotions Proposed by the Senate, approved by the board, Professor experience as a Senior Lecturer; minimum of five research and made by order of the prime minister. publications in refereed journals or refereed conference proceedings since last promotion; active involvement in Appointment of MIFOTRA research; and evidence of ability to supervise master’s and nonacademic staff PhD research students Determination of By General Statute of Public Service (which Professor Ph.D. with at least three years of relevant teaching salaries mandates the same salary for all academic staff at experience as an Associate Professor in a recognized the same rank) institution of higher learning; minimum of five research A draft proposal for a special statute for academics publications in refereed journals or refereed conferences has been designed to motivate them through proceedings since last promotion; active involvement in increased incentives. research; and evidence of ability to supervise master’s and Size of annual Determined by MINEDUC, based on HLI proposals Ph.D. research students student intake (which may be modified by MINEDUC) Note: The criteria for appointment and promotion are the same in the Kigali Institute of Curricular Decisions concerning course or study programs Science and Technology (KIST), the Kigali Health Institute (KHI), and the Kigali Institute of decisions are made by the Senate, with Board approval Education (KIE). Issuance of HLIs diplomas/degrees 71  Law No. 20/2005, October  20, 2005, Art. 37. This law gov- Income Student fees are determined by board of directors erns the organization and functioning of higher education. Art. Income generation is encouraged and HLI fully 39 states, “The minister in charge of Higher Education shall stop retains and manages any such income the implementation of a decision of the board of directors in case Financial HLIs have their own bank accounts over which that decision is contrary to the law.� 72  By and large, university autonomy in public institutions in Africa management they have full control is limited to academic functions. Rare are the public universities Note: HLI – higher learning institution; MINEDUC – Ministry of Education; MINFOTRA – that operate autonomously across the full spectrum of their func- Ministry of Public Service and Labor. tions: student admissions and selection; course programs and diploma offerings; revenue generation, including admission fees, tuition, and services, as well as the solicitation and management autonomy in the areas of teaching, research, administration, of external resources (e.g., contracts, gifts, endowments); recruit- ment and appointment of leaders and faculty; determining and and management of their human and material resources implementing a reward/incentive structure for faculty and staff without prejudice to the provisions of this law and other and managing the careers of these employees. laws.�71 On closer observation (table 4.2), it appears that    South Africa is an exception in that university heads are not appointed by political authorities. South Africa also provides an HLIs in Rwanda have a relatively high level of autonomy in interesting example of how universities are expected to adhere academic matters and a somewhat lesser level in financial to government programs for transformation and redress, while also functioning with a strong degree of autonomy (George and administrative matters.72 Subotzky, 2003, “South Africa,� in African Higher Education: An Faculty retention is an important challenge for most International Reference Handbook, ed. Damtew Teferra and Philip HLIs and depends, among other factors, on their level of G. Altbach, 545–62 (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press). In Tanzania and Kenya, university heads are appointed by autonomy in faculty and staff management matters. Aca- the government, whereas the appointment or election of deans is demic promotion based on performance went into effect a purely university affair (Damtew Teffera and Philip G. Altach, 44 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA in January  2009. Table  4.3  outlines the criteria used for Although HLIs do have a good degree of institutional promotion, which are mostly the same across HLIs. Within autonomy, including discretionary use of externally gener- any given rank, salaries are determined by government-wide ated resources, core salary levels are still determined by the norms. Although the core wage bill does not give HLIs the government. Interviews with KIST leaders reveal that they latitude to provide discretional incentives, they are able to are not autonomous when it comes to determining salaries use externally generated income for this purpose. Person- and salary increases, nor do they generate sufficient external nel management of nonacademic staff is provided by the revenue to ensure competitive remuneration for their most Ministry of Public Service and Labor (MIFOTRA), which productive faculty. Similar concerns have been expressed recruits all staff members and determines their salary levels. by other HLIs, where respondents appear dubious about Faculty retention varies among HLIs; table 4.4 shows whether they have sufficient autonomy to retain their most that from 2007 to 2008, the turnover rate (faculty depar- productive staff. tures as a percentage of total faculty) increased for NUR Although the root issue is the availability of resources, and KIST, whereas for KHI and KIE, it decreased. Several the lack of institutional flexibility to respond to high faculty observations are relevant here: turnover may be exacerbating the problem. Indeed, greater responsiveness to the economic environment is a major  NUR and KIST are most affected by increased turnover, justification for autonomy; in Rwanda, the environment is but the rate at KIST is virtually double that at NUR. clearly creating serious challenges for the sustainability of  Turnover at KIST is much higher than at the other HLIs. Faculty turnover could well be symptomatic of these institutions. institutions’ inability to establish their own pay scales. Greater  Turnover at NUR more than doubled from 2007 to 2008, autonomy in obtaining resources (even via bank loans) and after three years of stability (not shown in table 4.4). providing incentives to faculty most tempted by external  Turnover has reduced significantly at KIE and KHI.73 offers could be appropriate responses to the situation. The most striking finding is the high and increasing level of faculty turnover at KIST—an advanced institute of 4.5 Other Aspects of PBET Management technology that clearly has problems retaining faculty.74 Given their specialization, it is likely that faculty members Quality management have attractive career options on the labor market, which they appear to be exercising. Turnover at NUR has also The mandate for quality assurance of the different segments increased substantially. If these increased turnover rates of the PBET system is divided among three agencies. No are the beginning of a trend, there is cause for alarm and harmonized approach yet exists among them. Quality assur- consideration should be given to the relationship between ance in secondary education is provided by the Inspectorate the degree of HLI autonomy and their capacity to retain General of Education (IGE). In higher education, it is pro- faculty in order to reverse it. vided by the National Council for Higher Education (NCHE) through a framework that appears to be rather bureaucratic and norm-oriented. The responsibility for creating a qual- Table 4.4  n  Faculty Turnover Rates at Four ity assurance framework for TVET lies with the Workforce Rwandan HLIs Development Authority (WDA). MINEDUC’s objective is to (faculty departures as % of all develop a harmonized quality assurance and accreditation faculty) 2007 2008 NUR 7.8% 18.1% 2003, “Trends and Perspectives in African Higher Education,� in African Higher Education, 3–14. KIST 32.0% 36.2%    Annex 9 explores HLI autonomy in greater depth, focusing on KHI 21.7% 8.0% administrative organization, budget preparation, financial manage- ment, external income generation, and accountability. KIE 14.3% 9.6% 73  However, for KHI, this finding is associated with a large overall Source: Interviews at and data provided by each staff increase, from 59 in 2007 to 127 in 2008. The actual number of institution. staff who left the institution decreased from 10 in 2007 to 8 in 2008. 74  At the current rate of faculty turnover, after three years the Note: NUR – National University of Rwanda; KIST – Kigali Institute of Science and Technol- ogy; KHI – Kigali Health Institute; KIE – Kigali Institute of Education. entire faculty will have been renewed, a rate that is not sustainable. T HE G OV E RN A N CE , MA N AG E ME N T, A N D F I N A N CI N G OF PBET 45 system by ensuring that the frameworks of the various seg- over the period 2000 to 2008 (78 percent versus 68 percent, ments of the education system are well aligned without, respectively).76 Despite the substantial nominal increase, however, creating a single quality assurance agency. This recurrent education expenditures—whether expressed as task will require close coordination among the IGE, WDA, a share of GDP or as a share of total recurrent government and NCHE, under the strong guidance of MINEDUC. expenditures—have been below international norms. These Notwithstanding the expected quality assurance roles of expenditures varied between 3.3 percent and 4.0 percent IGE, WDA, and NCHE, educational institutions themselves of GDP between 2005 and 2008 (table 4.2), whereas the are the most important actors in ensuring the quality of minimum international standard is  5  percent. Over the the programs and degrees that they offer. This quality can same period, recurrent education expenditures comprised be achieved by developing a culture that recognizes the between  22  and  25  percent of the government’s overall importance of quality and putting in place policies and recurrent expenditures, slightly less than the regularly used associated procedures for quality assurance. In HLIs, qual- international norm of between 25 to 30 percent. ity assurance units have already begun to be established To assess the intrasectoral allocation of government and are expected to play a leading role in internal quality resources in Rwanda, it is useful to compare it to that of assurance. Although there is anecdotal evidence that HLIs surrounding countries. Figure 4.2 implies that, compared (and other PBET institutions) are paying attention to qual- to neighboring countries, Rwanda allocates a relatively ity assurance in an increasingly systematic manner, at the high share of resources to higher education.77 MINEDUC time of the writing of this report no evaluation of quality considers these expenditures essential for a publicly funded assurance methods or their impact were available.75 higher education system that has been underdeveloped in the past. Indeed, as described in chapter 3, even though Management of student mobility and lifelong enrollment in (public) higher learning institutions has learning increased substantially in past years, the percentage of higher education students in Rwanda is still below the Management of the transitions between different levels of Sub-Saharan African average. Nonetheless, relatively high PBET, and overall student mobility among its components, expenditures on higher education imply relatively smaller is essential to ensure lifelong learning and opportunities for expenditures on primary and secondary education. the continuous upgrading of the knowledge and skills of Recently, the Rwandan government made explicit efforts Rwandans. Rwanda is planning to develop a set of qualifica- to reduce the share of the education budget allocated tions frameworks to do precisely that over the ESSP period of 2010–2015. These frameworks will be created through collaboration among the Rwanda Education Board (REB; Table 4.5  n  Trends in Public Expenditures, see chapter 3), WDA, and NCHE, and be aligned with other 2005–2008 frameworks in place in the East African Community. The 2005 2006 2007 2008 WDA has already started to develop the first elements of Recurrent education expenditures 3.5 3.6 4.0 3.3 its TVET qualifications framework. (% of GDP) Overall recurrent government 15.4 15.9 15.7 15.2 spending (% of GDP)* Recent and Forecasted Education 4.6.  Recurrent education 23.0 23.0 25.0 22.0 expenditures (% of total recurrent Expenditures expenditures) Source: World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� Recent education expenditures and their Note: * Recurrent spending net of interest payments. intrasectoral allocation 75  Annex  11  elaborates on quality assurance issues, describing Public expenditures. In nominal terms, public expenditures the fundamental principles of both internal and external quality assurance, as well as the key features of these mechanisms, based on education have increased significantly in recent years: on international best practice. 76  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report� in 2008, they were 76 percent higher than in 2000. Total (using 2008 constant prices). recurrent public expenditures increased faster than the 77  Due to limited data availability, expenditures on TVET are not development budget (similar to a capital investment budget) specified. 46 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA to higher education. For example, while this share has was estimated at 29 percent, and seems linked to, among remained approximately 30 percent since 2003, the budget other things, higher enrollment in higher education and for 2009/10 reduced it to 22 percent. It is foreseen that this the increased importance of private providers in this sub- share will be gradually reduced in coming years, reaching segment of the education sector. Nevertheless, household less than 15 percent by 2014/2015.78 While the ESSP 2010– expenditures on higher education comprise approximate- 2015 states that the relatively high overall costs of the higher ly 40 percent of total expenditures at this level, which is education sector make improved cost-recovery mechanisms, substantially lower than the household share of second- public-private partnerships, and income-generation activi- ary education expenditures (59 percent and 86 percent of ties on the part of educational institutions imperative, it the total costs of lower and upper secondary education, contains no estimate of the amount of resources that the respectively). The large family contribution to secondary sector is expected to generate from these sources. education reflects the significant share of private schools Private expenditures. Historically, private provision of at this level (28 percent and 54 percent of all lower and education has been prevalent in Rwanda. Many secondary upper secondary schools, respectively, in 2008) and the schools, for example, were set up by various faith-based high prevalence of boarding facilities (which adds additional groups, with teachers largely supplied by the government.79 costs for parents).80 This public-private partnership has been enhanced by Estimates from the  2006  household survey indicate household contributions that cover children’s fees and that Rwandan households on average spend a bit less expenses, as well as private sector investments that fund than 5 percent of their total incomes on education. This the establishment and expansion of private schools, col- share appears to increase with household income; that leges, and professional programs. spent by households in the highest income quintile is Data from the recent Rwanda Education Country Status estimated to be double that spent by households in the Report indicate that household contributions comprised lowest income quintile.81 One likely explanation for this roughly 42 percent of total education expenditures in 2008. trend is that better-off households are able to support their This is a sharp increase compared to 2000, when the rate children through higher levels of (postbasic) education and can afford more expensive private education, while both the real and opportunity costs of these educational levels Figure 4.2  n  Intrasectoral Allocation of are beyond the means of poorer families. Education Expenditures in Rwanda and Comparator Forecasted education expenditures Countries, 2007 The costs of achieving the objectives and targets of the 70 ESSP 2010–2015 are estimated at approximately $2.7 billion over the five-year period covered by the plan, averaging 60 $535 million a year. Of this amount, approximately two- 50 thirds would be allocated to basic education, and a bit 40 less than one-third to postbasic education (including all 30 levels of TVET). Within postbasic education, expenditures on general upper secondary education would increase 20 substantially over the period, from 6.4 percent of all funds 10 allocated to PBET in 2009/10 to 12.1 percent in 2014/15 0 (averaging 9.5 percent over the five-year period). Expen- Rwanda Burundi Kenya Malawi Uganda ditures on TVET would reach a peak of 7.7 percent of all Education as Percentage of GDP Percentage Expenditures funds allocated to PBET in 2010/11 and then progressively on Primary Education decrease to 4.6 percent in 2014/15. Percentage Expenditures Percentage Expenditures on Secondary Education on Higher Education 78  MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP, 2010–2015.� 79  MINEDUC, 2007, “Reform of Postbasic Education in Rwanda.� Source: World Education Indicators (WEI), WEI Programme of UNESCO Institute of Statis- 80  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� tics and selected developing countries. 81  NISR, 2006, ECIV2. T HE G OV E RN A N CE , MA N AG E ME N T, A N D F I N A N CI N G OF PBET 47 The government’s intention to reduce the relative educa- Figure 4.3  n Relative Unit Cost by Education  tion resources allocated to higher education is evidenced by a Level in Rwanda, 2008 targeted reduction of expenditures at this level from 23.6 per- (primary education unit cost = 1) cent of PBET expenditures in  2009/10  to  13.8  percent in 2014/15. If this reduction is achieved, it would reflect a Higher decrease of more than 40 percent in the resources allocated to higher education. Upper secondary It is uncertain whether the government will be able to Lower secondary mobilize the necessary resources to achieve ESSP objec- Primary tives. Current projections foresee a potential resource gap of  30  percent; the need to find additional funding will 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 become strongest toward the final years of the strategy period, as increased levels of enrollment throughout the Source: World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� education system create additional financial constraints.82 institutions) indicate that the provision of vocational and technical education at the upper secondary level is more than Cost Characteristics and Unit Costs of 4.7.  twice as expensive as the provision of the academic stream PBET Subsegments at this level. Keeping this in mind, it is quite possible that public expenditures per student in the academic stream in Figure 4.3 depicts the relative per unit public expenditures upper secondary education institutions are actually lower at each educational level (“unit costs�). For the purpose than those of lower secondary education. of this report, unit cost is defined as the amount of public expenditures per student enrolled in a public education Aspects of budgetary allocations by PBET institution at a certain level of education. Relative unit subsegment cost is defined as the unit cost of a certain segment of the education sector, expressed as a proportion of the unit cost Each segment of the PBET system has unique attributes and of primary education. Figure 4.3 illustrates that the unit cost characteristics that affect the nature of financial allocations of secondary education is approximately 6 times that of pri- in that subsegment and may thus offer opportunities for mary education. The unit cost of upper secondary education reducing unit costs. (6.4 times that of primary education) is around 13 percent General upper secondary schools. There are a number higher than that of lower secondary education (5.6 times of potential cost-saving opportunities in these schools, that of primary education). Public expenditures per stu- including: dent in publicly provided higher education institutions are more than 56 times higher than the unit cost of primary  Nonboarding secondary schools are cheaper to run than education. Given the average East African ratio of 24:1 for boarding schools. It may be possible to integrate upper public expenditures in higher and primary education, the secondary classes into some lower secondary facilities Rwandan ratio is high by regional standards.83 relatively easily. Along these lines, MINEDUC aims to The unit cost calculations discussed here and shown in reduce the share of secondary boarding school students figure 4.3 are potentially affected by a number of uncertain- from 60 percent to 8 percent by 2015.85 ties and may thus either over- or underestimate the unit  School feeding programs, provided to boarding school costs of the various PBET subsegments.84 In addition, the students regardless of their socioeconomic background, calculations do not distinguish between general and techni- cal education. This means that they provide a somewhat distorted picture, since the provision of TVET is more 82  MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP 2010–2015.� expensive than that of general academic education streams. 83  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� 84  Ibid., chapter 6. For example, rough estimates of unit costs using a 85  MINEDUC, various years, “Statistical Yearbook,� and authors’ different definition and calculation method (i.e., one that calculations, as quoted in World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education also includes students in privately provided educational Country Status Report.� 48 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA are not well targeted to reach only vulnerable students. targeted financial support to the neediest students, while Providing scholarships to the neediest students may ensuring that the loan recovery program is effective and fully be a more cost-effective approach to sustaining and operational.88 The future policy directions of SFAR include increasing demand for upper secondary education introduction of merit- and needs-based grants alongside the among disadvantaged students.86 existing loan program. In addition, the unit cost estimates  Constructing multipurpose science laboratories in sec- used to determine entitlements are relatively dated and ondary schools is cheaper than providing separate would merit being updated. laboratories for different science subjects.87 Finally, staff costs are presently paid directly by the  Private-public partnerships, supported through incentives government. An agreed system of HLI funding based on such as tax breaks for private investors who establish student numbers is slowly being implemented, which gives schools and hostels, could help reduce infrastructure HLIs an incentive to reduce staffing costs. costs at this level.  Institutions could be required to develop an internal resource mobilization strategy, which could include 4.8 Budget Execution and Management making use of alumni associations and “friends of schools� to promote fundraising activities. This strategy The effectiveness of financial management in the PBET is already quite successful on a small scale in some system can be assessed in a variety of ways. A commonly primary schools. used method is to assess the match between the resources allocated (planned budget) to the system and its actual Technical Secondary Schools and Vocational Training expenditures (executed budget). Table  4.6  summarizes Centers. Among the major challenges of TSSs and VTCs are budget execution by the various subsectors of the education high operating costs (including the continued maintenance, system in Rwanda over the period 2003–2007. As illustrated upgrading, and replacement of equipment), but also initial in the table, there has been marked overall improvement outlays for infrastructure, including the procurement, instal- in the match between planned and executed budgets lation, and commissioning of equipment and machinery. over this period. For example, whereas in 2003 there was Although many technical and/or vocational secondary more than a 13 percent difference between planned and schools have considerable land and other resources, rela- actual overall education expenditures, this difference had tively few seem to have implemented an effective resource decreased to approximately 1 percent by 2007. Similarly, mobilization strategy to supplement government grants. discrepancies between planned and actual expenditures on For example, some of these schools’ facilities are utilized primary and higher education, which together make up the for civic events and nonformal workshops during holidays, bulk of education expenditures, were considerably smaller but the majority are not. Costs, on the other hand, have in 2007 than in 2003. increased substantially as a result of the provision of meals For secondary education, however, substantial differ- and boarding facilities and the payment of high utility bills. ences between planned and actual expenditures continue to Higher learning institutions. Financing offered by the exist; in 2006 and 2007, this subsector overspent its planned Student Financing Agency of Rwanda (SFAR) is restricted budget by  35  and  16  percent, respectively. Further data to students in public universities, as well as certain foreign analysis suggests that the origin of the disparities between universities. SFAR payments account for about one-third planned and actual expenditures was mainly the cost of of total spending on higher education, which corresponds teachers’ salaries and benefits, which also represent the to 10 percent of total recurrent public education spending. largest expenditure category. SFAR both determines eligibility for student financing and the amount of individual entitlements. It is also respon- sible for loan recovery, which started in 2007. Eligibility is 86  World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Country Status Report.� increasingly determined through the use of a means-testing 87  Ibid. This source notes that international experience reveals methodology and the amount of entitlements depends on that simple, standard classroom and school designs, together the estimated unit costs of the program in which a student with strategic construction of specialized facilities, can be a cost- effective option for expanding the number of secondary education is enrolled. As was noted earlier in this report, the current classrooms. challenge for the government is to continue providing 88  Ibid. T HE G OV E RN A N CE , MA N AG E ME N T, A N D F I N A N CI N G OF PBET 49 Table 4.6  n  Education Budget Execution by Education Subsector in Rwanda, 2003–2007 (RWF millions, %) Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Budget allocation (RF millions) Primary education 13,813 16,262 19,981 24,191 31,186 Secondary education 5,980 8,981 9,520 10,072 10,676 Higher education 11,872 12,761 13,660 16,911 18,095 Institutional support 1,552 1,771 2,100 4,126 5,364 Total 33,217 39,775 45,261 55,300 65,321 Budget execution (RF millions) Primary education 16,859 16,540 20,319 20,778 30,240 Secondary education 6,514 8,143 8,913 13,597 12,360 Higher education 12,992 14,169 14,135 16,489 18,050 Institutional support 1,288 1,837 1,756 4,126 5,364 Total 37,653 40,689 45,123 54,990 66,014 Budget execution rate (%)* Primary education 22.1 1.7 1.7 –14.1 –3.0 Secondary education 8.9 –9.3 –6.4 35.0 15.8 Higher education 9.4 11.0 3.5 –2.5 –0.2 Institutional support –17.0 3.7 –16.4 0.0 0.0 Total 13.4 2.3 –0.3 –0.6 1.1 Source: Research on Economic Policy Implementation and Management (REPIM), 2007, “Public Expenditure Review of the Education Sector,� report prepared for Ministry of Education of Rwanda, REPIM, Northumberland, England. Note: The report uses 2007 data provided by MINEDUC and MINECOFIN. * The “+� symbol indicates that actual expenditures within this segment of the budget were higher than planned at the start of the fiscal year. The “-� symbol indicates that actual expendi- tures within this segment were lower than foreseen at the start of the fiscal year. In primary education, actual expenditures on teacher Figure 4.4  n Frequency Distribution of  salaries in each of the 30 educational districts are, on aver- Variations in Budget Execution age, roughly 8 percent lower than planned expenditures.89 In of Secondary School Teacher secondary education, the difference is substantially larger: Salaries, 2006 actual salary expenditures in each of the districts are, on average, 84  percent higher than planned expenditures.90 8 Number of districts 7 Averages hide very large variations across districts, as 6 5 illustrated in figure 4.4. For example, in six districts, the 4 difference between planned and actual secondary education 3 2 salary expenditures was less than 20 percent (one of these 1 0 districts actually underspent by 3.6 percent); on the other < 20 20–30 40–60 60–80 80–100 > 100 hand, actual salary expenditures were more than double Overspending (%) projected amounts in eight districts. While the reasons for the relatively large discrepancies Source: REPIM, 2007, “Public Expenditure Review of the Education Sector.� between planned and actual expenditures on teacher salaries are unclear, the data seem to imply that MINEDUC could 89  Nationwide, overall primary education salary expenditures focus on the projection and expenditure mechanisms for were 20 percent lower than planned expenditures (REPIM, 2007, “Public Expenditure Review of the Education Sector�). teacher salaries, particularly in secondary education, in 90  Nationwide, overall secondary education salary expenditures order to improve budget execution rates. A recent World were 54 percent higher than planned expenditures (Ibid.). 50 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Bank report lists several discrepancies between MINEDUC teacher salaries in primary and secondary education in school census data and payroll data, which may at least the 30 districts are outlined in annex 12.) partly cause the discrepancies related to teacher salaries.91 An interministerial committee has been appointed to resolve these discrepancies. (Details on budget execution rates for 91  See World Bank, 2011, “Rwanda Education Status Report.� T H E WAY FORWA RD: STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPT IO NS 51 CHAPTER 5 THE WAY FORWARD: STRATEGIC OBJECTIveS AND REFORM OPTIONS 5.1 Maximizing the Potential of PBET The objective of postbasic education is to equip students with the knowledge, competencies, and skills that allow them to become productive labor market participants. On the national level, this supports economic growth; on the individual or household level, this increases the potential for income generation. A government that wants PBET to optimally contribute to economic and earnings growth needs to answer a set of important questions: Which knowledge and skills are most urgently needed? Is there a role for the public sector in generating these skills? How can the public sector optimally carry out its responsibilities? Increase access to PBET while improving its market that will exist 10, 20, or 30 years from now. Given quality and relevance that substantial investments are being made to expand access to PBET, interventions are needed to improve its As highlighted in earlier chapters of this report, Rwanda quality and relevance. After all, the more students who faces the dual challenge of expanding access to PBET and are enrolled in PBET, the more important it becomes increasing its quality and relevance. Considering the sub- that they learn what is needed in the most cost-efficient stantial wage premiums linked to any level and type of PBET, manner. In addition to ensuring that TVET graduates the low level of educational attainment of the population of meet the quality expectations of employers, the supply Rwanda, and the country’s ambitious economic aspirations, of PBET graduates overall needs to be aligned with the increasing access can be considered the principal challenge type of skills in demand on the labor market. At the of this education subsector. moment, there is an oversupply of some skills and an In addition to quantitative shortages, there is also a undersupply of others. disconnect between what students learn in PBET and the Improving equity is a cross-cutting concern that impacts knowledge and skills needed on the labor market. While interventions both to improve access and the quality and sound evidence on the actual outcomes of education relevance of PBET. In this respect, it is worthwhile noting and training is hard to come by, the common perception that the overall objective is not to provide equitable access among key stakeholders in the country is that current to quality, relevant PBET, but to use the provision of rel- PBET graduates are insufficiently equipped to meet the evant, quality postbasic education and training to provide needs of the current labor market—let alone the labor equitable access to productive employment. 52 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Market failures and other justifications for professions, of which the expected positive externalities governmental involvement in PBET are high, but the provision is expensive and the labor demand, uncertain. What is the desired role of the government in ensuring that  Imperfect information. Demand for PBET may be the above objectives are met? Because a better-skilled labor weakened if potential students (or their parents) under- force results in higher economic growth, the government estimate the lifelong benefits associated with it. certainly has an interest in developing the skills of its popula-  Myopia. Individuals and households tend to attach tion. But does that also mean that it must intervene to help more importance to near-term benefits than those that create this labor force? After all, since individual workers will materialize in the medium to long term. This real- and enterprises have much to gain by improving worker ity may result in demand for PBET that is lower than skills, won’t private PBET providers emerge to offer the is justified, based on the lifetime financial gains that necessary education and training? And won’t this education potential students would derive from it. and training be financed by the individuals and enterprises  Financial market failures. Even though investments who most benefit from it, thereby removing the need for in PBET may produce high returns, limited access to government intervention? While to a certain extent this is credit can lead to both suboptimal demand and supply. indeed the case, several market failures prevent the market from providing the quantity and quality of PBET needed to In addition to these market failures, certain other circum- optimally facilitate economic growth and increased earnings. stances and government objectives justify public intervention: The market failures and their implications can be sum- marized as follows:  Equity objectives. Leaving market forces to determine the demand and supply of PBET may lead to undesirable  PBET is a public good. Certain elements of PBET have inequitable outcomes. For example, the relatively high public good characteristics, with the consequence that cost of providing education in remote and/or scarcely essential aspects of a well-functioning PBET system will populated regions may limit the access of potential stu- not be established without public sector intervention. dents. Similarly, high costs may prohibit the access of One example is the regulatory framework that creates disabled individuals. Finally, social and cultural norms an enabling environment for the provision of appro- may prevent certain population groups (e.g., females) priate and sufficient postbasic education and training. from accessing PBET. While stakeholders in the education sector and labor  Private sector capacity. The private sector in Rwanda market overall stand to benefit from the existence of is still insufficiently developed to meet the quantitative such a framework, it will not be developed by private and qualitative demand for PBET. stakeholders alone, as its cost would exceed individual  Adaptation.92 Public sector intervention is needed to stakeholders’ private gain. In addition, purely private adapt existing public policies or interventions on a initiatives are unlikely to result in the compliance of all large scale when they have weaknesses or should be stakeholders with a framework, as it would lack optimal modified to respond to changed circumstances. For enforcement mechanisms. example, equipping public schools with computers and  Positive externalities of PBET. When the benefits of an Internet connection is an adaptation of an ongoing PBET to society are larger than those to private indi- intervention (the provision of public education) that viduals, private provision and financing alone result in responds to the fact that ICT literacy has become an suboptimal provision and enrollment. Generally, the important requirement for graduates. private benefits of PBET are assumed to exceed the public benefits; in other words, the gains of attaining PBET Government as facilitator, financer, or provider for an individual worker are higher than the benefits of this worker’s education for society as a whole. However, After identifying justifications for government interven- there may be particular fields of study where this is not tions, the next question is how the government can most the case, and where reliance on private actors does not 92 Another term used instead of adaptation is “public sector lead to optimal availability of postbasic education. This failure,� indicating that existing public policies or actions are not can, for example, be the case for relatively specialized optimally achieving their objectives. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 53 effectively and efficiently intervene in the sector. Broadly private sector in postbasic education and training. This is described, the role of the government can be one of facilita- not to say that all public provision should be ruled out: tor, financer, or provider. there are clear arguments for public provision, including As a facilitator, the government aims to create the opti- the “emerging industry� argument that applies to particular mal environment for PBET. Specifically, it seeks to create segments of PBET (e.g., vocational training); equity objec- an environment in which equitable access to relevant, tives (which justify the public provision of upper secondary quality postbasic education and training is offered by pri- general education in rural areas); and positive externalities vate providers and paid for by students, their families, or (which justify the provision of education and training with their employers to the extent that this provision optimally particularly high social benefits, such as technical educa- meets labor demand. Concrete interventions can include tion through IPRCs). maintaining an optimal legal framework for all actors, Second, while certain arguments justify structural designing and operationalizing accreditation mechanisms, government interventions, other arguments expect inter- and generating and disseminating up-to-date labor market ventions to be only temporary in duration. The required and economic data. As a financer, the government either government role in PBET will therefore evolve over time. subsidizes provision by funding private providers or sub- For example, the public good nature of elements of the sidizes enrollment by funding students. As a provider, it PBET system, positive externalities, household myopia, and owns and runs PBET institutions. equity concerns are structural aspects that require public Which role is appropriate for a government to play intervention. On the other hand, financial market failures depends on, among other issues, the market failure that it and the “emerging industry� argument should become aims to address, its preferences for a stronger or weaker increasingly less relevant as a justification for government government role, and its capacity (in terms of the avail- involvement. For interventions that respond to temporary ability of both human and financial resources). In Rwanda, market failures, it will be appropriate to conduct regular where there is a preference for strengthening the role of the reviews to determine whether they are still appropriate. In private sector and limited human and financial capacity in addition, when and how such interventions will eventually the public sector, the role of facilitator can be considered be scaled down would ideally be considered already at the the most preferred option and that of provider, the least policy development stage. preferred. In determining whether facilitation is indeed Third, certain interventions can address several con- more appropriate then provision, however, it should be straints and thus have the potential to have significant noted that the private sector should be strong enough to impact. However, to achieve this impact, the interventions take on the tasks envisioned for it. need to be well designed, with very clear objectives, and Based on the analysis of Rwanda’s PBET system offered should not attempt to achieve too much. For example, in preceding chapters, table 5.1 describes the impact on this performance-based financing can improve the cost-efficient system of the market failures and other identified reasons delivery of PBET, encourage positive externalities, and for government intervention in the sector. The table also address equity concerns. A workable approach to creat- offers types of interventions that can mitigate the impact ing such a mechanism might be to provide results-based of these failures, complete with concrete examples. The financing to providers who offer priority courses or enroll following section then describes the key policy interven- girls, or students from rural areas, or disabled students. tions in further detail. A likely overambitious example would be to allocate addi- Several conclusions can be drawn from table 5.1 that are tional financing only to schools that enroll disabled girls particularly relevant to the Rwandan context. First, increasing from rural areas in priority courses. access—identified as the key challenge of PBET—does not by definition imply that the government should build and operate more classrooms. Rather, facilitation and financing 5.2 Strategic Objectives and Reform of private stakeholders (both educational institutions and Options students) may be equally or more appropriate options for government intervention. This observation may be particu- This section identifies a set of concrete reforms to address larly pertinent, considering that the Rwandan government the key challenges of Rwanda’s PBET system, which can is resource constrained and favors a strong role for the be grouped under five strategic objectives, as follows: 54 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA  Summary of Possible Government Interventions in PBET Table 5.1  n  Justification for Main impact: intervention Access, quality/relevance, equity Intervention Examples* Market failure Public good Weak enabling framework for Facilitate Establish framework for open and distance-learning provision PBET Establish a quality assurance and accreditation system (quality/relevance, access, and Facilitate Monitor skills attainment and align with labor demand equity) Establish a qualifications system to support lifelong learning Improve teacher training Align curriculum and exams with labor demand Positive Insufficient supply by PBET Finance providers Subsidize private providers offering PBET that is undersupplied (e.g., externalities providers and insufficient demand geothermal engineering, rural irrigation) from students Finance students Subsidize, on a needs basis, students who enroll in or complete particular (access) PBET studies (e.g. science and technology) Provide directly Provide PBET for which there is suboptimal access or quality (e.g., technical education through IPRCs) Imperfect Insufficient demand by potential Facilitate Conduct informational campaigns to increase demand and resources for information students PBET on the part of households (and enterprises) (access) Finance students Offer student scholarships or loans; provide subsidies to providers to reduce fees Myopia Insufficient demand by potential Facilitate Conduct informational campaigns to increase demand and resources for students PBET on the part of households (and enterprises) (access) Finance students Offer student scholarships or loans; provide subsidies to providers to reduce fees Financial market Insufficient supply by PBET Facilitate Provide government guarantees or create other PPPs with financial sector failures providers and insufficient demand to increase access to credit for providers and students from students Finance providers Support private provision of nonformal training by providing financing to (access, also quality/relevance) providers Finance students Offer student loans or provider subsidies to reduce fees Other reasons for government intervention Equity Inequitable access and Facilitate Implement advocacy, policies related to gender equity, and guidelines for inadequate quality or relevance for improving access of disabled disadvantaged groups Facilitate Introduce performance-based funding for public PBET institutions (e.g., (equity, access, quality/relevance) increased funding for provision in rural areas or enrollment of disabled students) Finance students Offer scholarships or loans to disadvantaged students Provide Increase access to upper general secondary education by expanding provision in underserved (rural) areas Provide Improve all inputs of vocational training To be determined Improve quality and relevance of TVET for girls Emerging Insufficient supply and quality by Facilitate Develop and implement new funding model for TVET industry PBET providers Facilitate Support capacity building among private providers, for example, by (access and quality/relevance) improving their capacity to raise capital Finance Support private provision of nonformal training by providing financing to providers Provide Increase access by providing upper general secondary education Improve all inputs to vocational training Adaptation Inefficient policy framework or Provide Develop and implement new funding model for TVET (or public sector use of public funding to promote Facilitate Strengthen coordination among agencies with PBET mandate failure) optimal and equitable provision Provide Introduce performance-based funding for PBET institutions of PBET Facilitate Strengthen autonomy-accountability-management triad in PBET institutions (access, quality/relevance, and Provide Optimize staffing and responsibilities of MINEDUC and AEAs equity) All Improve links between secondary schools and the world of work Provide Increase public resources for PBET Increase capacity of public providers to raise capital Source: Authors. Note: PPP – public-private partnership. *Several examples respond to more than one justification for intervention. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 55 1. Expand access and cater to a more diversified student The government recognizes the need to expand access body. to general upper secondary education, as evidenced by the 2. Improve the quality and relevance of PBET. introduction of its 12 Year Education Policy.94 One promis- 3. Increase and diversify funding, and improve cost efficiency. ing option being considered by MINEDUC is to facilitate 4. Establish a more integrated PBET system. this expansion by focusing on the number of spaces in 5. Improve the framework for PBET governance and man- day, rather than boarding, schools, while reducing public agement, as well as management capacity. subsidies for boarding expenses.95 While an attempt has been made to identify the most Reform option #2: Implement the existing appropriate reform options in this section, the list of possible open- and distance-learning proposal in a interventions offered here is not exhaustive. The options are sustainable manner a mix of reforms that are new and those that are already intended to be carried out by the government, but require The government’s existing proposal for a senior secondary further attention and resources to be (fully) implemented. equivalency program is well thought out; it makes good Indeed, several of the identified reform options are already sense to build on its experience with distance training for part of the ESSP 2010–2015 and are likely to continue to be teachers. This program will provide pathways to second- included in the ESSP for 2013/14–2017/18. ary education for basic education graduates of any age in Table 5.2 summarizes the reform options, providing the a cost-efficient manner. Initially, a government-financed justification for each public intervention, its area of impact approach might be appropriate to kick-start implementation. (access, quality/relevance, or equity), the targeted PBET Subsequently, funding the program through a combination subsegment, and whether the intervention entails facilitation, of learner fees and government subsidies would help ensure financing, or provision on the part of the government. The financial sustainability. Open and distance learning can next section aims to provide guidance on how to prioritize also eventually provide alternative pathways to education among the various options. at the tertiary level. Reform option #3: Support high-quality Strategic objective 1: Expand access and technical education through IPRCs cater to a more diversified student body The provision of high-quality technical education will offer One approach to this objective is to focus on (potential) students education of high economic relevance and give a PBET bottlenecks. Other approaches focus on introducing more diverse set of students access to higher education, as alternative methods of education, attracting a more diversi- the vast majority of higher learning institutions currently fied student body, and providing cost-efficient education offer mainly nontechnical subjects. The approach of the and training. The following options are identified: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centers (IPRCs) offers opportunities to strengthen synergies and achieve econo- Reform option #1: Increase access to upper mies of scale across different levels of education. While general secondary education the government continues to focus on expanding access to relevant quality vocational training, it will have to develop General upper secondary education risks becoming a technical education in a few crucial areas if Rwanda is bottleneck to PBET expansion, hampering both the entry of to produce workers with the higher-level technical skills graduates into the labor market and the inflow of students essential for economic growth. into higher education. Considering the relatively low cost of providing general upper secondary education compared to, for example, quality TVET, expanding publicly pro- vided general upper secondary education is a cost-efficient 93  Strategic objective 3 includes policy options that address (finan- approach to increasing access to PBET. It will also facilitate cial) constraints to the expansion of the provision of privately provided PBET, including general upper secondary education. the entry of increasing numbers of workers with relevant 94  See the Introductory Note to this report. skills into the labor force.93 95  MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP 2010–2015.� 56 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Reform Options Listed by Strategic Objective Table 5.2  n  Impact of intervention Intervention type Key justification for Quality/ Sub- Reform option intervention Access Relevance Equity segment Facilitate Finance Provide Strategic objective: Expand access and cater to a more diversified student body Reform option #1: Increase access to upper Emerging industry,   US  general secondary education equity Reform option #2: Implement the existing Public good   US (All)  open- and distance-learning proposal Reform option #3: Support high-quality Positive externalities   HE/TVET  technical education through IPRCs Strategic objective: Improve quality and relevance of PBET Reform option #4: Establish a harmonized Public good  All  quality assurance and accreditation system Reform option #5: Continuously monitor the Public good  All  level of PBET skills attainment and its alignment with labor demand Reform option #6: Improve teachers’ Public good (adaptation)  US* * knowledge of subject content and student- centered teaching methodology through in- and pre-service training Reform option #7: Align curricula and Public good (adaptation)  US  examinations with revised requirements for knowledge and skills acquisition Reform option #8: Improve secondary school Adaptation  US   linkages with the labor market Reform option #9: Improve quality and Emerging industry,   TVET (VT)  relevance of all vocational training inputs equity (adaptation) Reform option #10: Develop and implement Equity   TVET (VT)  actions to improve quality and relevance of vocational training for girls Reform option #11: Support private provision Emerging industry,   TVET (VT)  of relevant, quality nonformal training financial market failure Strategic objective: Increase and diversify funding, and improve cost-efficiency Reform option #12: Increase public resources Adaptation    All    for PBET Reform option #13: Increase private resources Myopia, imperfect    All    for PBET information, financial market failure, emerging industry, equity (adaptation) Reform option #14: Improve cost-efficiency of Equity, adaptation    All   PBET expenditures Strategic objective: Establish a more integrated PBET system Reform option #15: Develop a qualifications Public good   All  system to support student mobility and lifelong learning Reform option #16: Strengthen the PBET Adaptation    All  decision-making framework and ensure the integration of TVET into the framework (continued on the next page) T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 57 Table 5.2  n Reform Options Listed by Strategic Objective (continued) Impact of intervention Intervention type Key justification for Quality/ Sub- Reform option intervention Access Relevance Equity segment Facilitate Finance Provide Strategic objective: Improve the framework for PBET governance and management, as well as management capacity Reform option #17: Strengthen the Adaptation    All  autonomy-accountability-capacity triad of public PBET institutions Reform option #18: Align staffing and staff Adaptation    All  responsibilities of MINEDUC, AEAs, and lower- level governmental bodies Source: Authors. Notes: HE – higher education; US – upper secondary education; TVET – technical and vocational education and training; VT – vocational training. * While the intervention consists of providing (teacher) education at the higher education level, the aim of the intervention is to facilitate education at the upper secondary level. The benefits of creating institutions such as IPRCs, which Reform option #4: Establish a harmonized will provide integrated technical education at several levels quality assurance and accreditation system, of education, are numerous—these institutions will increase: including quality assurance units in all PBET institutions  the stock of educated workers in an expanding knowl- edge economy The purpose of a quality assurance and accreditation  the relevance of higher education to employer needs system (QAAS) is to establish and assess compliance with  cost effectiveness (by introducing shorter and less costly program-specific norms and standards, in consultation with alternatives to traditional higher education) such stakeholders as national and regional professional  opportunities for TVET students to pursue higher education associations and organizations. Standards also constitute the basis for credible external quality assurance of PBET Because IPRCs are still new, an important decision still institutions. (See annex 11 for principles and guidelines of needs to be made regarding the number of programs that quality assurance that reflect international best practices they will offer and the academic focus of those programs. since the early 1990s.) Key features of well-functioning qual- Input from key stakeholders in both the private and public ity assurance mechanisms are summarized in box 5.1 below. sectors is needed determine the appropriate focus of these MINEDUC has not opted to establish a single agency institutions. MINEDUC’s Directorate General for Science, to implement a QAAS. Rather, a sectorwide QAAS for the Technology, and Innovation (STI), for example, could help education system is to be managed by the institutions ensure that the polytechnics support implementation of the responsible for quality assurance in the various subseg- government’s STI policy. (See annex 15 for a description of ments of the system (i.e., IGE, NCHE, and WDA). This the purposes, scope, and focus of successful polytechnics approach requires sound management, both during the worldwide.) development of the system and subsequent evaluations of its implementation. In addition, close communication with countries in the region is required to achieve the desired Strategic objective 2: Improve the quality close coordination with the quality assurance frameworks and relevance of PBET of other countries in the East African Community. At the institutional level, individual institutions may be There are numerous entry points for government interven- mandated or given incentives to establish an internal quality tions to improve the quality and relevance of PBET. The assurance unit. This unit would develop the processes and first options identified below aim to improve the quality procedures for internal quality assessments and develop, and relevance of all PBET subsegments. Subsequent options implement, and monitor initiatives to improve the quality target general upper secondary education and formal and of the education provided by the institution. This process nonformal training. has already been initiated in HLIs in Rwanda. In terms 58 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Box 5.1  |  Key Features of Well-Functioning Quality Assurance and Accreditation Systems Mission. Institutions responsible for developing and implementing a Quality Assurance and Accreditation System (QAAS) have clear, explicit goals for their work. These goals are documented in publicly available statements that also describe the agencies’ quality assurance processes, the division of labor among relevant stakeholders in PBET, as well as the cultural and historical context of their work. The statements clarify that external quality assurance is a major activity of the agency or agencies, which have adopted a systematic approach to achieving their goals. Additional documentation demonstrates how these statements are translated into a clear policy and management plan. Responsibilities and resources. The agencies responsible for a QAAS undertake external quality assurance activities at the institutional or program level on a regular basis. These activities may involve evaluations, reviews, audits, assessments, accreditations, or other similar activities and are part of their core functions. The agencies have adequate and proportional resources, both human and financial, to enable them to operate in an effective and efficient manner, with appropriate provision for the development of their processes and procedures. Data used to carry out assessments include relevant data from an education management information system and available (labor) market information. Independence. The agencies implementing a QAAS are independent so that they have autonomous responsibility for their operations and the conclu- sions and recommendations made in their reports cannot be influenced by third parties, such as PBET institutions, ministries, or other stakeholders. The agencies demonstrate independence via such measures as: (1) guarantees of operational independence from PBET institutions and governments in official documentation (e.g., instruments of governance or legislative acts); (2) ability to implement procedures and methods, as well as nominate and appoint external experts and determine the outcomes of quality assurance processes autonomously and independently of governments, higher learning institutions, and organs of political influence; and (3) consult with PBET stakeholders, particularly students, during quality assurance processes, while maintaining authority for the final outcomes of these processes. Quality assurance criteria and processes. The processes, criteria, and procedures used by agencies responsible for a QAAS are predefined and publicly available. These processes are normally expected to include: (1) a self-assessment or equivalent procedure; (2) an external assessment by a group of experts, including, as appropriate, students; (3) site visits, as decided by the agencies; (4) publication of reports, including any decisions, recommendations, or other formal outcomes; and (5) follow-up procedures to review actions taken by the subject of the quality assurance process in response to any recommendations contained in such reports. Source: Authors. of the relevance of education to labor market demand, This information also allows policy makers to respond to PBET institutions could be mandated or given incentives identified weaknesses through improved or new interventions to establish program advisory committees for all relevant and policies. For example, the ESSP notes that MINEDUC will PBET programs, which would include private sector rep- revise the upper secondary education curriculum to improve resentatives. One approach to providing incentives would its relevance to labor market needs. One of the first steps of be to link the establishment of quality assurance units or this exercise would be, ideally, to conduct a sound review of program advisory committees to performance-based fund- the nature of the skills that private sector employers demand ing. Both the internal units and the committees should be from secondary education graduates, which would ensure obligatory only if the minimal human and financial resources that reforms are well geared to meeting actual demand. are available at the institutions to generate required results. Appropriate information on skills attainment and labor demand can be generated through a variety of mechanisms. Reform option #5: Continuously monitor the The Labor Market Information System managed by the level of skills attainment by PBET students Rwanda Development Board is designed to provide mostly and its alignment with labor demand national-level information on labor demand and existing skills constraints, but to date has been unable to disseminate Information on the knowledge and skills attained by PBET regular, sufficiently detailed information to key stakehold- students, combined with data on labor demand, can help ers. Educational institutions can use their own formal and track the extent to which this education and training equips informal information channels and surveys to acquire infor- them with relevant cognitive, catalytic, and technical skills. mation on local and/or regional labor demand, as well as T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 59 more detailed national information, but this activity does improving educational outcomes. Improved mastery of not appear to be institutionalized except in certain mainly subject matter not only contributes to transferring content private universities.96 knowledge to students, but also enables teachers to better For the assessment of student skills, the most appropriate implement student-centered teaching methodology, thereby approach differs according to the type and level of educa- facilitating students’ acquisition of catalytic skills. The tion. For general education, the most robust and rigorous implemention of MINEDUC’s Teacher Development and systems include periodic measurements of proficiency Management Policy and Strategic Plan will use a number in, for example, literacy and numeracy in a manner that of entry points to reach these objectives, including the ensures comparability of the data over time and with other establishment of a well-structured, consistent program of countries. MINEDUC recently embarked on the development continuous professional development that will enhance of a sound assessment mechanism for primary education. the synergy of currently implemented programs, avoid Given that it may take time for this system to be expanded duplication of effort, and provide a strategic framework beyond the primary level, MINEDUC can review upper sec- for the government to develop the right skills mix in its ondary examination results in the meantime. The principal teaching force.97 goal of these examinations is to measure the knowledge As for pre-service teacher training, while details were and skills of individual students, but their results can be not available at the time of the writing of this report, the used to evaluate the performance of the secondary educa- Kigali Institute of Education (KIE) is expected to work with tion system when mechanisms that provide more accurate the Colleges of Education and Teacher Training Centers to information are not available. incorporate student-centered teaching methodology into For TVET, where the need for training content to be the teacher training curriculum, as well as introduce this responsive to labor demand is more explicit than in general methodology in its own teaching practices. Considering the education, the WDA has already started working closely with complexity and importance of this reform, KIE would ben- private sector representatives to develop curricula. To date, efit from technical assistance that would help it effectively private sector input has been used to determine the priority incorporate lessons learned from similar reforms in other occupations targeted by the WDA, as well as the design of countries into the revised teacher training curriculum. curricula. The WDA also envisages involving private sector representatives in the assessment of individual students’ Reform option #7: Align general upper skills upon completion of training in order to verify whether secondary curricula and examinations with these skills meet industry demands. To further strengthen revised requirements for knowledge and skills the feedback loop between training providers and the private acquisition sector, the WDA intends to regularly measure employer satisfaction with recent graduates, then use the outcomes The ESSP for the 2006–2010 period recognized the need for of these surveys to adjust its policies, where necessary. curriculum reform and focused on reforms in science, tech- Finally, for higher education, regular monitoring of nology, and ICT subjects. The ESSP for the 2010–2015 period student achievement should become part and parcel of foresees that the NCDC will review the upper general the internal quality assurance mechanisms of HLIs. The secondary education curriculum to encourage students’ NCHE could play a useful role in disseminating macrolevel acquisition of catalytic skills. Since the current curriculum information on relevant labor demand and on good-practice approaches to assessment across institutions. 96  Local and/or regional data are particularly useful for schools that Reform option #6: Improve teachers’ expect most of their graduates to remain in the vicinity of the school upon graduation (e.g., secondary schools, VTCs). More specialized knowledge of subject content and student- national-level data are useful for higher learning institutions that centered teaching methodology through in- expect their graduates to be employable throughout the country (and beyond), and who want to ensure that the education that and pre-service training their students receive is well tailored to the needs of the market. 97  In-service training (accompanied by curriculum reform) could, Expanding and improving current in-service training over time, enable teachers to teach several specialized courses. This improved flexibility could contribute to higher student-teacher programs to build teacher subject-matter knowledge ratios and reduce student unit costs, creating room to increase and student-centered teaching skills is a direct route to enrollment under tight budget constraints. 60 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA is considered content heavy, the challenge will be to strike Reform option #9: Improve the quality and the right balance between improving the extent to which relevance of all vocational training “inputs,� students acquire catalytic skills and achieving an appropri- including students ate transfer of content knowledge. As curriculum reform proceeds, the secondary school– The quality and relevance of vocational training in Rwanda leaving examination could usefully be revised to reflect is currently so limited that it is not desirable to expand changes in learning objectives (including those related to access to this type of training unless major constraints are the acquisition of catalytic skills), content, and classroom addressed. There are deficiencies in all inputs into this train- teaching methods. The most efficient approach to achieving ing, therefore an integrated approach is required. Students this goal appears to be maintaining the current examination are arguably the most important “input.� In line with the structure and administration, but changing its content to Nine Year Basic Education Strategy, vocational training reflect the revised curriculum, including the addition of entrants are increasingly expected to have completed basic items that measure catalytic skills. education. Compared to primary education graduates or dropouts (who previously populated VTCs), the potential of Reform option #8: Improve secondary school basic education graduates to acquire skills is much higher, linkages with the labor market which increases the likelihood that vocational training can actually generate employable graduates.98 A large share of students who complete general secondary In addition to improving the quality-at-entry of voca- education will enter the labor market rather than pursue tional training students, a comprehensive set of interven- higher education. It is therefore crucial that these students tions that targets other key inputs is needed. This includes be ready for the work floor. This goal can be achieved by developing competency-based curricula and associated forging stronger linkages between secondary schools and assessment mechanisms, retraining teachers, developing and the world of work, ensuring that students are provided implementing industrial attachment programs, and ensuring the knowledge and skills demanded by future employers. that providers have both the physical (i.e., buildings and MINEDUC has initiated and plans to implement several equipment) and human (i.e., well-skilled managers and reforms to strengthen the work readiness of secondary management structures) resources needed to effectively education graduates. ESSP  2010–2015  expects that all run the redesigned vocational training programs. Clearly PBET institutions, including upper secondary schools, will the goal of these programs would be to equip students with develop closer links with the world of work by, among other the necessary mix of cognitive, vocational and/or technical, things, facilitating industrial attachments and involving and catalytic skills. Substantial private sector involvement employers in course design and review, where appropri- in the design and delivery of new training programs, par- ate. In addition, upper secondary schools, like all PBET ticularly the design of curricula and industrial attachment institutions, will be expected to appoint and train teachers programs, would help ensure their relevance. to provide career advice and guidance. So far, it is unclear Since the required reforms are resource-intensive, they how MINEDUC intends to facilitate the implementation can initially only be applied on a relatively small scale and of these activities. should target priority occupations for which there is demon- A more comprehensive approach to linking secondary strated labor demand. As noted earlier, the WDA has already schools to the world of work is to establish school-to-work started applying this approach by developing competency- programs or “career academies.� These programs, which based curricula for a selected number of occupations in the are described in detail in annexes 16 and 17, respectively, tourism and hospitality and construction sectors. can be appropriate for certain priority sectors, such as Through the World Bank–financed Skills Development construction, tourism and hospitality, ICT, and food process- Project and with the strong support of other development ing. While school-to-work programs and career academies partners, the WDA intends to implement a full package of may not be appropriate for public schools, an interesting approach could be for MINEDUC to identify appropriate 98  Since the provision of training to primary school graduates and private providers and ensure that the enabling framework dropouts will need to be maintained, a separate reform option enables them to provide secondary education using either addresses the need to improve the quality and relevance of this of these approaches. training. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 61 interventions in seven public Vocational Training Centers on the more female-oriented occupations. This is one of the a pilot basis. In addition to new curricula, these interventions reasons that the WDA is targeting hospitality and tourism include teacher training, a renewed assessment mecha- as a priority sector. nism, an industrial apprenticeship program, infrastructure rehabilitation and equipment provision, and strengthened Reform option #11: Support the private capacity for school-based management. As part of the Skills provision of relevant quality nonformal training Development Project, the WDA has initiated development of an effective monitoring and evaluation mechanism that NGOs and international development programs support a will provide feedback to it and other stakeholders on the wide variety of training programs to meet the short-term pilot interventions, ensuring that lessons learned can be skills needs of poor people. While this assistance is wel- incorporated into follow-up and rollout activities. come at this stage, it is not sustainable in the long term. There are various options for improving the quality and Reform option #10: Develop and implement sustainability of this type of training, which would also actions to improve the quality and relevance contribute to identifying best-practice approaches that can of vocational training for girls be adopted by VTCs: Considering the government’s current strong emphasis  Establish a competitive training fund to subsidize train- on TVET, it is advisable that the WDA—with guidance ing development and provision by private providers from MINEDUC—analyze and address the reasons for the and NGOs. underperformance of vocationally trained women on the  Transfer underutilized youth VTCs that are not needed labor market as part of the sweeping ongoing reforms in for the expansion of basic education to local governments this sector. The reasons for gender inequities on the labor or NGOs through competitive applications, evaluated market are likely the result of tendencies of the education on the quality, relevance, and financial sustainability system (i.e., male-oriented teaching), the labor market (i.e., of proposed activities. traditional female occupations generate lower earnings than  Finance or conduct monitoring and evaluation of the traditional male occupations), and society as a whole (i.e., effectiveness of this type of training and disseminate girls have a preference for, or are pushed into, traditionally lessons learned. female professions). Clearly, the TVET system by itself can not address all of these issues. However, certain interven- While it is presently unclear whether the transfer of tions require no further analysis and can be implemented underutilized infrastructure is a realistic option, the WDA immediately, such as ensuring the “girl-friendliness� of has initiated a Skills Development Facility as part of the TVET institutions in the same way as has been done in Skills Development Project. The facility will provide financ- general education. This would include physical aspects, ing to adequate proposals submitted by both public and such as separate lavatories (and showers, where required) private training providers and conduct sound monitoring for boys and girls and the incorporation of gender-sensitivity and evaluation of the performance of fund recipients. modules in teacher training. Efforts to entice girls to enroll in “male� vocational training subjects through publicity campaigns, as the gov- Strategic objective 3: Increase and ernment aims to do, may only be successful if these cam- diversify funding, and improve cost paigns convey information that was previously unknown efficiency (e.g., “male� occupations generate greater earnings) or overcome social norms or female preferences for “female� Particularly in Rwanda, with its young population and occupations. Such efforts may show mixed results and necessary reliance on human capital as a key determinant are best considered only after more information has been of economic growth, a substantial share of public resources collected on the nature of gender inequalities. Regardless must be allocated to education and training. Decision of whether the government is able to promote the enroll- making on the allocation of available funding should be ment of girls in male-oriented vocational training, sufficient guided by sound estimates of implementation costs over attention deserves to be paid to improving the quality of at least the short and medium term and be adopted only 62 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA education sector or allocating a larger share of the educa- Nonformal Training Provision in Box 5.2  |  tion sector budget to the subsector. Given the government’s Area Vocational Centers in the emphasis on the importance of human capital to support United States economic growth, and that the recurrent budget for educa- tion remains below the minimum international standard Vocational education and training centers are established in the United of 5 percent of overall recurrent governmental spending, States as hubs that provide vocational skills training in response to local the case for increasing the total education budget appears employment and skills needs opportunities. The principle is to concentrate to be strong. expensive training capacity in such a way that multiple clients can use Whether it is a good idea to increase PBET’s share of the it as needed. Area Vocational Centers (AVCs) are equipped with up-to- date technology and draw faculty from employers and postsecondary education budget at the expense of basic education depends technical institutions on a full- and part-time basis. They are very flex- on the government’s short- to medium-term objectives for all ible in designing and delivering courses of varying length to meet local segments of the education system and the costs associated needs. Among the kinds of program offered by AVCs are: with reaching these goals. A shift in priority from basic to • Vocational courses for students enrolled in local secondary schools postbasic education may become more appropriate once • General equivalency diplomas: part-time study for secondary capacity constraints to providing universal basic educa- school completion tion have been further addressed. Meanwhile, financing • Long and short courses for local employment in such fields as the expansion of upper general secondary education (a construction, small business, cosmetology, accounting, home potential bottleneck to PBET expansion as a whole) could health care, and automotive mechanics potentially be achieved by shifting resources between sub- • Fee-based and contract training of the staff of local employers segments of PBET (higher education expenditures remain • Rental of facilities for training by local nonprofit organizations comparatively high) or achieving efficiency gains (see reform option #15 below). By operating 12–18 hours a day, often 7 days a week, successful AVCs make efficient use of costly equipment and facilities. While subsidized Reform option #13: Increase private resources by state governments in the USA, they generate a large share of their for PBET revenue from fee-based training and contracts with local private busi- nesses, public sector agencies, and schools and colleges. Sources of private funds for PBET originate with stakeholders AVCs generally do not grant a secondary diploma, but rather, certificates who demand this type of education (i.e., students and their for course completion, along with competency profiles for graduates. households, as well as enterprises), and those who supply it (i.e., educational institutions). Government interventions Source: Authors. to increase the availability of these private funds should be targeted at those factors that cause suboptimal private allocations on both the demand and supply sides. Concerning demand, both students and their (future) if projections of fiscal capacity provide confidence that employers benefit from PBET and can therefore be expected necessary resources will indeed be available. There are two to at least partly finance it.99 Market failures that result in principal approaches to improving the outcomes of the PBET suboptimal contributions by students (or their relatives) system in a resource-constrained environment, which can be and enterprises include imperfect information, myopia, and pursued simultaneously: increasing the amount of funding financial market failures. Imperfect information and—to a (public and private) available for PBET and improving the lesser extent—myopia can be countered by information cost-efficiency of expenditures in the subsector. In other campaigns that entice households and enterprises to spend words: acquire more funds and spend them better. more funds on PBET by highlighting its benefits of increased productivity and earnings capacity. For such a campaign to Reform option #12: Increase public resources be credible and effective, however, current contributions of for PBET households (and enterprises) must indeed be suboptimal, Increasing public resources for PBET is possible by either 99  This includes fees paid to private providers as well as private increasing available financial resources for the entire contributions to public providers. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 63 that is, they must be substantially lower than the cumula- Another approach to increasing and diversifying the tive benefits generated by the education in terms of higher private resources available to both private and public earnings (and higher productivity). If this is not the case, PBET providers is to strengthen their capacity to conduct for example, because the quality of the education or training resource-generating activities. These activities could include promoted is too low, or because household contributions renting out classrooms for workshops when they are not are already high, alternative sources of financing should be in use, offering courses outside of regular school hours, found until the quality of education is improved. and rendering services for a fee to nearby communities. To the extent that information campaigns are not effec- With the exception of a few universities, public education tive, the government can subsidize PBET students up to institutions have little experience with income-generating an amount justified by the positive externalities of this activities. MINEDUC could thus develop a training module level of education. Subsidies can take the form of grants that could be provided to public PBET institutions for free or soft loans to the neediest students or allocations to and to private institutions for a fee. The WDA is already public or private PBET institutions to help lower fees and/ planning to develop such a module as part of its school- or parental contributions. These approaches are, however, based management development activities under the Skills costly, and should be considered carefully before deciding Development Project. In addition to capacity building, to implement them. In the case of student grants or loans, MINEDUC could ensure that institutions have incentives to the government can incorporate lessons learned from its generate income. For example, increased revenue genera- experience in providing them to public university students. tion should not result in a reduction of the public resources If fiscal capacity is sufficient, a case can be made to expand available to an institution. the eligibility of the neediest students who enroll in private Opportunities for income-generation depend on the higher learning institutions that provide quality education type and location of an institution. For example, an urban in subjects with demonstrated labor demand. technical education institution can probably generate Finally, financial market failures prevent households more income than a rural general secondary school. How- who are willing to invest in PBET from acquiring afford- ever, the income-generating potential of an educational able credit. As long as the financial system remains weak, institution should not, in general, be overestimated. The MINEDUC could consider providing guarantees to private ESSP 2010–2015 encourages all types of PBET institutions banks for credits supplied to students under appropriate to become more reliant on revenues that they generate conditions related to, for example, student capabilities and themselves. While MINEDUC expects that TVET institutions the subject areas of intended enrollment. and eventually, general secondary schools, will be able to The allocation of resources to PBET by private provid- generate a substantial share of their own resources, there ers can be encouraged by ensuring that the PBET policy is currently little evidence that they will be able to do so. framework facilitates private provision of education and Until there is clarity about the level of resources that schools training, while safeguarding its quality. Numerous potential can reasonably be expected to generate, there may not be reforms to the existing framework could facilitate private a strong case to make them reliant on such resources to provision; feedback from current private providers can help carry out their mandates. identify the most appropriate (i.e., low-cost, high-impact) reforms. Transparency, simplicity, and consistency are as Reform option #14: Improve the cost- helpful for private providers as they are for public providers. efficiency of PBET delivery Concretely, these principles can, for example, be translated into accreditation procedures that are clear, user friendly, Numerous interventions could generate cost savings by and do not change too often. improving the internal efficiency of the PBET system. Some In addition, providers may face constraints in their access of these interventions require substantial systemic changes, to capital. One approach to alleviating this constraint, which while others are less intrusive and would result in more the government is already implementing with the support of modest efficiency gains. the International Finance Corporation (IFC),100 is to provide guarantees to banks that provide credit to private schools, The IFC is a part of the World Bank Group. It provides financial 100  provided that they meet criteria related to the existence of a products and advisory services to the private sector in developing credible business plan, among other requirements. countries in order to build this sector. 64 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA An example of a structural reform that can be applied Various reforms are easier to implement, but nev- throughout the PBET system with substantial positive ertheless expected to result in increased cost efficiency, impact is the introduction of performance-based funding although their impact will likely be substantially more mod- formulas for public PBET institutions. Performance-based est than that of structural changes such as the introduction funding formulas strengthen the transparency of the funding of performance-based funding. For example, a number of process and are expected to result in increased discretion reform options identified in this chapter are expected to and more efficiency in the allocation and deployment of result in increased cost efficiency as a side-effect. These public funding. This approach offers a very promising route include reforms to support lifelong learning through the to increased cost efficiency, but can only be implemented establishment of a qualifications mechanism; effective successfully if an adequate monitoring and evaluation use of performance-based audits to strengthen account- mechanism is in place and the reform goes hand in hand ability; strengthening the management capacity of PBET with strengthened accountability and management capacity institutions; and introducing shorter cycles in the tertiary of individual institutions. education sector. The extent to which funding is performance based can In addition, the previous chapter recommended a be easily varied by the type and level of PBET. The per- number of reforms that could generate cost savings, formance indicators that determine funding are also likely for example, favoring day over boarding schools, creat- to differ by subsegment, with the expectation that higher ing multipurpose science labs, and improving financial learning institutions are able to handle more sophisticated management (particularly as it relates to the payment of mechanisms than, for example, VTCs. secondary education teachers). Finally, sound monitoring Regardless of whether the government introduces and evaluation is a criterion for the successful implemen- performance-based funding, it will need to develop and tation of performance-based financing. However, even implement a sustainable, effective, and transparent without the introduction of this type of financing, the use funding model for TVET. Implementing the existing TVET of monitoring data generated by an education management policy requires adequate strategic planning, prioritization, information system can itself generate substantial cost efficient targeting of resources, and a sustainable funding savings by highlighting aspects of the education system model. As a first step toward developing such a model, that require attention. MINEDUC/WDA could consider adopting a set of guid- Table 5.4 lists the key reform options described in this ing principles that target funds from different sources for chapter and chapter 4 that, if implemented, are expected particular uses. Table 5.3 provides an example of guiding to result in increased cost efficiency. principles that could be considered. Guiding Principles for a Possible TVET Funding Mechanism  Table 5.3  n  Level and purpose of funding Funding principles Funding agency/body Role of TVET providers Public resource allocation for TVET à Funds pre-employment TVET Funds primarily targeted at pre- Funding for TVET providers is Funding levels for TVET providers Public providers, NGOs, and employment education and training based on a formula that is both are determined by the WDA and approved private providers design, for first-time jobseekers and/or enrollment- and performance- channeled from MINECOFIN/ deliver, and monitor the outcome of unemployed youth based, and that uses proven TVET MINEDUC to institutions that cater their training programs in the formal outcome performance indicators to targeted groups and informal sectors Training levy à Funds in-service TVET A funding levy (which typically varies Funds are used to pay for the direct Many countries have established TVET providers are often training between 0.5% and 1.5% of payroll) transfer of skills (not “brick-and- agricultural, industrial, and centers within firms. Training may is collected by MINECOFIN and mortar� expenses), focusing on commercial training services to also be contracted out to external directed to the agency assigned to worker skills training and upgrading which levy funds are channeled and public or private TVET providers that manage the program to meet specific needs of the private which oversee the distribution and are dedicated to training employed sector labor market control of these dedicated funds workers Source: Authors. Note: MINECOFIN – Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning; MINEDUC – Ministry of Education; NGO – nongovernmental organization; TVET – technical and vocational education and training. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 65 Table 5.4  n Key Reform Options that Improve  account lessons learned in other countries and builds in Cost Efficiency regular strategic reviews to determine whether the approach Improve the internal efficiency of educational provision remains appropriate. Introduce outcome-oriented accountability of PBET institutions The main features that distinguish NQFs from other Improve throughput and graduation rates and reduce dropout rates qualifications systems are that qualifications are: through more effective monitoring Target expansion of day schools over boarding schools in upper  described in terms of a single set of criteria and in terms secondary education (chapter 4) of units or unit standards; Create multipurpose science labs (chapter 4)  ranked on a single hierarchy expressed as a single set Improve financial management, particularly as it relates to teacher of levels; salaries (chapter 4)  classified (in the case of vocational qualifications) in Improve management capacity and the effectiveness of funding terms of a comprehensive set of occupational fields; and mechanisms  described in terms of learning outcomes that are inde- Increase the management capacity of PBET institutions pendent of the way in which education is provided. Introduce funding formulas that strengthen accountability and reward performance Promote diversity and improve the ease of transitions In other words, NQFs are designed independently of any particular education and training and are based on Strengthen the alternative, short-cycle tertiary education sector vis-á-vis the costlier university sector a single set of levels, standards, and outcomes.102 While Establish a qualifications framework there are countries in which NQFs can be considered to have been implemented successfully (e.g., Scotland, New Zealand, and Ireland), all countries that have established Strategic objective 4: Establish a more NQFs have faced problems.103 integrated PBET system Moreover, there are many examples of countries with successful TVET systems that do not have NQFs, including A well-integrated PBET system requires a well-coordinated Germany, Sweden, Finland, Norway, France, Japan, the decision-making framework that involves all PBET subseg- USA, and Canada. Most South-East Asian countries and ments and the possibility for students to transition relatively the Francophone nations of western and central Africa, for easily among them. example, use an alternative approach. This institution-based qualifications approach treats institutions, staff development, Reform option #15: Develop an appropriate, certifications, and qualifications as parts of an integrated cost-efficient qualifications system to support system. Government policy focuses on the reform and expan- student mobility and lifelong learning sion of institutions and the links between different types and levels of institutions. Qualifications are not treated as For individuals to be able to transition from one PBET separate instruments, and qualifications reform develops subsegment to another, or to re-enter the education system along with institutional change.104 after a period of absence, his or her previous educational Rwanda has thus embarked on an exercise that has a attainments need to be adequately recognized. Rwanda mixed track record and for which alternatives exist. Among plans to develop a set of qualifications frameworks through a collaboration with REB, WDA, and NCHE; it also plans to align these frameworks with those that are in place in the 101  MINEDUC, 2010, “ESSP 2010–2015.� 102  ILO, 2005, “National Qualifications Frameworks: Their Feasibil- East African Community.101 The WDA has already begun to ity for Effective Implementation in Developing Countries,� EMP/ create the qualifications framework for TVET. SKILLS Working Paper 22, ILO, Geneva. 103  Design and implementation challenges may arise from lack of National Qualifications Frameworks (NQFs) have resources or capacity, administrative difficulties (e.g., the prolifera- been the object of growing international interest since tion of new agencies), technical or professional problems related the mid-1990s but, despite their popularity, there is little to the need for many actors to adopt new procedures and jargon, evidence that existing NQFs are achieving their intended insufficient efforts to achieve ownership, and the involvement of a broad set of key stakeholders, including the private sector and goals. Since alternative options are available, a cautious educational institutions. approach is recommended in Rwanda—one that takes into 104  ILO, 2005, “National Qualifications Frameworks.� 66 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA the lessons that the country should take into account is mechanism for the process. Established in 2009, the unit that successful implementation depends on sound prepa- is focused on improving coherence across the PBET sector. ration, which involves a broad array of stakeholders, and Its capacity is weak, however, and the AEAs appear to fill the availability of sufficient human and financial resources in capacity gaps in the central ministry by taking on roles to keep the system up and running. The experts from the beyond implementation, sometimes influencing policies Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in quite strongly. While this approach appears to work to the Higher Education who are supporting the development of satisfaction of MINEDUC, it is not ideal. the TVET framework are giving the WDA opportunities to The strategic and policy guidance of MINEDUC is par- internalize global lessons learned in the development of the ticularly needed with respect to TVET (a new responsibility framework. Nevertheless, it is recommended that MINEDUC for the ministry), both to ensure its integration into the periodically review the development and implementation of overall PBET system and to assist the relatively new WDA the NQF from a strategic viewpoint to determine whether in fulfilling its extensive mandate. Although MINEDUC’s this approach is the most suitable available for Rwanda or postbasic education unit includes staff with responsibility whether adjustments are appropriate. for TVET, the ministry does not yet seem to have fully internalized its responsibility for vocational training. Reform option #16: Strengthen the PBET One important question that, in time, needs to be decision-making framework and ensure the answered by MINEDUC concerns the mandate of the WDA. integration of TVET into the framework This mandate is so broad that it includes both training provision (through IPRCs) and quality assurance. The A well-integrated PBET system ensures that reforms in any combination of service provider and controller is unusual subsegment of the system are developed taking into account and possibly ineffective; once more urgent aspects of estab- the interdependencies of system elements. Interdependence lishing the TVET system have been addressed, its mandate exists in the realm of finance, where, for example, the intro- should be reviewed.105 duction of expensive reforms in TVET can result in restricted availability of funds for upper secondary education. To cite another example, changes in the secondary curriculum will Strategic objective 5: Improve the PBET change the skill set of students who enter tertiary education. governance and management framework, These linkages require a well-coordinated decision-making as well as management capacity framework for all elements of the PBET system, making it essential that AEAs with mandates related to PBET align An appropriate degree of autonomy of educational institu- and coordinate their activities with one another and with tions, when combined with suitable accountability and the core ministry. sufficient capacity at all levels to effectively manage the The Rwanda Education Board (REB) can be a useful system, can greatly contribute to the quality and cost effec- coordination forum, but it does not include the WDA or tiveness of education. The following reform options can NCHE, which have crucial responsibilities for PBET. The REB enhance the governance and management framework for is therefore not a sufficient coordination mechanism and PBET, as well as the management capacity of the system. MINEDUC needs to ensure that an alternative mechanism is in place. Such a mechanism does not necessarily require Reform option #17: Strengthen the autonomy- the formal establishment of another board or committee, accountability-capacity triad of public PBET but it is essential that key stakeholders meet regularly and institutions conduct their coordination and consultations in a structured manner with a clear sense of overall goals and a concrete Autonomy, accountability, and management capacity go hand strategy for addressing key challenges. in hand. To optimally benefit from decentralization, efforts This coordination needs to take place under the strong should be made to identify and strengthen the weakest link leadership of MINEDUC, which is responsible for strategy in the autonomy-accountability-capacity triad. and policy development, whereas AEA mandates are related to implementation. The ministry’s postbasic education coor- 105  Annex 13 summarizes the key responsibilities of organizations dination unit would be the most appropriate coordination similar to the WDA in a variety of Sub-Saharan African countries. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 67 The government’s decentralization efforts have in In addition, performance-based audits could substan- recent years increased the level of autonomy of educational tially increase accountability and generate information institutions. For example, general primary and secondary that—when acted upon—can result in improved cost schools can now select their own textbooks. The benefits of efficiency. For example, in many countries audits show autonomy are well recognized, but could be substantially significant absenteeism among teachers and other staff, increased if decentralization is accompanied by account- or teachers who do not perform their tasks at the level of ability reforms and efforts to strengthen management accepted norms and standards. The enforcement of basic capacity at the school level. Strengthened accountability standards in all institutions could produce savings in the mechanisms and management capacity will, in turn, allow range of 10–20 percent of an individual institution’s budget. for further decentralization of responsibilities to schools, Introduce performance-based financing. (See also with a further expected positive impact on cost efficiency. policy option #15.) Performance-based financing provides Before determining the most appropriate interventions incentives to schools to achieve nationally defined objec- needed to achieve the optimal level of decentralization tives. Existing capitation grants are an example of incentives and reap the maximum benefits, MINEDUC may benefit to attract and keep students. A more developed system from reviewing the determining factors of successful can increase the share of funding that is allocated through decentralization for each subsegment of PBET. These capitation grants (to make the incentives stronger) or base factors include: funding not just on the number of students, but also on, for example, completion rates or exam results. Incentives  Autonomy: the overall policy and legal framework should in upper general secondary education can be refined by, support school autonomy. for example, allocating more funding for disadvantaged  Accountability: schools should be aware of what is students and students who enroll or complete more science expected of them and a monitoring and evaluation curricula combinations than those who enroll or complete mechanism should be in place to adequately measure in humanities combinations. their performance. Expand the capacity development of PBET institu-  Financing: schools should receive adequate funding to tions. Management capacity is a weak spot in many PBET achieve their goals and the funding mechanism should institutions and poses a serious risk to decentralization. provide them incentives to perform. Despite strong capacity building efforts by MINEDUC and  Management capacity: school management should be Rwanda’s development partners, the focus of capacity build- able to achieve its goals autonomously. ing to date has primarily been the central ministry and basic education institutions. For example, little of MINEDUC’s Different subsegments of PBET will be able to handle Capacity Building and Institution Development Fund has different levels of autonomy, but even without the findings been allocated to strengthen the management of PBET of a MINEDUC review (which would include stakeholder institutions. Ideally, this will change once the rolling two- consultations), several policy options can be outlined that year Institutional Development and Change Management appear appropriate for all PBET subsegments: plan is updated, with financing made available to improve Strengthen the outcome-oriented accountability of the management of key areas in PBET institutions, such PBET institutions. Rather than focus on detailed input as human resources, finances, institutional academic and management and define the curriculum in terms of content training agendas, and stakeholder relationships. and student hours, the accountability mechanism for the One option that can be considered is to allocate a portion PBET sector could increasingly focus on results, defined in of available funds to demand-based support of institutions terms of learning outcomes. Implementing this approach that are able to identify their key management constraints would require strengthening the regulatory and monitoring (universities, for example). Other institutions, such as the capacity of MINEDUC and the AEAs, among other units, newly established IPRCs or VTCs, whose management by strengthening the education management information capacity is extremely low, could be offered tailored sup- system (EMIS). A gradual introduction of outcome-oriented port packages. In terms of the content of capacity building, accountability would be to introduce unified standards per several appropriate institutions can be requested to develop student, expand the use of delegated budgets, and relax and deliver training programs. For example, KIE, KIST, and MINEDUC regulations. NUR could cooperatively develop such programs, potentially 68 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA supported by a foreign institution with an established lead- into account available human and financial resources and ership role, such as one from East Africa. stakeholder commitment. Concretely, this implies that Rwanda would prioritize Reform option #18: Align the staffing and staff the goal of expanding access to upper general secondary responsibilities of MINEDUC, AEAs, and lower- education by expanding access to public schools and improv- level governmental bodies with the ESSP ing the enabling framework for privately provided upper secondary education. The former would be accompanied by The option to increase the number of staff in MINEDUC or interventions that improve cost efficiency so as to increase other governmental bodies is likely to remain limited due to the fiscal space to construct and equip upper secondary the government’s “small government� strategy. Nevertheless, classrooms. As long as access to lower secondary education actual staff numbers can be substantially increased simply continues to be constrained by the lack of classrooms, it by ensuring that all formally approved positions are filled. may be unrealistic to expect that substantial amounts of The ESSP, with its strong focus on educational qual- public financing will be made available to expand upper ity and PBET, justifies a review of staff responsibilities secondary education. This makes it especially pertinent to throughout the education sector and an alignment of these intensify efforts to promote private provision of this type of responsibilities with the new focus areas of the strategy. If education, both through an improved regulatory framework necessary, the shift in priority areas could translated into a and reviewing the possibility and efficiency of subsidizing revised ministry organizational chart. Efficiency gains can private education, as compared to providing it publicly. be achieved by clarifying or revising roles and responsibili- As concerns policy options for improving the quality ties across various governmental bodies (the core ministry, and relevance of PBET, quite a number can be implemented AEAs, and lower-level government administrations), as well simultaneously, as they target different subsegments and as among staff in these institutions. would therefore be designed and implemented by different These actions could address some of the existing con- units of MINEDUC or different AEAs—often at relatively straints to management efficiency by enabling staff to both moderate cost. The task of MINEDUC is to identify the most attend to day-to-day challenges and participate in longer-term appropriate interventions for each PBET subsegment based strategic planning, reducing the work overload of key MIN- on their expected impact, on one hand, and the feasibility EDUC managers, and increasing the clarity of the division of their successful implementation (taking into account of labor between MINEDUC and local government staff. stakeholder commitment, as well as existing implementation capacity and financial resources), on the other. Improvements in the governance and management 5.3 Prioritizing Reform Options framework, management capacity, and cost efficiency are all crucial, and policy options related to these aspects should be Improving the PBET system in Rwanda will be a continu- considered seriously. While implementation of these reforms ous process; it is clear that not all reform options presented requires relatively strong leadership and planning capacity in this chapter can be implemented simultaneously. The on the part of MINEDUC, the positive impacts that can result options described here are not an exhaustive list of all pos- from their successful implementation outweigh their cost. sible reforms that could address the identified challenges, As for interventions in other areas, the appropriate approach nor may all options be considered appropriate or feasible by may be one of optimistic caution, starting with one of the key stakeholders in Rwanda. After all, government interven- few relatively uncomplicated reforms and implementing it in tions are shaped within a complex framework of political, a well-planned and well-monitored fashion, so that lessons strategic, human resource, and financial constraints and learned can subsequently be incorporated into the design and considerations. How, then, does a government prioritize implementation of more complicated, far-reaching reforms. various policy options that all have the potential to sub- Table 5.5 reclassifies the policy options described in this stantially improve access to or the quality and relevance of chapter to identify the targeted subsegment of each option PBET? Broadly, the set of interventions that a government and its broad objectives, in addition to a rough indication of decides to implement should: (1) target the most crucial the cost and complexity of its design and implementation. objectives in the most efficient manner; (2) achieve both While the table is merely indicative, it may be helpful to short-term and more structural medium- to long-term government policy makers when considering and prioritiz- impacts; and (3) allow successful implementation to take ing reform options. T H E WAY FORWA RD:STRATEG I C OBJECTI ve S A N D RE FORM OPTIO NS 69 Table 5.5  n Policy Options for Expanding Access to and Increasing the Relevance and Quality of  PBET, by Impact, SubSegment, and Considerations Impact Considerations (Access, Quality/ Reform Relevance, Equity) Subsegment Costs Complexity Comment Strategic objective: Expand access and cater to a more diversified student body Reform option #1: Increase access to A, E US VH M Very high initial investment, then maintenance upper general secondary education costs. Moderately complex due to high costs and planning needs Refom option #2: Implement the existing A, E US (All) L-H M Costs depend on whether the government open- and distance-learning proposal facilitates (L) or also finances (H) Reform option #3: Support high-quality A, Q/R HE/TVET VH H Very high initial investment, then maintenance. technical education through IPRCs Particularly complex at start-up stage (i.e., selecting subjects, curricula, determining relevance, procurement, financing, etc.) Strategic objective: Improve the quality and relevance of PBET Reform option #4: Establish a harmonized Q/R All M H Complex to design; moderately costly to quality assurance and accreditation system implement Reform option #5: Continuously monitor Q/R All L-M H Low cost to design; assessments are costly to the level of PBET skills attainment and its run. Complex to implement alignment with labor demand Reform option #6: Improve teachers’ Q/R US* H H High-quality training, especially in-service knowledge of subject content and student- training, is costly to implement. Design is centered teaching methodology through complex (requires defining skills demand in- and pre-service training and most effective teaching approaches); implementation is more straightforward Reform option #7: Align upper general Q/R US H H Design is complex, implementation is high cost secondary curricula and examinations with when teachers must be familiarized with new revised requirements for knowledge and curricula and textbooks must be adjusted skills acquisition Reform option #8: Improve secondary Q/R US L-H L-H Depends on actions chosen. Costs are high if school linkages with the labor market government provides career academies, but several cheaper options exist Reform option #9: Improve the quality and Q/R, E TVET (VT) VH H Very high initial investment, then maintenance relevance of all vocational training inputs costs. Complex and expensive, since vocational training starts from such a low base Reform option #10: Develop and Q/R, E TVET (VT) L-M L-M Low cost to design, implementation cost implement actions to improve the quality depends on actions that are developed— and relevance of vocational training for girls probably low to moderate Reform option #11: Support the private A, Q/R TVET (VT) L-H L-H Depends on option chosen. M&E is rather provision of relevant, quality nonformal simple and cheap; efficient financing training mechanism is costly and complex Strategic objective: Increase and diversify funding, and improve cost efficiency Reform option #12: Increase public A, Q/R, E All vH M Moderate complexity—MINEDUC can make a resources for PBET strong case for increased funding (continued on the next page) 70 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA  Policy Options for Expanding Access to and Increasing the Relevance and Quality of Table 5.5  n  PBET, by Impact, SubSegment, and Considerations (continued) Impact Considerations (Access, Quality/ Reform Relevance, Equity) Subsegment Costs Complexity Comment Reform option #13: Increase private Costs and complexity depend on selected resources for PBET reforms: (a) Encourage private provision of PBET A, Q/R All L-H M Cost of improving regulatory framework is low; bank guarantees are medium; subsidies are high. Both regulatory review and bank guarantee mechanism are moderately complex. (b) Encourage the demand for PBET A, E All L-H L-H Cost/complexity of information campaigns is low; of loans or grants, high. (c) Increase income-generating activities of A, Q/R All L L Consists of ensuring enabling regulatory PBET institutions framework and developing and providing/ selling training package(s). Reform option #14: Improve the cost efficiency of PBET expenditures Introduce performance-based funding a.  A, Q/R, E All M M Moderately costly because M&E system needs for public PBET to function adequately, among other reasons Establish a sustainable funding model b.  A, Q/R TVET L-H M Low design cost; high implementation cost. for TVET Given realistic ambitions, complexity is modest Implement other reforms that improve c.  A, Q/R All Depends on selected reforms cost efficiency Strategic objective: Establish a more integrated PBET system Reform option #15: Develop a A, E All M H Complex to design and run, medium operating qualifications system to support student costs mobility and lifelong learning Reform option #16: Strengthen the PBET A, Q/R, E All L L Simple and cheap. Possible constraint is decision-making framework and ensure the coordinating and strategic capacity of MINEDUC integration of TVET into the framework Strategic objective: Improve the PBET governance and management framework, as well as management capacity Reform option #17: Strengthen the A, Q/R, E All M H Moderately costly because M&E system needs to autonomy-accountability-capacity triad of function well, among other reasons. Complicated public PBET institutions because to function properly, all three aspects need to be sufficiently in place. Eventually this approach will result in cost savings Reform option #18: Align staffing and A, Q/R, E All L H If staffing numbers remain identical, cost staff responsibilities of MINEDUC, AEAs, implications are low and lower-level governmental bodies Source: Authors. Note: A – access, E – equity; H – high; HE – higher education; L – low; LS – lower secondary education; M – medium; M&E – monitoring and evaluation; Q/R – quality/relevance; TVET – technical and vocational education and training; US – upper secondary education; VH – very high; VT – vocational training. * While the intervention consists of providing (teacher) education at the higher education level, the aim of the intervention is to facilitate education at the upper secondary level. Selected bibliography 71 Selected bibliography CAMFEBA (Cambodian Federation of Employers and Busi- the Face of Capacity Constraints.� Centre of African ness Associations). 2008. 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E mployment categories by level of education , gender, and location 73 ANNEX 1 Employment categories by level of education, gender, and location The following tables can be compared with table 2.9 and figure 2.6 in chapter 2, which contain similar informa- tion for the economy as a whole. Table A1.1  n Type of Employment by Educational Level and Location, 2006  Type of employment 2000 2006 None Some primary Complete primary Voc/ tech Lower Sec. Sr Sec. Univ. Urban Public wage 7% 8% 2% 2% 5% 9% 10% 30% 51% Private wage: non-ag. 28% 35% 24% 34% 34% 43% 43% 41% 39% Private wage: ag. 2% 6% 13% 7% 3% 2% 2% 1% 1% Private non-wage: non-ag. 13% 25% 19% 25% 28% 29% 35% 22% 9% Private non-wage: ag. 50% 27% 41% 32% 30% 17% 9% 7% 1% Rural Public wage 2% 2% 1% 1% 2% 5% 7% 46% 48% Private wage: non-ag. 2% 6% 3% 6% 6% 12% 12% 14% 33% Private wage: ag. 4% 10% 13% 11% 7% 3% 1% 4% 0% Private non-wage: non-ag. 1% 8% 5% 8% 11% 14% 14% 4% 7% Private non-wage: ag. 91% 74% 77% 74% 75% 66% 65% 32% 11% Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Note: ag – agricultural; sec – secondary education; sr. sec. – senior secondary education; univ. – university; voc/tech – vocational and/or technical education. 74 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Table A1.2  n Type of Employment by Educational Level and Gender, 2006  Type of employment 2000 2006 None Some prim. Complete prim. Voc/ tech. Lower sec. Sr. sec. Univ. Male Public wage 4% 5% 2% 2% 4% 8% 11% 39% 53% Private wage: non-ag. 8% 17% 11% 16% 18% 36% 31% 27% 33% Private wage: ag. 5% 11% 20% 12% 7% 1% 3% 2% 1% Private non-wage: non-ag. 4% 13% 8% 12% 17% 18% 18% 11% 11% Private non-wage: ag. 79% 54% 60% 57% 54% 37% 38% 20% 2% Female Public wage 1% 2% 0% 1% 1% 4% 5% 37% 45% Private wage: non-ag. 3% 5% 2% 4% 4% 9% 14% 27% 49% Private wage: ag. 3% 8% 10% 8% 5% 4% 1% 2% 0% Private non-wage: non-ag. 2% 9% 6% 8% 10% 19% 28% 15% 4% Private non-wage: ag. 91% 77% 82% 78% 80% 63% 52% 19% 2% Source: World Bank calculations based on EICV2. Note: ag – agricultural; prim. – primary education; sec – secondary education; sr. sec. – senior secondary education; univ. – university; voc/tech – vocational and/or technical education. U nderstanding the Relationship between E ducation and E arnings 75 ANNEX 2 Understanding the Relationship between Education and Earnings A multivariate regression can help explain the relationship between education and earnings. While it cannot account for unobservable differences across individuals (for example, that those with some vocational schooling may be more motivated or more capable than those who left school after completing primary education), it can help distinguish between observable differences. For example, if urban workers are paid more than rural workers even if they have the same educational level, and urban workers also tend to have more education, multivariate analysis will help distinguish the two effects. Table A2.1 shows that the returns to education appear to be higher as educational levels increase. By using a spline regression, one can estimate the correlative impact of another year of schooling separately for different levels of schooling. For example, the regression shows that, after controlling for age, gender, and location (i.e., urban/rural), those with two years of schooling are expected to earn approximately 6.5 percent more than similar individuals with one year of schooling. Likewise, those with three years of schooling are expected to earn approxi- mately 6.5 percent more than those with two years of schooling. And so on, until six years of schooling are reached. On the other hand, those with seven to nine years of education are expected to gain an additional 14.0 percent in earnings for each additional year of schooling in that range. Similarly, increases of one additional year lead to increased expected earnings of approximately 21 and 32 percent for those with 10 to 12 years of schooling and those with 13 years or more of schooling, respectively.106 These results suggest that, if costs were identical, effi- gap that the private sector would fill. Lastly, equity issues ciency gains would arise if educational spending flowed to must also be considered. Nonetheless, pending the above areas with the highest return (i.e., senior secondary and considerations, this evidence is consistent with a call for tertiary education). A few caveats are in order. First, it has increased secondary and tertiary education. already been noted that this is not causal analysis and Table A2.1  also shows that females with vocational some of the differences here are likely due to unobservable schooling (rather than lower secondary schooling) have personal characteristics, rather than increased productivity lower average earnings, ceteris paribus, while males with from what was learned in school. Second, costs need to be vocational training have, if anything, higher average assessed as well so that a net social return can be examined. Third, some levels of schooling, particularly tertiary levels, Percentages cited here are approximations that use a common 106  may be more amenable to the private sector taking the lead rule of thumb of interpreting the change in log as a percentage in provision; government funds need not be spent filling a change. 76 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA earnings.107 This is seen by assessing the impact on the were quite high, approximately 49 percent. These results vocational education dummies, which vary by gender. were positive for both males and females (not shown in Controlling for years of education in school and other this specification). However, the number of observations observables, females who went to vocational education is quite small, making firm conclusions on the impact of earn approximately 19 percent less. This result is statisti- technical education difficult. cally significant at the 90 percent level. On the other hand, The above regression analysis was repeated to include males appear to earn approximately 17 percent more, though dummy variables for the sector of employment (results this result is not significant at the 90 percent level. It is not shown). While the inclusion of these variables dra- also worth noting that the gains for technical education matically lowered the urban and male dummy variables, many other results held steady. For example, the rates of return by education level were approximately 6 percent (up Table A2.1  n Determinants of Log Earnings  to 6 years), 10 percent (6–9 years), 19 percent (9–12 years), (Spline Regression, 2006) and 32 percent (12 years or more). This is important, as Standard it shows that the gains to education are not solely due to improved access to higher-paying sectors of employment. Variable Coefficient error t-statistic The positive gain in expected earnings for vocational Urban 0.416 0.049 8.52 education for males turned significant at the  10  percent Male 0.285 0.017 16.46 level. The lower expected earnings for females with voca- Age 0.081 0.005 16.14 tional training slipped to become insignificant, suggesting Age Squared (0.001) 0.000 (13.65) that the downfall in expected earnings for those with voca- Education up to 6 yrs 0.065 0.005 12.32 tional education may well be driven primarily by the fact Education (6–9 yrs) 0.140 0.030 4.70 that those attending lower secondary education move into Education (9–12 yrs) 0.214 0.033 6.40 other economic sectors more than those with vocational Education (12 yrs or more) 0.322 0.037 9.57 education. The impact of technical education on expected Vocational dummy (females only) (0.194) 0.101 (1.92) earnings was also robust to the new specification. Vocational dummy (males only) 0.151 0.104 1.46 Technical education dummy 0.486 0.117 4.14 Constant 8.970 0.084 107.00 R2 = 0.178     n = 13,534 To avoid complications in interpretation, the small set of indi- 107  viduals who had both lower secondary and vocational education Source: Authors’ calculations, based on EICV2 data. were removed from this analysis. Typologies of P ostBasic E ducation and Training 77 ANNEX 3 Typologies of PostBasic Education and Training A number of educational typologies are useful as a background for understanding the issues related to the PBET sector in Rwanda. They include the UNESCO typology of education and the tripartite typology of higher education. The UNESCO Typology of Education The typology of the Postbasic Education and Training (PBET) sector in Rwanda can be better understood by examining it through UNESCO’s International Standard Classification of Education, or ISCED, a multidimensional framework established by UNESCO that greatly improves the comparability of education systems. The ISCED is a program-based typology that defines education in six distinct levels as outlined in figure A3.1. ISCED 1. Primary education usually begins at age six (2) “preparatory� or “Type A,� which prepares students for or seven and generally lasts four to six years, with six the upper secondary education, and (3) hybrid “type B,� which norm in most countries. Programs at the primary level has attributes of both types C and A. Lower secondary can generally require no previous formal education, although range from two to six years of schooling, with three years it is becoming increasingly common for children to have increasingly becoming the norm in most countries. attended a preprimary program (ISCED 0) before entering ISCED  3. This level corresponds to the upper stage primary school. ISCED 1 programs are normally designed to of secondary education in most countries. Instruction is give students a sound basic education in reading, writing, typically more organized by subject matter than at the and mathematics, along with an elementary understand- ISCED 2 level, and teachers typically need to have a higher ing of other subjects, such as history, geography, natural level, or more subject-specific, qualifications than at the science, social science, art, and music. preceding level. The entrance age to this level is typi- ISCED 2. The lower secondary level of education gen- cally 15 or 16 years. This level usually has three tracks: erally continues the basic programs of the primary level, (1) “terminal� or “3C,� which prepares students for entry although teaching is typically more subject focused and often into the labor force; (2) “preparatory� or “3A,� which indi- employs more specialized teachers, who conduct classes in cate programs designed to provide direct access to tertiary their fields of specialization. Lower secondary education academic programs (ISCED 5A) in universities and other may be one of the following: (1) “terminal� or “type C,� degree-granting institutions; and (3) “preparatory� or “3B,� which prepares students for direct entry into working life; which allows students to proceed to technical and vocational 78 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure A3.1  n International Standard structure of programs in tertiary education varies greatly Classification of Education across countries, no single criterion can be used to define (ISCED) boundaries between ISCED 5A and ISCED 5B education. The following criteria are the minimum requirements for clas- The University Sector The Alternative Sector sifying a program as ISCED 5A: (1) a minimum cumulative of Higher Education of Higher Education theoretical duration (at the tertiary level) of the full-time equivalent of three years; (2) the level of education required ISCED for entry either into a profession with high skills require- 6 Universities ments or an advanced research program; and (3) teaching & Degree-granting Post Basic Institutions ISCED ISCED Short Cycle Education – faculty with advanced research credentials. Colleges Higher Education 5A 5B & Institutes ISCED 5B. These programs are generally more practi- cal and occupationally specific than ISCED 5A programs. Post Basic Qualifications in category 5B are typically shorter than those Upper ISCED Post ISCED 4 Secondary Education – in 5A and focus on occupation-specific skills. The programs Secondary 3 Upper Secondary are generally geared for direct entry into the labor market, although some programs may cover certain theoretical Lower ISCED foundations. A 5B program typically meets the following Secondary 2 Basic criteria: (1) it is more practically oriented and occupation Education ISCED specific than programs at the ISCED 5A level and does not Primary 1 prepare students for direct access to advanced research pro- Pre primary ISCED grams; (2) a minimum duration of the full-time equivalent 0 of two years; and (3) program content is typically designed to prepare students to enter a particular occupation. Source: Based on UNESCO ISCED. See, for example, http://www.uis.unesco.org/Educa- ISCED 6. This level is reserved for tertiary programs that tion/Documents/UNESCO_GC_36C-19_ISCED_EN.pdf (accessed November 2012). lead directly to the award of an advanced research quali- fication. They are devoted to advanced study and original research. The theoretical duration of these programs is education at the tertiary level in alternative institutions of three years full time in most countries, with a cumulative higher education (ISCED 5B). Access to ISCED 4 programs total of at least seven years of full-time equivalent (FTE) or lateral transfer to other ISCED 3 programs is also possible. study at the tertiary level, although actual enrollment time ISCED 4. Level 4 was introduced by the ISCED clas- is often longer. For a program to be classified as ISCED 6, it sification scheme in 1997 to cover programs that straddle must meet the following criteria: (1) successful completion the boundary between upper secondary and tertiary educa- requires the submission of a thesis or dissertation of pub- tion. Level 4 programs cannot, considering their content, lishable quality that is the product of original research and be regarded as tertiary programs. Although they are often represents a significant contribution to knowledge; (2) the not significantly more advanced than ISCED 3 programs, program is not solely based on coursework; and (3) the they serve to broaden the knowledge of participants who program prepares recipients for faculty posts at institutions have already completed a program at Level  3. Students that offer ISCED 5A programs, as well as research posts in are typically older than those in ISCED 3 programs. Again, government and industry. Level 4 programs are subclassified according to the des- tination for which a program is designed: (1) ISCED 4A programs provide direct access to ISCED  5A education; The Tripartite Typology of Higher (2) ISCED 4B, direct access to ISCED 5B education; and Education (3) ISCED 4C, direct entry into the labor market. ISCED 5A. The curriculum of programs at this level has Higher education today includes both the conventional a strong theoretical foundation and either emphasizes the university sector and nonuniversity institutions, which liberal arts and sciences or prepares students for profes- constitute the alternative sector of higher education. In sions with high skills requirements. As the organizational most countries, both sectors face a number of common A N NEX 3 79 challenges, including rising participation rates, changing tiers of institutions. Tier I consists of elite research and labor market requirements, and competition for public comprehensive universities; Tier II, of lower-status uni- and private funds. All higher education institutions have, versities and degree-granting colleges and institutes; and therefore, to adapt to the increasingly conflicting demands Tier III, institutions that offer mostly short-cycle, subdegree of multiple stakeholders. Students are demanding quality programs (1–3 years in duration). The alternative sector education; employers, education relevant to their needs; and usually consists of all institutions in Tier III and a small governments, accountability for public resources allocated percentage of the institutions in Tier II. The hierarchy of to educational institutions. institutions in Tiers I and II is established by the type of Other relevant trends in higher education include the degrees offered, the selectivity of admission criteria, and growth of deregulated, market-driven institutions and voca- the resources allocated per student. tionally relevant programs, together with the development Examples of the tripartite typology in selected OECD of “seamless� systems of secondary and higher education, countries are shown in table A3.1. The share of overall vocational training, and lifelong learning. enrollment in the alternative higher education sector is The landscape of higher education has changed: alter- highest in the USA and Canada, where it exceeds 30 per- native institutions represent distinctive developments and cent, compared to Germany, where the recent conversion of offer some remarkable benefits—compared to universi- many Fachhochschulen into universities of applied science ties—including: (1) easier and more equitable access for has virtually produced a single-tier system. large segments of the student population, (2) greater flex- ibility and responsiveness to the needs of employers, and (3) a different occupational orientation and approach to Table A3.1  n  Examples of the Tripartite public service. Typology in Higher Education The strategic objectives of the alternative sector of Country Tier I Tier II Tier III higher education are to: Australia 8 research 32 new universities 68 TAFE colleges universities and some TAFE  Provide equity in access to tertiary education for the colleges growing youth cohort and young adults who would Canada 30 research and 56 new universities, 145 community comprehensive university colleges, and colleges and otherwise have no opportunity to enter traditional, universities polytechnics technical university-dominated systems of higher education. institutes  Provide this access in a cost-effective manner, usually France 37 Grande 86 Universités 123 Instituts at a lower cost per student than in universities. Écoles Universitaires de  Ensure that such education equips graduates with the Téchnologie (IUTs) 280 Sections knowledge, skills, and competencies needed by employ- de Brevet de ers in a fast-changing knowledge economy. Technicien  Offer greater flexibility in program design and delivery Supérieur (BTS) in order to respond to the complex and diverse needs of Germany 78 technical 182 Fachhochschulen Dual training and FHS institutes students, the labor market, employers, and governments. comprehensive 43 Berufsakademien  Equip students with the learning know-how, abilities, universities and skills to pursue lifelong learning. Ireland 8 universities 13 technical institutes Training centers  Establish partnerships and bridges to other educational United 690 Ivy League, 1,760 polytechnic, 1,075 community sectors, including general and vocational secondary States public, and colleges, and smaller colleges and education, as well as the university sector of higher private research state universities Institutes of universities Technology education.  Play a meaningful role as an agent of regional economic Source: Adapted from S. Mikhail, 2008, “The Alternative Tertiary Education Sector: More Than Non-University Education,� Education Working Paper 10, Education Unit, World Bank, development in remote regions and/or disadvantaged Washington, DC. urban communities. An effective typology of the higher education system Grubb, W. N., 2003, The Roles of Tertiary Colleges and Institutes: 108  is the so-called tripartite system,108 composed of three Trade-offs in Restructuring Postsecondary Education (Paris: OECD). P ublic and Private U niversities and Higher L E A RN I N G I nstitutions I N RWANDA 81 ANNEX 4 Public and Private Universities and Higher LEARNING Institutions IN RWANDA Public Universities and Higher Learning science and technology in Rwanda, it has a mandate Institutions to generate and advance knowledge, as well as use it to enrich teaching and learning. The Directorate of  National University of Rwanda (NUR): Established Research, Publications, and Consultancy was established in  1963  by the government in cooperation with the to encourage, harmonize, and develop research, publi- Dominican Order from the Province of Québec, Canada, cations, and consultancy capabilities in the institution. NUR is the largest university in Rwanda. It is located in  Kigali Institute of Education (KIE): KIE is a public the city of Butare in southern Rwanda. The university institution of higher learning established in 1999 with suffered badly during the genocide and had to close Rwandan government funding and the assistance of in 1994, reopening in April 1995. At that time English various donors, including the World Bank; Swiss Co- was introduced as a medium of instruction, along- Operation; the U.K. Department for International Devel- side French. Currently, NUR has 9 faculties, 3 schools, opment; the U.S. Agency for International Development; and 9 centers. Since its reopening in 1995, NUR has made UNESCO; and GIZ. The institute is organized into a remarkable recovery; 16,000 students have graduated. three faculties: science, arts, and education. It has also It now employs over 500 academic staff, 50 of whom a number of active directorates for: (1) research and are expatriates, and enrolls around  11,000  students, consultancy, (2)  continuing education, (3)  academic making the university the largest public provider of quality, and (4) academic practice and development. higher education in Rwanda. The Rwandan government, A new e-learning center at KIE has been established working together with the donor community, has made under the PAN-African e-Network Project, funded by substantial commitments to developing higher education the government of India. KIE will provide e-learning in general and to NUR in particular. facilities using the latest VSAT technology. The project  Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST): was scheduled to be implemented in a phased manner KIST is the leading public technology institute of higher in almost all African nations, starting in 2009. learning in Rwanda. It came into existence as a UNDP  School of Finance and Banking (SFB): SFB is the project in November  1997  with a clear mandate to leading business school in Rwanda. It offers BBA and produce high-caliber technical and scientific expertise. MBA degree programs, as well as executive education KIST offers degree programs in engineering and applied and consulting services to local organizations. The SFB science. The research function at the Institute is based offers its own BBA degree, but works with the Maas- on the understanding that as the leading institution of tricht School of Management (MSM, Netherlands) to 82 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA jointly deliver the MBA program. The school also awards  Université Laïque Adventiste de Kigali (UNILAC): an MSM degree, which is internationally accredited. UNILAC was established in  1997  by the Adventist Approximately 50 percent of class sessions are delivered Parent Association for the development of education by MSM faculty, who fly in for two-week stays. in Rwanda. The university has two faculties: law and  Kigali Institute of Health (KHI): KHI has three campus economic sciences; the latter includes programs in locations: Kigali, Ndera, and Nyamishaba. The Institute economic development, rural development, and ICT offers degree-level programs in allied health sciences management. UNILAC was granted its formal operating and nursing. Allied health sciences include studies in license in December 2008. ophthalmology, dentistry, physiotherapy, anesthesiol-  Université Adventiste d’Afrique Centrale de d’Afrique de ogy, medical laboratory sciences, and medical imaging l’Est: This university is part of a network of universities sciences. The nursing programs include nursing, mental established by the 7th Day Adventist Church in Africa, health, midwifery, environmental health, and community East and South Asia, and Latin America and the Carib- health. KHI also has an active continuing education bean. The university offers programs through faculties program for health care professionals. of business administration, education, and theology.  Institut Supérieur d’Agriculture et d’Elevage (ISAE):  Université d’Agriculture, de Technologie et d’Éducation ISAE is Rwanda’s leading institution of higher education de Kibungo (UNATEK): The University of Agriculture, in agriculture and related disciplines, located in Bugoso. Technology and Education of Kibungo is a community Its programs include soil science, crop production and university recognized by a convention signed between management, animal husbandry and production, water the Association for the Promotion of Higher Education management, rural development, agricultural technol- in the District of Ngoma in the Eastern Province and the ogy, agribusiness, horticulture, fish farming, and forest government of Rwanda, represented by the Ministry of management. Education. UNATEK programs are offered through two  Umutara Polytechnic (UP): UP was established as faculties: education (with four departments: economics an institution of higher learning in  2006  on the site and management, arts and humanities, clinical psychol- of a formal rural secondary school, with very limited ogy, and psychopedagogy) and rural development (with facilities for laboratories, workshops, equipment, and two departments: rural engineering and agribusiness). lecture rooms. Established to support the economic  Institut d’Enseignement Supérieur (INES) de Ruhengeri: transformation of Rwanda, UP is focused on delivering INES is a faith-based institution located in the Musanze vocational and technical diploma and degree programs. District of the Northern Province. It offers academic programs through four faculties: economics, social sciences, and management studies; basic and applied Private Universities and Higher Learning sciences; arts; and law. All faculties are located in the Institutions same campus, encompass five departments, and offer three options. Private universities and other private HLIs have grown  Université Catholique de Kabgayi (UCK): UCK operates substantially over the past decade and enrolment in them under the aegis of the Catholic diocese of Muhanga and now exceeds enrolment in public institutions. offers programs in three faculties: science and develop- ment studies; social sciences and economics; and social  Université Libre de Kigali: Kigali Independent University communication. is a higher education institution founded in 1996 by the  Catholic University of Rwanda: The Catholic Church Rwandan Association for Promoting Education and Cul- of Rwanda has judged it useful to reinforce its contribu- ture and approved by a ministerial order of MINEDUC. tion in the area of intellectual development by creating The university has faculties of economic sciences and a Higher Institute of Scientific Education, whose major management (with departments of economics, manage- aim is to prepare highly qualified and devoted profes- ment, and rural development), social sciences (with sionals to respond to the challenges of the socioeconomic departments of sociology, administrative sciences, and development of Rwanda. population studies), law, and science and technology  Rwanda Tourism College (RTC): Established in 2008, (with a department of computer science). RTC has been weaving the Rwandan and regional dream A N NEX 4 83 through capacity development, training manpower for Catholic institution governed by the Episcopal Confer- hotel and tourism companies, airlines, travel and tour ence of Rwanda, under the supervision of the Holy See, companies, business IT-related companies, and market- represented by the Congregation for the Evangelization ing and public relation offices. of Peoples.  Kigali Institute of Management (KIM): KIM evolved  Protestant Institute of Arts and Social Sciences: The out of the International College of Accountancy and overall aim of the Protestant Institute of Arts and Social Management (ICAM) in 2005 with the introduction of Sciences is to promote the quality of services delivered a degree program leading to a Bachelor’s of Business to the community and enhance the services rendered to Management (BBM), in addition to ICAM programs in Churches and Societies. Services include teaching and accountancy, financial analysis, and ICT management. training of staff, coaching of practitioners, and creating  Institut Polytechnique de Byumba (IPB): IPB is a pri- and developing knowledge based on an inquisitive, vate HLI functioning in accordance with the law No. scientific, and independent approach in the fields of 20/2005 of 20/10/2005 governing the organization and Theology, Education and Development, and Healing functioning of higher education in Rwanda. IPB opened and Reconciliation. on January 26, 2006, with one faculty: the Faculty of  Institut des Sciences Pédagogiques de Gitwe (ISPG): Social Sciences, Management and Development Studies. ISPG is an institute for education studies located in  Grand Séminaire Saint Charles Borromée de Nya- the Southern Province and provides programs in early kibanda: This theological seminary in Nyakibanda is a childhood education and teacher education. Vocational T raining C enter E nrolL ment by Occupation and female G ender 85 ANNEX 5 Vocational Training Center EnrolLment by Occupation and female Gender Figure A5.1  n  VTC Enrollment by Occupation and Female Students, 2009 Tailoring Plumbing & welding Carpentry Food Processing Electricity Masonry Auto mechanic Hairdressing ICT Metal work Driving 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Female Total Source: Statistics provided to authors by WDA in September–October 2010. Note: The data source does not specify whether it includes both public and private providers. T echnical S econdary School E nrolL ment by Occupation and F E MA L E G ender 87 ANNEX 6 Technical Secondary School EnrolLment by Occupation and FEMALE Gender Figure A6.1  n Technical Secondary School Enrollment, by Occupation and Female  Students, 2009 Agriculture Building Construction Veterinary Electrical Automobile Civil works General mechanical Information Technology Electronic Forestry Carpentry Tailoring 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Female Total Source: Statistics provided to authors by WDA in September–October 2010. Note: The data source does not specify whether it relates to both public and private providers. TV E T P olicy: I nterventions and Strategies 89 ANNEX 7 TVET Policy: Interventions and Strategies MINEDUC’s TVET Policy lays out five priority areas of intervention to develop the TVET system, with key strate- gies offered for each intervention area. The priority intervention areas and identified strategies are summarized in the table below. Table A7.1  n Summary of TVET Policy  Area of intervention Strategies 1. Develop TVET system • Establish TVET central training agency for coordination of all TVET activities • Strengthen capacity of TVET institutions to offer demand-driven, outcome-based training • Establish a National Qualifications Framework (NQF) • Strengthen partnerships with all stakeholders • Ensure lifelong learning opportunities for TVET • Develop a TVET management information system • Establish business incubation 2. Improve access to TVET programs • Ensure all Rwandans access to TVET programs • Ensure appropriate infrastructure • Make TVET affordable (e.g., provide financial support to students from poor households) • Make special provision for vulnerable groups to ensure access to TVET programs • Make deliberate efforts to place each TVET student in an industrial attachment programs during training 3. Ensure quality of TVET programs • Review/develop new TVET curricula in modular form, based on occupational standards • Introduce a demand-responsive, competency-based training model • Introduce modern and relevant teaching methods and pedagogic materials in line with market needs • Provide appropriate equipment and improve facilities • Introduce outcome-oriented assessments (e.g., practical tests and inspections) • Involve private sector in curriculum development, TVET provision, and monitoring and evaluation (continued on the next page) 90 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Table A7.1  n Summary of TVET Policy (continued)  Area of intervention Strategies Provide adequate-quality TVET 4.  • Create TVET teacher development programs that ensure both the quality and quantity of instructors teachers • Emphasize initial and continual training focused on practical, pedagogical, and entrepreneurial skills • Link TVET teacher assessments with career pathways • Provide other incentives to attract and retain TVET teachers 5. Ensure sustainable TVET financing • Introduce TVET financing framework based on co-financing by beneficiaries • Increase budget allocations to TVET • Create conducive environment for enterprises to invest in TVET • Encourage development of production units in TVET institutions • Increase efficiency of TVET delivery so as to reduce costs Source: Adapted from MINEDUC, 2008, “Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Rwanda Policy�, 13–14. P rincipal Objectives and Actions of WDA 91 ANNEX 8 Principal Objectives and Actions of WDA The table below summarizes the key objectives identified in the draft Strategic and Action Plan of the Workforce Development Agency (WDA), as well as the actions associated with achieving these objectives. Summary of Draft WDA Strategic and Action Plan Table A8.1  n  Objective Actions 1. An integrated TVET system that promotes • Establish IPRCs in Rwanda decentralized delivery, public-private • Absorb and align all TSSs and VTCs within the national TVET arrangement partnerships, vertical and horizontal mobility • Develop partnerships with industry with multiple entry and exit points, and a • Implement accreditation of industry-based training programs spatial distribution that allows equitable • Integrate the established TQF into the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) access throughout the country. • Develop a national TVET certification system • Publicize TVET, the WDA, and promote national policy of gender balance in all preceding strategies Develop demand-led, competency-based 2.  • Develop and implement a structured mechanism for soliciting relevant labor market information curricula • Introduce and apply DACUM approach to TVET curriculum development Establish standards for the recruitment, 3.  • Put in place qualified and competent TVET lecturers and instructors in accordance with the selection, and training of TVET lecturers and National Gender Policy instructors • Establish technical and pedagogical training system for local TVET lecturers and instructors Create a robust and structured institutional 4.  • Operate WDA in adherence with National Gender Policy framework for workforce skills development • Develop human resources, management, and operational systems that monitor TVET institutions and ensure adherence to the National Gender Policy • Facilitate WDA operations Establish strong linkages with regional and 5.  • Establish a collaboration framework with regional and international TVET institutions international TVET institutions Update the infractructure of WDA HQ, 6.  • Establish WDA HQ infrastructure and facilities IPRCs, PCs, and TVET centers • Establish standard training equipment list (STEL) for new curricula • Ensure adequacy of equipment, machinery, consumable training materials, and physical infrastructure of IPRCs, TSSs, and VTCs in line with industrial standards in TVET training delivery Establish a financially sustainable TVET 7.  • Establish training levy system system • Establish income-generating activities to supplement revenues of TVET institutions • Establish model industrial parks (continued on the next page) 92 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Table A8.1  n Summary of Draft WDA Strategic and Action Plan (continued) Objective Actions 8. Develop entrepreneurship • Establish entrepreneurship skills training • Establish infrastructure and funding mechanism to enhance skills in business incubation and entrepreneurship development Institute a common medium of instruction in • Develop a system for training lecturers and instructors in the use of English as a common medium 9.  TVET training of instruction Source: Adapted from WDA, 2009, “Draft WDA Strategic and Action Plan.� Note: DACUM – Developing A CUrriculuM; HQ – headquarters; IPRC – Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center; NQF – National Qualifications Framework; STEL – Standard Training Equip- ment List; TSS – Technical Secondary School; TVET – Technical and Vocational Education and Training; VTC – Vocational Training Center; WDA – Workforce Development Authority. The DACUM (Developing a Curriculum) approach 93 ANNEX 9 The DACUM (Developing a Curriculum) approach Basic Principles of DACUM Expert workers can describe their jobs better than anyone else.109 Workers whose occupations are the object of analysis and who perform well in those positions are the real experts on those types of jobs. Although first-rate supervisors and managers may know a lot about the work developed, they usually lack the necessary level of expertise to conduct a good analysis of such jobs. An effective way of defining an occupation is to describe the tasks performed by expert workers. A worker may carry out several tasks that are highly appreciated by their colleagues and internal clients. To do so, attitudes and knowledge alone are not enough; they must perform their tasks the right way. If the enterprise had this knowledge, it might facilitate better training for everyone else. To perform all the tasks of a specific occupation in an research chart with the tasks and duties performed by work- appropriate way, knowledge, behavior, and skills need to be ers in a certain occupation. An example of such a chart for applied, together with tools and equipment. The “Developing a registered nurse is provided below in figure A9.2. A CUrriculuM� (DACUM) methodology gives importance to the detection of factors that explain successful performance. Figure A9.1  n Structure of a DACUM Letter Therefore, the methodology seeks to establish not only tasks, but also a list of these factors. Further, it specifies the Typical example of the statements of a DACUM letter tools with which the worker interacts in order to facilitate practical training. This information is then condensed in Competency A: prepare meals Subcompetency A1: buy food what is known as a “DACUM Letter.� Subcompetency A2: wash food Subcompetency A3: cut food Subcompetency A4: cook food etc. Contents of a Typical DACUM Letter Available examples of DACUM letters usually list compe- 109  The chief sources of this annex are: “Dacum� webpage of TVETi- tencies, which are described as operations or tasks (see pedia Knowledge Sharing Platform, n.d., UNESCO-UNIVOC, Bonn, figure A9.1). A DACUM letter also details the necessary Germany; http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/tvetipedia.0.html?&tx_ knowledge, behaviors, equipment, tools, materials, and drwiki_pi1%5Bkeyword%5D=DACUM; and “Dacum Training Infor- future development of a job position, as optional. mation,� n.d., Center on Education and Training for Employment, College of Education and Human Ecology, Ohio State University, A DACUM letter is developed by a team of expert work- Columbus, Ohio, http://www.dacumohiostate.com/process.htm ers that produces, generally in a two-day period, a detailed (both URLs accessed November 2012). 94 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA DACUM Research Chart for a Registered Nurse Figure A9.2  Panel A. List of Tasks Duties Tasks A. Assess A1. Review A2. Establish A3. Evaluate A4. Assess A5. Perform A6. Obtain A7. Assess A8. Complete patients assessments patient trust & risk factors vital signs physical medical mental and admission of others support assessment history from physical forms patient condition of patient B. Plan B1. Identity B2. Develop B3. Formulate B4. Establish B5. Document B6. Develop B7. Interact B8. Coordinate patient care patient’s short- term discharge plan nurse’s care plan form teaching plan with patient’s patient problems care-carelong intervention for patient family schedules nurse’s term care diagnosis C. Provide C1. Determine C2. Assist C3. Assist C4. Assist C5. Assist C6. Assist (ADL’s) ADL status patient with with patient with patient with patient patient with activity daily personal ambulation feeding dressing toileting living hygiene (e.g. bathing, grooming, oral care) D. Evaluate D1. Assess D2. Assess D3. Assess D4. Evaluate D5. Evaluate D6. Evaluate D7. Document patient care patient patient patient wound care skin care patient findings of response to response to response to understanding evaluation medication treatment therapy plan care D7. Revise plan of care Source: “DACUM Research Chart for Registered Nurse,� 1995, Ohio State University. (Partial representation of the original.) Panel B. Descriptive Items General knowledge and skills Communication – verb; listening; written; Coordination skills Identify resources non-verbal (send & receive), speaking Supervisory skills Diagnostic skills Medication Problem solving skills Computer skills Assessment skills (nutritional, neurological, Critical thinking skills Equipment operational skills mental/emotional, physical) • data collection & interpretation Gross & fine motor skills Organizational skills • sharing info with proper people Pain management skills Time management skills Interpersonal skills CPR Capable of monitoring patient’s physical & Heimlich emotional needs Conflict resolution Worker behaviors Patience, flexibility, compassionate nature, conscientious, team player, honest, personal responsibility, self-starter, assertiveness, professional attitude, sensitive, respectful of body space, respectful of mental boundaries. Tools, equipment, supplies and materials Oxygen equipment Irrigation sets CPM machine Dressings Restraints Staple/suture removal kits Ted hose Briefs Pulse oximetry Posey belts Bed pan Chux Nebulizers IV kits Urinal Syringes Blood pressure equipment TENS unit Walkers Inhaler Stethoscope Culture tubes Canes Spirometer IV pump Specimen containers Wheel Chairs C-PAP Enteral feeding pump K-pads Carts IPPB Suction machine IVACS NG tubes Glucometer Motorized beds Foley kits Computer Heme test Specialized beds Otoscope Medications (continued on the next page) A N NEX 9 95 (continued) Future trends and concerns Managed care Deemphasis of medical specialties Home health care Capitation Hospice care Cost effective care Nursing versatility Federal funding cuts, legislation, medicare Upgrading skills and education Advances in technology Computer skills Increased importance of patient teaching Increasing control of insurance companies over patient care Increased liability Date of report: December 7–8, 1995 Panel members: Betty Brownlow, C.M.H.I. at Fort Logan, Denver, CO. Sara E. Hudspeth, St. Joseph’s Hospital, Denver. Facilitators: Robert Norton, Team Leader, CETE. Glenn Koons, Austin, TX, Jeannie K. Smith, Austin, TX. Source: “DACUM Research Chart for Registered Nurse,� 1995, Ohio State University. (Partial representation of the original.) Autonomy in Higher E ducation 97 ANNEX 10 Autonomy in Higher Education Administrative Organization The administrative organization of higher learning institutions (HLIs) is determined by the law on these institu- tions, which stipulates that their governance organs will be composed of a board of directors, senate, executive council, council of faculties and schools, and department councils.110 Table A10.1 reviews the roles and respon- sibilities of each. Budget Preparation expenditures and expatriate personnel), and specific budget (for specific activities and projects). Budget preparation complies with government procedures, which means that the process is basically the same for all HLIs. There is, however, some variability between Financial Management institutions: Financial management is mostly an internal matter for each  National University of Rwanda (NUR): NUR has its HLI, which has its own financial management procedures own Financial Management Procedures Manual, which manual and financial management staff. Each HLI also has provides guidelines for collecting, recording, processing, its own bank account. Staff is usually paid by MINECOFIN, and reporting accounting, financial, and procurement- but there are cases in which the full budget is transferred related information; ensures that data accumulation, to an HLI, which handles staff payments. form preparation, distribution, and processing are stan- External income generation is encouraged and incen- dardized; provides information and reference materials tive mechanisms are in place to ensure that departments to assist users in accessing and using the university’s and individuals that generate resources are appropriately financial information system; and ensures that NUR’s rewarded. NUR has two models for this activity, with vary- financial procedures are in full compliance with national ing shares of grants or contracts allocated to staff, central policies and regulations. administration, and the unit involved. Also, NUR encour-  Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) ages staff to engage in external consultancies, as long as and Kigali Health Institute (KHI): all budget units of they register this work and pay 15 percent overhead to the both institutes have input into the budgeting process. university. Other HLIs have somewhat similar mechanisms. KHI classifies resources into three groups: ordinary budget (most salaries), development budget (for capital 110  MINEDUC, 2008, “Higher Education Policy,� Art. 42–78. 98 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Accountability respect for internal rules, teaching, research, staff devel- opment, consultancy, community service, management, Performance contracts serve as the main tool of account- and “other targets� to be specified—all of which, except ability within HLIs, the nature of which can vary accord- for “other targets,� are determined by the administration. ing to the institution. These contracts are recent; they The contracts are signed by all staff and provide the basis were initiated in 2009 in KIST, KHI, and NUR. At NUR, for staff evaluation. Other HLIs have simpler performance performance contracts specify agreed deliverables, such as contracts. Table A10.1  n Roles and Responsibilities of HLI Governance Organs  Governance organ Roles and responsibilities Board of directors • Gives final approval of strategic plan and annual reports, approves budget and forwards to MINEDUC, identifies gaps, looks for alternative financing • Approves loans, donations, subventions, and legacies • Recruits, promotes, and determines salaries and allowances of lecturers and researchers, as well as penalties, when necessary • Adopts decisions and conclusions of executive council related to financial management, assets, and personnel • Determines fees and other dues to be paid by students and the funds that will be invested in general services • Determines students who will receive study scholarships and prizes • Makes decisions on creation of new institutional units Senate • Makes proposals for salaries, recruitment, and development of staff, and, if need be, sanctions on professors and lecturers, and forwards them to the board of directors for final decisions • Directs and supervises research and education activities • Suggests and supervises the creation and development of academic units and submits them to the board, which makes the decision Executive council • Develops proposals on financial management • Reviews budget proposals and sends them to board of directors Council of faculties and schools • Elects deans, vice-deans, and department heads Department councils • Elects secretary (deputy department head) of departments (a faculty member) • Develops course design and curricula, submits to faculty council, then board, for approval Source: MINEDUC, 2008, “Higher Education Policy.� I nternal and E xternal Q uality Assurance in PBET 99 ANNEX 11 Internal and External Quality Assurance in PBET Quality assurance in postbasic education is underpinned by a number of fundamental principles: (1) the interest of students, employers, and society at large in good-quality education: (2) the central importance of institutional autonomy, tempered by the recognition that this must be accompanied by significant responsibility; and (3) the need for external quality assurance to be fit for purpose and place only an appropriate and necessary burden on institutions in order to achieve its objectives. “Standards� in this context are not meant to imply “standardization� or “requirements.� Instead “standards� are statements of basic good practice; they are short and general in nature. “Guidelines,� on the other hand, are meant as illustrations of the standards in action; they provide additional information and explain why the standards are important. The objectives of the standards and guidelines are to:  Encourage the development of postbasic education Policy and Procedures for Quality Assurance institutions that foster vibrant intellectual and educa- tional achievement. Institutions should have a policy and associated procedures  Provide assistance to postbasic institutions in developing for the assurance of the quality and standards of educational their own cultures of quality assurance. programs and awards. They should also commit themselves  Inform and raise the expectations of postbasic edu- explicitly to the development of a culture that recognizes the cation institutions, students, employers, and other importance of quality, and quality assurance, in their work. stakeholders about the processes and outcomes of To achieve this, institutions should develop and implement postbasic education. a strategy for the continuous enhancement of quality. This  Contribute to a common frame of reference for the strategy, together with policies and procedures, should have provision of postbasic education and the assurance of formal status and be publicly available. It should also include its quality. a role for students and other stakeholders. Formal policies and procedures provide a framework within which postbasic education institutions can develop Internal Quality Assurance and monitor the effectiveness of their quality assurance systems. They also help provide public confidence in insti- The dimensions of internal self-assessment of the quality tutional autonomy. Policies contain statements of intention of PBET programs and institutions are outlined schemati- and outline the principal means by which these intentions cally in figure A11.1 will be achieved. Procedural guidance gives more detailed 100 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure A11.1  n Aspects of the Internal  panel members); (8) regular feedback from employers, labor (Self-) Assessment of PBET market representatives, and other relevant organizations; and Programs and Institutions (9) participation of students in quality assurance activities. MIS & Mgt Polcies & Capacity Procedures Assessment of Students Public Program Org Information & Content Students should be assessed using published criteria, regu- Aspects of Program lations, and procedures that are consistently applied. This ICT and Institutional Student's Infrastructure Internal Self-Assessment Assessment process is one of the most important elements of postbasic of Quality education. The outcomes of assessments have a profound Physical Student effect on students’ future careers. It is therefore important Infrastructure Sevices that it be carried out professionally at all times and take Learning Teaching into account the extensive existing knowledge about test- Resources Staff ing and examination processes. Assessments also provide valuable information for institutions on the effectiveness Note: ICT – information and communication technology; org – organization. of teaching and learner support. Student assessment procedures are expected to: (1) be designed to measure the achievement of intended learning information about the ways in which a policy is imple- outcomes and other program objectives; (2) be appropri- mented and provides a useful reference point for those ate for their purpose—whether diagnostic, formative or who need to understand the practical aspects of carrying summative; (3) have clear and published scoring criteria; out the procedures. (4) be undertaken by people who understand the role of A policy statement is expected to include the: (1) rela- assessment in the process of student progression towards tionship between teaching and research in the institution achievement of the knowledge and skills associated with (tertiary institutions only); (2) institution’s strategy for qual- their intended qualifications; (5) where possible, not rely ity and standards; (3) organization of the quality assurance on the judgments of single examiners; (6) take account of system; (4)  responsibilities of faculties and departments all the possible consequences of examination regulations; and other organizational units and individuals for quality (7)  have clear regulations covering student absence, ill- assurance; (5) involvement of students in quality assur- ness, and other mitigating circumstances; (8) ensure that ance; and (6) ways in which the policy is implemented, assessments are conducted securely in accordance with an monitored, and revised. institution’s stated procedures; and (9) be subject to admin- istrative verification to ensure the accuracy of procedures. In addition, students should be clearly informed about Approval, Monitoring, and Periodic Review the assessment strategy being used in their programs, what of Programs and Awards examinations or other assessment methods they will be subject to, what will be expected of them, and the criteria Internal quality assurance of programs and awards are that will be applied to assess their performance. expected to include: (1) development and publication of explicit intended learning outcomes; (2) careful attention to curricula and program design and content; (3) specific Quality Assurance of Teaching Staff needs of different modes of delivery (e.g. full-time, part-time, distance-learning, e-learning) and types of higher education Institutions should have ways of verifying that teaching (e.g., academic, vocational, professional); (4) availability of staff are qualified and competent to teach. Teacher evalu- appropriate learning resources; (5) formal program approval ations should be available to those undertaking external procedures by a body other than the teaching the program; reviews and commented on in reports. Teachers are the (6)  monitoring of student progress and achievements; single most important learning resource available to most (7) regular periodic reviews of programs (including external students. It is important that those who teach have full A N NEX 11 101 knowledge and understanding of the subject that they are resources and their cost; and (7) the institution’s own key teaching, the necessary skills and experience to transmit performance indicators. There is also value in institutions their knowledge effectively to students in a range of teach- comparing themselves with similar institutions in their ing contexts, and the opportunity to access feedback on respective regions and in other parts of the world. This their own performance. Institutions should ensure that allows them to extend the range of their self-knowledge and staff recruitment and appointment procedures include a access possible ways of improving their own performance. means of making certain that all new staff have at least the minimum necessary level of competence. Teaching staff should be given opportunities to develop Public Information and extend their teaching capacity and encouraged to value their skills. Institutions should provide poor teachers with Institutions should regularly publish up-to-date, impartial, opportunities to improve their skills to an acceptable level and objective information—both quantitative and qualita- and should have the means to remove them from their teach- tive—about the educational programs and awards that they ing duties if they continue to be demonstrably ineffective. offer. In consonance with their public role, all PBET insti- tutions have a responsibility to provide information about their programs; the intended learning outcomes of these Learning Resources and Student Support programs; the qualifications that they award; the teaching, learning, and assessment procedures that they use; and the Institutions should ensure that the resources available for learning opportunities available to their students. Published the support of student learning are adequate and appro- information might also include the views and employment priate for each educational program offered. In addition destinations of past students and a profile of the current to teachers, students rely on a range of resources to assist student population. This information should not be used their learning. These vary from physical resources, such as simply as a marketing opportunity. Institutions should libraries and computer facilities, to tutors, counselors, and verify that it meets their own expectations with respect to other advisers. Learning resources and other support mecha- impartiality and objectivity. nisms should be readily accessible to students, designed with their needs in mind, and responsive to feedback from them. Institutions should routinely monitor, review, and External Quality Assurance improve the effectiveness of the support services available to their students. The form of external quality assurance varies from system to system and can include institutional evaluations of different types; subject or program evaluations; accreditation at the Information Systems subject, program, and institutional level; and combinations of these elements. External evaluations largely depend for Institutions should ensure that they collect, analyze, and use their full effectiveness on the existence of an explicit internal relevant information to effectively manage their programs quality assurance strategy with specific objectives and on of study and other activities. Institutional self-knowledge use, within institutions, of mechanisms and methods aimed is the starting point for effective quality assurance. It is to achieve those objectives. important that institutions have the means to collect and Dimensions of external assessment of the quality of analyze information about their own activities. Without this PBET programs and institutions are outlined schematically in data, they will not know what is working well and what figure A11.2 The process is undertaken by external agencies needs attention, nor the results of innovative practices. for a number of purposes, including: (1) safeguarding of The quality-related information systems required by national academic standards for PBET; (2) accreditation of individual institutions will depend to some extent on local programs and/or institutions; (3) protection of the rights of circumstances, but it is at least expected that such systems students and learners; (4) public provision of independently cover: (1) student progression and success rates; (2) graduate verified quantitative and qualitative information about edu- employability; (3) student satisfaction; (4) teacher effective- cational programs and/or institutions; and (5) improving ness; (5) student population profiles; (6) available learning and enhancing quality. 102 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Figure A11.2  n  Dimensions of External quality assurance should be designed and developed by Assessment key stakeholders, including all PBET institutions. The pro- cedures that are finally agreed on should be published and Partner Internal QA contain explicit statements of the aims and objectives of Organizations Processes the processes, as well as a description of the procedures to QA External QA be used. As external quality assurance makes demands on Databases Processes PBET institutions, a preliminary impact assessment should Aspects of Program be undertaken to ensure that the procedures to be adopted System Wide and Institutional Fitness for Analysis External Assessment Purpose are appropriate and will not unnecessarily interfere with of Quality the normal work of these institutions. Experts Reporting Database Framework Quality assurance criteria Learning Follow Up Resources Framework Any formal decisions made as a result of an external quality assurance process should be based on explicit published Note: QA – quality assurance. criteria that are consistently applied. Formal decisions made by quality assurance agencies have a significant impact on the institutions and programs that are judged. In the interests The processes carried out by quality assurance agencies of equity and reliability, these decisions should be based properly depend on their purpose and the outcomes that they on published criteria and consistently interpreted. Conclu- are intended to achieve. The procedures adopted by those sions should be based on recorded evidence and agencies agencies that emphasize the enhancement of quality may be should have mechanisms that allow them to moderate quite different from those that seek to provide strong con- conclusions, if necessary. sumer protection. Quality assurance standards are intended to reflect basic good practice and guidance as to what should Fitness for purpose be examined or how activities should be conducted. Certain general principles of good practice in external quality assur- All external quality assurance processes should be designed ance are already established, including those listed below: specifically to achieve their purpose and objectives. The quality assurance agency mandated to conduct an external Use of internal quality assurance processes review should have established processes and operational procedures that are congruent with their own defined and External quality assurance procedures should take into published purposes. Experience has shown that certain account the effectiveness of the internal quality assurance widely used elements of external reviews not only help to processes described in Part 1 of the European Standards and ensure their validity, reliability, and usefulness, but also Guidelines.111 It is important that institutions’ own internal provide a basis for a regional or international dimension policies and procedures be carefully evaluated in the course to quality assurance. of an external assessment in order to determine the extent Among these elements, the following are particularly to which standards are being met. If institutions are to be noteworthy: (1) insistence that the experts who undertake capable of demonstrating the effectiveness of their own external quality assurance reviews have appropriate skills internal quality assurance processes, and if these processes and are competent to perform this task; (2) due diligence properly assure quality and standards, then external processes and care in the selection of experts; (3) provision of appro- may be less intensive than would otherwise be the case. priate orientation and/or training for experts; (4) use of Development of external quality assurance processes 111  European Association for Quality Assurance in High- er Education (ENQA), 2009, “Standards and Guide- lines for Quality Assurance in The European Higher Educa- In order to ensure clarity of purpose and transparency of tion Area,� 3 rd ed., ENQA, Helsinki, http://www.enqa.eu/ procedures, both the objectives and methods of external pubs_esg.lasso (accessed November 2012). A N NEX 11 103 external and/or international experts; (5) participation of a predetermined follow-up procedure that is consistently students; (6) assurance that review procedures are sufficient implemented. Quality assurance is not principally about to provide adequate evidence in support of findings and individual external scrutiny of events; rather, it should be conclusions reached; (7) publishing a report or draft report about encouraging an institution to continuously try to do on self-evaluation, a site visit, or follow-up review; and a better job. External quality assurance does not end with (8) recognition of the importance of institutional improve- the publication of a report and should include a structured ment and enhancement policies as a fundamental element follow-up procedure to ensure development of action plans of quality assurance. for implementation of recommendations. This may involve further meetings with institutional or program representa- Report of findings tives. The objective is to ensure that areas identified for improvement are dealt with speedily and that further The reports of a quality assurance team should be published enhancement is encouraged. and written in a style that is clear and readily accessible External quality assurance should also be undertaken to its intended readership. Any decisions, commendations, on a cyclical basis. The length of the cycle and the review or recommendations contained in reports should be easy procedures to be used should be clearly defined and pub- for a reader to find. lished in advance. Quality assurance is not a static, but In order to ensure maximum benefits from an external a dynamic, process—it should be continuous, not once quality assurance review, it is important that reports of in a lifetime. It does not end with the first review or the findings meet identified needs of the targeted stakehold- completion of formal follow-up procedures. It has to be ers. Reports are sometimes intended for different readers periodically renewed. Subsequent external reviews should and thus require careful attention to structure, content, take into account progress made since the previous review. style, and tone. In general, reports should be structured to include description, analysis (including relevant evidence), System-wide analyses conclusions, commendations, and recommendations. There should be sufficient preliminary explanation to enable a lay Quality assurance agencies should periodically produce reader to understand the purposes of a review, its form, summary reports that describe and analyze the general and the criteria used to make decisions. findings of their reviews, evaluations, and assessments. The reports should be published in a readily accessible All external quality assurance agencies collect a wealth of form and the external review should provide opportuni- information about individual programs and/or institutions ties to readers and users of the report (both within the and this material should inform structured analyses of the relevant institution and outside of it) to comment on their entire PBET system, generating very useful information usefulness. about developments, trends, emerging good practices, and areas of persistent difficulty or weakness, thus becoming a Follow-up procedures and periodic reviews useful tool for policy development and quality enhancement. Agencies should accordingly consider including a research Quality assurance processes that contain recommendations and development function in their activities to help them for action or require a follow-up action plan should have extract the maximum benefits from their work. A nalysis of Teacher Salaries in RWA N DA N School Districts 105 ANNEX 12 Analysis of Teacher Salaries in RWANDAN School Districts Table A12.1  n  Budget Execution of Teacher Salaries, by District, 2006 Primary Teachers Secondary Teachers District Budget Execution % Execution Budget Execution % Execution 1. Bugesera 505 411 81.4 78 228 292.3 2 Burera 852 498 58.5 188 300 159.6 3 Gakenke 228 475 208.3 95 325 342.1 4 Gasabo 650 378 58.2 113 226 200.0 5 Gatsibo 578 346 59.9 80 205 256.3 6 Gicumbi 1,039 513 49.4 344 400 116.3 7 Gisagara 477 387 81.1 189 277 146.6 8 Huye 571 517 90.5 281 372 132.4 9 Kamonyi 646 412 63.8 72 245 340.3 10 Karongi 868 489 56.3 313 365 116.6 11 Kayonza 297 304 102.4 201 251 124.9 12 Kicukiro 334 309 92.5 101 178 176.2 13 Kirehe 97 330 340.2 77 209 271.4 14 Muhanga 632 600 94.9 287 415 144.6 15 Musanze 1,051 532 50.6 212 368 173.6 16 Ngoma 733 384 52.4 357 344 96.4 17 Ngororero 527 509 96.6 161 318 197.5 18 Nyabiho 343 492 143.4 210 343 163.3 19 Nyagatare 654 498 76.1 252 359 142.5 20 Nyamagabe 766 472 61.6 255 330 129.4 21 Nayanasheke 837 619 74.0 292 423 144.9 22 Nyanza 454 426 93.8 221 305 138.0 23 Nyarugenge 523 432 82.6 254 262 103.1 24 Nyaruguru 298 400 134.2 107 241 225.2 25 Rubavu 608 564 92.8 258 380 147.3 (continued on the next page) 106 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Table A12.1  n Budget Execution of Teacher Salaries, by District, 2006 (continued)  Primary Teachers Secondary Teachers District Budget Execution % Execution Budget Execution % Execution 26 Ruhango 514 298 58.0 272 256 94.1 27 Rulindo 148 447 302.0 65 300 461.5 28 Rusizi 457 540 118.2 185 353 190.8 29 Rutsiro 637 497 78.0 185 320 173.0 30 Rwamagana 383 370 96.6 243 287 118.1 Rwanda 16,707 13,449 80.5 5,948 9,185 154.4 Source: MINEDUC budget statistics. Polytechnic institutions: purposes, scope, and focus 107 ANNEX 13 Polytechnic institutions: purposes, scope, and focus Purposes and Scope of Polytechnics Worldwide Polytechnic institutions worldwide have a greater number of purposes and functions than do universities or other traditional institutions of higher education, despite the fact that universities are usually described as institutions with diverse purposes (i.e., teaching, research, and public service). Historically, polytechnic institutions were estab- lished by consolidating many smaller, specialized vocational institutions, and they therefore unsurprisingly focus on occupational preparation for the workplace. A useful classification framework for polytechnic institutions places uses two key indicators: purpose and scope. Institutions are divided into three purpose categories: single-purpose institutions, which provide a range of occupational programs and very little else; dual-purpose institutions, which provide occupational as well as academic programs that correspond to the first phase of degree-level studies in universities; and multipurpose institutions, which provide the same educational programs as do dual-purpose institutions, with the addition of continuing education and community service programs. Polytechnic institutions are also divided into three scope of theory, practice, and work placement. Analysis of the categories: (1) specialized institutions that offer programs program offerings of a number of polytechnic institutions in a single occupational category or body of knowledge, in various countries indicate that fields such as business such as technology or hospitality and tourism; (2) semi- studies, information technology, health studies, and social comprehensive institutions that offer programs in two or work have the largest enrollments. Other popular areas of three related occupations or bodies of knowledge, including study include library studies, hospitality and tourism, bio- technology, business studies, health science, social services, technology, architecture, correctional services, security, and or art and design; and (3) comprehensive institutions that police studies. The well-established generic areas of study offer a wide range of occupational and academic programs. found in most polytechnic institutions include:  Business studies: business management, office and orga- Academic Focus of Polytechnic Programs nizational management, retail operations, accounting, marketing, human resources, e-business, supply chain The curriculum of polytechnic programs in most countries is operations, banking and financial services, transporta- either a combination of theory and practice or a combination tion operations, and hospitality and tourism studies. 108 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA  ICT: computer systems, software systems, computer electrical distribution, electronics, energy systems, networks, computer games, animation, multimedia computers and ICT, telecommunications, construction design, website design, and Internet services. and building technology, architecture, and surveying.  Applied sciences: biotechnology, pharmaceutical stud-  Agriculture and natural resources: field crops and ies, environmental studies, nutrition studies, veterinary processing, agribusiness, agricultural technology, dairy science, natural resources, industrial chemistry, and animals, milk production, horticulture, forestry, and laboratory studies. forest management.  Technology: mechanical systems, manufacturing technol-  Trades: construction trades, automotive and transpor- ogy, automation, transportation and heavy machinery, tation trades, heavy machinery, and industrial trades. School-to-work P rograms 109 ANNEX 14 School-to-work Programs School-to-work programs (STW) are found throughout North America and the United Kingdom. Simply defined, a portion of the secondary curriculum is devoted to a combination of school-based acquisition of knowledge and skills and a supervised part-time or summer internship in an employment situation. Internships in businesses (large and small), nonprofit service organizations, and government agencies have all proven effective. Students report back to teachers and peers regularly on workplace learning and generally complete a final project or product that reflects the material learned during the internship. These projects are evaluated by the teacher and the internship supervisor to determine a final grade. Research in North America shows that STW programs improve student understanding of what work is and affect student choices of careers, and that linkages between schools and the workplace help teachers make STW courses more relevant to postsecondary employment. In a sense, STW is a low-cost version of the German dual system that aims at employability rather than skills for employment. STW programs are completed by students entering higher For Rwanda, STW would be an option for any secondary education and students making the transition to the labor school—urban or rural, academic, vocational, or techni- market. They are a form of career education and orienta- cal. The key to effectiveness is finding local internships tion. STW courses are usually granted the same number of in easy reach of the school in organizations that have credits as one-semester core courses. Compared with other demonstrated a strong commitment to participating in school-to-career options, STW costs are quite low. internships programs. Career Academies 111 ANNEX 15 Career Academies Career Academies (CA) usually operate as “schools within schools� in larger secondary institutions. The goal is to prepare students for the transition to employment or postsecondary education in a particular career, as opposed to a specific occupation. Central to the concept is a university preparatory curriculum with a career theme. Thus CAs are developed for growing local economic sectors and industries with high employment and skills demand. The skills taught are those determined jointly with employers to enable graduates to begin work at a high level of productivity. Box B15.1 provides examples of career clusters in U.S. career academies. As implemented in the United States and the United  Academic and technical curricula: Courses are organized Kingdom, career academies do not provide vocational train- around a career theme, such as information systems, ing at the level of a skilled worker (level A4 in Rwanda). health care, arts and media, and qualify students for Rather, training is equivalent to secondary technical edu- admission to higher education. cation, with graduates entering technician and managerial  Structured workplace learning: Students earn credit streams in employment or admitted to postsecondary educa- for structured, supervised internships as a formal part tion programs. Thus CAs provide an increasingly effective of the curriculum. model in countries where the economy and employment  Integrated career and academic courses: Content and are increasingly knowledge based. skills for career preparation are integrated with academic Currently there are more than 2,500 career academies courses; for example, business mathematics, applied in the United States and approximately 100 in the United information science for bookkeeping and accounting, Kingdom. Elements of the career academy model used in human biology for health care. both countries can be summarized as:112  Partnerships with employers: Employers help design and enrich the curriculum and provide work-based learning  Learning communities: academies typically serve 150– opportunities for students; they may also contribute 200  students as an organized group within a larger funding for curriculum components. comprehensive school, with the intention of providing a supportive and personalized learning environment. Nongovernmental membership organizations set stan- However, an entire school can be organized as a career dards and provide leadership and support for the academies academy.  Team of teachers: An interdisciplinary team of teach- 112  For career clusters in the United States, see the website of the ers works with the learning community on a continu- National Career Academy Coalition, Philadelphia, PA, http:// www.ncacinc.com; for the United Kingdom, see the website of ous basis; the staff of local employers participate in Career Academies UK, London, http://www.careeracademies.org. instruction. uk (both URLs accessed September 2012). 112 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA Box A15.1  |  Career Academy Clusters in the United States The variety of careers that career academies in the United States offer can be seen in the clusters developed by the nonprofit National Career Academy Coalition, based on the programs of member schools in California. These clusters have been selected from a longer list due to their relevance to Rwanda. Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources Information Technology Food Products and Processing Systems Network Systems Plant Systems Information Support and Services Animal Systems Interactive Media Power, Structural, and Technical Systems Programming and Software Development Natural Resources Systems Law, Public Safety, Corrections, and Security Environmental Service Systems Correction Services Agribusiness Systems Emergency and Fire Management Services Architecture and Construction Security and Protective Services Design/Pre-Construction Law Enforcement Services Construction Legal Services Maintenance/Operations Manufacturing Hospitality and Tourism Production Restaurants and Food/Beverage Services Manufacturing, Production, and Process Development Lodging Maintenance, Installation, and Repair Travel and Tourism Quality Assurance Recreation, Amusements, and Attractions Logistics and Inventory Control Arts, Audio/Video Technology, and Communications Health, Safety, and Environmental Assurance/Management Audio and Video Technology and Film Health Sciences Printing Technology Therapeutic Services Visual Arts Diagnostic Services Performing Arts Health Informatics Journalism and Broadcasting Support Services Telecommunications Biotechnology Research and Development Business, Management, and Administration Transportation, Distribution, and Logistics Management Transportation Operations Business Financial Management and Accounting Logistics Planning and Management Services Human Resources Warehousing and Distribution Center Operations Business Analysis Facility and Mobile Equipment Maintenance Marketing Transportation Systems/Infrastructure Planning, Management, and Regulation Administrative and Information Support Sales and Service Finance Financial and Investment Planning Business Financial Management Source: National Career Academy Coalition website (NCAC), 2012, NCAC, Philadelphia, PA, http://www.ncacinc.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=1 7 (accessed November 2012). A N N EX 15 113 that have been established in both the United Kingdom and resources systems, environmental services systems, and the United States. These organizations have also established agribusiness systems. standards and processes for quality assurance. Rigorous Clearly, career academies require highly qualified fac- evaluations have shown that graduation from career acad- ulty, strong partnerships with employers that are willing to emies substantially improves the earnings of young men, provide both part-time faculty and structured internships, including those at high risk of dropping out.113 Benefits to and curriculum-based courses that include career content. young women were less significant because they tended to This model can be costly relative to current Rwandan sec- continue with their educations or were taking care of children. ondary vocational streams, but it may be well worth trying, The model could provide an option for the restructur- evaluating, and refining. In other countries, employers help ing and reform of selected Rwandan public and private with costs by providing supervisors for internships, donating secondary schools that currently offer technical or voca- equipment or supervising student use of equipment in the tional streams and are located in geographic proximity to workplace, and assigning technical employees to teaching willing and interested employer partners. If this approach roles in the school. were to be applied in Rwanda, career clusters might include construction, tourism and hospitality, information 113  James J. Kemple, 2004, “Career Academies: Impacts on Labor technology, small business management and agriculture Market Outcomes and Educational Attainment,� with Judith Scott- (with a specific focus on food products and processing Clayton, MDRC website, New York, NY, http://www.mdrc.org/ systems), energy production and distribution, natural publications/366/overview.html (accessed March 2012). F unctions of Workforce DE V E LOP ME N T ORG A N I Z ATIO NS 115 ANNEX 16 Functions of Workforce DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS Recent evaluations of organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa that are similar to the Rwanda Workforce Develop- ment Authority have described their functions as shown below.114 These core functions may not be appropriate for Rwanda, but the Sub-Saharan experience could provide a basis for discussion with stakeholders in the country:  Setting and administering qualification frameworks for  In collaboration with public and private stakeholders, technical and vocational occupations as part of a larger determining needs and developing skills standards and National Qualifications Framework. training curricula.  Conducting labor market monitoring and gathering  Financing, synthesizing, and disseminating the results information to guide jobseekers, employers, and educa- of the monitoring and evaluation of TVET programs. tors and/or trainers.  Monitoring TVET models in other countries and draw-  Managing competitive training funds to meet short-term ing lessons for Rwanda. strategic skills needs.  Establishing and, when required, subsidizing skills development partnerships with private sector enterprises 114  Johanson, Richard K., and Arvil V. Adams, 2004, Skills Devel- and enterprise associations. opment in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: World Bank). School F inancing and G overnance Reforms : Understanding the Terms 117 ANNEX 17 School Financing and Governance Reforms: Understanding the Terms Unified Standard per Student The unified standard per student includes funding for both staff salaries and nonstaff expenditures. To provide schools incentives to increase efficiency, salaries can be funded on a per student basis. For example, if a unified standard is a certain annual level of per student funding, and a district has 2,000 students in upper secondary schools, it would receive a grant of 2,000 times the annual funding level per student with which it would cover all recurrent costs of grade 10–12 education. Local governments could top up this funding from their own revenues; yet the assumption is that per-student funding would be sufficient to cover all recurrent costs associated with educating a student, and that a local government would not receive any additional funds to cover education costs. That is, all current types of fund- ing—such as heating allowances, scholarships, traveling costs, clothes allowances—would be abandoned, and the local governments would have to cover all costs using the unified standard per student. The unified standard would, however, not be uniform. Delegated School Budgets That is, it would not be the same amount for all districts, but would vary depending on the type of education and the Under a unified standard per student, a school would receive structural factors that influence cost per student. Structural a single lump sum of funding, with no indication as to how factors are beyond the control of local governments (e.g., it should be allocated between salaries and other expenses. mountainous terrain, low population density, or higher-than- This decision would be left to school authorities. The school average percentages of socially deprived students), and can budget would be determined by a formula that would apply cause the cost per student to be high. Local governments to all schools in a region. The main factor in the formula, would not be given additional funds owing to the small size which determines the size of the school budget, would be of schools, since this would provide perverse incentives the number of students. The funding amount per student and defeat the purpose the reform. may be different for different grades if the cost per student 118 POSTBASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN RWANDA varies by grade due to differences in class size, teaching School-Based Management hours, or teacher pay rates. Examples of other factors that could be included in School-based management has different forms, but its main the formula are additional supplements for students with features are: (1) the school director manages the school special learning needs (e.g., students with disabilities). budget, decides on the number of teachers and other staff, Some structural cost factors, such as an isolated location and selects and appoints teaching and nonteaching staff; or having staff with higher salaries, could also be taken (2) the school director is accountable to a school council into account. The main purpose of delegating budgets to for the honest and efficient management of the school schools (accompanied by the strengthening of school-based budget and resources; this council usually consists of management) is to delegate more decisions about education representatives of parents, staff, and the local community to those who have the most knowledge of local educational and may have the power to appoint the school director and needs and conditions. This, in turn, will likely lead to more even ultimate authority to approve the budget decisions; efficient use of resources and higher-quality education. and (3) the school director can also be held accountable by an educational authority (that is, the municipality). In Rwanda, a school director and school council would have to operate within MINEDUC’s framework of educational goals and standards, including those on salary levels and working conditions for teachers and other staff.